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ep  THE  I 

iE  OF 


CL.p^^^'^^  THE 

AMERICAN  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


OF 


PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE, 

CONTAINING   PRACTICAL   AND    SYSTEMATIC  TREATISES    ON    SUBJECTS    CONNECTED    WITH 

THE  INTERESTS  OF  EVERY  INDIVIDUAL,  ALPHABETICALLY  ARRANGED, 

AND    ESPECIALLY    DESIGNED    FOR    POPULAR    USE, 


THE   BUILDING   OF    RESIDENCES,   BARNS   AND  OUTBUILDINGS;  THE   SELECTION   AND  CARE   OF   CARRIAGES,   WAGONS,    FUR- 
NITURE,    AND    ALL     VEHICLES,     INSTRUMENTS    OR     IMPLEMENTS    OF    A    RURAL  OR    DOMESTIC  NATURE;  OF   ALL 
THE   DOMESTICATED   ANIMALS  OR    FOWLS   OF   AMERICA;  WITH  A  TREATISE  ON   THE   CAUSES,   SYMPTOMS 
AND  CURE   OF   ALL   DISEASES   TO   WHICH    ANY   OR    AUC'i(RE    SUBJECT;   ALSO,    EMBRACING   FULL 
INFORMATION   ON   THE   BREEDING,  REARING    'fc^tl^j^Mtl^Hljl  ||ll  Jl,|  |     M  1 1  Hi  11    i  AND 
FOWLS    DOMESTICATED    IN    THE    UNITED  STATt^OF  THE    GROWING  OF  FRUITS^ 
AND    vegetables;    of     CEREALS^AND     grasses;     of    FLOWERS    AND 
SHRUBS;    OF    ALL    SUBSTANCES     USED    AS    FOOD,    WITH    THE 

*|VlogT  'Approved  '|v1ethod^  of  pF^EgEf^viNq  and  ;Pooki|^q; 

SjjVAMERICAN    AGRICULTURE;  OF    LANDSCAPE   GARDENING;    OF   FIELD   SPORTS;    OF   FRAUDS   AND    SWIND1.ES;  OF 
TRAVELING,    BOOK-KEEPING,   LEGAL   AND   BUSINESS   FORMS. 


PRESERVATION  OF  HEALTH, 

DOMESTIC    MEDICINE,  ACCIDENTS  AND  EMERGENCIES. 

THE    MATERIALS    EMPLOYED   IN    THE    DRESS   AND   THE   TOILET;    ETIQUETTE;    LAUNDRY;    PERSONAL    AND    HOME   ADORN- 
MENT,  AND   OF    EVERY   SUBJECT    PERTAINING   TO   DOMESTIC   ECONOMY,   AND   ALSO  CONTAINING 

SEVERAL  THOUpAf^D  TEpTED  RECIPEg  OF  }<L}A0^1  EVEF(Y  NATUE^E. 
F.  M.  CHAPMAN,  M.  D. 


•  Editors 
CHAS.  C.  CHAPMAN, 


.  D.     ) 

\  Edit 


©ver  ®nc  ^bousanb  IHIustrationa. 


SOLD  ONLY  BY  SUBSCRIPTION- 


LAW,  KING  &  LAW  PUBLISHING  HOUSE. 

CHICAGO.  SAN  FRANCISCO. 

1886. 


^E 


/ 


j*^.LiB.  ;^Qp|c    Q^pj^ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1883,  by 

CHAPMAN   BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Libraian  of  Congress,  at  Washington,  D.  C. 


HE  AMERICAN  ENCYCLOPEDIA  OF  PRACTICAL  KNOWLDGE  is  designed 
for  popular  use,  and  it  has  been  arranged,  as  far  as  liuman  forethought  and  the  minut- 
est care  could  effect,  to  meet  the  every-day  wants  of  the  American   people.      It  em- 
braces the  entire  domain  of  home  anfl   rural  life,  of  domestic  economy,  and    of  such 
knowledge  of  the  arts,  trades  and  professions,  as  is  of  practical  utility  to  the  non-pro- 
fessional individual.     It  contains  the  essence  of  thousands  of  volumes,    prepared  by 
the  most  scientific,  experienced  and  practical  men  on  this  and  the  European  continents. 
Not  only  has  the  broad  and  varied  scope  embraced  by  the  work  caused  much  careful  and 
incessant  labor,  but  an  almost    incredible    amount  of  persistent  work  was  rendered  una- 
voidable in  order  to  extract  and  separate  the  practical  matter  from    the   theoretical    and 
speculative,  which  is  of  great  value  to  the  expert  or    professional    artisan,    but  would   be 
foreign  to  the  scope  of  a  jMpular  work. 

Years  of  practical  experience,  observation  and  general  reading  have  been  brought  to 
bear  in  the  compilation  and  arrangement  of  this  work.  Vast  libraries,  containing  the  most 
modern  and  thorough  works  of  evey  nature  that  have  ever  been  published,  both  in  this  coun- 
try and  in  Europe,  were  at  hand.  A  partial  list  of  the  well-known  authors  and  writers,  who 
have  been  quoted  and  who  have  contributed  in  the  preparation  of  this  Encyclopedia,  is  given 
immediately  following  the  preface.  The  list  is  sufficiently  long,  however,  and  contains  such 
well-known  names,  that  the  utmost  confidence  must  certainly  be  accorded  every  department  of 
the  work.  The  one  prominent  thought  ever  in  mind  was  to  make  this  a  reliable  and  stand- 
ard encyclopedia  of  such  practical  knowledge  as  is  constantly  needed  by  the  mass  of  tiie 
American  people,  and  to  make  it  pre-eminently  practical  in  its  arrangement  and  in  the  treat- 
ment of  every  subject.  All  the  compilation  has  been  as  thoroughly  digested  and  as  carefully 
composed  as  though  it  consisted  entirely  of  original  matter.  Such  articles  as  were  thought 
to  incur  any  risk  of  either  error  or  dificiency  of  statement,  have  been  submitted  to  the  revision  of  well-known 
practical  men.  All  scientific,  technical  and  professional  language  has  been  discarded,  and  everything  made  as 
plain  as  jxissible. 

While  this  work  is  designed  for  popular  use  by  all  classes,  it  is  of  special  significance  and  importance  to  the 
American  farmer  and  his  family.  As  a  work  of  this  nature,  we  believe  it  stands  to-day  without  a  peer  in  all  the 
agricultural  literature  of  the  English  language,  and  it  is  the  only  work  yet  published  that  fully  and  properly 
represents  the  great  farming  interests  of  the  greatest  agricultural  country  on  the  globe.  There  is  not  a  theme 
or  a  subject  in  all  the  varied  departments  of  farm  labor  or  farm  life,  but  what  is  fairly  and  properly  treated  in 
this  Encyclopedia.  It  condenses  out  of  the  reports  and  periodicals  masses  of  important  agricultural  matter  at 
which  other  works  scarcely  glance;  it  discusses  many  subjects  of  farming,  gardening  and  stock  raising  which 


337192 


they  but  slightly  touch ;  it  introduces  entire  departments  of  valuable  knowledge  which  they  altogether  excf  ude  •. 
it  contains  in  a  practical  form  a  considerable  body  of  useful  scientific  matter  which  they  entirely  ignore.  In  short, 
the  American  Encyclopedia  of  Practical  Knowledge  is  the  most  complete,  practical  and  exhaustive  work  for 
the  American  farmer  ever  published.  The  whole  domain  of  agricultural  literature  of  both  Europe  and 
America  was  gleaned  in  its  compilation. 

The  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  work  affords  the  utmost  facility  of  consultation.  To  direct  the  reader 
to  all  the  related  parts  of  each  subject  references  are  made  from  article  to  article.  The  various  sub-heads  or 
divisions  under  every  subject,  such  as  diseases  of  cattle,  horses,  etc.,  are  also  treated  alphabetically.  To  still 
farther  add  to  the  facility  and  ease  of  consulting  the  Encyclopedia,  an  elaborate  index  of  all  topics  treated 
has  been  prepared  and  is  given  at  the  close  of  the  volume.  Subordinate  subjects,  or  those  treated  under  the 
head  of  the  principal  topics,  as  given  in  their  regular  alphabetical  order,  are  also  given  in  the  index,  thus 
enabling  one  to  turn  to  every  paragraph  in  the  book  that  is  connected  with  any  given  subject.  The  correct 
pronunciation  of  all  words  which  are  apt  to  be  mispronounced  is  also  given. 

While  we  do  not  believe  tl^t  every  person  should  be  his  own  physician  in  all  cases  (all  should,  how- 
ever, study  the  laws  of  health),  yet  we  feel  that  every  person  should  have  sufficient  knowledge  in  this  direction 
to  identify  a  disease  and  judge  what  is  best  for  the  patient,  and  if  professional  aid  is  necessary,  to  know  what 
should  be  done  before  the  physician  may  arrive.  A  book  of  reference,  therefore,  which  is  destined  to  be  in 
many  homes  that  are  far  from  villages  or  cities,  where  much  time  must  often  intervene  in  a  case  of  emergency, 
before  medical  aid  can  be  obtained,  will  certainly  be  of  enhanced  value  if  it  contains  descriptions  of  the  symp- 
toms of  such  diseases  as  occur  most  frequently,  with  the  proper  treatment  given  in  plain  and  simple  language. 
In  such  treatment  of  diseases  we  have  not  conformed  to  the  theories  or  teachings  of  anj  particular  school,  nor 
attempted  to  substitute  our  own  treatment  in  all  cases,  but  have  given  such  directions  and  prescribed  such  treat- 
ment as  may  be  the  quickest  obtained  and  easiest  administered,  the  safest  to  handle  by  the  non-professional, 
and  such  as  are  recognized  by  many  of  the  most  eminent  physicians  as  excellent  remedies.  Only  the  diseases  of 
the  human  family  are  treated  in  their  regular  alphabetical  place,  the  diseases  of  stock  being  treated  alphabet- 
ically in  the  articles  on  the  respective  animals.  In  giving  the  causes  and  describing  the  symptoms  of  diseases, 
simplicity  in  style  and  diction,  yet  scientific  exactness,  has  been  our  motto;  and  in  prescribing  treatment,  those 
remedies  which  can  without  difficulty  be  procured  and  administered  are  first  given. 

The  illustrations  form  a  most  attractive  and  valuable  feature  of  this  work.  Few  books  of  any  nature  have 
been  more  profusely  illustrated,  and  with  as  high  class  of  engravings  as  we  have  the  pleasure  of  presenting  in 
this  volume.  Special  care  has  been  taken  to  represent  every  animal  in  its  most  life-like  form,  and  every  ma- 
chine, implement  or  contrivance,  after  the  most  improved  pattern. 

This  volume,  as  a  work  of  reference  and  general  instruction,  will  be  found  an  ever-present  help  to  the 
person  of  great  or  little  knowledge.  Everything  has  been  made  as  plain  as  possible,  as  minute  and  detailed  as 
necessary,  as  exhaustive,  elaborate  and  varied  as  the  broadest  scope  of  the  work  would  permit;  and  when 
mtelligently  and  carefully  consulted,  we  sincerely  believe  no  person  in  America  but  will  find  it  contains  a  vast 
mine  of  useful  information. 

Chicago,  Illinois. 


Authors  and  Works  Consulted  and  Quoted,  and  Contributors. 


WE  give  below  a  list  containing  the  names  of  many  of  the  authors  and  books  that  have  been  consulted  and 
quoted  in  the  compilation  of  this  Encyclopedia,  together  with  the  names  of  special  contributers  to  the  work. 
In  connection  with  these  and  many  others  not  mentioned,  we  have  had  the  horticultural,  agricultural  and 
entomological  reports  ofmany  of  the  States  a  hand,  and  also  the  re(X)rts  of  many  prominent  local  and  national 
societies  for  the  dissemination  of  practical  knowledge.  In  addition  to  all  of  these  aids,  we  have  also  gleaned 
from  the  most  ably  edited  papers  and  journals  published  in  this  country  and  England.  Thus,  with  all  these 
helps  in  the  hands  of  an  efficient  corps  of  writers  and  compilers,  and  with  the  thoroughly  prepared  articles 
contributed  by  well-known  writers,  the  publishers  are  confident  that  they  can  present  this  work  to  the  Ameri- 
can people  as  an  authoritative  and  standard  Encyclopedia  of  practical  knowledge. 


Allen,  Horace  R.,  Farm  and  Home  Encydofedia. 
Allen,  Lewis  V.,  American  Cattle. 

Rural  Architecture. 

Neni  American  Farm  Book 
American  Standard  of  Excellence  in   Poultry. 
Applkton's  Cyclopedia 
Arnold,  Prof.  L.  B.,  Cheese  Making. 
Arnold,  Richard,  Chronicles. 
Atwood,  D.  T.,  Country  and  Suburban  Houses, 
Atwood,  Prof.  H.  F. 
AiDUBON,  John  J.,  Ornithology, 
Baker,  R  ,  Dairy  Coivs 
Barker,  Geo.   F.,  M.  D.,  Chemistry. 
Barn  Plans  and  Out-Buildinus. 
Barry,  P.,  Fruit  Garden. 
Bateham,  M.  B. 

Beale,  W.  J,  Prof.    Botany  in   Michigan  Agr'l  Coll. 
Bicknell's  School- House  and  Church  Architecture. 
Blackstone's  Com7nentarii  s  on  English  Laiv . 
Boulay,  Monsieur,  M    D. 
Brodie,  Sir  Benjamin,  M.  D. 
Brown,  J .  B . ,  Ensdage. 

Bruson,  W.  C,  M.   \i  ,  Porcilis;  Swine  Husbandry 
Bryant,  Arthur,  Culture  oj  Forest  Trees. 
BuDD,  Prof.  J.  L.,  Iowa  State  Agr'l  College. 
Burrill,  T.  J.,  Prof.  Horticulture  and   Entomology  in 

Illinois  State  Industrial  University 
Byrnes'  Ready  Reckoner. 
Campbell,  Geo.  W. 
Carpenter.  Prof.  R.  C,  Michigan  State  Agricultural 

College. 
Case,   L.  D.,  Florist. 
Chambers'  Encyclopedia. 
Chapman,  Chas.  C. 
Chapman,  Frank  M.,  M. 
Clark,  Bracy,  V.  S. 
Cleveland,  C.  H.,  M.  D 
Coburn,  F.  D.,  Swine  Husbandry. 
Coffin,  L.  S. 

Coleman,  A.  R.,  Diseases  of  Swine. 
Coleman,  Norman  J. 
Columella,  Bo  kof  the  Farm. 

Gardening. 

Rural  Affairs. 
Cook,  A.JT,  Bee-keefier's  Guide. 
Courtney,  W.  S. 
ClRTIS,  F.  C. 
Curtis,  Col.  F.  D. 
Cutter,  Calvin,   A.  M.,  M.  D., 

and  Hygiene. 
Cooley's  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Receipts, 


D. 
Medical  Lexicon, 


Anatomy,  Physiology 


Dadd,  Geo.  H.,  V.  S.,  The  Modern  Horse  Doctor 

The  American  Horse  Book. 
Daniels,  Prof.  W.'W.,  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Davis,  A. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey. 
Detmers,  Dr.  J.  H.,  Swine  Plague,  etc. 
Dick,  Wm.  B.,  Eticyclofedia  of  Practical  Receipts. 
Dillon,  E. 
Downing,  A.  J.,  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America 

Rural  Essays. 

Landscape  Gardetting. 
Draper,  J.  W.,  M.  D  ,  Chemistry. 
Dunglison's  Medical  Dtctxonary. 
dunlap,  m.  l. 
Earle,  Parker. 
Edwards,  Samuel, 
Eldeskin,  John. 

Elliott,  F.  R  ,  Handbook  for  Fruit -Growers . 
El  wood's  Grain  Tables. 
Emery,  H    D 

Encyclopedia  Britannica. 
Encyclopedia  of  Domestic  Economy. 
Eveleth's  School-House  Architecture. 
Faraday,  Michael,  Electrician. 
Fblch,  I.  K.,  Anmteur's  Poultry  Manual. 
Flagg,  W.  C. 

Fleming,  George,  V.  S.,  R.  E. 
Flint,  Austin,  Jr.,  M.  D.,  Human  Physiology . 
Flint,  Charles  L  ,  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming. 

Forage  Grasses. 
Food  Adulteration. 
Forbes,  S.  A.,  Director  of  Illinois  State  Laboratory  of 

Natural  History. 
Fuller,  A.  S.,  Small.Fruit  Cultnrist .    Grape  Ciiliurist. 
Gamgee,  Prof. 
Gill,  Theodore,  M.  D. 

Glasspoole,  H.  G.,  Common  Cultivated  Vegetables. 
Gow,  Alex.  M.,  A.  M. 

Goodale's  Principles  of  Breeding  Dotnestic  Animals, 
Gray,  Asa,  Botany. 
Gray,  Henry,  F.  R.  S.,  Anatomy. 
Greeley,  Horace,    What  I  Knoiv  About  Farming 
Green,  Seth,  Fish  Culture. 
Gregg,  Thom.\s,  Handbook  of  Fruit  Culture. 
Gregory,  James    H.,    Treatises    on    Cabbage,    Onions.^ 

Squash,  etc. 
Guenon,  M.,  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows. 
GuNN,  John  C,  M.  D.,  Family  Physician. 
Hall's  yournal  of  Health. 
Hallock,  Charles,  Sfortsman's  Gazetteer . 
Harris,  Joseph,  The  Pig. 


A  UTHORITIES. 


Hartshorne,  Henry,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Conspectus  of  the 

Medical  Sciences, 
Harvey,  Ei.lwood,  M.  D. 
Haupt's  Bridge  Construction. 
Haydkn's  Dictionary  of  Dates. 
Henderson,  Peter,  Gardening  for  Profit. 

Gardening  for  Pleasure. 
Herbert,  Henry  William,  ("Frank  Forester"). 

Hints  to  Horsekeefers . 

Horse  and  Horsetnanship. 
Herodotus'  History. 

Holmes,  T.,  M.  A.  Cantab.,  Treatise  on  Surgery. 
Horn,  A.,  V.  S. 

How  TO  Breed  Prize  Poultry. 
Huller's  Midicina  Gymnastica. 
Humboldt,  Alexandkr  von. 
Hussman,  Geo.,  Grapes  ami  Wine, 
Ingeksoll,  Prof.  C.  L.,  Mich.  State  Agr'l.  College. 

JACKSON,  Gen.  W.  H. 
acques,  D.  H.,   T)ie  House. 
Hints  Toward  Pliysical  Perfection . 

Jennings,  Robert,  V.  S.,  Cattle  and  their  Diseases. 
Sheep,  Swine  and  Poultry . 
The  Horse  and  His  Diseases 

Johnson,  L.  W.  B. 

Johnston,  Analysis  of  Soils,  Manures,  etc. 

JosEPHUS,  Flavius,  Antiquities  of  the  yews. 

ICedzie,  Prof.  R  .  C.,  Mkhisan  Agr'l  College. 

KosT,  J  .  M.  D.,  Domestic  Medicine. 

Landreth,  David,  Roots  for  Stock  Feeding. 
The  Cabbage  Family,  etc. 
'  Lanustri  th,  L.  L.,  /'lie  Hive  and  Honey  Bee. 

Law,  Vkof.]\!aks,  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser. 

Le  Due,  U.  S.  Com'r  of  Agriculture. 

Leland,  E.  H.,  Farm  Homes. 

Lk  Baron,  Illinois  State  Entomologist 

Lippincott,  James. 

Long,  Joseph  W.,  American  Wild-Fowl  Shooting. 

Lord,  Prof.   Nat.  W.,  Analyses  of  Fertilizers , 

Loring,  Geo.  B.,U.  S.  Com'r  of  Agriculture 

Loudon's  Cyclopedia  ^Agriculture. 

Low,  Prof.  David,  Domestic  Animals. 

Lyon,  T.  T.,  Pomolcgist. 

LuSE,  Judge,  Z.  C.,  Agricultural  Editor. 

Manning,  J.  R.,   M.  D.,V.  S.,  Stock  Doctor  and  Live- 
stock Encyclopedia . 

Mayhew,  Edward,  Illustrated  Horse  Doctor. 
Illustrated  Ho'  se  Management. 

McClure,  Robert,  M  .  D.,  V.  S.,  Diseases  of  the  Amer- 
ican Horse,  and  Cattle  and  Sheep, 

McDouGALD,  V.  S.,  Modern  Horseman. 
\  McWhorter,  Tyler,  Horticulturist 

Merrick,  Prof.  E.  C.  • 

Merrill,  M  \j.  H.  W.,  U.  S.  A 

Miles,  Manly,  A.  M.,  V.  S 

Miles,  Wm.,  Horse's  F'vot. 

Miller,  G.  A.,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Pruning . 

MiNlER,  G.  W.,  Cultivation  of  Forest  Trees. 

Morley,  I.   W.,  Sheep  Husbandry. 

Newman,  Thomas  G.,  Bec-keeper^s  Manual. 

O'Connor,  W.  D.,  Ass't  Supt.  U.  S.  Life-Saving  Sei- 
vice. 

Ohmer,  N.,  Horticulturist. 

Orton,  Edward,  Science  and  Agriculture, 

Paaren,  N.  H.,  V.  S.,  Illinois  State  Veterinarian. 

Packard,  A.  S.,  American  Entomology . 

Parry,  Wm.,  Forty  Tears'  Experience  in  Pear  Growing. 
Forty  Tears  Among  Small  Fruits. 

Pasteur,  Prof.,  French  Biologist. 

PrRCIVALL,  V.  S. 

Periam,  Jonathan,  American  Encyclopedia  of  Agr. 

Perry,  E.  W. 

PHILADELPHrA  ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES,  Reports. 

Pliny  Letters. 


Plumb,  J.  C,  Horticulturist. 

Pope,  Prof.  T.  E.,  Iowa  State  Agr'l  College. 

Price,  Gwynne,  The  Gun,  and  How  to  Use  It, 

PuGH,  John  M. 

Quinby's  Mysteries  of  Bee-keeping. 

Randall,  Henry  S.,  L.L.D.,  Sheep  Husbandry. 

Rarey,  John  S.,  Horse  Trainer. 

Read,  John  E.,  Farming  for  Profit. 

Reed,  S.  B.,  House  Plans  for  Everybody. 

Reynolds,  Col.  John  P. 

Richardson,  Dr.,  Ornithology. 

Russell,  The  Salmon. 

Rhodes,  Miss  Kate,  Culture  on  the  Farm,  Intellectual, 

Social,  and  Esthetic. 
Riley,  Chas.  V.,  M.   A.,  Ph.   D.,  Chief  of  U.  S. 

Entomological  Commission. 
Roe,  Rev.  E.  P.,  Culture  of  Small  Fruits. 

Play  and  Profit  in  My  Garden. 
Root,  A.   I.,  A  B  C  Bee-Culture. 
Root,  L.  C,  .Quinby's  New  Bee-keeper. 
Sanders,  J .   H . ,  Percheron-Norman  Stud  Booh. 

Breeder's  Trotting  Stud  Book. 
Scudder,  John  M.,  M.  D. 
Shaw,  B.  F.,  Fish  Commissioner  of  Iowa. 
Shute,  Miss  T.  S.,  American  Housewife. 
Slade,  Prof.,  Harvard  University. 
Smith.  Miss  Emma,  Entomology , 
Smith,  Hon.  Hiram. 
Spooner,  Charles,  V.  S. 
Spooner,  W.  C  ,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S. 
Stalker,  Prof.  M.,  Iowa  Slate  Agr'l  College. 
Stewart,  Henry,  Irrigation  for  the  Farm. 

Gai  den  and  Orchard. 

Shepherd's  Manned. 
Stoddard,  H.  H 
Storer,  W.  B. 
Summers,  Prof.  Ewino. 
Tenney,  Sanborn,  A.  M.,  Zoology. 
Thomas,  Cyrus,  Ph.  D.,  111.  State  Entomologist. 
Thomas,  J.  J.,  Farm  Implements  and  Machinery. 

Rural  Affairs. 
Turer,  Prof.  J.  B.,  111.  College,  Jacksonville,  111. 
United  States  Dispensatory 
Ure's  Dictonary  of  Arts. 
Vennor,  Henrt  G.,  F  G.  S.,  Meteorologist. 
VicK, James,  Florist. 
Virgil,  Bucolics  and  Georgics. 
Walsh,  J.  H.,  F.  R.  C.  S.,  ("Stonehengk")  Dogs  Oj 

Great  Britaiti,  America,  and  other  Countries. 

On  the  Horse,  in  Stable  and  Field. 

Every  Horse-Owner's  Encyclopedia. 
Walton  &  Cotton,  Complete  Angler, 
Ward,  C.  J.,  The  Poulterer's  Guide. 
Warder,  Dr.  John  A.,  American  Pomology. 
Waring,  C.  E.,  Jr.,  Draining  for  Profit  and  Health. 

The  Farmer's  and  Mechanic's  Manual. 
Vatson,  Amemcan  Home  Garden . 
Weld,  M.  C. 

WiER,  D.   B.,  Horticulturist. 
Wilder,  Marshall  P. 
Willard's  Practical  Dairy  Husbandry. 

Practical  Butter  Book. 
Williams,   Window  Garden. 
Wilson,  Alexander,  American  Ornithology^ 
Wilson's  Rural  Cyclopedia. 
Wilson,  James. 

Wood,  J.  G.,  M.  A.,  F.   L.   S.,  Natural  History. 
Woodward,  Dr.   E.  A. 
Woodward,  Geo.   E.,  Country  Homes. 

A  rchitecture  and  Rural  A  rt . 
Wright,  L.,  Practical  Poultry  Keeper. 
Youatt,  William,  V.  S.,  The  Horse.  The  Sheep.   The 

Dog.     Cattle. 
Youmans,  Eliza,  Household  Science. 


-cosTn: 


2/50-?- 


AMERICAN  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE. 

A  Dictionary  op  Pragtigal  Knowlrdgr. 


^ilk  and    Emergencies.     In   all 

cases  of  Burns,  Scalds,  Wounds,  Bites, 
Poisoning,  Drowning,  Smothering,  etc., 
see  under  these  respective  heads,  and  in  all 
dangerous  cases  send  at  once  for  a  physician. 
In  the  following  condensed  paragraphs  may 
be  found  instructions  for  miscellaneous  acci- 
dents, and  cases  of  emergency.  These  are  simple, 
and  if  observed  will  avoid  much  suffering,  and 
often  save  life. 

For  dust  in  the  eyes,  avoid  rubbing;  dash  water 
into  them;  remove  cinders,  etc.,  with  the  round 
point  of  a  lead  pencil. 

Remove  insects  from  the  ear  by  tepid  water; 
never  put  a  hard  instrument  into  the  ear. 

If  an  artery  is  cut,  compress  above  the  wound ; 
if  a  vein  is  cut,  compress  below. 

If  choked,  get  upon  all  fours,  and  cough. 

For  light  burns,  dip  the  part  in  cold  water,  or 
cover  with  saleratus  or  cooking  soda.  If  the  skin 
is  destroyed,  cover  with  varnish. 

Smother  fire  with  carpets,  etc. ;  water  will  often 
spread  burning  oil,  and  increase  danger.  Before 
passing  through  smoke,  take  a  full  breath,  and 
then  stoop  low ;  but  if  carbon  is  suspected,  walk 
erect. 

Suck  poison  wounds,  imless  your  mouth  is  sore. 
Enlarge  the  wound,  or,  better,  cut  out  the  part 
without  delay.  Hold  the  wounded  part  as  long  as 
can  be  borne  to  a  hot  coal,  or  end  of  a  cigar. 

[n  case  of  poisoning,  excite  vomiting  bv  tickling 
the  throat,  or  by  water  and  mustard.  For  acid 
poisons  give  akalies;  white  of  egg  is  good  in  most 
cases.  In  cases  of  opium  poisoning,  give  strong 
coffee,  and  keep  moving.  If  taken  with  cramps  in 
in  water,  float  on  the  back. 


For  apoplexy,  raise  the  head  and  body;  for 
fainting,  lay  the  person  flat. 

If  a  child  lay  hold  of  a  knife  or  razor,  do  not 
try  to  pull  it  away,  or  to  force  open  the  hand;  but, 
holding  the  child's  hand  that  is  empty,  offer  to  its 
other  hand  anything  nice  or  pretty,  and  it  will 
immediately  open  the  hand  and  let  the  dangerous 
instrument  fall. 

When  in  a  carriage  during  a  runaway,  it  is  safer, 
as  a  general  rule,  to  keep  your  place  than  to  jump 
out.  Getting  out  of  a  gig  over  the  back,  provided 
you  can  hold  on  a  moment  and  run,  is  safer  than 
springing  from  the  side.  But  it  is  best  to  keep 
your  place  and  hold  fast.  In  accidents,  people 
act  not  so  much  from  reason  as  from  excitement; 
but  good  rules,  firmly  impressed  upon  the  mind, 
generally  rise  uppermost,  even  in  the  midst  of 
fear. 

Accounts,  in  farming  and  household  affairs:  see 
Book-keeping. 

Acetate  of  Lead,  Antidote  for  Poisoning  by : 
After  a  thorough  emetic,  give  a  solution  of  soda 
in  water;  or  milk,  white  of  egg  and  water.  Send 
for  a  physician. 

Acetic  Acid,  the  acid  principle  of  vinegar.  The 
easiest  way  to  separate  it  from  the  water  in  vine- 
gar is  to  freeze  the  liquid;  the  water  becomes  ice, 
while  the  acid  remains  fluid.  This  acid  is  a  caustic, 
and  may  be  applied  to  the  skin  as  a  blister,  like 
Spanish  flies.  It  is  also  a  good  corrosive  of  warts 
and  corns,  and  is  used  in  various  medicinal  and 
other  preparations.  It  will  preserve  meat  almost 
as  well  as  salt,  but  leaves  it  much  more  insipid.  A 
person  poisoned  by  swallowing  this  substance  will 
have  an  intense  burning  pain  in  the  mouth,  throat 


A  CIDS—ADUL  TERA  TION. 


and  stomach,  will  vomit  blood,  have  violent  purg- 
ing, collapse  and  stupor.  Give  chalk,  magnesia, 
lime,  or  even  soap,  in  large  quantities  of  water, 
producing  an  emetic.  Then  give  milk,  or  white 
of  egg,  mixed  with  water. 

Acids.  Hydrochloric,  or  spirit  of  salt;  nitric, 
or  aqua  fortis;  sulphuric,  or  oil  of  vitriol.  Poison- 
ing by  any  of  these  produces  an  acid,  burning 
taste,  acute  pain  in  the  gullet  and  throat,  vomiting 
of  bloody  fluid,  which  effervesces  when  chalk  is 
added  to  it;  hiccough,  tenderness  of  the  belly,  cold 
sweats,  pinched  face,  convulsions  and  death.  Give 
calcined  magnesia,  chalk,  soap  and  water.  Admin- 
ister frequent  draughts  of  water  to  weaken  the 
acid;  the  carbonate  of  soda,  potash,  or  magnesia, 
to  neutralize  it;  thick  soap-suds,  made  with  com- 
mon soap;  chalk;  or  in  default  of  the  alkalies  and 
chalk,  break  down  the  plaster  of  the  wall  or  ceil- 
ing, mix  in  water,  and  give  the  sufferer.  Excite 
vomiting,  and  repeat  the  remedies  till  all  the  acid 
is  neutralized.  For  poisoning  by  mineral  acids,  or 
acetic  and  oxalic  acids,  give  quickly  large  draughts 
of  chalk,  whiting,  magnesia,  soap  and  water,  about 
as  thick  as  cream,  followed  by  albuminous  diluents, 
such  as  milk,  and  white  of  egg  mixed  with  water. 
Or,  if  these  cannot  be  procured  at  once,  warm 
water;  and  promote  vomiting  by  tickling  the 
throat. 

Aconite,  as  a  poison,  produces  acrid,  biting,  bit- 
ter taste,  choking  sensation,  dryness  of  the  throat, 
retching,  vomiting,  purging,  pains  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  difficult  breathing.  Give  emetics  of 
chamomile,  mustard,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  large 
draughts  of  warm  milk,  or  other  bland  fluids ;  fo- 
ment the  region  of  the  stomach,  and  give  strong 
coffee. 

Acorns.  Some  of  the  sweeter  acorns,  as  white- 
oak,  burr-oak,  and  a  few  others,  are  good  for  food. 
They  are,  however,  somewhat  too  astringent  for 
extended  use.  Besides  the  raw  state,  they  are  pre- 
pared in  four  different  ways;  as,  roasted,  boiled, 
ground,  and  made  into  mush  or  bread.  For  the 
two  latter  purposes  they  are  first  roasted.  They 
are  first-class  food  for  swine. 

Acre,  1 60  square  rods,  which  is  equal  to  4,840 
square  yards,  or  43,560  square  feet.  A  strip  of 
ground  one  rod  wide  must  be  160  rods,  or  half  a 
mile, long,  to  be  an  acre;  two  rods  wide,  it  must  be 
one-fourth  of  a  mile  long  to  be  equal  to  an  acre; 
five  rods  wide,  32  rods  long;  10  rods  wide,  16  rods 
long.  A  square  acre  would  be  about  I2J^  rods  on 
a  side.  There  are  640  acres  in  a  square  mile,  and 
23,040  in  a  full  congressional  township  of  six 
miles  square.  A  square  chain  being  four  rods 
square,  or  16  square  rods,  there  are  10  square 
chains  to  the  acre ;  160  acres  constitute  a  "  quarter  " 
of  a  section,  and  if  square,  is  one-half  mile  each  way. 
A  "  lot "  is  80  acres,  or  one-eighth  of  a  section. 


NUMBER  OF  PLANTS  TO  THE  ACRE. 


DIST.  APART. 

HO.  PLANTS. 

DIST,  APART. 

NO.   PLANTS. 

I      ft.  by  1  ft. 

43.5^ 

^ftby^a 

888 

1%   "           1    " 

■9.360 

680 

3        **           1    *' 

31,780 
10,890 

9  "         9 

537 

2      "        a  " 

10  *'       10 

435 

3M    "            a   " 

6,969 

U    "         11 

360 

3      

14,520 

12   "        12 

302 

3               J  .. 

7,260 

'3  "      '3 

257 

3      "        3  " 

4,840 

14 "    14 

223 

iVi  "       3  " 

3.555 

15  "      IS 

'9i 

4       "         1  " 

io,i>9o 

16  "       16 

170 

4       "        2  " 

S.44S 

'I  '■      't 

150 

4      "         3  " 

3.630 

iS  "      iS 

1.14 

4       "         4  " 

3,732 

19  "      19 

130 

4/.  "        4  " 

3,151 

20  "      30 

loS 

S     "        I  " 

J     II      J  .1 

9,7" 
4.356 

25  "      35 
30  •'      30 

^ 

S      "        3  " 

a.904 

40  "      40 

»7 

S      "       4  " 

a.  179 

SO  "      so 

"7 

S      "       5  " 

>.74» 

60  "      60 

13 

iM  ••       S  " 

i,4"7 

66  >•       66 

10 

1,310 

For  intermediate  numbers  in  the  above  table 
one  can  readily  make  the  required  calculation. 

Amount  of  Seed  to  the  Acre.  The  follow- 
ing gives  the  quantity  of  seed  and  number  of  plants 
requisite  to  crop  an  acre  of  land,  and  will  prove 
valuable  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  and  to  families 
generally  who  may  have  only  a  small  garden.  It 
can  always  be  referred  to  to  set  one  right  in  any 
matter  of  doubt  connected  with  the  subjects  involved : 


Asparag^us,    in    la-inch    drills,    i6 

quarts. 
Asparag:us,   plants,   4   by   iJ4   feet, 

8,000. 
Barley,  2>4  bushels. 
Beans,  bush,  in  drills  zYt  feet,  1^ 

bushels. 
Beans,  pole,  Lima,  4  by  4.  feet,  20 

quarts. 
Beans,  Carolina,  prolific,  etc.,  4  by 

3,  10  quarts. 
Beets  and  mangolds,  drills,  2}4  feet, 

9  pounds. 
Broom-corn  in  drills,  12  pounds. 
Cabbaj^e,  outside,  for  transplanting, 

12  ounces. 
Cabbage  sown  in  frames,  4  ounces. 
Carrot  in  drills,  2^  feet,  4  pounds. 
Celery,  seed,  S  ounces. 
Celery,  plant,  4  by  H  feet,  25,000. 
Clover,  white  Dutch,  13  uounds. 
Clover,  lucern,    10  pounds. 
Clover,  Alsike,  6  pounds. 
Clover,  hirge  red,  with  timothy,  12 

pounds. 
Cloyer,  large  red,  without  timothy, 

16  pounds. 
Corn,  sug-ar,  10  quarts. 
Corn,  field,  S  quarts. 
Corn  salad,  drill  10  inches,  25  lbs. 
Cucumber,  in  hills,  3  quarts. 
Cucumber,  in  drills,  4  quarts. 
Ejfg    plant,  plants  3  oy  2  feet,  4 

ounces. 
Endive,  in  drills,  aV4  feet,  3  pounds. 
Flax,  broadcast,  20  quarts. 
Grass,  timothy  with  clover,  6  quarts. 
Grass,  timothy  without   clover,  10 

quarts. 
Grass,  orchard,  25  quarts. 
Grass,  red  top  or  nerd's,  ao  quarts. 
Grass,  blue,  2S  quarts. 
Grass,  rye,  ao  quarts. 
Grass,  millet,  32  quarts. 

Adornment,  of  Home;  see  Home  Adornment, 
Lawn,  Landscape  Gardening,  and  Residence. 

Adulteration,  of  Foods,  etc.:  see  the  respective 
articles.  Agitation  is  now  started  for  more  strin- 
gent legislation,  both  local  and  national,  to  pre- 
vent adulteration  of  foods,  condiments,  and  other 


Hemp,  broadcast,  5i  bushel. 

Kale,  German  greens,  3  pounds. 

Lettuce,  in  rows,  2%  feet,  3  pounds. 

Leek,  4  pounds. 

Lawn  ^rass,  35  pounds. 

Melons,  water)  in  hills  8  by  8  feel, 

3  pounds. 
Melons,  citrons,  in  hills  4,by4feet| 

2  pounds. 
Oats,  2  bushels. 

Okra,  in  drills,  2\i  by   J<  feet,  ao 

pounds. 
Onion,  in  beds  for  sets,  50  pounds. 
Onion,  in  rows  for  large  Dulbs,  7 

pounds. 
Parsnip,  in  drills  2>4  feet,  $  pounds. 
Pepper,  plants,  2%  by  i  foot,  iTiSoo- 
Pumpkin,  in  hills  8  by  8  feet,    a 

quarts. 
Parsley,  in  drills  3  feet,  4  pounds. 
Peas,   in   drills,   short  varieties,   a 

bushels. 
Peas,  in  drills,  tall  varieties,   i  to 

lYt  bushels. 
Peas,  broadcast,  3  bushels. 
Potatoes,  8  bushels. 
Radish,  in  drills  2  fei-t,  10  pounds. 
Rye,  broadcast,  1^  bushels. 
Rye.  drilled,  1%  bushels. 
Salsify,  in  drills  a^  feet,  10  pounds. 
Spinach,  broadcast,  30  pounds. 
Squash,  bush,  in  hills,  4  by  4  feet, 

3  pounds. 

Squash,    running,    8  by  8  feet,   a 

pounds. 
Sorghum,  4  quarts. 
Turnips,  in  drills  2  feet,  3  pounds. 
Turnips,  broadcast,  3  pounds. 
Tomatoes,  in  frames,  3  ounces. 
Tomatoes,  seed,  in  hills  3  by  3  feet, 

8  ounces. 
Tomatoes,  plants,  3,800. 
Wheat,  in  drills,  i^  bushels. 
Wheat,  broadcast,  a  bushels. 


AFTERMA  7 IJ— ALLSPICE. 


»3 


articles  of  domestic  use.  We  take  this  oppor- 
tunity to  encourage  this  agitation,  until  the  un- 
principled practice  of  running  the  great  Jugger- 
naut of  the  almighty  dollar  over  the  health  and 
lives  of  innocent  people  is  utterly  ended. 

Aftermath  or  Rowen.  The  second  and  third 
crops  of  grass  in  the  same  season:  generally  de- 
voted to  pasturage. 

Agriculture:     see  Farming. 

Ague.  The  symptoms  are  weakness,  languor, 
and  an  uncontrollable  disposition  to  gape  and 
stretch;  the  patient  is  seized  with  a  severe  chill; 
he  begins  to  shake  all  over,  the  teeth  chatter,  and 
the  face  and  hands  become  pale.  After  the  chill 
has  passed,  a  warm  sense  of  feeling  returns,  and 
graduallv  the  whole  system  becomes  flushed  with 
heat.  The  patient  grows  thirsty,  the  head  begins 
to  ache,  and  a  profuse  sweat  breaks  out.  It  is  not 
generally  a  dangerous  disease,  thougii  very  dis- 
tressing and  weakening.  Persons  subject  to  it 
should  wear  flannel  next  to  the  skin,  and  avoid 
exposure  to  damp  air  or  by  wet  feet.  Treatment — 
Reg.:  One  to  four  grains  of  quinine,  once  or  twice 
a  day;  hot  herb  teas.  Hom.:  One  grain  of  aconite 
every  two  houi's;  or  six  globules  of  ipecacuanha 
or  nux  vomica  in  a  tumblerful  of  water,  of  which 
take  a  tablespoonful  every  two  hours.  EcL. : 
Three  times  a  day  take  two  pills  (usual  size)  of 
quinine  and  extract  of  flowering  dogwood,  in  equal 
parts;  after  the  paroxysms  cease,  take  twice  a  day, 
for  three  days,  a  pill  of  extract  of  blood-root  and 
waahoo  in  equal  parts.  For  the  biliousness  give  a 
cathartic  of  extract  of  dogbane,  two  parts,  and  one 
of  podophyllin  (a  precipitated  extract  of  May-ap- 
ple root).  Hyg.:  Hot  pack  at  the  commencement 
of  the  cold  stage,  sponging  off  during  the  hot 
stage,  continued  rest,  diet  mainly  on  fruits,  abstain- 
ing from  condiments.  It  is  said  that  a  positive 
cure  for  chills  and  fever  is  to  drink  the  juice  of  one 
lemon  during  the  dry  and  thirsty  stage,  and  to  rub 
the  whole  body  with  the  juice   of  another  lemon. 

Air,  in  health  and  disease:  see  Hygiene. 

Alabaster  ornaments  are  generally  made  of  a 
kind  of  translucent  gypsum.  They  are  easily 
stained  or  colored  with  metallic  solutions,  tinctures, 
and  colored  oils;  polished  with  finely  powdered 
pumice  stone  or  dried  scouring-rush,  and  afterward 
with  a  paste  formed  of  finely  powdered  and 
sifted  slacked  lime  and  water,  and  finally  with 
French  chalk.  Grease  spots  may  also  be  removed 
from  such  articles  by  rubbing  with  French  chalk, 
or  talc.  A  general  cleaning  may  be  eflfected  with 
soap  and  hot  water:  if  very  cHrty  and  stained,  the 
piece  should  be  first  washed  with  dilute  nitric  acid. 

AlcarrazaTs  a  porous  vessel  of  earthenware  for 
cooling  water.  Supplying  its  own  surface  with 
the  water  from  within,  it  saves  the  trouble  of 
keeping  a  wet  linen  or  cotton  cloth  around  it.     A 


similar  article,  called  "  olla,"  is  used  in  some  parts 
of  the  South. 

Alcohol,  a  semi-poisonous  chemical  made  from 
the  starch  of  grains,  colorless,  volatile  and  inflamma- 
ble. It  is  extensively  used  in  the  arts,  especially 
pharmacy,  as  it  dissolves  resin,  essential  oils,  cam- 
phor, soap,  sugar,  wax,  the  gums  and  the  alkaloids, 
most  of  which  substances  are  imperfectly  soluble  in 
water.  It  curdles  milk  and  albumen,  separates 
starch  and  gum  from  their  mucilages,  and  conserves 
all  organic  substances.  It  cannot  be  frozen.  Hence 
its  great  utility ;  but,  as  with  any  other  luxury,  man- 
kind could  get  along  without  it.  "  Proof  spirit  " 
contains  52^  per  cent,  of  alcohol  in  volume,  the  rest 
being  water.  This  is  the  strength  usually  em- 
ployed in  medicines  and  perfumery.  "  Dilute  al- 
cohol "  has  53I  per  cent,  water,  by  volume. 

To  purify  alcohol,  filter  it  through  alternate 
layers  of  sand,  wood  charcoal,  boiled  wheat  and 
broken  oyster  shells.  The  fusel  oil,  which  may  be 
detected  by  mixing  with  an  equal  quantity  of  pure 
sulphuric  acid,  discoloring  the  liquid,  can  be  easily 
extracted  from  small  quantities  of  alcohol  by  add- 
ing a  few  drops  of  olive  oil,  shaking  well,  and 
decanting,  after  settling. 

Alden  Process  of  drying  fruits  and  vegetables: 
see  Drying. 

Ale,  a  beverage  made  from  an  infusion  of  malt 
by  fermentation.  Having  a  smaller  proportion  of 
hops  than  beer,  it  is  sweeter,  and  of  a  lighter  color. 
Burton  ale  is  the  strongest,  containing  eight  per 
cent,  of  alcohol ;  brown  stout  contains  six  per  cent., 
and  common  beer  only  one  per  cent.  As  a  bever- 
age, ale  is  more  popular  in  Great  Britain  than  else- 
where, the  people  there  considering  it  the  most 
healthful  of  all  drinks.  In  the  UViited  States,  the, 
Germans,  being  more  numerous  than  any  other 
class  of  foreigners,  have  well  nigh  supplanted  other 
intoxicating  drinks  with  their  lager  beer,  except 
among  the  Irish  and  the  more  old-fashioned  people. 

To  mull  ale,  take  a  pint  of  it,  good  and  strong, 
put  it  into  a  sauce-pan  with  three  cloves  and  a 
little  nutmeg,  and  sugar  to  the  taste;  set  it  over 
the  fire  until  it  boils;  then  mix  with  it  the  beaten 
yolks  of  four  eggs,  which  must  be  first  mixed 
with  a  little  cold  ale. 

Wassail,  or  lamb's-wool,  is  ale  heated,  sweet- 
ened and  spiced.  Very  nice  with  hot  toast, 
roasted  apples,  etc. 

For  brewing  ale,  adulteration,  etc.,  see  Beer. 

Alfalfa,  a  forage  plant  akin  to  clover;  Lucern, 

which  see. 

Allspice,  or  Jamaica  pepper,  takes  its  first  name 
from  the  idea  that  it  has  the  properties  of  all  spices, 
particularly  cinnamon,  cloves  and  nutmeg.  In 
purchasing,  never  buy  ground  or  pulverized  spice, 
as  all  such  is  adulterated  with  saw  dust,  ground 
peas,  grains  and  even  the  dirt  and  dust  of  the  mills. 


M 


ALMONDS— A  NIMA  L  S. 


Almonds  (am'undz),  nuts  which  are  naturally- 
akin  to  peachstones,  but  having  softer  shells. 
Sweet  almonils  are  among  the  best  nuts,  and  are 
used  in  fancy  cookery;  bitter  almonds  are  poison. 
They  cannot  be  profitably  raised  in  the  Northern 
United  States.  The  "eartli  almond,"  recom- 
mended by  a  few  parties  as  a  farm  product,  is  de- 
cidedly unprofitable  anywhere  in  the  North. 

Aloe  (al'o),  a  medicinal  plant  of  tropical 
countries.  The  hot,  bitter,  purgative  drug  called 
"aloes"  (al'oze),  is  the  dried  juice  or  extract  of 
this  plant. 

Alpaca  ^al-pac'a),  a  camel-like  animal  of  South 
America,  about  the  size  of  a  sheep,  and  furnishing 
a  valuable  wool.  Attempts  have  been  made  to 
introduce  it  into  this  country,  which  mav  yet  prove 
successful  in  certain  mountainous  regions.  The 
word  "  alpaca  "  also  denotes  the  cloth  made  from 
the  wool,  or  hair,  of  the  animal.  To  wash  alpaca, 
see  Laundry. 

Alsike  (al-se'ka)  Clover:  see  Clover. 

Alterative  (ol'tera-tiv),  a  inedicine  which  in- 
sensibly and  gradually  alters  certain  conditions  and 
functional  actions.  Used  in  chronic  cases.  The 
term  is  also  used  adjectively. 

Alum,  the  sulphate  of  alumina  (an  earthy  mineral 
constituting  the  body  of  clay)  and  potash.  It  is 
astringent,  and  is  good  to  stop  bleeding.  When 
burned,  the  powder  becomes  a  good  caustic.  The 
astringent  lotion  is  made  by  dissolving  6  to  8 
drachms  of  alum  in  a  quart  of  water.  The  various 
uses  of  this  vahiable  substance  are  given  under  the 
respective  heads  in  this  volume. 

Amalgam,  a  compound  of  quicksilver  with 
another  metal.  An  amalgam  with  lead,  tin,  and 
bismuth,  is  the  coating  on  the  back  side  of  looking- 
glasses,  and  is  poison.  Costly  mirrors  are  gen- 
erally coated  with  pure  silver.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  re-coat  old  mirrors  of  the  cheaper  class. 

Ammonia,  or  Heartshorn,  is  a  volatile  alkali, 
superior  to  soap  for  many  domestic  purposes,  and 
is  the  old-time  "  smelling  salts,"  so  often  resorted  to 
in  nervous  affections,  spasms,  etc.  When  too  much 
is  swallowed,  by  mistake,  there  is  a  burning,  biting 
taste,  heat  in  the  tliroat  and  stomach,  vomiting  of 
bloody  matter,  etc.  As  antidotes,  give  vinegar, 
and  then  oil  of  almost  anv  kind,  as  sweet  or  linseed. 

Anaesthetic  (an-es-thet'-ic),  destroying  sensi- 
bility. Also  the  drug  which  has  such  an  effect,  as 
chloroform, ether,  or  any  drug  vapor  inhaled  to  take 
away  sensibility.  Sometimes  one  is  preferable, 
sometimes  another,  according  to  circumstances,  but 
in  general,  chloroform  is  the  most  dangerous  of  all, 
while  it  is  the  most  eflfectual.  For  short  opera- 
tions in  surgery,  violent  breathing  for  a  few  seconds 


is    sufficient   to    enable    the    patient    to    stand    the 
operation. 

Anbury  (an'bu-ry),  or  Ambury,  a  soft  tumor 
on  horses  and  cows,  containing  blood;  also,  a  swell- 
ing produced  by  insects  on  the  roots  of  turnips, 
cabbages,  etc. 

Anchor.  To  "  anchor  "  a  building  is  to  fasten 
it  in  an  upright  position  by  any  special  contrivance 
so  strongly  that  it  can  withstand  violent  winds. 

Anchovy  (an-cho'vy),  a  small  fish  about  three 
inches  long,  of  the  herring  family. 

Anchovy-pear,  a  plant  and  its  fruit,  found  in  the 
West  Indies. 

Andiron,  a  dog-iron,  or  fire-dog;  a  simple  iron 
stand  or  frame  for  supporting  wood  in  a  fire-place.. 

Aneurism  (an'u-rizm),  a  pulsating  tumor  sit- 
uated in  a  section  of  an  artery.  The  inner  coat  of 
the  artery  is  ruptured,  or  gives  away  to  the  press- 
ure of  blood,  and  a  dilation  is  thereby  caused. 
When  an  aneurism  has  once  commenced,  it  con- 
tinues to  enlarge  until  it  attains  a  great  size;  often 
it  bursts.  No  home  treatment  can  be  recommended, 
except  fomentations  to  alleviate  the  pain. 

Angelica,  an  aromatic  herb  sometimes  cultivated 
as  a  salad  or  for  medicine.  The  leaf-stalks  are 
pealed  and  eaten  raw,  or  are  boiled  with  fish  or 
other  meat.  The  root,  leaves  and  seeds  are  some- 
times used  medicinally  as  a  tonic.  It  is  sown  and 
cultivated  like  carrots  or  parsnips.  The  root  should 
be  dug  up  in  the  autumn  of  the  first  year  and  dried. 

Angling:  see  Fishing, 

Aniline  (an'i-lin),  a  base  similar  to  ammonia, 
distilled  from  indigo  and  other  plants,  coloring  a 
strong  violet  blue,  with  chloride  of  lime.  One  of 
the  most  valuable  ingredients  in  Dyeing,  which  see. 

Animal  Charcoal:  see  Charcoal. 

Anatomy.  Anatomy  is  the  science  of  the  struct- 
ure of  the  human  or  any  other  organized  body; 
of  all  the  parts  or  organs  of  which  it  is  composed, 
and  their  relative  positions  in  it.  The  body  in  its 
description  is  divided  into  four  general  divisions — 
head,  trunk,  upper  and  lower  extremities. 

While  anatomy  gives  us  a  knowledge  of  the  form, 
character  and  situation  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  separately,  physiology  shows  us  the  functions 
and  uses  of  the  different  parts  and  organs  of  the  sys- 
tem. In  studying  anatomy  we  examine  separately 
the  different  parts  of  a  complicated  machine,  while 
physiology  shows  the  machine  in  motion  and  the 
forces  that  produce  the  latter. 

Technically  speaking,  physiology  is  the  science  of 
the  functions  of  living  beings;  includingj  in  its  wid- 
est acceptation,  the  study  of  all  the  changes  which 
they   undergo.     There  may  be,  therefore,  vegetable 


PLATE  1. 


PLATE  li 


PLATE    III. 


PLATE  IV. 


PLATE  V. 


ANATOMY. 


IS 


and  animal  physiology ;  also  human  and  comparative 
physiology.  Biology  is  a  word  now  much  used, 
meaning  the  whole  science  of  life.  Pathology  is  the 
physiology  of  the  body  and  its  organs  in  a  state  or 
states  of  disease  ;  it  is  fundamental  to  the  scientific 
practice  of  medicine. 

General  physiology  considers  the  materials,  forces 
and  forms  of  organized  bodies.  The  matter  of  which 
plants  and  animals  are  or  have  been  composed  is 
called,  from  its  being  or  having  been  present  in  their 
organs  or  instrumental  parts,  organic  matter.  .'Vll 
other  substances,  with  properties  not  affected  by  the 
presence  of  life,  are  inorganic.  A  distinction  is  per- 
ceptible and  important  between — -ist,  organizable 
matter;  2d,  organized  material,  /.  e.,  that  present  in 
living  organs ;  and  3d,  that  which  has  been  organ- 
ized, but  is  no  more  capable  of  active  function  or  new 
formation ;  for  the  last,  the  term  post-organic  would 
be  convenient,  although  it  is  not  usual. 

Between  the  organic  and  inorganic  materials  dif- 
ferences exist — ist,  in  complexity  of  composition; 
2d,  in  instability;  3d,  in  the  forms  which  they 
tend  to  assume,  especially  under  the  influence  of  life. 
Of  the  whole  number  of  elements  in  nature  supposed 
by  chemists  to  be  simple  or  undecomposable,  scarcely 
twenty  are  found  taking  part  in  the  composition  of 
plants  or  animals.  In  mineral  and  other  inorganic 
bodies,  binary  compounds  are  not  rare,  and  ternary 
ones  coinmon  ;  while  in  organic  substances,  four,  five, 
or  a  still  larger  number  of  elements  are  more  often 
combined  ;  with,  also,  a  large  number  of  equivalents 
of  each.  From  this  complexity  of  composition  results 
great  instability;  shown  by  the  rapid  decay  or  putre- 
faction to  which  vegetable  and  animal  structures  are 
liable  after  their  death.  This  complexity  is  greatest 
in  animal  bodies  ;  most  of  all  in  the  highest  animals. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitrogen  are  the 
most  nearly  universal  elements  in  organic  matter. 
With  them  occur  sulphur,  phosphorus,  calcium,  iron, 
potassium,  sodium,  chlorine,  silicon,  fluorine  and 
some  others,  in  variable  quantities.  Animal  tissues, 
except  fat  (and  some  very  few  other  partial  exceptions 
among  the  lowest  animals),  always  liave  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, oxygen  and  nitrogen;  vegetable  substances 
may  consist  of  the  first  three  of  these  without  nitro- 
gen ;  although  the  latter  is  also  frequently  present  in 
plants. 

Reason  exists  for  designating  by  a  special  name 
that  agency  in  organized  bodies,  /.  e.,  ])lants  and  ani- 
mals, which  gives  them  the  characterof  living  beings; 
and  the  best  name  for  it  is  vital  force,  or  life  force. 

This  ought  to  be  studied  like  the  other  forces  of  nat- 
ure. By  exclusion,  we  find  that,  after  most  func- 
tions of  the  animal  or  vegetable  organs  have  been  ex- 
plained by  reference  to  chemical,  mechanical  or 
other  ordinary  physical  laws,  something  is  still  left. 
That  is  formation,  growth,  development ;  the  con- 
struction from  a  formless  liquid  (blood,  sap)  of  def- 
initely formed  structures,  going  through  a  series  of 
changes  for  a  definite  period.  We  call  the  cause  of 
this  adaptive  formation  and  change  life.     When  it 


ceases,  death  is  characterized  by  the  loss  of  all  that 
was  peculiar  to  the  being,  and  the  return  of  its*  ma- 
terials to  the  inorganic  (through  the  post-organic) 
state. 

We  may  enumerate  the  main  facts  established  con- 
cerning vital  force,  as  follows:  i.  It  is  common  to 
animals  and  plants.  2.  It  never  originates  except 
from  parentage;  omtu  vivum  ex  vivo.  3.  Its  action 
is  essentially  formative  and  reparative.  4.  In  the  liv- 
ing body  it  controls  and  directs  the  other  physical 
forces,  as  chemical  affinity,  etc.,  modifying  their  re- 
sults. 5.  It  acts  expansively,  from  centers  outward, 
as  shown  by  the  production  of  rounded  forms,  cells, 
etc.  6.  Sometimes  it  may  be  transmuted  into  other 
forces  during  life,  and  is  altogether  so  at  death.  7. 
Other  forces,  especially  heat,  sustain  it,  or  are  con- 
verted into  it.  8.  Sometimes  it  may  be  suspended 
for  a  time;  as  in  the  winter  torpor  of  certain  animals. 
9.  It  is  always  definitely  limited  in  duration  under 
any  particular  form ;  that  is,  each  individual  can 
live  only  for  a  certain  time,  longer  or  shorter,  ac- 
cording to  its  species,  to.  Life-force  may  vary  in  a 
degree,  in  the  same  body  at  different  times,  and  in 
the  different  parts  of  the  same  organism.  This  last 
proposition  affords  the  best  foundation  for  rational  pa- 
thology. Yet  it  would  be  a  serious  error  to  suppose 
that  all  disease  consists  merely  in  diminished 
vitality,  general  or  local. 

Liquids  and  solids  together  make  up  every  organ- 
ized body  which  has  active  functions.  The  liquids 
in  plants  are  the  sap,  and  sometimes  special  juices; 
in  animals,  the  blood,  lymph,  chyle  and  various  se- 
cretions. The  solids  are  the  organs,  comjwsed  of 
various  tissues  ;  and  these  of  elementary  forms,  viz. : 
molecules,  nuclei,  cells,  fibers,  membranes  and  tubes. 

As  seen  under  the  microscope,  the  blood  consists  of 
a  colorless  liquid  (liquor  sanguinis)  in  which  float  the 
red  and  the  white  or  colorless  corpuscles;  from  fifty 
to  five  hundred  of  the  red  to  one  of  the  colorless  in 
human  blood.  Of  the  former  the  diameter  is  about 
r-33ooof  an  inch;  of  the  white  corpuscles,  1-2500. 
The  latter  are  nucleated ;  the  red  corpuscles  in  man 
are  not.  The  shape  of  the  red  corpuscles  is  disk- 
like or  carwheel-like;  i.e.,  circular,  flattened,  and 
concave  at  the  middle.  Carbonic  acid  and  some 
other  gases,  when  absorbed,  swell  the  corpuscles 
into  a  more  globular  form;  oxygen  widens  and  flat- 
tens them. 

The  osseous  or  bony  system  is  the  framework  or 
foundation  and  support  of  the  various  other  depart- 
ments of  a  body.  In  bone,  earthy  and  animal  con- 
stituents are  intimately  combined.  Of  the  former 
there  are  about  66.7  parts  to  33.3  of  the  latter. 
Phosphate  of  calcium  is  the  most  abundant  mineral 
material;  being  about  51  parts  in  the  100  of  bone. 
Carbonate  of  calcium  1 1.3  parts;  fluoride  of  calcium  2 
parts.  The  mineral  m.itter  of  bone  increases  with 
age,  making  the  bones  of  the  old  more  brittle.  There 
is  more  of  it  also  in  some  bones,  and  parts  of  bones, 
than  in  others.  When  the  framework  is  connected,  in 
their  proper  order,  they  form  the  skeleton,  as  shown 


i6 


ANATOMY. 


of  the  man  on  Plate  IV,  and  of  the  horse  on  Plate 
IX.  '  The  number  of  bones  in  the  human  body  is 
206,  excluding  the  32  teeth.  This  also  excludes 
the  sesamoid  bones,  which  are  not  uniform  in  num- 
ber. There  are  supposed  to  be  the  same  number  of 
bones  in  all  animals,  although  in  many  some  of  the 
bones  are  not  developed.  Bones  are  composed  of 
both  earthy  (chiefly  lime)  and  animal  matter,  and, 
like  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  are  formed  from  the 
blood.  There  is  wonderful  wisdom  displayed  in  the 
development  and  harmony  of  the  anatomy  of  the 
human  body. 

Beside  the  bones  there  are  cartilages,  liga- 
ments and  membranes,  which  go  to  make  up  the 
framework  of  the  body.  The  cartilages  are  smooth, 
white,  elastic  substances,  which  unite  the  bones  and 
cover  the  ends  of  those  which  move  upon  each  other, 
as  illustrated  in  the  joints.  These,  which  are  fre- 
quently called  gristle,  resemble  bone  in  appearance, 
but  are  much  softer.  Ligaments,  like  the  bones, 
possess  slight  sensibility  when  in  a  normal  condi- 
tion, but  are  extremely  painful  when  inflamed.  They 
are  strong,  white,  fibrous  bands  or  cords,  which 
hold  bones  in  their  places  and  connect  them  at  the 
joints.  Membranes  vary  in  appearance  and  struct- 
ure as  well  as  in  function.  They  are  tliin  sub- 
stances which  line  the  cavities  of  the  body  and 
envelop  all  the  organs.  The  muscles  compose  that 
portion  of  the  body  which  is  usually  known  as  the 
lean  meat.  They  number  over  500,  and'<ftiile  form- 
ing one  continuous  mass,  as  indicated  by  the  ex- 
ternal appearance,  the  body,  however,  is  composed 
of  separate  pieces  of  various  length  and  shape,  act- 
ing independently  or  in  connection  with  others.  The 
muscles  of  both  the  human  body  as  well  as  that  of 
the  horse  are  given  at  greater  length  in  the  de- 
scriptions given  of  Plates  I  and  VI,  while  the  arter- 
ies, veins,  the  nervous  and  glandular  systems,  as 
well  as  description  and  actions  of  the  principal  or- 
gans of  the  body,  are  given  in  the  descriptions  of 
their  respective  plates. 

PLATE   I. 

This  plate  illustrates  the  superficial  muscles  of  the 
body.  They  vary  both  in  their  form  and  length.  In 
the  limbs  they  are  of  considerable  length,  while  in 
the  trunk  they  are  broad,  flattened  and  expanded. 
Upon  the  arms  and  legs  they  surround  the  bone  and 
form  an  important  protection,  both  to  the  bones  and 
the  joints,  while  upon  the  trunk  they  spread  out  to 
enclose  cavities  and  form  a  wall  of  defense,  which 
readily  yields  to  internal  pressure.  The  term  origin, 
in  describing  a  muscle,  is  meant  to  apply  to  its  more 
fixed  or  immovable  attachment,  while  the  term  in- 
sertion, to  the  movable  point  or  part  to  be  acted 
upon.  As  an  exdtnple  we  might  cite  the  principal 
muscles  which  move  the  arm.  These  are  attached  at 
one  end  to  the  shoulder-blade,  which  is  called  their 
origin,  while  the  other  end  is  attached  to  the  bone  of 
the  arm  and  is  known  as  their  insertion.  Those 
muscles  by  which  a  limb  is  bent  are  known  as  flexors, 


and  those  that  straighten  it  as  extensors.  These 
two  sets  of  muscles  antagonize  each  other,  one  pull- 
ing one  way  and  the  other  the  opposite.  The  mus- 
cles are  also  classified  as  voluntary  and  involuntary. 
The  former  are  under  control  of  the  will  or  motor 
nerves,  while  the  latter,  like  the  muscles  of  the 
heart,  are  beyond  its  influence. 

The  motive  power  of  muscles  is  in  the  nerves.  The 
nerve  fluid — the  stimulus  applied  to  the  muscles  — 
acts  upon  them  like  electricity.  While  the  motor 
nerves  actuate  the  muscles,  the  sensory  nerves  carry 
impressions  to  the  brain.  The  rapidity  with  which 
the  muscles  contract  and  relax  is  remarkable.  As 
above  cited,  tliere  are  over  500  different  muscles, 
generally,  however,  arranged  in  pairs.  These  all 
bear  Latin  names,  some  of  which  are  extremely  long, 
as  for  example  the  levator  labii  superioris  alaeque 
nasi.  This  is  a  small,  triangular  muscle,  placed  by 
the  side  of  the  nose  and  extending  to  the  upper  lip, 
the  action  of  which  is  to  raise  the  upper  lip  and  di- 
late the  nostril.  These  names,  however,  have  refer- 
ence to  the  character,  use  and  position  of  the  muscles. 
To  attempt  to  give  the  latter  with  their  relative 
uses  and  positions,  their  origin  and  insertion,  would 
require  a  large  volume  and  would  be  entirely  beyond 
the  province  of  this  work.  The  accompanying  plate, 
however,  with  the'following  description,  gives  an  ex- 
cellent idea  of  the  character,  shape  and  appearance 
of  the  superficial  muscles,  and  gives  as  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  as  can  be 
gained  outside  the  dissecting  room. 

The  following  are  the  names  and  the  uses  of  the 
muscles  shown  on  Plate  I : 

1.  Occipito  frontalis — to  move  the  scalp  and  raise 
the  eyebrows. 

2.  Orbicularis  palpebrarum — to  close  the  eyelids. 

3.  Compressor  naris — to  expand  the  nostril. 

4.  Levator  labii  superioris  alseque  nasi — to  elevate 
the  upper  lip  and  dilate  the  nostril. 

5.  Levator  labii  superioris — -to  elevate  the  upper  lip. 
6  and  7.     Zygomatic  minor  and  Zygomatic  major — 

to  raise  the  upper  lip  and  draw  it  somewhat  out- 
ward, as  in  laughing. 

8.  Masseter — to  bring  the  jaws  together  in  chewing. 

9.  Orbicularis  oris — -to  close  and  pucker  the  mouth. 
10.  Risorius^ — to  draw  the  corner  of  the  mouth  out- 
ward. 

1  r.  Attollens  aurem — raises  the  ear. 

12.  Attrahens  aurem — draws  the  ear  upward  and 
forward. 

13.  Retrahens  aurem — draws  the  ear  backward. 

14.  Sterno-cleido-mastoid — to  carry  the  head  to- 
ward the  shoulder  and  rotate  it,  so  as  to  carry  the 
face  to  the  other  side. 

15.  Trapezius — to  draw  the  shoulder  up  and  back- 
ward. 

16.  Platysma  myoides — to  bend  the  head  forward. 

17.  Depressor  labii  inferioris — to  depress  the  lower 
lip. 

18.  Pectoralis  major — to  draw  the  arm  inward  and 
forward,  or  downward  if  raised. 


ANATOMY. 


17 


19.  Serratus  magnus — to  draw  the  scapula  forward 
and  downward,  or  raise  the  ribs. 

20.  Obliquus — to  sustain  the  abdomen. 

21.  Lineaalba — a  tendenous  union  of  the  muscles 
of  the  abdomen. 

22.  Deltoid — to  raise  the  arm. 

23.  Biceps — to  bend  the  arm  at  the  elbow. 

24.  Triceps — -to  extend  the  forearm. 

25.  Supinator  longus — to  turn  the  lower  arm  and 
hand. 

26.  Extensor  carpi  radialis  longior — to  bend  the 
hand  backward. 

27.  Extensor  communis  digitorum — to  extend  the 
fingers. 

28.  Extensor  carpi  ulnaris — to  extend  the  hand  at 
the  wrist. 

29.  Flexor  carpi  ulnaris — to  bend  the  hand  toward 
the  little  finger. 

30.  Supinator  longus — same  as  25. 

31.  Palmer  facia — the  palm  of  the  hand. 

32.  Brachialis  antirus — to  flex  the  forearm. 

33.  Flexor  carpi  radialus — to  bend  the  hand  at  the 
wrist. 

34.  Palmaris  longus — to  bend  the  hand  at  the  palm. 

35.  Flexor  carpi  ulnaris — same  as  29. 

36.  Adductor  pollicis  magus — to  draw  the  thumb 
toward  the  forefinger. 

37.  Rectus  fcmoris — to  extend  or  straighten  the  leg. 

38.  Vastus  externus — to  assist  No.  37  in  extending 
or  straightening  the  leg. 

39.  Vastus  internus — in  connection  with  Nos.  37 
and  38  assist  to  extender  straighten  the  leg. 

41.  Peroneus  brevis. 

42.  Biceps — to  bend  or  flex  the  leg. 

43.  Tibialis  amicus — to  bend  the  foot  at  the  ankle. 

44.  Extensor  communis  digitorum— to  flex  the 
phalanges  of  the  toe. 

45.  Peroneus  longus — to  depress  the  foot  and  incline 
the  sole  outward. 

46.  Soleus — to  steady  the  leg  upon  the  foot  and  pre- 
vent the  body  from  falling  forward. 

47.  Annular  ligament — a  band  to  hold  the  muscles 
in  position. 

48.  Sartorius — to  draw  one  leg  over  the  other,  in 
the  position  of  a  tailor  when  sewing.  This  is  the 
longest  muscle  in  the  body. 

50.  Pcctineus— to  draw  the  thigh  inward  and  up- 
ward and  rotate  it  outward. 

51.  Adductor  longus — to  draw  the  thigh  inward 
and  upward. 

52.  Gastrocnemius — to  raise  the  heel  and  depress 
the  foot. 

PLATE  II. 

This  plate  shows  the  arterial  and  venous  circula- 
tions. The  arteries  are  membranous  tubes,  very  strong 
and  elastic,  which  arise  from  the  heart  by  two  trunks, 
and  by  their  innumerable  branches  convey  the  blood 
from  that  great  center  throughout  every  portion  of  the 
system.  The  larger  arteries  are  hidden  away  deeply 
in  the  flesh  and  thus  protected.   The  aorta  shown  by 


Fig.  9,  which  is  the  main  trunk  of  all  the  arteries  of 
the  body,  ascends  from  the  upper  part  of  the  left  ven- 
tricle for  a  short  distance  and  then  forms  an  arch 
backward  over  the  root  of  the  left  lung,  thence  de- 
scending upon  the  left  side  of  the  spinal  column. 

The  heart  is  a  hollow  muscular  body,  situated  be- 
hind the  lower  two-thirds  of  the  sternum,  or  breast 
bone,  with  its  apex  pointing  downward  and  to  the 
left.  It  is  about  five  inches  long  in  an  adult  and 
about  three  and  one- half  inches  wide  in  its  broadest 
part,  and  two  and  one-half  inches  in  thickness,  and 
in  the  male  weighs  about  12  ounces.  The  heart  in 
man  is  double,  as  though  two  hearts  were  placed  side 
by  side.  In  foetal  life  they  communicate  directly, 
but  after  birth  indirectly  only.  One-half  of  the  heart — 
the  right — receives  the  venous  blood  from  the  body 
and  propels  it  to  the  lungs.  The  other — the  left — 
receives  arterial  blood  from  the  lungs,  and  through  the 
aorta  and  its  branches  sends  it  all  over  the  body. 
The  right  half  might,  therefore,  be  called  the  respira- 
tory heart  and  the  left,  systemic. 

Each  of  these  halves  of  the  heart  has  two  cavities, 
an  auricle  and  a  ventricle.  The  first  is  a  receiving 
and  the  latter  a  propelling  cavity.  Fig.  i,  the  right 
auricle,  receives  the  venous  blood  from  the  venae 
cavae  and  pushes  it  into  the  right  ventricle,  Fig.  2. 
This  then  propels  it  through  the  pulmonary  arteryto 
the  lungs.  Fig.  3,  the  left  auricle,  receives  the  blood 
from  the  lungs  and  transfers  it  to  the  left  ventricle, 
Fig.  4,  whijh  tlien  propels  it  out  by  the  aorta. 

From  the  top  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta  there  are 
three  main  branches  :  The  central,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
16,  is  the  left  common  carotid  artery,  which  conveys 
the  blood  to  the  head.  The  one  to  the  left  is  the 
left  subclavian,  and  the  one  to  the  right  is  the  in- 
noniinata,  which  soon  divides,  a  branch  going  to 
the  right  arm,  as  shown  by  Fig.  10,  and  known  as  the 
right  subclavian  artery,  and  the  other  going  to  the 
head,  forming  the  right,  common  carotid.  Fig.  10, 
on  the  left  side,  shows  the  left  subclavian  artery, 
which  arises  directly  from  the  aorta. 

The  thoracic  aorta  may  be  seen  descending  from 
the  heart,  down  the  middle  of  the  figure. 

16.  The   carotid  artery  (one  on  either  side  of  the 
neck). 

17.  Temporal  artery.  24.  Femoral. 

18.  Left  common  iliac.       25.  Tibial  artery. 

21.  Brachial  artery.  26.  Peronial. 

22.  Radial.  29.  Right  internal  iliac. 
All  of  these  arteries  are  in  pairs,  that  is,  one  on 

each  side  or  in  each  extremity. 

The  capillaries  are  intermediate  vessels,  forming 
the  connecting  link  between  the  arteries  and  the 
veins,  receiving  the  blood  from  the  former  and 
carrying  it  to  the  latter.  They  form  a  fine  net- 
work, and  are  distributed  throughout  the  body. 
So  numerous  are  they,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
insert  the  point  of  a  needle  into  the  skin  or  flesh 
without  wounding  them  and  causing  blood  to  flow. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  finest  hair,  and  can  only 
be  seen  with  the  aid  of  a  microscope.    They  perform 


i8 


ANA  TVMY. 


the  important  function  of  secretion  and  nutrition^ex- 
tracting  from  the  blood  its  nutritious  qualities  and 
converting  them  into  bone  and  muscle.  Coming  in 
contact  with  the  fine  air-cells  of  the  lungs,  they  ab- 
sorb oxygen  and  convey  it  to  the  blood  throughout 
the  system. 

The  Veins  are  the  vessels  which  serve  to  return 
the  blood  from  the  capillaries  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  body  to  the  heart.  They  consist  of  two  dis- 
tinct sets  of  vessels,  the  pulmonary  and  the  systemic. 
They  are  more  delicate  in  their  structure  than  arter- 
ies, and  the- blood  flows  from  them  much  slower,  not 
being  propelled  by  force  as  in  the  arteries.  They  are, 
however,  larger  and  more  numerous  than  arteries. 
They  communicate  very  freely  with  one  another,  es- 
pecially in  certain  regions  of  the  body.  Starting  like 
little  springs,  they  soon  form  branches  and  then 
rivers,  uniting  form  still  larger  channels,  until  they 
finally  terminate  in  the  large  trunks  which  convey 
the  blood  direct  to  the  heart.  The  veins  which  re- 
ceive the  blood  from  all  parts  of  the  body  follow  in  the 
same  general  course  as  the  arteries,  and  finally,  by 
uniting,  form  two  large  trunks,  known  as  the  ascend- 
ing and  descending  venae  cavse.  The  former  receives 
the  blood  from  the  lower  extremities  and  the  regions 
of  the  abdomen, while  the  latter  is  the  receptacle  for  the 
blood  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  body;  these  uniting 
empty  their  contents  into  the  right  auricle.  This 
jxjurs  its  blood  into  the  right  ventricle,  which,  by  the 
pulmonary  artery  and  its  branches,  sends  it  for  purifi- 
cation into  the  lungs.  Thence  by  the  four  pulmonary 
veins  the  blood  is  brought  to  the  left  auricle.  It  is 
then  passed  into  the  left  ventricle,  from  whence  it  is 
then  again  thrown  intothe  aorta,  which  by  its  branches 
is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  small 
arteries  terminate  finally  in  capillaries,  and  the  cap- 
illaries unite  to  form  veins.  Figs.  13  and  11  are  the 
internal  jugular  veins.  Fig.  15,  external  jugular  vein. 
19  shows  the  right  iliac  vein,  and  28,  the  right  inter- 
nal iliac.  Those  shown  opposite  corresjxjnd  with 
these  and  are  known  as  the  left  iliac  veins.  20  rep- 
resents the  right  and  left  cephalic.  Fig.  23  the  right 
and  left  femoral  veins,  Fig.  5  the  pancreas,  6  spleen; 
7  and  8  represent  the  kidneys. 

PLATE  III. 

This  plate  represents  a  view  of  the  organs  of  the 
chest  and  abdomen,  and  the  nervous  and  glandular 
systems.  Figs.  2  and  6  represent  the  respiratory  or- 
gans or  lungs,  the  former  showing  a  section  illustrat- 
ing the  circulation.  These  are  soft,  spongy  bodies, 
located  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest  on  either  side  of 
the  heart,  and  communicate  with  the  throat  through 
the  trachea  or  windpipe  as  shown  in  Fig  i.  Just 
below  the  top  of  the  breast  bone  the  windpipe  di- 
vides, forming  two  branches  called  the  bronchia, 
which  go  direct  to  the  lungs.  The  function  of  these 
organs  is  the  aeration  or  oxidation  of  the  blood.  It  is 
accomplished  by  the  exposure  of  the  venous  blood 
brought  from  the  right  half  of  the  heart  to  the  air 


received  into  the  air-vessels  of  the  lungs.  The  im- 
mense number  of  these  vesicles,  about  six  hundred 
millions,  provides  a  very  large  expansion  of  surface. 
The  heart  sends  a  new  supply  of  venous  blood  to  the 
lungs  every  time  it  contracts,  while  the  lungs  receive 
a  fresh  supply  of  air  with  each  inhalation. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  liver,  which  is  situated  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  mainly  in  the  right 
side  under  the  ribs,  and  is  divided  into  two  principal 
parts,  called  the  right  and  left  lobes.  The  liver,  in 
some  diseases,  becomes  enlarged  and  hard,  and  may 
frequently  be  felt  in  such  cases  projecting  below  the 
ribs  in  the  right  front  of  the  abdomen,  and  sometimes 
even  in  the  left.  The  function  of  the  liver  is  the 
secretion  of  bile,  which  is  an  essential  material  in  the 
process  of  digestion.  Only  the  liver,  of  all  the  glands 
of  the  body,  is  supplied  with  venous  as  well  as  arte- 
rial blood. 

The  gall  bladder  is  shown  by  Fig.  8.  This  is  an 
adjunct  to  the  liver  and  is  attached  to  the  under  side 
of  its  right  lobe.  It  is  a  membraneous  bag,  and  seems 
to  serve  as  a  reservoir  for  surplus  bile. 

Figs.  9,  TO  and  1 1  show  the  stomach.  This  is  the 
principal  organ  of  digestion,  and  is  situated  mainly 
in  the  left  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the  abdominal 
cavity.  Its  form  is  irregularly  conical,  curved  upon 
itself,  and  presents  a  rounded  base  turned  to  the  left 
side.  The  left  portion  of  the  stomach,  which  is  much 
larger  than  the  right,  is  known  as  the  splenic  end. 
The  stomach  has  two  openings ;  the  upper,  which  is 
shown  at  Fig.  9,  is  formed  by  the  termination  of  the 
oesophagus,  and  is  known  as  the  cardiac  orifice;  the 
other  opening  is  at  the  right  of  Fig.  10,  which  com- 
municates with  the  duodenum  and  known  as  the 
pyloric.  The  stomach  is  supplied  with  blood  vessels 
and  nerves,  and  a  branch  of  the  great  sympathetic 
nerve  is  also  distributed  here,  which  causes  the 
stomach  to  so  quickly  sympathize  with  other  parts  of 
the  body.  This  is  the  cause  of  sickness  of  the  stom- 
ach when  other  parts  of  the  body  are  affected,  and 
also  causes  headache  when  the  stomach  is  affected. 

Fig.  r2  represents  the  transverse  colon,  and  Fig. 
13  the  small  intestines.  This  plate,  also,  by  the  blue 
lines,  shows  the  nervous  system  of  the  body.  The 
great  seat  of  this  system  is  the  brain.  Nerves 
only  transmit  impressions,  and  each  nerve  transmits 
such  impressions  only  in  one  direction.  Their  anal- 
ogy to  telegraphic  wires  is  very  close,  although 
there  is  nothing  that  flows  along  them,  tlie  term  cur- 
rent being  metaphorical.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
nerves — the  nerves  of  motion  and  those  of  sensa- 
tion. The  latter  are  capable  of  only  one  kind  of  sen- 
sibility, and  carry  all  impressions  to  the  brain.  Some 
are  nerves  of  touch,  some  of  sight,  others  of  hearing, 
taste  and  smell.  These  nerves  usually  rejTOrt,  so  to 
speak,  their  impressions,  as  if  coming  from  their  ter- 
minations. What  is  commonly  called  the  crazy  bone, 
at  the  elbow,  is  the  ulnar  nerve.  When  it  is  struck, 
the  pain  is  not  at  the  elbow,  but  in  the  last  two 
fingers,  to  which  its   terminations   are  distributee!. 


ANATOMY. 


19 


After  trt  amputation  of  a  limb,  sometimes,  sensations 
in  the  stump  seem  to  the  patient  to  be  in  the  missing 
toes.  This  may  be  termed  relative  sensation.  The 
transmission  of  nerve  impressions  is  from  ninety  to 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet  in  a  second.  The  motor 
nerves,  which  do  not  have  the  sense  of  feeling,  cause 
motion.  The  brain,  the  great  center,  is  communicated 
with  as  by  telegraph,  by  the  sensory  nerves,  when 
a  sensation  is  felt  at  any  point,  and  immediately  by 
the  motor  nerves  telegraphed  to  action.  Thus,  when 
a  finger  is  put  in  the  fire,  the  sensory  nerves  com- 
municate the  pain  to  the  brain,  which,  by  the  motor 
nerves,  causes  the  removal  of  the  hand.  If  the  latter 
nerve  were  paralyzed,  the  pain  would  be  felt  without 
the  power  to  remove  the  hand. 

The  red  lines  on  Plate  III  show  the  lymphatic 
glands.  They  are  very  numerous  throughout  the 
body;  the  largest,  however,  are  situated  in  the  groins, 
the  arm  pits  and  along  the  sides  of  the  neck.  The 
latter  often  become  swollen  and  form  ulcers,  as  in 
scrofulous  affections.  They  derive  their  name  from 
the  appearance  of  the  fluid  called  lymph,  which  is 
contained  in  their  interior;  they  are  also  known  as 
absorbents,  from  the  property  which  Ihey  possess  of 
absorbing  certain  materials  from  the  tissues  and  con- 
veying them  into  the  circulation.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly delicate  vessels,  the  coats  of  which  are  so 
transparent  that  the  fluid  they  contain  is  readily  seen 
through  them. 

PLATE  IV. 

This  plate  shows  the  human  skeleton,  which  is  di- 
vided by  anatomists  into  eight  divisions,  classified  as 
follows:  Cranium,  8;  bones  of  the  ear,  6 ;  face,  14; 
oshyoides  and  sternum,  2;  ribs,  24;  vertebral  column, 
26;  upper  extremities,  64;  lower  extremities,  62, 
making  a  total  of  206. 

1.  Frontal  bone,  constitutes  the  front  part  of  the 
head. 

2.  Parietal,  or  side  bones  of  the  cranium. 

3.  Occipatal  bone,  constitutes  the  base  of  the  head. 

4.  Sphenoid  bone,  the  bone  forming  the  front  part 
of  the  base  of  the  cranium,  and  in  shape  resem- 
bles a  bat  with  wings  spread. 

5.  Temporal,  is  situated  at  the  side  and  base  of  the 
skull. 

6.  Malar,  or  cheek-bone. 

7.  Nasal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose. 

8.  Superior  maxillary,  or  upper  jaw-bone. 

9.  Inferior  maxillary,  or  lower  jaw-bone. 

10.  Cervical  vertebrae,  that  portion  of  spinal  column 
in  the  neck. 

1 1.  Clavicle,  or  collar-bone. 

12.  Sternum,  or  breast-bone. 

13.  Lumbar  vertebrae,  that  portion  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn in  the  small  of  the  back. 

14.  Scapula,  or  shoulder  blade. 

15.  Humerus,  the  upper  large  bone  of  the  arm. 

16.  Radius,  outer  bones  of  the  forearm. 

17.  Ulna,  the  inner  and  larger  bone  of  the  forearm, 
and  so  called  from  its  forming  the  elbow. 


18.  Pelvis,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  basin  ; 
it  is  composed  of  four  bones. 

19.  Sacrum,  the  portion  of  the  spinal  column. 

20.  Femur,  or  thigh-bone,  the  large  bone  of  the  leg, 
and  the  longest,  largest  and  strongest  bone  in  the 
body. 

21.  Patella,  or  the  knee-cap. 

22.  Tibia,  the  large  bone  of  the  leg,  and  next  to  the 
femur  in  size. 

23.  Fibula,  the  outer  bone  of  the  leg,  and,  in  propor- 
tion to  its  length,  is  the  most  slender. 

24.  Carpus,  or  wrist  joint,  composed  of  eight  Uttle 
bones. 

25.  Metacarpus — five  bones,  constituting  the  palm  of 
the  hand. 

26.  Phalanges,  the  bones  of  the  fingers. 

27.  Tarsus,  or  bones  of  the  instep. 

28.  Metatarsus,  consisting  of  five  bones  correspond- 
ing to  the  metacarpus  of  the  hand. 

29.  Phalanges,  the  bones  of  the  toes. 

PLATE  v. 

Fig.  I ,  on  this  plate,  represents  a  lateral  section  of 
the  human  head.  No.  i  is  the  scalp;  No.  2,  the 
cranium ;  3,  the  cerebrum  or  large  brain ;  and  4,  the 
cerebellum,  or  small  brain;  5,  the  corpus  cal- 
losum;  6,  the  septum  lucidum;  7,  fornix;  8,  spinal 
cord;  9,  condyless  of  the  occipital;  10,  ethmoid 
bone;  11,  malar  bone;  12,  soft  pallet;  13,  inferior 
maxillary;  14,  cesophagus  open;  15,  the  outer  wall  of 
the  oesophagus;  16,  the  trachea,  or  windpipe. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  lateral  section  of  the  eye.  No. 
1  shows  the  cornea;  2,  the  ciliary;  3,  iris;  4,  the 
cr)'stallized  lens;  5,  ciliary  process;  6,  vitreous  hu- 
mor; 7,  sclerotic,  or  outer  membrane;  8,  choroid,  or 
middle  membrane ;  9,  retina,  the  inner  membrane  of 
the  eye;   10,  the  optic  nerve. 

Fig.  4,  sclerotic,  or  white  of  the  eye ;  2,  external 
rectus,  divided  to  show  the  optic  nerve.  No.  3;  Nos. 
4  and  5  are  the  upper  and  lower  heads  of  the  external 
rectus;  6,  superior  rectus;  7,  superior  oblique  mus- 
cles; 8,  lavator  palpebrae superior;  9,  inferior  rectus  ; 
10,  pulley  through  the  superior  oblique  passes. 

Fig.  5  represents  the  human  ear;  No.  i,  pinna, 
or  external  ear;  2,  concha;  3,  external  meatus;  4, 
membrana  tympani,  or  drum  of  the  ear;  5,  internal 
ear  or  labyrinth ;  6,  cochlea ;  7  and  8,  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone;  9  and  10,  styloid  pro- 
cess; II,  the  eustachian  tube.  It  was  upon  the  ac- 
tion of  the  three  small  bones  (of  the  inner  or  true 
car)  known  as  the  incus,  malleus  and  stapes,  that 
Prof.  Craham  Bell  founded  his  earliest  telephonic 
experiments.  - 

FIGURE  11. 

The  science  of  Phrenology  is  based  on  the  theory 
that  the  faculties  of  the  mind  are  shown  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  human  skull.  It  points  out  those  connec- 
tions and  relations  which  exist  between  the  condi- 
tions and  developments  of  the  brain  and  the  raani- 


30 


'ANIMALS. 


festations  of  the  mind,  discovering  each  from  an  ob- 
servation of  the  other. 

Franz  Joseph  Gall,  born  at  Tiefenbrunn,  in  Baden, 
March  9,  1758,  was  the  first  to  mark  the  separate 
functions  of  the  human  mind  and  trace  the  location 
of  the  respective  organs  in  the  human  brain.  As  a 
boy  he  had  observed  that  among  his  schoolmates 
good  memories  were  invariably  indicated  by  large 
eyes,  and  from  this  he  conceived  the  idea  that  indi- 
vidual characteristics  could  be  determined  by  ex- 
ternal signs.  The  result  of  long-continued  observa- 
tion in  schools,  prisons,  lunatic  asylums  and  other 
places  was  the  conviction  that  the  brain,  and  not  the 
heart,  was  the  seat  of  all  mental  manifestations.  Aft- 
er twenty  years  of  study  he  decided  the  location  of 
some  twenty  distinct  mental  organs,  and  satisfied 
himself  that  their  degree  of  activity  could  be  de- 
termined from  the  shape  of  the  skull. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  size  of  the  head  and 
of  the  brain,  the  different  portions  of  which  are  called 
organs,  and  classified  according  to  their  particular 
functions,  constitutes  the  principal  phrenological  con- 
dition by  which  character  is  determined.  Most  great 
men  have  had  great  heads. 

The  general  rule  laid  down  for  head-measurement 
of  adults  is  as  follows  :  The  smallest  size  compatible 
with  fair  talents,  20^;  moderate,  20^  to  2 15^;  av- 
erage, 2ii^  to  22;  full,  22  to  225^;  large,  22^  to 
23^;  very  large,  above  23^.  Female  heads  ^  to 
^^  below  these  averages;  but  as  some  heads  are 
round,  others  long,  some  low  and  others  high,  these 
measurements  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  carry 
any  accurate  idea  of  the  actual  quantity  of  brain. 

In  judging  of  the  manifestations  of  the  mind,  the 
activity  of  the  brain  is  a  consideration  quite  as  im- 
portant as  its  size.  While  size  gives  power  or  mo- 
mentum of  intellect  and  feeling,  activity  imparts 
quickness,  intensity,  willingness  and  even  a  restless 
desire  to  act,  which  go  far  to  produce  efficiency  of 
mind,  with  accompanying  effort  and  action. 

The  following  is  the  key  to  the  location  of  the 
various  faculties  of  the  mind,  as  illustrated  by  Fig. 
2  on  Plate  V.  In  studying  character  by  these  they 
are  classed  under  the  six  following  heads :  Very 
large,  large,  full,  average,  moderate  and  very  small. 
The  size,  however,  must  be  taken  in  connection  with 
the  mental  activity  of  the  individual. 

1 .  Language.     Power  of  expression. 

2.  Calculation.     Mathematical  talent. 

3.  Order.     Love  of  order,  system. 
Color.  Perception  of  colors. 
Weight.     Balancing  power. 
Size.     Measurements  with  the  eye. 
Individuality.     Observation  in  detail. 

8.  Eventuality.     Memory  of  facts  and  dates. 

9.  Comparison.     Reasons  by  comparison. 

10.  Human  nature.     Judges  character. 

11.  Benevolence.     Kindness,  sympathy. 


4- 

5- 
«. 

7- 


1 2. 

13- 
14. 

IS- 
16. 

J7- 

1 8. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 
26. 
27. 

28. 
29. 
3°- 
31- 
32- 
33- 
34- 
35- 
36. 

37- 
38. 

39- 
40. 
41. 
42. 


Veneration.     Reverence.  * 

Firmness.     Decision  of  will. 

Self-esteem.    Thinks  self  all  right;  self-respect 

Continuity.     One  thing  at  a  time. 

Inhabitiveness.     Love  of  home. 

Philoprogenitiveness.      Parental  love;    love  of 

children. 

Loves  many 
Longevity  ;  love  of  life. 
Loves  but  one. 

Loves  friends  and  makes  them. 
Restraint,  care. 
Love  of  praise. 
Sense  of  right. 


Amativeness. 

Vitativeness. 

Conjugality. 

Friendship. 

Cautiousness. 

Approbativeness. 

Conscientiousness 


Hope.     Anticipation. 
Spirituality.     Faith,  belief. 
Imitation.     Draws   or   writes 


from 


copy ; 


will 


mimic. 

Agreeableness.     Ability  to  please. 

Causality.     Reasons  from  cause  to  effect. 

Locality.     Memory  of  location. 

Time.     The  innate  time-keeper. 

Tune.     Musical  talent. 

Bibativeness.     Trifling. 

Alimentiveness.     Relishes  food. 

Destructiveness.     The  cat  instinct  to  destroy. 

Combativeness.     Force,    courage;    defense  of 

self  and  opinions. 

Secretiveness.     Reserve  policy. 

Acquisitiveness.     Love   of  money;  the  saving 

ability. 

Constructiveness.     Originality,  invention. 

Mirthfulness.     Sense  of  ludicrous. 

Ideality.     Love  of  the  beautiful ;  poetic. 

Sublimity.    Love  of  grandeur. 


Animals,  Treatment  of  Young.  With  regard 
to  the  foal  or  other  creature  which  may  be  born  in 
the  fetal  membranes,  it  is  evident  that  it  must  be 
freed  from  them  immediately,  or  it  will  perish  from 
suffocation;  as,  through  having  no  longer  any  com- 
munication with  the  mother  by  means  of  the 
umbilical  cord,  the  blood  cannot  be  oxygenated.  If 
the  umbilical  cord  is  not  ruptured,  it  may  be  double 
ligatured  about  two  inches  from  the  umbilicus,  and 
then  divided  between  the  ligatures;  or  it  may  be 
severed  by  scraping  it  through  with  a  jagged  knife. 
Immediately  after  delivery,  and  having  removed 
the  mucus  which  sometimes  clogs  the  mouth  and 
nostrils,  and  hinders  respiration,  the  young  animal 
should  be  examined  to  ascertain  whether  it  be 
strong  or  weak,  whether  all  the  natural  apertures 
exist — such  as  the  eyes,  mouth,  anus,  vulva,  urethra 
— and  if  any  of  them  chance  to  be  absent,  to  make 


ANIMALS. 


21 


artificial    ones    soon,   if   possible,   by    a    kind    of 
puncture,  enlarging   afterward    by  the    knife  and 
sound,  and  preventing  union  by  pledgets  of  lint, 
etc.     Whenever  the  connection  with  the  mother  is 
interrupted  by  rupture  or  occlusion  of  the  umbilical 
cord,  the  young  creature  must  breathe,  respiration 
being  now   carried   on   by  the   lungs,  through   the 
nostrils.     It    sometimes    happens   that  the  young 
creature  is  in  a  state  of  syncope  when  born,  or  very 
soon  after,  and  gives  no  sign  of  life;  and  observers 
have   distinguished    syncope    from    weakness — in 
which  the  animal  is  cold  and  doA  not  breathe,  the 
mucous    membranes    being    pale    and    the    body 
flaccid — and  syncope  from  plethora  or  the  blue  dis- 
ease, when  the  mucous  membranes   arp  of  a  livid 
blue  tint,  the  lips  and  tongue  swollen,  and  the  eyes 
injected.       In    the    first     form,    resuscitation    is    to 
be     attempted     by    pouring    cold     water    on     the 
head,    beating    the    body    with   a  cloth  dipped  in 
cold     water  —  particularly    about    the    face    and 
chest — dry-rubbing  the  limbs,  titillating   the  nos- 
trils with    a    feather,  pufling    tobacco-smoke    into 
them,   imitating    the    respiratory    movements,   as 
in   a   case    of    asphyxia,   and    inflating   the    lungs 
by   means  of  a  pair  of  bellows,  acting  through 
the  nostrils.     So  long  as  the  heart  pulsates  there 
is  a  probability   of    restoration    to    life.       In    the 
second  form,  allowing  a  little  blood  to  flow  from 
the  umbilical  cord,  and  even  cutting  this,  or  foment- 
ing it  with  hot  water  to  induce  hemorrhage,  is  very 
useful,  in  conjunction  with  cold  water  to  the  head 
and   cold-water  enemas.     But,  as  a  rule,  death  is 
alwa^'s  imminent  in  these  cases  of  syncope.     It  is 
not  rare  to  find    newly-born    animals,  particularly 
when  parturition  has  been  laborious,  injured  more 
or  less   from  the    manipulation  of  the   obstetrician 
during  birth,  the  lesions  being  more  or  less  serious. 
The  most  frequent  injuries  are  those  due  to  obstetri- 
cal instruments  and  appliances.     The  wounds  may 
be    dressed   with    cold    water,  with    slightl}'    alco- 
holized water,  or  some  dilute  tincture — such  as  that 
of  arnica — but  salts  of  lead,  or  other  poisonous  salts, 
should    not    be    employed.     Abrasions,  which   are 
generally  superficial,  may  be  treated  with  glycerine 
and  water,  to  which  a  very  little  carbolic  acid   has 
been  added,  or  by  lard,  or  any  mucilaginous  sub- 
stance.    Sprains  should  have  cold-water  irrigation, 
if  possible,  refrigerant  lotions,  or  friction  with  soap 
liniment.     Wounds  and  lacerations,  if  very  severe, 
must  have  appropriate  surgical  treatment. 

With  the  larger  animals,  the  newly  born  creature 
should  be  placed  before  the  mother,  if  it  is  not  near 
her;  and  it  generally  follows  that  she  instinctively 
licks  off  the  viscid  matter  which  covers  its  skin ; 
and  in  doing  this  the  cutaneous  circulation  is  ex- 
cited, and,  by  sympathy,  the  other  organs  of  the 
young  animal.  Consequently,  it  becomes  revived, 
soon  endeavors  to  get  up,  and  though  it  may  fall 
several  times,  yet  it  generally  quickly  succeeds  in 


maintaining  itself  on  its  limbs,  and  instinctively 
seeks  the  maternal  teat.  It  is  very  rare  that  the 
mother  does  not  voluntarily,  and  at  once,  commence 
to  cleanse  her  progeny ;  nevertheless,  there  are  ex- 
ceptions, chiefly  among  the  primiparoe,  and  espe- 
cially when  the  labor  has  been  long  and  painful. 
But  it  will  generally  be  found  that  sprinkling  the 
young  animal  with  a  little  flour,  bran,  or  salt  will 
excite  the  attention  of  the  mother  and  induce  the 
cleaning  process.  Should  it  not  do  so,  then  the 
creature  must  be  well  dried  and  rubbed  with  a 
sponge,  hay-wisp,  or  a  cloth,  and  kept  warm. 
This  is  more  particularly  necessary  when  the 
mother  is  indifferent  to  it,  which  sometimes  hap- 
pens with  primiparse  when  people  are  present. 
Indeed,  some  mares  become  quite  savage  after 
parturition,  and  will  not  allow  their  foal  to  come 
near  them,  and  will  even  kill  it;  though  this  most 
frequently  happens  when  thej'  are  tormented  by 
spectators.  Other  mares,  vicious  before  parturition, 
sometimes  become  remarkably  quiet  when  they 
have  a  foal  by  their  side.  When  they  exhibit  any 
aversion  to  their  progeny,  it  is  well  to  leave  them 
quietly  together  for  some  time. 

If  the  foal  or  calf  is  weak,  and  cannot  reach  the 
teat  within  half  an  hour  or  so  after  birth  (for  in 
uniparous  animals  the  mammas  are  inguinal,  so 
that  the  young  ara  always  suckled  in  a  standing 
posture),  it  will  be  found  necessary  tc)  assist  it  by 
bringing  it  to  the  mother,  and  applying  the  teat  to 
its  mouth,  at  the  same  time  caressing  and  soothing 
the  parent  if  disinclined  to  it  by  temper  or  painful- 
ness  of  the  udder.  This  coaxing  and  handling 
should  be  jjerformed  by  some  one  accustomed  to 
the  animal.  It  mav  be  necessary  to  have  a  second 
person  at  hand  to  hold  the  mare  by  the  head  or 
lift  up  her  fore  foot. 

Sometimes,  from  weakness  or  inexperience  of 
the  foal,  and  temper  of  the  mare,  the  former  runs 
the  risk  of  perishing  from  starvation.  The  mare 
should  be  safely  secured,  and  two  persons  ought 
then  to  push  and  support  the  young  animal  behind, 
by  joining  one  of  their  hands,  while  the  other 
hands  are  employed  in  directing  it  toward  the 
teat,  which  it  should  be  allowed  to  use  for  two  or 
three  minutes.  After  one  or  two  attempts  of  this 
kind,  the  foal  begins  to  find  its  way  to  the  udder  by 
itself,  while  the  mare  becomes  reconciled  to  it. 
When  the  foal  exhibits  great  debility,  it  may  be 
preferable  to  feed  it  for  a  day  or  two  with  the  milk 
of  the  mare  which  has  been  drawn  by  hand. 

With  the  cow  these  difficulties  are  seldom  pres- 
ent; and  if  an  animal  will  not  take  to  its  calf,  this 
is  generally  transferred  to  another  cow,  or  it  may 
be  artificially  reared.  The  foal  may  even  be  reared 
in  this  manner,  though  not  so  easil)'  as  the  calf. 
The  milk  of  the  cow  or  goat  will  suffice;  and  there 
is  generally  little  difficulty  in  teaching  it  to  drink 
it,  by  at  first  pouring  a  little  into  its  mouth  while 


ANIMALS— ANOD  YNE. 


the  finger  is  inserted  therein;  or  a  piece  of  cloth 
steeped  in  milk,  or  even  a  bottle  and  tube  may  be 
used. 

Calves  are  often  harshly  treated  after  birth;  they 
are  not  allowed  to  suck,  even  for  a  number  of 
days,  for  fear  of  damaging  the  cow,  but  are  kept 
apart  and  fed  on  drawn  milk.  Calves  intended  for 
slaughter  may  be  artificially  fed,  and  especially  if 
nutritive  substances  are  added  to  the  milk;  but  for 
those  intended  to  be  reared,  it  is  a  mistake  to  sepa- 
rate them  from  the  cow  during  the  early  days  of 
their  existence. 

Lambs,  when  able  to  stand,  if  they  do  not 
readily  find  their  way  to  tiie  teat,  should  have  a 
little  milk  from  it  pressed  into  their  mouths.  With 
twin  lambs,  if  the  ewe  is  in  good  condition,  the 
udder  well  filled,  and  the  weather  and  pasture 
favorable,  both  may  be  suckled ;  in  the  opposite  con- 
ditions, it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  one.  If  the 
ewe  does  not  yield  sufficient  milk,tiiis  may  be  large- 
ly supplied  by  giving  a  liberal  portion  of  good  food. 

Muciparous  animals,  such  as  the  bitch  and  sow, 
usually  lie  when  suckling  their  young,  so  that 
there  is  seldom  any  difficulty  with  them.  The 
only  care  generally  required  in  the  case  of  young 
pigs  is  to  prevent  their  being  crushed  by  the  sow  in 
the  act  of  lying  down  or  moving.  If  the  litter  is 
large,  plenty  of  good  food  is  necessary.  If  a  sow 
has  more  young  in  the  litter  than  teats,  unless 
watched,  the  weakest  will  die  of  starvation.  Each 
young  pig  has  its  own  particular  teat,  to  which  it  is 
persistently  attached;  and  if  the  creature  is  ill  and 
does  not  suck,  or  if  there  is  not  a  claimant  for  the 
teat,  the  gland  there  will  cease  secreting  milk. 
The  pectoral  teats  and  glands  are  the  largest  and 
most  active,  and  the  weakest  of  the  litter  should  be 
put  to  them.  In  general,  a  sovsr  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  rear  more  than  ten  in  a  litter.  Cleanli- 
ness and  warmth  are  required  for  young  pigs. 

Puppies  do  not  require  any  special  care  beyond 
a  warm,  clean  and  dry  abode. 

After  the  first  milk  has  been  taken,  there  is  usu- 
ally an  abundant  evacuation  of  black,  resinous 
matter  — meconium — from  the  intestines  of  the 
young  animal,  caused  by  the  "  colostrum,"  as  this 
milk  is  named;  and  it  is  well  to  notice  if  this  evac- 
uation occurs,  as  when  it'does  not  serious  constipa- 
tion may  ensue.  With  new-born  animals  which, 
for  some  reason  or  another,  are  deprived  of  this 
colostrum,  a  mild  laxative — such  as  castor  oil,  or 
honey  and  water — should  be  administered,  to  obvi- 
ate this  condition. 

At  birtli  the  feet  of  hoofed  animals  are  covered 
with  a  soft  yellow  horn,  which  in  some  countries  it 
is  the  custom  to  remove,  from  a  belief  that  this  re- 
moval hardens  the  succeeding  horn.  It  is  unneces- 
sary to  state  that  this  is  a  popular  fallacy,  and  that 
it  is  really  injurious  to  deprive  the  foot  of  this  tem- 
porary protection. 


The  young,  with  their  parents,  should  be  kept 
apart  from  others,  for  some  time  at  least,  and  espe- 
cially the  equine  species;  and  it  must  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  a  mild,  dry  temperature  is  most  favorable 
for  all  young  creatures. 

Gentle  exercise  is  as  necessary  for  the  foal  or 
calf  as  it  is  for  their  parents,  a  few  days  after  birth; 
therefore  it  is  that  a  meadow  is  preferable  to  a  sta- 
ble, as,  in  addition  to  the  more  favorable  nature  of 
the  food,  sufficient  exercise  is  afforded.  Indeed, 
with  the  mare  light  and  regular  work  may  be  im- 
posed a  short  tiflie  after  foaling,  and  with  much 
benefit  to  it  and  the  foal.  The  latter  will  follow  its 
dam,  provided  the  pace  is  not  too  fast,  and  a  halt  be 
frequently  allowed  for  it  to  get  to  the  teat.  It  is 
astonishing  sometimes  to  observe  how  well  foals 
travel  soon  after  birth,  even  over  bad  roads  and 
during  inclement  weather,  and  for  great  distances, 
provided  the  journey  is  short  each  day. 

Anise  (an 'is),  an  aromatic  plant  of  the  same 
order  as  the  parsnip,  bearing  seeds  like  it,  but 
smaller.  The  seeds  are  principally  used  for  ffavor- 
ing  liquors.  Medicinally  they  are  stimulant,  like 
ginger.  Sometimes  they  are  used  for  seasoning 
confectionery,  and  the  leaves  of  the  plant  for  gar- 
nishing dishes  and  seasoning  food. 

Annatto  (an-at'to),  or  Annette,  a  yellowish-red 
coloring  substance,  prepared  from  the  pulp  of  the 
seeds  of  an  evergreen  tree  of  the  same  name  in  the 
West  Indies  and  Brazil,  and  extensively  used  in 
coloring  Butter  and  Cheese,  which  see.  Dietetic- 
ally,  it  is  an  abominable  drug,  and  it  is  often  adul- 
terated with  poisonous  substances,  as  lead  and 
mercury. 

Annual,  yearly.  An  "annual"  plant  is  one 
which  lives  but  for  one  season :  see  Biennial  and 
Perennial. 

Anodyne  (an'o-dine),  a  medicine  which  allays 
pain.  The  following  is  said  to  be  Perry  Davis' 
"pain-killer:"  Alcohol,  i  qt. ;  gum  guaiacum,  i 
oz.;  gums  myrrh  and  camphor,  and  cayenne  pul- 
verized, of  each,  i^  oz.  Mix.  Shake  occasiontlly 
for  a  week  or  ten  days  and  filter  or  let  settle  for  use. 
Appl}'  freely  to  surface  pains,  or  it  may  be  taken 
in  teaspoon  doses  for  internal  pains,  and  repeated 
according  to  necessities. 

Anodyne  Plaster.  Melt  an  ounce  of  adhe- 
sive plaster,  or  diachylon,  and  while  cooling,  add  a 
drachm  of  powdered  opium,  and  the  same  quantity 
of  camphor,  previous!}'  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity 
of  olive  oil.  Spread  this  on  leather.  This  soon 
relieves  an  acute  local  pain. 

Anodyne  Powder.  Opium,  3^  oz.;  camphor, 
3  drs. ;  valerian,  i  oz.;  cayenne  pepper,  i  oz.  Put 
the  opium  and  camphor  into  a  close  bag;  place  it 
on  the  oven  top  to  harden.  Powder  and  mix. 
Take  a  quarter  of  a  teaspoonful  at  a  time.  Most 
valuable  in  colic,  cramp  and  severe  pains. 


ANTID  O  TES—AP  OPLEXr. 


23 


Antidotes:  see  Poisoning,  and  the  respective 
poisons. 

Antimony,  and  its  preparations,  as  tartar  emetic, 
antimonial  wine  and  kermes  mineral,  wlien  taken 
in  improper  doses,  produce  faintness  and  nausea, 
soon  followed  by  most  painful  and  continued  vom- 
iting, severe  diarrhoea,  constriction  and  a  burning 
sensation  in  the  throat,  cramps  or  spasmodic  twitch- 
ings,  with  symptoms  of  nervous  derangement,  and 
great  prostration.  Antidote:  If  vomiting  has  not 
been  produced,  it  should  be  effected  by  large 
draughts  of  warm  water  and  salt,  and  tickling  the 
inside  of  the  throat,  or  the  stomach  pump  should 
be  used.  Then  drink  strong  astringents,  as  tea  of 
oak  bark,  Peruvian  bark,  gall  or  green  tea.  To 
stop  the  vomiting,  should  it  continue,  put  a  blister 
over  the  stomach  by  applying  a  cloth  wet  with 
hartshorn,  and  then  sprinkle  on  the  part  one-eighth 
to  one-fourth  of  a  grain  of  morphia. 

Antiseptic,  preserving  flesh  from  decay;  also, 
anything  wluch  preserves  flesh  from  decay  is 
called  an  antiseptic,  as  salt,  arsenic,  creosote,  char- 
coal, alcohol,  etc.  A  septic  is  that  which  promotes 
putrefaction,  as  warm  air,  moisture,  etc. 

Ants,  both  black  and  red,  are  often  a  great  pest 
about  the  cupboard  and  larder.  The  "  remedies  " 
for  driving  them  away  are  numerous;  as,  powdered 
lime,  borax,  soda,  chalk,  cayenne  pepper,  cloves, 
green  sage,  wormwood,  gas  tar,  vapor  of  tar- water, 
kerosene,  anise-seed  oil,  etc.,  etc.  Most  of  these 
remedies  seem  often  to  fail,  probably  because  they 
are  not  thoroughly  applied.  Some  persons  resort 
to  mechanical  appliances,  like  the  following,  for 
example :  Place  the  dish  to  be  protected  upon  a  little 
frame  or  cup,  which  is  set  in  another  dish  of  shal- 
low water:  the  ants  will  not  cross  the  water.  Re- 
new the  water  two  or  three  times  a  week,  to  keep 
it  fresh.  A  dish  of  hickory-nuts  will  attract  the 
large  black  ants,  when  they  can  be  easily  caught 
and  destroyed.  Fresh  bones  can  be  used  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner.  It  is  also  said  that  a  dish  greased 
with  lard  and  set  in  the  way  of  red  ants,  with  little 
sticks  for  them  to  climb  up  on,  will  soon  catch  all 
these  pests,  by  melting  off  the  first  lot  or  two  and 
renewing  the  dish. 

Anvil.  The  annexed  engraving  speaks  too 
plainly  for  itself  to  need  any  extended  commenda- 
tion here.  It  is  an  anvil  and  vise  combined,  the 
former  constituting  a  very  solid  foundation  for  the 
latter.  The  anvil  is  recessed  to  receive  the  nut  of 
the  vise  and  tiie  clamp  which  retains  it.  The  nut 
can  remain  in  the  anvil  when  the  vise  is  removed. 
There  goes  with  this  apparatus  (which  is  man- 
ufactured by  A.  L.  Adams,  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa), 
a  bolt-header. 

The  vise  is  of  improved  construction,  which  per- 
mits of  quickly  adjusting  the  movable  jaw  so  that 
the  two  jaws  are  parallel.     This  is  accomplished 


by  means  of  notches  opening  outwardly  and  up- 
wardly in  the  forked  lower  end  of  the  fixed  jaw, 
the  movable  jaw  having  a  pivot  adapted  to  the 
notches. 


Anvil  and  Vise,  Combined, 

Aperient  (a-pe'ri-ent),  a  medicine  acting  as  a 
laxative,  opening  and  quickening  the  excretories. 
They  are  principally  rhubarb,  magnesia,  Epsom 
salts,  senna,  sulphur,  ipecacuanha,  ginger,  etc., 
made  up  in  vajHous  ways.  Here  is  a  good  one  for 
adults:  Epsom  salts,  %  oz.;  infusion  of  senna,  6 
drs.;  tincture  of  senna,  2  drs. ;  spearmint  water,  i 
oz.;  distilled  water,  2  ozs.;  best  manna,  2  drs.  Mix; 
and  take  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls  every  morn- 
ing, or  every  other  morning.  This  is  a  valuable 
mixture.  A  decoction  of  Peruvian  bark  will  ren- 
der it  a  tonic  aperient.  One  for  children:  Rhu- 
barb, 5  grs.;  magnesia,  3  grs.;  white  sugar,  i  sen; 
manna,  5  grs.  Mix  these  and  give  one  or  two 
grains  at  a  dose. 

Apiary  (a'pi-a-ry),  a  place  where  bees  are  kept: 
see  Bee-keeping. 

Apoplexy,  a  disease  in  which  persons  fall  down 
suddenly,  being  deprived  of  all  sense  and  motion. 
The  face  is  red  and  swollen,'eye-lids  half  closed, 
and  veins  of  the  temples  and  neck  are  enlarged 
and  full  of  blood.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
check  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  head.  Peg.:  The 
patient  should  be  immediately  bled,  and  a  poultice 
of  ground  mustard  should  be  applied  between  the 
shoulders.  A  dose  of  some  active  physic  should  be 
given,  and  the  feet  of  the  patient  be  soaked  in 
warm  water.  Give  plentifully  of  warm  teas,  so  as 
to  produce  profuse  sweating.  When  the  feet  are 
taken  from  the  water,  apply  strong  mustard  poul- 
tices. Let  the  diet  be  very  spare.  Eel.,,  etc.:  The 
bleeding  should  always  be  dispensed  with,  when  it 
can  be  done  with  safety,  and  the  other  directions 
referred  to  carried  out.  Horn.:  A  few  drops  of 
the  strong  tincture  of  aconite  in  a  tumblerful  of 
water;  give  a  tablespoonful  every  15  minutes;  or, 
belladonna,  6  globules  in  10  tablespoonfuls  of 
water,  of  which  take  a  teaspoonful  every  half 
hour.  For  the  stupor,  give  opium,  in  same  doses 
as  balladonna.    Uyg-  •    Raise  the  head,  lojsen  all 


24 


APOPLEXY— APPLE. 


tight  clothes,  strings,  etc.,  and  do  all  the  other 
things  recommended  above  except  the  administra- 
tion of  drugs. 

Appetite,  the  desire  of  food.  As  to  the  character 
and  extent  of  the  jDcrversion  of  appetite,  the  con- 
troversy is  too  great  for  us  to  enter  here.  Some 
maintain  that  it  is  scarcely  pervei-tible,  holding 
that  a  confusion  is  made  of  appetite,  taste  and  in- 
stinct. Appetite  is  the  desire  of  food,  and  refers 
to  quantity,  and  not  to  quality ;  taste  is  for  the  en- 
joyment of  food,  good  or  bad;  and  instinct  is  the 
only  guide  to  quality,  or,  as  some  have  it,  instinct 
coupled  with  reason  and  experience.  But  it  is  a 
maxim  amongphysiologiststhatevery  organ  has  but 
one  function,  and  each  function  but  one  organ.  Be 
these  things  as  they  may,  it  stands  us  all  in  hand 
to  study  physiology  and  hygiene  -when  we  are  -well, 
so  that  v\re  will  not  be  at  a  loss  what  to  do  when 
we  are  sick. 

Apple.  For  use  to  man  the  apple  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  fruit  kingdom.  For  its  cultivation  and 
the  selection  of  the  best  varieties  for  each  locality 
and  situation,  etc.,  there  is  of  course'a  great  variety 
of  opinion,  but  we  will  give  the  substance  of  the 
results  of  experienced  horticulturists. 

Cultivation.  The  best  soil  and  situation  is  a 
deep,  rather  dry,  hard-wood  soil,  at  a  moderate  ele- 
vation, sloping  to  the  north,  and  with  but  little  ex- 
posure to  the  west  wind;  in  a  level  country,  the 
highest  elevation  to  be  found.  Good  under-drainage 
is  essential,  of  course,  for  the  apple,  as  well  as  for 
almost  all  other  plants.  A  gravelly  sub-soil  affords 
such  drainage,  but  this  is  seldom  found  thorough 
enough;  therefore  artificial  drainage  must  be  had, 
tiling  every  two  rods:  see  Drainage.  Ground 
of  this  selection  should  be  prepared  by  plowing 
into  it  about  fifty  loads  of  barn-yard  manure  to  the 
acre.  Do  not  sow  with  clover,  grass  or  wheat.  In 
the  Eastern  States,  fertilize  with  marl  or  quick- 
lime; on  the  Western  prairies,  with  lime  and  salt. 
Plant  corn  the  first  year  on  wild  land,  plowing 
shallow;  the  second  year  plow  deep  and  jilant  to 
corn  or  potatoes;  also  plant  the  trees;  mulch  the 
trees  pretty  thoroughly  before  the  w^et  weather  of 
early  summer  ceases;  in  planting  the  trees  lean 
them  a  little  to  the  southwest,  in  order  to  counteract 
the  effect  of  the  strong  and  constant  southwest 
winds,  and  to  shade  the  trunk  from  the  violent 
heat  of  the  afternoon  sun  of  late  summer.  The 
third  year  sow  grain,  giving  a  liberal  top-dressing 
of  four  parts  ashes,  two  of  lime,  one  of  plaster,  and 
one  of  common  salt.  Plant  in  the  spring  when 
the  soil  is  dry,  in  rows  varying  from  fifteen  to  thir- 
ty-five feet  apart,  according  to  the  habit  of  the  trees 
selected,  as  some  varieties  have  very  spreading  tops 
and  some  upright.  Some  prefer  close  planting,  in 
order  for  mutual  protection  and  uprightness  of 
limbs.     Prune  the  tops  in  proportion  to  the  lass  of 


root.  Dig  the  hole  large  enough  to  admit  all  the 
roots  without  cramping;  put  mellow  dirt  around 
them,  and  tramp  down  carefully,  that  is,  without 
leaving  any  of  the  roots  bent  out  of  their  natural 
position.  In  Southern  Ohio  it  is  found  profitable 
to  set  out  good,  healthy  seedlings,  and  after  two 
years'  growth,  graft  them  three  to  four  feet  from 
the  ground.  As  to  pruning,  there  are  doubtless 
some  trees  in  some  situations  that  will  bear  very 
good  crops  for  many  years  without  any  pruning  at 
all;  but  the  general  advice  is  to  prune  moderately, 
and  always  do  the  work  with  a  specific  object  in 
view  with  every  branch  or  twig  cut  off, — that  is, 
there  must  be  some  reason,  in  the  case  of  every 
limb  cut  off,  with  reference  either  to  removing  dis- 
eased wood,  superfluous  branches  that  are  chafing 
one  another,  the  beauty  of  the  head,  keeping  the 
tops  low,  etc.  Better  prune  too  little  than  too 
much.     Low  heads  (Fig.  i)  should  be  encouraged 


Fig  1. — Appli'Tree :  Low  Head. 

for  Western  cultivation ;  the  limbs  should  be  left 
on  the  trunk  to  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  ground. 
For  this  purpose  the  strong  central  branches  have 
to  be  shortened  back  occasionally.  The  hemi-  ' 
spherical  form  is  the  most  beautiful  for  the  head  of 
an  apple-tree.  Remove  about  one-third  of  the  top 
the  first  year,  and  less  and  less  subsequent  years; 
but  be  timely,  so  that  no  large  limbs  will  grow 
where  they  should  not  be  allowed,  for  limbs  larger 
than  an  inch  in  diameter  should  not  be  cut  off,  so  far 
as  concerns  the  good  of  the  tree.  Let  no  limbs  be 
longer  than  eight  feet,  and  when  large  limbs  are 
cut  off,  the  stub  should  be  painted  as  soon  as  it  is 
dry,  to  prevent  its  cracking  and  rotting.  Keep  the 
ends  of  the  limbs  well  thinned  out,  to  let  the  sun- 
light in. 

Girdling  apple-trees  to  make  them  bear  is  advis- 
able under  rare  circumstances,  namely,  when  the 
trees  are  too  thick  on  the  ground,  and  you  can  afford 
to  risk  the  sacrifice  of  some  of  them,  and  the  gird- 
ling can  be  carefully  done,  in  April.  The  cut  should 
be  narrow,  and  may  be  done  b)'  fastening  a  wire 
around  the  tree  and  letting  it  remain.  Girdling 
will  only  do  for  a  special  object,  fov  it  is  an  attack 


APPLE. 


2S 


upon  the  life  of  the  trees,  and  recovery  from  the 
attack  depends  upon  the  extent  of  the  damage  and 
recuperative  energy  of  the  tree;  some  varieties  of 
trees,  like  some  human  individuals,  will  recover,  or 


KiG.  2 AffU-Trfe:  JIii;h   Tot'. 

partially  so,  from  attacks  to  which  others  would 
succumh.  It  is  a  law  pervading  the  entire  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  that  the  dying  energy  of  a  tree  is  ex- 
pended in  reproducing  its  species; and  the  very  fact 
of  the  result  spoken  of,  in  more  and  larger  fruit,  is 
a  sure  indication  that  the  tree  or  branch  is  nigh 
unto  death.  Its  full  recovery  is  next  to  impossible, 
and  its  premature  decay  or  death  quite  probable; 
hence  girdling  should  be  practiced  only  when  trees 
or  branches  can  well  be  spared. 

Look  out  in  time  to  avoid  imcouth  high  tops,  as 
Fig.  2,  which  generally  become  more  scraggy  than 
is  liere  represented.  Such  high  tops  as  Fig.  3  are 
to  be  avoided  in  countries  subject  to  high  winds,  :is 
the  prairies  of  the  West. 

Keep  away  all  suckers  promptly.  When  a  tree 
is  beginning  to  lean  too  much,  straighten  up  by' 
tying  to  stakes.  Allow  no  grass  to  grow  near  the 
tree  until  it  has  a  top  heavy  enough  to  shade  the 
ground  under  it  and  prevent  too  strong  a  sod. 
Some  advocate  seeding  down  to  orchard  grass  tlie 
third  or  fourth  year,  and  others  think  it  should  be 
deferred  to  several  years  later.  In  plowing  and 
hoeing  be  careful  not  to  tear  the  bark  or  the  roots; 
hence  the  cultivation  must  be  shallower  every  year 
until  the  sod  takes  complete  possession  of  the 
ground.     See  also  Grafting,  Pruning,  etc. 

Nursery  Cultivation.  The  more  branches 
you  allow  to  the  scions  the  more  roots  they  will 


have.  During  the  first  year,  prune  only  those  that 
have  thrifty  forks  and  assume  an  upright  growth. 
The  idea  of  trimming  is  to  keep  one  trunk  straight 
for  the  future  tree. 

Examine  the  young  trees  carefully  in  March, 
after  one  summer's  growth.  If  the  inner  bark  be 
much  discolored,  don't  take  a  shoot  off,  but  if  the 
inner  bark  and  wood  looks  white  and  sound,  cut 
away  the  strong  side  shoots;  again,  in  June,  take 
off  the  most  upright  side  shoots,  though  if  very 
numerous  do  not  remove  over  one-fourth  at  one 
time.  In  August  go  over  the  trees  again,  still  cut- 
ting the  strong  upright  shoots,  leaving  the  smaller 
bracts  as  before.  The  work  in  nuisery  in  the  way 
of  pruning  is  now  done.  About  the  middle  of 
October,  or  before,  run  a  tree  digger  under  the  tree 
i-oots,  draw  out  the  trees  and  put  them  in  piles  on 
moist  soil.  Mix  in  soil  among  the  roots  and  tops, 
covering  all  up  completely.  In  four  days  the 
leaves  will  all  drop  off  when  taken  up,  and  the  sap 
flowing  will  be  measurably  stopped.  In  this  con- 
dition they  may  be  more  safely  exposed  tp  sun  and 
air.  When  first  taken  up  with  leaves  on,  evapora- 
tion is  very  rapid,  and  they  must  be  guarded  from 
the  sun  and  wind.  When  denuded  of  leaves  in  the 
wa}'  indicated,  they  should  go  into  the  hands  of  the 
planter,  who  should  bury  them  root  and  brrmch 
beyond  frost.  In  the  spring  they  will  be  found  as 
sound    as    when    in    nursery    the    summer   before. 


Fio.  i.—Apptt-Tm!  High  Top. 

Plant  as  early  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  will  per- 
mit in  spring,  watering  each  tree  as  planted  with  a 
pail  full  of  water.  A  fair  growth  on  each  tree 
may  be  guaranteed  with  a  loss  of  not  over  one  per 


26 


APPLE. 


cent.,  always  presuming  that  the  soil  about  the 
young  trees  the  first  season  be  kept  loose  and  free 
from  weeds.  This  care  in  taking  up  and  burying 
in  the  fall  is  to  ensure  a  sound  tree  to  commence 
with  in  orchard.  The  planter  must  observe  the 
same  rules  in  pruning  prescribed  for  the  nursery. 
It  is  understood  that  there  will  be  a  considerable 
amount  of  limbs  on  the  trees  as  delivered  from  the 
nursery.  These  extra  branches  must  not  be  re- 
moved until  after  the  buds  have  begun  to  swell, 
and  then  not  all  at  one  time. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  By  far  the  most  om- 
nipresent insect  among  apples  is  the  codling  moth, 
or  apple-worm  (Fig.  4).  It  appears  in  the  spring 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  young  apple;  the  larves 
hatched  from  these  eggs  subsist  upon  the  fruit, 
causing  it  to  fall  before  it  is  grown,  and  remain 
even  in  many  winter  apples.     It  is  about  half  an 


Fig.  ^.—Codling-  Moth. 

inch  long,  of  gray  ashen  color  and  marked  with 
brown  and  bronze.  Remedies:  Wisps  of  hay  or 
cloths  put  around  the  tree  in  one  or  two  places  be- 
tween the  ground  and  the  first  limbs,  in  early  spring, 
so  that  they  will  catch  the  moths  as  they  crawl 
up;  every  few  days  take  these  bands  off  and 
kill  the  worms;  keep  up  this  practice  all  sum- 
mer. During  the  month  of  June,  the  time  of 
cocooning,  is  the  most  important  time  for  this 
work.  Another  plan  is  to  pasture  the  orchard 
to  hogs,  which  will  eat  up  the  young,  wormy 
fruit  as  it  falls,  and  also  help  to  cultivate  by 
their  rooting.  Still  another  good  method  is  to 
envelope  a  few  inches  of  the  base  of  the  tree  with 
glossy  paper  during  the  latter  part  of  May  and 
all  of  June  (in  Northern  States),  so  that  the 
larves  cannot  crawl  up.  The  windows  of  fruit 
rooms  and  cellars  where  apples  have  been  kept 
through  the  winter  should  be  covered  with 
wire  gauze  during  May  and  June,  so  that  the 
moths  which  have  come  from  the  fruit  may  not 
escape  to  the  orchard.     Other  methods  of  catching 


the  moths  are :  Setting  a  candle  or  lamp  over  a  tub 
of  water,  in  the  orchard;  hanging  old  oyster  cans 
to  the  trees,  half  filled  with  vinegar;  putting  old 
clothes  in  the  fork  of  the  tree;  tacking  stiff,  brown 
wrapping-paper  around  the  trunk,  with  the  lower 
edge  flaring  out,  to  catch  the  larvce  crawling  up, 
when  they  can  be  mashed  with  a  mallet;  the  Weir 
trap,  which  consists  of  a  number  of  shingles  fast- 
ened together  so  as  to  leave  crevices  between 
them,  where  the  larvae  will  hide,  and  can  be 
caught,  etc.,  etc. 

It  is  also  recommended  to  hunt  their  nests  about 
sheds  and  apartments  where  apples  are  kept,  and 
to  destroy  all  old  birds'  nests  and  other  rubbish 
which  may  serve  as  harbors  for  the  moth.  Cod- 
ling moth  can  be  killed  by  spraying  upon  the  trees, 
with  a  pump  syringe,  as  soon  as  the  fruit  sets,  a 
solution  of  one  pound  of  arsenic  boiled  in  100  gal- 
lons of  water;  or,  Paris  green,  a  small  tablespoon- 
ful  to  the  barrel. 

The  next  greatest  pest 
perhaps  is  the  borer,  of 
which  there  are  two  kinds, 
the  flat-headed  (Fig.  5). 
and  the  round-headed  (Fig. 
6).  The  latter  is  the  most 
common  kind,  and  works 
near  the  ground,  throwing 
out  his  saw-dust  castings. 
Look  for  depressions  or  dis- 
colorations  in  the  bark,  and 
with  a  flexible  wire,  knife 
or  narrow  chisel,  hunt  up 
the  larves  and  kill  them 
one  by  one.  Cover  the 
wounds  made  in  the  tree 
with  grafting  wax.  To  kill  the  eggs  and  pre- 
vent them  from  being  laid,  thoroughly  scrub  the 
trunks  of  the  trees  every  year,  during  the  last  half 
of  June,  with  hot  soft  soap.  A  cheap  sheet-iron 
pail  can  be  made,  having  a  second  bottom  below, 
containing  room  for  a   kerosene  fire   or   lamp  of 


Fig.    ^.—Flat-headed  A 
tree  Borer.    (Chrysobothrfs  fe 
morata.)     a,   larva i   b,  pupa; 
c,  under  side  of  head;  a,  beetle. 


Fig. 
pttpa  ; 


6. — Hound- headed  Apple-tree  Borer. 
c,  developed  form. 


(Saperda  Candida.)  a,  larva;  b. 


some  kind,  or  charcoal  or  pine  wood,  and  by  this 
means  it  is  easy  to  keep  the  soap  hot  while  it  is 
being  carried  from  tree  to  tree.     Later  in  the  year, 


APPJLE. 


27 


Fig.  7. —  IVin^  of  Apple  I>oicsc, 
magnified.    (Aphis  mali.) 


and  indeed  at  any  time,  the  bark  should  be  exam- 
ined and  suspected  places  dug  into  with  a  knife  in 
search  of  borers.  The  above  is  also  the  best  gen- 
eral treatment  against  all  species  of  bark  lice  and 
many  other  insects,  as 
well  as  fungoid  diseases. 
Strong  soap-suds,  soda, 
kerosene  or  lyc  is  often 
used.  If  these  are  im- 
mediately washed  off  by 
a  rain,  the  application 
should  be  made  again. 
Carbolic  acid  is  an  ex- 
cellent ing  r  e  d  i  e  n  t,  i  n 
weak  soap-suds  or  wa- 
ter, in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of  the  acid  to 
50  trees.  The  old  practice  of  whitewashing  is 
condemned,  as  it  prevents  a  free  exhalation  through 
the  bark;  acts  too  much  like  a  coat  of  paint. 

Caterpillars  should  be  kept  off  by  using  a  brush, 
say  a  mullein  spike  tied  to  the  end  of  a  pole,  or 
something  of  the  kind.  It  is  well,  also,  to  destroy 
all  the  caterpillars  on  wild  cherry-trees  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  orchard.  The  brush  used  may  be 
dipped  in  strong  soap-suds,  or  a  weak  solution  of 
coal  oil  or  carbolic  acid, 
The  cankerworm  is  an 
increasing  pest,  going 
westward  in  its  march. 
There  are  two  species, 
the  spring  and  the  fall, 
and  they  strip  the  foli- 
age, not  only  from  ap- 
ple-trees, but  also  from 
peach,  cherry,  elm,  etc. 
To  prevent  the  females 
from  ascending  the  trees  to  deposit  their  eggs,  a 
band  of  coarse  cloth,  six  inches  or  more  wide,  may 
be  put  rotmd  the  tree  and  then  smeared  with  tar  or 
a  mixture  of  tar  and  molasses. 

A  hay  rope  may  be  put  round  the  tree  and  over 
this  a  ring  of  tin  wide  enough  so  that  there  will  be 
free  tin  below  the  rope,  and  the  whole  securely 
fastened,  being  careful  that  there  are  no  crevices 
between  the  tin  and  the  tree  through  winch  the 
insects  may  pass.  The  tin  should  be  smeared  on 
the  inside  with  printer's  ink,  tar,  or  a  mixture  of 
castor  oil  and  kerosene.  In  both  these  cases  the 
moths  will  lay  their  eggs  below  the  bands  if  pre- 
vented from  going  above  them.  To  insure  success, 
these  should  be  sought  and  killed,  as,  if  allowed  to 
hatch,  it  will  be  much  more  difficult  to  keep  them 
from  ascending  the  trees  than  it  was  the  moths. 
Coal  tar  should  be  used  only  on  old  trees.  When 
the  tar  hardens  a  little,  the  application  must  be  re- 
newed. 

When  the  worms  are  already  in  the  tree,  if  the 
trees  are  not  too  large,  a  sudden  jarring  will  cause 
them  to  be  detached  from  the  leaves  or  twigs,  and 


Fig.  S. — Canker-worm. 


hang  suspended,  when  they  may  be  swept  down 
by  pa.ssing  a  switch  between  them  and  their  sup- 
port, and  they  may  be  destroyed. 

Washes    of   Paris    green  and  other  substances 
may  be  resorted  to  when  they  are  in  the  tree,  but 
j  Mt  is  probable  that  where  the  tree  is  small  enough 
to  make  the  application  of  washes  practicable,  a 
few  times  jarring  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 

If  the  worms  have  entered  the  ground  and 
changed  to  chrysalids,  fall  plowing  will,  if  the 
ground  be  mellow,  break  up  their  slender  cocoons, 
and  expose  them  to  the  action  of  the  weather, 
which,  with  the  birds,  will  destroy  most  of  them. 
Co-operation  of  neighboring  orchardists  is  neces- 
sary to  perfect  success. 

The  bunchqj  of  crumpled  leaves 

seen  remaining  on  apple  and  other 

trees  during  the   winter,  are  the 

work  of  the  apple-leaf  crumpler, 

Fig.  9.     The  caterpillar  when  full 

^M^bjT      grown,  in   summer,  is   of  a  dull 

^^8^  green    color,    the    head    darker. 

Fig.  g.—Appu-Uaj  Pick  the  leaves  off  in  winter  and 

CrumpUr.  pjig   them    up   at   some   distance 

from  the  orchard,  where  the  vermin  will  starve  to 

death,  and  at  the  same  time  their  parasites  will  live, 

to  prey  upon  the  crumplers  of  future  generations. 


Fin,  10. — Apple-rcot  Louse.  (Schiz-oneura  hiniper.i.)  a,  the  injested 
rootlet ;  b,  tile  woolly  larva  ,'  c,  the  zvill^ed  insect,  with  the  woolly  matter 
all  removed  I  d,  Itg  of  the  perfect  insect  f  e,  thebeak  ;  f,  antenna  of  the 
winged  insect;  g,  antenna  of  the  larva.  (Natural  size  shown  by 
stral^lit  lines.) 


Fro.  II. — Root  Louse  Syrphus  Fly,    (Pipiza  radicum.)    a,  larva;  6, 
pupa  ;  c,  perfect  fly. 

The  "  woolly  blight,"  or  apple-root  louse  (Fig. 
10),  is  the  work  of  a  woolly  louse,  causing  warty 
excrescences  about  the  roots.     Remedy :   Washes 


28 


APP.LB. 


Fig.  12. — AVw  Tork  Wee- 
fit.  (Ithycerus  Novebora- 
censis.)  a,  mfexted  twig  i  b, 
tarva  i  r,  perject  insect. 


of  Strong  soap-suds.  The  Syrphus  fly  (Fig.  1 1) 
preys  upon  it,  and  is  thus  indirectly  a  friend  to 
human  interest.  The  straight  lines  in.the  cuts  in- 
dicate the  natural  size  of  the  insects. 

The  New  York  weevil 
(Fig.  13)  works  in  the  twigs. 
Insects  of  this  species  can  be 
readily  jarred  off,  collected  in 
sheets,  and  destroyed.  Two  or 
three  species  of  Ips  (fig.  13) 
eat  their  way  into  mature  fruit, 
but  they  are  not  very  trouble- 
some. Proper  care  in'  remov- 
ing decaying  fruit  and  gather- 
ing carefully  and  in  due  season 
that  which  is  ripe,  Will  prob- 
ably prevent  any  injury  from 
this  little  creature.  The  apple 
curculio  (Fig.  14)  eats  into  the 
young  fruit.  The  only  two 
remedies  are  gathering  the  in- 
fested fruit  and  destroying  it, 
and  the  selection  of  varieties 
not  subject  to  its  attacks,  if 
indeed  there  are  such  varieties.  The  insect  is  rare 
in  the  North.  For  the  two  species  of  Buprestid 
borers,  the  white-lined  Psenocerus,  the  cylindiical 
bark  borer  and  the  apple-twig  a 
borer,  look  over  the  trees  in  au- 
tumn and  cut  off  the  infested  twigs. 
The  scale  insect  is  destroyed  by 
the  usual  alkaline  washes.  The 
bud  worm  is  a  small,  naked  cater- 
pillar about  one-third  of  an  inch 
long  and  brown  in  color,  with 
small  warts,  and  black  ring  near 
its  head.  No  special  remedy.  The 
palmer  worm  is  destroyed  with  whale-oil  soap  and 
water.  The  17-year  locust  preys  upon  the  roots  of 
the  apple-tree  for  a  portion  of  his  16  years'  appar- 
ent absence,  and  the  17th  year  the  females  score 
the  twigs  for  the  deposit  of  eggs.  No  remedy. 
If  rabbits  or  mice  show  signs  of  their  work  on  the 
trees,  remove  the  mulching  a  few  inches  from  the 
tree  and  put  on  some  distasteful  drug,  or  in  the  fall 
put  around  the  trees  for  about  two  feet  up,  old 
slieet-iron  or  tinware 
from  old  stove-pij)es 
and  refuse  kitchen 
furniture.  Remove 
this  in  the  spring  as 
soon  as  herbage  be- 
comes green.  Mice 
alone  can  be  guarded 
against  by  simply 
piling  up,  late  in  au- 
tumn, a  conical  mass 

of     earth       about      16         Fio.    11,.— Apple  CuraMo.     (Anthono 

inches  high   around   ."?^;3,^';'f*«*U'."'''"'''' ''"''  *' 


Fig.    13.— <Ips 
ciatus.)  rt,  larva  / 
beetle. 


the  tree  and  spatting  it  down  smooth.  This  should 
be  removed  again  in  the  spring. 

The  most  common  disease  among  apple-trees, 
especially  in  the  West,  is  twig  blight,  supposed  to 
be  caused  by  a  microscopic  bacterium.  No  remedy 
is  known,  except  to  plant  the  trees  on  hillsides  and 
in  light  soils,  for  the  disease  affects  mainly  those 
trees  which  are  set  in  a  rank,  rich  soil,  like  that  of 
the  Western  prairies.  One  ounce  of  copperas  to 
eight  or  ten  gallons  of  water  forms  a  good  wash, 
and  is  advised  for  trial  as  preventive  against  blight. 
A  Wisconsin  man,  in  one  instance,  reports  that  he 
found  the  pruning  knife  a  success.  In  using  the 
knife,  dip  it  in  a  strong  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
every  time  in  passing  from  one  limb  to  another, 
in  order  to  kill  the  disease  matter  on  the  knife  and 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  blight  by  inoculation. 

The  most  effectual  safeguard  against  having 
spotted  fruit  is  to  avoid  planting  those  varieties 
which  bear  it.  Those  most  subject  are  Newtown 
Pippin,  Fall  Pippin,  Early  Harvest,  Rambo,  Fa- 
meuse  and  Canada  Red.  The  varieties  most  free 
are  the  Russets,  Baldwin,  Red  Astrachan,  Graven- 
stein,  Duchess  of  Oldenburg,  etc. 

Harvesting,  Packing,  etc.  As  soon  as  the 
seeds  turn  brown  and  before  the  fruit  begins  to 
soften  or  become  mellow,  pick  them  from  the  tree. 
For  long  keeping  and  for  high  prices  they  should 
be  handled  as  carefully  as  eggs,  and  never  poured 
from  one  vessel  to  another  as  we  do  potatoes.  Use 
step-ladders.  For  marketing  it  will  always  pay  to 
carefully  sort  the  apples  into  two  or  three  classes. 
All  those  in  one  lot  should  be  of  a  uniform  size  and 

appearance  as  near- 
ly as  practicable. 
Allow  no  poorer 
apples  to  go  into  a 
lot  of  better  apples 
designed  for  mar- 
ket. Barrel  tight, 
so  that  the  apples 
will  not  rattle  about 
in  shipping  and  be- 
come bruised.  Keep 
in  a  cool  place  in  an 
out-door  shed  untiJ 
freezing  weather, 
and  then  put  into  a 
cellar  or  other  room 
where  they  will  be 
next  to  freezing  un- 
til used. 

To  keep  winter 
apples  in  the  very 
■best  manner,  they 
should  be  gathered- 
by  hand  on  a  dry  day,  as  late  in  the  autumn  as  is 
safe  from  injurious  frosts,  then  put  them  into  new, 
tight  flour  barrels,  shaking  them  down  and  placing 


Fig.  15. — Fruit  Ladder. 


APPLE. 


29 


the  head  in  tightly,  with  considerable  pressure  upon 
the  apples;  place  them  in  a  cool,  shady  exposure, 
as  a  dry  shed  or  on  the  north  side  of  a  building,  until 
the  weather  is  cold  enough  to  justify  putting  them 
into  the  cellar.-  If  practicable,  it  is  well  to  ventilate 
them  with  the  cool  air  of  dry  nights  and  protect 
them  from  the  circulation  of  the  warm  air  of  day. 
The  cellar  should  be  kept  just  at  or  above  freezing 
point,  dark,  clean  and  well  ventilated.  Some  pre- 
fer placing  the  fruit  on  a  dry  floor,  as  soon  as  they 
are  picked,  and  after  a  week  they  examine  them, 
to  see  if  the  "sweat"  is  about  gone,  and  if  so,  they 
look  them  all  over,  and  wipe  perfectly  dry  those 
which  are  not  already  so,  and  pack  them  in  the 
barrels.  Some  put  clean  rye  straw  between  the 
layers  of  apples  in  the  barrels.  In  the  cellar  the 
barrels  are  placed  on  their  sides,  in  tiers.  Boxes 
and  barrels  containing  apples  should  be  self-venti- 
lating; but  the  sorts  which  incline  to  wilt,  like  the 
Russets,  may  be  kept  more  confined,  to  prevent 
evaporation. 

Apples  are  often  kept  by  burying  them  out- 
doors like  potatoes,  but  there  is  some  risk  in  this 
method,  and  the  fruit  always  soon  decays  at\er  ex- 
posure to  the  air.     Fig.  i6  shows  an  excellent  style 


Fig.  \(i.— Apple  or  Vegetable  Pit. 

of  pit  for  this  purpose.  The  only  peculiar  feature 
about  it  is  the  provision  for  ventilation.  The  bot- 
tom of  the  pit  should  be  high  enough  to  prevent 
water  from  reaching  it.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  a  drain  if  desired,  or  the  bottom  may 
be  raised  a  few  inches  above  the  surrounding  sur- 
face. Place  a  small  gas-pipe  (or  any  other)  in  the 
bottom,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  connecting  the  apples 
with  the  outside  air.  Arrange  a  similar  pipe  at 
the  top.  This  produces  a  current  of  air  through 
the  entire  pile.  In  extreme  cold  weather  it  may 
be  necessary  to  close  the  pipes,  opening  them  again 
when  the  weather  moderates.  Put  a  screen  over 
the  protruding  ends  to  keep  vermin  out.  In  cov- 
ering, place  alternate  layers  of  straw  and  soil,  as 
shown  in  the  cut. 

Varieties.  To  give  a  condensed  description 
of  many  apples,  both  of  the  fruit  and  of  the  tree, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  use  a  few  short  terms  very 
frequently,  which  for  beginners  in  fruit-raising 
we  explain.  The  stem  end  of  the  apple  is  its 
base,  and  the  flower  end  is  the  apex.     The  hollow 


portion  at  the  V)ase  is  the  cavity,  and  that  at  the 
apex  is  the  basin.  In  the  center  of  the  basin  is 
the  calyx,  consisting  of  the  small  leafy  tips  of  tlie 
flower  cup.  The  general  shape  of  an  apple  may 
be  round,  roundish,  oblate,  oblong  (Fig.  18),  con- 
ical, etc.  The  oblate  is  also  termed  "flat"  (Fig. 
17),  and  the  conical  is  the  shape  of  a  cone  or 
egg  (Fig.  19).  Truncate  signifies  flattened  at 
the  apex.  Some  apples  are 
ribbed,  having  ridges ;  some 
corrugated,  having  depressed 
lines,  furrows,  or  wrinkles; 
and  some  unsymmetrical,  that 
is,  having  the  sides  unequal. 
The  terms  fair,  good,  very 
good,  best,  etc.,  have  a  sort  of 
Fig.  17.— "/7a/"  ^/*/>/f.  technical  meaning,  indicating 

B.  cavity;  C^bastn,  ,i  i  ,•  i 

-' '     '  the  general  comparative  qual- 

ity in  the  best  situations  and  in  good  cultivation. 
The  best  time  for  using  the  fruits  is  indicated  by 
the  months  named.  As  to  the  tree,  it  may  be 
strong,  vigorous,  weak,  slender,  short-jointed, 
hardy,  spreading,  round-headed,  etc.  Young 
shoots  are  understood  to  be  a  dull  reddish  brown 
and  downy,  unless  otherwise  noted. 

Our  list  here  comprises  over  a  hundred  of  the 
best  varieties  of  apple,  the  thousand  others  being 
purposely  neglected  by  Northern  orchardists.  Po- 
mologists  for  the  last  forty  years  have  generally 
been  endeavoring  to  restrict  the  number  of  varie- 
ties in  cultivation.  There  are  thousands  of  syno- 
nyms for  apples,  many  varieties  having  10  to  20 
names;  and  should  any  one  fail  to  find  a  good 
Western  apple  in  the  following  list  by  the  name 
known  to  him,  he  may  ascertain  the  name  we 
adopt  by  consulting  Downing's  work.  We  en- 
deavor to  give  all  the  most  popular  names. 
'  Alexander.,  ETnferor  Alexander.,  Russian  Em- 
peror, Victoria.  Fruit  scarcely  good  except  for 
cooking,  and  falls  badly  from  the  tree;  season, 
Aug.  to  Dec.  Very  large,  fair  and  handsome, 
conical,  truncated,  sometimes  obscurely  angular, 
smooth,  pale  yellow,  striped  and 
splashed ;  distinctly  bright  red,  some- 
times shaded  mixed  red;  basin  me- 
dium ;  eye  small,  long,  closed ;  cavity 
deep,  narrow,  brown ;  stem  medium 
to  short,  stout;  core  wide,  nearly 
closed;  axis  short;  seeds  large;  flesh 
Fio.  isT^^/o/^r  whitish,  breaking^  not  fine  grained, 
■^ppi'-  juicy,  acid,  not  rich.     Tree  medium 

size,  spreading,  and  an  early  bearer. 

American  Golden  Pippin.  Medium  to  large, 
roundish  oblate,  inclining  to  conic,  obscurely  rib- 
bed, yellow,  sometimes  brownish-blush  in  the  sun, 
thinly  sprinkled  with  gray  dots,  often  slightly  net- 
ted with  thin  russet;  stem  short,  moderately  stout; 
cavity  large  and  deep;  calyx  closed;  basin  broad 
and  slightly  corrugated ;  flesh  yellowish,  breaking, 


30 


APPLE. 


juicy,  rather  coarse,  rich,  aromatic,  subacid;  core 
rather  large.  Very  good.  Nov.  to  Feb.  Good 
for  both  table  and  market.  Tree  strong,  with 
round,  spreading  top,  similar  to  R.  I.  Greening  but 
less  drooping;  does  not  bear  young,  but  very  pro- 
ductive when  advanced.  Wood  dark  reddish, 
downy,  with  prominent  flattened  buds. 

American  Golden  Russet.  Small,  roundish, 
ovate,  dull  yellow,  sprinkled,  with  a  very  thin  rus- 
set; stem  rather  long  and  slender;  calyx  closed; 
basin  narrow;  flesh  yellowish,  very  tender,  juicy, 
mild,  rich,  spicy.  For  the  table.  Best.  Oct.  to 
Jan.  The  flesh  of  this  apple  is  so  tender  as  to  re- 
semble that  of  a  buttery  pear  more  than  of  an 
ordinary  apple.  Tree  not  very  handsome  or  large. 
American  Sumjner  Pearmain.  Medium,  ob- 
long,   wider   toward   the   apex,  red,  spotted  with 

yellow  where  grown 
in  the  shade, but  when 
in  the  sun  it  is  streaked 
with  livelier  red  and 
yellow  on  the  sunny 
side ;  stem  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch 
long  and  deeply  in- 
sei'ted;  calyx  closed; 
basin  abrupt  an  d 
slightly  corruga  ted; 
flesh  yellow,  remark- 
F.G.  .^.-CoHicai  Appu.  ^^,y  tender,  rich, 

pleasant-flavored,  and  often  bursts  in  falling  from 
the  tree.  For  the  table.  Best.  Core  medium. 
Fruit  ripens  gradually  from  Aug.  lo  to  Sept.  30. 
Tree  moderately  vigorous,  with  slender  branches 
and  round  head. 

Bailey's  Sweet,  Large,  roundish  conical,  often 
approaching  oblong,  obscurely  ribbed,  sometimes 
angular,  yellowish,  mostly  shaded  and  obscurelyi 
striped  with  red  and  mottled  or  thickly  sprinkled 
with  minute  dots;  stem  rather  slender,  inserted  in 
a  narrow,  green  cavity;  calyx  small,  closed  and  set 
in  a  narrow,  irregular  basin;  flesh  white  or  yellow- 
ish, tender,  not  very  juicy,  almost  melting,  and  of 
a  honey-sweet  flavor;  core  rather  large,  turbinate, 
open.  Seeds  numerous,  angular,  dark.  Very 
good.  Profitable  for  all  purposes,  but  rather  ten- 
der-skinned. Nov.  to  March.  Tree  vigorous,  up- 
right, spreading,  productive. 

Baldwin.  The  most  popular  apple  in  the 
North,  on  account,  of  its  good  keeping  qualities 
and  general  good  properties.  Large,  roundish, 
narrowing  a  little  toward  the  apex;  yellow  in  the 
shade,  but  nearly  covered  with  crimson  stripes  and 
red  and  orange  when  grown  in  the  sun,  dotted 
with  a  few  russet  dots,  and  with  radiating  streaks 
of  russet  about  the  base ;  calyx  closed ;  basin  nar- 
row and  plaited;  stem  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  slender;  cavity  even  and  moderately  deep; 
flesh    yellowish    white,    crisp,    sparkling,    high- 


flavored.  Very  good.  Table  and  market.  Nov. 
to  March.  ^  Tree  a  vigorous,  upright  grower  and 
bears    abundantly;   top  spreading. 

Baltif?tore.  Medium  size,  roundish-conical,  reg- 
ular, pale  yellow  shaded  with  light  red,  striped 
and  splashed  with  dark  red,  almost  purplish,  hav- 
ing a  grayish  appearance  of  bloom,  large  light 
dots,  with  a  dark  center;  stem  short;  cavity  me- 
dium size,  rather  thinly  russeted;  calyx  small, 
closed;  basin  shallow,  nearly  smooth;  flesh  whitish, 
tender,  juicy,  mild,  subacid;  core  medium.  Very 
good.  Dec.  to  April.  Tree  healthy,  hardy,  mod- 
erately vigorous,  head  round;  young  shoots  dull 
reddish  brown.     Fruit  for  table  or  market. 

Selmont.  Medium  to  large,  globular,  a  little 
flattened  and  narrower  toward  the  apex,  sometimes 
oblong,  light  w^axen  yellow,  often  with  a  vermilion 
cheek;  stem  short;  cavity  generally  large;  calyx 
usually  closed;  basin  rather  deep,  and  corrugated; 
flesh  yellowish,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  sometimes  al- 
most melting,  of  a  mild  agreeable  flavor.  Very 
good.  Table.  Nov.  to  Feb.  Tree  vigorous, 
healthy  and  productive.  Wood  a  smooth,  light 
reddish  brown. 

Ben  Davis.  One  of  the  most  popular  apples  at 
the  present  time,  more,  however,  on  account  of  its 
fine  appearance  than  of  good  eating  qualities;  but 
the  people  are  learning  to  like  them.  Medium  to 
large,  roundish,  truncated  conical,  often  unsym- 
metrical;  yellowish,  but  mostly  overspread  with 
stripes  and  splashes  of  two  shades  of  red,  and  dot- 
ted sparsely  with  areole  dots;  stem  medium,  rather 
slender;  cavity  narrow,  deep,  russeted;  calyx 
partly  open;  basin  wide,  abrupt  and  slightly 
"wrinkled ;  flesh  white,  tender,  moderately  juicy, 
pleasant,  subacid.  Good.  Market.  Better  in  the 
South  and  Southwest.  Dec.  to  March.  Core  me- 
diuin  to  large.  Tree  a  hardy,  free  grower,  with 
very  dark,  reddish  brown,  slightly  grayish  young 
wood,  erect  round  head,  bearing  early  and  abun- 
dantly. 

Benoni.  Table  and  market.  Below  medium 
size,  roundish-oblate,  conical,  pale  yellow,  shaded, 
striped  and  marbled  with  dark  crimson,  and  thinly 
sprinkled  with  bright  dots;  stem  short,  slender; 
cavity  deep  russeted;  calyx  closed;  basin  abrupt, 
quite  deep  and  somewhat  uneven;  flesh  yellow, 
juicy,  tender,  pleasant,  subacid;  core  small.  Very 
good.  Aug.  Tree  vigorous,  upright,  spreading, 
hardy,  productive,  light  reddish  brown. 

Bentleyi's  Sweet.  Medium,  roundish,  flattened 
at  ends,  sometimes  unsymmetrical,  pale  j'ellowish 
gi'een,  shaded  with  pale  red  and  moderately 
sprinkled  with  light  and  brown  dots;  stem  long, 
slender,  curved;  cavity  smooth,  deep;  calyx  large, 
closed,  or  partially-  open;  basin  large,  deep,  corru- 
gated; flesh  fine,  whitish,  compact,  sweet,  some- 
what honeyed  flavor;  core  small.  Very  good. 
Jan.  to  May.     Market  and  keeping.     Tree  mod- 


APPLE. 


l^ 


erately  vigorous,  hardy,  good  bearer  and  keeper, 
and  particularly  valuable  in  the  Southwest. 

Bethlehcmiie.  Table  and  market.  Medium, 
oblate,  inclining  to  conical,  regular,  pale  yellow, 
striped,  shaded  and  splashed  with  light  and  dark 
red  nearly  all  over,  with  a  thin  grayish  tinge,  and 
thickly  sprinkled  with  light  and  brown  dots;  stem 
rather  short,  slender;  cavity  large  and  russeted; 
calyx  open  or  partially  closed ;  basin  large  and 
slightly  corrugated ;  flesh  white,  compact,  crisp, 
juicy,  rich,  mild,  subacid,  slightly  aromatic;  core 
small.  Seeds  numerous,  short,  very  plump,  pale. 
Very  good.  Dec.  to  March.  Tree  upright,  strong, 
stocky,  short-jointed;  young  shoots  dull  reddish 
brown  and  downy,  productive. 

Black  Gillijloiver.  Table.  Medium,  oblong 
conical;  dark,  dull,  red;  flesh  white,  dry,  mild, 
subacid.  Good.  Nov.  to  Feb.  Tree  very 
productive. 

Bonu?n.  Table  and  market.  Medium,  oblate, 
yellow,  mostly  shaded  with  deep  crimson  and 
indistinct  stripes  and  splashes  of  dark  red,  rather 
thinly  sprinkled  with  pretty  large  light  dots,  a 
portion  of  them  having  a  dark  center;  stem  long  and 
slender;  cavity  medium  to  large,  often  with  a  little 
green  russet;  calyx  closed;  basin  shallow,  slightly 
corrugated ;  flesh  white,  often  stained  next  the  skin, 
firm,  tender  juicy,  rich,  mild,  subacid;  core  small. 
Very  good.  Nov.  to  Dec.  Tree  upright,  spread- 
ing, hardy,  vigorous,  and  early  and  abundant 
bearer.     Young  shoots  a  smooth  reddish  gray. 

Broad-well.  Table  and  market.  Medium, 
oblate,  somewhat  conic,  clear  bright  yellow,  brown- 
ish blush  in  the  sun  exposure,  with  carmine  spots; 
dots  few,  greenish,  suffused  beneath ;  stem  rather 
short;*  cavity  broad,  russeted ;  calyx  closed;  basin 
abrupt,  regular;  flesh  whitish,  firm,  juicy,  rich, 
sweet;  core  small.  Very  good.  Nov.  to  Feb. 
Tree  vigorous,  quite  hardy,  very  spi'eading,  irregu- 
lar, productive.  This  is  an  extremely  valuable 
sweet  apple. 

Buckingham.  Table  and  market.  Medium  to 
large,  oblate,  inclining  to  conic,  greenish  yellow  and 
mostly  covered,  shaded,  striped  and  splashed  with 
two  shades  of  crimson  or  purplish  red,  and  many 
light  brown  dots;  stem  short;  cavity  broad,  deep, 
slightly  russeted;  calyx  closed;  basin  rather  large, 
deep,  slightly  corrugated;  flesh  yellowish,  rather 
coarse,  breaking,  tender,  juicy,  mild,  sprightly, 
subacid;  core  small.  Very  good  to  best.  Nov.  to 
Feb.  Tree  hardy,  healthy,  moderately  vigorous 
and  productive,  of  a  round  head,  spreading  and  of 
a  medium  size.  Does  best  in  the  Ohio  River  Valley 
and  Southwest. 

CaTtipfield.  Cider,  market  and  keeper.  Me- 
dium, roundish,  rather  flattened,  smooth,  washed 
and  striped  with  red  over  a  greenish  yellow  ground ; 
flesh  white,  rather  dry,  firm,  rich  and  sweet. 
Good.     April  and  May.     Tree  large,  symmetrical, 


with  straight,  spreading  limbs,  and  very  productive. 
This  is  a  capital  New  Jersey  cider  apple,  and  is 
also  good  for  baking  and  stock-feeding. 

Canada  Reinettc.  Table  and  market,  Oct.  to 
April.  Largest  size,  oblate,  conical,  flattened, 
rather  irregular,  with  projecting  ribs,  broad  at  the 
base,  narrowing  toward  the  apex,  with  three 
deep,  greenish  yellow  channels,  slightly  washed 
with  brown  on  the  sunny  side,  sprinkled  with 
russet  patches;  stem  short,  inserted  in  a  wide  cavity; 
calyx  short  and  large,  set  in  a  rather  deep,  irregular 
basin;  flesh  nearly  white,  rather  firm,  juicy,  with  a 
rich,  lively,  subacid  flavor.  Very  good  to  best. 
Tree  spreading,  open,  vigorous  and  productive.  An 
extremely  popular  apple  in  Europe  and  Canada. 

Carolina  Red  yune.  Very  good,  for  table  and 
market.  Medium  or  below  in  size,  oval,  irregular, 
inclining  to  conic,  smooth,  and  nearly  all  over 
shaded  with  deep  red,  and  almost  of  a  purplish  hue 
on  the  sunny  side,  and  covered  with  a  light  bloom ; 
stem  variable  in  length;  cavity  small;  basin  narrow, 
plaited;  calyx  closed;  flesh  very  white,  tender, 
juicy,  with  a  brisk,  subacid  flavor;  core  rather 
large.  Tree  upright,  vigorous,  an  early  and 
abundant  bearer,  much  esteemed  at  the  South  and 
Southwest  as  their  best  early  apple;  equal  to  the 
Early  Harvest  in  flavor  and  more  profitable  as  an 
orchard  fruit.  The  Carolina  Striped  June  is 
another  variety  of  apple  about  as  good  as  the  Red, 
and  indeed  scarcely  distmguishable  from  it;  it  is 
generally  more  striped. 

Carthouse.   '  See  Gilpin. 

Cayuga  Redstreak.     See  Twenty-Ounce. 

Chenango  Straivberry.  Very  good  for  table. 
Medium,  oblong  conic  or  oblong  truncated  conic, 
indistinctly  ribbed,  whitish  and  shaded,  splashed 
and  mottled  with  light  and  dark  crimson  over  most 
of  the  surface;  light  dots;  stem  short,  small;  cavity 
acute,  somewhat  uneven;  calyx  closed,  or  partially 
open ;  basin  rather  large,  abrupt,  slightly  corrugated ; 
flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  peculiarly  mild  subacid; 
core  rather  large.  Sept.  and  Oct.  Tree  vigorous, 
spreading. 

Cogswell.  Very  good  to  best,  for  table  and 
market,  Dec.  to  March.  Above  medium,  regular, 
roundish  oblate,  rich  yellow,  nearly  covered  with 
red,  marked  and  streaked  with  bright  red,  pretty 
thickly  sprinkled  with  areole  dots;  stem  short, 
slender;  cavity  large,  thinly  russeted;  calyx  small, 
nearly  closed ;  basin  small,  shallow;  flesh  yellowish, 
fine-grained,  tender,  juicy,  scarcely  subacid,  rich, 
aromatic;  core  small.  Tree  vigorous,  upright, 
spreading,  abundant  bearer,  and  fruit  even-sized. 

Cooper''s  Early  White.  Best  summer  apple  for 
Nebraska,  etc. 

Crawford  Pippin.     A  new  variety. 

Dotninie.  Excellent  for  table  and  market,  from 
Dec.  to  April.  It  resembles  the  Rambo,  being  of 
medium    size,  flat,  lively  greenish    yellow    in    the 


34 


APPLE. 


shade,  with  stripes  and  splashes  of  bright  red  in 
rhe  sun,  and  rather  large  russet  specks;  stem  long 
and  slender,  planted  in  a  wide  cavity  and  inclining 
to  one  side;  calyx  small,  in  a  broad  basin,  mod- 
erately sunk;  flesh  white,  exceedingly  tender  and 
juicy,  with  a  sprightly  pleasant  flavor,  though  not 
nigh.  Young  wood  of  a  smooth,  lively  light 
brown.  Trees  hardy  and  the  most  rapid  growers 
and  prodigious  bearers  in  existence. 

Duchess  of  Oldenburg.  Medium,  regular,  round- 
ish oblate,  smooth,  finely  washed  and  streaked 
with  red  on  a  golden  or  yellow  ground;  calyx 
pretty  large  and  nearly  closed,  set  in  a  wide,  even 
hollow;  there  is  a  faint  blue  bloom  on  the  fruit; 
flesh  juicy  and  sprightly  subacid;  ripens  early  in 
September.  Cooking  and  market.  Tree  vigorous, 
with  roundish,  upright,  spreading  head,  requiring 
little  or  no  pruning  and  is  an  excellent  bearer. 
Young  shoots  smooth. 

Dyer,  Potnme  Poyale,  Golden  Spice.  Medium, 
roundish,  regular,  smooth,  pale  greenish  yellow, 
with  a  faint  blush  and  a  few  dark  specks  on  one 
side;  stem  about  half  an  inch  long,  set  lu  a 
smooth  round  cavity;  calyx  closed;  basin  plaited, 
moderately  deep;  core  round,  hollow;  flesh  white, 
very  tender  and  juicy,  of  very  mild  and  agreeable 
flavor,  aromatic,  slightly  subacid.  Very  good  to 
best.     Table.     Sept.  to  Oct. 

Early  Harvest,  Early  French  Reinette,  "July 
Pippin,  Large  White  yuneating.  Very  good 
to  best,  for  table  and  market;  the  smallest  collec- 
tion of  apples  should  comprise  this  and  the  Red 
Astrachan.  Fruit  medium  size,  roundish,  often 
roundish  oblate,  very  smooth,  bright  straw  color, 
with  a  few  faint  white  dots;  stem  half  to  three- 
fourths  inch  long,  rather  slender;  cavity  of  moder- 
ate depth;  basin  shallow;  flesh  very  white,  tender, 
crisp,  juicy,  rich,  sprightly  subacid;  core  small. 
Tiee  moderately  vigorous,  an  abundant  bearer, 
having  an  upright,  spreading  head. 

Early  yoe.  Best  for  table;  ripens  from  mid- 
dle of  August  to  middle  of  September;  fruit  small, 
oblate,  very  slightly  conic,  smooth,  yellowish, 
shaded  and  striped  with  red  and  thickly  sprinkled 
witii  greenish  spots;  stem  of  medium  length; 
cavity  large,  surrounded  with  russet;  calyx  closed; 
basin  moderate;  flesh  whitish,  tender,  juicy,  with 
an  agreeable  vinous  flavor.  Tree  of  slow  growth, 
productive,  and  I'equires  high  culture.  Luce's 
Early  Joe  is  another  apple,  not  so  good,  but  larger. 

Early  Pennock,  Shaker  Yelloxv,  Harmony, 
Hominy,  etc.  Good  to  poor,  market  and  cooking, 
July  to  Sept.  Large,  variable  in  form,  conic,  hand- 
some, smooth,  yellow,  partially  covered  with  mixed 
and  striped  scarlet,  splashed  carmine, — often  yellow 
prevails ;  dots  numerous,  dark ;  basin  shallow,  plaited 
or  regular;  cavity  deep,  brown;  stem  medium  or 
short;  core  long,  tapering  to  both  ends,  partially 
open  in  some;  seeds  large,  numerous,  dark;  flesh 


yellow,  breaking,  rather  coarse,  acid.     Tree  thrifty, 
upright,  early  bearer,  not  long-lived. 

Early  Strawberry,  Red  yuneating.  Very 
good,  table  and  market.  Roundish,  narrowing 
toward  the  apex,  smooth,  fair,  finely  striped  and 
stained  with  bright  and  dark  red,  on  a  yellowish 
white  ground;  stem  inch  and  a  half  long,  rather 
slender  and  uneven;  cavity  deep;  calyx  small; 
basin  shallow  and  narrow;  flesh  white,  slightly 
tinged  with  red  next  to  the  skin,  tender,  subacid 
and  very  sprightly  and  brisk  in  flavor,  with  an 
agreeable  aroma.  In  market  from  July  to  Sept. 
A  beautiful  apple. 

Edgar  Rcdstreak,  Walbridge.  Jan.  to  May, 
Medium  size,  oblate,  pale,  whitish  yellow,  shaded 
with  pale  red  in  the  sun,  narrow  stripes,  and  a  few 
splashes  of  bright  red  over  most  of  the  surface 
where  full}'  exposed;  stem  short,  small;  cavity 
sometimes  slight  russet;  basin  small,  slightly 
plaited;  flesh  white,  fine,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  mild 
subacid;  core  small  or  medium.  Tree  hardy,  up- 
right at  first,  but  spreading  with  age  and  weight  of 
fruit. 

English  Russet.  Good.  Market  and  keeper. 
Jan.  to  May.  Medium,  roundish,  slightly  conical, 
regular,  pale  greenish  yellow,  about  two-thirds 
covered  with  russet,  which  is  thickest  near  the 
stem;  calyx  small;  basin  even,  round  and  moder- 
ately deep;  stem  rather  small  and  deeply  inserted 
in  a  narrow,  smooth  cavity ;  flesh  yellowish  white, 
firm,  crisp,  mild,  slightly  subacid.  Tree  very 
straight,  head  upright,  and  the  wood  smooth  and 
reddish  brown. 

English  Sweet.     See  Ramsdell's  Sweet. 

Esopus  Spitzenburg,  or  .^Esopus  Spjtzenberg 
(spelled  variously).  Best  for  table  and  market,  Dec. 
to  Feb.  Large,  oblong,  tapering  roundly  to  the 
apex,  smooth,  nearly  covered  with  rich,  lively  red, 
dotted  with  distinct  yellowish  russet  dots  on  the 
shaded  side,  a  yellowish  ground  with  streaks  and 
broken  stripes  of  red;  stem  rather  long,  slender; 
cavity  wide;  calyx  small  and  closed;  basin  shallow 
and  slightly  furrowed;  flesh  yellow,  rather  firm, 
crisp,  juicy,  deliciously  rich  and  of  a  brisk  flavor; 
seeds  in  a  hollow  core.  Tree  has  slender  shoots 
and  long,  hanging  limbs.  In  progressing  West- 
ward, this  fruit  has  become  larger  and  more  irreg- 
ular and  less  brilliantly  colored,  less  highly  flavored 
and  less  productive.  In  some  regions  the  tree  is 
subject  to  blight,  and  unprofitable. 

Evenifig  Party.  Best  for  table  and  market, 
Dec.  and  Jan.  Medium  to  small,  regular,  quite 
flat,  smooth,  mixed  red  and  carmine  stripes,  on 
waxen  yellow  ground;  dots  numerous,  distinct, 
grey ;  basin  abrupt,  regular,  deep ;  eye  small,  closed ; 
cavity  wide,  deep,  regular,  brown;  stem  medium, 
green,  slender;  core  small,  regular,  closed,  touch- 
ing the  eye  and  short;  seeds  short,  wide,  dark; 
flesh  light    yellow,  very  fine  grain,  tender,  juicy, 


APPLE. 


35 


subacid,  aromatic.  Tree  roundish,  upright,  spread- 
ing, with  slender  branches;  young  shoots  dark 
greyish  brown,  many  small  dots;  fruit  hangs  well 
to  the  tree  and  tlie  foliage  remains  until  very  late. 

Falla-joater,  Tulpchocken^  Pound  Mountain 
Pippin,  Winter  Blush,  etc.  Good  for  market 
and  stock,  Nov.  to  Feb.  Large,  round  or  oblate, 
conic,  regular,  greenish  yellow,  often  blushed  crim- 
son or  shaded  with  dull  red,  sprinkled  with  large 
grey  dots,  large  specimens  covered  with  whitish 
veined  marks;  basin  deep,  regular;  eye  large, 
open;  cavity  deep,  regular,  brown;  stem  short, 
stout;  core  medium,  closed;  seeds  numerous,  angu- 
lar; flesh  whitish,  often  greenish  white,  light, 
tender,  juicy,  ver}'  mild  subacid  or  sweet,  with 
little  character.  Tree  vigorous,  spreading,  pi-o- 
ductive,  not  long-lived ;  shoots  very  stout,  dark ; 
leaves  large. 

Fall  Pippin,  Pound  Pippin,  Pound  Royal, 
York  Pippin,  etc.  Best  for  table,  market  and  dry- 
ing, Sept.  to  Dec.  Large,  handsome,  globular, 
truncated,  regular,  smooth,  rich  yellow,  frequently 
blushed  at  the  North,  with  finer  skin;  dots  minute, 
grey ;  basin  deep,  abrupt,  regular,  marked  with 
concentric  rings,  which  often  crack  open  in  large 
Southern  specimens;  eye  large,  open;  cavity  wide, 
regular,  or  narrow,  deep;  stem  long;  core  large, 
regular,  closed;  seeds  pointed,  often  imperfect; 
flesh  yellow,  breaking,  compact,  fine  grained,  acid, 
aromatic,  delicious,  becoming  tender  and  mellow. 
Tree  exceedingly  vigorous,  large,  wide,  branching, 
open  head;  not  an  early  bearer;  shoots  stout, dark; 
leaves  large,  broad. 

Fall  Orange,  Holden  Pippin,  Orange,  Red 
Cheek,  White  Graft.  Good  for  cooking  in  au- 
tumn. Large,  roundish,  pale  yellow,  sometimes 
with  a  dull  red  cheek,  and  sprinkled  with  brown- 
ish dots;  stem  short;  cavity  narrow,  deep,  slightly 
russeted ;  eye  large,  partially  closed ;  basin  deep,  nar- 
row; flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  acid.  Tree  strong, 
erect,  productive,  hardy ;  young  shoots  smooth. 

Fall  Stripe,  Saxton.  Good  to  very  good, 
Sept.  Medium  size,  roundish,  oblate,  yellow, 
shaded,  striped  and  splashed  with  light  and  dark 
red  over  the  whole  surface,  having  a  few  light  and 
brown  dots;  stem  short,  small;  cavity  slightly  rus- 
seted; eye  closed;  basin  slightly  corrugated;  flesh 
yellowish,  a  little  coarse,  juicy,  tender,  subacid, 
slightly  aromatic;  core  small.  Tree  has  a  hand- 
some round  head,  is  an  early  bearer  and  very  pro- 
ductive on  alternate  years. 

Fall  Wine.  Best  for  table,  Sept.  to  Nov.  Me- 
dium, oblate,  handsome,  inclined  to  crack  open  if 
left  on  the  tree  till  ripe,  very  smooth,  waxen  yel- 
low, almost  completely  covered  with  bright  and 
often  deep  red,  upon  which  it  is  indistinctly  striped ; 
numerous  russet  dots;  basin  abrupt,  wide,  regular 
or  wavy;  eye  small,  closed;  calyx  reflexed;  cavity 
wide,regular,  uniformly  green;  stem  long,  slender; 


core  medium,  regular,  closed;  seeds  numerous, 
angular  or  plump;  flesh  yellow,  breaking,  tender, 
fine-grained,  juicy,  mild  subacid,  very  aromatic. 
Tree  of  medium  size,  rather  slender  but  healthy, 
spreading  and  annually  productive. 

Fall  Witiesap.  Good,  Oct.  and  Dec.  Medium, 
roundish,  yellowish  green,  with  considerable  blush 
in  the  sun;  flesh  while,  fine-grained,  tender,  juicy, 
subacid.  Tree  clean  grower,  moderately  spread- 
ing, somewhat  drooping  as  it  acquires  age,  pro- 
ductive and  an  early  bearer. 

Fameuse,  Snow.  Good  for  table  and  market, 
Oct.  to  Dec.  Medium  size,  round,  regular,  pale 
waxen  yellow,  almost  wholly  covered  with  deep 
red,  made  up  of  stripes  and  splashes  which  become 
faint  on  the  shaded  portions;  dots  minute;  basin 
medium,  regular;  eye  very  small,  closed;  cavity 
wide,  wavy,  green;  stem  short;  core  medium, 
heart-shaped ;  seeds  numerous,  pointed,  rich  brown  ; 
flesh  snowy  white,  very  tender,  fine-grained,  juicy, 
subacid,  mild,  delicately  perfumed  but  not  rich. 
Tree  moderately  vigorous,  round-headed,  hardy. 

Garden  Royal.  Best  for  table,  Aug.  and  Sept. 
Small,  roundish,  oblate,  greenish  yellow,  shaded, 
striped  and  splashed  with  rich  red,  a  little  dull  or 
greyish  toward  the  stem,  sprinkled  with  light  and 
grey  dots;  stem  slender;  cavity  deep,  acute;  basin 
shallow;  flesh  yellow,  very  tender,  juicy,  rich, 
mild  subacid,  aromatic;  core  small.  Tree  of  mod- 
erate very  upright  growth,  roundish,  regular  head, 
very  productive. 

Gilpin,  Carthouse,  Little  Romanitc,  Little  Red 
Romanite,  etc.  On  account  of  the  value  of  this 
apple  for  cider  and  for  stock  feeding,  it  has  acquired 
in  the  West  the  sobriquet  of  "Dollars  and  Cents." 
Fruit  medium  size,  round,  truncated  at  the  ends, 
large  specimens  often  somewhat  irregular,  very 
smooth,  deep  red  all  over;  stripes  indistinct;  dots 
minute  and  indented ;  basin  wide,  regular  or  folded ; 
eye  small,  closed;  cavity  deep,  acute,  regular, 
brown;  stem  very  short;  core  medium;  seeds  few, 
large,  plump;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  fii'm,  juicy, 
sweet,  rich,  but  not  good  for  the  table  except  in  the 
spring;  bruises  do  not  rot;  valuable  for  its  cider 
from  the  richness  of  the  must.  Tree  remarkably 
vigorous,  strongly  branched,  spreading,  open,  round 
head,  very  productive,  bears  early;  shoots  stout, 
dark;  foliage  rather  scarce,  somewhat  curled  and 
apparently  covered  with  a  bluish  grey  bloom. 

Golden  Pearmain.  Very  good  for  the  table, 
Dec.  to  Feb.  Medium  size,  roundish,  conical,  lop- 
sided, truncated,  yellow,  blushed,  russeted,  orange 
in  the  sun;  basin  abrupt,  wide,  regular;  eye  large, 
open;  cavity  acute,  regular;  stem  slender,  short  to 
medium;  core  somewhat  open;  seeds  plump  and 
imperfect;  flesh  yellow,  breaking,  fine-grained, 
acid,  aromatic,  sprightly.  Other  apples  are  de- 
scribed under  this  name.  Tree  vigorous  but  tardy 
and  shy  in  bearing. 


36 


APPLE. 


Golden  Pippin^  York  Pippin,  Pound  Royal, 
Mammoth,  etc.  Very  large,  sometimes  weighing 
20  ounces,  roundish,  ribbed,  greenish  )'ellow,  be- 
coming quite  yellow  at  full  maturity,  slight  blush 
of  brown  crimson  in  sun-exposed  specimens;  flesh 
yellowish,  coarse,  juicy,  tender,  mild  subacid;  core 
small;  good  to  very  good,  Nov.  and  Dec.  Tree 
very  productive  and  vigorous  on  deep,  rich  soil. 
Two  other  noteworthy  apples  are  described  under 
this  name  in  the  books. 

Golden  Russet.  The  variety  of  apple  known 
under  this  name  in  the  West,  as  well  as  under  the 
name  of  Hunt  Russet,  English  Golden  Russet, 
New  England  Russet,  we  have  described  under  the 
name  of  Hunt's  Russet;  but  there  is  a  Golden 
Russet  of  Western  New  York,  quite  distinct  from 
the  above,  and  is  incorrectly  called  English  Golden 
Russet  by  some  at  the  West. 

Golden  Sweet,  Orange  Sweeting.  Good  to 
very  good,  for  cooking  and  market,  Aug.  and  Sept. 
Large,  globular,  regular,  very  smooth,  waxen  to 
rich  yellow;  dots  scattered,  indented,  green;  stem 
long,  slender,  yellow;  cavity  wide,  regular;  basin 
shallow,  wide,  regular;  eye  closed;  calyx  reflexed; 
core  medium,  regular,  closed;  seeds  numerous, 
small,  pointed,  light  brown;  flesh  yellow,  break- 
ing, fine-grained,  juicy,  very  sweet,  aromatic,  like 
sassafras.  Tree  very  robust,  spreading,  round 
head,  early,  productive;  foliage  large,  dark. 

Gravenstein.  Best  for  cooking  and  market, 
Aug.  and  Sept.  Large,  slightly  oblate,  angular, 
smooth,  yellow,  partiall}'  covered  with  mixed  and 
splashed  scarlet;  dots  rare;  basin  medium,  regular; 
eye  small,  closed;  cavity  deep,  regular;  stem  short; 
core  globular,  closed,  clasping  the  eye;  seeds  small, 
pointed;  flesh  yellow,  fine-grained,  breaking,  juicy, 
subacid,  aromatic.  Tree  spreading,  vigorous  and 
productive;  leaves  long,  rolled,  showing  the  white 
underside. 

Green  Cheese,  Green  Crank,  Southern  Green- 
ing, etc.  Very  good  for  table  and  market  in 
Kentucky  and  Southwestern  States,  Dec.  to  Mar. 
Medium  to  large,  somewhat  flattened,  conical,  reg- 
ular, green  to  yellow,  sometimes  bronzed;  dots 
small,  grey;  basin  medium,  regular;  eye  medium, 
closed;  cavity  wide,  acute,  brown;  stem  medium, 
green,  thick;  core  wide,  closed,  not  clasping  tlie 
eye;  seeds  numerous,  plump,  short,  dark ;  flesh  yel- 
low, firm,  fine-grained,  juicy,  subacid,  aromatic, 
rich.     Tree  moderately  thrifty;  foliage  small. 

Green  Newtown  Pippin,  NewtoTvn  Pippin, 
Hunfs  Fine  Green  Pippin,  etc.  This  is  distinct 
from  the  common  Newtown  Pippin,  which  is  yel- 
low. Medium  to  large,  globular,  flattened,  some- 
times obscurely  ribbed,  smooth,  green,  becoming 
yellowish  green  when  fully  ripe,  sometimes  a  little 
bronzed,  and  always  showing  white,  irregular 
streaks  near  the  base  when  first  gathered;  dots 
scattered,  minute,  dark;  basin, shallow,  folded ;  eye 


small,  closed;  cavity  wide,  wavy,  brown;  stem 
long,  slender;  seeds  pointed,  plump,  dark;  flesh 
greenish  white,  crisp,  tender,  acid,  aromatic,  rich, 
very  agreeable.  Best  table  and  cooking,  Dec.  to 
March. 

Grimes''  Golden  Pippin,  Grimes'  Golden.  Very 
good  to  best,  table  and  market,  Dec.  to  Mar.  Fair 
size,  cylindrical,  regular,  yellow  vein,  russeted; 
dots  numerous,  minute;  basin  abrupt,  folded j,  eye 
large,  closed;  cavity  large,  regular,  green;  stem 
long,  curved;  core  small  and  pear-shaped;  seeds 
numerous,  plump,  brown;  flesh  yellow,  firm, 
breaking,  very  fine-grained,  tender,  juicy,  subacid, 
aromatic,  rich  and  refreshing.  Tree  healthy, 
spreading,  productive,  etc.;  shoot  stout,  dark ;  foli- 
age abundant,  dark,  green. 

Grindstone,  American  Pippin.  Good,  keeping 
and  market,  April  till  June.  Medium  size,  regular 
form,  oblate,  dull  red  in  patches,  and  stripes  on  a 
dull  green  ground;  flesh  white,  firm,  juicy,  with  a 
somewhat  brisk,  acid  flavor.  Valuable  only  for 
its  late  keeping  and  for  cider.  Tree  thrifty,  spread- 
ing, with  crooked  shoots. 

Haas.  One  of  the  hardiest  apple-trees  in  Wis- 
consin.    See  Horse. 

Hall,  Hairs  Seedling,  HalPs  Red.  Almost 
best,  table  and  market.  South,  Dec.  to  Apr.  Small, 
round,  slightly  conical,  regular,  smooth,  yellow, 
covered  with  bright  red,  mixed  and  striped;  dots 
numerous,  large,  yellow;  basin  shallow,  wavy,  ob- 
late, leather-cracked;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity 
wide,  regular,  brown;  stem  long,  slender;  core 
pear-shaped,  regular,  slightly  open;  seeds  large; 
flesh  yellow,  tender,  fine-grained,  juicy,  subacid, 
rich,  agreeable.  Tree  medium  size,  thrifty,  etc.; 
shoots  long,  rather  slender,  reddish. 

Harrison.  Good,  cooking  and  dessert,  in  April, 
and  cider.  Small,  round  conical,  somewhat  angu- 
lar and  irregular,  not  smooth,  yellow,  rarely 
blushed,  frequent  rose-colored  spots,  and  marks 
radiating  from  the  cavity  over  the  base  of  the  fruit ; 
dots  small,  distinct,  grey ;  basin  none,  or  very  shal- 
low, plaited;  eye  small,  closed;  stem  long,  red, 
knobby;  core  heart-shaped,  closed;  seeds  numerous, 
small;  flesh  yellow,  compact,  dry  till  ripe,  then 
juicy,  acid,  very  rich,  saccharine.  Tree  spreading, 
large,  vigorous  and  productive. 

Haskell  Siveet.  Very  good  to  best,  for  table, 
Aug.  to  Oct.  Large,  flat,  regular,  green,  bronzy; 
dots  niuTierous,  large,  white;  basin  deep;  eye  small, 
closed ;  cavity  deep,  wavy  ;  stem  short;  core  closed; 
seeds  numerous,  plump;  flesh  yellow,  juicy,  sweet, 
rich. 

Hawley.  Aug.  and  Sept.;  good,  but  soon  de- 
cays. Large,  oblate  or  slightly  conic,  waxy  yel- 
low, rather  shaded  or  blushed,  becomes  greasy 
when  kept;  basin  wide,  w^avy;  cavity  wide,  some- 
times folded;  stem  various;  core  closed;  seeds  gen- 
ei-ally  imperfect ;  flesh  yellowish  white,  very  tender, 


APPLE. 


37 


fine-grained,  juicy,  very  pleasant,  mild  subacid, 
rich.  Tree  has  a  round,  spreading  head;  shoots 
stout,  olive. 

Higby's  Sweet,  Lady's  Blush,  Lady  Cheek 
Sweet.  Good  for  cooking,  Oct.  Large,  round, 
truncated,  regular,  smooth,  greenish  yellow, 
blushed;  dots  scattered,  distinct,  white  and  dark; 
basin  abrupt,  deep,  wavy;  eye  medium,  closed; 
cavity  deep,  acute,  regular,  brown;  core  small, 
heart-shaped,  closed;  flesh  yellowish  white,  tender, 
fine-grained,  juicy,  very  sweet.  Tree  an  upright 
grower  and  early  and  good  bearer;  young  shoots 
very  short  jointed  with  a  few  light  specks. 

High-top  Sweet,  Sweet  yune.  Summer  Sweet. 
Good,  cooking  and  market,  June  to  Aug.  Small 
to  medium,  round,  regular,  smooth,  greenish  yel- 
low; dots  minute,  black;  basin  medium,  regular; 
eye  small,  closed;  cavity  deep,  narrow;  stem  me- 
dium; core  very  small,  oval;  seeds  numerous, 
angular,  yellow;  flesh  white  or  greenish  white, 
fine-grained,  tender,  sweet,  juicy.  Tree  exceed- 
ingly productive  and  profitable. 

Horse,  Summer  Horse,  Haas,  Tcllow  LIoss. 
Good,  market  and  cooking.  South,  last  of  July  and 
first  of  Aug.  Large,  round,  somewhat  conical, 
truncated,  uneven,  yellow,  sometimes  tinged  with 
red  and  small  patches  of  russet;  dots  scattering, 
indented,  large,  grey  and  greenish;  basin  abrupt, 
folded;  eye  medium,  closed;  cavity  deep,  acute, 
wavy,  brown;  stem  medium  to  long;  core  large, 
somewhat  open;  seeds  numerous,  brown;  flesh 
yellow,  crisp,  juicy,  pleasant  subacid.  Tree  an 
annual  and  abundant  bearer;  young  wood,  light 
reddish  brown. 

Hubbardston  Nonsuch,  Hubbardston,  Old-  Town 
Pippin.  Very  good,  table  and  market,  Oct.  to 
Jan.  Large,  handsome,  round,  somewhat  ovate, 
regular,  uneven  yellow^,  covered  with  mixed  red 
and  broken  stripes,  presenting  a  rich  brownisli  ap- 
pearance; dots  scattered,  grey,  prominent;  basin 
abrupt,  wide,  regular,  leather-cracked  or  russeted, 
or  both;  eye  medium  or  small,  open;  cavity  wide, 
regular,  brown;  stem  medium  or  short;  core  large, 
heart-shaped,  regular,  sometimes  partially  open; 
seeds  few,  pointed;  flesh  yellow,  juicy,  tender, 
fine-grained,  crisp.  Tree  has  all  good  qualities; 
leaves  round;  young  shoots  dull,  greyish  brown. 

HunCs  Russet.  Very  good  to  best  for  table, 
Jan.  to  Apr.  Small,  roundish,  oblate,  yellow, 
mostly  covered  with  thin,  dull  russet,  with  a  blush 
of  bright,  rich  red  in  the  sun;  cavity  large,  deep, 
acute;  basin  slightly  corrugated ; 'flesh  yellowish 
white,  fine-grained,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  brisk,  sub- 
acid, slightly  arornauc.  Tree  hardy,  uj^right, 
spreadmg,  an  annual  and  good  '■i^s.rer. 
Ishavi  Sweet.     A  fine,  large  variety 

Janneting :  see  Rawle's  Janet. 

yersey  Sweeting,  yersey  Siveet.  Very  good, 
table  and  market,  Aug.  to  Oct.     Medium  size,  reg-- 


ular,  globular-oblate,  sometimes  rather  conical, 
smooth,  yellow,  nearly  covered  with  red,  mixed, 
striped  and  splashed  carmine;  dots  minute;  basin 
medium  to  wide,  regular;  eye  small,  generally 
closed;  cavity  wide,  regular  or  wavy,  rather  deep; 
stem  medium  to  long,  green;  core  wide,  regular, 
generally  closed;  seeds  numerous,  wide;  flesh  pale 
yellow,  tender,  fine-grained,  juicy,  veiy  sweet  and 
rich.  Valuable  also  for  baking  and  for  feeding 
stock.  Tree  round-headed;  shoots  short,  jointed 
and  red;  foliage  abundant. 

yonathan.  Best,  dessert,  cooking  and  market, 
Dec.  to  Jan.  Medium  size,  round  or  oblong, 
conic,  truncated,  regular,  smooth,  waxy  yellow 
ground  but  nearly  covered  with  brilliant  dark  red, 
mixed  and  striped;  dots  minute,  russet-veined; 
basin  deep,  regular;  eye  small,  closed,  green;  cav- 
ity acute,  deep,  regular,  reddish  brown;  stem  long, 
slender;  core  medium,  oval,  closed;  seeds  numer- 
ous, large,  angular;  flesh  whitish  yellow,  tender, 
breaking,  very  juicy,  subacid,  aromatic,  equal  to  a 
Spitzenburg;  a  beautiful  apple  and  shoukl  be  in 
every  orchard.  Tree  of  slender  growth,  spread- 
ing, rather  drooping,  productive;  shoots  slender; 
buds  small;  foliage  rather  sparse,  greyish. 

Kentticky  Sxveet.  Good  to  best,  maiket,  bak- 
ing and  stock,  Nov.  to  Jan.  Medium  size,  conic, 
smooth,  deep  red,  stripes  scarcely  visible,  tlie  yel- 
low ground  rarely  seen;  dots  scattered,  large, 
yellow;  basin  narrow,  leather-cracked;  eye  long, 
open;  cavity  acute,  brown;  core  somewhat  open; 
seeds  numerous,  large,  imperfect,  brown ;  flesh 
yellow,  tender,  fine-grained,  juicy,  very  sweet,  rich, 
slightly  perfumed. 

Keswick  Codlin.  Good,  market  and  cooking, 
Aug.  to  Oct.  Medium  size,  oblong,  conical,  triui- 
cated,  ribbed,  smooth,  pale  yellow ;  dots  scattered, 
minute;  basin  medium,  folded;  eye  medium  to 
large,  closed;  cavity  acute,  regular,  brown;  stem 
long,  yellow;  core  large,  open;  seeds  numerous, 
angular;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  fine-grained,  tender, 
juicy,  acid.  Tree  an  early  bearer,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive; shoots  branching  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
and  are  of  a  dark  color. 

King  of  Tompkins  County,  King,  Tommy 
Red.  Best,  table,  cooking  and  market,  winter. 
Large,  handsome,  .  globular,  irregular,  angular, 
smooth  yellow  ground,  covered  with  deep  red, 
marbled  and  striped;  dots  numerous,  grey,  large; 
basin  shallow, folded;  eye  large,  short,  closed ;  cav- 
ity wide,  shallow,  wavy;  stem  various,  red;  core 
very  large,  closed ;  seeds  imperfect,  angular;  flesh 
yellowish  white,  tender,  crisp,  subacid,  aromatic. 
Tree  an  abundant  annual  bearer;  shoots  very 
downy. 

Klaproth.  Good,  table  and  market,  Aug.  to 
Oct.  Medium  size,  regular,  oblate,  dull  yellow, 
more  or  less  covered  with  red  stripes;  dots  numer- 
ous, ligfht:  h-'s-'a  vide,  regular;  eye  closed,  small; 


38 


APPLE. 


cavity  deep,  regular,  brown;  stem  short  to  me- 
dium ;  flesli  white,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  acid.  Tree 
has  all  the  good  qualities;  shoots  a  gi'eyish 
brown. 

Lady,  Api,  etc.  Good  for  ornament,  dessert 
and  market.  Very  small,  flat,  regular,  smooth, 
polished,  pale  waxen-yellow  ground,  nearly  covered 
with  bright  carmine;  a  beautiful  apple;  basin 
rather  abrupt;  cavity  acute;  stem  short;  core  wide, 
closed;  seeds  numerous;  flesh  white,  crisp,  tender 
and  juicy,  mild  subacid.  Dec.  to  Mar.  Tree  of 
medium  size,  very  close  and  upright,  healthy  and 
productive;  shoots  very  dark;  foliage  small, 
crowded,  curled  and  very  dark. 

Lady's  Sweeting,  Lady''s  Sweet.  Good  to  best, 
table,  baking,  market  and  stock  feeding,  Dec.  to 
May.  Large,  round,  somewhat  conic,  occasionally 
angular,  smooth,  light  yellow,  striped  and  splashed 
with  red;  dots  distinct,  large,  grey;  basin  medium, 
often  abrupt,  folded;  eye  very  small,  closed;  cav- 
ity medium  or  wide,  regular,  brown;  stem  various; 
core  medium  size,  otherwise  various;  seeds  angu- 
lar and  i6  in  number;  flesh  white,  crisp,  fine- 
grained, juicy,  sweet,  agreeable.  Tree  thrifty  and 
productive. 

Large  Bough,  Large  Yellow  Bough,  Early 
Sweet  Bozigh,  Sweet  Harvest.  Good  to  best,  for 
table  and  market,  July  and  Aug.  Rather  large, 
round,  conic,  regular,  very  light,  smooth,  white  or 
pale  yellow,  dots  few,  minute,  dark,  indented; 
basin  shallow,  regular;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity 
deep,  regular,  sometimes  brown;  core  regular, 
nearly  closed;  seeds  medium,  dark;  flesh  white, 
very  soft,  light,  juicy,  very  sweet  when  ripe,  some- 
what bitter  when  green,  rather  flavorless  when 
cooked,  but  too  sweet  for  pies  and  sauce.  /Tree 
has  a  compact  head  and  is  rather  produttive; 
young  shoots  greyish  brown,  verj-  slightly  downy. 

Late  Strawberry,  Autumn  Strawberry.  Best, 
table  and  market,  Sept.  to  Dec.  Medium  size, 
roundish,  conical,  angular,  furrowed,  smooth  wax- 
en yellow,  mixed  and  striped  scarlet;  dots  minute, 
indented;  basin  folded,  irregular;  eye  closed;  cavity 
acute,  wavy,  irregular;  stem  slender,  long;  core 
medium,  closed;  seeds  large;  flesh  yellow,  very 
tender,  ti^e-grained,  very  juicy,  subacid,  aromatic, 
vinous,  refreshing.     Tree  upright,  thrifty,  etc. 

Limber  Twig.  Good  or  very  good,  dessert 
and  cooking,  Jan.  to  April.  Small,  roundish, 
conic,  rather  smooth,  mixed,  dull  purplish  red  on 
green  ground,  stripes  scarcely  to  be  traced;  dots 
numerous,  large,  irregular,  brown;  eye  small, 
open;  cavity  deep,  brown;  stem  curved;  core 
rather  large,  turbinate,  closed;  seeds  numerous, 
small,  plump,  long;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  firm, 
subacid,  rich,  aromatic.  Keeps  very  well  in  the 
ground,  but  wilts  if  exposed  to  the  air.  Tree 
thrifty  and  exceedingly  productive;  shoots  slen- 
der and  drooping  with  the  heavy  crops. 


Lowell,Greasy  or  Tallow  Pippin,  ^ueen  Anne, 
Michigan  Golden,  etc.  Very  good,  market  and 
cooking,  Aug.  to  Oct.  Large,  round,  slightly 
conic,  truncated,  regular,  smooth,  waxy  yellow^, 
not  blushed  or  bronzed,  becoming  greasy  when 
kept  in-doors;  dots  numerous,  green;  basin  deep, 
abrupt,  regular;  eye  medium,  closed;  cavity  me- 
dium, regular,  green;  stem  long,  slender;  core 
medium,  oval,  closed;  seeds  numerous,  angular, 
pointed,  pale;  flesh  yellov^r,  tender,  fine-grained, 
juicy,  subacid,  aromatic. 

Mcintosh's  Red  is  a  new  good  variety. 

McLellan.  Very  good,  table,  Dec.  to  March. 
Medium  size  or  above,  roundish,  regular,  fair,  yel- 
low, mostly  striped,  marbled  and  splashed  with 
red;  stem  short;  cavity  deep;  calyx  nearly  closed; 
basin  moderate,  slightly  uneven;  flesh  white,  very 
tender,  juicy,  with  a  fine  vinous  flavor,  almost 
sugary.  Tree  handsome  and  good  otherwise. 
Not  much  raised  in  the  West. 

Maiden's  Blush.  Very  good,  table,  cooking 
and  market,  Aug.  to  Oct.  Medium  size  to  large, 
regular,  flat,  smooth,  polished,  pale  waxen  yellow 
blushed  with  bright  carmiue,  and  is  a  very  hand- 
some apple;  dots  minute;  basin  shallow,  regular 
or  wavy;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  wide,  wavy; 
stem  medium  to  short;  core  closed;  seeds  numer- 
ous, brown  f  flesh  white,  crisp,  fine-grained,  juicy, 
acid,  aromatic.  In  drying  it  retains  a  very  light 
color.     Ti'ee  has  all  the  good  qualities. 

Melon,  Watermelon.  Very  good,  table,  cook- 
ing and  market,  Nov.  to  March.  Large,  oblate, 
somewhat  conical,  angular,  smooth,  waxen  yel- 
low, nearly  covered  with  marbled  and  mixed 
scarlet,  striped  distinctly  with  darker  shade;  dots 
minute;  basin  wide;  eye  open;  cavity  deep,  acute, 
wavy,  green  and  brown;  core  heart-shaped,  wide, 
partially  open;  seeds  numerous,  angular;  flesh 
yellow,  fine  grained,  tender,  juicy,  subacid,  aro- 
matic, rich.  Tree  round-headed,  spreading,  vigor- 
ous. 

Michigan  Golden.  This  is  treated  by  Dr. 
Warder  as  a  distinct  variety  from  the  Lowell, 
although  his  description  is  about  the  same.  In 
quality  he  gives  it  as  nearly  best,  and  extends  its 
season  for  use  to  November. 

Monmouth  Pippin,  Red  Cheek.  Very  good, 
cooking  and  market,  Dec.  to  March.  Rather 
large,  handsome,  roundish  or  flattened,  regular, 
smooth,  greenish  yellow,  blushed  and  marbled; 
dots  minute,  green;  basin  shallow,  regular;  eye 
large,  closed;  cavity  wide,  regular  or  wavy, 
brown;  stem  short,  thick;  core  medium,  closed; 
seeds  numerous,  pointed,  brown;  flesh  white, 
crisp,  fine-grained,  juicy,  acid.  Tree  of  moderate, 
upright  growth;  young  shoots  dark  olive. 

Milam.  Good  as  dessert,  Dec.  to  March. 
Small,  smooth,  yellow,  covered  with  marbled-red 
indistinct    stripes;    dots    small,    grey,    scattered, 


APPLE. 


39 


prominent;  basin  narrow,  wavy,  leather-cracked; 
cavity  acute,  brown;  stem  long;  core  ovate, 
closed;  seeds  numerous,  some  imperfect;  flesh 
white,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  mild  subacid  or  sweet; 
agreeable  and  refreshing.  Tree  round-headed, 
twiggy;  foliage  rather  dark;  shoots  reddish;  an- 
nually productive  and  an  early  bearer. 

Minkler,  Rrandy-Mine.  Good,  market  and  cook- 
ing, Jan.  to  May.  Medium  to  large,  globular, 
smooth,  greefcish  yellow,  covered  with  mixed  red 
and  stripes  of  dark,  dull  red;  dots  scattered,  mi- 
nute, yella^;  basin  wide;  cavity  acute,  brown; 
core  largCjvJlosed ;  seeds  numerous,  long,  pointed; 
flesh  yellow  or  greenish  yellow,  fine-grained, 
breaking,  juicy,  subacid.  Tree  thrifty,  spreading; 
branches  strong.  The  Brandywine  found  at 
Quincy,  III.,  is  probably  a  distinct  apjjle. 

Montebella.  Very  good,  Sept.  to  Nov.  Above 
medium,  oblate,  pale  yellow,  shaded  and  mottled 
with  light  red,  striped  and  splashed  with  dark  rich 
red  over  the  whole  surface,  and  a  few  large,  light 
dots;  stem  very  short,  small;  cavity  large,  rus- 
seted;  eye  small,  nearly  closed;  basin  large,  deep, 
smooth;  core  small  or  medium,  and  very  short; 
flesh  quite  white,  fine,  sometimes  a  little  stained 
next  to  the  skin,  very  tender,  juicy,  inild  subacid, 
vinous.  Tree  upright,  hardy,  healthy,  an  early 
bearer,  very  productive  annually. 

Mother.  Best,  table,  Oct.  to  Jan.  Medium 
size,  oblong,  regular,  smooth,  shaded  red  on  yel- 
low, with  close,  fine  stripes  of  red;  dots  minute; 
basin  regular  or  plaited;  eye  long,  small,  closed; 
seeds  numerous;  flesh  yellow,  crisp,  very  fine- 
grained, juicy,  sweet,  very  rich,  vinous,  aromatic. 
Tree  ratlier  slender  but  productive. 

Mountain  Szveet.  Good  to  very  good,  table 
and  cooking,  Dec.  A  rival  of  Broadwell  or 
Lady's  Sweeting.  Large,  beautiful,  but  too  del- 
icate for  transportation,  oblate,  smooth,  light  yel- 
low; dots  minute;  basin  wide,  wavy;  eye  small, 
closed;  cavity  deep,  wavy;  stem  short,  slender; 
core  wide,  open,  dark ;  seeds  numerous,  pointed ; 
flesh  white,  crisp,  very  tender,  fine-grained,  juicy, 
sweet. 

Ne-iVto-jjn  Pippin.  See  Green  and  Yellow 
Newtown  Pi])pin. 

Nevjiown  S pitzenburg ,  Vandcvcrc,  Spiced  Ox- 
Eye,  etc.  Best,  table,  cooking  and  market,  Oct. 
to  Feb.  Medium  size  to  large,  regular,  globular- 
oblate,  often  lop-sided,  scabby  and  defective  on  old 
trees  and  falls  badly,  smooth,  deep  red,  mixed  and 
striped,  on  rich,  yellow  ground,  often  overspread 
w^ith  whitish,  giving  the  fruit  a  grey  appearance; 
dots  numerous,  minute;  fawn  color  on  dark  spec- 
imens; basin  medium,  regular;  e3'e  small,  closed; 
cavity  regular,  medium,  brown;  stem  short;  core 
regular,  wide,  somewhat  open;  seeds  numerous, 
angular;  flesh  rich,  yellow,  very  fine-grained,  very 
tender,  juicy,  rich  subacid  and  saccharine,  aromatic. 


and  efninently  satisfying.  Tree  not  very  large, 
compact,  round  head,  productive;  foliage  rather 
small,  curled,  showing  the  white  underneath. 

Nickajack.,  S/iminerour,  yackson  Red.,  Biff 
Hili.,  Carolina  Spice,  Cheatan  Pippin,  Red 
Warrior,  World''s  Wonder,  Missouri  Red,  and 
many  other  names.  Good,  market  and  keeper,  Dec. 
to  May.  Rather  Southern,  large,  nearly  round, 
not  handsome,  even  but  not  smooth,  mostly  cov- 
ered with  brick-dust  red,  striped  indistinctly  with 
dark  red,  some  stripes  very  distinct;  dots  scattered, 
yellow;  basin  shallow,  even;  eye  small,  closed; 
cavity  acute,  regular,  yellow  and  brown;  stem 
slender;  core  closed;  seeds  numerous,  large;  flesh 
greenish  yellow,  crisp,  firm,  coarse,  subacid,  not 
rich.  Tree  robust,  spreading,  large,  very  produc- 
tive; shoots  stout  and  red. 

Northern  Spy.  Very  good  to  best,  _Dec.  to 
June.  Table,  cooking  and  market.  Large,  flat- 
tened, conical,  angular,  smooth,  yellow,  mixed  and 
splashed  scarlet  or  crimson ;  dots  scattered,  small ; 
basin  abrupt,  regular  or  folded;  eye  sn-^all,  closed; 
cavity  wide,  regular  or  wavy  brown;  stem 
medium  to  short;  core  large,  irregular,  open;  seeds 
numerous,  small,  pointed,  pale;  flesh  yellowish, 
white,  crisp,  granular,  juicy,  acid,  aromatic,  rich, 
with  the  spiciness  of  a  Spitzenburg.  Tree  vigor- 
ous, large,  upright,  and  when  older,  spreading  and 
very  productive;  needs  much  trimming;  shoots 
reddish;  leaves,  healthy,  large,  dark. 

Ohio  Nonpareil,  Mycr'' s  Nonpareil,  Western 
Beauty.  Very  good  to  best,  table  and  market, 
Sept.  to  Dec.  Large  to  very  large,  regular,  ob- 
late, smooth,  yellow,  covered  with  bright  red,, 
very  handsoine;  dots  scattered,  grey ;  basin  wide,, 
regular;  eye  large,  closed;  cavity  deep,  regular; 
stem  short,  small ;  core  somewhat  open ;  seeds. 
numerous;  flesh  yellowish,  tender,  fine-grained, 
juicy,  subacid,  rich.  Tree  healthy,  etc.,  limbs 
straight,  stout,  compact. 

Peach  Pond  Sweet.  Very  good,  table,  cooking 
and  market,  vScpt.  to  Nov.  Small  to  medium, 
round,  oblate,  five-angled,  slightly  conical,  smooth, 
pale  yellow,  lightly  ^overed  with  mixed  and 
striped  red,  beautifully  splashed  crimson ;  basin 
narrow  or  folded;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  deep, 
acute,  brown;  stem  medium  to  long,  green,  some- 
times knobby;  core  regular,  heart-shaped,  closed; 
seeds  small,  short;  flesh  yellow,  tender,  fine- 
grained, juicy,  very  sweet.  Tree  spreading; 
shoots  dull,  grayish  brown. 

Peck's  Pleasant.  Very  good,  to  best,  table, 
cooking  and  market,  Nov.  to  March.  Large,  flat- 
tened, globular,  somewhat  angular,  sometimes 
having  a  shallow  furrow  on  one^side,  smooth,  yel- 
low or  orange,  sometimes  faintly 'blushed;  dots 
grey  with  white  basis;  basin  rather  shallow  and 
folded ;  eye  small  and  open ;  cavity  wide  but  often 
lipped  brown;  stem  short,  very  thick  and  knobby; 


•4° 


APPLE. 


core  large,  closed ;  seeds  numerous,  angular;  flesh 
yellow,  tender,  crisp,  fine-grained,  subacid,  some- 
what aromatic.  Tree  spreading  moderately,  vig- 
orous, and  a  regular  bearer. 

Penock,  Red  Ox,  Large  or  Big  Romanite. 
Poor,  Nov.  to  March.  Very  large,  form  variable, 
but  generally  roundish;  often  unequal  and  lop- 
sided, greenish  yellow,  covered  with  mixed  and 
striped  red ;  dots  large,  irregular  and  grey ;  basin 
wide,  deep,  uneven ;  eye  open ;  cavity  wide,  deep ; 
stem  short;  seeds  numerous,  angular;  flesh  yellow, 
breaking,  coarse  grain,  subacid;  very  much  dis- 
posed to  bitter  rot.  Tree  large,  spreading,  very 
productive,  bearing  annually. 

Perry  Russet.  Very  good,  table  and  cooking, 
Nov.  to  Jan.  Medium  to  large,  oblate,  regular, 
smooth,  yellow,  covered  with  fine  russet;  dots 
minute,  scattered;  basin  medium,  wavy;  eye  large, 
■closed ;  xavity  regular  or  wavy  brown ;  stem 
medium;  core  small,  closed ;  seeds  few;  flesh  yel- 
low, fine-grained,  juicy,  acid,  rich.  Tree  a  moder- 
ate, upright,  spreading  grower,  hardy,  an  early 
and  abundant  bearer;  young  shoots  light  brown- 
ish red. 

Pomme  Grisc,  Gray  Apple.  Good  to  best,  for 
"dessert  and  market,  Dec.  to  March.  Small,  round- 
ish, oblate,  regular,  even,  not  quite  smooth,  yel- 
low, overspread  with  fine  russet,  rarely  blushed ; 
basin  wide,  soinetimes  abrupt;  eye  very  small, 
closed;  cavity  wide;  stem  short  or  medium;  core 
heart-shaped,  full,  regular,  closed;  seeds  plump, 
angular;  flesh  firm,  yellow,  crisp,  fine-grained, 
juicy,  subacid,  rich,  aromatic,  delicious.  Tree 
good;  shoots  slender. 

Primate,  Rough  and  Ready,  Sour  Harvest, 
yuly  Apple,  etc.  Very  good  to  best,  table,  Aug. 
to  Oct.  Fair  size,  globular,  angular,  irregular, 
•smooth,  greenish  yellow,  becoming  almost  white, 
sometimes  faintly  blushed;  basin  abrupt,  folded; 
■eye  small,  long,  closed;  cavity  acute,  wav^y  green; 
:stem  medium  to  long,  thick;  core  closed;  seeds 
numerous,  angular,  long,  dark;  flesh  greenish 
"w^hite,  very  tender,  fine-grained,  mild  subacid, 
agreeable.  Tree  stocky  and  productive;  shoots 
stout,  short,  light  olive;  bftds  prominent;  foliage 
pale  green. 

Porter.  Very  good  to  best,  table  and  market, 
Aug.  to  Oct.  Rather  large,  oblong,  somewhat 
conic,  often  truncated,  smooth,  yellow,  often  faintly 
blushed;  dots  few,  sunken;  basin  abrupt,  folded; 
eye  large,  closed;  cavity  acute,  wavy  brown;  core 
closed;  seeds  numerous;  flesh  yellowish  white, 
crisp,  tender,  juicy,  acid.     An  Eastern  apple. 

Pewaukec.  Good,  Jan.  to  May.  Medium  to 
large,  roundish,  oblate,  bright  yellow,  striped, 
■splashed  and  nettled  with  light  and  dark  red  over 
most  of  the  surface,  covered  with  a  thin  greyish 
bloom  ;  dots  both  large  and  small,  numerous;  stem 
short, small;  cavity  small;  eye  closed;  basin  slightly 


corrugated ;  flesh  white,  crisp,  a  little  coarse, 
half  tender,  juicy,  subacid,  slightly  aromatic;  core 
small.  Tree  strong,  upright,  spreading,  an  annual 
beaiei",  and  Wisconsin  is  its  home.  <^ 

Pryor''s  Red,  Big  Hill.  Very  good,  or  best, 
table,  cooking  and  market.  South  and  Southwest, 
Dec.  to  Mar.  Large,  globular,  oblate,  often  un- 
equal, greenish  or  dull,  red  striped,  russeted;  dots 
numerous,  large,  grey;  basin  shallow,  regular  or 
plaited,  leather-cracked;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity 
shallow,  acute,  often  lipped;  core  regular,  closed ;  ■, 
seeds  numerous,  angular,  pointed;  flesh  yellow, 
tender,  melting,  fine-grained,  juicy,  subacid,  rich. 
Tree  large,  twiggy,  productive  when  old ;  shoots 
slender,  reddish,  olive,  speckled ;  foliage  scattering, 
folded,  greyish  green,  subject  to  blight. 

Plumb''s  Cider.  Sept  to  Jan.  Medium  size, 
roundish,  slightly  conic,  greenish  yqllow,  shaded 
and  rather  obscurely  striped  and  splashed  with 
dull  red;  some  light  dots;  stem  short,  small; 
cavity  small;  eye  small,  closed ;  basin  small,  cor- 
rugated ;  flesh  whitish,  half  fine,  tender,  juicy,  mild 
subacid;  core  small.  The  tree  is  round-iieaded, 
an  early  bearer,  and  very  productive  alternate 
vears.  It  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  apples  in 
Wisconsin. 

Quince,  or  Cole's  Quince.  Ver>'  good,  Oct.  to 
Dec.  Medium  to  large,  brownish,  oblate,  yellow, 
rarely  with  a  blush,  somewhat  broadly  ribbed ; 
stem  short;  cavity  open,  deep;  eye  closed;  basin 
large,  deep,  uneven ;  flesh  yellowisli  white,  crisp, 
tender,  a  little  coarse,  with  a  brisk,  pleasant  sub- 
acid, quince  aroma;  core  large.  Young  wood,  a 
clear,  rich  reddish  brown,  with  short,  abrupt, 
prominent  buds. 

RamsdclP s  Sweet,  RamsdelV s  Red,  Red  Pump- 
kin Sweet,  English  Sweet,  etc.  V^ery  good,  cook- 
ing and  for  stock,  Sept.  to  Feb.  Medium  to  large, 
oblong,  regular  truncated,  smooth,  yellow,  ground 
hidden  by  bright  or  dark  red,  mixed  and  striped; 
dots  numerous,  fawn-colored,  and  covered  with  a 
bluish  bloom;  basin  deep,  abrupt,  wavy;  eye 
small,  closed;  cavity  deep,  wavy ;  stem  medium  to 
long,  often  red;  core  large,  closed;  seeds  large; 
flesh  yellow,  crisp,  juicy,  very  sweet  and  rich. 
Tree  upright,  many  branches,  an  early  bearer; 
shoots  slender,  reddish;  foliage  light  green. 

Rambo,  Romanite,  Bread  and  Cheese,  Seek-no- 
further,  etc.  Best,  dessert,  cooking  and  market, 
Oct.  to  Dec.  Small  to  medium,  regular,  oblate, 
sometimes  unequal  when  overgrown ;  large  speci- 
mens appear  truncate,  striped  and  splaslied,  scarlet 
on  greenish  yellow,  in  some  the  stripes  coalesce; 
dots  numerous,  small,  prominent,  rich  bloom; 
basin  wide,  abrupt,  regular  or  plaited,  sometimes 
quite  shallow;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  wide, 
always  green;  core  closed;  seeds  numerous,  large, 
angular;  flesh  greenish  white,  tender,  crisp,  granu- 
lar, juicy,  subacid,  aromatic,  vinous.  Tree  upright. 


APPLE. 


41 


thrifty,    productive;    shoots    dark;    foHage    large, 
light  green. 

Rawle's  Janet^  Missouri  yannetting,  Red 
Never-Fail,  Rock  Rimtnon,  etc.  Good  to  very 
good,  table,  market,  keeper  and  cider,  Southwest, 
Feb.  to  June.  Medium  size,  flattened,  conic,  regu- 
lar, smooth,  mixed  and  striped  crimson  on  yellow 
and  green;  dots  many,  small;  eye  small,  closed; 
cavity  deep  and  brown;  stem  long,  curved;  core 
heart-shaped,  closed;  seeds  many;  flesh  yellowish, 
crisp,  fine-grained,  juicy,  subacid,  vinous,  refresh- 
ing. Tree  thrifty,  not  large,  spreading;  twigs 
brownish;  foliage  rather  whitish;  blossoms  late. 
Grows  and  matures  in  Missouri  far  better  than 
anywhere  else. 

Red  Astrackan.  First-r^te,  market  and  table, 
July  and  Aug^  Medium  to  large,  regular,  oblate, 
smooth,  mottled,  marbled  and  striped  crimson  on 
greenish  yellow;  dots  minute,  with  heavy  bloom; 
basin  regular;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  shallow; 
stem  long,  yellow;  core  closed;  seeds  angular, 
small,  dark;  flesh  yellow,  crisp,  juicy,  sour,  not 
rich.  Tree  vigorous  and  productive;  shoots  red- 
<lish  brown;  foliage  large,  rich  green. 

Red  Canada,  Steele'' s  Red.  Best  table  and  mar- 
ket, Dec.  to  May.  Medium  size,  globular,  conic, 
indistinctly  angular,  smooth,  vellow,  covered  with 
mixed  and  striped  bright  red;  dots  numerous,  grej', 
indented,  elongated  near  the  stem ;  basin  shallow, 
folded;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  wide,  acute, 
wavy;  stem  long,  inclined;  core  large,  closed; 
seeds  imperfect;  flesh  yellowish  white,  crisp,  ten- 
der, fine-grained,  juicv,  subacid,  aromatic,  delicious. 
Tree  slender,  twiggy,  but  healthy  and  productive; 
young  wood  brovs-nish  olive. 

Red  Queening-,  Red  ^ueen.  Crimson  Queen- 
ing, etc.  Good  in  the  West,  Dec.  to  March. 
Medium  size,  conical,  mostly  covered  with  deep 
crimson;  flesh  white,  with  a  red  tinge  under  the 
skin;  tender,  juicy,  sweet,  aromatic. 

Rhode  Island  Greening.  Almost" best,  cooking 
and  market,  Oct.  to  March.  Large,  globular, 
sometimes  flattish,  smooth  in  the  North,  somewhat 
rough  and  often  quite  russeted  in  the  South,  a  dull 
green  becoming  yellow  at  maturity;  dots  grey, 
irregular,  numerous;  basin  somewhat  russeted; 
£ye  small  to  medium,  closed;  cavity  wide;  stem 
medium  to  long,  curved,  often  reddish;  flesh  very 
yellow,  cris]i,  tender,  juicy,  rich,  acid;  seeds  numer- 
ous, angular,  dark.  Tree  very  vigorous,  crooked, 
spreading,  productive;  shoots  stout,  dark;  foliage 
dark. 

Ribston  Pippin.  An  extra  good  apple  in  Eng- 
land; good  in  Maine  and  Canada.  Cooking  and 
market,  Nov.  to  Feb.  Medium  to  large,  round, 
truncated,  rough,  splashed  and  mixed  dull  on  yel- 
low; prominent  russet  dots,  small  but  numerous; 
basin  abrupt,  russeted;  eye  small,  closed;  cavitv 
acute,   wide,   brown;    stem   slender;    core   closed; 


seeds  numerous,  angular,  imperfect;  flesh  yellow, 
crisp,  firm,  juicy,  acid,  rich,  aromatic. 

Rice's  Sweet  is  a  good  appla  for  tlie  West. 

Roman  Stem.  Good  to  very  good,  dessert, 
Nov.  to  March.  Medium  size,  globular,  sinooth, 
3'ellow,  often  blushed;  dots  minute,  reddish  or 
dark;  basin  shallow,  wavy,  russet;  eye  small, 
closed;  cavity  acute,  lipped;  stem  long;  core  large, 
hollow,  heart-shajjed ;  seeds  numerous;  flesh  yel- 
lowish white,  fine-grained,  juicy,  mild  subacid, 
rich.  Tree  productive,  spreading  irregular;  mod- 
erately  vigorous. 

Rome  Beauty,  Gillefs  Seedling.  Good,  Oct. 
to  Feb.  Market,  large,  regular,  fair,  handsome, 
roundish,  oblate,  sometimes  rather  conical,  smooth, 
pale  yellow,  striped,  mixed,  bright  red ;  dots  mi- 
nute, indented ;  basin  wide,  deep;  eye  very  small; 
cavity  wide,  wavy,  green;  stem  long,  slender;  core 
wide,  closed;  seeds  numerous,  long,  pointed;  flesh 
yellow,  breaking,  coarse  grained,  subacid,  not  rich. 
Tree  hardy,  round-headed,  very  productive;  shoots 
slender  or  red;  foliage  healthy;  blossoms  late. 

Roxbury  Russet,  Boston,  Putnam,  etc..  Russet. 
Good  to  very  good,  Nov.  to  June.  Table  and 
market.  Medium  size,  sometimes  large,  roundish, 
a  little  flattened,  dull  green,  but  when  ripe  cover- 
ed with  brownish  yellow,  russet,  sometimes  with 
a  faint  blush  on  one  side;  stem  slender,  curved; 
cavity  pointed;  basin  regular,  or  wavy,  green, 
often  folded;  core  closed;  seeds  numerous,  angu- 
lar, imperfect;  flesh  greenish  yellow,  breaking, 
granular,  often  coarse,  juicy,  decidedly  acid.  Tree 
robust,  spreading;  shoots  stout,  straggling,  dark; 
foliage  greyish-green. 

Salome.  Best,  dessert  and  cooking,  in  the 
spring.  Uniform,  large,  fair  size,  and  cling  tightly 
to  the  tree;  flesh  juicy,  a  peculiar  subacid,  slightly 
spicy  flavor;  color  yellow,  nearly  overspread  with 
red.  The  tree  is  an  early  and  abundant  bearer, 
producing  annually;  leaves  very  thick  and  stout. 
Originated  by  E.  C.  Hatheway,  of  Ottawa,  111. 

Seek-no-Further.  The  apple  which,  by  this 
name,  flourishes  in  the  Northwestern  States,  is  the 
Westfield  Seek-no-Furtlier,  which  sec. 

Smitli's  Cider,  Smith's,  Pennsylvania  Cider. 
Good  for  cooking  and  cider  Dec.  to  Nliir.  Medium 
to  large,  round,  flat  to  elongated,  sometimes  lop- 
sided, smooth,  pale  yellow  covered  witli  mixed 
light  red,  splashed  indistinctly  with  hriglit  carmine, 
beautiful;  dots  indistinct,  rather  large,  light  grey ; 
basin  siiallow,  often  plaited;  cavity  acute,  brown  ; 
stem  variable;  core  wide,  pear-shaped,  cjjen;  seeds 
numerous,  pointed;  flesh  white,  brfaking,  juicy, 
acid,  aromatic,  peculiar,  not  rich.  Tree  vigorous, 
etc.,  and  an  early  bearer;  limbs  straggling;  shoots 
slender,  light  olive;  foliage  large,  light  green. 

Sops  of  Wine.  Good  for  dessert,  Aug.  and 
Sept.  Small  to  medium,  round,  slightly  conic, 
regular,    smooth,    mixed     red,    shaded     dark     red 


42 


APPLE. 


throughout;  clots  small,  yellow;  basin  shallow» 
plaited ;  cavity  somewhat  wavy ;  stem  long,  red ; 
core  distinctly  marked  with  a  red  line,  wide,  oval, 
closed;  seeds  numerous,  brown;  flesh  yellow,  fine- 
grained, tender,  juicy,  acid,  agreeable.  Tree 
spreading,  productive,  upright. 

Stanard,  Stanat-ifs  Scedlmg.  Good,  market 
and  table,  Nov.  to  Mar.  Large,  roundish,  ribbed, 
angular,  smooth,  yellovi'ish  green,  somewhat  red, 
mixed  and  striped  indistinctly;  dots  numerous,  mi- 
nute, white;  basin  folded;  eye  large,  closed;  cavity 
wide,  acute,  wavy,  green;  core  small,  closed;  seeds 
numerous,  brown,  angular;  flesh  yellow,  breaking, 
rather  coarse,  tender,  acid,  rich.  Tree  spreading, 
generally  crooked;  buds  large.  Becoming  a  pop- 
ular apple  in  the  West. 

St.  Lawrence.  Good  to  very  good,  Sept.  and 
Oct.  Large,  oblate,  yellowish,  striped  and  splashed 
carmine;  cavity  large;  basin  small,  deep;  flesh 
white,  lightly  stained,  crisp,  juicy,  tender,  vinous. 
Tree  vigorous,  upright,  productive;  young  shoots 
smooth. 

Striped  Winter  Pearmain,  Large  Striped 
Winter  Pearmain,  Striped  Sivcet  Pippin.  Vei'y 
good,  market,  cooking,  table,  Oct.  to  Feb.  Large, 
round,  flattened,  regular,  fair,  handsome,  smooth, 
mixed,  splashed  and  striped  pale  purplish  red  on 
yellow;  dots  minute,  indented,  grey,  so  that  the 
fruit  has  a  general  grey  appearance;  basin  regular, 
sometimes  cracked ;  eye  small,  closed;  cavity  wide, 
wavy  brown;  stem  various;  core  open;  seeds  nu- 
merous, large,  angular,  some  imperfect;  flesh  yel- 
low, breaking,  coarse-grained,  juicy,  subacid.  Tree 
spreading,  thrifty,  protluctive;  shoots  rather  slen- 
der, dark;  foliage  dark  green. 

Summer  Pippin,  Sour  Bough,  Large  Golden 
Pippin,  etc.  Good,  cooking  and  market,  Aug. 
and  Sept.  Medium  to  large,  variaV)le  in  form, 
pale  waxen  yellow  shaded  with  a  delicate  crimson 
blush  and  sprinkled  with  green  and  greyish  dots; 
stem  variable;  cavity  deep,  abrupt;  basin  deep, 
abrupt,  folded;  eye  closed;  flesh  white,  tender, 
moderately  juicy,  subacid,  refreshing.  Tree  has  a 
beautiful  head  and  is  a  good  bearer. 

Summer  Queen.  First-rate,  cooking  and  mar- 
ket, July  to  Sept.  Medium -sized,  round,  conic, 
angular,  yellow  covered  with  mixed  red,  striped, 
splashed  scarlet;  dots  minute,  yellow;  basin  none 
or  very  shallow,  folded  or  plaited;  eye  medium, 
closed;  cavity  wide,  brown;  stem  long,  slender; 
core  open;  seeds  numerous;  flesh  firm,  yellow, 
breaking,  acid,  aromatic.  Tree  large,  spreading, 
productive  and  vigorous. 

Summer  Rose.  Very  good  or  best,  June  to 
Aug.;  dessert,  cooking.  Small,  roundish,  flat- 
tened, polished,  very  pale  yellow  striped  and 
splashed  distinctly  with  bright  red  and  carmine;  ba- 
sin abrupt,  wide;  cavity  regular;  core  large,  closed; 
seeds   numerous,    short;    flesh    white,   crisp,   fine- 


grained, juicy,  subacid,  not  rich,  but  agreeable; 
ripens  gradually.  Tree  spreading,  productive,  and 
early  bearer;  shoots  stout;  foliage  large,  with  bluish 
mealy  luster. 

Szcaar.  Very  good  to  best,  Dec.  to  Mar.;  des- 
sert and  cooking.  Large,  variable  form  but  gen- 
erally roundish,  somewhat  flattened  on  the  sides  as 
well  as  vertically;  not  smooth;  greenish  yellow 
bronzed, becoming  a  dead  golden  vellow  when  ripe; 
dots  large,  numerous;  basin  medium,  wide;  eye 
small,  not  fong,  closed;  cavity  wide,  regular  or 
wavy  green;  stem  long,  curved,  stout;  core  heart- 
shaped,  closed;  seeds  numerous,  angular,  pale; 
flesh  very  heavy  (whence  its  name,  Swaar,  which 
is  Dutch  for  heavy),  yellow,  fine-grained,  very 
mild  subacid  or  sweet,  very  rich.  Tree  spreading,  ' 
vigorous  and  productive;  shoots  stout,  darkj 
foliage  large,  curled. 

Sweet  yune.     See  High-top  Sweet. 

Sweet  Pomanitc.  Good  to  very  good,  baking, 
cider,  table  and  stock,  Dec.  to  Apr.  Medium  size, 
round,  sometimes  flattened,  smooth,  greenish  yel- 
low, blushed,  mixed  bright  red  and  dull  red,  stripes 
indistinct;  cavity  deep,  wavy,  brown;  stem  medium 
to  long,  green;  seetls  numerous,  angular;  flesh 
vellow,  fine-grained,  breakmg,  juicy,  very  sweet; 
core  small.  Tree  strong,  upright,  a  moderate 
bearer. 

Tetofsky,  Tetofski.  Good,  cooking  and  market, 
June  to  July.  Small  to  medium,  round,  flattened, 
somewhat  conic,  angular,  smooth,  yellow  striped, 
splashed  carmine,  white  bloom ;  basin  shallow, 
folded;  eye  large,  closed;  cavity  wide,  wavy  or 
deep,  acute ;  stem  short,  3'ellovv ;  core  large,  closed ; 
seeds  numerous,  brown;  flesh  yellowish  white, 
breaking,  fine-grained,  juicy,  acid.  Tree  upright, 
hardy  and  productive;  leaves  broad,  pale  or  light 
green. 

Tewkesbury  Winter  Blush.  Good,  table,  mar- 
ket, and  keeping,  from  Jan.  to  July.  Has  more 
juice  and  flavor  than  any  other  long-keeping  vari- 
ety. Small,  regular,  flat,  smooth,  yellow  blushed; 
flesh  yellow,  breaking,  juicy,  well-flavored.  Tree 
has  all  the  good  qualities. 

Trenton  Early.  Very  good,  dessert  and  cook- 
ing, Aug.  and  Sept.  Large,  conical,  angular, 
smooth,  very  pale  yellow  or  white;  dots  rare,  mi- 
nute; basin  narrow,  folded;  eye  small,  closed; 
cavity  wide,  regular,  brown ;  core  large,  rather 
open;  seeds  numerous,  angular;  flesh  white,  very 
tender,  juicy,  subacid,  pleasant.  Tree  an  abundant 
bearer,  hardy,  etc. 

Talman''s  Sweet,  Tollman's  Sweet,  or  Sweet- 
ing, or  Tolman's  Sweet,  etc.  Good,  market 
and  cooking  and  stock,  Nov.  to  Apr.  Medium  to 
large,  nearly  round,  somewhat  flattened,  smooth, 
yellow;  dots  minute,  dark;  frequently  a  distinct  line 
on  one  side  from  stem  to  eye;  basin  wide,  leather- 
cracked;    ej-e    small,    closed;    cavity    wide;   stem 


/ 


APPLE. 


45 


long;  core  heart-shaped,  closed;  seeds  numerous, 
dark;  flesh  yellow,  breaking,  firm,  very  sweet, 
rich.  Tree  upright,  spreading,  hardy  and  pro- 
ductive. 

Triumfh.  G-ood,  dessert  and  baking,  in  spring. 
Uniformly  al-ove  medium  size,  regular,  smooth, 
pale  yellow,  mostly  covered  with  rather  a  dull  red; 
flesh  rich,  subacid.  Tree  a  seedling  originated  by 
J.  W.  Ridings,  of  Grundy  county,  Illinois. 

Ttuentv  Ounce,  T-wc7ity  Ounce  Pippin,  Cayu- 
■,a  Red  Streak,  etc.  Good,  cooking  and  market, 
ct.  to  Jan.  Large,  roundish,  flat,  greenish,  more 
or  less  mottled  and  striped  dull  red;  basin  wide; 
eye  open;  cavity  wide,  green;  stem  short,  thick; 
core  large,  closed;  seeds  numerous,  large,  angular; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  breaking,  acid,  with  a  pecul- 
iar aroma  not  agreeable.  Tree  has  a  compact, 
neat  head,  bears  regular  crops,  and  the  fruit  is  fair, 
handsome  and  showy. 

Utter  is  a  popular  apple  in  some  parts  of  the 
Northwest,  the  tree  being  hardy  and  a  regular 
bearer.  The  fruit,  which  is  best  in  early  winter, 
is  medium-sized  to  large,  oblate,  lemon-yellow 
ground,  mottled,  shaded  and  striped  with  light 
red;  small  russet  dots;  stem  short  and  slender;  ba- 
sin open,  furrowed;  flesh  white,  tender,  juicy,  mild, 
pleasant  subacid. 

IVagencr.  Good,  market,  dessert  and  cooking, 
Nov.  to  Feb.  Large,  oblate,  five-angled,  very 
smooth,  yellow,  well  covered  with  mixed  bright 
red  stripes  not  distinct;  dots  scattered,  yellow;  ba- 
sin wide,  abrupt;  cavity  brown;  stem  green;  core 
heart-shaped,  closed,  wide;  seeds  numerous,  large, 
angular;  flesh  yellowish  white,  tender,  fine-grained, 
juicy,  mild  subacid.  Tree  a  very  early  bearer, 
productive,  etc.,  requires  thinning. 

Walbridge.     See  Edgar  Redstreak. 

Warjield.  Good,  Aug.  to  Nov.,  cooking.  Me- 
dium size,  roundish,  oblate,  light  waxen-yellow, 
with  a  blush  in  the  sun,  moderately  sprinkled  with 
grey  dots;  stem  slender;  cavity  slightly  russeted; 
eye  large,  open;  flesh  whitish,  moderately  juicy, 
mild  subacid;  core  small.  Tree  hardy,  an  early 
and  abundant  bearer.  Originated  in  Muscatine, 
Iowa,  and  introduced  by  Suel  Foster,  of  that 
place. 

Wealthy.  Very  good,  Dec.  to  Feb.  Medium, 
oblate,  whitish-yellow  ground,  shaded  with  deep 
crimson  in  the  sun,  obscure  broken  stripes,  mot- 
tlings  in  the  shade,  sometimes  entirely  covered  with 
crimson;  many  light  dots;  stem  short  to  medium, 
slender;  cavity  green  russet;  basin  deep,  abrupt, 
uneven;  flesh  white,  fine-grained,  stained  with  red, 
tender,  juicy,  lively,  vinous,  subacid;  core  small; 
Tree  hardy,  vigorous,  etc.  Originated  only  about 
20  years  ago. 

Westjield  Scck-fio-further,  or  simply  Seek-no- 
further.  Good  to  best,  table  and  market,  Oct.  to 
Feb.     Medium  size,  roundish,  conic,  smooth,  dull 


red  mixed  and  striped  on  yellow,  in  the  North  clear 
bright  red;  dots  scattered,  large,  yellow;  leather- 
cracked  and  russeted  about  the  apex;  basin  shal- 
low, leather-cracked;  eye  closed  or  open;  cavity 
pointed,  brown;  stem  long;  core  closed;  seeds  nu- 
merous, small,  pointed;  flesh  yellowish  white, 
tender,  breaking,  very  mild  subacid,  aromatic,  sat- 
isfying, not  high-flavored  or  spicy.  Tree  vigorous, 
etc. 

White,  or  Canada  Pippin.  Good,  cooking  and 
market,  Dec.  to  March.  Large,  variable  in  form, 
angular,  sometimes  lopsided,  generally  fair  and 
free  from  scab,  smooth,  green  or  greenish  white  to 
pale  j'ellow  when  ripe;  toward  the  base  it  is  often 
marked,  when  unripe,  with  indistinct  wavy  stripes 
of  white;  the  inter-spaces  are  sometimes  colored 
by  exposure  and  assume  a  dark  or  purplish  hue, 
making  the  fruit  appear  '  )  be  striped;  dots  minute, 
and  surrounded  by  gret.i  bases,  which  are  most 
distinct  just  before  the  fruit  is  perfectly  ripe ;  basin 
deep,  abrupt,  wavy  or  folded;  eye  small,  closed; 
cavity  wide,  deep,  wavy,  brown  and  green;  stem 
short,  sometimes  thick;  core  small,  pear-sh.nped, 
closed;  seeds  numerous,  angular,  pale  brown;  flesh 
white,  or  yellowish  white,  breaking,  granular, 
jizicy,  acid,  not  spicy ;  rather  poor  keeper.  Tree 
remarkably  thrifty;  shoots  dark,  downy,  bearing 
large  leaves  which  are  very  downv  beneath  and 
deep  green  above. 

Williams'  Favorite,  Early  or  Red.  Good, 
market,  July  and  Aug.  Small,  roun(i,  smooth, 
dark  purplish  red,  indistinctly  striped;  dots  none; 
basin  abrupt,  folded;  cavity  wide;  stem  long, 
slender;  core  large,  closed ;  seeds  pointed,  brown; 
flesh  whitish  yellow,  streaked  red,  breaking,  not 
juicy,  subacid,  peculiar'.  Downing  seems  to  de- 
scribe a  different  apple  under  this  name,  saying 
that  it  is  large  and  handsome  and  good  for  dessert, 
and  that  the  tree  is  an  abundant  bearer. 

White  Winter  Pearmain.  Good  to  best,  des- 
sert, cooking,  market,  Dec.  to  March.  Medium 
size  to  large,  handsome  when  fair,  but  often  scabby 
on  ricji  limestone  soils  and  on  old  trees,  conical, 
sometimes  obscurely  angular,  smooth,  yellow,  often 
bronzy;  dots  scattered,  small,  dark;  basin  abrupt, 
regular  or  shallow  and  folded;  eye  medium,  closed; 
cavity  acute,  wavv,  brown;  stem  mediimi  to  long, 
often  knobby  and  clubbed;  core  closed;  seeds  few, 
pale  or  yellow  ;  flesh  yellow,  fine-grained,  tender, 
crisp,  juicy,  mild  subacid,,  very  rich.  Tree  spread- 
ing, productive,  the  bark  often  marked  by  a  kind 
of  canker  or  crack;  foliage  large,  rather  light 
green. 

Willis  Siveet.  Good  for  all  purposes,  Aug. 
and  Sept.  Medium  size,  round,  somewhat  angu- 
lar, striped  red,  very  sweet  and  rich;  flesh  whitish, 
juicy,  tender;  core  large. 

Willoiv  Twig,  Willow,  yanics  River.  Good, 
market  and  keeper,  Dec.  to  April.     Globular,  trun- 


46 


APPLE. 


cated,  somewhat  oblong,  medium  size,  light  yellow, 
shaded  and  marbled  with  dull  red,  and  sprinkled 
with  numerous  russet  dots;  basin  wide,  abrupt, 
plaited;  stem  long,  slender,  inclinfed;  core  round, 
closed;  seeds  numerous,  brown;  flesh  greenish 
yellow,  breaking,  juicy,  acid.  Tree  very  vigor- 
ous, productive,  etc.,  twiggy,  thorny  while  young; 
shoots  slender,  olive  brown. 

Wine^  Hay's  Winter,  Pennsylvania  Red-streak. 
Good,  cooking  and  market,  Oct.  to  March.  Large, 
globular-oblate,  flattened  or  truncate,  regular,  some- 
times unequal  and  lop-sided,  smooth,  yellow,  more 
or  less  covered  with  broken  stripes  of  red,  splashed 
with  crimson;  dots  scattered,  large,  grey;  basin 
shallow,  wide,  abrupt;  cavity  acute,  brown;  flesh 
yellow,  firm,  breaking,  juicy,  acid,  rich.  Tree  very 
large  and  handsome,  spreading  and  very  open  head ; 
leaves  small,  curled,  mealy. 

Winesap.  Very  good,  cider,  cooking,  market. 
Medium  size,  conical,  often  obscurely  angular  or 
slightly  ribbed,  smooth,  bright  or  dark  red,  mixed 
and  obscurely  striped  on  yellow,  which  is  mostly 
covered,  often  veined  russet;  dots  few,  minute,  in- 
dented; basin  narrow,  shallow,  plaited;  cavity 
wide,  reddish  brown;  core  somewhat  open;  seeds 
large,  rather  light;  flesh  firm,  yellow,  rich,  acid. 
Tree  vigorous,  etc.,  an  early  bearer;  branches 
open,  straggling;  foliage  curled,  bluish- mealy, 
sparse. 

Winter  Sweet  Paradise.  Very  good,  dessert, 
Nov.  to  March.  Rather  large,  roundish-oblate, 
dull  green  when  picked,  with  ;v  brownish  blush, 
becoming  a  little  jialer;  stem  short,  often  russeted; 
basin  deep,  slightly  folded ;  flesh  white,  fine- 
grained, juicy,  sweet,  sprightly ;  core  small.  Tree 
hardy,  etc.,  but  not  an  early  bearer;  young  shoots 
reddish  gre}-, 

Wortheii  Winter  Sweet.  This  is  a  new  apple, 
introduced  by  A.  H.  Worthen,  Jr.,  near  Warsaw, 
111.,  and  bids  for  the  highest  public  favor.  The 
fruit  has  a  very  delicate  color,  and  is  beautiful.  It 
is  above  the  average  size,  of  fine  flavor,  yellow, 
and  keeps  well. 

Wythe.  Good,  Jan,  to  March.  Medium  size, 
oblate,  slightly  conic,  nearly  regular,  white,  shaded, 
striped  and  splashed  over  more  than  half  the  sur- 
face with  bright  red  and  a  few  light  and  grey  dots; 
stem  short,  small;  cavity  large,  deep;  basin 
slightly  plaited;  flesh  whitish,  fine,  tender,  juicy, 
sprightly,  subacid,  slightly  aromatic;  core  medium. 
Tree  has  round  head,  blooms  rather  late,  bears 
good  crops  annually,  of  fruit  of  uniform  size,  which 
keeps  well.  This  tree  originated  at  Wythe,  111., 
and  is  hardy  and  vigorous. 

Yelloxv  Bellflower.,  Belle  Fleur,  Lady  Wash- 
ington. Very  good  to  best,  dessert,  cooking  and 
market,  Dec.  to  April.  Large  to  very  large,  ovate, 
oblong,  angular,  ribbed,  smooth,  rich  yellow,  some- 
times blushed ;  dots  scattered,  grey ;  basin  plaited; 


cavity  deep,  wavy ;  stem  long,  curved ;  core  large, 
oval,  open;  seeds  dark,  large,  angular,  imperfect; 
flesh  yellow,  breaking,  fine-grained,  juicy,  acid  to 
subacid,  aromatic,  very  rich  and  satisfying.  Tree 
vigorous,  etc.,  spreading,  drooping;  twigs  slender, 
brown ;  foliage  abundant,  long,  wavy ;  blossoms 
very  large  and  not  protected  by  the  leaves. 

Tellow  Newtown  Pippin,  Yellow  JS/ewtown, 
Best,  dessert,  cooking,  market  and  cider,  Feb.  to 
May.  Large,  round,  cylindrical,  truncated,  Iod- 
sided,  ribbed,  sometimes  even  conic,  smooth,  yel- 
lowish gi-een,  sometimes  bronzy,  becoming  yellow 
when  ripe;  marked  with  grey  stripes  near  the  base 
while  green;  dots  minute,  scattered,  whitish  bases j 
calyx  open;  basin  large,  folded,  ribbed  or  plaited; 
cavity  deep,  brown;  stem  medium  or  short;  core 
oval,  closed;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  breaking,  juicy, 
not  criSp,  acid,  aromatic,  rich,  very  agreeable.  Tree 
of  slow  growth,  not  an  early  bearer,  but  large, 
spreading  and  productive. 

Siberian  Apple,  called  also  Siberian  Crab- 
apples,  or  simply  "  Crabs."  This  is  a  beautiful 
fruit  and  comparatively  easy  to  raise,  the  principles 
of  propagation  and  culture  being  the  same  as  for 
the  standard  apple  above  treated,  but  it  is  more 
hardy.  Some  varieties  are  unequaled  for  preser- 
vation in  different  styles  for  dessert,  and  some  are 
excellent  for  eating  imcooked.  They  have  the 
fine  aroma  of  the  wild  crab,  without  the  "crab"- 
bedness,  and  nothing  can  take  their  place.  Some 
Sii:)erians,  inider  favorable  circumstances,  grow  to 
the  average  size  of  standard  apples. 

Varieties.  Brier's  Sweet  is  a  ^■aluable  Sibe- 
rian apple,  well  adapted  to  Northern  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin;  fruit  as  large  as  the  Transcendent; 
shape  like  the  Bailey  Sweet;  pale  yellow,  beauti- 
fully penciled  and  splashed  with  carmine;  flesh 
yellowish,  crisp,  juicy,  very  sweet  and  rich.  Tree 
vigorous  and  productive.  This  variety  originated 
with  B.  B.  Brier,  of  Baraboo,  Wisconsin,  and  was 
the  result  of  a  fertilization  of  the  Siberian  crab 
with  the  Bailey  apple. 

Pay's  yoe  is  a  good  crab-apple  for  the  North- 
west. 

Hyslop.  Good  for  cooking  and  for  cider.  Large, 
produced  in  clusters,  roundish  ovate,  dark,  rich  red, 
covered  with  a  thick  blue  bloom ;  stem  long,  slen- 
der; flesh  yellowish,  subacid.  Tree  hardy,  of 
strong  growth,  and  rather  spreading;  young  wood 
light  colored  and  a  little  downy. 

Lake  Winter.  One  of  the  best  in  Wisconsin, 
Size  medium  to  large,  pale  yellow,  smooth,  mostly 
covered  with  bpght  blush  or  stripes;  cavity  small; 
calyx  closed  in  a  shallow  basin;  core  and  seeds 
small;  flesh  fine-grained,  firm,  juicy,  subacid,  be- 
coming nearly  sweet  in  spring,  entirely  free 
from  the  crab  taste;  excellent  for  cooking  and 
eating,  from  October  to  March.  Tree  a  beautiful 
grower. 


OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF 


APPLE. 


47 


Alilton.  Also  one  of  the  best  for  the  Northwest, 
but  on  rich  lands  has  an  irregular  growth  anil  ten- 
dency to  blight. 

Sotdard.  Very  good,  Oct.  to  Nov.  Medium 
to  large,  oblate,  obscurely  ribbed,  whitish,  shaded, 
striped  and  splashed  with  light  and  dark  bright. 
red  over  most  of  the  surface,  with  a  few  light  and 
brown  dots;  stem  small;  cavity  quite  large,  slight 
russet;  basin  corrugated. 

Transcendent.  This  is  one  of  the  best  of  early 
autumn  varieties.  Fruit  medium  to  large,  round- 
ish oblong,  slightly  but  regularly  ribbed,  golden 
yellow,  with  a  rich  crimson-red  cheek  in  the  sun, 
covered  with  a  delicate  white  bloom;  stem  long 
and  slender,  set  in  a  deep  cavity;  eye  closed;  flesh 
creamy  yellow,  crisp,  subacid,  a  little  astringent 
until  mellow,  when  it  is  pleasant  and  agreeable. 

Whitney's  No.  20  is  a  seedling  raised  and  dis- 
seminated by  A.  R.  Whitney,  of  Franklin  Grove, 
111.  The  tree  is  symmetrical,  and  the  fruit  fully 
up  to  the  Transcendent  in  size.  For  jellies  the 
native  crab  is  considered  the  best. 

To  Grind  apples  for  cider  and  vinegar  making 
on  a  large  scale,  there  is  manufactured  a  horse- 
power  macliine,  represented   by   the   annexed  cut, 

which,  with  either  one 

or  two   horses,  does  the 

work  more  tlioroughly 

than  any  other  machine 

we     It  a  V  e   .examined. 

M  a  n  )•   f  a  r  m  e  r  s   lose 

about  a    quarter  of  the 

apple-juice,  that  would 

be  saved  by  more  perfect 

-jgaJ    grinding.     The  price  of 

Fig,  2o.    Aifh  Grater.         ^j^jj^  machlnc  is  only  $25. 

Of  course  it  can  be  run  by  any  horse  or  steam 

power  a  man  may  have  on  his  premises. 

Apples,  to  CAN  and  dry:  see  Canning  and 
Drying. 

Apple  Pomaee,  ground  apples  from  which  the 
juice  has  been  expressed,  generally  by  a  cider-mill. 
The  pomace  of  ripe  apples,  after  the  cider  is  ex- 
tracted, is  valuable  for  almost  any  kind  of  jam.  It 
is  not  as  desirable  for  milch  cows  as  for  other 
kinds  of  stock,  as  it  tends  to  make  fat  rather 
than  milk.  After  cattle  become  accustomed  to  it, 
two  pecks  a  day  to  each  animal  should  be  given. 
The  same  amount  given  to  a  horse,  if  he  is  not 
worked  too  hard,  will  fatten  him.  Pigs  will 
readily  eat  it,  and  it  appears  to  do  them  good.  It 
is  also  good  for  poultry.  If  boiled  and  mixed  with 
meal,  it  is  readily  eaten,  and  is  quite  as  good  if  not 
better  than  potatoes.  If  spread  in  the  hen-yard, 
the  hens  will  pick  out  all  of  the  seeds,  which  are 
really  the  most  valuable  portion  of  it.  Slieep  are 
very  fond  of  it.  In  commencing  to  feed  to  any 
animal,  only  small  quantities   should  be  given   at 


first,  gradually  increasing  to  the  amount  believed 
to  be  sufficient.  Pomace  spread  several  inches 
deep  on  a  poor,  gravelly  hill,  will  biii;g  in  a  good 
crop  of  clover  the  second  year.  Antl  finally,  when 
dried,  it  makes  a  hot  fire.  It  is  often  used  in  steam 
cider-inills  for  fuel  under  the  boilers.  Whatever  is 
intended  for  feeding  purposes  should  not  be  left 
out  in  the  sun  and  rain,  to  sour  and  decay,  but 
should  be  housed  and  kept  as  sweet  as  possible.  Ir» 
hot  weather  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep  it,  but  when 
cool  weather  comes  it  can  be  kept  for  some  weeks- 
without  fermenting  enough  to  injure  it.  During 
warm  weather  it  should  be  fed  out  directly  fronii 
the  press,  unless  it  is  spread  and  dried.  Every 
fanner  who  carries  his  apples  to  mill  to  grind  for 
cider,  should  secure  the  privilege  of  carrying  home, 
as  wanted,  as  much  pomace  as  his  apples  make,  or 
as  much  as  he  has  stock  to  consume;  for  the  real 
value  of  the  pomace  is  much  more  than  the  cider, 
if  the  apples  are  ripe. 

Apple  Butter,  a  sauce  made  of  apples  stewed! 
down  in  cider.  To  make  it,  fill  a  preserving  pan 
with  peeled,  quartered  and  cored  apples;  add 
cloves,  allspice  and  cinnamon, —  not  too  muchp 
cover  with  good  cider  and  boil  slowly,  mashing: 
with  a  wooden  spoon,  until  the  whole  becomes  a 
dark  brown  jam,  with  no  more  juice  than  suffices, 
to  keep  it  soft  and  buttery. 

Apple  Jelly:  see  Jellies. 

Apples,  TO  PICKLE.  First,  wipe  the  skins 
smoothly,  trim,  and  force  the  core  (nit  with  a  corer; 
put  them  in  a  deep  dish,  and  steam  them  a  little 
(not  very  soft);  at  the  same  time  have  ready  the 
pickle,  of  which  allow  to  one  quart  of  good  vine- 
gar a  cup  of  brown  sugar,  a  tablespoonful  of 
ground  cinnamon,  one  teaspoonful  of  cloves  (more 
if  liked);  simmer  about  five  minutes,  and  pour 
over  the  fruit,  hot.  They  may  need  scalding.  For 
sweet  apples,  to  eight  pounds  of  fruit  take  three 
pounds  of  sugar  and  one  quart  of  vinegar  and  one 
pound  of  raisins.  This  makes  splendid  sauce  with 
either  dried  or  green  apples. 

Apples,  TO  BAKE.  Most  apples  are  good  for 
baking,  the  acid  sorts  disintegrating  into  a  fine 
pulp  and  broken  skin,  and  the  sweet  shrinking 
down  under  a  more  leathery  skin,  forming  a  fig  or 
raisin-like  mass,  with  more  or  less  of  the  juice  ex- 
pressed and  evaporated  down  into  a  kind  of  mo- 
lasses. Milk  and  cream  can  be  used  at  the  same 
meal  with  sweet  apples,  either  raw  or  cooked ,  but 
with  the  acid  apples  milk  coagulates  or  sours  in 
such  a  way  as  to  disagree  with  delicate  stomachs: 
indeed,  it  is  not  perfectly  healthful  for  any  stomach. 
Baking  is  the  most  simple  process  of  cooking 
apples,  nothing  special  being  required  except  to 
put  in  the  pan  just  enough  water  to  prevent  burn- 
ing.     Acid  apples  should  be  watched  and  taken 


48 


APPLE— ARBITRA  TION. 


from  the  oven  as  soon  as  done  (soft  to  the  core), 
but  sweet  apples  can  remain  in  the  oven  an  indefi- 
nite length  of  time,  if  the  heat  be  not  great  enough 
to  burn  them.  A  very  easilv  prepared  as  well  as 
palatable  pudding  is  made  by  covering  a  pie-plate 
with  quarters  of  apples,  then  over  this  a  crust  of 
biscuit  dough;  bake  and  eat  with  sweetened  cream 
or  pudding  sauce. 

Some  apples  are  better  boiled  than  baked.  A 
very  excellent  and  ornamental  dish  can  be  prepared 
in  this  way:  Pare  and  core,  without  breaking  or 
splitting  open,  some  small-sized,  tender  and  juicy 
tart  apples.  Boil  them  very  gently,  with  one 
lemon  or  one  orange  for  every  six  apples,  till  a 
straw  will  pass  clear  through  them  easily.  Make 
sirup,  while  the  apples  are  cooking,  of  half  a 
pound  of  pure  white  sugar  for  each  pound  of  fruit. 
When  the  sirup  is  ready,  take  the  apples  up,  un- 
broken, with  the  lemons  or  oranges,  and  put  into 
the  sirup.  Boil  gently  till  the  apples  look  clear. 
Again  take  up  the  fruit  carefully,  unbroken,  and 
place  close  together  in  a  dish.  Then  put  an  ounce 
or  more  of  clarified  isinglass  to  the  sirup,  and  let 
it  boil  up.  Lay  a  slice  of  lemon  or  orange  on  each 
apple,  and  pour  the  sirup  over  them.  This  is  a 
pretty  dish  and  also  very  good. 

To  FRY  apples,  take  nice,  tart  specimens,  slice 
the  round  way  of  apple,  in  rather  thick  slices,  then 
roll  them  in  flour  and  sugar  mixed  together;  have 
a  pan  ready  with  melted  butter,  lay  your  apples  in, 
cover  tight,  fry  to  a  nice  brown;  be  careful  and  not 
mash  them  up,  and  do  not  be  stingy  with  your 
butter.  Another  method:  Take  juicy,  thin- 
skinned,  and  not  very  sour  apples.  Slice  them, 
leaving  the  skin  on  and  put  them  to  fry  in  some 
suitable  dish  in  which  you  have  a  little  melted 
butter.  Add  a  very  little  water  as  often  as  proves 
necessary  to  keep  them  from  scorching.  Stir  them 
quite  often  and  when  nearly  done  add  a  little  salt 
and  a  spoonful  of  sugar,  if  you  choose. 

For  other  modes  of  serving  apples,  see  Fritters, 
Marmalade,  Sauces,  Brandy  and  Wine. 

Apricot  (a'pri-cot).  This  is  a  very  handsome 
and  delicious  dessert  fruit  for  preserving  in  sugar 
or  brandy,  for  jellies  or  pastries,  for  drying  for 
winter  use,  and  in  some  countries  good  liquor  is 
made  from  it.  The  fruit  ripens  between  the  cherry 
and  plum  seasons.  The  propagation  is  by  budding 
on  plum  stock  in  July.  It  is  a  favorite  tree  in  the 
older  countries  for  training  on  walls  or  espaliers, 
and  a  western  or  northern  exposure  is  the  most 
favorable.  The  pruning  and  general  management 
of  its  cultivation  are  about  the  same  as  of  the 
peach:  especially  its  limbs  should  be  shortened  in. 
The  apricot  is  not  subject  to  diseases,  but  the  cur- 
culio  works  on  it  a  great  deal,  for  the  treatment  of 
which  see  under  Plum. 

Varieties.  Breda.  Sm:i!l,  j^ale  red  in  the 
shade,   reddish   purple    in    the   sun;    flesh   orange 


color,  juicy,  rich,  with  a  pleasant  flavor;  kernel 
sweet;  ripens  the  last  of  July  and  first  of  August. 

Early  Golden.  Dubois^  Early  Golden.  Small, 
roundish  oval,  pale  orange;  flesh  yellow,  moder- 
ately rich  and  sweet.  Tree  vigorous  with  long 
slender  branches;  middle  of  July. 

Large  Early.,  Gros,  Prccoce,  St.  yean.  Large, 
orange,  with  a  red  cheek,  sweet  and  rich;  parts 
readily  from  the  stone.  Tree  vigorous  and  produc- 
tive, ripening  its  fruit  about  the  first  of  August. 

Moorpark,  Anson's  Dun?nore,  etc.  One  of  the 
largest  and  finest  apricots;  yellow,  with  a  red 
cheek;  flesh  orange,  sweet,  juicy  and  rich;  parts 
from  the  stone ;  kernel  bitter.  Tree  very  productive, 
ripening  the  fruit  early  in  August. 

Purple  or  Black.  Small,  pale  red,  purple  in 
the  sun ;  flesh  yellow,  juicy,  and  pleasant.  Tree  has 
slender,  dark  shoots,  and  small,  oval,  glossy  foli- 
age; tree  hardy  as  a  plum;  fruit  ripens  in  August. 

Aquarium  (a-qua'ri-um),  a  glass  tank  of  water 
for  keeping  live  fish  on  exhibition.  Goldfish, 
sticklebacks  and  minnows  are  amoijg  the  easiest 
kept  in  fresh-water  aquaria.  The  water  must  be 
pure  and  constantly  renewed,  having  in  it  no  or- 
ganic decayi.ig  substance.  Growing  plants  and 
healthy  moUusks,  as  periwinkles,  are  indispensable. 
With  all  these,  the  favorite  food  of  the  fish  should 
be  given  regularly.  Success,  however,  in  keeping 
an  aquarium  depends  upon  a  skillful  knowledge  of 
details  too  numerous  to  describe  here. 

Arbitration,  the  settlement  of  controversies  by 
referring  the  question  in  dispute  to  other  parties 
and  without  recourse  to  law.  The  custom  is,  each 
party  chooses  a  person,  and  these  two  choose  a 
third,  called  an  "  umpire,"  who  decides  points  upon 
which  the  arbiters  disagree.  This  method  of  set- 
tling difficulties  is  simple,  honorable  and  inex- 
pensive, and  has  been  urged  by  all  moralists 
from  time  immemorial.  From  the  fact  that  it 
is  so  little  resorted  to  we  infer  that  in  most  cases 
of  litigation  vengeance  is  the  thing  sought  for 
rather  than  indemnity.  It  is  well  known,  too, 
that  most  parties  to  a  difficulty  do  not  wish 
to  have  the  trouble  of  securing  arbitration,  un- 
less the  decision  is  promptly  executed  by  the  one 
found  in  the  wrong.  Law  is  a  means  employed 
to  enforce  the  fulfilling  of  contracts,  which  arbi- 
tration generally  fails  to  do.  Again,  we  know 
it  is  difficult  for  the  parties  in  a  controversy  to  pro- 
cure the  services  of  neighbors  as  arbiters,  and  it 
seems  at  first,  in  each  case,  that  to  obtain  arbiters 
from  a  distance  would  cost  more  than  a  lawsuit. 
Furthermore,  a  lawsuit  may  be  an  "  amicable  " 
one,  and  of  the  nature  of  an  arbitration.  But  with 
all  these  considerations,  every  one  in  his  sober  mo- 
ments recommends  arbitration,  in  cases  where  it 
will  apply.  The  "  grange  "  encourages  it,  the 
Bible  commands  it,  and  every  code  provides  for  it. 


ABORICUL  TU  RE— ASHES. 


49 


Arboriculture,  the  culture  of  forest  trees :  See 
Forestry. 

Arboretum  (ar-bo-re'-tum),  a  place  in  a  park, 
nursery,  etc,,  in  which  a  collection  of  classified  trees 
are  cultivated. 

Architecture :  See  Residence,  Barn,  Ice-House, 
Dairy,  Privy,  etc. 

Area  (a'-re-a),  extent  of  surface.  To  measure 
areas,  see  Measurements. 

"Argand  Lamp,  one  that  has  a  cylindrical  wick 
and  a  tall,  narrow  chimney,  This  form  gives  a  lit- 
tle better  light  than  any  other. 

Army  Worm :  See  under  Wheat. 

Arrow-Root,  starchy  food  from  the  roots  of  sev- 
eral plants  of  tropical  America.  The  Jamaica  and 
Bermuda  brands  are  the  best  in  market.  It  con- 
stitutes a  favorite  diet  for  invalids,  and  is  prepared 
as  follows:  Wet  a  teaspoonful  of  the  root  in  a  little 
cold  water,  with  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  pour  on 
it  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  stirring  it  very  fast; 
then  set  it  where  it  will  just  boil  up  for  a  minute ; 
sweeten  it,  and  add  milk,  if  allowed.  For  a  drink 
make  it  very  thin  and  add  lemon  juice  and  sugar : 
See  also  Blanc  Mange,  Gruel  and  Jelly. 

Arsenic  (ar'-se-nic)  and  its  preparations,  as.  Paris 
green,  ratsbane.  Fowler's  solution,  etc.,  when  taken 
in  improper  doses,  produce  pain  and  heat  in  the 
stomach,  vomiting,  burning  dryness  in  the  throat, 
and  great  thirst.  The  matter  thrown  up  is  generally 
colored  green,  yellow  or  brownish,  and  sometimes  it 
is  bloody.  Diarrhoea  or  dysentery  ensues,  pulse  be- 
comes small,  rapid  and  irregular.  The  breathing 
becomes  much  oppressed,  and  cramps  and  convul- 
■sions  often  precede  death.  Remedy  :  Give  promptly 
a  warm-water  emetic,  or  use  stomach  pumps,  or  do 
botli ;  then  give  hydrate  of  peroxide  of  iron,  recently 
prepared,  in  quantity  about  thirty  times  greater  than 
the  poison  which  has  been  swallowed.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  this  hydrate,  or  while  it  is  being  prepared, 
give  large  drafts  of  new  milk  and  raw  eggs,  or  lime- 
water  and  oil,  or  melted  oil,  or  magnesia  or  chalk  in 
a  large  quantity  of  water,  or  even  flour  and  water. 
The  iron  antidote  can  be  in  the  form  of  a  perchloride 
of  iron  dissolved  with  carbonate  of  soda,  both  of 
which  are  obtainable  at  the  drug  stores. 

Artesian  Well:  See  Well.  Artesian  water  is 
not  necessarily  pure  water;  indeed  it  is  generally 
mineral. 

Artichoke,  Globe.  Of  this  plant,  the  tindevel- 
oped  flower-clusier,  which  resembles  a  huge  thistle- 
head,  is  the  p;trt  eaten,  being  served  with  drawn 
butter.  The  plants  are  propagated  first  by  seeds, 
sown  in  a  hot-bed  in  March,  and  planted  out  at 


distances  of  two  to  three  feet.  To  protect  it  through 
the  winter,  draw  the  leaves  together  and  earth  up 
around  them,  and  cover  the  tops  \yith  litter.  The 
time  to  cut  the  heads  for  use  is  immediately  before 
the  appearance  of  the  blossom,  just  when  the  center 
of  the  head  begins  to  open.  It  is  not  a  very  sub- 
stantial article  of  diet. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem.  This  is  a  plant  of  the 
sunflower  family,  bearing  tubers  on  its  roots,  like 
potatoes  on  their  subterranean  stems,  like  which  it 
is  also  cultivated.  It  is  a  poor  article  of  diet  for 
man,  but  good  for  hogs.  Sometimes  it  is  pickled,  or 
cut  up  in  vinegar  and  used  as  cucumber,  or  even 
boiled  for  eating  by  those  who  may  like  a  sweetish, 
watery  potato.  It  is  as  easy  to  raise  as  any  common 
weed. 

Asafetida,  the  dried  resinous  juice  of  the  root  of 
an  Asiatic  plant.  Its  effects  on  the  system  are 
stimulant,  anti-spasmodic,  expectorant  and  feebly 
laxative,  and  is  much  used  in  cases  of  hysteria,  hy- 
pochondria, convulsions  of  various  kinds,  spasms  oi 
the  stomach  or  bowels  unconnected  with  inflamma- 
tion, and  in  numerous  other  nervous  disorders  of  a 
merely  functional  character,  in  whooping-cough, 
asthma,  catarrh,  croup,  measles,  etc.  Medium  dose, 
ten  grains. 

Ash,  a  valuable  forest  tree :  See  Forestry. 

Ashery,  a  place  where  ashes  are  deposited  ;  also, 
a  place  where  potash  is  made.  The  cellar  is  a  good 
place  to  deposit  ashes.  In  putting  wood  ashes  into 
barrels  or  boxes,  remember  that  live  coals  from  some 
kinds  of  wood,  as  the  black-jack  oak,  will  sometimes 
remain  alive  for  weeks,  when  buried  in  ashes,  and 
may  set  things  afire. 

Ashes.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  what  the  effects  of  a  given  manure 
will  be  on  a  given  soil  or  crop.  The  kind  of  soil 
or  its  mechanical  construction,  the  climate,  season, 
mode  of  cultivation,  and  the  value  of  the  manure, 
all  may  have  an  influence  in  determining  the  result. 
The  chief  value  of  wood  ashes  consists  in  supply- 
ing the  soil  with  mineral  constituents,  and  in  their 
action  as  solvents  upon  other  insoluble  salts  already 
in  the  soil ;  also  by  neutralizing  acids,  and  improv- 
ing the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  Barn- 
yard manure  is  chiefly  composed  of  water  and 
organic  matter,  as  woody  fiber,  starch,  gum,  sugar, 
gluten  and  albumen  in  vegetables,  and  in  ani- 
mals the  flesh,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  etc.  The  char- 
acter and  fertility  of  the  soil  depend  very  greatly  on 
the  nature  and  quantity  of  the  organic  matter  it 
contains;  yet  while  inorganic  matter  forms  by  far 
the  smaller  portion,  this  portion  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  tlie  production  of  useful  plants.  No  seed  can 
be  produced  without  it;  and  the  absence  of  a  sin- 
gle elenient  may  render  the  soil  unfertile  or  entirely 
barren.     Competent  authorities  have  estimated  the 


5° 


ASBES— ASPARAGUS. 


annual  exhaustion  of  salts  by  crops  of  grain, 
roots  and  grass  at  from  i8o  to  260  pounds  per 
acre;  and  as  ashes  (of  plants)  consist  of  these  ele- 
ments, they  furnish  one  of  the  most  needful  ma- 
nures for  the  soil. 

While  ashes  are  beneficial  to  almost  every  soil, 
they  are  much  more  so  to  those  that  are  sandy 
and  gravelly  than  on  clay,  because  the  latter,  being 
formed  mainly  from  granite  rocks,  naturally  contain 
potash. 

In  applying  ashes  to  the  soil  they  should  be 
hauled  out  and  spread  over  the  ground  pre-  ^,^ir^ 
vious  to  plowing.  It  has  been  the  custom 
with  some  farmers,  and  may  be  yet,  to  apply 
them  to  corn  on  the  surface,  for  the  double 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  benefit  of  their  fer- 
tilizing properties,  and  as  a  protection  against 
grub  worms.  But  that  method  is  open  to 
the  objection  that  the  plant  can  thus  receive 
no  benefit  save  from  the  small  amount  that  is 
soluble  and  carried  into  the  soil  by  rain.  If 
they  are  incorporated  into  the  earth  previous 
to  planting  the  corn,  the  roots  of  the  plant 
and  chemical  action  will  evolve  other  ele- 
ments which  become  assimilable  and  en- 
hance the  growth  of  the  plant. 

Ashes  that  have  lain  out  of  doors  for  some  time 
may  have  parted  with  some  of  tlieir  useful  proper- 
ties, but  they  are  still  beneficial.  They  will  not  act 
as  rapidly,  probably,  as  when  fresh,  but  their  effects 
will  hardly  fail  of  being  beneficial.  Light  soils  do 
not  require  as  heavy  an  application  of  ashes  as  rich 
clays.  On  the  former,  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bush- 
els per  acre  is  not  too  much;  and  double  the  quan- 
tily  may  be  applied  to  the  latter.  Horace  Greeley 
said  he  would  apply  a  thousand  bushels  to  the  acre 
if  he  could  get  them. 

Coal  ashes  are  of  no  use  to  a  sandy,  loamy,  or 
gravelly  soil,  but  in  a  hard  or  stiff  clay  they  serve 
to  loosen  up  the  soil,  that  it  may  be  better  aefated 
and  saturated  with  manure. 

Wood  ashes,  when  carried  fresh  out  of  the  house, 
should  never  be  deposited  in  barrels  or  boxes  near 
any  building.  Certain  kinds  of  live  coals,  especially 
those  from  the  black  oaks,  are  decidedly  tenacious 
of  igniting  power,  and  often  surprise  the  most  sus- 
pecting in  setting  buildings  afire. 

Ashes,  to  Leach.  Put  them  in  a  large  box, 
hogshead  or   hopper  (see  engraving),  with   straw  or 

fine  brush,  or  both,  lin- 
ing the  receptacle  all 
around  and  underneath 
the  ashes.  Place  the 
box  or  hogshead  on  an 
elevated  and  inclined 
platform,  so  arranged  as 
to  collect  all  the  lye  into 
one  vessel,  which  should 


the  ashes,  but  without  starting  the  drain,  and  let 
them  soak  a  day  or  two ;  then  add  water  regularly 
and  keep  the  drain  going  until  the  strength  of  the 
ashes  is  sufficiently  exhausted. 

Asp,  or  Aspen,  a  well-known  small  tree,  called 
also  "  quaking  asp,"  and  "  poplar,"  characterized  by 
its  trembling  leaves  and  light,  white,  soft  wood, 
which  readily  decays. 

Asparagus.  This  is  the  most  healthful  and 
palatable  "  greens  "  which  the  market  affords,  and. 


Ask-kofiper. 


be  of  iron ;  pour  in  enough  water  to  fully  saturate 


Fig.  2. — Asparagus  Roots^  Covered, 

'   being  early,  is  most  welcome.     As  only  the  green 
portion    of    the    sprouts    is    tender    enough    to  eat, 

j  asparagus  should  be  raised  in  the  sun,  and  in  an 
unmulched  bed.  Sow  the  seed  in  a  bed  late  in  the 
fall  or  in  early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be 
worked.  Sow  in  drills  one  foot  apart,  covering 
the  seed  about  one  inch  deep.  Thin  the  plants 
when  up  to  three  inches  in  the  row.  When  one  or 
two  years  old,  remove  the  roots  to  a  permanent  bed, 
which  should  be  of  deep,  rich,  mellow  soil,  not  too 
wet  and  cold.  Here  the  old  method  is  to  trench  the 
ground  about  two  feet  deep,  filling  up  with  well- 
rotted  manure,  "  seasoned  "  with  a  little  salt.  Set 
the  roots  six  to  eight  inches  apart.  The  new 
method  is  to  set  them  two  or  three  feet  apart,  in  soil 
prepared  as  for  corn  or  potatoes,  without  deep 
trenching.  Set  them  so  the  crown  will  be  three 
or  four  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
With  the  "  field "  method,  in  autumn  they  are  to 
be  plowed  right  over  the  crowns,  as  represented 
by  Fig.  I,  good  stable  manure  filled  in,  and  then 
the  plants  are  covered  with  the  plow,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  old  method  is  to  put  the  manure  over 
the  unplowed  bed  in  the  autumn  and  fork  it  in  in 
the  spring,  taking  great  care  not  to  injure  the 
roots.  Do  not  let  the  seed  ripen,  as  that  exhausts 
the  roots  too  much  for  the  production  of  large 
sprouts.  Be  patient,  and  the  second  or  third  year 
after  transplanting  there  will  be  an  abundance  of 
shoots  to  cut.  In  cutting,  be  careful  to  avoid  in- 
juring the  new  shoots,  and  cover  the  cut  stubs  with 
soil.  Cease  cutting  for  the  season  as  soon  as  the 
earliest  peas  are  ripe.     When  the  asparagus  beetle 


ASF  HAL  T—ASSIMILA  TJON. 


51 


is   troublesome,  let  young  chickens  upon  them  by 
cooping  up  the  mother  on  the  beds. 

Varieties.  The  standard  variety  is  Conover's 
Colossal;  but  a  new  variety,  called  the  Defiance, 
promises  to  supersede  it.  Other  varieties  ate  Van 
Sicklen's  Colossal,  Grayson's  Giant,  Largest  Ulm, 
Lesher's  Mammoth,  and  the  New  Giant.  The  lat- 
ter has  purple  sprouts. 

Asparagus,  to  Cook.  This  vegetable  should  be 
dressed  as  soon  as  possible  after  cutting,  although  it 
may  be  kept  a  day  or  two  by  putting  the  cut  ends  in 
water.  Throw  away  all  the  hard  and  stringy  por- 
tions (the  whitest  parts),  tie  the  selected  parts  into 
small  bunches,  and  boil  them  in  a  very  little  water 
about  20  minutes,  adding  a  very  little  salt.  The 
tougher  portions  can  be  boiled  separately,  a  longer 
time.  Take  off  the  strings,  put  in  a  covered  dish 
and  pour  drawn  butter  over  it.  Keep  the  heads 
all  one  way.  A  little  saleratus  will  preserve  its 
green  color.  Often  served  on  buttered  toast.  The 
asparagus  water  can  be  made  into  a  soup  or  gravy 
by  thickening  with  flour  or  sweet  cream. 

Asparagus  Omelet  is  made  by  chopping 
very  fine  some  of  the  vegetable  which  has  been 
steamed  until  tender,  and  mixing  it  with  the  yolks 
of  five  and  the  whites  of  three  well-beaten  eggs 
and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  cream.  Fry,  and 
serve  hot. 

Asphalt,  mineral  pitch,  or  compact  native  bitu- 
men. Asphalt  composition  for  walks  may  be 
made  thus :  Take  2  parts  very  dry  lime  rubbish 
and  I  part  coal  ashes,  also  very  dry,  and  both  sifted 
fine.  In  a  dry  place  and  on  a  dry  day,  mix  them, 
and  leave  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  the  heap ;  into 
this  pour  boiling-hot  coal  tar ;  mix,  and  when  stiff 
as  mortar  lay  it  down  3  inches  deep  for  the  walk, 
on  dry  ground  beaten  smooth.  Sprinkle  over  it 
coarse  sand.  When  cold  pass  a  light  roller  over  it, 
and  in  a  few  days  the  walk  will  be  solid  and  water- 
proof. 

Asphyxia  (as-fix'ia),  apparent  death  from  suffo- 
cation. "Asphyxiated,"  to  be  in  a  state  of  as- 
phyxia. 

Ass.  This  animal,  although  the  butt  of  pop- 
ular humor  and  the  target  for  arrows  of  scorn 
and  invective,  has  not  a  bad  temper  when  prop- 
erly treated,  and  his  usefulness  is  beyond  ques- 
tion. The  wild  ass  abounds  both  in  Asia  and 
Afrida,  and  in  some  localities  attains  a  large  size. 
Bell  noticed  a  wild  animal  of  this  species  which 
he  believed  to  be  the  origin  of  the  domestic  ass. 
It  was  of  silver-gray  color,  with  a  broad,  coffee- 
colored  stripe.  The  domestic  varieties  of  West- 
ern Asia  are  of  a  superior  character.  Some  from 
Gozo  Island,  in  the  Mediterranean,  attained  the 
height  of  14  hands.  Three  or  four  domestic  breeds 
of  Syria  are  treated  with  great  care,  and  ladies  are 
accustomed    to   ride   on    them.      A   domestic   kind 


in  India  are  not  much  larger  than  good-sized  dogs. 
But  the  best  is  the  Arabian  ass,  which  is  the  finest 
in  the  world.  They  carry  the  head  elevated,  have 
fine  and  well-formed  legs,  which  they  throw  out 
gracefully  in  walking  or  galloping.  An  improved 
and  costly  domestic  breed,  used  principally  in  Ken- 
tucky and  the  Western  States,  for  the  production 
of  strong,  active  and  high-priced  mules,  is  the 
Maltese  variety.  The  best  member  of  this  breed 
stands  15  hands  high.  It  is  the  practice  to  cross 
them  with  the  Spanish  and  Southern  French 
breeds.  The  first  Maltese  ass  brought  to  this 
country  was  presented  to  Washington  by  Lafayette 
in  1787. 

The  ass,  when  properly  trained,  is  docile,  saga- 
cious and  susceptible  of  strong  attachment  to  his 
master.  Even  under  injudicious  training  he  long 
resists  the  effects  of  unkindness,  and  bears  brutal 
treatment  with  firmness  and  courage.  As  a  feeder 
the  ass  is  the  most  economical  in  domestic  use.  He 
will  maintain  himself  on  much  less  than  would  be 
necessary  for  the  horse;  and  as  to  quality,  when 
nothing  better  is  at  hand,  he  will  subsist  on  thistles, 
weeds,  briars,  or  any  other  vegetation  that  he  can 
obtain.  But  the  ass  is  very  particular  about  what 
he  drinks;  he  will  taste  of  nothing  but  the  purest 
water.  He  requires  but  little  care,  and  is  seldom 
sick.  After  a  hard  day's  journey  he  will  lie  down 
on  a  hard  road,  and  rise  in  the  morning  refreshed 
and  good-humored.  He  matures  early,  and  can 
be  trained  or  lightly  worked  at  two  years  of  age. 
'I'he  female  breeds  at  three  years  old,  and  will 
give  milk  often  for  years  after  the  foal  has  been 
taken  from  her.  This  trait  is  often  taken  advan- 
tage of  by  keepers,  by  continuing  the  impression 
that  the  foal  is  present.  This  is  done  by  preserv- 
ing the  skin  of  the  foal,  and  occasionally  throwing 
it  over  another  foal,  and  allowing  the  mother  to 
smell  of  it.  The  milk  of  the  female  is  very  nutri- 
tious and  is  used  by  sick  people.  The  skin  of 
both  jack  and  jenny  is  equally  hard  and  elastic, 
and  is  used  for  parchment,  drum-heads  and  other 
special  purposes.  Jacks  in  this  country  are  mostly 
used  for  breeding  to  mares  for  the  production  of 
mules.  For  the  reason  that  the  jack  controls  the 
quality  of  the  mule  much  more  than  the  mother, 
care  should  be  taken  to  select  the  best  jacks.  Good 
specimens,  however,  are  difficult  to  find,  the  best 
being  found  in  Kentucky.  For  further  facts  in 
relation  to  breeding  from  jacks  see  articles  on  the 
Horse  and  Mule. 

Assimilation,  of  food,  the  conversion  of  nutri- 
ment into  living  tissue.  No  article  of  food,  "how- 
ever "  nutritious,"  is  of  any  value  unless  it  is  not 
only  "digested,"  but  "assimilated."  Many  per- 
sons eat  much  and  yet  are  lean  and  weak,  because 
some  morbid  condition  of  the  system  prevents  the 
vital  conversion  of  the  chyme,  or  extracted  nutri- 
ment, into  real  muscle,  bone,  etc. 


S3 


ASSETS— AX. 


Assets,  cash  or  property  belonging  to  persons  or 
corporations  which  possesses  a  definite  value. 

Assurance,  often  used  in  the  sense  of  Insurance, 
which  see. 

Asthma,  a  distressing  affection  that  generally 
attacks  persons  in  the  night  time,  soon  after  retir- 
ing. The  first  symptom  is  a  want  of  breath  and 
a  tightness  across  the  chest.  The  respiration  is 
laborious,  and  accompanied  with  a  wheezing  noise, 
that  can .  be  heard  over  the  whole  house.  The 
disease  is  often  accompanied  with  a  want  of  breath 
that  gives  the  lips  and  face  a  purple  color,  as  if  the 
patient  was  strangled ;  it  rarely,  if  ever,  proves 
fatal.  Treatment — Regular:  The  best  remedy  is 
to  produce  vomiting.  A  teaspoonful  of  powdered 
alum  in  molasses  is  an  effectual  emetic;  sirup  of 
squills,  in  teaspoonful  doses  every  half  hour,  will 
generally  procure  relief.  Goose  oil  is  very  good 
to  reUeve  the  wheezing;  smoking  tobacco  allevi- 
ates the  complaint,  but  never  cures  it.  Hive  sirup 
(Cox's)  is  of  great  value;  take  a  teaspoonful  every 
two  hours  until  the  breathing  is  relieved.  In  the 
moist  asthma,  such  things  as  promote  expectora- 
tion must  be  used.  In  the  dry  asthma,  anti-spas- 
modics  and  bracing  medicines  are  most  proper. 
The  patient  may  take  a  teaspoonful  of  paregoric, 
twice  a  day  or  so,  or  a  teaspoonful  of  Peruvian 
bark  in  powder,  in  a  wineglass  of  milk,  before 
eating,  once  a  day.  Homeopathic:  Of  lo  pellets 
of  aconite  in  a  tumblerful  of  water,  take  a  table- 
spoonful  every  half  hour  during  the  attack;  or  of 
arsenic,  ipecacuanha  or  veratum  in  the  same  way; 
or  of  nux  vomica,  i  drop  every  6  hours.  Eclec- 
tic and  Botanical:  To  promote  expectoration,  and 
to  relieve  tightness,  give  every  15  or  20  minutes 
a  teaspoonful  of  the  decoction  of  lobelia.  To  vomit, 
give  half  or  two-thirds  of  a  wineglassful,  which 
may  be  repeated,  if  it  does  not  operate  in  thirty 
minutes  or  so,  drinking  plentifully,  during  the 
operation,  of  some  warming  tea,  pennyroyal,  etc. 
Hygienic:  Hot  compresses  to  the  throat  and  chest 
and  sips  of  hot  water  until  expectoration  takes 
place  or  the  distressing  symptoms  subside;  tonic 
rubbing  of  the  same  parts  in  the  morning  before 
breakfast,  with  warm  hands  dipped  in  cold  water; 
omit  the  third  meal  of  the  day,  or  at  least  let  it  be 
mostly  of  fl^uid  food;  and  never  let  the  body  be 
chilled,  or  the  feet  get  cold.  Live  out  of  doors  as 
much  as  possible. 

Astringent  (as-trin'gent),  a  drug  that  causes 
organic  contraction,  as  illustrated  by  the  change  of 
hide  Into  leather.  In  medicine  the  leading  astrin- 
gents are  tannic  acid,  gallic  acid,  galls,  oak  bark, 
catechu,  kino,  logwood,  geranium,  blackberry  root, 
uva-ursi,  creosote,  alum,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  per- 
manganate of  potassa,  chlorinated  soda,  etc.  Some 
practitioners  use  cold  water  and  ice  as  sub- 
stitutes for  astringents,  externally  applied.     Among 


articles  of  food  the  most  astringent  are  blackberries, 
raspberries,  pie  plant  or  rhubarb,  acorns,  etc.,  and 
among  the  drinks  tea  takes  the  lead. 

Atrophy  (at'ro-fy),  a  wasting  away  from  defect 
of  nourishment.  See  Assimilation,  Leanness  and 
Marasmus. 

Attorney,  a  person  appomted  by  another  to  act 
in  his  stead,  in  legal  proceedings.  A  "  power  of 
attorney  "  is  the  writing  giving  such  authority. 

Auction,  public  sale  to  the  highest  or  lowest 
responsible  bidder.  The  auctioneer  is  the  crier, 
who  makes  the  sale.  He  is  bound  by  instructions. 
If  price  is  limited  he  cannot  sell  below  that  price. 
If  the  owner  does  not  wish  an  article  sold  below  a 
certain  price,  that  price  must  be  announced  before 
the  article  is  cried ;  it  is  called  the  "  owner's  bid," 
and  there  can  be  but  one  such  bid  on  any  given 
article.  Nothing  can  be  honorably  reserved  which 
has  been  advertised  to  be  sold.  The  auctioneer 
cannot  buy  at  his  own  sale,  nor  can  he  bind  an  ad- 
ministrator or  executors  by  warranty.  Printed 
terms  of  sale  cannot  be  varied  by  parol  statements 
of  auctioneer.  Only  the  owner  in  person  or  some 
person  specially  authorized  can  do  so.  When  real 
estate  is  sold,  contract  must  be  in  writing,  and  the 
terms  and  sale  made  by  the  auctioneer  must  be 
signed  by  the  person  selling.  When  personal 
property  is  sold  a  delivery  is  suflScient ;  but  in  sales 
of  personal  property  the  thing  sold  must  be  present 
and  delivered  in  whole  or  in  part.  If  the  pur- 
chaser does  not  comply  with  the  terms  of  sale,  the 
seller  may  tender  the  property  and  sue  for  the 
price ;  or  the  property  may,  after  tender  and  re- 
fusal to  pay,  be  again  sold  at  auction,  and  the 
purchaser  at  first  sale  be  compelled  to  pay  the  dif- 
ference, if  any,  between  the  first  and  second  sales. 
Generally  the  auctioneer  is  considered  the  agent  of 
both  parties,  and  entries  and  signatures  by  him  as 
such  are  sufficient  to  bind  the  parties.  Unless  he 
discloses  the  name  of  the  owner  he  will  be  con- 
sidered owner.  The  purchaser  is  not  required  to 
accept  property  when  the  auctioneer  refuses  to  give 
the  owner's  name,  or  when  the  title  is  found  to  be 
defective.  An  auctioneer  is  liable  only  for  gross 
negligence  or  ignorance.  But  if  he  exceeds  his 
instructions  he  is  personally  liable  to  any  party  in- 
jured. Fraud  used  by  him  to  effect  a  sale  renders 
the  sale  void. 

Award,  the  decision  of  arbitrators  in  a  disputed 
transaction. 

Awn,  the  bristle  or  beard  of  wheat,  oats,  barley 
and  the  grasses. 

Ax.  ■  As  to  the  quality  of  an  ax,  very  little  is  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  purchaser,  as  he  generally 
finds  it  safe  to  trust  the  hardware  merchant.  But 
more  attention  should  be  given  to  the  care  of  this 


AX— AXLE-  TREE. 


53 


most  useful  of  all  farm  implements  than  is  usually 
bestowe'd  upon  it.  Labor  and  vexation  are  in  a 
great  degree  prevented,  instead  of  being  multiplied  ; 
by  keeping  at  least  one  ax  on  the  premises  in  good 
order,  and  in  some  regular  place  where  one  can 
lay  his  hands  on  it  immediately  in  case  of  emer- 
gencies. An  ax,  however,  will  never  be  kept 
sharp  unless  there  is  also  at  hand  a  good  grind- 
stone, kept  in  order.  Many  persons  give  ihem- 
selvs  much  unnecessary  trouble  by  a  reckless  use 
of  the  ax — striking  it  into  nails,  stones,  and  other 
hard  substances  in  wood  or  in  the  ground.  One 
careless  stroke  often  makes  hours  of  trouble  in  re- 
pairing a  gap  in  the  edge  of  the  tool,  or  in  en- 
deavoring to  use  the  ax  with  the  gap  in  it.  While 
a  thick-edged  ax  throws  chips  well,  a  thin-edged 
one  is  far  preferable  for  rapid  chopping.  The 
older  axes,  which  are  kept  for  rougher  purposes, 
as  cutting  things  in  the  ground,  driving  stakes, 
spikes,  etc.,  may  be  permitted  to  retain  a  thick 
edge.  It  never  pays  to  try  to  do  much  cutting  of 
clear  timber  with  a  thick-edged  ax. 

Every  farmer  should  know  ho\y  to  make  an  ax- 
handle  and  put  in  one.  Those  sold  at  the  stores 
are  generally  turned,  and  are  therefore  very  easy 
to  split.  The  best  method  is  to  take  a  piece  of  the 
white  part,  or  sap,  of  any  kind  of  hickory,  cut  it 
nearly  into  shape  while  green,  and  then  let  it 
thoroughly  season,  when  it  can  be   finished  with  a 


drawing-knife  on  a  shaving-horse,  and  scraped 
with  the  edges  of  broken  glass.  To  finish  the 
handle  when  the  wood  is  green  will  result  in  fail- 
ure, as  seasoning  will  crack  and  split  it  all  over. 
Take  the  handle  of  some  ax  that  suits  you  for  a 
pattern,  from  which  an  outline  can  be  drawn  on 
the  timber  to  be  used. 

To  get  an  old  handle  out  of  an  ax- poll,  the 
usual  process  in  the  country  is  to  drive  the  poll 
into  inoist  earth  up  to  the  eye,  and  burn  out  the 
wood  with  a  little  fire  of  chips  and  litter;  or,  as 
some  do,  by  burning  out  the  old  handle  with  such 
a  fire,  while  keeping  a  wet  cloth  on  tlie  edge, 
without  driving  into  the  ground.  Heating  the 
edge  will  soften  it,  unless  it  is  case-hardened  by  a 
process  which  requires  a  little  more  skill  than  most 
persons  have. 

The  only  proper  way  to  fasten  a  new  handle  in- 
to an  ax-head  is  to  drive  the  handle  through  until 
the  rough  end  project  a  half  inch  or  more,  split 
that  end  in  the  middle  from  edge  to  edge  and  not 
from  side  lo  side,  and  drive  in  tightly  a  long,  thin, 
neatly-made  wedge  of  hard  wood;  then  saw  off 
the  surplus  to  just  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
from  the  ax-head. 

Axis,  the  central  line  of  a  body  around  which  it 
revolves,  as  from  pole  to  pole  of  the  earth,  and 
form  journal  to  journal  of  a  wheel. 

Axle-Tree  and  Axle-Grease  :  See  Wagon. 


B 


ABBITT  Metal,  a  soft  alloy  of  copper, 
zinc  and  tin,  used  for  the  bearings  of 
journals,  etc.,  to  diminish  the  friction.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  inventor.  It 
may  also  be  made  of  copper,  tin  and  anti- 
mony, in  the  proportion  of  one-twelfth  each 
of  copper  and  antimony,  and  ten-twelfths  of 
A  metal  said  to  be  cheaper  than  Babbitt 
metal,  at  12  cents  a  pound,  is  the  following:  Six 
pounds  of  lead  and  one  of  antimony.  Melt  the 
antimony  and  then  add  the  lead.  Old  type  from 
printing-offices  is  often  used  for  journal  boxes, 
sometimes  doctored  up  a  little  with  alloys,  as  the 
case  demands. 

Back.  For  a  weak  back,  bathe  the  part  fre- 
quently with  alcoliol  and  beef's  gall,  or  with 
neat's-foot  oil  in  which  berries  of  the  red  cedar 
have  been  boiled  by  gentle  simmering.  For  a 
sprain  in  the  muscles  of  the  back,  rub  on,  before  a 
hot  fire,  an  ointment  made  of  Canada  turpentine 
J^  ounce,  soap  liniment  six  ounces,  and  laudanum 
one  drachm.  For  a  "sprain  "more  internal,  or 
"stitch,"  take  abisolute  rest;  take  night  and  morn- 
ing 15  or  20  drops  of  the  balsam  of  copaiba. 
If  the  part  is  inflamed,  apply  cold-water  cloths. 
Keep  the  bowels  open  by  gentle  aperients.  Hyg.: 
Horizontal  position  constantly,  warm  compresses 
15  to  30  minutes  twice  a  day,  and  hand-rubbing 
twice  a  day. 

Pain.  A  pain  in  the  back  may  be  a  symptom 
of  any  one  of  a  great  number  of  diseases,  and  the 
application  of  hot  cloths  and  friction  to  the  part  is 
the  only  safe  thing  to  do  until  a  physician  is  con- 
sulted, how  oft  soever  the  doctor  himself  may 
mistake  the  case.  There  may  be  some  disease  of 
the  kidneys,  liver,  urinary  or  uterine  system,  of  a 
serious  nature,  with  which  it  would  not  do  to  ex- 
periment or  "  tamper."  When  it  is  known  that 
the  trouble  is  in  the  muscles  of  the  back,  every  one 
has  his  favorite  liniment.  Sitting  in  cold  chairs,  rid- 
ing across  a  very  cold  wind  for  several  hours,  and 
severe  lifting  with  a  side  or  twisting  draft,  are  all 
dangerous  to  the  back.  Often  one  exposes  his 
back  to  rheumatic  and  kindred  affections  when 
asleep,  by  turning  over  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
leave  the  sweating  surface  uncovered ;  or  the  night 
dress  (shirt  or  go^vn)  may  be  one  of  that  objec- 
tionable kind  which  is  open  in  the  back  and  diffi- 
cult to  be  kept  buttoned  close. 


Back-furrow,  to  throw  the  earth  from  two  plow 
furrows  together,  or  toward  the  central  line  of  the 
plowed  land. 

Backing,  the  backward  motion  of  a  draft-horse, 
by  command  of  his  driver.  To  teach  a  horse  to 
practice  this  motion  with  promptitude  and  steadi- 
ness is  an  important  part  of  his  training.  But 
backing  also  means  the  restive  or  vicious  backward 
motion  of  a  horse,  in  circumstances  where  he 
ought  to  move  forward.  Some  horses  practice 
this  trick  only  in  starting,  and  others  practice  it  on 
almost  any  sort  of  occasion;  some  acquire  it  by 
some  act  or  process  of  bad  breaking,  such  as  pain- 
ful adjustment  of  the  collar,  pulling  up  hill,  or  sud- 
den starting,  and  some  appear  to  practice  it  from 
laziness,  caprice  or  bad  temper.  Some  may  readily 
be  cured  of  it  by  adroit  management,  gentle  whip- 
ping, or  the  placing  of  strong  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  backing,  and  others  can  scarcely  or  but  tem- 
porarily be  cured  by  such  strong  remedies  as 
assigning  them  the  middle  place  of  an  agricultural 
team  of  three  or  the  near-wheeled  place  of  a  stage- 
coach yoke  of  four,  where  they  will  be  dragged 
along  by  their  companions  till  they  find  a  for- 
ward draught  much  easier  than  a  backing  re- 
sistance. Backing  in  this  second  sense  is  also 
called  gibbifig.  But  backing  in  the  third  sense 
means  the  backing  or  first  motion  of  a  colt,  or 
teaching  him  to  receive  and  endure  a  rider.  No 
person  ought  to  attempt  this  who  has  not  a  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  disposition  and  tricks 
of  j'oung  horses,  and  some  experimental  acquaint- 
ance   with    the  methods    of    controlling  them. 

Bacon,  hog's  flesh  pickled  and  dried,  usually  by 
smoking.  The  most  common  way  of  converting 
pork  into  bacon  is  first  to  salt  it  thoroughly,  usu- 
ally by  pickling.  In  England  they  have  a  long 
process  of  rubbing  on  the  salt  and  letting  it  be- 
come absorbed,  and  repeating  the  application 
several  times.  Bacon  can  be  smoked  in  a  barrel 
or  hogshead,  nails  being  driven  in  the  staves  inside, 
on  which  to  hang  the  pieces  of  meat,  or  poles  put 
through  holes  in  the  staves  near  the  top,  by  which 
the  meat  can  be  suspended.  The  meat  should 
be  cut  in  pieces,  not  too  large  for  convenience  and 
thorough  curing.  Smoke  should  be  made  with  ' 
corn-cobs  or  clean,  sweet  woods.  The  fire  should 
never  be  allowed  to  spring  into  a  blaze ;  and  if,  per- 
chance,  it    does,  it  should  be  extinguished  as  soon 


BACON— BALDNESS. 


03 


as  possible  ;  for  the  heat  in  the  barrel  or  smoke- 
house will  start  the  fat  and  damage  the  meat.  The 
smoking  should  be  done  steadily  and  gradually,  so 
that  the  curing  will  be  perfect.  Most  good  farmers 
have  a  smoke-house,  with  all  necessary  conven- 
iences for  smoking  bacon  and  other  meats.  In  the 
South,  where  it  is  difficult  to  preserve  meats  fresh, 
bacon  is  an  important  article  of  diet,  the  smoke- 
house being  always  supplied  with  the  Southern 
staple  meat. 

Breakfast  bacon  is  made  by  taking  one-half  the 
■side  of  the  belly,  and  curing  it  in  sweet  pickle  the 
same  as  hams.  The  remaining  half  may  be  cured  in 
dry  salt,  and,  when  smoked,  will  be  choice  bacon; 
or  it  may  be  cut  in  pieces  five  or  six  inches  square, 
and  cured  in  regular  mess-pork  pickle,  making  the 
best  of  family  mess  pork. 

The  Kentucky  method  is  as  follows :  Leave 
the  meat  in  a  strong  brine  for  seven  or  eight 
weeks,  then  wash  in  lukewarm  water  and  dry. 
When  dry  roll  it  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
pepper  and  saltpeter,  rubbing  it  thoroughly  with 
the  hand.  Hang  it  in  the  smoke-house  under  a 
•slow  fire,  only  partially  smoking  it.  In  the  spring, 
before  the  flies  come,  paint  the  meat  with  New  Or- 
leans molasses;  then  smoke  thoroughly.  For  further 
information  about  smoking  pork  see  "  Hams." 

A  method  of  making  bacon  without  the  tedious 
process  of  smoking  is  this:  As  soon  as  the  meat  is 
salted  to  your  taste,  which  will  generally  be  in  about 
five  weeks,  take  it  out,  and,  if  any  of  it  has  been 
covered  with  brine,  let  it  drain  a  little.  Then  take 
good  black  pepper,  finely  ground,  and  dust  on  the 
•flesh  side,  and  on  the  hock  end,  as  much  as  will 
stick;  then  hang  it  up  in  a  good,  clean,  dry,  airy 
place;  if  all  this  is  done  as  it  should  be,  you  will 
have  no  farther  trouble  with  it,  for  by  fly  time  in  the 
■spring  your  bacon  is  so  well  cured  or  dried  on  the 
outside  that  flies  or  bugs  will  not  disturb  it. 

If  bacon  is  carefully  put  up,  according  to  the 
above  directions,  the  bacon  beetle  will  not  infest  it; 
otherwise,  there  is  no  good  remedy. against  the  pest. 

Bacon,  TO  Cook.  Frying  is  the  simplest  and 
most  usual  method  of  preparing  bacon  for  the  table, 
but  is  too  often  overdone.  Five  to  ten  minutes  of 
frying  heat  is  sufficient.  Very  few  persons  boil  this 
article,  but  when  it  is  determined  upon  the  following 
advice  is  given  :  If  very  salt,  soak  it  in  soft  water 
two  hours  before  cooking.  Put  it  into  a  saucepan 
with  plenty  of  water  and  let  it  boil  gently.  If  a  fine 
piece  of  gammon  bacon,  it  may,  when  done,  have 
the  skin,  as  in  hams,  stripped  off,  and  have  finely- 
powdered  bread-raspings  strewed  over  it.  For  a 
piece  of  two  or  three  pounds,  boil  an  hour  and  a 
half.  To  steam  bacon,  scrape  the  outer  rind  or  skin 
well,  wash  the  bacon,  put  it  in  a  steamer  over  a  pot 
of  boiling  water,  and  steam  it  at  the  rate  of  20  min- 
utes to  the  pound.  Serve  it  with  veal  or  fowls,  or 
by  itself  with  greens.  In  steaming  bacon  no  waste 
•then  takes  place  as  to  quantity,  and  the  flavor  is 


quite  preserved,  while  the  bacon  is  much  more  ten- 
der, as  it  cannot  well  be  spoiled  by  too  quick  boil- 
ing. 

Bacon  with  Carrots.  Melt  in  a  stewpan  three 
ounces  of  butter,  and  mix  with  it  one  ounce  of  flour; 
stir  for  five  minutes.  Now  add  a  gill  of  boiling 
stock  or  water,  stirring  with  a  wooden  spoon.  Add 
half  a  jxjund  of  ham  or  bacon,  cut  into  half-inch 
dice,  with  a  little  pepper  (and,  perhaps,  a  little  salt, 
but  this  will  depend  on  the  saltness  of  the  ham  or 
bacon),  a  bouquet  garni,  with  a  clove  of  garlic,  or  a 
large  onion  instead  of  the  garlic.  Cut  into  slices, 
about  the  thickness  of  a  penny,  six  large  carrots  and 
put  them  in  the  stewpan.  Let  the  contents  boil  till 
the  carrots  are  tender.  Remove  the  onion  and  bou- 
quet garni  and  serve.  Constant  attention  is  neces- 
sary after  adding  the  sliced  carrots. 

Bagasse  (ba-gass'),  sugar  cane  after  it  is  crushed. 
When  dry  it  is  good  for  fuel. 

Bag  Holder.  A  ring  or  half  ring  of  wood  or 
metal  for  holding  bags  while  being  filled.  A  good 
convenience. 

Bag  Truck.  No  grain-raiser  likes  to  do  without 
a  bag  truck.  Such  a  convenience  more  than  pays 
for  itself  every  year.  It  is  also  often  found  handy  in 
the  removal  of  heavy  boxes  and  other  things. 

Baking  Powder.  As  alum,  which  has  a  bad  ef- 
fect on  the  bowels,  is  much  used  in  the  baking  pow- 
der of  the  groceries,  we  give  a  recipe  for  making  the 
powder  without  alum :  Take  J^  lb.  tartaric  acid, 
^  lb.  pure  soda  (bi-carbonate)  and  ^  lb.  potato 
starch;  pulverize  and  dry  them  separately;  mix 
them  in  a  dry  room,  pass  the  mixture  through  a 
sieve,  and  at  once  put  into  packages,  pressed  hard 
and  covered  with  tin  foil  or  close-made  paper,  so  as 
to  keep  it  perfectly  dry.  One  teaspoonful  of  this  is 
used  to  each  loaf  of  bread. 

Balance.  A  spring  balance  is  a  spiral  spring 
fixed  in  a  graduated  case,  furnished  with  a  ring 
handle  at  one  end  and  a  hook  at  the  other,  for  the 
purpose  of  weighing  small  quantities,  say,  from  one 
to  five  or  ten  pounds.  Such  a  thing  is  very  con- 
venient, but  after  considerable  use  it  becomes  in- 
exact and  unreliable.  Steelyards  and  weight  scales 
are  better. 

Baldness,  Preventive  of  :  No.  i .  Cologne, 
2  ounces;  tincture  cantharides,  2  drams;  oil  of 
rosemary,  10  drops  ,  oil  of  lavender,  10  drops.  Rub 
well  on  bald  part  of  head.  No.  2.  Brandy  and 
onion  juice,  in  equal  parts,  well  rubbed  on  the  bald 
places,  will  preserve  the  hair.  Or,  take  i  pint 
of  boiling  water,  pour  it  upon  a  dozen  large 
branches  of  fresh  sage,  or  a  large  handful  of  the 
dried  leaves,  and  cover  it  rightly  for  an  hour.  Put 
into  a  bottle  i  ounce  of  iron  filings,  nails,  or  any 
bits  of  iron,  also  a  piece  of  borax  as  large   as   a 


56 


BALK—J3ANK. 


walnut ;  turn  the  sage  tea  upon  it.  In  two  or  three 
days  it  is  ready  for  use.  No.  3.  i  ounce  of  sugar 
of  lead;  i  ounce  of  lacsulphur;  mix,  and  dissolve 
in  I  quart  of  rain  water;  pour  off  after  it  settles, 
then  strain;  use  two  or  three  times  a  day.  This 
will  both  preserve  and  color  the  hair.  Hygienic: 
To  prevent  baldness,  do  not  wear  close  hats  or  caps, 
and  bathe  the  scalp  every  day  with  cold  water  and 
rub  it  vigorously,  as  you  do  your  face  every  morn- 
ing. When  a  loss  of  the  hair  is  suffered  as  the  re- 
sult of  a  fever,  it  is  recommended  to  shave  the  scalp 
as  often  as  once  a  month,  in  addition  to  the  above 
treatment. 

For  taking  hair  or  beard  out  of  the  skin  by  a  drug : 
See  Depilatory. 

Balk  (bauk),  to  refuse  to  draw  (said  of  a  horse 
when  attached  to  a  load) ;  also  the  act  of  balking. 
For  treatment,  see  Horse. 

Ball  Cock,  a  wooden  ball  so  suspended  in  a 
cistern  that  when  the  water  rises  to  the  supply  cock 
the  ball,  carried  up  by  the  water,  enters  and  cuts  off 
the  supply.  It  is  guided  by  a  perpendicular  shaft. 
Its  use  is  required  when  it  is  desired  to  have  an 
automatic  cut-off  at  that  point. 

Ball  Valve,  a  valve  consisting  of  a  loose  ball  fit- 
ting closely. 

Balm,  a  plant  of  the  mint  order,  sometimes  culti- 
vated for  a  pleasant  medicinal  tea,  to  aid  in  produc- 
ing sweats;  also  the  resinous  and  odoriferous  or 
aromatic  sap  of  certain  trees;  also  any  fragrant  or 
valuable  ointment. 

Balmoral  (bal-mor'al),  a  kind  of  figured  petti- 
coat ;  also,  a  kind  of  boot  for  ladies,  made  to  lace  in 
front. 

Balsam,  an  older  form  of  the  word  "  balm,"  and 
signifying  about  the  same — more  particularly,  a  resin 
containing  more  or  less  of  an  essential  or  volatile 
oil.  Among  the  most  celebrated  are  Copaiba,  Tolu, 
Peru,  Canada,  etc.,  used  for  all  sorts  of  liniments 
and  ointments  and  many  medicines. 

Balzarine  (bal'za-reen),  a  light,  mixed  material  of 
worsted  and  cotton,  for  ladies'  dresses. 

Banana,  a  tropical  fruit  which  is  a  first-class  arti- 
cle of  diet  when  ripe  and  fresh ;  but  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  find  such  in  the  markets  of  the  Northern 
States.  In  Mexico  it  is  the  custom  of  the  natives 
to  fry  this  fruit  and  season  it  very  highly  with  pep- 
per, etc. ;  but  this  process  deteriorates  the  dietetical 
quality. 

Bandana,  or  bandanna,  a  species  of  silk  or  cotton 
handkerchief,  having  a  uniformly  dyed  ground, 
usually  of  red  or  blue,  with  white  figures  of  a  circular 
or  lozenge  form,  made  by  discharging  the  color. 
Also,  a  similar  style  in  calico  printing. 

Bandog,  a  large,  fierce  kind  of  dog,  kept  chained. 


Band  Wheel,  a  wheel,  in  machinery,  on  which  a 
band  or  belt  runs. 

Bandy-Leg,  a  leg  bending  inward  or  outward. 

Baneberry,  a  plant  and  its  fruit,  growing  in  dark 
woods  throughout  the  United  States.  The  plant 
grows  about  a  foot  and  a  half  high,  with  a  cluster  of 
berries,  white  or  red,  extending  up  above  all  the 
leaves.  The  berries  are  about  the  size  of  currants, 
and  look  very  tempting.  Children  sometimes  eat 
them,  and  become  dangerously  poisoned.  The 
remedy  consists  of  the  usual  salt-water  emetic,  fol- 
lowed by  constant  movement  around  the  room  to 
prevent  a  fatal  stupor.  It  is  well  also  to  use  the 
stomach  pump  when  practicable,  and  give  injections 
of  tartar  emetic.  Also,  throwing  cold  water  in  the 
face,  giving  strong  coffee  to  drink,  and  doses  of 
ammonia  or  asafetida  are  recommended. 

Bank.  Everybody  finds  the  modern  banking 
institution  one  of  great  convenience,  and  he  patron- 
izes it  whenever  he  can  do  so.  All  the  banks  in 
this  country  are  banks  of  deposit  and  discount. 
They  lend  money  and  take  money  for  safe  keep- 
ing, sometimes  allowing  the  depositor  interest  and 
sometimes  not.  A  large  portion  of  them  add  to 
their  business  the  circulation  of  bills  secured  by  a 
deposit  in  the  national  treasury  of  an  amount  of 
government  bonds  more  than  ten  per  cent,  larger 
than  the  amount  in  circulation.  These  are  national 
banks  and  are  usually  the  safer  and  stronger  of  the 
two. 

A  farmer  ought  to  have  as  little  as  possible  to 
do  with  the  discounting  and  loan-making  part  of 
the  business.  With  the  deposit  portion  he  is  not 
likely  to  have  too  much.  Nothing  short  of  impos- 
sibility, no  mere  inconvenience  of  distance  or  time, 
should  prevent  him  or  any  business  man  from  de- 
positing in  bank  all  moneys  for  which  he  has  not 
immediate  use.  If  near  a  bank's  location,  it  would 
be  prudent  to  deposit  everything  except  pocket 
change,  for  these  reasons:  i.  Because  in  any 
well-established  and  well-known  bank,  the  deposit  is 
in  as  nearly  absolute  safety  as  anything  in  this  world 
can  be.  If  stolen,  or  burned,  or  lost  in  any  way^ 
the  bank  and  its  individual  stockholders  are  liable. 
2.  In  his  own  keeping,  his  money,  if  lost  or  de- 
^royed  by  accident,  is  wholly  lost.  It  is  also  a 
constant  temptation  to  robbers.  There  is  no  bet- 
ter insurance  against  the  raids  of  robbers  than  to 
have  it  known  that  money  is  never  kept  in  the 
house  or  on  the  person.  3.  In  a  vast  majority  of 
cases  payment  can  be  more  conveniently  made  by 
check  than  by  cash.  Safety,  avoidance  of  loss  by 
robbery  or  accident,  and  convenience,  are  all  in 
favor  of  bank  deposits;  against  them  nothing  but 
the  occasional  inconvenience  of  having  to  visit  the 
bank. 

Since  the  resumption  of  specie  payments  na- 
tional bank  bills  have  been  as  good  as  gold,  some- 
times better,  because  more  convenient  in  handling  ; 


BANKRUPT— BARLE  Y. 


'■it 


and  they  are  equally  good  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  In  most  parts  of  Europe  they  pass  at 
par  as  readily  as  the  bills  of  the  Bank  of  England. 
There  are  few  situations  of  a  business  man's  life 
in  which  they  are  not  more  convenient  than 
specie. 

Besides  cash,  any  valuables,  as  government,  mu- 
nicipal or  railroad  bonds,  mortgages,  deeds  and 
muniments  of  title,  are  safer  in  the  vault  of  a  bank 
than  in  any  private  house,  and  a  good  many  take 
such  deposits  for  customers,  with  the  reservation 
that  they  will  not  be  responsible  for  losses.  They 
are  called  "  special  deix)sits."  The  advantage  to 
the  depositor  is  the  greater  security  against  fire, 
robbery,  and  other  accidents. 

That  every  man  knows  his  own  business  best 
is  the  presumption  of  law  and  common  sense ;  but 
it  will  do  no  man  harm  in  his  business  to  know 
something  of  the  methods  of  men  of  brains,  ex- 
perience and  success  in  other  kinds  of  business ; 
therefore  the  above  suggestions  are  offered. 

Bankrupt,  a  person  who,  by  reason  of  his  ina- 
bility to  meet  his  obligations,  surrenders  his  prop- 
erty to  his  creditors,  and  seeks  the  relief  allowed 
him  by  law;    also  insolvent. 

Bantam,  a  very  small  variety  of  fowl,  with  feath- 
ered legs,  brought  originally  from  the  kingdom  of 
Bantam,  in  Java. 

Barbecue,  to  dress  and  roast  a  large  animal 
whole,  which  is  done  by  splitting  the  carcass  to 
the  backbone,  and  roasting  it  on  a  gridiron ;  also, 
the  carcass  so  treated  ;  also  the  entertainment  at 
which  a  barbecued  animal  is  served. 

Barberry,  or  Berberry,  is  a  common,  prickly 
shrub,  eight  to  ten  feet  high,  not  cultivated  very 
extensively,  as  the  fruit  is  very  small  and  too  sour 
as  an  article  of  diet.  The  variety  called  the  Com- 
mon Red  is  the  only  kind  raised  in  the  West.  Its 
numerous  clusters  of  bright,  oval  berries  are  very 
ornamental  in  autumn.  In  very  rich  soil  the  tree 
will  grow  12  to  15  feet  high,  and  bear  very  large 
fruit.  There  are  varieties  in  Europe  with  pale 
yellow,  white  and  purple  fruit.  One  variety  has 
purple  foliage,  which  is  extremely  ornamental ; 
and  there  is  a  so-called  "  Sweet "  variety  from  • 
Austria,  which  is  really  about  as  sour  as  the  com- 
mon. The  culture  of  the  barberry  is  of  the  easi- 
est kind.  A  rich,  light  soil  gives  the  largest  fruit. 
It  is  easily  propagated  by  seed,  layers  or  suckers. 
To  produce  large  fruit,  keep  the  shrub  free  from 
suckers.  Medically,  the  extract  of  barberry  is 
tonic,  in  small  doses,  and  in  larger  doses  cathartic. 
The  fruit  makes  an  agreeable  preserve  and  jelly, 
and  an  ornamental  pickle  for  garnishing  some  dishes. 
By  crossing  and  culture  it  is  thought  that  in 
time  a  very  desirable  and  palatable  dessert  fruit  could 
be  produced  by  this  now  indifferent  tree,  or  more 
properly  shrub. 


Barbot,  a  variety  of  dog  having  long,  curly 
hair. 

Barege  (ba-rage),  a  gauze-like  material  for 
ladies'  dresses,  vails,  etc.,  of  worsted,  or  silk  and 
worsted. 

Barilla,  a  kind  of  soda  obtained  ftom  sea  plants 
and  used  in  making  soap,  glass,  etc.,  and  in  bleach- 
ing. 

Bark  Lice,  which  infest  the  twigs  of  various 
fruit  and  ornamental  trees,  are  easily  distinguished. 
Lady  bugs  and  certain  mites  are  their  enemies, 
but  resort  must  generally  be  had  to  brushing,  or 
strong  alkaline  washes,  especially  during  the  latter 
part  of  June,  and  whitewashing  the  trunk  and 
larger  limbs  in  the  fall.  A  weak  solution  of  kero- 
sene is  also  good.  The  willow-louse  should  be 
"  doctored  "  the  last  part  of  May,  and  the  pine-leaf 
scale  should  be  thoroughly  dosed  both  in  May  and  in 
August. 

Barley.  This  is  both  a  winter  and  a  spring 
grain,  like  wheat,  but  in  this  country  is  generally 
sown  as  a  spring  crop.  It  requires  a  lighter  soil 
than  will  grow  good  wheat,  and  a  heavier  than 
will  produce  tolerable  rye  or  oats;  but  in  all  cases 
it  must  be  one  that  is  well  drained.  A  mellow, 
rich  loam,  ranging  between  light  sand  and  gravel 
and  heavy  clay,  is  best  suited  to  it.  It  should  be 
sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently  dry  in 
the  spring,  on  a  grass  or  clover  lay  turned  over  the 
preceding  fall;  or  it  may  follow  a  well-manured 
and  cleanly  hoed  crop.  If  sown  on  a  sod  it  should 
be  lightly  plowed  in,  but  not  so  deep  as  to  disturb 
it,  and  afterward  harrowed  and  rolled.  The  soil 
should  always  be  well  pulverized.  Two  or  three 
bushels  per  acre  is  the  usual  allowance  of  seed. 
Poor  or  mellow  soils,  or  early  sowing,  require  the 
least.  Barley  crops  should  never  follow  the  other 
small  grains,  nor  should  they  succeed  each  other 
except  on  very  rich  soil.  Barnyard  manures  should 
not  be  applied  directly  to  this  grain,  unless  it  be  a 
light  dressing  of  compost  on  different  soils,  or  in 
moderate  quantity  after  the  plants  have  commenced 
growing  in  the  spring.  When  the  growth  is  four 
or  five  inches  high,  rolling  will  be  of  service  if  the 
ground  is  dry  and  not  compact. 

The  harvesting  of  barley  must  be  done  at  a  very 
particular  time,  as  it  will  shrivel  if  cut  too  early, 
and  shell  if  cut  too  late.  The  earlier  cut  the 
brighter.  It  may  be  stacked  and  taken  care  of  like 
wheat,  but  to  prevent  discoloration  and  bring  the 
highest  price  in  the  market  it  should  be  kept  dry 
and  not  be  allowed  to  heat  in  the  stack  or  mow. 
Barley  which  is  plump  and  shining  is  best  for  the 
brewers.  Nor  should  the  grain  be  threshed  out 
with  a  common  wheat-threshing  machine,  as  the 
cylinder  spikes  bruise  the  germ  and  prevent  it 
from  sprouting  in  the  brewer's  vat.  "  Beater " 
machines,  made  expressly  for  the  purpose,  are  far 


S8 


BARLE  Y—BARM. 


preferable.  Barley  is  subject  to  many  disabilities 
other  than  the  most  prevalent  one  of  discolora- 
tion of  the  grain  in  curing.  Those  during  growth 
are  smut,  blight  and  mildew.  That  during  har- 
vesting and  succeeding  harvesting  is  germina- 
tion in  wet  weather.  Discoloration  is  produced 
by  dew  and  damp  weather  during  curing,  and 
from  heating  in  the  stack.  To  obviate  this,  in  the 
United  States,  when  little  danger  of  rain  and  dew 
is  feared,  the  grain  is  placed  in  windrows,  set  in 
gavels,  without  binding.  Since  the  introduction 
of  automatic  binders,  binding  is  again  coming  into 
favor,  the  shocks  being  carefully  capped  if  rain  is 
feared,  and  also  at  night  to  prevent  the  heads  tak- 
ing dew.  On  the  great  plains  of  the  West,  in 
the  valleys  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  California,  where  there  is 
neither  dew  nor  rain  during  harvest,  the  brightest 
samples  of  barley  are  produced.  There  the  grain  is 
harvested,  bound  and  shocked,  and  either  threshed 
immediately  from  the  shocks  or  stacked  and 
threshed  after  sweating,  which  always  takes 
place  in  grain  or  hay  when  stacked.  This  sweating 
usually  occupies  six  weeks  or  two  months,  after 
which  grain  is  usually  dry  enough  for  keeping  in 
bulkorduring  transportation  to  distant  markets. 

When  grain  is  infested  with  cockle,  wild  mus- 
tard or  other  weeds,  they  should  be  extirpated  by 
hand  before  they  are  fairly  in  blossom.  If  neg- 
lected till  some  time  after  this,  the  seed  is  so  well 
matured  as  to  ripen  after  pulling,  and  if  then 
thrown  on  the  ground  they  will  defeat  the  effort  for 
their  removal.  When  too  luxuriant,  barley,  like 
rye,  may  be  fed  off  for  a  few  days,  but  not  too 
■closely.     This,  however,  is  seldom  necessary. 

Both  as  a  green  fodder  and  as  a  matured  grain, 
barley  is  a  good  article  of  food  for  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.  Of  course,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
overfeed  a  horse  with  it  at  first,  as  it  is  thus  liable  to 
produce  purging  and  weakness.  The  grain,  in 
various  forms,  constitutes,  also,  an  excellent  article 
of  food  for  man,  although  it  is  seldom  prepared  for 
this  purpose.  "  Pot,"  or  hulled  barley,  is  that  from 
-which  the  bran,  or  skin  of  the  grain,  is  taken  by  a 
mill,  and  is  used  in  mushes,  puddings,  etc.  Pearl 
barley  is  more  commonly  found  on  the  table. 

Varieties.  The  principal  varieties  of  barley 
are  the  two  and  the  six  rowed,  the  last  being  best 
for  hardiness  and  productiveness,  and  the  first 
excelling  in  plumpness  and  in  freedom  from  smut. 
As  sub-varieties  we  have  the  Hudson's  Bay,  which 
ripens  very  early  and  bears  abundantly;  the 
Chevalier  and  the  Providence,  both  accidental ;  the 
Peruvian,  Egyptian,  Saxonian,  Mensury,  Probs- 
tier,   etc. 

The  uses  of  barley  are  various  and  important. 
In  Europe  it  forms  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
food  of  the  inhabitants.  The  grain  yields  from  80 
to  86  per  cent,  of  flour,  which,  however,  con- 
tains but  six  per  cent,  of  gluten,  seven  per  cent. 


being  saccharine  matter,  and  79  mucilage  or 
starch.  It  is  inferior  in  nutriment  to  wheat  and 
rye,  but  superior  to  oats.  In  this  country  it  is  prin- 
cipally used  for  matting  and  brewing,  and  in  some 
cases  for  distilling,  but  when  ground  is  more  gen- 
erally appropriated  to  fattening  swine,  though 
sometimes  used  for  other  stock. 

Barley  and  rye  differ  little  in  their  value  as  food 
for  fattening  stock.  Corn  is  the  most  valuable  of 
all  the  grains  for  purely  fattening  purposes.  Rye 
ranks  next  in  value  in  this  respect,  while  oats  are 
of  the  least  value  for  fattening. 

An  average  crop  of  this  cereal  is  20  to  25  bushels 
to  the  acre,  and  the  weight  40  to  45  pounds  to  the 
bushel. 

•  Pearl  Barley  is  the  small,  round  kernel 
which  remains  after  the  skin  and  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  barley  have  been  ground  off.  For 
this  purpose  a  distinct  species  of  barley,  of  pearly 
whiteness,  is  chosen.  It  is  steamed,  to  soften  the 
skin,  dried  and  passed  between  millstones  of  a 
peculiar  kind,  to  take  off  the  husk,  all  except 
what  lies  in  the  deep  furrow  of  the  seed,  and  vhich 
is  the  cause  of  the  short,  dark  line  to  be  seen  on 
pearl  barley.  This  is  of  great  value  as  a  delicate 
article  of  diet,  especially  for  invalids  and  those  of 
weak  stomachs.  If  one  cannot  make  way  with 
this  article,  prepared  in  some  way  or  other,  he  can- 
not digest  anything.  The  two  principal  methods  of 
preparing  it  are  as  follows  : 

To  boil  pearl  barley  it  should  be  continued  in 
the  boiling  process  until  it  becomes  as  soft  as  it 
can  possibly  be  made,  which  may  require  con- 
siderably more  than  an  hour.  Like  the  larger 
kinds,  it  soon  becomes  mucilaginous  and  slippery 
when  in  water,  and  appears  to  be  thoroughly 
cooked  long  before  it  is  in  reality.  Very  little  or 
no  salt  is  required;  but  this,  of  course,  depends 
more  upon  the  taste  of  the  eater  than  anything  else. 
Milk  is  generally  admissible.  Sometimes  it  is  eaten 
with  sugar.  With  all  this  care,  however,  one  is 
apt  to  swallow  it  without  sufficient  mastication,  as 
it  is  so  slippery  with  its  own  mucilage. 

But  barley  porridge  is  one  of  the  best  beverages, 
or  dishes,  in  the  world,  for  invalids.  It  is  made 
by  first  thoroughly  boiling  the  barley,  leaving 
more  or  less  water  with  it  toward  the  termination 
of  this  process,  according  to  the  proportion  of 
water  and  milk  which  will  best  agree  with  the 
patient;  stir  in  the  milk,  according  to  said  propor- 
tions, and- drain  off  and  season  to  taste. 

Barley  Water,  to  Prepare.  Wash  2  ounces  of 
pearl  barley  in  cold  water;  parboil  it  for  a  short 
time  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and  then  boil  it,  in  4 
pints  of  water,  down  to  2  pints,  and  strain.  Good 
beverage  for  invalids. 

Barm,  foam  from  fermenting  liquors,  which  is 
sometimes  used  as  yeast. 


BARNS. 


59 


Barn,  a  building  for  the  stabling  of  horses  and 
cattle,  and  the  storage  of  grain  and  other  produc- 
tions of  the  earth.  Barns  vary  in  location,  size, 
cost  and  architectural  beauty,  according  to  the 
judgment,  means  and  taste  of  their  builders.  They 
should,  however,  be  something  more  than  four 
bare  walls  enclosing  a  given  space.  Skill  and 
judgment  should  be  used  in  planning  the  barn, 
so  that  it  will  be  properly  and  economically  built 
and  add  to  the  general  appearance  of  the  premises. 
The  attractiveness  of  the  farm  home  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  exterior  finish  of  the  barn,  its 
relative  location  as  compared  with  the  other  build- 
ings, and  its  surroundings.  It  is  common  with 
many  to  give  no  attention  whatever  to  ornamental 
or  picturesque  appearance  of  the  barn.  Hence 
the  common  remark  that  trees  should  be  planted 
to  hide  the  repulsive  barns.  The  true  rule,  on 
the  contrary,  is  to  render  every  part  of  the  prem- 
ises neat  and  attractive.  The  barn  should  be  a 
pleasing  object;  it  should  convey  to  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  the  impression  of  comfort  and  complete- 
ness in  the  farm  arrangements.  A  farm  with  a 
dwelling-house  alone  visible  would  seem  to  be  only 
partially  furnished.  It  may,  therefore,  be  well  for 
every  farmer  who  has  the  means  to  give  to  all  his 
outbuildings  an  attractive  exterior  and  finish ;  and 
everl  those  who  ha-ve  small  resources  may  give 
symmetry  and  architectural  character  to  a  rough 
building,  on  the  same  principle  that  well-executed 
rustic  work  is  better  than  costly  and  elaborate 
■structures  without  taste. 

The  first  thing  to  consider  on  determining  to 
build  a  barn  is  its  location.  If  possible  it  should 
be  located  upon  a  rise  of  ground,  and  where  it  is 
easy  to  keep  the  premises  dry.  Unloading  wagons 
can  generally  be  done  at  the  upper  side,  and 
hauling  out  from  the  lower  side.  In  this  situation 
it  is  also  easy  to  have  a  basement  which  will  be 
dry  and  warm  for  the  keeping  of  animals  in  stormy 
or  cold  weather,  and  which  will  afford  good 
storage  for  root  crops,  pumpkins,  etc.  The  base- 
ment should  be  walled  up  with  stone,  and  no  part 
of  the  wood-work  of  the  barn  should  be  in  the 
ground.  It  should  not  be  so  near  the  house  as  to 
appear  a  part  of  it,  nor  so  far  distant  as  to  be  incon- 
venient. 

After  the  location  has  been  selected,  the  size  must 
be  determined  upon.  This  must  be  based  upon  the 
amount  the  farmer  wishes  to  store  in  it ;  upon  the 
size  of  his  farm  ;  the  number  of  acres  of  each  crop, 
the  kind  and  number  of  head  of  live  stock,  etc. 
It  is  quite  impossible  to  go  into  every  minute  de- 
tail; but  it  is  far  better  to  canvass  the  ground  thor- 
oughly, and  base  the  size  of  the  building  upon 
calculations  carefully  made  than  upon  none  at  all. 
One  error  that  is  very  general  is  the  smallness  of  the 
barn,  as  the  thousands  of  sheds,  "  annex "  stables, 
hay-stacks,  etc.,  which  may  be  seen  in  all  sections 
of  the  country,  attest. 


The  size  once  settled,  the  construction  is  next  in 
order.  It  has  been  our  design  to  present  a  suffi- 
cient variety  of  modern  and  carefully  prepared  plans 
and  specifications  to  enable  the  farmer  to  erect  a 
barn  without  going  to  the  expense  of  having  special 
designs  made,  and  that  he  may  have  a  large  number 
to  select  from.  By  studying  the  relative  merits  of 
the  various  plans  given,  much  valuable  information 
can  be  gained,  and  the  farmer  will  be  capable  of 
having  a  barn  erected  that  will  be  better  suited  to 
his  wants  and  tastes.  If  it  is  decided  that  a  base- 
ment barn  is  desirable,  the  next  question  to  be  de- 
termined will  be,  What  use  shall  the  basement  be 
put  to?  Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  floor  above  and 
the  basement  below  are  used  for  stabling  purposes, 
and  sometimes  no  use  is  made  of  the  basement,  ex- 
cept as  a  place  for  storage  for  the  manure  from  the 
stables.  If  manure  is  carted  out  twice  a  year,  it 
will  not  suffer  materially  by  exposure  during  the 
time  it  lies  in  the  yard.  If,  therefore,  a  basement 
barn  should  be  used,  the  basement  should  be  for 
stabling  and  storage  of  roots,  etc.,  and  under  or- 
dinary circumstances  one  should  not  stable  on  the 
floor  above.  There  is  no  objection,  as  some  thmk, 
to  keeping  stock  in  the  basement  of  a  barn,  thor- 
ough ventilation  being  possible  and  readily  secured  ; 
and,  when  necessary,  warmth  is  more  certainly 
assured  than  it  can  be  where  boards  alone  are  the 
only  protection.  In  cases  where  a  very  large 
amount  of  stock  is  kept,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
stable  above  as  well  as  below.  When  that  is  done 
the  floor  above  must,  of  course,  be  made  water-tight, 
which  can  be  done  by  making  it  double,  of  narrow 
plank  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  the  joints  being  laid 
in  white  lead. 

In  the  larger  portion  of  our  Western  country,  how- 
ever, there  are  no  hillsides  upon  which  to  construct 
basement  barns ;  they  must,  therefore,  be  built  upon 
a  level,  in  which  case  all  the  difference  in  con- 
struction between  a  barn  of  this  character  and  one 
with  basement  stalls  and  stalls  on  the  floor  above 
is  the  absence  of  the  stalls  underneath  and  the 
double  floor  of  those  on  the-main  floor,  as  above  in- 
dicated. * 

•  Barns  should  be  planned  for  convenience.  They 
should  be  so  arranged,  first,  that  the  hay,  straw, 
etc.  may  be  easily  put  in  them;  secondly,  so  that 
the  fodder  may  be  taken  to  the  stock  with  but 
little  carrying;  thirdly,  so  that  the  manure  may 
be  taken  out  without  more  than  once  handling,  or 
wheeling  a  long  distance;  and,  fourthly,  so  that 
the  capacity  of  the  same  may  be  increased  with- 
out destroying  the  convenience  of  arrangement. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  to  arrange  for  saving 
all  the  manure — drains  and  cisterns  for  liquid 
manure,  and  sheds  for  compost  heaps,  etc. ;  man- 
gers and  hay-racks  so  arranged  as  to  save  the  hay 
from  loss;  boxes  in  which  cattle  may  be  fed 
chopped  food,  meal,  slops,  etc.  Boxes  are  even 
better    for   hay-feeding   than   racks,   as   they    save 


6o 


BARNS. 


many  small  particles  of  the  provender  until  it  is 
eaten  up,  much  of  the  hay  seed,  etc.  Sheds  may 
be  conveniently  arranged  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
barn-yard,  to  the  south  of  the  main  building,  in 
a  way  to  protect  the  stock  against  storms  and 
winds  from  all  directions.  The  floors  ought  all 
to  be  tight  enough  to  prevent  anything  from  going 
through;  clean  waste  food  can  be  picked  up  and 
saved,  and  the  rest  can  be  carefully  scraped  up 
and  thrown  into  the  manure  heap ;  and  the  urine 
of  the  animals  can  also  be  properly  conveyed  to  the 
drains. 

It  is  a  poor  practice  to  drive  stock  to  a  distance 
for  watering,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Good  cisterns 
at  the  barn  will  catch  the  fall  rains  and  often  have 
enough  to  supply  the  animals  a  large  portion  of 
the  winter.  With  a  pump  in  them  the  watering  of 
cattle  may  be  a  task  of  pleasure  rather  than  of 
dread. 

The  storing  of  hay  in  barn  lofts  has  heretofore 
caused  much  extra  labor,  because  the  barns  were 
not  constructed  properly,  and  until  recently  no  easy 
mode  of  lifting  hay  was  generally  practiced.  At 
present  the  many  appliances  in  use  (which  are  re- 
ferred to  under  the  head  of  Hay)  make  this  labor 
comparatively  easy.  The  success  of  the  "  railway  " 
pitching  apparatus  and  its  great  economy  suggest 
the  propriety  of  adapting  and  constructing  barns  for 
its  use.  A  majority  of  barns  throughout  the  country 
will  admit  it  with  little  or  no  change,  requiring  only 
the  removal  of  purlin  beams,  which  are  usually  not 
essential  to  the  structure.  This  mode  of  filling  is 
particularly  adapted  to  fine  horse-barns  and  car- 
riage houses,  and  favors  a  high  carriage  room  and 
stable,  with  hay  loft  and  storage  for  feed  and  bed- 
ding overhead.  M^ny  are  now  building  such  barns 
so  as  to  take  all  hay,  grain  and  litter  into  the  loft 
from  the  outside  by  the  use  of  the  "  railway." 
It  is  desirable  that  there  be  a  clear  space  eight 
feet  in  width  and  ten  feet  downward  from  the  peak, 
and  doors  which  shall  give  an  opening  in  one 
of  the  gable  ends,  eight  feet  wide  and  eight  feet 
under  the  track.  To  make  sure  of»  the  latter,  there 
should  be  no  cross  beam  nearer  than  ten  feet  from 
the  peak. 

The  following  are  very  essential  features  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  the  erection  of  a  good 
bam : 

1.  All  barns  should  have  good  eave-troughs, 
connected  with  spacious  underground  cisterns. 
They  will  protect  the  walls  and  furnish  domestic 
animals  a  large  supply  of  water,  or  no  less  than 
five  barrels  daily  throughout  the  year,  from  a  roof 
35  by  70  feet,  if  there  is  an  annual  rainfall  of  three 
feet. 

2.  A  broad,  projecting  roof,  by  sheltering  the  sides 
of  the  building,  adds  to  its  durability. 

3.  The  basement  walls  should  stand  on  a  broad, 
deep  trench  filled  with  small  stone  or  coarse  gravel. 


to  effect  drainage ;  and  if  thick  flagging,  projecting 
some  inches  beyond  the  walls  on  both  sides,  forms 
their  base  over  the  small  stone,  rats  will  not  burrow 
under  them  (Fig.  i). 

4.  In  building  basement  walls  there  should  be  a 
space  of  a  foot  between  their  outer  face  and  the 
bank  of  earth,  the  excavation  being  a  foot  wider  on 
each  side  for  this  purpose,  which  enables  the  mason 
to  build  a  smooth  outside,  and  to  avoid  the  project- 
ing jjoints  of  stone,  which,  when  the  earth  freezes  in 
contact  with  them,  dislocates  the  wall.  The  outside 
space  is  afterward  filled  with  broken  stone  or  gravel, 
and  allows  a  free  drainage  into  the  ditch  under  the 
walls,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i. 

5.  Never  allow  an  embankment  of  earth  subject 
to  freezing  to  press  against  a  basement  wall,  the 

successive  thrusts  of  the  frost, 
sooner  or  later,  throwing  it 
over.  A  vertical  stratum  of 
coarse  gravel  or  small  stone 
should  be  interposed,  as  al- 
ready mentioned. 

6.  The  most  convenient 
barns  now  built  have  the  inte- 
rior of  the  main  floor  entirely 
free  from  partitions,  so  that 
loads  of  hay  and  grain  are 
F.c;.  ^.-Cellar  Waii-K,  driven  in  on  any  part,  and 
Cellar  Bottom:^,  Drain:  separate    narrow  bays  of  any 

C,  Flagstone:    E,   Gravel     ,   '^ ■       ,       ■,.,  v     -1^ 

Space:  F, Earth.  desircd  Width  are  built  up  suc- 

cessively. When  consumed  or  threshed  these  par- 
titions are  taken  down  in  succession. 

7.  Every  granary  should  be  graduated  on  the 
bu  inside,  to  show  the  number  of  bushels 
it  contains  below  each  graduating 
mark,  enabling  the  owner  to  know 
at  a  glance  how  much  grain  he  has 
on  hand  (Fig.  2).  This  graduation 
may  be  easily  made  by  multiplying 
the  cubic  feet  by  45,  and  dividing 
—.5  bu  by  56. 

8.   Petroleum  for  inside  floors  makes 
jj,  ,jy  them    more    durable;    and   for  outside 
~  woodwork  it. is  better  than  paint,  pene- 

trating into  the  pores,  and  giving  com- 
—  5  tu  nion  wood  the  character  of  cedar. 
„„„  .    Applied  to  the  outside  of  this  a  coat  of 

mixed   paint  (which  adheres   better   to 

Fig.  i.-Grad-  the  oilcd  surface  than  any  other  com- 
Z'ide^"""'''''  position)  forms,  with  the  oil,  a  very 
durable  and  perfect  protection  against  weather. 

9.  Cattle  yards  connected  with  a  barn  which 
consists  of  a  single  compact  building  should  be 
well  sheltered  with  evergreen  screens.  These  form 
the  most  pleasing  kind  of  shelter  against  win- 
ter storms,  and  any  one  who  has  seen  cattle  and 
sheep  reposing  comfortably  under  their  broad, 
green,  dense  arms,  while  the  snow  clouds  are 
sweeping  over  open  fields,  could  not  fail  to  be 
struck  with  their  real  value.     They  are  the  cheap- 


bu 


.,30  bu 


BARNS. 


6t 


«st  of  all  barriers  against  the  storm.  Trees  of 
Norway  spruce  planted  in  a  line  from  three  to  six 
feet  apart,  and  growing,  as  they  usually  do,  two 
feet  yearly,  will  in  a  few  years  form  a  screen  so 
dense  that  storms  cannot  penetrate  it.  For  more 
ample  security  of  earlier  growth,  it  may  be  well 
to  plant  two  rows  of  the  trees,  alternating,  and  not 
■opposite  each  other. 

10.  Barns  and  all  out-buildings,  whether  of 
high  exterior  finish  or  made  of  rough  boards,  may 
be  neatly  constructed  with  an  architectural  or  sym- 
metrical exterior. 

11.  Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  venti- 
lation. The  air  of  the  stable  is  not  only  deteriorated 
by  the  breathing  of  the  animals,  but  it  is  further 
contaminated  by  emanations  from  the  body,  as  well 
as  by  the  noxious  ammoniacal  vapors  arising  from 
the  manure.  This  may  be  easily  perceived  on 
entering  the  barn  in  the  morning,  when  not  only  an 
offensive,  but  a  pungent,  ammoniacal  smell  is  per- 
ceived. These  vapors  are  hurtful  to  the  lungs 
of  the  horse,  and  still  more  particularly  to  his  eyes. 
The  most  effectual  means  of  ventilation  are  large 
trunks  or  tubes  of  boards  passing  through  the  ceil- 
ing and  roof  into  the  open  air.  Th;  tops  of  these 
should  be  covered  in  such  a  way  that  the  heated  air 
■can  go  out,  but  no  rain  come  in. 

Stalls.  All  good  stables  are  divided  into  stalls, 
one  for  each  horse,  and  these  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  wooden  partitions.  If  horses  are 
placed  together  they  are  apt  to  do  each  other  mis- 
chief, or  in  some  way  to  incommode  one  another. 
In  some  stables  they  are  separated  only  by  wooden 
■bars,  but  these  are  not  enough,  for  one  will  some- 
times rob  the  other  of  his  food,  or  do  him  harm  by 
biting  or  other  annoyance.  Good  stalls  require  to 
be  six  feet  wide  in  general,  and  should  be  eight  or 
nine  feet  in  depth;  that  is,  the  partition  should  be 
of  this  length  to  prevent  one  horse  interfering  with 
another.  The  height  of  the  partition  should  be  sev- 
en feet  at  the  head  and  five  feet  at  the  heels.  Ponies 
will  do  with  stalls  five  feet  wide ;  large  dray  horses 
require  six  feet  six  inches.  When  the  stalls  are  too 
broad  the  horses  will  stand  across  them;  when  too 
narrow  they  cannot  lie  down,  which  is  a  necessary 
position  for  them  to  repose  after  being  hard  worked. 
It  ruins  a  horse's  legs  and  feet  not  to  allow  him  to 
■stretch  his  limbs  in  the  stall.  The  stall-posts  are 
uprights  at  the  rear  of  the  stall  to  stay  the  partition  ; 
they  should  be  round  or  octagonal,  not  square. 
Sometimes  they  rise  only  a  little  above  the  partition, 
and  sometimes  they  extend  to  the  ceiling,  which  is 
firmest.  Each  side  of  this  post  should  have  a  ring 
for  pillar  reins,  which  are  used  when  the  horse  is  re- 
quired to  stand  reversed  in  his  stall,  as  he  is  occa- 
sionally when  being  cleaned.  In  some  stables  there 
are,  besides  the  stalls,  some  compartments  much 
wider  called  boxes,  for  such  horses  to  be  in  that  are 
ill,  or  which  require  much  rest.  When  horses  are 
worked  daily,  it   is  proper  to  hang  the  harness  of 


each  on  pegs  in  the  wall  opposite,  to  lose  as  little 
time  as  possible,  keeping  in  the  harness-room  that 
which  is  used  only  occasionally. 

Hay-Racks  are  usually  made  of  wood.  The 
front  of  the  rack  usually  slopes  forward,  that  the 
horse  may  draw  the  hay  more  easily  from  it,  and 
that  it  be  more  easily  filled.  But  there  are  some  ob- 
jections to  this  form,  and  dust  and  the  seeds  of  the 
hay  sometimes  fall  into  the  horse's  eyes ;  and  on 
this  account  some  prefer  having  the  bars  or  spars 
(as  they  are  called)  perpendicular.  The  spars 
should  be  round,  two  feet  and  a  half  high,  an  inch, 
and  a  quarter  thick,  and  two  inches  and  a  quarter 
apart.  Each  rack  should  have  a  ring  at  bottom  for 
securing  the  horse's  head.  When  tied  to  the  spars 
he  is  apt  to  bend  or  break  them.  Some  have  made 
the  spars  turn  around  on  a  pivot  to  facilitate  the  com- 
ing out  of  the  hay.  The  racks  are  also  sometimes 
placed  in  the  corner  of  the  stall,  forming  the  quarter 
of  a  circle,  which  gives  more  room. 

The  usual  mode  of  filling  the  hay-racks  is  from 
the  hay-loft  over  the  stable,  by  means  of  an  aper- 
ture in  the  ceiling  just  over  the  rack.  These  aper- 
tures have  been  objected  to;  it  has  been  said  that 
the  foul  vapors  from  the  stable  rise  up  through  them 
and  contaminate  the  hay,  and  that  the  dust  and 
seed  of  the  hay  fall  down  upon  head,  mane  and  ears 
of  the  horse,  and  in  consequence  it  is  recommended 
to  abolish  these  apertures  and  to  feed  baled  hay. 
We  are  strongly  in  favor  of  baling  hay,  and  thus 
saving  barn-room  to  a  great  extent.  A  press  for  this 
purpose  is  somewhat  expensive,  but  will  be  much 
cheaper  than  a  large  addition  to  the  barn.  A 
medium-sized  hand-press  might  be  obtained  for  a 
moderate  sum,  or  several  neighbors  might  buy  a 
power-press  in  company  and  use  it  together,  thus 
reducing  the  individual  cost  to  a  very  low  figure. 
With  a  good  press  and  horse-power  four  men  and 
two  boys  will  bale,  weigh  and  store  from  six  to  ten 
tons  of  hay  per  day.  The  cost  of  baling,  including 
ties,  will  be  only  about  a  dollar  and  a  quarter  a  ton. 
Straw  can  also  be  baled,  and  thus  put  into  a  frac- 
tion of  the  space  which  it  would  otherwise  occupy. 
If  either  hay  or  straw  are  to  be  sold,  baiUng  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  materials,  and 
Vill  also  admit  of  their  being  shipped  on  the  cars. 

Cow  Stalls.     We  give,  in  this  connection,  the 
plan  of  a  very  convenient  cow  or  cattle  stall,  with 


Fig.  4. — Cow  Stall, 

illustrations  of  the  floor,  manger,  etc.  It  is  com- 
mon to  make  a  gutter  in  the  floor  of  the  stable,  just 
behind    the  animals.      This  does   not    work    well. 


62 


BARNS. 


The  solid  droppings  will  soon  impede  the  flow  of 
the  water,  and  make  the  gutter  filthy  and  difficult 
to  clean.  It  is  better  to  grade  the  floor  with  a 
uniform  fall  to  the  rear  of  the  stable,  where  a  gut- 
ter for  the  water  is  to  be  made  (Fig.  4).  The 
solid  material  never  reaches  or  obstructs  it.  The 
floor  or  platform  upon  which  the  cows  stand  is  the 
important  part  upon  wJiich  depends  the  cleanUness, 
health  and  comfort  of  the  animals.  To  construct 
it,  first  lay  a  brick  floor  in  cement  all  over  the 
stable,  and  with  a  uniform  grade  from  front  to 
rear  falling  toward  the  gutter,  with  an  inclination 
of  about  three  inches  in  ten  feet.  Upon  this  lay 
out  the  stalls,  with  short  partitions,  but  sufficiently 
high  in  front  to  blind  the  cows  from  each  other. 
If  the  stalls  be  too  wide,  the  cows  will  stand  quar- 
tering and  defeat  your  object,  which  is  to  make 
them  stand  so  that  their  droppings  will  clear  the 
platform.  Then  for  the  wooden  platform  or  floor 
of  the  stall,  make  a  simple  frame  like  a  sled,  and 
cover  it  with  plank.  It  should  not  be  heavy. 
Two-inch  plank  will  serve  for  the  runners.  Six 
inches  is  as  high  at  the  rear  end  as  it  should  be. 
The  forward  end  should  be  enough  lower  to  make 
the  top  level  when  it  is  put  in  place  on  the  inclined 
brick  floor. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  platform,  and  Fig.  6  exhibits  it 
in   place.      It   can   obviously  be   adjusted   to   any 


length,  by  drawing  it  out  or  sliding  it  under  the 
manger.  One  of  these  must  be  made  for  each 
stall,  and  fitted  loosely  between  the  partitions,  so 
that  it  will  slide  freely,  and  that  it  may  be  taken 
ont,  if  need  be,  for  drying  or  cleaning.  No  rat  can 
find  harborage  in  such  a  floor,  and  it  may  be  thor- 
oughly   washed   by   dashing   water  over  it,  which 


Fig.    6. 


finds  its  way  directly  to  the  gutter.  It  never  rots, 
and  scarcely  ever  needs  attention  or  repairs.  And 
yet  with  all  this  adjustment  a  cow  will  sometimes 
crowd  forward  and  deposit  excrement  upwn  the 
platform,  or  else  back  out  and  get  soiled  by  lying 
down  with  her  body  partly  on  the  floor  below.  The 
general  result,  however,  is  better  than  that  of  any 
other  plan. 


Fig.  7- 


For  securing  the  cows,  use  a  traveler  (Fig.  7) 
with  a  short  chain  and  sttap.  The  traveler  is  made 
of  half-inch  round  iron,  bent  at  each  end  at  right 
angles,  and  with  a  thread  and  nut  for  securing  it 
to  the  front  of  the  manger,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  or  to  a  suitable  post.  A  chain  or 
rope  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  with  a  ring 
at  one  end,  runs  up  and  down  the  traveler. 
The  other  end  is  permanently  attached  to 
a  wide  strap,  buckled  around  the  cow's  neck 
when  she  takes  her  place  in  the  stall.  With 
this  she  can  feed  comfortably,  lie  down,  and  turn  her 
head.     While  it  gives   a  little  more  liberty  than  is 

desirable  o  n 
some  accounts, 
it  probably 
gives  no  more 
than  her  com- 
fort would 
seem  to  re- 
quire. 

The  cement 
floor,  to  be  se- 
cure  from 
cracking  by  frost,  should  be  composed  of  very  clean, 
sharp  sand  and  the  best  Rosendale  cement. 


Fig.    8. 


Fig.  ^—Perspteitot  of  an    Oblong  Barn. 

Barn  Plans.      Fig.  9  shows    a   fine     barn,  ob- 
long in  shape,  with  lateral  wings,  inclosing  a  yard, 


Fig.   10. — Grand  Plan. 

and  adapted  to  a  large  farm.  The  foundation  is 
of  brick  piers.  The  intermediate  spaces  can  be 
closed   up,  forming  a  convenient  pen   for    sheep, 


BAHNS. 


63 


calves  and  hogs.  The  stalls  in  the  main  barn  are 
on  either  side  of  the  center  space,  which  is  20  feet 
wide,  forming  a  spacious  drive-way.  Above  the 
floor  of  this  drive-way,  suspended  from  the  princi- 
pal loft,  is  a  platform  six  feet  wide  for  facilitating 
the  feed  of  hay.  An  inclined  way  from  the  main 
floor  runs  down  into  one  of  the  wings,  as  a  con- 
venience for  washing  carriages.  Steps  lead  from 
the  main  floor  into  the  hostler's  room  in  the  other 
wing.  A  harness  room,  16  x  17  feet,  is  provided  in 
the  opposite  side  of  the  barn;  also  a  granary,  16 
feet  square.  Above  the  granary  is  a  room  for 
chopping  feed.  In  the  wings  are  cow  and  sheep 
pens,  with  troughs  connecting  with  a  pump  in  the 
corner  of  each. 

Stalls  of  cast  iron,  with  feeding  boxes,  etc.,  can  be 
used,  or  wooden  stalls  can  be  substituted  for  much 
less.  A  shute  leads  down  from  the  hay-loft,  with 
an  opening  in  the  manger,  through  which  the  ani- 
mal feeds.  This  is  made  larger  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top,  to  prevent  hay  from  lodging  or  becoming 
packed  in  the  shute.  Near  the  bottom  is  a  door, 
through  which  accumulated  hay-seed  may  be  re- 
moved and  saved  for  planting  purposes.  The 
main  building  is  36  x  46  feet ;  the  wings  and  yard, 
24  feet;  the  pens,  10  feet  long;  the  drive-way,  20 
feet  wide.  In  tlie  ground  plan  (Fig.  10),  B  repre- 
sents the  v/ay  to  the  hay,  G  a  grain  bin,  H  harness 
room,  M  the  man's  room,  P  on  the  right  represents 
sheep  pens,  on  the  left  stalls  for  cows. 

For  this  barn  we  give  the  specifications,  bill  of  the 
quantity  of  material,  and  an  estimate  of  cost.  We 
deem  this  unnecessary  for  every  plan,  as  any  car- 
penter or  builder  who  is  capable  of  building  a  good 
barn  can  work  after  the  plans  given  in  this  work. 

Barns  should  be  properly  as  well  as  economically 
constructed,  which  requires  far  more  forethought  and 
planning  than  the  subject  ordinarily  receives.  A 
barn  once  built  is  not  readily  moved,  or  altered  in 
size  or  shape,  and  therefore  the  plan  should  be  well 
studied  before  the  structure  is  erected. 

specifications. — The  front  and  rear  doors  are  double,  5  feet  wide  by 
13  feet  high  each,  hung  on  good,  double,  wrought-iron  hinges.  All 
windows  in  lower  part  of  stable  2  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  6  inches,  of  4 
panes  to  a  sash,  double  windows,  both  front  and  rear,  in  loft  4  lights  to  a 
sash,  4x3  feet.  Doorto  living  room,  pine,  with  three  raised  panels, 
with  good  lock  with  porcelain  knobs,  both  windows  to  be  2x4  feet,  2 
lights  to  a  sash.  Stable  fittings,  stalls,  etc.,  to  be  portable,  with  wooden 
posts,  cast-iron  troughs  and  heavy  gauze  head-board,  which  cost  very 
little  more  than  the  oak  stalls.  Foundation  walls  to  be  18  inches  thick, 
set  3  feet  under  ground.  One  chimney  flue  of  6  inches  in  living  room. 
,  Bill  0/  Quantity. — Included  in  the  estimate  are  the  following  ma- 

terials: 

18  corner  and  intermediate  posts  24  feet  long,  8x  10. 
376  feet  of  sills,  10  x  12  inches,  convenient  lengths. 
254  feet  of  plates,  6x  10  inches,  convenient  lengths. 
4  tie-beams,  54  feet  long,  10  x  12  inches. 

6  principal  rafters,  20  feet  long,  lox  loinches. 
3  collar  beams,  24  feet  long,  10 x  12  inches. 
6  struts  12  feet  long,  8  X  10  inches, 
ig  posts,  for  sheds,  14  feet  long,  6x6  inches. 

19  posts  18  feet  long,  6x6  inches. 

1,000  feet  of  girts  and  braces,  6x3  inches. 

256  feet  of  purlines,  lox  12  inches. 

80  rafters,  20  feet  long,  8  x  2  inches. 

80  rafters,  13  feet  long,  8x2  inches. 

600  feet  of  braces,  etc.,  6x2  inches,  in  convenient  lengths. 

160  joists,  13  feet  long,  12 x  3  inches. 

1,100  feet  of  girts  and  plates,  6x  3  inches. 


Estimate  0/  Cost  : 

Excavation , $25  q/^ 

Foundation, Ijrick  or  stone  piers 85  00 

Framing,  including  sills,  girts,  plates,  etc 241  50 

Floor  joists,  including  bridges,  etc 15000 

Siding  or  weather-boarding,  including  battens,  etc.,  9,800  feet..  274  40 

Sheathing  of  roof,  6.100  feet   122  00 

Shingling,  61  M  .  at  $4. 2c 25620 

Flooring  [part  2  inches  thick),  4,500  feet 180  00 

Rafters,  including  trusses,  braces,  etc.,  6,100  feet. .' 183  oa 

Windows,  including  ventilators,  etc 120  00- 

Doors,  including  hardware,  etc 6000 

Stalls,  including  fillings,  mangers,  etc 125  00 

Pens,  complete 8000 

Grain-bins,  steps,  ladders,  etc 6000 

Painting  and  glazing 110  00 

Sundries 40  00 

Total,  including  labor,  etc $2,112  lo. 

The  above  will  make  an  excellent  barn,  one  which 
will  be  a  credit  and  an  ornament  to  any  farm,  and 
will  accommodate  many  head  of  stock  and  furnish, 
room  for  the  storage  of  much  grain.  Care  has  been: 
taken  to  have  it  properly  ventilated,  which  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  construction  of  barns. 

A  Curb -Roof  Barn.  Fig.  ii  represents  a  curb- 
roof  barn,  known  also  by  the  terms  gambrel  or  man- 
sard roof,  and  distinguished  by  the  angle  half  way 
up  the  rafters.  It  has  an  important  advantage  in 
giving  more  capacity  for  a  given  amount  of  siding 
and  shingles ;  and  a  greater  height  above  the  eaves 
or  posts,  which  presents  no  difficulty  in  filling, 
now  that  the  work  of  pitching  from  the  wagon  load 
is  wholly  performed  by  the  horse  fork.  The  cross 
timbers  above  the  cross  beam  being  entirely  omitted 
(except  at  the  ends  or  outside),  the  horse-fork  has 
room  to  work  freely.  The  main  portion  is  40  by  56 
feet,  and  it  is  well  adapted  to  a  farm  of  100  to 
150  acres. 

Beginning  with  the  plan.  Fig.  12,  the  construction 
is  briefly  explained.  The  beam  between  the  bay 
and  threshing  floor  is  12  feet  high,  and,  the  girt 
being  left  out,  the  whole  floor  is  accessible  for 
the  storage  of  wagons,  farming  tools,  etc.,  after  the 
grain  is  threshed  or  the  hay  fed  out.  Broad,  sliding 
doors  open  from  the  outside  (on  the  left)  to  this 
floor,  and  a  narrower  door  at  the  opposite  side.  Th© 
whole  floor  is  covered  with  two-inch  pine  plank, 
planed  and  matched.  The  bay,  which  is  15  X4c> 
feet,  is  represented  by  A  in  Fig.  12.  jThe  thresh^ 
ing  floor,  12x40  feet,  is  indicated  by  B,  and  the 
dotted  line  between  the  two  shows  the  beam  12 
feet  high.  C  represents  the  cut-feed  and  oat  room, 
r2  X  22  feet. 

The  cellar  is  under  this  floor,  40  feet  square  (oc- 
cupying all  the  barn  except  the  horse  stables),  an<J 
8  feet  high  in  the  clear.  It  consists  of  an  open  shed 
on  the  side  next  the  cow  stable,  10x46  feet,  with 
mangers  next  to  the  walls.  The  remaining  space, 
30x40  feet,  is  inclosed,  and  has  likewise  mangers 
next  the  wall.  The  building  stands  about  four  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground  in  front,  and  the  earth 
is  filled  in  so  as  to  make  an  easy  ascent.  The 
granary,  marked  G,  affords  ample  storage  for  threshed 
grain. 

The  horse  stable,  represented  by  D,  is  r6  feet 
wide,   16  inches  below  the  main  floor,   and  8  feet 


64 


BARNS. 


high,  and  is  entered  by  a  sliding  door  on  Ihe  left  wide 
enough  for  two  horses  to  pass.  There  is  room  for 
eight  horses.  The  larger  stall  for  two  horses  is 
often  convenient  for  feeding  a  harnessed  team. 
The  others  are  4J4  x  10  feet  in  the  clear,  and  the 
box  hay  feeders  are  those  now  commonly  em- 
ployed, extending  upward  about  20  feet,  with 
doors  at  the  sides  at  different  heights  to  throw  in 
the  hay.  The  space  over  the  horse  stables  is  oc- 
cupied with  hay  for  feeding  them,  the  floor  of  this 
bay  being  about  seven  feet  above  the  floor  of  the 
barn. 

The  cow  sheds  and  stables,  which  are  shown  by 
E  and  F,  are  22  X30  feet,  having  a  space  overhead 
for  the  storage  of  fodder.  The  end  view  of  the 
frame.  Fig.  13,  needs  but  little  explanation.  There 
are  no  purline  girts,  beams  or  braces  (except  at 
the  ends)  to  interfere  with  the  free  working  of 
the  liorse-fork.  Al- 
though the  sills  of  the 
horse  stable  are  low- 
er than  the  others,  the 
plates  are  on  the 
same  level.  The  ven- 
tilator is  5}^  feet 
square  and  7  feet 
high,  with  blinds.  A 
corn  and  wagon 
house  is  adjacent,  20 
by  24  feet,  with  grain 
bins  overhead,  and 
places  for  the  storage 
of  corn  in  the  ear  on 
each;  the  wagon  pas- 
sage below;  with  a 
hog-pen  underneath, 
in  a  walled  basement 
seven  feet  high.  The  cost  of  this  barn  would  vary  [ 
much  with  the  price  of  materials  and  with  various 
facilities,  from  $r,8oo  to  S2,5oo. 


signed   with   a   view  to  symmetry  and   ornamental 
exterior.      It  is   25  x  35    feet.     Fig.    15  represents 


Fig.  13. — End  Vitvj  0/ Frame, 

the  ground  plan.      The    carriage    room    is   15  x  25 
feet,  which  admits  two  carriages  to  stand  side  by 

side,  with  ample 
room  to  pass  around 
them,  and  four  can 
be  placed  within  it 
without  inconven. 
ience.  This  apart- 
ment is  separated 
from  the  stable  by  a 
matched  board  par- 
tition,  with  a  door 
between  them.  Pins 
for  harness  are  put 
in  this  partition,  ob- 
viating the  necessity 
of  a  separate,  harness 
room. 

The  horse  stable 
is  15x25  feet,  giv- 
ing   space    for    four 


i- Roof  Bar 


Fig.  11.— Plan /or  Fig.  ii. 

Carriage  and  Horse  Barn.  Fig.  14  is  a 
view  of  a  carriage  and  horse  barn,  built  of  wood, 
with  rough  vertical  and  battened  boards,  but  de- 


stalls,  each  5  feet  wide  and  15  feet  long,  which  is 
the  shortest  length  admissible,  with  free  passage 
around  the  rear  of  the  horses  for  leading  them  out, 
removing  manure,  etc.  The  light  being  admitted 
behind  them,  the  animals'  eyes  are  not  injured  by 
light,  as  they  would  be  if  their  faces  were  in  front 
of  the  openings,  and  the  ventilation  from  without 
is  more  perfect.  The  mangers  are  only  breast 
high,  admitting  free  circulation  of  the  air  between 
stalls  and  passage.  The  arrangement  is  such  that 
any  horse  can  be  taken  from  the  carriage  room  to 
the  stable,  or  the  reverse,  with  only  a  few  steps, 
and  all  within  doors,  so  that  there  is  no  exposure 
in  time  of  rain  or  snow  storms.  A  pump  at  w, 
from  the  rain-water  cistern  below,  is  convenient  for 
watering.  The  place  of  the  ventilator  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines  at  v.  It  reaches  down  to  the 
floor  above,  and  passes  up  through  the  roof.  It 
has  a  large  board  valve  near  the  top,  which  may 
be  opened  or  closed  at  pleasure  by  means  of  a  rod 
extending  down  within  reach.  This  ventilator  is 
simply  a  square   board   box  or  tube,  two   feet   or 


BARJVS. 


65 


more  square,  allowing  the  immediate  escape  of  all 
bad  odors  from  the  stable,  preventing  the  diseases 
so  common  in  horses  that  have  to  breathe  rank 
exhalations.  In  the  side  of  this  ventilator,  in  the 
hay-loft,  is  one  or  more  large  board  doors,  hung 
above  and  swung  inward,  through  which  the  hay 
is  thrust  for  the  horses  below.  As  soon  as  the 
forkful  has  dropped,  the  door  falls  shut,  and  ex- 
cludes any  possible  vapors  of  the  stable  from  en- 


FiG  n.— 'Carriage  and  Horse  Burn. 

tering  the  loft.  The  stairs  at  the  end  of  the  pas- 
sage are  boarded  up,  and  a  door  shuts  the  passage 
between  the  stable  and  the  stored  hay.     Under  the 

higher  part  of  the  stairs 
is  a  closet  for  brushes, 
curry-comb,  soap,  oils, 
etc.,  and  ^  is  a  bin  for 
horse-feed. 

The  lower  or  main 
story  of  this  barn  should 
be  about  9  feet  high  in 

the  clear.     With  a  good 

Fio.  z.^.— Plan /or  Fig.  .4.  Ventilator  this  is  better 
than  12  feet  without  a  ventilator.  With  14  feet 
posts,  there  can  be  a  hay-loft  over  four  feet  high  at 
the  eaves,  and  with  one-third  pitch  of  the  roof. 

Fig.  16  is  a  view  of  a  modification  of  this  barn  so 
arranged  that  it  may  be  made  five  feet  shorter,  the 
dimensions  being  25  x  30  feet.  Fig.' 17  is  the  plan. 
The  horses'  heads  are  placed  toward  the  outer 
wall,  each  stall  being  hghted  by  a  large  single-pane 
ivindow.  In  order  to  exclude  the  light  from  the 
horses'  eyes,  these  windows  are  set  seven  or  eight 
feet  high;  and  immediately  under  them,  on  the 
inside,  is  a  narrow  plank  hood  or  shelf,  entirely 
covering  the  light  at  the  animals'  heads.  The 
hay  is  thrown  down  from  above  through  the  square 
boxes,  from  which  the  horses  obtain  their  supply 
through  the  side  openings  at  the  bottom.  A  separate 
harness  room  is  provided.  Pins  may  be  placed 
in  the  partition  in  the  carriage  apartment,  in 
addition,  if  desired,  as  described  in  the  preceding 
design. 

The  plan  of  a  third  design  is  shown  in  Fig.  18, 
the  object  being  to  provide  for  both  cattle  and 
horses.     Tiie  dimensions  are  like  those  of  the  first 


plan,  25  x  35  feet.  There  are  four  horse  stalls, 
each  five  feet  wide,  and  two  cow  stalls  (C),  each 
four  feet,  with  a  post  between.  The  ample  width 
of  the  passage  between  them  prevents  danger  of 
the  horses  kicking  the  cows,  especially  if  the  more 


Fig.  x6. — Another  Carriage  artd  Horse  Barn. 

quiet  animals    are   placed   opposite.     The   harness 

room  is  five  by  eight  feet.     A  small  entrance  door 

is  needed  at  the  side,  the  animals  being  led  out  at 

the  end;  and  a  door  in  the 

close  partition  between  the 

stable  and  carriage  house 

admits  ready  passage  from 

one  to  the  other.      A  large 

box  or  bin  for  feed  is  shown 

zib. 
The  cost  of  such  barns 

will  depend  greatly  on  the 

price  of  materials  and  labor     Fig.  ij.—PUn/ar  Fig.  16. 

where  they  are  erected,  and  the  degree  of  finish  given 
They  can  be  built  at  from  $800  to  $1,500. 
White-oak  plank,  planed 
and  matched,  for  the 
division  of  the  stalls 
and  for  the  floors,  will 
be  better  than  hemlock 
or  pine,  but  cost  more. 
Good  pine  siding  will 
be  better,  but  more 
expensive     than      hem- 


them. 


rr 

low     ' 

L 


T=^ 


R.     -    -J 

•Plan /or  Fig.  14. 


Before   the   introduction 


Fig 

lock. 

Three-Story  Barn. 
of  the  horse-fork,  some  of  the  best  barns  in  the 
country  were  built  three  stories  high,  where  slop- 
ing ground  permitted  the  entrance  to  the  upper 
story  with  a  loaded  wagon.  Properly  arranged 
and  constructed,  they  still  possess  some  important 
advantages,  among  which  is  the  facility  with  which 
grain  may  be  passed  from  the  upper  story  to  the 
lower  during  the  successive  operations  of  thresh- 
ing, cleaning  and  bagging.  The  basement  is  60 
feet  long,  24  feet  wide,  and  7  feet  high  in  the 
clear.  "The  walls  contain  70  perches  of  stone  work. 
The  floor  above  is  supported  by  two  rows  of  pil- 
lars, Fig.    19.     Those  in  the  outside  row  are  two 


66 


BARNS. 


by  six  feet,  the  inside  ones  being  two  feet  square. 
The  barn  is  48  feet  wide.  The  floor  of  the  cow 
stable,  which  is  directly  over  the  basement,  rests 
upon  joists  that  are  laid  upon  cross  sills,  and  reach 
from  the  ends  of  the  front  pillars  to  the  rear  ones. 
The  joists  rest  upon  the  cross  sills  as  far  as  the 
latter  reach,  and  then  upon  the  pillars.  The  cross 
sills  are  ten  inches  square.  There  is  thus  a  drop 
of  ten  inches  in  the  floor  upon  which  the  cows 
stand,  and  immediately  behind  them.  This  drop, 
G,  Fig.  20,  is  four  .feet  wide  and  forms  a  passage 
in  which  the  manure  collects,  and  from  which  it 


Fig.  19.— 7"Arc. - 

may  be  pushed  through  the  side  of  the  drop  to  the 
basement  below.  The  liquids  from  the  cows  drain 
through  this  open  space  upon  the  manure  in  the 
basement.  The  floor  upon  which  the  cows  stand, 
seen  at  F,  is  six  feet  wide.  There  are  nine  stalls 
for  cows,  F,  Fig.  20,  each  of  which  is  four  feet 
wide.  In  each  stall  is  a  manger  and  a  feed 
box.  The  cows  are  tied  by  means  of  ropes 
around  their  necks.  There  is  a  passage, 
E,  Fig.  20,  between  the  cow  stable  and  the 
horse  stable,  C.  In  the  latter  there  are  five 
single   horse    stalls,   and   two  closed,   loose  .^ 

boxes.  Each  single  stall  is  five  feet  wide. 
When  the  horse  stable  is  cleaned,  a  wagon 
is  driven  into  the  shed  behind  it,  B  ;  the  ma- 
nure is  thrown  into  the  wagon,  and  at  once 
hauled  wherever  it  may  be  needed.  The 
floor  of  the  horse  stable  is  on  the  ground. 
The  shed  B,  Fig.  20,  is  for  storing  tools  and 
'  wagons,  or  housing  sheep,  and  has  a  door,  A, 
at  each  end.  The  stables  are  eight  feet  high, 
and  the  barn  reaches  18  feet  above  the  sta- 
bles. The  plan  of  the  barn  floor  is  shown  by 
Fig.  21  ;  A  is  the  main  floor;  at  B  B  are  the 
entrance  doors,  to  which  a  sloping  drive- 
way, abutting  against  the  wagon  shed, 
leads.  The  rear  doors,  C  C,,are  hung  upon 
rollers.  At  D  is  the  trap  for  hay,  leading  to  the 
feed  passage  below,  and  E  E  E  are  traps  for  straw 
used  for  bedding,  leading  into  the  stables.  The 
granaries  are  seen  at  F  F,  and  there  are  spouts  from 
these  leading  into  the  wagon   shed  so  that  sacks 


uix)n  the  wagon  can  be  filled  from  the  spouts. 
The  passage  to  the  granaries  is  at  G ;  it  is  eight 
feet  wide,  and  a  work  bench  with  tools  is  kept 
here.  The  staircase  leading  down  to  the  feed  pas- 
sage is  sgen  at  H.  The  trap  doors  are  double  and 
on  hinges.  The  floor  is  also  double,  so  that  no 
dust  can  fall  through  to  the  floor  below,  nor  any 
disagreeable  vapors  arise  therefrom.  This  story  is 
eighteen  feet  clear,  there  being  a  truss  roof,  which 
is  self-supporting.  The  roof  is  shingled  with  pine 
shingles,  and  the  whole  of  the  barn  is  covered  with 
pine  weather-boardiiii;,  and  painted. 


Iliii'iliB'.lll 


Fig.  20. — Plan  of  StabU  Floor.        Fig.  zi. — Plan  0/  Barn  Floor, 


A  Large  Horse  and  Cattle  Barn.  Fig. 
22  represents  a  very  commodious  and  also  an  ex- 
pensive barn.  It  is  84  feet  square  and  nearly  50 
feet  in  extreme  height,  not  including  the  cellar. 
There  are  84  stalls  provided,  as  indicated  in  the 
ground  plan,  Fig.  23.  There  are  two  rows  of 
horse  stalls  on  one  side,  and  three  rows  of  cattle 
stalls  on  the  other.  The  proportions  of  the  inte- 
rior are  as  liberal  of  space  as  those  of  the  barn 
itself.     The  central  drive-way  or  barn  floor  is   16 


Fig.  22. — Large  Horse  and  Cattle  Barn. 

feet  wide.  The  carriage  and  wagon  rooms  on 
each  side  of  the  floor  are  both  20  feet  square. 
Large,  loose  boxes  are  for  the  accommodation  of 
stallions.  The  various  passage-ways  between  the 
rows  of  stalls,  and   at  the  rear  of  them,  are  four 


BARNS. 


67 


feet  wide,  while  the  horse  stalls  are  nearly  six  feet, 
and  the  stalls  for  two  cows  eight  feet  in  width. 
The  two  spaces  inclosed  between  dotted  lines  on 
the  barn  floor  indicate  the  position  of  the  hoist- 
ways  under  the  skylights  for   hay.     The    spaces  at 


n 


^, 


a 


'J 


I 
1  jiT 


Fig.   23. — Ground  Plan /or  Fig .  22. 

either  end  outside  these  hoisting  spaces  are  floored 
over  above  the  great  doors,  and  are  finished  off  as 
granaries  for  keeping  the  supply  of  oats,  meal, 
etc.,  required  for  the  stock.  On  each  side  of  the 
barn  is  a  rain-water  cistern,  13  feet  9  inches  in 
diameter  and  25  feet  deep ;  these  are  connected  by 
a  pipe,  passing  underground  across  the  front  of  the 
barn.  There  are  seven  windows  on  each  side,  and 
six,  besides  the  five  sliding  doors,  in  each  gable. 
These,  with  the  three  great  ventilators,  afford 
unusual  provision  for  pure  air.  The  cattle  are  fed 
from  the  floor  above.  The  passage  between  the 
rows  of  horse  stalls  is  for  feeding.  The  building 
stands  upon  54  stone  pillars,  and  has  a  tight  board 
floor,  any  part  of  which  may  be  easily  removed, 
as  occasion  may  require.  With  a  large  corn  house 
35  feet  square,  not  seen  in  the  engraving,  this  barn 
cost  $9,000. 

In  the  ground  plan,  B  F  represents  the  main 
floor  or  drive-way,  16x84;  H  S,  double  horse 
stalls;  the  space  extending  the  entire  length  of  the 
barn  in  front  of  the  stalls,  both  the  horse  and  cattle 
stalls,  is  four  feet  wide.  It  is  entered  by  doors  at 
each  end;  C  S  represents  cattle  stalls  ;  C,  carriage 
room,  20x20;  L,  loose  boxes,  10x16;  W,  wagon 
room,  20  X  20. 

Model  Barn.  Fig.  25  represents  a  magnifi- 
cent barn,  commodious  in  all  its  proportions,  sub- 
stantially  built   and  of    architectural    beauty   and 


symmetry.     It  is  perhaps  as  large  and  expensive  a 

barn   as   almost   any  farmer  will   desire   to   build. 

The  main  building  is  55  x  80  feet.     The  wings  are 

each  56  feet  long;    one  31J4  feet  wide,  the  other 

35   feet.    The  four  leading  features  of  this  design 

are:    first,  economy  of  room  under  a  given  roof; 

second,  plenty  of  light ;    third,  plenty  of  air,  and 

ventilation  which  would  draw  off  all  the  deleterious 

gas  as  fast  as  generated ;  and  fourth,  convenience 

to  save  labor.     Saving  of  manure  and  many  other 

things   were  of  course   included.      An   important 

point  is  the  numerous  windows,  which  are  hung 

with  pulleys,  and  may  be  lowered  on  warm  days  in 

winter  and  closed  on  cold  days. 

The  barn  is  provided  with  a  good  stone  base- 
ment, the  plan  of  which  is  shown  by  Fig.  24.  This 
is  arranged  for  hogs,  roots  and  manure.  The  fixed 
partitions  in  the  cellar  are  only  two,  one  inclosing 
Q  the  root  cellar,  represented  by  R,  and  the  other  out- 
side of  that,  shutting  off  a  wide  cemented  passage- 
way,  extending  from  the  door  at  the  northeast  corner, 
around  two  sides  of  the  root  cellar,  as  shown  in  the 
basement  plan.  The  divisions  marked  H  are  pens 
for  hogs.  The  remainder  of  the  basement  is  used 
for  manure. 

The  main  floor  (Fig.  26)  is  entered  by  several 
doors.  Two  double  doors  open  upon  a  capacious 
floor  in  the  rear  of  the  horse  stalls,  which  extend 
through  the  middle  of  the  main  barn.  The  horse 
stalls  are  indicated  by  H  S.     A  large  harness  and 


FT 


a 
a 


D       n 


Fiu.  ia,.—Basemtnt  Plan/or  Fig.  =5. 

tool  room  is  shown  by  H  R.  C  R  indicates  a 
carriage  room.  This  is  situated  to  the  right  of  the 
front  entrance,  and  is  closed  by  a  shdmg  door  or 


68 


BARNS. 


partition.  Thiere  is  room  on  the  open  part  of  this 
floor,  behind  the  horse  stalls,  and  adjacent,  to  drive 
in  three  wagons  at  a  time,  and  let  the  horses  stand 
hitched.  O  X  in  one  of  the  wings  indicates  ox 
stalls.  Between  these  stalls  is  a  ten-foot  passage 
way,  through  which  carts  with  roots 'or  green  feed 
may  be  driven,  the  stairs  in  the  middle  being 
hinged  at  the  ceiling  and  fastened  up.  The  stalls 
are  seven  feet  wide  and  are  arranged  to  tie  up  two 
cattle  in  each.  A  gutter  to  conduct  off  the  urine 
runs  along  behind  each  range  of  stalls,  and  there 
are  well-secured  traps,  one  in  about  every  15  feet, 
through  which  the  manure  is  dropped  to  the  cel- 
lar. The  letter  C,  whenever  it  occurs  in  Fig.  26, 
indicates  a  trap  door  of  a  manure  drop. 


by  E  R  in  Fig.  26.  This  room  is  built  of  stone, 
arched  above,  and  is  roomy  as  well  as  secure. 

By  means  of  a  hay-fork  and  a  number  of  travel- 
ers, the  hay  is  taken  from  the  loads  and  dropped 
in  any  part  of  the  immense  bays.  The  forks  are 
worked  by  one  horse,  attached  to  a  hoisting  ma- 
chine, of  which  there  are  two,  placed  near  the  great 
doors  during  the  haying  season. 

On  this  floor  are  bins  for  grain  and  ground  feed, 
as  shown  by  G.  These  are  provided  with  shutes 
connecting  them  with  the  main  floor.  There  are 
also  hay  scales  (S)  on  this  floor.  This  affords  the 
means  of  being  very  accurate  in  many  things,  in 
regard  to  which  guess  work  is  ordinarily  the  rule. 
The   great  ventilators,   so  conspicuous   in  Fig.  27, 


The  cow  stalls  are  in  the  other  wing,  and  are 
indicated  by  the  words.  To  the  rear  of  these  are 
a  row  of  stalls  for  calves.  To  the  left  of  these,  and 
shown  by  L,  are  two  loose  rooms,  used  for  lying- 
in  stables  for  cows.  C  R  indicates  a  pen  for 
calves,  while  H  B,  just  across  the  hallway,  is  a 
large  horse  box.  Near  the  point  marked  W  F. 
stand  the  hydrant  for  flowing  water  and  the  trough 
for  mixing  feed ;  and  here,  too,  the  shutes  for  cut 
feed  and  grain  discharge  from  the  floor  above.  E  R 
indicates  the  engine  room. 

The  plan  of  the  hay  floor  is  shown  by  Fig.  27. 
Here  is  where  all  the  grain,  hay  and  straw  are 
stored.  Two  threshing  floors  cross  the  building, 
and  are  entered  from  the  high  ground  on  the  west 
by  a  very  easy  ascent.  The  main  entrance  crosses 
over  an  engine  room,  seen  in  Fig.  25,  and  indicated 


pass  from  the  main  floor  to  the  roof,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  doors  at  different  elevations,  quite  to 
the  top  of  the  mow,  thus  forming  convenient 
shutes  to  throw  down  hay  or  straw.  A  long  flight 
of  stairs  passes  from  the  main  floor  to  the  cupola, 
from  which  a  view  may  be  obtained  of  the  farm  and 
surrounding  country.  V  on  this  floor  indicates  ven- 
tilating trunks,  of  which  there  are  four.  A  points  to 
the  stairs  to  the  mow ;  B,  stairs  to  the  cupola ;  and 
D,  stairs  to  the  main  floor. 

The  basement  plan  of  the  above  design  is  given 
on  the  preceding  page,  while  the  main  floor  plan, 
and  that  of  the  hay  floor,  may  be  found  on  the  fol- 
lowing page.  The  plans  very  fully  explain  them- 
selves, and  any  intelligent  carpenter  or  builder  will 
be  able  to  follow  them  in  the  erection  of  a  build- 
ing.   A  barn  of  this  kind,  only  in  a  modified  form, 


BARN. 


6g 


8xi6  feet,  and  7  feet  high  at  the  eaves.  The  first 
story  of  the  barn  is  85^  feet  high;  it  contains  a 
carriage-room,  three  good  stalls  with  mangers  and 
hay-shutes.  There  are  two  windows  and  double 
doors  in  front,  and  a  single  door  at  the  back.  The 
oat-bin  is  under  the  stairs ;  the  grain  is  poured  in  at 
the  top  and  taken  out  at  the  bottom,  the  lower 
step  being  higher  and  broader  than  the  others,  and 
hinged.     The  upper  floor  is  of  inch  matched  stuff, 


Fig.  2b.— Plan  a/  Main  Floor /or  Fig.  25. 

will  be  found  to  meet  the  wants  of  large  farmers. 
In  these  days  of  railroads  and  near  markets,  huge 
barns  are  not  as  essential  as  formerly,  yet  many 
farms  demand  large  buildings. 

Fig.  28  represents  a  very  convenient  barn  for  its 
size  and  cost.  It  is  16x22  feet,  and  14  feet  high, 
with  a  wagon-shed  across  one  end.     This  shed  is 


H 

n 

3— 
3 

m«m( 

■a 

5j 

B 

^ 1 

c^  2^ 

u              ■               0 

V                          1                            V                           1 

H 

0  1 

s 

h 

n 

V 

Fig.  27.— /'/aw  0/ Hay  floore/Fig.  35. 


Fig.  2^.— Front  Elevation  0/  Barn. 

and  the  lower  one,  inch  boards  doubled,  and  laid 
to  break  joints,  making  a  warmer  floor  than  planks 
with  cracks  between  them.  The  siding  is  of  barn 
boards  dressed  on  one  side,  and  battened  with  J^- 
inch  by  2-inch  battens  ;  the  cornice  is  with  one-foot 
projections.  The  roof  is  of  18-inch  clear  butt 
pine  shingles.  Total  cost,  including  foundation  and 
two  coats  of  paint,  $175. 

Sheep  Barn.  We  give  a  design  of  an  excellent 
sheep  barn  by  Figs.  30  and  31.  It  is  40x90  feet 
in  size.  An  alley  seven  feet  wide  runs  lengthwise 
through  the  center,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  31.  Thia 
is  provided  with  a  floor  lyi  feet  higher  than  the 
pens  on  either  side.  At  either  end  of  this  alley  is 
a  sort  of  step-ladder  leading  to  the  hay-loft.  The 
joists  over  the  alley  are  about  7  feet  above  it.  At 
one  corner  of  the  chamber  is  a  wool-room,  and  at 
the  other  a  grain-bin.  The  breadth  given  to  the 
alley  makes  it  convenient  for  feeding,  and  no  hay 
gets  on  the  sheep.  In  late  spring  this  barn  may  be 
found  a  convenient  place  for  young  calves. 


S/t. 
JWAaON 

i 

'  SHED 


2Z&' 


STALL 


STALL 


STALL 


^ 


\m 


Fig.  39. — Plan  0/  F^oor  and  Stalls. 

The  floor  over  the  pens  and  alley  is  all  on  the 
same  level.  Doors  are  placed  on  the  sides  of  the 
building,  opening  into  the  loft,  through  which  the 
hay  is  pitched.  The  gates  open  for  the  admission 
of  wagon  and  team.  In  the  ground  plan  g,  g,  g, 
represents  the  gates  in  the  yards  which  flank  the 


70 


BARN— BARREL. 


pens  ;  d,  d,  d,  doors  between  pens  and  yards  ;  w,  w, 
w,  windows  of  pens,  and  t,  t,  t,  water  tanks. 

Each  pen  has  a  low  dooi  entering  from  the 
alley,  and  also  a  door  running  into  the  adjoining 
pen.  The  sheep-rack  forms  the  boundary  of  the 
pens.     Water  is  supplied  to  each  pen  from  a  pipe 


Fig.  io.—Skeef  Barn. 

below  ground,  and  is  pumped  up  by  a  wind- 
mill at  some  distance  from  the  barn.  The  water 
is  kept  at  a  uniform  level  by  means  of  a  valve 
arranged  in  the  reservoir.  The  back  door  passing 
into  the  yard  from  each  pen  is  in  two  parts.  The 
lower  door  is  set  in  a  groove  at  one  edge,  and  is 
held  to  the  other  with  a  button.  When  not  in  use 
it  is  lifted  out  and  set  one  side.     The  upper  part  of 


Fia.  y.— Ground  Plan  0/  Shett  Barn^Flanked  by  Yardt. 

the  door  slides  back  on  rollers  above,  and  is  on  the 
outside  of  the  barn.  The  upper  one,  when  closed, 
permits  a  sheep  to  walk  under  it;  or  the  lower  one 
may  be  closed,  and  the  upper  open,  when  occupied 
by  lambs.  The  pens  are  12x16  feet,  and  the  yards 
outside  and  adjoining  are  each  12x25  feet.    The 


pens  may  be  easily  varied  in  width  by  moving  the 
sheep-rack  which  divides  them.  To  assist  in 
readily  supplying  feed  from  the  alley,  a  slanting 
board  or  door  inclines  toward  the  alley,  and  on 
this  the  hay  or  grain  is  placed  on  its  way  to  the 
feeding  trough  below.  These  slanting  doors  are 
2j^  feet  high,  and  are  held  in  place  by  long  hooks, 
b,  at  the  top.  In  the  summer  these  doors  are  set 
up  vertically  against  the  studs,  c  (which  form  the 
division  between  the  pens  and  alley),  and  are  held 
there  by  buttons. 

Barnacles,  instruments  used  by  farriers  to  put 
upon  the  muzzle  of  a  horse  when  he  will  not  stand 
quietly.  The  object  of  these  instruments,  and  of 
another  called  the  "  twitch,"  is  to  produce  as  much 
pain  in  the  muzzle  as  will  draw  away  his  attention 
from  the  pain  caused  by  shoeing  or  a  surgical  opera- 
tion. The  common  barnacles  are  rollers  of  wood 
bound  together  and  made  to  enclose  and  compass 
the  muzzle.  Another  kind  has  handles,  and  oper- 
ates like  pincers ;  and  a  third  sort  are  held  together 
at  the  top  by  a  ring  enclosing  buttons.  From  in- 
considerateness  or  cruelty  much  unnecessary  pain 
is  often  inflicted  with  these  instruments.  In  some 
instances  even  the  highest  degree  of  pain  fails  to 
accomplish  the  veterinary  surgeon's  purpose,  so 
that  he  is  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  strong 
means  of  restraint  afforded  by  the  side-line  hobbles. 

Barometer,  an  instrument  which  shows  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  common  kind, 
the  higher  the  mercury  is  in  the  glass  tube,  the 
heavier  is  the  air.  Allowance  must  always  be  made 
for  variations  of  temperature  and  of  height  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Ordinarily  the  air  is  heavier 
in  clear  weather  than  just  before  a  storm,  and  the 
mercury  correspondingly  higher.  The  greatest  and 
most  sudden  changes  of  the  barometer  generally 
take  place  in  early  summer,  when  the  country  is 
subject  to  violent  storms.  The  instrument,  as 
marked  by  opticians,  with  the  words  "  fair," 
"  change,"  "  storm,"  etc.,  is  often  misleading.  To 
foretell  the  weather  correctly,  several  things  must  be 
considered :  See  Weather. 

Barouche  (ba-roosh'),  a  four-wheeled  carriage, 
with  a  falling  top,  a  seat  on  the  outside  for  the 
driver,  and  two  seats  on  the  inside  arranged  for 
four  persons  to  sit  facing  each  other. 

Bar-Post,  a  post  sunk  in  the  ground  to  receive 
the  bars  of  a  passage  into  a  field. 

Barracan,  a  thick,  strong  stuff,  somewhat  like 
camlet ;  used  for  outer  garments. 

Barrel,  of  flour,  is  196  pounds;  of  pork  or  rice, 
200  pounds.  Dry  measure,  a  barrel  contains  315^ 
gallons,  which  lacks  but  a  half  gallon  of  four  bushels, 
even  measure.  In  the  South  five  bushels  of  corn, 
shelled,  is  sometimes  called  a  barrel. 


BARREL— BAY  RUM. 


ri 


Barrel,  of  a  boiler,  is  the  cylindrical  part,  contain- 
ing the  flues. 

Barren,  not  capable  of  producing  fruit,  or  young; 
as,  a  barren  tree ;  a  barren  cow. 

Barrens,  land  not  naturally  covered  with  vegeta- 
tion ;  often  rich  enough,  however,  for  certain  culti- 
vated crops,  fruit,  plants,  etc. 

Barrow,  a  light,  small  carriage,  borne  or  moved 
by  hand ;  also  a  male  hog  castrated ;  also  an  arti- 
ficial cave  for  keeping  fruits  and  vegetables  through 
the  winter. 

Bars,  in  farriery,  are  those  portions  of  a  horse's 
hoof  which  are  turned  inward  and  from  the  arches 
between  the  heels  and  the  frog.  The  "  bars  "  of  a 
horse's  mouth  are  the  fleshy  rows  across  the  upper 
part,  reaching  almost  to  the  palate.  They  form 
that  part  of  the  mouth  on  which  the  bit  should  rest 
and  have  its  effect,  the  tongue  of  the  curb  bit  press- 
ing upon  it  when  pulled  by  the  reins  in  the  hands  of 
the  driver. 

Bar  Shoe,  a  horseshoe  of  particular  construction, 
adapted  to  a  tender  foot  and  designed  to  protect 
a  sore  or  weak  point  from  pressure  by  causing  the 
-whole  weight  of  the  limb  to  be  borne  by  the  other 
portion  of  the  sole.  Its  ciiief  feature  is  a  continua- 
tion of  the  common  shoe  around  the  heels,  and 
its  principal  use  is  in  cases  of  corn,  sand-crack 
and  pumiced  feet;  but  it  requires  to  be  made  thick, 
and  it  sometimes  presses  very  injuriously  on  the 
heels. 

Bar-way,  a  passage  into  a  field  composed  of 
bars  made  to  take  out  of  the  posts. 

Base-court,  the  back  yard  or  farmyard. 

Basin.  The  basin  of  an  apple,  pear  or  peach  is 
the  depression  or  hollow  at  the  blossom  end,  which 
is  opposite  the  stem  end  of  the  fruit. 

Basket,  a  vessel  made  of  twigs,  rushes,  Splinters 
or  other  flexible  things  interwoven.  Willow 
twigs  are  the  usual  material.  Baskets  are  made  in 
a  great  variety  of  shapes  and  sizes  and  styles,  with 
reference  to  the  innumerable  purposes  for  which 
they  are  designed.  In  these  days  of  cheap  manu- 
facture a  farmer  would  not  be  justified  in  under- 
taking to  make  his  baskets,  but  sometimes  a  young 
genius  or  an  invalid  of  the  household  desires  to 
while  away  a  few  tedious  hours  at  this  kind  of 
work. 

Bass,  or  Bast,  the  inner  bark  of  the  basswood  or 
linden  tree,  easily  torn,  after  soaking  in  water  for 
about  three  months,  into  strips  and  shreds,  which 
are  useful  for  making  mats,  cordage,  etc.  It  is  the 
best  material  for  ligatures  in  tying  up  vines  and 
branches  in  horticulture,  for  binding  grafts,  buds, 
etc.  The  strips,  being  ribbon-form,  are  better  for 
many  purposes  than  cordage  or  twine. 


Bassinet,  a  wicker  basker  with  a  covering  or 
hood  over  one  end,  in  which  young  children  are 
placed  as  in  a  cradle. 

Bat,  a  piece  of  brick  less  than  one-half  of  its 
length ;  also  a  heavy  stick  or  club,  especially  a 
piece  with  one  end  heavier  than  the  other.  The 
other  meanings  of  this  word  do  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  this  work. 

Bat  or  Batting,  a  sheet  of  cotton  prepared  for 
filling  quilts  or  comfortables. 

Bath:  See  Hygiene,  and  Horse,  Cattle,  Sheep, 
etc.,  under  the  sub-head  of  Diseases. 

Bath-Brick,  a  preparation  of  chalky  earth  in  the 
form  of  a  brick,  used  for  cleaning  knives. 

Battering-Ram,  a  large  beam  carried  endwise 
with  great  force  against  an  object,  in  order  to  beat  it 
down.  Sometimes  used,  however,  to  jar  nuts  down 
from  forest  trees. 

Bay,  in  a  barn,  is  a  low,  enclosed  place,  between 
the  main  floor  and  the  end  of  the  building,  for  the 
stowing  of  hay.  As  a  color  of  horses,  it  is  a  kind  of 
dark  red,  inclining  to  chestnut.  A  dark-tinted  bay 
approaches  a  brown,  but  is  more  gay  and  shining. 
A  bright  bay  borse  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  as  he 
has  a  reddish  tint  with  a  clouded  appearance,  while 
the  mane  and  tail  are  black,  and  his  back  has  a 
dark  stripe  along  the  spine.  Many  horses  of  me- 
dium-colored bay  have  also  black  manes  and  tails 
and  the  dark  stripe  along  the  back.  Most  dark  bay 
horses  have  their  knees  and  pasterns  black;  and 
several  kinds  of  bays  have  their  whole  limbs  black 
from  their  knees  or  thighs  down  to  their  feet. 
Most  bays  which  want  the  stripe  along  the  back 
have  a  black  color  over  the  region  of  the  kidneys, 
and  this  runs  off  by  an  imperceptible  gradation  to  a 
light  color  toward  the  belly  and  flank.  Some  of 
these  bays  are  inclined  to  be  brown,  and  are  more 
or  less  dapi)led.  Horses  of  all  the  different  shades 
of  bay  present  a  pleasing  appearance;  and  unless 
they  are  spoiled  by  some  accident  when  colts,  they 
are  generally  well  formed  and  healthy. 

Bay  Leaves,  often  used  in  seasoning  food,  are 
the  leaves  of  the  cherry  laurel,  valued  for  their 
bitter-almond  flavor.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
use  too  much  of  this  article,  as  it  contains  prussic 
acid,  a  virulent  poison. 

Bay  Rum,  a  pop\ilar  perfume  distilled  from  the 
leaves  of  the  bay  plant.  A  good  imitation  can  be 
made  by  mixing  lo  drams  of  oil  of  bay,  i 
dram  of  oil  of  pimento,  z  ounces  of  acetic  ether, 
3  gallons  of  alcohol  and  2j4  gallons  of  water,  and, 
after  two  weeks'  standing,  filtering  it.  A  cheaper 
imitation  is  obtained  by  saturating  i^  pound  block  of 
magnesium  carbonate  with  oil  of  bay,  pulverizing, 
placing  in  a  filter  and  pouring  water  through  it ; 
then  add  alcohol.     Or   %  dram  bay  oil  in  r  ounce 


72 


BAY  WIN-DOW— BEANS. 


of  best  alcohol  12  hours,  then  add  a  gill  of  cologne 
spirits  and  15  ounces  clear  water. 

Bay  Window,  one  that  forms  a  bay  or  recess  in 
a  room  and  projects  outward  from  the  wall ;  some- 
times incorrectly  called  "  bow  "  window. 

Bead.  To  "  draw  a  bead  "  is  to  take  aim,  with  a 
gun,  alluding  to  a  small  piece  of  metal  used  in  tak- 
ing aim,  called  the  liead. 

Beagle,  a  small  hound,  or  hunting  dog,  formerly 
used  ill  hunting  hares. 

Beak,  in  farriery,  a  little  shoe,  at  the  toe,  about 
an  inch  long,  turned  up  and  fastened  upon  the  fore 
part  or  the  hoof. 

Beaker,  a  large  drinking-cup. 

Beal,  a  small  inflammatory  tumor  or  pustule. 

Beam,  of  a  plow,  the  main  piece,  to  which  the 
other  parts  of  the  plow  and  the  teams  are  attached ; 
of  an  engine,  the  main  lever,  turning  on  a  center 
and  communicating  power  from  the  end  of  the  pit- 
man to  the  working-rod:  called  also  "  workincr- 
beam,"  or  "  walking-beam  ;  "  also,  a  heavy,  square 
timber  used  in  the  frame  of  a  building. 

Beam-filling,  the  filling  in  of  mason  work  between 
beams  or  joists. 

Beans.  In  the  United  States  the  bean  is  a  tender 
annual,  either  dwarf  or  climbing,  and  is  cultivated 
both  for  the  succulent  green  pods  and  ripe  seeds. 
The  dwarf  varieties  vary  in  height  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  inches,  and  require  no  poles.  The 
climbing  varieties  require  poles  for  their  support. 
There  are  varieties  intermedial  between  the  bush 
and  climbing  bean,  but  which  do  not  require  support, 
as  the  White  Marrow,  one  of  the  best  of  the  white 
varieties,  to  be  used  as  dry,  ripe  beans.  When  ripe, 
the  crop  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the  pods  are  quite 
dry,  and  pulled  by  the  roots  while  moist  with  dew, 
the  roots  being  pressed  together  in  the  hand  and 
the  handfuls  set  upn  their  tops  in  the  windows  to 
dry.  When  sufficiently  cured,  they  are  to  be  laid 
loosely  on  scaffolds  or  laid  around  branched  stakes, 
the  roots  in  and  the  tops  pointing  down,  to  become 
quite  dry  before  threshing.  When  threshed,  the 
beans  should  be  cleaned  from  the  chaff  in  a  fanning- 
mill  and  be  spread  on  a  smooth,  airy  floor  and  turned, 
from  time  to  time,  until  they  are  entirely  cured;  thus 
they  will  not  heat  and  mold  when  put  in  barrels. 
For  the  general  crop  of  dry  beans,  they  should  not  be 
planted  until  the  days  and  nights  are  warm,  or  about 
the  first  week  in  June  in  the  North,  since  the  whole 
family  are  inter-tropical  plants  and  exceedingly  im- 
patient, not  only  of  frost,  but  cold  storms.  The  pole 
varieties  should  be  planted,  the  lower-growing  sorts 
three  feet  apart  one  way,  by  about  two  feet  the  other, 
and  the  taller  climbers,  as  Lima,  etc.,  four  feet  one 
way  by  three  feet  the  other.  Select  light,  warm  soil, 
and  plant  when  danger  from  frost  is  past,  in  drills 
two  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  dropping  the  beans 


about  two  inches  apart  in  the  drill,  and  cover  one 
inch  deep.  Keep  the  ground  clean  and  loose  by 
frequent  hoeing,  but  do  not  draw  the  earth  up  to 
the  ])lants.  Avoid  working  among  them  when  they 
are  wet,  as  it  will  tend  to  make  them  rust.  For  vine 
or  pole  beans,  set  the  poles  three  by  three  or  four 
feet  apart,  and  plant  six  to  eight  beans  with  the  eyes 
downward  around  each  pole,  thinning  to  four  healthy 
plants  when  they  are  up;  otherwise  cultivate  as  the 
bush  or  bunch  bean.  They  crave  a  stronger  soil, 
and  do  best  in  a  sheltered  situation.  As  a  rule  the 
dwarf  varieties  are  the  earliest  and  hardiest. 

Three  species  of  bean  weevil  exist,  and  one  is  fast 
spreading  over  the  country.  Late  planting  is  a 
partial  remedy,  but  the  most  effectual  mode  is  to 
heat  the  beans  as  soon  as  harvested,  to,  say  160°  or 
175",  for  a  few  minutes,  which  will  kill  the  bugs,  but 
not  the  vitality  of  the  bean.  The  ash-gray  blister 
beetle  and  the  Virginia  ermine  moth  sometimes 
infesting  the  bean  may  be  picked  by  hand  and  de- 
stroyed. Chickens  catch  these  insects,  but  they  also 
pick  off  the  bean-blossoms,  and  do  as  much  harm  as 
good — sometimes  more. 

Cut- Worms,  of  which  there  are  several  species, 
are  generally  a  dusty,  gray  or  drab  color,  and,  when 
grown,  about  an  inch  in  length.  They  perform  their 
work  at  night,  not  being  able  to  stand  the  sun.  The 
best  time  to  find  them  is  early  in  the  morning  before 
the  sun  makes  its  appearance.  Remedies :  Plow  the 
land  early  in  the  fall,  so  that  the  bluebird,  robin  and 
grakle  may  have  a  cut- worm 
feast  before  leaving  for  more 
genial  climes.  In  garden 
work,  syringe  the  plants  with 
strong  soap  suds  at  the  rate 
of  three  pounds  of  soapio  15 
gallons  of  water.  Pass  along 
the  field  in  the  morning,  cut 
the  stock  and  discover  the 
marauder,  and  dig  out  and  de- 
stroy with  the  hand,  is  the  only 
Tio.  \.—Cut.H'orm.       sure  mcthod  :  See  also  Corn. 

Green  Beans  maybe  dried  for  winter  use  thus: 
Pick  them  while  they  are  tender,  cut  the  ends  and 
strings  from  them,  put  them  in  a  pan  of  hot  water, 
and  scald  until  they  change  color,  then  put  them  on 
papers  and  dry  in  the  sun ;  take  them  in  at  night  so 
they  will  not  be  subject  to  the  dew.  After  they  are 
dry,  put  them  in  a  sack  and  hang  where  they  will  be 
kept  perfectly  dry.  They  want  to  be  soaked  over 
night  before  cooking.  The  same  recipe  is  very  nice 
for  preparing  peas  for  table  use  in  winter.  An  old 
custom  is  to  dry  them  in  the  shade,  where  the  wind 
will  strike  them. 

Varieties.  Of  the  dwarf,  snap,  bush  or  buncb 
beans  the  following  are  the  leading  varieties: 

Early  China,  or  Red-Eye.  An  old,  popular,  early 
variety. 

Early  Feejee.  Very  early,  hardy  and  yields 
abundantly. 


BEANS. 


IS 


Early  Valentine.  Pod  long,  round  and  tender; 
an  excellent,  standard  early  bean  for  this  latitude. 

Early  Mohawk.     Very  hardy,  early  and  productive. 

Early  Yellow  i^ix-  Weeks.  A  standard  sort  of  the 
early  variety. 

Early  Rachel.  A  long,  straight-podded,  early 
kind. 

Dwarf  Goldert  Wax  or  York  Dwarf  Wax.  A 
new  variety  which  is  extraordinarily  proHfic,  and 
has  very  large  beans  and  pods. 

Rose.     Another  new  and  promising  variety. 

White  Valentine.     A  new  and  excellent  sort. 

Red  Speckled  Valentine.  This  is  a  new  variety, 
and  gives  promise  of  being  a  standard  bean. 

Dwarf  Gertnan  ll^ax,  the  long  variety.  Con- 
sidered more  productive  than  the  round  sort. 
This  bean  is  a  great  favorite  with  almost  every 
one. 

Dwarf  German  Wax,  the  round  variety. 
White  pods,  beans  pure  white,  very  early;  first- 
rate. 

White    Wax.     An  excellent  new  snap-short. 

Dun  Cranberry.  Oneof  the  very  best  for  stringing; 
yield  first-rate;  early  ;  good  either  as  a  green  or  dry 
shell  bean. 

Refugee,  or  Thousand  to  One.     Very  prolific. 

Intermediate  Horticulttiral.  A  half-bush  variety, 
very  prolific ;  an  excellent  substitute  for  the  Pole 
Horticultural;  a  superior  sort  for  market  gardeners. 

Improved  Yelloiv-Eye.  One  of  the  best  vari- 
eties for  baking;  remarkably  healtliy,  vigorous  and 
prolific. 

Concord  Bush.     A  fine  variety. 

Irue  White-Pea  Bean.  Fine  for  baking;  beans 
round  as  peas. 

Navy  or  Pea  Bean.  A  standard  sort  for  field 
culture;   almost  round  ;  very  productive. 

White  Medium.  A  white  bush  variety  largely 
used  by  the  government. 

White  Marrow.  Early ;  a  standard  sort  for  field 
cultivation. 

Red  Kidney.     A  standard  red  sort. 

Of  the  POLE,  or  running  varieties,  the  following 
are  recommended : 

Large  Lima.  Surpasses  all  other  shell  beans 
in  quality,  but  requires  a  longer  season  than  we 
have  in  the  Northwest. 

Dreer's  Improved  Litna.  Rather  later,  but 
more  prolific  than  large. 

Mottled  Cranberry.  Long-podded ;  very  pro- 
ductive and  popular. 

London  Horticultural,  or  Wren's  Egg.  Pods 
elegantly  striped;  excellent  for  string  or  shell;  pro- 
ductive. 

Early  Lima  Sieva,  or  Frost  Bean.  Two  weeks 
earlier  than  large  Lima,  but  requires  the  entire 
season  in  this  latitude. 

Rhode  Island  Butter.  One  of  the  very  best  to 
eat  green-shelled. 


Golden  Butter.  A  new  French  wax  bean  resem- 
bling the  Indian  Chief,  but  is  a  better  bearer  and 
the  pods  are  rather  longer  ;  early. 

Yellow-Podded  White  Wax.  Stringless ;  sur- 
passes the  Giant  Wax  in  earliness  and  productive- 
ness. 

Marblehead  Champion.  Earliest  of  all ;  a  string, 
bean. 

Caroline  Pole  Bean.     New,   prolific. 

Kentucky  Wonder.  A  snap  bean ;  the  most  pro- 
ductive of  all;  pods  nearly  a  foot  long. 

Lainberson's  White.  A  good,  prolific  snap  bean  ; 
color  white. 

Indian  Chief,  Black  Algerian.  Always  in  order 
for  stringing ;  pods  yellowish  white  and  almost 
transparent. 

Boston  Market  Pole  Cranberry.  Standard  ;  very 
prolific. 

Concord.  Resembles  the  Horticultural,  but  takes 
to  the  pole  better,  is  earlier,  healthy  and  proHfic ; 
good  as  string  or  shell. 

Case-Knife.      A   white   bean  of   great    richness. 

Giant  Wax.  Always  a  snap  bean ;  never 
stringy;  pods  yellowish  white,  very  long  and  re- 
markably tender. 

Southern  Prolific  Bean.     The  best  pole  bean. 

White  Pole  Cranberry.  A  capital  late  variety, 
particularly  as  a  string  bean  ;  a  little  tender. 

Painted  Lady.      Either  for  ornament  or  use. 

Broad  Winsor.  A  large  and  excellent  English 
bean,  which  should  be  planted  two  or  three  weeks 
earlier  than  the  common  bean,  in  rows  two  feet 
apart  and  six  inches  apart  in  the  row ;  covering  two 
inches  deep.  Pinch  off  the  tops  of  the  plants  when 
the  young  pods  first  appear. 

Beans,  to  Cook.  String  Beans.  Break  off 
both  ends  and  string  carefully ;  if  necessary,  pare 
boih  edges  with  a  knife.  Cut  the  beans  in  pieces 
an  inch  long  and  put  in  cold  water  a  few  minutes. 
Drain  and  put  them  into  boiling  water  with  a 
piece  of  bacon  or  salt  pork.  Boil  quickly  for  half 
an  hour,  or  till  tender.  Drain  in  a  colander  and 
dish  with  plenty  of  butter. 

Boiled  Beans.  In  preparing  ary  beans  for  the 
table,  they  should  be  first  soaked  in  water  or  par- 
boiled, and  the  water  drained  from  them,  else  they 
will  taste  rank.  Use  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
and  pour  it  off  when  the  beans  have  fully  swelled, 
and  finish  cooking  them  in  fresh  water.  If  meat 
is  cooked  with  them,  it  should  first  be  boiled  nearly 
done  in  a  separate  pot,  and  then  put  in  with  the 
beans.  Bean  soup  is  made  by  finishing  off  a  mess 
of  boiled  beans  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  either 
with  the  meat  soup  or  milk  added.  For  this  pur- 
pose, mashing  the  softened  beans  is  a  great  aid. 
Some  also  pass  them  through  a  colander,  to  take 
the  skins  out.  Black  pepper  is  the  only  aromatic 
admissible  in  a  dish  of  beans. 

Baked  Beans  First  parboil  them  as  above  de- 
scribed, put  in  a  piece  of  pork,  bacon  or  suet,  with 


74 


BEA.^S—BED. 


a  little  pepper,  and  bake  in  a  steady  oven  for  sev- 
eral flours.  Basting  may  be  required  to  prevent 
the  beans  on  the  surface  from  drying  and  becom- 
ing hard.  Saleratus,  a  teaspoowful  to  the  quart  of 
beans,  dissolved  in  them  before  baking,  greatly 
improves  them. 

Lima  Beans.  Shell  them  into  cold  water;  let 
them  lie  half  an  hour  or  longer,  put  them  into  a 
saucepan  with  plenty  of  boiling  water,  a  little  salt, 
and  cook  till  tender.  Drain  and  butter  well  and 
pepper  to  taste. 

Another  :  Put  a  pint  of  shelled  beans  in  boiling 
salted  water,  enough  to  cover.  Cook  until  tender, 
then  drain  them.  Melt  a  piece  of  butter  the  size 
of  an  egg,  and  mix  an  even  tablespoonful  of  flour 
with  it;  add  a  little  meat  broth  to  make  a  smooth 
sauce,  or  use  water  instead.  Put  the  beans  in  the 
sauce  and  set  them  at  the  side  of  the  fire  for  fifteen 
minutes.  Just  before  serving  add  a  tablespoonful 
of  chopped  parsley,  and  season  to  taste  with  salt 
and  pepper. 

Pork  and  Beans.  Take  one  pint  of  long  white 
winter  beans  and  boil  them  in  water  until  done, 
and  then  have  ready  some  fat  sliced  pork  as  if  to 
fry;  fresh  pork,  peppered  and  salted,  or  pickled 
side  soaked  in  cold  water  over  night ;  place  the 
beans  in  a  baking-dish,  put  the  meat  on  the  beans, 
and  bake  until  the  meat  is  done. 

Beans  and  Bacon.  Put  a  pint  of  beans  into  cold 
water  over-night.  Cut  half  a  pound  of  bacon 
into  half-inch  dice,  put  the  bacon  and  beans  into  a 
clean  saucepan  with  just  sufficient  cold  water  to 
cover  them ;  let  the  beans  boil  till  they  are  tender, 
then  stir  in  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  a  little 
pepper,  and  a  bouquet  garni,  with  a  clove  of  garlic 
or  an  eschalot.  Let  the  contents  simmer  slowly, 
and  when  the  sauce  is  sufficiently  thickened  the 
beans  and  bacon  are  ready.  The  beans,  if  old,  will 
require  long  soaking,  or  much  longer  boihng  than  is 
is  desirable  for  the  bacon. 

Fat  Pork  or  Bacon  and  Beans.  Soak  a  quart  of 
beans  in  cold  water  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  then 
boil  them  with  a  little  salt  till  they  are  tender. 
Take  a  common  yellow  dish,  and  put  the  beans  at 
the  bottom,  and  on  a  tripod  place  two  pounds  of  fat 
bacon  or  pork  and  bake  for  an  hour,  or  the  meat 
may  be  roasted  and  the  beans  placed  in  the  drip- 
ping-pan. The  beans  should  be  quite  tender  before 
baking. 

Bear,  in  commercial  parlance,  is  one  who  con- 
tracts to  deliver,  at  a  specified  future  time,  stocks 
which  he  does  not  own;  a  "bull"  is  one  who 
contracts  to  take  them.  Hen:e,  in  the  intervening 
time,  it  is  the  interest  of  the  former  to  depress 
stocks,  as  the  bear  pulls  down  with  his  strong 
paws,  and  of  the  latter  to  raise  stocks,  as  the  bull 
throws  upward  with  his  horns.  The  stock  is,  in 
fact,  never  delivered,  and  was  never  meant  to  be. 


When  the  time  for  delivery  arrives,  the  losing 
party  pays  the  difference  between  the  price  of  the 
stock  then  and  at  the  time  when  the  contract  was 
made.  The  whole  transaction  is  therefore  a  spe- 
cies of  gambling,  and  has  but  a  temporary  influ- 
ence upon  the  markets. 

Beard.  Some  men  do  not  pay  sufficient  atten- 
tion to  their  beard.  Almost  any  man's  beard  and 
whiskers  look  much  better  for  being  trimmed;  by 
this  we  mean  the  cutting  off  of  all  straggling 
locks  and  hairs,  leaving  the  beard  in  a  smooth,  neat 
form.  The  principle,  indeed,  does  not  differ  at  all 
from  what  we  are  supposed  to  observe  in  trimming 
the  hair  of  the  head.  As  to  any  particular  shape 
to  wear  the  beard  and  whiskers,  the  rules  and  con- 
ditions are  too  prolix  for  enumeration  here.  The 
general  practice  is  to  let  the  beard  grow  wherever 
it  is  naturally  inclined  to  grow  heaviest,  and  to 
shave  the  other  portions  of  the  beard  surface.  Of 
course  it  is  understood  that,  considered  as  a  nice 
point  in  physiology,  all  the  beard  should  be  per- 
mitted to  grow;  at  least,  that  all  the  beard  surface 
should  be  covered  with  its  natural  covering;  but 
there  is  no  use  whatever  in  carrying  about  with 
you  loose  and  straggling  portions,  which  project 
so  far  out  from  the  face  as  to  be  no  protection  to  it, 
and  still  Isss  an  ornament.  The  heavy  and  long 
mustache,  so  much  in  fashion  at  the  present  day, 
looks  well,  but  it  is  an  obstacle  "o  clean  eating  and 
drinking. 

We  have  no  confidence  in  any  of  the  vaunted 
remedies  for  "  making  the  beard  grow."  For 
dyes,  see  Hair  Dyes. 

To  shave  properly,  always  wash  the  beard  well 
with  soap  and  clear  cold  water,  and  rub  it  dry  be- 
fore applying  the  razor  to  it;  then  apply  the  lather, 
and  the  more  you  use  the  better;  never  use  warm 
water,  for  by  doing  so  you  make  a  tender  face. 
The  best  time  to  shave  is  in  the  morning  just  after 
the  bath :     See  also  Razor. 

Bearing,  the  surface  exposed  to  friction,  as  at 
the  journals  of  machinery,  or  "spindles"  of  a 
wagon. 

Beat.  A  horse  is  said  to  "  beat  the  dust "  when 
he  takes  in  too  little  ground  with  his  fore  feet,  or 
when  he  performs  his  curvets  too  precipitately  or 
too  slow.  To  "  beat  the  hoof  is  to  walk,  or  go 
on  foot.  A  stag  is  said  to  "  beat  up  and  down  " 
when  he  runs  first  one  way  and  then  the  other. 

Beaufet  (bo'fet),  a  niche,  cupboard  or  sideboard 
for  plate,  china,  glass,  etc. ;  a  buffet. 

.Beaver,  as  the  name  of  a  species  of  woolen 
cloth,  signifies  a  heavy  kind,  generally  felted,  and 
used  for  making  overcoats,  hats,  etc. 

Beaverteen,  a  kind  of  fustian  made  of  coarse 
twilled  cotton,  shorn  after  dyeing. 

Bed,  in  machinery,  is  the  foundation  on  which  a 
machine  rests. 


BED—BED-CHA  MBER. 


75 


Bed.  Bedsiead.  Many  new  styles  of  bedsteads 
and  mattresses  are  offered  to  the  public, — too  nu- 
merous to  mention  here.  The  best  we  can  do  is  to 
indicate  the  general  principles  of  a  good  bedstead. 
Certain  points  are  apt  to  be  left  too  weak  by  the 
manufacturers,  as  the  fastenings  at  the  ends  of  the 
side-rails,  the  support  for  the  mattress  frame,  free- 
dom from  harbors  for  vermin,  etc.  Metallic  bed- 
steads, although  costing  more  at  first,  are  generally 
preferred,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  they 
can  be  kept  free  from  vermin.  Ordinary  slat  bottoms 
generally  have  the  slats  too  far  apart.  It  would 
be  better  to  have  a  continuous  floor  for  a  bottom. 
Several  varieties  of  folding  bedsteads  are  in  use. 
Those  which  close  up  with  all  the  bedding  con- 
tained are  liable  to  the  serious  objection  that  they 
prevent  an  airing  of  the  clothes,  but  they  are  con- 
venient where  the  room  allowed  for  a  bed  is  limited. 
Cots,  hammocks  and  lounge  or  sofa  bedsteads  are 
economical  conveniences  of  considerable  value. 

Bedding,  i.  The  Mattress.  Many  substances 
have  been  used  for  the  filling  of  mattresses  and 
ticks,  as  feathers,  hair  of  different  animals,  cork 
shavings,  corn-husks,  straw,  sea-weed,  moss,  leaves, 
various  vegetable  fibers,  hay,  wire  springs,  etc. 
Feathers  are  unhealthful;  and  as  to  the  other  arti- 
cles used,  the  choice  may  be  left  to  the  taste  and 
idiosyncrasies.  2.  Covers.  The  American  method 
of  sleeping  with  cotton  sheets  next  the  body,  and 
in  cold  weather  with  woolen  blankets  or  com- 
forters next  outside  these,  seems  to  be  the  best 
system,  in  a  hygienic  point  of  view.  All  other  mat- 
ters on  this  head  can  be  safely  left  to  the  taste  and 
fancy  of  individuals.     See  also  Sleeping. 

Bed-bugs.  Cleanliness  is  an  important  thmg 
in  keeping  out  these  pests.  It  is  important  that 
bed-rooms  have  no  cracks  or  crevices  where  the 
bugs  can  lurk  and  lay  their  eggs.  There  should 
not  be  in  bed-rooms  piles  of  old  rags,  paper  or  any- 
thing that  harbors  dirt  or  secretes  vermin.  Any- 
thing of  this  sort  promotes  the  fecundity  and 
growth  of  bed-bugs.  Besides  being  kept  always 
sweet  and  clean,  every  i)art  of  a  bedstead  and  bed- 
room should  be  exposed  and  accessible,  so  that  the 
first  appearance  of  the  pests  can  be  noticed  and 
acted  upon.  Vigilance  on  the  part  of  a  house- 
keeper, even  in  an  old  domicile,  will  do  mudi 
toward  keeping  the  pests  at  bay,  and  eventually  ex- 
terminating them.  Particular  care  should  be  taken 
in  early  spring.  As  early  as  March  and  April  a 
careful  examination  of  beds  and  all  harbors  for  the 
eggs  of  bugs  should  be  made,  and  there  should  be 
a  thorough  cleansing  of  the  bed-room  furniture. 
To  kill  the  bugs  and  their  eggs,  use  either  of  the 
following  preparations:  i.  Mix  together  2  ounces 
of  camphor,  4  ounces  spirits  turpentine,  i  ounce 
corrosive  sublimate,  and  one  pint  alcohol.  2.  Dis- 
tilled  vinegar,  or  diluted    good    vinegar,   a   pint; 


camphor,  J^  ounce,  dissolve.  3.  White  arsenic,  2 
ounces;  lard,  13  ounces;  corrosive  subUmate,  \^ 
ounce;  Venetian  red,  i^  ounce  (deadly  poison).  4. 
Strong  mercurial  ointment,  i  ounce;  soft  soap,  i 
ounce;  oil  of  turpentine,  a  pint.  5.  Gasoline  or 
benzine  and  coal  oil  are  excellent  adjuncts,  with 
cleanliness,  in  ridding  a  bed  of  these  pests.  6. 
When  they  have  a  lodgment  in  the  wall,  fill  all 
the  apertures  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  and 
Scotch  snuff.  7.  A  strong  decoction  of  red  pepper 
applied  to  bedsteads  will  either  kill  or  drive  them 
away.  8.  Take  lamp  oil,  to  which  add  10  cents' 
worth  of  quicksilver.  Put  it  into  all  the  cracks 
around  the  bed,  and  the  bugs  will  soon  disappear. 
First,  the  bedstead  should  be  scalded  and  wiped 
dry,  and  the  mixture  put  on  with  a  feather.  9. 
Quicksilver  mixed  with  the  white  of  an  egg  serves 
the  same  purpose  as  the  above.  10.  Rub  the  bed- 
stead in  the  joints  with  equal  parts  of  turpentine 
and  kerosene  oil,  and  the  cracks  of  the  surface, 
in  rooms  where  there  are  many.  11.  Persian  insect 
powder.  12.  Several  more  innocent  remedies  are 
recommended,  as  tomato  vines  and  leaves,  and 
other  herbs.  13.  Re-painting  and  varnishing  is  a 
thorough  and  effectual  method.  Fill  all  crevices 
with  putty  or  hard  soap. 

To  destroy  bed-bugs  in  papered  rooms,  clean  the 
paint  of  the  room  thoroughly,  and  set  in  the  middle 
of  the  room  a  dish  containing  4  ounces  of  brimstone. 
Light  it  and  close  the  room  as  tightly  as  possible, 
stopping  the  keyhole  of  the  door  with  paper,  to  keep 
the  fumes  of  the  brimstone  in  the  room.  Let  it  re- 
main for  three  or  four  hours,  then  open  the  windows 
and  air  thoroughly.  The  brimstone  will  be  found 
to  have  also  bleached  the  paint  if  it  is  of  a  yellowish 
white. 

Bed  chamber.  Sweet,  clean,  airy  bed-chambers 
are  a  luxury.  Every  room  occupied  during  the 
night  should  be  thrown  open  to  the  freest  exposure 
of  sun  and  air  the  next  morning.  The  clothes 
should  be  thrown  down  from  the  bed,  mattress 
turned  over,  and  window  opened  from  both  top 
and  bottom,  and  left  so  one-half  hour  at  least. 
The  element  of  thoroughness  is  one  of  the  best 
points  in  a  good  chamber-maid.  Through  and 
through,  from  the  dusting  of  the  walls  and  ceiling 
and  the  bed-slats  on  sweeping  days,  to  the  wiping 
off  the  picture  on  the  bureau  or  brushing  up  the 
hearth  each  morning,  thoroughness  should  be  the 
motto.  Mirrors  can  be  cleaned  with  a  soft  cloth 
dipped  in  alcohol.  Linseed  oil  and  vinegar  boiled 
together  make  a  very  good  furniture  polish.  There 
is  a  little  bug  that  infests  matting  which  nothing 
but  constant  vigilance  will  destroy,  killing  every 
one.  Such  bugs  are  effectually  killed  by  turi>entine. 
In  furnishing  bed-chambers,  artistic  taste  demands 
that  paper  for  the  walls  and  paint  for  the  wood- 
work should  harmonize  in  color  and  design.     For 


76 


BED-PAN— BEEF. 


rooms  used  chiefly  in  winter,  dark  colors  are  suit- 
able. For  summer  apartments,  lighter  shades  are 
desirable,  and  while  in  large  rooms  large  patterns 
arc  not  out  of  place,  in  smaller-sized  rooms  the 
figure  of  the  paper  should  correspond.  It  requires 
a  high  ceiling  for  a  high  dado  and  deep  frieze  to 
look  well,  while  some  flitting  butterfly  or  delicate 
flower  pattern  gives  a  summer  airiness  to  the 
country  chamber.  Patterns  in  wall  papers,  as  in 
most  other  things,  change  in  fashion,  and  the  curi- 
ous figures  and  landscapes  of  thirty  years  ago  are 
now  never  seen.  Within  the  last  five  or  six  years 
decorative  art  has  been  the  rage,  and  wall  papers 
have  received  due  attention.  For  a  short  time 
plain,  deep-colored  paper  was  much  in  vogue,  with 
a  gilt  band  as  frieze.  Now  more  elaborate,  artistic 
patterns  are  in  use. 

The  furniture  of  the  chamber  ought  of  course 
to  be  in  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  house,  and 
fashion  prescribes  regular  sets.  Some  will  vary  to 
suit  their  own  convenience.  If  it  is  required  to 
use  the  room  as  a  sitting-room  during  the  d^y, 
sofa  and  other  furniture  beds  can  be  obtained,  at 
all  prices,  from  ten  dollars  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dollars,  though,  unless  the  room  is  really  needed,  it 
is  better  to  use  the  chamber  for  a  sleeping  apart- 
ment only,  thus  giving  plenty  of  opportunity  for 
the  room  and  bedding  to  be  well  aired  during  the 
day. 

Bed-pan,  a  vessel  shaped  for  the  convenient  use 
of  a  bed-ridden  patient  in  making  water.  To  be 
had  at  drug  or  crockery  stores. 

Ued-sores,  running  sores  caused  by  keeping  the 
bed,  as  an  invalid,  for  a  long  time.  Treatinent : 
Gently  press  out  the  pus,  wash  the  part,  and  then 
cover  with  collodion  when  this  is  dry,  fix  over  it 
some  soft  lint  or  cotton.  Or,  wash  several  times  a 
day  with  a  lotion  of  r  tablespoonful  of  powdered 
alum  to  I  teacupful  of  whisky.  Or,  apply  the 
white  of  an  egg  well  beaten  and  mixed  with  spirits 
of  wine. 

Beech,  a  forest  tree  of  the  oak  family.  Very 
abundant  in  the  Eastern  United  States  as  far  west 
as  Lake  Michigan;  west  of  that  line  it  is  not 
found. 

Beef.  To  Fatten  Beef:  See  Cattle  and  Fat- 
tening. The  parts  of  a  beef  are  named  in  the 
article  Carving. 

To  Cure  Beef.  Boil  in  4  gallons  of  water  2 
pounds  of  brown  sugar,  3  ounces  of  saltpeter  and 
10  pounds  of  salt  until  all  is  dissolved;  skim  as  fast 
as  the  scum  risee.  Pack  the  meat  closely  in  a  bar- 
rel, and  when  the  brine  is  quite  cold  pour  it  on  the 
meat.  The  above  quantity  of  brine  is  sufficient  for 
200  pounds  of  beef.  If  dried  beef  is  wanted,  pieces 
may  be  taken  from  the  pickle  in  five  or  six  weeks 
and  smoked. 


To  Dry  Beef,  cut  into  slices  from  2  to  6 
ounces  in  weight,  boil  for  five  or  six  minutes  in 
just  water  enough  to  cover  the  meat.  Lay  it  in 
a  drying  stove,  keeping  the  temj^erature  at  about 
122"  Fahr.  In  about  two  days  the  meat  will  be 
completely  dry,  having  lost  two-thirds  its  weight. 
Add  a  little  salt  and  spice,  especially  coriander,  to 
the  liquor  or  soup  in  which  the  meat  was  im- 
mersed, and  then  evaporate  it  to  a  gelatinous  con- 
sistence. When  the  flesh  is  perfectly  dry,  dip  it, 
piece  by  piece,  in  the  gelatinous  matter  liquefied 
by  a  gentle  heat,  and  replace  it  in  the  stove  to  dry, 
repeating  this  varnishing  and  drying  two  or  three 
times,  so  as  to  get  the  coating  uniformly  thick. 
Meat  dried  in  this  way  will  keep  for  more  than  a 
year. 

To  Smoke  Beef,  expose  the  meat  previously 
salted  to  wood  smoke,  in  a  smoke-house,  into  which 
the  smoke  is  admitted  by  flues  at  the  bottom  of  the 
side  walls.  The  meat  absorbs  the  pyroligneous  acid 
of  the  smoke  and  is  dried  at  the  same  time.  It  can 
be  protected  from  soot  by  rubbing  over  with  bran  or 
wrapping  with  a  cloth.  The  smoke  from  oak  or 
beech  wood  is  preferable,  and  the  smoking  is  better 
slow  and  gentle  than  rapid  and  powerful.  When 
the  beef  is  once  smoked  or  dried  a  beef-cutter  is 
very  convenient.  We  give  an  illustration  of  one 
made  by  the  Enterprise  Manufacturing  Company,  of 
Philadelphia. 


Smoked- Bee/  Cutter. 

The  knife  is  suspended  pendulum-like,  and  with 
each  stroke  cuts  a  slice  clean,  clear  and  quickly, 
taking  but  a  few  moments  to  shave  down  a  pound 
of  beef.  Green  or  soft  beef  can  be  shaved  equally 
well.  The  automatic  feed  can  be  regulated  to  cut 
from  shavings  as  thin  as  tissue  to  slices  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  thick.  It  is  also  adapted  to  slicing  pota- 
toes, fruits  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds. 


BEEF. 


n 


To  Keep  Fresh,  place  the  meat  on  a  wooden 
support  (or  suspend  it),  in  a  close  vessel,  on  the 
bottom  of  which  some  strong  acetic  acid  has  been 
poured. 

Marbled  Beef  is  that  in  which  the  fat  and  lean 
are  intermingled  in  streaks  and  spots,  so  that  its  cut 
surface  presents  a  mottled  or  marbled  appearance. 
It  is  produced  by  beeves  of  delicate  structure,  and 
the  art  of  producing  it  has  not  yet  been  brought 
under  the  control  of  man.  Whether  a  given  ani- 
mal will  produce  such  beef  cannot  be  foretold  with 
certainty. 

Beef  Tea.  To  make  beef  tea,  cut  a  pound  of 
fresh  beef  into  thin  slices,  simmer  with  a  quart  of 
water  20  minutes  ;  after  it  has  once  boiled  and  been 
skimmed,  season,  if  approved.  Still  another  method 
is  to  cut  lean,  tender  beef  into  small  pieces,  put 
them  into  a  bottle  without  water,  cork  and  set  into 
a  pot  of  cold  water;  then  put  on  the  stove  and  boil 
for  one  hour.     Season  to  taste. 

To  Boil  Beef.  Reckon  the  time  from  the  water 
comes  to  a  boil.  Keep  the  pot  boiling,  but  let  it 
boil  very  slowly.  If  you  let  the  pot  cease  boiling 
you  will  be  deceived  in  your  time;  therefore  watch 
that  it  does  not  stop,  and  keep  up  a  good  fire.  Just 
before  the  pot  boils  the  scum  rises.  Be  sure  to  skim 
it  off  carefully,  or  it  will  fall  back  and  adhere  to  the 
meat  and  disfigure  it  sadly.  When  you  have  well 
skimmed  the  pot,  put  in  a  little  cold  water,  which 
will  cause  the  scum  to  rise  again.  The  more  care- 
fully you  skim  the  cleaner  and  nicer  the  meat  boiled 
will  look.  Put  your  meat  in  cold  water;  a  quart  of 
cold  water  to  every  pound  of  meat.  Allow  20  min- 
utes to  the  pound  from  the  time  the  pot  boils  and 
the  scum  rises.  It  is  more  profitable  to  boil  than  to 
roast  meat.  Those  portions  of  the  ox  known  to 
the  butchers  as  the  brisket  and  the  plate  make  by 
far  the  best  boiling  pieces. 

Beef  a  la  Mode.  Take  a  piece  of  meat  (cross- 
rib  is  the  best) ;  put  a  slice  of  bacon  or  some  lard  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pot,  then  the  meat,  and  fill  up 
with  water  till  the  meat  is  covered ;  then  take  two 
onions,  some  peppercorns,  cloves,  bay  leaves,  one 
carrot,  and  a  crust  of  brown  bread,  salt  and  some 
vinegar;  throw  all  this  in  over  the  beef;  keep  the 
pot  well  covered ;  fill  up  with  more  hot  water  if  it 
boils  down,  and  let  it  boil  three  hours  ;  then  parch  a 
tablesi)Oonful  of  flour,  with  some  butter,  a  nice 
brown,  thin  with  the  gravy,  and  let  it  boil  up  once 
more  with  the  meat ;  then  put  the  meat  in  a  deep 
dish  and  strain  the  gravy  over  it ;  add  more  vine- 
gar to  taste  ;  serve  with  fried  potatoes  and  red  cab- 
bage. 

Boiled  Corned  Beef.  Wash  it  well,  put  it  in  a 
pot,  and,  if  very  salt,  cover  well  with  cold  water;  if 
only  sliglitly  corned,  use  boiling  water ;  skim  often 
while  boiling,  and  allow  at  least  half  an  hour  for 
every  pound  of  meat.  If  it  is  to  be  eaten  cold,  do 
not  remove  as  soon  as  done,  but  allow  it  to  remain 


in  the  liquor  until  nearly  cold ;  then  lay  it  in  an 
earthen  dish  with  a  piece  of  board  upon  it,  and  press 
with  a  stone  or  a  couple  of  flat-irons^ 

Savory  Beef.  Take  a  shin  of  beef  from  the  hind 
quarter,  saw  it  into  four  pieces,  put  it  into  a  pot  and 
boil  it  until  the  meat  and  gristle  drop  from  the 
bones ;  chop  the  meat  very  fine,  put  it  in  a  dish,  and 
season  it  with  a  little  salt,  pepper,  cloves  and  sage, 
to  your  taste  ;  pour  in  the  liquor  in  which  the  meat 
was  boiled,  and  place  it  away  to  harden;  cut  in 
slices  and  serve  cold. 

Beef-Steak.  The  tender-loin  is  the  best  piece 
for  broiling.  A  steak  from  the  round  or  shoulder 
clod  is  good,  and  comes  cheaper.  If  the  beef  is  not 
very  tender,  it  should  be  laid  on  a  board  and 
pounded,  before  broiling  or  frying  it.  Wash  it  in 
cold  water,  then  lay  it  on  a  gridiron,  place  it  on  a 
hot  bed  of  coals,  and  broil  it  as  quickly  as  possible, 
without  burning  it.  If  broiled  slowly,  it  will  not  be 
good.  It  takes  from  15  to  20  minutes  to  broil  a 
steak.  For  seven  or  eight  pounds  of  beef  cut  up 
about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  butter.  Heat  the  plat- 
ter very  hot  that  the  steak  is  to  be  put  on,  lay  the 
butter  on  it,  take  up  the  steak,  salt  and  pepper  it  on 
both  sides.  Beef-steak,  to  be  good,  should  be  eaten 
as  soon  as  cooked.  A  few  slices  of  salt  pork  broiled 
with  the  steak  makes  a  rich  gravy,  with  a  very  little 
butter.  There  should  always  be  a  trough  to  catch 
the  juice  of  the  meat  when  broiled.  The  same 
pieces  that  are  good  broiled  are  good  for  frying. 
Fry  a  few  slices  of  salt  pork  brown,  then  take  them 
up  and  put  in  the  beef.  When  brown  on  both 
sides  take  it  up,  take  the  pan  off  the  fire,  to  let  the 
fat  cool ;  when  cool,  turn  in  half  a  teacup  of  water, 
mix  a  couple  of  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  with  a  little 
water,  stir  it  into  the  fat,  put  the  pan  back  on 
the  fire,  stir  it  till  it  boils  up,  then  turn  it  over  the 
beef. 

Roast  Beef.  The  tender-loin,  the  first  and  sec- 
ond cuts  off  the  rack,  are  the  best  roasting  pieces  ; 
the  third  and  fourth  cuts  are  good.  When  the  meat 
is  put  to  the  fire,  a  little  salt  should  be  sprinkled  on 
it,  and  the  bony  side  turned  toward  the  fire  first. 
When  the  bones  get  well  heated  through,  turn  the 
meat,  and  keep  a  brisk  fire;  baste  it  frequently 
while  roasting.  There  should  be  a  tablespoonful  of 
water  put  into  the  dripping-pan  when  the  meat  is 
put  down  to  roast.  If  it  is  a  thick  piece,  allow  15 
minutes  to  each  pound  to  roast  it  in;  if  thin,  less 
time  will  be  required.  A  piece  that  seems  a  little 
dry  or  tough  should  be  first  steamed  half  an  hour, 
by  putting  it  into  a  dripping-pan  with  half  a  pint  of 
water  and  turned  over  occasionally. 

Sirloins  and  ribs  of  beef  are  very  extravag.int 
joints,  from  the  weight  of  bone.  The  roasting  side 
of  the  round  part  of  the  buttock,  and  the  part  called 
the  "  top-side,"  are  the  most  profitable  for  family 
eating.*  The  mouse  buttock  is  used  for  stewing; 
shin  is  used  for  soup  or  stewing. 


78 


BEEF. 


Beef  Stew.  Take  three  pounds  of  beef,  navel 
piece  is  the  best,  cut  in  inch-square  pieces ;  peel 
and  slice  four  ©r  five  onions  ;  put  a  layer  of  meat  in 
the  bottom  of  the  pot,  then  a  layer  of  onions,  and  so 
on  until  used  up;  season  each  layer  with  pepper 
an4  salt;  cover  with  boiling  water,  boil  slowly  and 
keep  the  pot  covered.  Peel  a  quart  of  potatoes,  cut 
into  small  pieces;  add  the  potatoes  about  half  an 
hoar  before  serving. 

Beef  Stewed  with-  Onions.  Cut  two  pounds  of 
tender  beef  into  small  pieces,  season  with  pepper 
and  salt;  slice  one  or  two  onions  and  add  to  it,  with 
water  enough  to  make  a  gravy ;  let  it  stew  slowly  till 
the  beef  is  thoroughly  cooked,  then  add  some  pieces 
of  butter  rolled  in  flour,  enough  to  make  a  rich 
gravy.  Cold  beef  may  be  cooked  in  the  same  way, 
but  the  onions  must  then  be  cooked  before  adding 
them  to  the  meat.  Add  more  boiling  water  if  it 
dries  too  fast. 

MmcED  Beef.  Mince  about  a  pound  and  a 
half  of  beef  with  six  ounces  of  bacon  and  two  on- 
ions, seasoning  it  highly  with  pepper  and  nutmeg. 
Take  a  sufficient  quantity  of  stock  made  from  bones, 
and  any  trimmings,  a  piece  of  butter  rolled  in  flour, 
and  a  little  browning;  make  it  hot  and  strain 
it  over  the  mince;  put  the  whole  into  a  stewpan, 
let  it  simmer  for  a  few  minutes,  and  serve  it  on 
a  hot  dish  with  sippets  of  toasted  bread,  and  a 
poached  or  hard-boiled  egg  divided  and  placed 
on  each  sippet  arranged  around  the  edge  of  the 
dish.  It  is  also  served  surrounded  by  a  wall  of 
mashed  potatoes,  with  two  poached  eggs  lying  on 
the  top  of  it. 

To  Dress  Cold  Beef.  Mince  it  fine  with  pepper, 
salt  and  onions,  and  some  rich  gravy,  and  put  it  into 
scollop-tins  three-fourths  full;  fill  them  up  with 
mashed  potatoes  and  brown  in  the  oven. 

Beef  Balls  or  Patties.  Take  a  piece  of 
beef  boiled  tender,  chop  it  very  finely  with  an 
onion,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  add  parsley, 
bread  crumbs,  lemon  peel  and  grated  nutmeg; 
moisten  it  with  an  egg,  mix  well  together  and 
roll  it  into  balls,  or  roll  out  and  cut  into  shapes 
like  apple  puffs.  Then  dip  them  in  flour  and  fry 
them  in  boiling  lard  or  fresh  drippings.  Serve 
them  with  thickened  brown  gravy,  or  fried  bread 
crumbs. 

Spiced  Corned  Beef.  For  a  rump  of  beef 
weighing  30  pounds,  from  which  the  bones  have 
been  taken,  use  i  ounce  saltpeter,  i  pint  sugar  and 
I  pint  salt.  Pulverize  the  saltpeter  and  mix  with 
J^  teacup  sugar  and  J^  teacup  salt.  Rub  this 
thoroughly  into  the  beef,  cutting  it  so  that  it  may 
penetrate  well.  Let  it  lie  24  hours.  Mix  the  rest 
of  the  sugar  and  salt  and  rub  well  over  the  beef. 
Then  turfi  and  rub  with  the  brine  that  is  made, 
every  day  for  to  days.  Take  it  out  and  drain  for 
24  hours.  Mix  three  tablespoonfuls  black  "pepper, 
I  ounce   cloves,    ij4    ounces  allspice,    ij4   ounces   I 


cinnamon,  i  nutmeg.  Rub  this  well  into  the  beef 
and  tie  it  up.  To  do  this,  roll  it  tightly  and  wind 
with  twine,  fastening  it  every  round,  which  shoiAd 
be  about  i  J^  inches  apart.  It  is  ready  for  use  in 
two  or  three  days.  To  cook,  shave  very  thin,  and 
throw  into  a  hot  spider  in  which  is  a  piece  of  butter, 
and  cook  only  long  enough  to  change  the  color.  For 
variety  break  a  fresh  egg,  and  stir  in  with  the  meat 
when  cooking. 

Beef  Tongue  (corned  or  smoked).  Soak  the 
tongue  twenty-four  hours  before  boiling.  It  will  re- 
quire from  three  to  four  hours,  according  to  size. 
The  skin  should  always  be  removed  as  soon  as  it  is 
taken  from  the  pot.  An  economical  method  is  to 
lay  the  tongue,  as  soon  as  the  skin  is  removed,  in  a 
jar,  coiled  up  with  the  tip  outside  the  root,  and  a 
weight  upon  it.  When  it  is  cold,  loosen  the  sides 
with  a  knife,  and  turn  it  out. 

Beef  Liver.  Slice  the  liver  and  pour  boiling 
water  over  it ;  wipe  dry  and  cut  it  into  very  small 
pieces.  Fry  slices  of  fat,  salt  pork  until  brown; 
take  out  the  pork  and  fry  the  liver  in  the  fat;  cook 
thoroughly.  When  done  pour  a  little  water  over  the 
liver  and  thicken  with  a  little  flour  and  water,  mixed 
smooth.     Salt  to  taste. 

Calf's  Head,  Boiled.  Let  the  butcher  split  the 
head  in  halves.  Take  out  the  eyes  and  the  snout 
bone;  then  lay  it  in  cold  water  to  soak,  two  hours 
before  boiling ;  take  out  the  brains  and  wash  them 
well  in  several  waters,  then  lay  them  in  cold  water. 
Put  the  head  together,  and  lay  it  in  a  good-sized 
pot ;  cover  it  with  cold  water  and  throw  in  a  table- 
spoonful  of  salt ;  let  it  boil  slowly  for  two  or  three 
hours.  When  it  has  boiled  a  little  more  than  an 
hour,  take  about  a  quart  of  the  liquor  and  put  into  a 
stewpan  for  the  gravy ;  add  to  it  some  salt,  pepper,  a 
little  parsley  chopped  fine,  a  tablespoonful  of  lemon 
pickle,  and  then  boil.  Beat  up  an  egg  lightly,  with 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  then  remove  carefully 
the  skin  from  the  brains,  and  beat  them  up  with  the 
egg  and  flour.  When  well  beaten  thicken  the  gravy 
with  it,  and  stfw  about  ten  minutes,  when  it  is  ready 
for  serving. 

Calf's  Liver  and  Bacon.  Soak  two  or  three 
livers  in  cold  water  for  half  an  hour,  then  dry  it  in  a 
cloth,  and  cut  into  thin,  narrow  slices ;  take  about  a 
pound  of  bacon,  or  as  much  as  you  may  require,  and 
cut  the  same  number  of  thin  slices  that  you  have  of 
liver;  fry  the  bacon  lightly,  take  it  out  and  keep  it 
hot ;  then  fry  the  liver  in  the  same  pan,  seasoning  it 
with  pepper  and  salt,  and  dredge  over  it  a  little 
flour.  When  it  is  a  nice  brown,  arrange  it  around 
the  dish  with  a  roll  of  bacon  between  each  slice. 
Pour  off  the  fat  from  the  pan,  put  in  about  two 
ounces  of  butter,  well  rubbed  in  flour  to  thicken  the 
gravy ;  squeeze  in  the  juice  of  a  lemon  and  add  a 
cupful  of  hot  water;  boil  it,  and  pour  into  the  ctnter 
of  the  dish.  Serve  it  garnished  with  forcemeat  ball* 
or  slices  of  lemon. 


BEE-KEEPING. 


79 


Bee-Keeping  is  not  only  a  source  of  profit,  but 
also  affords  the  greatest  pleasure  to  those  who  be- 
come interested  in  the  science.  There  is  a  fascina- 
tion about  the  apiary  which  is  indescribable.  The 
instincts  and  habits  of  the  bee  are  so  ir>e.xplicable 
and  marvelous  that  those  who  study  it  are  continu- 
ally surprised  with  new  and  attractive  revelations. 
Those  who  are  quick  to  observe,  and  are  cautious 
and  prompt,  may,  with  almost  certain  success,  make 
bee  culture  a  specialty.  Every  farmer  should  de- 
vote a  portion  of  his  time  to  the  art,  and  provide  his 
own  table,  at  least,  with  the  delicious  and  whole- 
some sweet  furnished  by  the  apiary.  While  the  fol- 
lowing article  is  sufficiently  full  and  elaborate  to  in- 
struct the  beginner  in  the  science  of  apiculture,  yet 
the  developments  in  the  art  are  so  rapid  that  it  be- 
comes necessary  for  one  to  keep  constantly  posted. 
A  journal  devoted  to  apiculture  should  be  perused 
by  one  who  expects  to  make  a  success  of  bee-keep- 
ing, and  we  feel  that  the  Weekly  Bee  Journal  of 
Chicago,  111.,  is  one  to  be  recommended. 

From  a  financial  standpoint  bee-keeping  as  a 
specialty  is  a  most  profitable  occupation.  The 
comparatively  small  amount  of  capital  required,  the 
relatively  small  amount  of  labor  and  expense  at- 
tending its  operation,  and  the  abundant  reward  to 
those  who  follow  it  intelligently,  should  attract  the 
attention  of  many  persons  who  would  make  excel- 
lent and  successful  bee-keepers.  We  are  largely 
indebted  to  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Newman,  editor  and 
publisher  of  the  American  Bee  Journal,  Chicago, 
111.,  for  the  information  contained  in  this  article. 
Mr.  Newman  takes  a  particular  interest  in  bee 
culture,  and  he  is  now  recognized  authority  on  all 
matters  relating  to  the  science ;  and  few  men  in 
America  have  a  greater  fund  of  practical  knowledge 
of  this  fascinating  art  than  he. 

The  Queen.  A  "colony"  of  bees  contains  a 
fertile  queen,  thirty  to  forty  thousand  workers,  and 
in  some  seasons  a  few  hundred  of  drones.  The 
queen  is  the  only  perfect  female  in  the  colony,  and 
is  the  mother  of  it.  Her  only  duty  is  to  lay  the 
eggs  for  the  propagation  of  the  species.  She  is  a 
little  larger  around  the  body  than  the  worker,  but 
not  as  large  as  the  drone.  Her  body  is  longer  than 
the  worker,  but  her  wings  are  only  about  twotliirds 
of  the  length  of  the  body,  her  abdomen  gradually 
tapering  to  a  point.  She  has  a  sting,  but  uses  it 
only  upon  royalty.  Her  development  is  as  follows  : 
Having  passed  three  days  in  the  egg  and  five  in  the 
larval  state,  the  workers  close  the  cell, 
and  the  future  queen  commences  to  spin 

J,  her  cocoon,  which  occupies  about    a  day. 

Lari,uo/Bit'Y\\t.x\,  apparently  exhausted  by  her  la- 
bors, for  three  days  she  obtains  complete  repose, 
and  on  the  sixteenth  day,  as  a  perfect  queen,  she 
emerges  from  the  cell.  The  strength  of  the  colony 
and  the  character  of  the  season  may  vary  it  a  day 
or  so.  She  has  been  known  to  come  forth  as  early 
as  the  ninth  day. 


-Finished 


aled 


KlG. 

Quien     Cfll, 

m'er. 
rt,   convex    cap;   /\  b. 
the   extension    of    the 

cell. 


When  the  embryo  queen  is  nearly  mature,  within 
twelve  to  sixteen  hours  of  emerging,  the  bees  begin 
to  demolish  the  exterior  compart- 
ment, or  extension  of  the  top  of 
the  cell,  reducing  it  to  a  level 
with  the  outer  edge  of  the  cap  of 
the  cell  proper.  The  convex  cap, 
being  then  very  prominent,  is  very 
liable  to  be  injured,  and  to  jirotect 
it  from  injury  the  bees  coat  it  with 
a  fresh  layer  of  wax,  making  it 
nearly  as  thick  as  the  walls  of  the 
cell.  The  young  queen  pierces  a 
hole  through  the  edge  of  the  cov- 
er with  her  mandibles,  and  then 
makes  a  circular  cut  along  its 
periphery.  Being  nearly  detached  from  the  cell 
walls,  the  cap  drops,  opening  a  circular  passage 
through  which  the  queen  eaierges  from  her  home. 
From  the  egg  to  the  queen  emerging  from  the 
cell  lakes  sixteen  days.  She  is 
then  a  virgin  queen,  and  for  five 
or  six  days  she  moves  around  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  a 
worker  bee,  helping  herself  to 
honey  from  uncapped  cells. 
About  the  fifth  day,  if  the 
-  'I'--'  weather  is  pleasant,  she  may  be 

^^?.' ,,'^~!^!^' ,    ^"*'"   seen  crawling  about  the  entrance 
riorrompartiutnt  re-  of  the  hivc,  and  if  the  next  day 

moved.  ....  , 

a.  the  convex  cap.  IS  propitious,  shc  may  try  her 
wings  some  from  the  alighting  board.  She  will  ap- 
pear somewhat  excited,  but  after  awhile  she  will 
mount  up  and  circle  around,  increasing  the  distance 
each  time,  in  order  tliat  she  may  mark  the  hive  and 
insure  a  safe  return  from  her  wedding  flight. 

During  the 
warmest  part 
of  the  after- 
noon, she  will 
spread  her 
b  e  a  u  t  i  f ul 
wings  and 
soar  into  the 
air  to  mate 
with  a  drone. 
If  successful, 
she  will  bear 
the  marks  of 
it  on  her  re- 
turn ;  if  not, 
she  will,  after 

-(Jueen    Cell    inserted  in  the  frani:  of  •  , 

the    mucleus.  ^  time,  OU    lUC 

same  day,  come  out  again  and  again,  until  it  is  ac- 
complished. She  will  then  return,  and  in  a  day  or 
two  she  will  commence  to  lay,  so  that,  generally, 
from  eight  to  nine  days  after  emerging  from  the  cell, 
the  queens  are  laying.  Should  the  weather  be  un- 
favorable, and  she  fails  to   meet   the   drone  within 


Kiu. 


8o 


BEE-KEEPIXG. 


Tia.i.—  T/it  Queen  Bet, 

magnified. 


about  twenty  days,  she  will  have  failed  in  the 
object  of  her  existence,  and  become  only  a  drone- 
producer.  Once  becoming  such  she  is  so  for  life, 
though  she  often  lives  three  or  four  years.  On  her 
return  to  the  hive  after  meeting  the  drones,  if  she 
has  been  fecundated,  the  male  organs  may  be  seen 
attached  to  her  abdomen. 
In  about  two  days  after 
thus  mating  with  the 
drone  she  will  commence 
to  lay  eggs,  and  she  is 
capable  of  laying  two 
thousand  or  more  eggs 
per  day. 

Instinct  teaches  the 
■workers  the  necessity  of  having  a  queen  that  is 
prolific,  and  should  she  become  barren  from  any 
cause,  or  be  lost,  they  immediately  prepare  to  raise 
another  to  take  her  place.  This  they  do  by  'build- 
ing queen  cells,  and  if,  when  these  are  about  one- 
half  completed,  the  queen  has  not  deposited  eggs 
in  any  of  them,  they  take  eggs   from  worker  cells 

and  supply 
them.  15  y 
feeding  the 
embryo 
queen  with 
royal  jelly, 
the  egg  that 
would  have 
produced  a 
worker,  had  it 
remained  in 
a  worker  cell, 


Fig.  6. — Head  of  Queen^  magnified. 


becomes  a  queen. 

The  queen  usually  lays  from  February  to  Oc- 
tober, but  early  in  the  spring  she  lays  sparingly. 
When  fruit  and  flowers  bloom,  and  the  bees  are 
getting  honey  and  pollen,  she  lays  more  rapidly. 
An  unimpregnated  queen  is  called  a  "  virgin 
queen."  They  are  capable  of  laying  only  drone 
eggs.  A  fertile  queen  is  one  which  has  mated 
with  a  drone,  and  is  capable  of  laying  eggs  which 
may  become  either  workers,  drones  or  queens.  A 
barren  queen  is  one  who  has  passed  the  stage  of 
laying  eggs  which  will  become  either  workers  or 
queens,  but  continues  to  lay  eggs  which  will  pro- 
duce only  drones.  The  period  of  fertility  lasts  from 
two  to  three  years,  and  cannot  be  depended  on  longer 
safely.  All  such  queens  should  be  destroyed  and 
fertile  ones  introduced,  that  the  colony  may  not  be- 
come extinct. 

Drones.  These  are  non-producers,  and  live  on 
the  toil  and  industry  of  others.  They  are  the  males, 
and  hnve  no  sting;  neither  have  they  any  means  of 
gathering  honey  or  secreting  wax,  or  doing  any 
work  that  is  even  necessary  to  their  own  support,  or 
the  common  good  of  the  colony. 

The  drones  are  shorter,  thicker  and  more  bulky 


than  the  queen,  and  their  wings  reach  the  entire 

length  of  their  body. 
They  are  much  larger 
and  clumsier  than  the 
workers,  and  are  covered 
with  a  short  but  fine  hair. 
Their  buzzing  when  on 
the  wing  is  much  louder, 
Y,o.n.-TheDran.Bee,  ^nd  differs  from  the  oth- 

magnified.  ers.      Their  only   use   is 

to  serve  the  queen  when  on  her  "  bridal  trip." 

Not  more  than  one  in  a  thousand  is  ever  privi- 
leged to  perform  that  duty,  but  as  the  queen's  life 
is  very  valuable,  and  the  dangers  surrounding  her 
flight  are  numerous,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  them,  in  order  that  her  absence 
from  the  hive  may  not  be  protracted.  After  mat- 
ing she  returns  to  the  hive  a  fertile  queen  for 
life. 

The  drone  in  the  act  of  copulation  loses  his  life, 
dying  instantly.  At  the  approach  of  the  swarm- 
ing season 
they  are  reared 
to  fertilize 
the  young 
queens;  after 
that  is  accom- 
plished, they 
are  merciless- 
ly destroyed 
by  the  work- 
ers. 

Fig-  8. — Head  of  Drone,  magnified.  g  Jjq  q  1  (J     ^ 

colony  lose  its  queen,  the  drones  will  be  retained 
later;  instinct  teaches  them  that  without  the  drone 
the  young  queen  would  remain  unfertilized,  and  the 
colony  soon  become  e.xiinct.  The  youth  history  of 
the  drone  is  this :  He  passes  three  days  in  the  egg, 
about  six  and  a  half  in  the  larval  state,  and  changes 
into  a  perfect  drone  in  twenty-four  or  twenty-five 
days,  counting  from  the  egg. 

Workers.  These  are  undeveloped  females,  and 
they  do  all  the  work  that  is  done  in  the  hive.  They 
secrete  the  wax,  build  the  comb,  gather  the  pollen 
for  the  young,  and  honey  for  all;  feed  and  rear  the 
brood,  and  fight  all  the  battles  necessary  to  defend 
the  colony. 

Of  the  three  kinds  of  bees,  these  are  the  smallest, 
but  constitute  the  great  mass  of  the  population. 
They  possess  the  whole  ruling  power  of  the  colony 
and  regulate  its  economy. 

The  worker,  after  passing  about  three  and  a 
half  days  in  the  egg,  is  hatched — a  small  white 
worm,  grub"  or  maggot — and  is  called  larva  (a 
Latin  word  signifying  a  mask,  for  the  bee  is  con- 
cealed or  hidden  in  that  state).  It  remains  in  this 
state  about  five  days  and  then  the  bees  seal  the  cell 
over;  the  larva  then  spins  around  itself  a  silken 
covering    called    a   cocoon,   which   occupies    about 


BEE-KEEPING. 


8i 


thirty-six  hours.  In  this  third  stage  it  is  called  a 
iiympha,  pupa  or  chrysalis,  in  which  state  it  re- 
mains until  the  twenty-first  day,  counting  from  the 
time  the  egg  was  laid,  when  it  emerges  from  the 
cell  a  perfect  working  bee,  and  is  called  an 
imago. 

The  cocoon,  left  behind,  forms  a  lining  to  the 
cell,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best  not  to  use  the 
same  breeding  comb  too  long,  for  each  cocoon  left 
behind,  imperceptibly,  but  not  the  less  really, 
diminishes  the  size  of  the  cell  for  its  future  occu- 
pant, and  prevents  the  bees  from  attaining  their 
full  development  of  size. 

When  the  weather  is  cool  or  the  colony  weak,  the 
development  is  retarded  to  a  greater  or  less  extent ; 
the  heat  should  be  about  70*^  Fahr.  for  the  best  re- 
sults. Both  tlie  workers  and  the  drones,  when 
emerging  from  the  cells,  are  rather  helpless,  and  are 
soft,  downy,  and  light  in  color. 

The  workers  and  drones  spin  complete  cocoons, 
inclosing  themselves  perfectly,  but  queens  inclose 
only  the  head,  thorax,  and  first  ring  of  the  abdomen 
— evidently  to  provide  for  the  means  of  being  de- 
stroyed by  a  rival  queen,  before  emerging  from  the 
cell,  should  it  become  desirable  to  do  so. 

The  workers  are  provided  with  a  sack  or  honey- 
bag  ;  there  is  a  small  cavity  on  their  posterior  legs, 
in  which  they  store  the  pol- 
len of  flowers  in  very  small 
lumps,  being  the  most  con- 
venient form  in  which  to 
carry  it  home.  They  are 
also  provided  with  a  sting, 
which  they  use  only  for  de- 
fense. 

They  gather  honey,  which 
is  a  secretion  in  many  flowers  ;  pollen,  which  is  the 
farina  of  various  plants,  and  whicli  is  largely  used  in 
forming  bee-bread;  and  also  propolis,  or  bee-glue, 
a  resinous  substance  that  is  used  in  fastening  the 
comb  to  the  sides  of  hives,  and  to  fill  cracks  or 
open  places. 

Many  persons  entertain  the  idea  that  the  worker 
bees  live  many  years.     Their   conclusion   is  drawn 

from  the  fact 
that  colonies  in- 
habit the  same 
hive  for  a  long 
period ;  but  the 
natural  life  of 
the  worker 
honey  bee  does 
not  exceed  six 
months,  and 
from  recent  ex- 
periments it  is 

Fig.  10  -  Heai  of  Worker,  magnified.  ascertained 

that  it  does  not  exceed  six  or  eight  weeks  in  the 
height  of  the  honey  season.      Tliose  reared  in  the 


Fig.  9. 


—  The  Worker  Bee, 
magnified. 


Fig. 


fall,  having  little  out-door  work  to  perform,  will  live 
till  spring.     None  of  them  die  of  old  age,  but  the 

majority  work  t  h  e  m- 
selves  to  death,  and 
many  are  killed  through 
other  causes. 

r..-AnteriorT.e,o/lVork.r,    ,    .^'^f^'         ^hc     egg     is 

magnified.  laid    Dy    the  queen,   in 

the  bottom  of  the  cell ;  in  three  days  it  hatches  into 
a  small,  white  worm,  called  larva,  which,  being  fed 
by  the  bees,  increases  rapidly  in  size;  when  this 
larva  neady  fills  the  cell,  it  is  closed  up  by  the  bees. 
The  time  usually  taken  for  this 
process  is  eight  days  for  the  worker, 
or  queen,  and  nine  and  a  half  days 
fur  the  drone. 
_  The    workers    will   develop  from 

the  egg  in  twenty-one  days,  gather- 
ing honey  from  about  sixteen  days  after  emerging 
from  the  cell.  The  drones  will  hatcli  in  twenty- 
four  days,  and  if  the  weather  is  propitious  they  will 
"fly  "in  a  few  days  after.  The  queen  matures  in 
sixteen  days,  and  are  able  to  fly  in  a  few  hours  after 
emerging  from  the  cell,  but  it  is  not  till  the  third  day 
that  she  takes  her  "  marriage  flight." 

Until  the  seventeentli   day  the  workers  seem  only 
to  be  fit  for  the  work  of  the  hive.     Before    that  age 

they  seldom  leave  the 
hive,  their  labors  being 
confined  to  the  l)uilding 
of  the  comb,  nursing 
the  brood,  feeding  the 
larvai,  capping  brood 
and  honey  cells,  etc. 

Apiary.  The  next 
thing  in  importance  is 
the  location  of  the  api- 
ary. Select,  if  possible, 
a  sheltered  pi  ace, 
shaded  somewhat  b  y 
trees,  with  an  eastern  or 
southern  aspect,  where  they  can  be  easily  seen  or 
heard  from  the  house  during  swarmini;  season.  As 
regards  the  distance  between  the  stands,  it  should 
be  as  great  as  circumstances  will  admit,  two  feet  be- 
ing the  nearest  they  should  be  placed.  Get  a  loca- 
cation  where  fruit  and  flowers  aljound,  and  where 
white  clover  and  linden  or  basswood  also  flourish. 
Almost  anywhere  within  the  United  States  will  be 
good. 

Unless  sandy,  the  grounds  should  be  well  drained. 
If  a  grove  offers  an  inviting  shadj,  accept  it,  but 
trim  high  to  avoid  damp.  Such  a  grove  could  soon 
be  formed  of  basswood  and  tulip  trees,  which  are 
very  desirable,  as  their  bloom  offers  plenteous  and 
most  delicious  honey.  Even  Virgil  urged  sliude  of 
palm  and  olive,  also  that  the  bees  might  be  screened 
from  wind.  Wind  screens  are  very  desirable  on  the 
windward  side. 


Fig.  13. — Brood. 


82 


BEE-KEEPING. 


Some  use  sawdust  under  and  around  the  hives, 
to  prevent  the  springing  up  of  grass  to  the  annoy- 
ance of  the  bees.  Some  use  sand  or  gravel  for  the 
same  object,  with  success. 

A  timber  range  is  very  desirable,  for  a  large  por- 
tion of  their  honey  and  pollen  they  gather  from  tim- 
ber and  shrubs.  Many  good  localities  are  found 
near  rivers  or  streamlets,  where  linden,  sumach, 
maple,  willow,  cottonwood,  and  other  trees,  shrubs 
and  vines  that  yield  honey  and  pollen  abound. 
The  bees  should  be  near  the  house,  or  where  they 
can  be  heard  when  they  swarm.  They  should  be 
so  located  that  the  north  and  west  winds  would  not 
strike  them,  where  they  can  have  a  warm,  calm 
place  to  alight.  A  hedge,  high  board  fence,  or 
building,  on  the  north  and  west,  are  a  protection 
against  the  strong  winds  which  destroy  very  many 
laboring  bees  in  the  spring,  when  one  bee  is  worth 
as  much  as  a  dozen  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  as 
they  are  then  much  needed  to  care  for  the  brood 
and  keep  it  warm.  If,  in  April,  the  day  has  been 
rather  warm  and  the  evening  cool  and  windy, 
hundreds  of  bees  may  be  found  on  the  ground  in 
front  of  the  hive,  perhaps  loaded  with  pollen,  but 
exhausted  from  the  flight  and  chilled  with  cold.  As 
they  approach  the  hive  they  relax  their  exertions, 
and  a  light  whiff  of  wind  dashes  them  to  the  ground, 
from  which  they  are  unable  to  arise,  and  before  the 
sun  can  warm  them  up,  the  next  morning,  they 
will  be  dead.  If  you  have  no  shade  for  your  bees,  it 
would  be  best  to  plant  fruit  trees  among  them. 
These  would  not  only  supply  them  with  pollen  and 
honey  in  blooming  time,  but  acceptable  shade  in  hot 
summer  days  Another  thing  is  apparent,  /.  e.,  the 
fruit  would  be  a  remuneration.  The  bees  would 
fructify  the  trees  and  make  them  bear  plentifully, 
while  in  return  the  trees  would  afford  to  the  bees 
that  shade  which  they  so  much  require,  from  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun.  There  seems  to  be  no 
facing  superior  to  the  one  that  allows  the  sun's  rays 
to  shine  directly  into  the  entrance  of  a  hive  at  11:30 
a.  m.  There  is  not  a  difference  of  any  consequence 
between  asouih,  southeast  or  southwest  aspect,  and 
selection  may  be  made  to  suit  the  apiarist's  notion. 
Next  to  this,  we  should  say,  face  to  the  east ;  if  this 
is  impossible,  then  west,  and  when  no  other  is  avail- 
able, submit  to  a  north  frontage. 

When  to  Commence.  The  reason  why  many  are 
unsuccessful  is  that  they  commence  at  the  wrong 
time.  It  may  have  been  noticed  that  about  every 
third  year  has  been  a  poor  season  for  bees.  After 
such  a  season  but  few  will  commence;  while,  if  the 
next  is  a  good  one,  many  think  the  matter  worthy  of 
their  attention,  and  if  this  is  followed  by  another 
prosperous  year,  they  then  decide  to  embark.  But 
alas  !  that  is  just  the  time  to  meet  the  third  year's  re- 
verse. Those,  therefore,  who  engage  in  the 
business  should  not  be  discouraged  at  one  re- 
verse. 

Early  in  the  spring  is   the  best  time  to  begin. 


and  thus  secure  an  increase  of  bees  as  well  as 
honey  the  first  year.  Purchase  a  colony  from  some 
reliable  breeder  or  dealer,  and,  in  order  to  get  ex- 
perience, increase  from  one  or  two  colonies,  not 
more.  As  it  is  essential  to  know  what  to  do  and 
when  to  do  it,  and  how  to  do  it,  we  cannot  too 
strongly  advise  the  beginner  to  purchase  a  good 
manual  of  the  apiary,  and  study  it  well.  This  is 
absolutely  essential  to  success.  If  you  desire  to 
purchase  in  the  autumn,  that  you  may  gain  by  the 
experience  of  wintering,  either  demand  that  the  one 
of  whom  you  purchase  insure  the  safe  wintering 
or  reduce  the  selling  price,  at  least  one-third,  from 
his  rates  the  next  April. 

Removing  Bees.  After  procuring  the  bees- 
and  selecting  the  location  gnd  position  in  the  api- 
ary, the  next  thing  is  to  know  when  and  how  to  re- 
move the  bees.  In  the  spring  or  fall  will  be  the 
best  time  to  remove  them.  In  the  hot  weather  the 
combs  may  be  broken  down  in  transit,  and  general 
ruin  may  be  the  result.  In  September  or  October 
they  may  be  removed  with  safety,  but  the  best  time 
to  begin  an  apiary  is  in  April  or  May.  Only  strong 
colonies  should  be  purchased,  unless  nuclei 
colonies  are  desired  in  the  spring  to  build  up  into 
strong  ones  by  the  fall.  If  the  distance  is  less 
than  half  a  mile,  they  should  be  removed  late  in  the 
fall,  or  the  purchaser  may  lose  heavily  by  the  bees 
going  back  to  their  old  location.  It  is  necessary, 
however,  for  their  health,  that  shortly  after  com- 
pleting their  journey  they  should  have  one  or  two 
fine  days  on  which  they  can  go  out  and  relieve 
themselves.  The  disturbance  created  by  transport 
causes  every  bee  to  fill  itself  with  honey,  and  the 
condition  thereby  induced  is  unfavorable  to 
lengthened  confinement.  We  can  always  calculate 
on  a  fine  day  occurring  after  a  short  interval  in  the 
fall,  but  one  suitable  for  bee  flight  may  not  happen 
in  winter  till  after  the  lapse  of  several  weeks.  If 
bees  eat  freely,  and  are  constrained  by  an  inclement 
atmosphere  to  remain  long  within  their  hives,  evil 
consequences  follow.  This  is  what  sometimes 
causes  destruction  to  colonies  which  are  moved  dur- 
ing the  winter. 

What  Kind  of  Bees  to  Get.  Some  prefer  to 
purchase  black  bees  in  box  hives,  and  then  trans- 
fer them  to  movable  frame  hives  in  order  to  get  ex- 
perience. In  that  case,  they  should  be  populous 
colonies  with  the  comb  yellow  or  brown.  Then 
the  honey  received  will  help  to  pay  for  the  cost  of 
transferring.  The  best  satisfaction  may  be  ob- 
tained by  purchasing  strong  Italian  colonies  in  the 
spring.  Such  will,  doubtless,  in  a  few  seasons,  pay 
for  themselves,  thus  proving  the  cheapest  in  the 
end,  though  a  little  more  outlay  is  required  at  first. 
One  such  colony  is  worth  two  of  the  former. 
To  examine  a  box  hive,  incline  it  to  one  side,  look- 
ing from  the  bottom  up,  between  the  combs.  By 
using  a  smoker,  the  bees  may  be  driven  back,  and 
one  may  discover  if  it  has  capped  brood,  larvae  and 


BEE-KEEPING. 


83 


plenty  of  bees.     It   should   have   such,  to  be   con- 
sidered in  good  condition. 

Buying  "Swaflms."  A  first  swarm  is  always  to 
be  preferred,  and  if  possible  from  a  hive  that 
swarmed  the  previous  year,  for  then  the  old  queen 
will  be  in  her  second  year,  vigorous  and  at  her 
best.  A  small,  second  swarm  should  be  passed  by, 
in  purchasing.  Arrange  the  frames  i  5^  inches  from 
center  to  center ;  tilt  the  hive  fonvard  at  an  angle  of 
20  to  25  degrees,  and  they  will  be  almost  certain  to 
build  a  straight  on  the  comb-guides.  If  an  old  hive 
is  purchased,  let  it  be  a  heavy  one  in  the  spring, 
with  straight  comb  coming  entirely  down  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  frames. 

How  TO  Care  for  a  First  Colony.  If  it 
comes  by  express  or  freight,  from  a  dealer  or  bee- 
raiser,  take  it  home  carefully  in  a  spring  wagon.  Be 
sure  that  the  combs  run  lengthwise  of  the  wagon  ; 
drive  slowly  and  handle  with  care.  Place  the 
hive  in  the  position  you  wish  it  to  occupy,  and 
let  it  remain  until  evening,  when  the  wire  cloth 
that  is  usually  nailed  over  :he  entrance  may  be  re- 
moved, and  some  board  or  other  obstacle  placed  in 
front  of  the  hive,  so  that  when  the  bees  come  out  in 
the  morning,  they  will  circle  around  and  mark  the 
location,  before  going  to  their  work,  and  thus  return 
in  due  time  with  safety.  About  mid-day,  it  may  be 
well  to  open  the  hive  and  see  whether  any  combs 
are  broken  down,  and  if  so,  get  them  straightened  up, 
and  fastened  either  with  twine  or  wire,  until  the 
bees  have  secured  them,  when  such  fastenings  should 
be  removed.  Be  sure  to  smoke  them  well,  before 
opening  the  hive. 

It  is  desirable  not  to  change  the  location  of 
hives,  unless  it  becomes  absolutely  necessary  to  do 
so.  After  the  bees  have  become  familiar  with 
their  location,  should  the  hive  be  moved  a  few 
feet  they  will  not  notice  it  when  departing  on 
their  daily  rounds,  and  if  there  are  other  hives 
near  they  may  perish  in  attempting  to  enter  those 
hives  or  in  wandering  about,  seeking  their  own 
home.  This  characteristic  of  the  little  worker  can- 
not be  guarded  too  carefully. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  move  the  hives, 
it  should  he  done  gradually,  not  exceeding  the 
breadth  of  the  hive  each  day.  Or  if  they  are  to 
be  moved  several  rods,  alarm  them  by  smoke 
blown  into  the  entrance,  then  close  it,  and  remove, 
placing  some  obstacle  before  the  hive  previous  to 
opening  the  entrance  again.  In  moving  half  a 
mile  or  more,  the  result  is  different;  they  note  the 
new  locality  and  return  to  it.  Be  sure  to  give 
plenty  of  room  in  time  for  the  honey  season. 
Place  the  additional  boxes  near  the  brood  combs, 
and  if  necessary  introduce  a  little  comb  with  un- 
capped brood  in  it.  so  that  the  bees  may  enter 
them.  If  they  will  not  enter  them,  some  other 
arrangement  must  be  adopted,  such  as  long  hives, 
or  half  or  full  upper  stories,  in  which  frames  may 
be  placed. 


Preparation  of  Bees  for  Winter.  The 
conditions  for  out-door  wintering  with  success  are: 
Strong  colonies,  secured  by  late  breeding,  30 
pounds  of  good,  capped  honey,  and  vigorous 
queens.  If  hives  are  packed  with  good,  dry  ab- 
sorbing material,  with  an  air  space  of  two  or  three 
inches  below  them,  and  an  opiX)rtunity  given  for 
the  moisture  generated  by  the  bees  to  gradually 
pass  off,  without  permitting  a  draft  of  air  through 
the  hives,  there  will  be  no  trouble  with  them, 
either  in  winter  or  spring.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  preparation  for  wintering  in  the  northern 
climate. 

When  hives  are  set  about  a  foot  apart,  upon  low 
stands,  they  may  be  protected  by  driving  stakes  on 
both  sides  of  them  (front  and  rear)  and  at  the 
ends ;  and  then  fill  in  compactly  all  around  them 
with  hay  and  straw,  two  or  three  inches  thick,  with 
a  temporary  roof  oj  boards  to  keep  the  straw  dry. 
This  protection  is' sufficient  for  any  latitude,  how- 
ever cold  it  may  be,  and  enables  the  bees  to  winter 
with  as  little  loss  generally  as  occurs  under  any 
other  system.  The  passage-ways  to  the  hives 
must  not  be  obstructed  by  the  straw,  as  bees  re- 
quire an  occasional  flight  in  mild  weather.  An- 
other way  is  to  have  cheap  outside  boxes  made, 
open  at  both  ends,  which  are  to  be  placed  over  the 
hives,  and  the  open  space  (two  or  three  inches)  on 
each  side  filled  with  straw,  packed  in  firmly.  A 
hole  in  each  box,  cut  out  in  front  of  the  openings 
in  the  hives,  having  something  placed  in  it  to  keep 
the  passage-way  from  being  shut  up  with  straw, 
will  afford  the  bees  egress  and  ingress  when  it  is  safe 
to  allow  them  to  take  a  flight. 

The  requirements  to  winter  bees  in  cellars  are 
dryness  and  d^kness,  with  fche  thermometer  rang- 
ing from  35  to  45  degrees,  prolific  queens,  30 
pounds  of  good,  capped  honey  (no  glucose,  or  un- 
capped honey  that  will  ferment),  a  quilt  over  the 
frames  to  absorb  the  moisture,  and  a  free  passage 
for  air  all  around  and  below  the  hives,  to  prevent 
dampness,  and  a  ventilator  running  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cellar,  to  carry  off  the  impure  air.  If  the 
combs  contain  uncapped  honey,  it  should  be  ex- 
tracted. If  the  requisite  amount  of  suitable  honey 
is  not  at  hand,  feed  good,  thick  honey  which  has 
been  extracted  early  in  the  season;  or,  if  that 
cannot  be  had,  make  a  sirup  of  coffee  A  sugar,  of 
the  consistency  of  honey,  or  just  so  that  it  will  not 
crystallize  upon  cooling.  Perhaps  the  most  con- 
venient method  of  feeding  this  is  to  put  it  in  a  bag 
made  of  drilling,  which  is  tacked  to  a  strip  of 
wood  like  the  top  bar  of  a  frame  except  that  it  is 
two  inches  wide,  and  has  a  hole  cut  in  the  center 
one  inch  wide  and  two  inches  long.  Hang  this 
between  the  frames  and  the  end  of  the  hive,  and 
pour  in  the  honey  or  sirup.  The  bees  will  sip  it  «p  * 
and  store  it  away  as  it  oozes  through  the  feeder. 
This  feeding  should  be  done  as  early  at  least  as 
the  last  of  September,  so  the  bees  will  have  time 
to  cap  the  cells   before  the    weather   becomes  too 


84 


BEE-KEEPING. 


cold.  But  it  is  imjxjssible  to  have  just  such  air  in 
a  cellar  as  bees  have  in  their  native  wild  state,  and 
hence,  even  with  the  utmost  pains,  we  must  suffer 
some  loss.  The  truth  in  a  nutshell,  with  regard  to 
wmtering  bees,  appears  to  be  this :  Confine  the 
bees  to  as  small  a  space  as  they  can  crowd  into, 
with  a  plenty  of  good  food,  pure  air,  warmth  and 
dryness.  Some  have  very  successfully  buried  their 
bees  during  the  winter.  In  such  cases  the  ground 
should  be  well  drained  and  sandy,  and  on  a  hillside 
is  the  best  location.  Straw  should  be  placed  be- 
neath and  around  the  hives,  leaving  the  entrance 
well  open,  yet  secure  against  mice. 

Some  seasons  are  so  unfavorable  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  have  good  stock  for  wintering,  as  for 
instance  the  summer  of  i88o  in  the  Northwestern 
States.  The  following  table  shows  the  subsequent 
loss,  as  well  as  a  comparison  of  the  various  methods 
of  keeping: 

Per  cent. 
No.  in  Fall.  Dead.  of  Loss. 

Inbee  houses 15,863  3.299  -21 

In  cellars 91.171  29»734  .32 

Protected 145.883  67,238  .46 

Total 252,917  100,271  .39 

Unprotected 268,313  229,741  .85 

Grand  Total 521,230  330,012  .63 

Spring  Management.  During  the  latter  part 
of  March  and  first  of  April,  when  the  weather  is 
warm,  set  the  bees  out,  toward  evening.  Setting 
them  out  in  the  morning  gets  them  excited  and 
may  cause  them  all  to  leave  their  hives  and  collect 
into  one  great  "  swarm."  At  this  time  it  is  recom- 
mended to  take  a  clean,  dry  hive  and  set  it  down 
beside  the  first  hive,  into  whicl*  blow  a  little  smoke. 
Carefully  open  tlie  hive  and  begin  at  one  side  to 
take  out  the  combs,  arfd  if  any  are  wet  and  moldy, 
clean  them  off  as  well  as  you  can,  and  put  them 
into  the  dry  hive,  taking  away  the  old  hive  and 
putting  the  other  in  its  place.  If  you  have  no 
more  empty  hives,  clean  out  No.  i,  and  set  it  in 
the  sun  to  dry.  Go  lo  No.  2,  and  if  )ou  find  the 
combs  all  dry  and  no  dead  bees  on  the  bottom  of 
the  hive,  close  it  up,  and  in  this  way  go  through 
all;  for  by  doing  so,  you  see  exactly  what  con- 
dition they  are  in,  and  then  work  accordingly. 
Every  spring,  till  the  bees  begin  to  gather  natural 
pollen,  put  some  flour  and  meal  (though  rye  and 
oats  ground  together  are  better)  into  a  cover  or 
shallow  box,  setting  it  a  little  slanting  in  some 
sheltered  corner,  and  if  you  are  not  troubled  with 
your  neighbors'  bees,  a  little  well-diluted  honey 
will  do  them  good,  even  if  they  have  plenty  of 
honey  in  the  hives.  The  hives  should  not  be 
placed  on  their  stands  until  all  danger  of  severe 
freezing  weather  is  past,  as  the  change  from  the 
warm  cellar  to  a  cold  atmosphere  is  too  great,  and 
liability  to  spring  dwindling  is  the  result. 

Hives.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the 
Langstroth  hive  is  the  best  of  all  that  have  been 
introduced.     In  the   spring  of   1881,  Mr.  Newman, 


editor  of  the  American  Bee  Journal,  incurred 
considerable  expense  to  ascertain  which  sort  stood 
best  the  severe  test  of  the  winter  of  1880-1,  with 
the  following  results : 


How  Wintered.        No- in  Fall. 

Colonies  in  Box  hives   211,732 

"         Frame  bives..    ..  309,498 

"         Langstroth  hives.  195,957 

*'        Other  frames.    ..  xi3,54i 


Grand  Total 521,230 


Dead 
in  Spring. 
187,705 
142,307 

83,965 
58,442 

330,012 


Per  cent. 
of  Loss. 

■39 

.46 
.42 
5' 

.63 


This  table  tells  its  own  story,  in  very  plain 
words. 

The  Langstroth  frame  is  now  very  generally 
used  all  over  the  United  States,  and  will  doubtless 
ere  long  supplant  all  others.  The  beginner,  there- 
fore, can  do  no  better  than  to  adopt  it. 

The  Langstroth  hive  is  peculiarly  adapted  for 
the  production  of  comb  honey;  its  honey  rack 
(Fig.  14)  is  the  best  in  use,  and  perfectly  adapted 

to  the  use  of  the 
prize  Boxes.  It 
holds  18  prize 
boxes,  with  the 
separators  between 
them,  marked  B,B, 
in  the  cut.  The 
wedge  A  holds   all 

Fig.    \i,.- Comb-Honey  Rack.  with       a         visC-likc 

grasp.  The  outer  boxes,  C,  C,  C,  are  glasses  as 
they  stand  on  the  hive.  By  removing  the  wedge  A 
any  box  may  be  instantly  removed,  examined,  re- 
turned, or  replaced  by  an  empty  one,  the  rows 
readily  admitting  the  fingers  for  that  purpose. 

How  TO  Procure  the  Best  Comb  Honey.  Not 
only  should  we  forsake  the  log-gums  and  rude 
straw  and  box  hives  of  our  fathers,  and  give  these 
busy  liitle  workers  a  neater  lioaie  with  movable 
frames  to  contain  their  combs,  but  we  should  teach 
them  to  store  their  surplus  honey  in  small  sectional 
frames  and  boxes  (Figs.  15,  16,  17)  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  taken  from  the  hives  when  full,  and  marketed 
in  convenient  shape,  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
retail  purchasers. 

This  sectional  box  (Fig.  15)  is  55^  x 
6j^  inches  outside;  the  sides  are  J^  of 
an  inch  thick  and  2  inches  wide,  while 
the  top  and  l)ottom  are  \{  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  \yi  inches  wide,  the  whole 
weighing  but  2  ounces.  It  is  the  fa- 
vorite for  marketing  comb  honey,  and  is 
made  so  that  it  can  be  glassed  or  not, 
as  may  be  demanded  by  the  market.  Honey  in  this 
box  was  awarded  the  Thurber  Gold  Medal,  in  New' 
York,  October,  1877,  by  the  National  Bee-Keepers 
Convention,  then  in  session  at  the  Cooper  Institute. 

The  top  and  bottom  being  narrower  allows 
room  for  the  glass,  and  when  put  on  the  hive,  the 
space  being  then  doubled  by  two  boxes  coming  to- 


pic. \i—Tk/ 

Prize  f^oney 
Section. 


BEE-KEEPING. 


8S 


^^E 


tZD 


f 

lli,»i.J:,l':il| 

4*1          -i 

LiLihiUiiiiiil  1 

'iilj 

lltlill 

"shLl 

gether,  leaves  ample  means  of  ingress  and  egress. 
The  dove-tailed  section  (Fig.  i6) 
is  made  of  the  same  thickness  at  both 
top  and  sides,  being  about  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch,  and,  being  dove- 
tailed, can  be  put  together  without 
J  Fig.  i6.—  nailing.  The  objection  to  them  is 
S»'i'  "°n7t  *^^'  ^^^y  ^""^  much  weaker  than 
Classed.  those  nailed;  and  if  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  nail  them,  there  is  no  economy  in  their 
use.     They  are  intended  to  be  used  without  glass. 

The  one-piece 
sections    are 

Fig.    17. — Honey  Sections    all  iti  one  piece      made    of  baSS- 

wood,  and  are  all  in  one  piece,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  illustration,  with  grooves  cat  so  that  they 
may  be  bent  to  the  proper  shape. 

This  wide 
frame  (Fig. 
18)  ismadeof 
i^-inch  lum- 
ber, 2  inches 
wide,  and 
holds  three 

Orize       boxes         Fig.   18.  —  wide    Frame  /or   Langstrotk  Hive. 

Such  an  arrangement  must  have  a  seven-inch 
story  made  for  it,  which  may  be  lifted  on  and 
oflf  the  hive  in  one  piece.  It  holds  21  prize 
boxes,  and  is  used  with  success  by  many.  Fig.  18 
shows  the  tin  separators  on  the  back,  one  of  which 
is  attached  to  every  case.  This  story  and  cases 
being  a  part  of  the  hive,  only  the  boxes  are  sold. 

The  cut 
(Fig.  19) 
shows  a  case 
made  similar 
to  the  above, 
butof  theordi- 
nary  size  of  a 
Langstro  t h 
frame,  and 
holds  eight 
one-pound  sections  with  tin  separators  between  them. 
These  are  used,  one  on  each  side  of  the  brood 
chamber,  to  induce  the  bees  to  start  surplus  storing 
early.  When  commenced,  if  one  has  a  second 
story  of  the  same  size  as  the  breeding  apartment, 
these  may  be  placed  in  the  center  of  it  to  induce 
the  bees  to  go  up  there  and  work. 

The  favor- 
ite shipping 
crate  is  that 
shown  in 
Fig.  20 ;  and 
W^  honey  packed 
in  it  is  a  sta- 

FlG.    ■zo.—Shit'ping  Crate  to  contain  \i  Sections,    pie  article    in 

cities,  especially  in  the  East.  It  is  made  to  hold  one 
dozen  sections  of  honey,  each  containing  one  or  two 


iQ. — Case  0/  Eight  Sections. 


pounds,  as  may  be  desired  (Figs.  15,  16,  17),  and 
is  a  very  convenient  and  attractive  way  of  putting 
comb  honey  upon  the  market.  Ether  the  "  crate  " 
or  the  "  boxes  "  may  be  glassed,  to  ])rotect  the  honey 
from  the  dust  of  a  retail  store,  and  preserve  it  in 
its  original  condition  for  the  consumer's  use. 

Sections  with  a  tight  top  bar  (2  inches  wide) 
are  used  in  the  comb-honey  rack,  (Fig.  14);  those 
used  in  cases  (Fig.  18)  have  the  top  and  bottom 
bars  only  r^^  inches  wide;  the  case  being  two 
inches  in  width,  prevents  any  bees  from  going 
above  it. 

To    glass    the    boxes,    two  tin    points   (Fig.   21) 
should  be  inserted  in  the  top  bar  of  the  section,  j4 
of  an  inch   from  the   edge,   and   the  same    in  the 
bottom  bar.     Between  these   the   glass   may  be  in- 
serted, bending  down  the  tin  points 
closely  to  it;  the  sides  being  full  2 
inches  in  width,  while  the  top  and 
bottom   are    J^    of  an  inch  less  on 
either  side,  the  glass  will  just  make 
Fig.  2  1 .       Tin  all  even,  nice  and  attractive. 

Fojnts  for  Glassing        ^^^     ^j^^^     ^,^^    ^^    ^^^^^    ^^    ^^ 

pleasure,  by  simply  straightening  up  the  tin  points. 
Some  persons  paste  paper  over  the  joints,  to  keep  the 
package  air-tight.  However  desirable  the  latter  may 
be,  the  paper  is  a  positive  detriment,  for  it  soon 
becomes  covered  with  fly-specks  and  dirt,  render- 
ing it  unattractive  to  the  purchaser. 

The  above  directions  are  for  those  used  in  cases 
(Fig  18).  Those  with  the  tight  top  bar,  used  in 
the  comb-honey  rack  (Fig.  14),  have  to  be  fas- 
tened with  the  tin  points  at  the  bottom,  as  before 
described,  and  at  the  top  by  having  a  tin  point 
inserted  outside  of  the  glass. 

Making  Hives  and  Surplus  Boxes.  To 
save  trouble  and  annoyance  in  making  hives,  boxes, 
etc.,  it  is  best  to  get  them  cut  and  ready  to  nail  to- 
gether. Should  you  intend  tO  make  them  at  home, 
a  foot-power  saw  will  be  very  essential  in  order  to 
saw  the  material  for  hives,  frames  and  boxes,  so  as 
to  exactly  fit. 

The  stands  uix)n  which  the  hives  are  set  should 
be  as  near  the  ground  as  can  be  made  safe  from 
dirt  and  vermin. 

The  illustrations  given  in  this  connection  are 
taken  from  goods  in  the  bee-keepers'  supply  house 
of  Thomas  G.  Newman  &  Son,  923  and  925  Madi- 
son street,  Chicago,  111. 

Comb  Foundation  and  its  Use.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  workers  have  to  consume  about  20 
pounds  of  honey  to  be  able  to  construct  one  pound 
of  comb.  This  being  true,  i  pound  of  comb  is 
equal  in  value  to  20  pounds  of  honey.  If,  there- 
fore, honey  is  worth  15  cents  per  pound,  comb 
costs  $3  per  pound,  when  produced  by  the  bees. 
From  this  we  may  learn  the  value  of  comb  foun- 
dation when  supplied  to  the  bees. 

The  comb  foundation  (Fig.  22)  consists  of 
sheets    of    wax,    obtained   by   dipping   wooden   or 


86 


BEE-KEEPING. 


Fig.  22.— Ct»wr^  Foundation. 


metal    plates    into    melted   wax,   and   upon   being 
rolled  through  a  machine  (Fig.  23),  indentations  are 

made  on  both 
sides  that  form 
the  foundation 
of  cells,  which 
the  bees  readi- 
ly accept,  thin 
out,  and  work 
into  comb. 
These  corruga- 
tions are  made 
to  correspond  both  with  the  worker  and  drone 
cells,  the  latter  being  used  for  starters  in  boxes  for 
surplus  honey.  Fig.  24  shows  the  rhombs,  pyram- 
idal bases  and  cross-sections  of  cells.  Comb 
foundation  shows  all  these  very  plainly. 

As  a  result  of  several  experiments,  we  will  note 
the  following:  A  brood  frame,  being  filled  with 
comb  foundation  in  the  evening,  was  examined  the 
next  morning,  and  showed  that  in  12  hours  about 
half  of  it  had  the  cells  built  out  sufficiently  for  the 
queen  to  lay  in  them,  which  she  had  done.  In  24 
hours  the  comb  was  filled  with  eggs  and  the 
elongation  of  the  cells  was  rapidly  going  on. 
Within  8  days,  10  combs  had  been  built  out,  filled 
with  worker   brood,  and  sealed  over.     Only  a  very 

few  cells  had 
been  filled 
with  honey. 
The  beautiful 
and  regularly 
built  comb, 
with  its  thou- 
sands of  little 
i  n  h  abitants, 
was  marvel- 
ous indeed ! 
T  o     prevent 

Fig.   23. — I\Iackint  for  making  Cotnb  Foundation,  ^^^i'^^^       and 

bulging,  it  should  not  touch  the  bottom  or  sides; 
it  being  better  to  leave  half  an  inch  of  space  on 
either  side  and  an  inch  at  the  bottom. 

Bees  bred  in  new  comb  are  generally  much 
larger  than  those  raised  in  old.  The  cells  in  the 
old  comb  become  smaller  every  year,  as  every  bee 
that  is  hatched  in  them  leaves  its  silky  cocoon 
adhering  to  the  walls  of  the  cell,  thus  diminishing 

its  size  and  conse- 
quently the  size  of 
the  bee.  When 
drones  are  bred  in 
worker-cells  (not 
uncommon)  they 
are  stunted  in  their 
growth.  T  o  raise 
,  a  queen  the  cell  is 
would,   if  left   in  a 


Fig.  24. — Bases  and  Cross  Sections  of  Celts. 

enlarged,    and   the   larva   that 

smaller 

creased 


Fig. 


cell,    have    been    a  worker,   becomes    in- 
in   bulk,    and,   being    fed   on   royal    jelly. 


hatches  out  a  queen.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  if  an 
enlarged  cell  was  not  necessary  to  the  enlarged 
size,  the  bees  would  not  so  uniformly  require  the 
building  of  large  queen  cells. 

Comb  foundation  may  be  fastened  by  rubbing 
the  edge  hard  against  the  wood  of  the  top  bar 
with  some  iron  instrument,  such  as  a  screw-driver,, 
knife,  etc. ;  a  little  honey  will  keep  the  tool  from 
sticking  to  the  wax.  Some  use  white  milliner's 
glue  for  fastening  it,  or  a  cement  made  of  equal 
parts  of  wax  and  rosin.  After  placing  the  founda- 
tion in  position,  top  bar  downward,  the  cement 
being  melted  over  a  lamp,  with  a  tin  teaspoon  bent 
to  a  small  spout,  he  pours  the  cement  upon  the 
upper  corner  of  the  foun- 
dation, which,  running 
down  at  the  junction 
where  foundation  meets 
the  top-bar,  sticks  it  so  fast 

^i.-founa.tion    Cutter,    jj^^^j  Jj     ^^^^^^     ^^  j^^^^^j     ^^ 

pull  it  apart  again.  Another  plan  for  using  comb- 
starters  in  boxes  is  to  place  the  honey-box  upside- 
down,  then  cut  the  piece  of  comb  about  an  eighth 
of  an  iiich  longer  than  tlie  depth  of  the  box, 
and  running  one  edge  of  the  comb  through  the 
lower  part  of  the  blaze  of  a  lighted  candle  until 
partly  melted.  Then  put  this  melted  edge  on  the 
place  where  you  want  it  to  st^^y  on  the  bottom 
of  the  box  (which,  when  righted,  would  be  the 
top),  and  crowd  the  other  edge  into  place.  It  is 
very  quickly  and  easily  done. 

How  TO  Cut  it  to  Desired  Sizes.  A  steel 
Foundation  Cutter  is  the  neatest,  cheapest,  and 
best  thing  we  know  of  (Fig.  25).  It  is  simply  a 
revolving  wheel  of  steel,  fastened  into  a  handle. 

For  cutting  it 
into  strips  of  uni- 
form size,  for  start- 
ers in  sections  and 
boxes,  one  has 
suggested  a 
grooved  board 
(Fig.  26),  the  dis- 
tance between  the 
grooves  c  o  r  r  e  - 
Board  far  Cutting  sponding  to  the 
width  of  the  strips 
desired  to  be  cut.  For  starters  in  boxes  or  sections, 
it  is  quite  desirable.  A  strip  one-half  an  inch 
wide  is  sufficient,  making  an  excellent  guide. 

Comb  foundation  for  the  brood  chamber  should 
be  pretty  thick,  so  as  to  supply  material  for  cells. 
Starters  of  foundation  in  surplus  boxes  are  desir- 
able,  as  they  induce  the  bees  to  commence  opera- 
tions there  much  sooner  than  otherwise.  If 
natural  comb  be  used  in  surplus  boxes,  it  must  be 
new  and  nice.  Any  other  is  a  damage  to  its  sale 
as  well  as  to  its  flavor. 

The  use  of  comb  foundation  bids  fair  to  use  all 
the  available  wax   in  the   country.     Every   bit  of 


Fig. 


26. — Groo^-ed 

Starters  Evtridy 


BEE-KEEPING. 


87 


wax  and  old  combs  should  therefore  be  preserved. 
By    the   use   of    a   wax    extractor   (Fig.    27)   even 


Fig.  27. —  Wax  Extractor. 

the  oldest  combs  can  be  melted  up  and  repro- 
duced in  comb  foundation  and  be  given  again  to 
the  bees. 

Honey  Bloom.  Nearly  all  the  flowering  trees 
and  plants  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  yield  honey 
and  pollen.  In  earliest  spring  comes  the  bloom  of 
myriads  of  fruit  trees,  with  the  maples,  poplar, 
Judas  tree,  dandelions,  willow,  etc.  In  May  we 
have  the  white  sage,  sumac,  wistarias,  barberry, 
etc.  During  June,  the  white  clover  abounds  ;  also 
alsike  and  melilot  clovers,  honeysuckle,  white 
sage,  motherwort,  borage,  cotton,  milkweeds,  mus- 
tards, rape,  St.  John's  wort,  mignonette,  okra, 
mints,  tulips,  elders,  teasel,  raspberries,  etc.  July 
gives  us  the  basswood,  figwort,  sour-wood  bloom, 
boneset,  button-bush,  catnip,  etc.;  while  August 
and  September  present  us  with  buckwheat,  sun- 
flowers and  myriads  of  golden  rods,  and  fall  flow- 
ers generally.  Honey -dew  is  also  a  source  of 
considerable  honey  in  some  sections  of  the  country. 
Every  apiarist  should  acquaint  himself  with  the 
honey-plants  of  his  locality,  and  with  the  time  of 
their  coming  into  bloom.  By  so  doing  he  may  make 
calculations  in  advance,  and  have  the  bees  in  condi- 
tion to  take  advantage  of  the  honey  harvests  as  they 
occur.  Bees  never  puncture  fruit,  and  unless  the 
skin  has  been  broken  by  other  insects  or  biids  they 
never  molest  it. 

Robber  Bees.  If  all  colonies  are  kept  strong 
there  is  no  danger  of  robbing.  It  is  only  the  weak 
ones  that  are  robbed.  Working  with  bees  at  un- 
seasonable times,  leaving  honey  exposed  in  the 
apiary,  etc.,  induces  robbing.  Black  colonies  and 
nuclei  are  usually  the  sufferers.  Contracting  the 
entrance  so  that  but  a  single  bee  can  pass  is  usually 
a  cute  for  robbing.  In  times  of  scarcity  of  honey, 
the  apiaiist  should  Be  careful  not  to  keep  a  hive 
open  long7  or  robbing  may  be  the  result.  All 
strong  colonies  maintain  sentinels  at  the  entrance 
in  times  of  scarcity.  Those  of  that  colony  are  al- 
lowed to  pass,  but  strangers  are  "arrested  on  the 


spot."  If  a  colony  is  unable  to  defend  itself,  close 
up  the  entrance  with  wire  cloth  and  remove  it  to 
the  cellar,  or  some  other  convenient  place,  for  a 
few  days,  and  when  it  is  returned  to  the  old  stand 
contract  the  entrance  to  allow  only  one  bee  to  pass 
at  a  time. 

Smoke  is  harmless  and  is  the  best  thing  to  alarm 
and  quiet  bees.  With  a  good  smoker  (Fig.  28), 
blow  a  little  smoke  in  at  the  entrance  before  open- 
ing the  hive;  give  them  a  little  more  as  you  un- 
cover the  frames ;  if  very  cross  repeat  tfte  dose, 
until  they  yield  obedience;  then  they  may  be 
handled  with  safety.  Handle  them  gently  and 
without  fear,  avoiding  all  quick  motions;  such 
usually  incite  them  to  anger.  When  honey  is  be- 
ing stored  rapidly,  Italians  may  be  handled  with- 
out smoke ;  when  there  is  a  scarcity,  it  is  not  safe 
to  do  so. 


Fig-  28. — Bingham  Smoker. 


Fio.   t().—Bee  Veil. 


To  those  who  are  commencing,  and  until  famil- 
iarity causes  the  loss  of  fear,  a  pair  of  good  gauntlet 
gloves  and  a  veil  are  necessary,  but  after  that  fear 
has  been  overcome,  a  good  veil  will  be  sufficient. 
Such  may  be  placed  over  a  hat,  the  bottom  of  it  com- 
ing down  under  the  coat  or  vest,  and  when  thus  ad- 
justed it  is  a  complete  protection  for  the  neck  and 
face  (Fig.  29).  Being  made  of  white  netting,  it 
does  not  stain  the  clothing,  and  as  the  piece  over 
the  face  is  black,  it  can  be  seen  through  nearly  as 
well  as  if  not  worn.  A  good  one  costs  50  cents,  and 
is  a  yard  long;  common  black  ones,  so  short  as  to 
be  \indesiral)le,  can  be  obtained  at  a  less  price,  but 
are  much  deater  in  the  end. 

On  being  stung,  if  the  poison-bag  has  not  been 
emptied,  remove  it  with  a  sharp  knife,  or,  better  still, 
with  a  pair  of  tvi^eezers  so  formed  as  to  grasp  the 
sting  itself,  without  pressing  on  the  bag.  Common 
hair  tweezers  are  just  the  thing.  This  must,  how- 
ever, must  be  done  very  quickly,  or  it  will  be  of  no 
use.  Grasping  the  bag  and  sting  with  the  fingers 
only  squeezes  the  poison  out  of  the  bag  and  into  the 
wound.  After  the  bag  has  been  removed,  suck  the 
wound  strongly,  and  apply  a  poultice  of  moist  mud. 

Shipping   Queens  and  Colonies.     Before  colo- 


88 


BEE-KEEPING. 


nies  are  shipped  the  frames  should  be  secured  so 
that  they  cannot  move.  Old  combs  should  be  se- 
lected for  ship].ing;  and  wire  cloth  nailed  over  the 
entrance  serves  fur  ventilation  as  w^ell  as  to  keep  the 
bees  in  the  hive  Of  course  a  strip  of  wood  should 
be  nailed  eacli  side,  from  the  cap  to  the  bottom 
board,  to  keep  the  whole  safely  together. 

To  Introduce  a  Queen,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
find  the  queen  to  be  superceded  and  take  her  away. 
A  blacl^  queen,  being  easily  frightened,  will  hide  or 
run  awciy  to  some  corner;  therefore  it  is  best  to  pro- 
ceed cautiously  and  wiihout  jarring. 

In  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  the  old  bees  are  at 
work,  carefully  open  the  hive,  take  out  the  center 
frame,  examine  both  sides,  and  if  the  queen  is  not 
there,  proceed  with  the  adjacent  frames  till  she  is 
found.  If  not  successful  the  first  time,  return  the 
frames  to  tiieir  places,  and  close  the  hive  an  hour  or 
two,  till  the  bees  become  quiet,  or  until  next  day, 
and  then  repeat  the  operation.  An  Italian  queen 
would  be  easily  found,  but  the  blacks  are  move 
troublesome.  When  found,  either  destroy  her  or 
make  such  other disf)osiiion  of  her  as  may  be  desired; 
cage  the  Italian  queen  and  insert  it  between  two 
combs  containing  honey  which  the  queen  may  be 
able  to  reach  at  pleasure. 


Fig.  30. — VaUntine^i  Frame  Stand, 

Fig.  30  gives  a  good  illustration  of  a  piece  of 
furniture  that  will  be  found  very  useful  in  an 
apiary.  It  is  a  stand  on  which  to  hang  the  first 
frames  removed  from  a  hive,  when  an  examination 
of  it  is  made.  Usually  the  first  frames  are  leaned 
against  the  hive,  standing  upon  the  ground,  and 
more  or  less  bees  are  injured.  With  this  "  stand," 
they  are  hung  up,  entirely  out  of  danger. 

The  uprights  are  ij^x^,  24  inches  high;  a 
piece  I  inch  square  runs  across  the  top_  for  a  han- 
dle to  lift  it  by  and  to  hold  the  top  together.  Two 
inches  below  the  top  bar  are  hooks  on  both  sides, 
so  as  to  hang  on  two  frames  if  desirable.  Four, 
inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  frames  (when  sus- 


pended on  the  hooks)  is  a  shelf  15  inches  wide,  tc 
which  the  uprights  are  nailed.  Tins  makes  a  nice 
place  on  which  to  lay  cjgcs,  etc.  Under  this  shell 
is  a  drawer  6x8,  that  draws  out  on  cither  side,  in 
which  to  keep  a  dozen  queen  c.gc-,  a  sharp-pointed 
knife,  and  a  small  pair  of  scissors. 

In  about  48  hours  relea-.e  the  queen  upon  one  of 
the  combs  and  see  how  siie  is  received.  If  she  is 
attacked  hy  the  bees,  molesting  her  wings  and  legs, 
return  her  to  the  cage  for  another  36  hours,  after 
which  she  will  no  doubt  be  accepted  ;  or,  dip  her  in 
a  little  honey,  slightly  warmed,  if  necessary,  and 
dropping  her  among  the  bees,  they  immediately  com- 
mence licking  her  off,  and  forget  that  she  is  a 
usurper.  Queen  cells,  if  any  have  been  started, 
should  be  destroyed. 

Another  plan,  and  one  that  is  regularly  prac- 
ticed in  some  apiaries  with  uniform  success,  is  to 
make  the  colony  queenless  for  24  hours,  and  then 
with  an  atomizer  (Fig.  31) 
throw  a  fine  spray  of  pep- 
permint water  over  both  the 
queen  and  bees,  letting  the 
queen  loose  upon  one  of  the 
central  combs,  and  close  up 
the  hive.  The  peppermint 
water  makes  the  bees  and 
queen  of  the  same  scent,  and 

VlG.v.-Attmizer  for  spray-      '  .  .  . 

ine-  Bees.  almost  invariably  she  is  re- 

ceived with  favor.  The  spray  is  so  fine  that  it  is 
not  the  least  detriment  either  to  the  bees,  comb 
brood  or  honey.  With  a  valuable  queen,  wher% 
it  is  not  desired  to  take  the  least  risk,  a  new  colony 
may  be  formed  by  taking  hatching  brood  from 
several  hives.  Being  all  young  bees,  the  queen 
will  be  unmolested.  This  may  be  done  with  per- 
fect safety. 

Inserting  a  Queen  Cell.  A  ripe  queen 
cell  will  almost  invariably  be  received  with  favor 
by  a  queenless  colony.  Of  course  all  other  queen 
cells  must  be  destroyed.  Fig.  2  shows  a  queen 
cell  finished  and  ceiled,  containing  an  embryo 
queen.  The  orifice  a  is  capped,  and  the  cell-walls 
are  thickened  preparatory  to  being  extended  in 
the  direction  of  the  dotted  lines  b,  b.  When  the 
embryo  queen  is  nearly  mature,  within  12  to  16 
hours  of  emerging,  the  bees  begin  to  demolish  the 
exterior  compartment  (Fig.  3,  b.  b),  reducing  it  to 
a  level  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  cap  of  the  cell 
proper  (Fig.  3,  a).  The  convex  cap,  being  then 
very  prominent,  is  liable  to  be  injured;  and,  to 
protect  it,  the  bees  coat  it  with  a  fresh  layer  of 
wax,  making  it  nearly  as  thick  as  the  cell  walls. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  cell  as  seen  after  its  insertion  into 
the  nucleus,  it  being  attached  to  a  wedge-shaped 
piece  of  comb  whose  apex  is  next  to  the  cell. 

The  young  queen  pierces  a  hole  through  the 
edge  of  the  cover  with  her  mandibles,  and  then 
makes   a  circular   cut  along   its  periphery.     Being 


BEE-KEEPING. 


89 


thus  detached  from  the  cell  walls,  the  cap  drops, 
opening  a  circular  passage,  through  which  the  queen 
emerges.  To  cut  a  queen  cell  out,  commence  on 
each  side  of  the  base  of  the  cell,  not  nearer  than 
half  an  inch,  and  cut  upward  a  wedge-shaped  piece 
(see  Fig.  4),  being  careful  not  to  squeeze  or  even  to 
handle  the  base  of  the  cell.  A  similar  wedge- 
shaped  piece  must  be  cut  out  of  the  frame  of  comb 
that  it  is  desired  to  put  the  cell  into.  Then  care- 
fully place  the  cell  into  the  hole  thus  made,  fitting 
it  securely  in  position  ;  place  the  frame  into  the  hive 
and  close  it  up. 

Nucleus  Colonies.  Nuclei  are  made  by  tak- 
ing two  or  more  frames,  as  may  be  desired  (at 
least  one  of  which  should  contain  brood),  with 
adhering  bees,  and  the  frame  already  furnished  as 
above  described,  with  a  queen  cell,  and  shaking 
into  the  hive  bees  from  one  or  more  frames,  so 
that  there  may  be  enough  young  bees  to  remain 
after  the  old  bees  have  returned  to  their  former 
hives,  to  keep  the  temperature  sufficiently  high  to 

_    hatch  out  the  brood  as 

U^S^^^^^^^^Pf  well  as  to  care  for  the 
emerging  queen.  In 
making  up  nuclei  colo- 
nies be  sure  not  to  take 
away  the  queen  with 
any  of  the  frames,  else 
the  cell  will  be  de- 
stroyed, and  all  the 
labor  that  has  been  per- 
formed will  be  lost. 
It  is  better  to  use  the  regular  frames  for  nuclei 
hives,  and  either  use  the  ordinary  hives  with  a 
division  t)oard  (Fig.  32)  to  contract  the  brood- 
chamber,  and  economize  the  heat,  or  make  small 
hives  just  to  suit  the  number  of  frames  used  for  the 
nuclei.  A  board  of  one  piece  is  neither  patented 
nor  patentable. 

.\s  the  virgin  queen  emerges  from  the  nucleus 
to  meet  the  drones,  sometimes  the  bees  will  ac- 
company her  if  they  have  no  unceiled  brood.  To 
prevent  this,  two  or  three  days  after  the  queens  are 
hatched,  insert  a  frame  containing  eggs  and  young 
larvae  in  each  nucleus.  If  the  queen  should  be 
lost  on  her  bridal  tour,  the  materials  will  be  on 
hand  for  the  bees  to  get  another,  should  the  fact  be 
unnoticed  by  the  apiarist.  Should  this  misfortune 
befall  a  colony,  the  bees  themselves  are  quick  to 
notice  it  and  ready  to  prepare  for  another. 

When  the  nucleus  colonies  are  formed,  set  them 
away  in  the  shade,  and  in  two  or  three  days  the 
queen  will  be  hatched,  and  a  week  or  ten  days 
later  will  become  fertilized,  and  be  laying;  this 
may  be  readily  discovered  upon  examination.  Now 
the  apiarist  is  ready  for  the  formation  of  new  col- 
onies, without  the  inconvenience  of  natural  swarm- 
ing, by  dividing  the  colonies.  Bees  swarm  because 
it  is  their  natural  manner  of  increase.  By  divid- 
ing them  we  secure  the  increase  without  swarming, 


Fig.  32 — Division  Board, 


and  save  time  in  watching  and  hiving  natural 
swarms.  This,  however,  must  not  be  overdone. 
The  beginner  sometimes  imagines  that  by  dividing 
he.  can  make  almost  any  number  of  colonies  from 
each  one,  forgetting  that  strong  colonies  are  the 
only  ones  that  accomplish  anything.  Dividing 
should  never  be  done  unless  the  colony  be  very 
populous  and  can  well  spare  the  bees  and  comb, 
and  this  is  generally  after  the  clover  season,  and 
before  the  linden  blossoms  appear.  To  more  than 
double  the  number  of  colonies  each  season  is  not 
good,  unless  increase  is  desired  at  the  expense  of 
honey.  Some  divide  their  strong  colonies  equally, 
or  nearly  so,  carefully  looking  for  the  queen,  put- 
ting her  into  the  new  hive,  placing  bees  and  brood 
in  the  center,  filling  up  with  frames  containing 
comb  foundation  (Fig.  22),  removing  the  hive  with 
the  queen  to  a  new  location,  leaving  the  queenless 
hive  on  the  old  stand,  to  rear  for  itself  a  queen  from 
the  brood  it  contains.  If  the  queen  be  a  choice  one, 
and  it  is  desired  to  get  queens  from  her,  this  is  a 
good  plan  to  get  the  queen  cells  started  for  the 
nuclei  before  described. 

Ordinarily  the  nucleus  plan  of  multiplying 
colonies  is  the  better.  To  perform  this  process, 
take  one  of  the  nucleus  hives  before  described^ 
which  should  be  of  the  same  pattern  and  size  as 
those  to  be  divided,  and  remove  the  division  board. 
Then  take  a  frame  containing  brood  and  adhering 
bees  from  each  colony,  placing  them  into  the  nu- 
cleus until  it  is  full.  Be  sure  not  to  take  the  queen 
away  from  any  hive ;  supply  the  nucleus  with  a 
new  queen.  The  bees  that  will  hatch  out  in  a 
few  days  will  make  that  nucleus  a  populous  colony > 
Put  a  frame  nearly  filled  with  comb  foundation 
into  each  hive  from  which  the  frame  of  brood  was 
taken,  and  in  a  few  days  they  will  have  this  all 
worked  out  into  beautiful  comb,  and  in  all  proba- 
bility filled  with  eggs. 

The  new  colony,  having  a  young  and  fertile 
queen  and  plenty  of  bees,  will  -soon  rival  the  old 
one  in  the  vigor  of  its  work.  Each  of  the  nuclei 
can  be  built  up  in  this  way,  giving  a  new  colony 
every  few  days — or,  if  the  apiary  be  large,  several 
every  day — and  thus  effectually  prevent  swarming. 
Increase  being  secured  in  this  way,  none  of  the 
colonies  are  disturbed,  and  the  bees  everywhere 
"  pursue  the  even  tenor  of  their  way."  All  being 
kept  strong  in  numbers,  they  are  ready  for  the 
honey  harvest,  and  will  work  in  boxes  very  will- 
ingly. 

Another  plan  practiced  with  success  is  to  take 
away  the  division  board  in  the  nucleus  hive,  fill 
the  frames  with  comb  foundation,  and  exchange 
places  with  a  populous  colony,  caging  the  queen 
of  the  nucleus  for  about  36  hours,  or  until  her 
acquaintance  has  been  made  by  the  strange  bees 
that  come  pouring  into  it  from  the.  fields ;  for  bees 
will  always  return  to  the  exact  spot  occupied  by 
their  home. 


9° 


BEE-KEEPING. 


Dividing  should  be  done  in  the  middle  of  the  day, 
when  the  bees  are  busy  in  the  fields  and  the  yield  of 
honey  is  abundant. 

It  can  be  practiced  up  to  Aug.  ro.  We  would 
not  advise  it  done  later  than  that  date,  because  the 
colony  would  not  have  time  to  rear  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  bees  to  insure  safe  wintering.  Old  bees 
cannot  s'and  the  rigors  of  winter,  and  in  fact  their 
lease  of  life  would  run  out  before  spring.  Natural 
swarming  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  rapid  in- 
crease. With  liberal  feeding,  and  supplying  the 
new  colonies  with  queens,  five  good,  strong  colo- 
nies could  be  made  from  one,  between  June  i  and 
Aug.  lo.  We  do  not  advocate  too  rapid  increase. 
If  forage  is  not  abundant,  feeding  must  be  resorted 
to.  Do  not  let  the  feeding  go  till  too  late  in  the 
season,  trusting  the  bees  to  get  their  living.  Com- 
mence to  feed  as  soon  as  the  colony  is  ready  for 
business,  and  that  will  be  the  next  day  after  they 
are  put  into  the  hive.  If  you  would  make  this 
whole  arrangement  successful,  do  all  the  feeding 
not  later  than  Sept.  20.  A  little  food  might  be 
given  later  to  stimulate  breeding.  All  the  sirup 
given  them  should  be  sealed  up  before  cold  weather 
sets  in  or  it  would  sour  before  spring,  and  dysentery 
might  be  the  result. 


IFlG. 


~Queen    Xttrsery, 


To  raise  queens  for  the  purpose  of  Italianizing 
an  apiary,  the  Queen  Nursery  (Fig.  33),  invented 
by  Dr.  Jewell  Davis,  may  be  used  with  success. 
Put  into  the  cages  of  the  nursery,  between  the 
tins,  a  few  cells  of  ceiled  honey,  in  new  comb  if 
possible.  Then  cut  from  the  combs  of  a  pure 
Italian  colony  as  many  queen  cells,  large  and  well 
developed,  as  you  have  prepared  cages  with  the 
honey,  as  above.  Suspend  one  of  the  cells  in  each 
of  the  cages.  Good  care  should  be  taken  to  have 
the  best  cells,  and  not  injured  by  bruising,  handling 
or  jarring.  Each  cage  of  the  nursery  should  be  sup- 
plied with  a  queen  cell  and  food.  The  food  is 
supplied  that  the  young  queens  may  not  starve 
if  the  bees  do  not  feed  them,  a  thing  they  often  fail 
to  do  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  honey  in  the 
flowers.  The  nursery  cages  so  prepared  are  ad- 
justed in  the  nursery  frame.  Then,  having  removed 
a  center  comb  from  a  strong  black  colony,  place 
the  queen  nursery  into  the  vacancy  made  by  the 


removal  of  the  comb,  there  to  remain  until  the 
queens  are  hatched,  which  will  be  in  three  or  four 
days,  if  the  cells  were  not  cut  from  the  combs 
loo  early,  or  before  the  gth  day.  When  the  queens 
have  emerged  from  the  cells,  remove  the  cage  and 
introduce  the  caged  queen  to  a  black  colony,  lib- 
erating her  on  the  next  day  about  sundown — if 
necessary,  spraying  the  bees  with  perfumed  water 
by  the  atomizer  (Fig.  31). 

To  remember  dates  every  one  has 
not  the  faculty,  and  yet  all  the  opera- 
tions of  queen-rearing  require  that  it 
should  be  done.  For  instance,  the 
time  when  a  choice  colony  was  made 
queenless,  to  have  queen  cells  started 
^^r7*mB1"'  — ^^^  '''"^  these  cells  are  given  to  the 
's'faZ'"^  nuclei — the  time  of  hatching — when 
the  queens  commence  to  lay,  etc.  To  save  time 
and  trouble  in  remembering  these  and  other  dates, 
a  small  slate  (Fig.  34),  3x4  inches,  with  a  hole  in 
the  center  of  the  lop,  should  be  hung  on  the  hive 
by  a  small  nail  with  all  these  dates  written  thereon. 
A  printed  card  tacked  upon  the  inside  of  the  cap  is 
used  by  some  to  advantage,  in  keeping  track  of  such 
dates.  It  is  quite  important  to  be  well  posted  as  to 
the  days.  The  interest  a  bee-keeper  takes  in  every 
detail  of  his  work  will  soon  lead  him  to  be  careful 
in  this. 

If  the  dividing  of  colonies  be  neglected,  or  if  it 
is  not  desired  to  practice  that  method  of  increase, 
the  bees  will  become  greatly  crowded  for  room, 
and  will  necessarily  swarm.  For  some  days  before 
swarms  issue  the  bees  may  be  seen  clustering  at 
the  entrance  of  their  hive,  though  some  come  out 
when  there  are  little  or  no  indications  of  a  swarm. 
When  honey  is  abundant  and  bees  plenty,  look 
for  them  to  come  forth  at  almost  any  time,  from 
the  hours  of  ten  in  the  morning  to  three  in  the 
afternoon  (first  swarms),  second  and  third  from 
seven  in  the  morning  until  four  in  the  afternoon. 
By  examining  the  hive  it  can  be  ascertained  whether 
they  are  about  to  swarm  or  not.  If  queen  cells 
are  seen  with  eggs  or  larvae  nearly  ready  to  be 
ceiled  over,  a  swarm  may  be  expected  within  one 
or  two  days  after  the  first  cell  is  ceiled  over,  or  as 
soon  after  as  the  weather  will  permit.  After 
whirling  a  few  minutes  in  the  air,  the  mass  of  the 
bees  will  cluster  on  the  branch  of  some  convenient 
tree  or  bush,  generally  one  that  is  shaded  from  the 
sun's  rays.  They  should  be  hived  as  soon  as  the 
cluster  is  formed,  else  they  may  leave  for  the  woods ; 
or,  if  another  colony  should  swarm  while  the  first 
was  clustered,  they  would  probably  unite.  Should 
the  queen  fail  to  join  the  bees,  by  reason  of  having 
one  of  her  wings  clipped,  or  for  any  other  cause, 
the  swarm  will  return  to  the  hive  as  soon  as  they 
make  that  discovery.  As  the  bees  are  gorged  with 
honey,  they  may  be  handled  without  fear  of  stings. 
"  After-swarms  "  being  unprofitable,  all  but  one  of 
the  queen  cells  should  be  destroyed,  or  cut  out,  as 


BEE-KEEPING. 


9' 


before  described,  for  nuclei;  this  will  prevent  any 
more  swarms  issuing.  Within  eight  days  the  first 
queen  will  issue,  and  finding  that  she  has  no  rival 
she  will  take  possession,  apparently  having  no  idea 
of  swarming.  To  ascertain  that  she  has  no  rival 
she  makes  a  peculiar  sound,  called  "  piping."  If 
there  is  another  queen  in  the  cell  nearly  ready  to 
emerge,  it  will  answer  by  a  "  piping "  sound.  If 
this  queen  still  in  the  cell  is  protected  by  the  bees, 
so  that  the  first  queen  cannot  find  and  destroy  it, 
she  will  also  prepare  to  swarm  in  two  or  three 
days.  After  the  departure  of  this  swarm  and  the 
emerging  of  the  second  queen,  and  her  "piping" 
is  also  answered  by  a  third  queen,  a  third  swarm 
may  also  issue.  If  the  desire  to  swarm  is  satisfied 
after  the  departure  of  the  first  swarm,  the  queen 
cells  will  be  all  destroyed  by  the  first  young  queen 
that  emerges. 

Clipping  the  queen's  wing  is  done  to  prevent  her 
from  leaving  with  a  swarm.  In  attempting  to  fly 
she  will  fall  to  the  ground  in  front  of  the  hive,  and 
the  bees  missing  her  will  return  to  the  hive.  This 
must  not  be  done  until  after  the  queen  has  met  the 
drones,  or  she  will  remain  unfertile  for  life.  To 
perform  the  operation,  open  the  hive  and  lift  the 
frame  carefully,  and  avoid  jars;  when  the  queen  is 
seen,  with  a  pair  of  sharp-pointed  scissors  lift  one 
of  the  front  wings  and  cut  off  about  one-half  of  it. 
It  is  better  that  she  be  walking,  or  at  least  stand- 
ing, so  that  a  leg  be  not  cut  off  with  the  wing. 
She  should  not  be  handled;  if  it  becomes  necessary 
to  pick  her  up,  be  sure  not  to  take  her  by  the  ab- 
domen. She  may  be  held  by  the  wings  without 
danger. 

If  the  cluster  be  low,  hiving  is  easily  performed. 
The  queen  is  usually  in  the  lower  part  of  the  clus- 
ter, and  by  finding  "her  majesty,"  and  putting  her 
into  a  hive,  which  should  be  placed  conveniently 
near  for  the  purpose  of  hiving  the  swarm,  and 
-with  a  dipper,  or  any  other  convenient  vessel,  placing 
the  bees  down  in  front  of  the  hive  on  a  sheet,  or 
piece  of  paper,  they  will  be  led  to  crawl  into  the 
hive,  and,  finding  the  queen,  be  satisfied  to  remain. 
When  the  bees  are  in,  place  the  hive  where  it  is  to 
remain;  a  shaded  position  will  be  the  best.  If 
comb  foundation  be  placed  in  the  frames,  it  will  be 
of  very  great  advantage  to  comb-building, 

If  they  have  clustered  on  a  branch  or  twig,  a 
basket  or  bag  will  be  quite  essential,  into  which  to 
shake  or  brush  the  bees.  If  on  a  wall  or  fence,  or 
on  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  brush  them  into  the  basket, 
and  proceed  to  hive  as  before  described. 

A  frame  of  brood  and  another  of  honey  placed 
into  the  new  hive  will  he  of  much  advantage  to  the 
bees.  The  former  will  prevent  the  swarm  from 
leaving  the  hive,  and  should  the  queen  be  lost,  it 
will  give  them  the  means  of  raising  another,  and  the 
latter  will  give  them  a  good  start.  By  filling  the 
other  frames  with  comb  foundation  (Fig.  22)  they 


will  soon  be  in  good  condition  and  perfectly  at 
home  in  their  new  quarters. 

Sometimes  a  swarm  will  make  for  the  woods 
without  clustering;  but  this  is  rarely  the  case. 

The  beating  of  tin  pans  and  all  such  old-fogy 
notions  are,  of  course,  of  no  avail;  throwing  a  stream 
of  water  from  a  fountain  pump  is  often  done  to  bring 
down  an  absconding  swarm  and  cause  them  to 
alight  and  cluster. 

The  Loss  of  the  Queen.  When  the  bees  man- 
ifest a  restless  and  uneasy  disposition  by  running 
about  the  front  of  the  hive  and  signaling  each 
other,  especially  in  the  morning  and  evening,  it  is  a 
sign  that  they  have  lost  their  queen,  and  they  should 
be  examined  at  once. 

It  is  highly  necessary  that  the  bee-keeper  should 
glance  at  every  swarm  in  the  morning  for  a  few 
days  after  swarming,  so  that,  if  any  such  loss  should 
occur  at  this  time,  it  may  be  remedied  at  once  by 
the  introduction  of  a  cell,  or  a  fertile  queen.  In 
early  spring,  every  colony  should  be  examined  for 
her  presence.  In  the  box  hive,  a  little  smoke  may 
be  blown  in,  and  the  bees  driven  back;  if  any  brood 
can  be  discovered,  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  she  is 
there,  and  fertile.  In  the  movable-comb  hive,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  raise  out  one  of  the  combs  in  the 
center  of  the  cluster,  and  the  condition  will  be  rec- 
ognized at  once.  If  a  few  imperfect  bees  are 
found  on  the  bottom  board  or  in  front  of  the 
entrance  in  early  morning,  it  shows  that  the  colony 
has  a  fertile  queen,  and  further  examination  is  un- 
necessary. 

The  queen  has  two  notes:  one  of  defiance,  called 
piping;  the  other  is  a  note  of  fear,  a  plaintive, 
pitiful  wail,  mournful  in  the  extreme,  and  lingering 
long  in  the  memory  when  once  heard.  This  mourn- 
ful note  is  set  up  when  removed  from  her  hive, 
when  seized  by  the  other  bees  to  destroy  her  life, 
or  when  her  colony  are  starving.  Whenever  this 
note  is  heard  turn  not  a  deaf  ear,  but  immediately 
respond  to  the  call,  for  there  is  something  wrong. 
Rigidly  examine  the  hive  and  remove  the  cause  of 
complaint. 

Should  a  colony  become  queenless  from  any 
cause,  three  weeks  may  be  gained  by  having  at» 
extra  queen  to  give  it  at  once.  Upon  examination, 
if  no  brood  is  found  where  the  bees  are  clustering, 
the  colony  is  queenless.  At  any  time  during  the 
season,  from  March  to  October,  this  is  a  sure  sign. 
Colonies  that  lose  their  queen  during  the  winter 
have  a  forlorn  appearance.  The  bees  walk  around 
the  entrance  listlessly  and  without  eagerness;  but 
few  of  them  go  in  search  of  either  honey  or 
pollen. 

No  time  should  be  lost  in  giving  a  queenless 
colony  a  comb  of  eggs  or  young  larvse,  or  both, 
from  which  to  raise  a  queen.  Sometimes  such  a 
colony  will  refuse  to  raise  queen  cells;  it  may  be  too 
weak ;  its  queen  may  be  too  old  to  lay,  or  they  may 


92 


BEE-KEEPING. 


have  a  fertile  worker.  If  it  be  too  weak,  it  should  be 
united  with  another  colony.  If  its  queen  be  old, 
she  should  be  removed  and  the  bees  given  a  frame 
of  brood  from  a  prosperous  colony.  If  it  has  a 
fertile  worker  the  most  eflfective  way  to  get  rid  of 


Fig.  35. — Legs  of  an  Italian    Worker    Bee. 

it  is  to  break  up  the  colony,  dividing  it  among  strong 
colonics  having  fertile  queens. 

Transferring  Bees.  The  best  time  to  transfer 
bees  from  the  common  to  movable-frame  hives  is 
about  the  season  of  swarming,  though  it  may  be  done 
on  any  warm  afternoon,  when  the  bees  are  actively 
at  work. 

A  transferring  board  (Fig.  38),  about  the  size  of 
the  frame,  should  be  prepared  in  advance,  by  mak- 
ing grooves  of  about  one-half  an  inch  wide  and 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  deep,  and  about  two  inches 
apart.  The  spaces  between  these  grooves  should 
be  cushioned  with  several  thicknesses  of  cloth,  to 
prevent  the  brood  from  being  injured  when  the 
comb  is  laid  upon  it.  Transferring  sticks  (Fig. 
39)  should  be  prepared  from  some  light,  tough 
wood,  about  one-half  inch    longer  than  the  frames 

are  deep,  and  about 
one-fourth  of  an 
inch  square.  Fas- 
ten two  of  these 
sticks  together  with 
a  piece  of  fine  an- 
nealed wire,  so  as  to 
leave  about  one  inch 
_       ,       ,  „     ,    of     space    between 

sva. -it.— Frame  of  Transferred  Comb.     .,  i-a'  o\ 

'  them  (Fig.  38);   at- 

tach a  piece  of  wire  to  the  other  end  of  one  of 
the  sticks  (Fig.  37,  3),  which  is  to  be  used  in 
fastening  when  placed  around  the  frame  of 
comb   (Fig.    36).     A   small   notch    should   be  cut 


to  admit  the  wire  and  prevent  slipping.  These 
sticks  should  be  made  in  pairs,  and  be  kept 
ready  for   use. 

After  smoking  the  bees  at  the  entrance  of  a  box 
hive,  remove  it  some  distance  from  the  old  stand, 
leaving  an  empty  hive  or  box  in  its  place,  to  re- 
ceive the  bees  that  return  from  the  fields ;  invert 
the  hive,  place  an  empty  hive  or  box  over  it,  of 
the  same  size  and  shape,  wrapping  a  sheet  or  cloth 
around  where  they  come  together,  leaving  no 
cracks  large  enough  for  a  bee  to  escape.  By  gen- 
tly tapping  the  hive  for  some  time,  most  of  the 
bees,  with  the  queen,  will  enter  the  upper  box. 
When  they  have  nearly  all  left  the  hive,  place  the 
upper  box  with  the  bees  on  the  old  stand.  Being 
alarmed  and  filled  with  honey,  they  may  be 
handled  without  fear.  The  old  hive  may  now  be 
removed  to  a  convenient  room  or  building,  and 
taken  to  pieces,  by  cutting  off  the  nails  with  a  cold 
chisel  and  prying  off  the  ends,  cutting  the  combs 
when  taken  out  as  near  as  possible  to  the  size  of 
the  frames  to  be  used.  The  transferring  board 
(Fig.  38)  should  be  placed  upon  a  table  or  box,  to 
be  in  a  convenient  position  for  working  over  it. 
The  pieces  of  combs  containing  honey  may  be 
placed  at  one  side  till  some  with  brood  are  found ; 
this  should  be  put  upon  the  transferring  board 
(Fig.  38),  so  that,  when  the  frame   is  placed  in  po- 

jfa  sition  over  it,  the 

brood   may  be 


Fig.  37. —  Wired  Sticks  /or  Trans/erring. 


nearly  in  the 
same  position  as 
it  occupied  in  the  old  hive  and  near  the  top  of  the 
frame,  as  that  will  be  the  warmest  position  in  the 
hive.  With  a  honey  knife  cut  these  combs  to  make 
them  fit.  If  more  are  wanted  to  fill  the  frame,  use 
the  combs  of  honey  first  removed  from  the  hive. 
Then  push  the  ends  of  the  sticks  (Fig.  37,3)  that 
have  no  wire  attached  through  the  grooves,  from  the 
bottom  of  the  frames,  where  the  combs  may  need 
support ;  the  other  sticks  attached  place  on  the 
top  of  the  comb,  and  fasten  the  ends  together  at 
the  top  of  the  frame,  as  seen  in  Fig.  36,  to  match 
the  fastenings  below.  Place  this  frame  in  the 
hive,  and  proceed  in  the  same  manner  with  the 
next  brood  comb,  and  let  it  occupy  the  adjoining 
position  in  the  hive,  giving  the  frames  containing 
honey  the  outside  position  on  either  side.  The 
honey  from  pieces  of  comb  not  used,  and  es- 
pecially from  all  drone  comb,  should  be  removed 
with  the  Extractor.  Carry  the  new  hive  to 
the  old  stand,  and  empty  the  bees  out  of  the 
box  on  a  sheet,  in  front  of  the  hive.  See  that 
the  queen,  as  well  as  all  the  bees,  enter  it.  To 
prevent  robbing,  the  entrance  should  be  con- 
tracted; and  in  two  or  three  days,  when  the  bees 
have  fastened  the  combs,  the  transferring  sticks 
should  be  removed.  Always  work  slowly  with 
the  bees,  and  avoid  jarring.  When  it  is  desired 
simply  to  transfer  from   one  style  of  frame  to  an- 


BEE-KEEPING. 


^Z 


other,  smoke  the  bees  well,  and  after  finding  the 
queen  and  putting  her  in  a  tumbler  or  some  se- 
cure place,  take  a  frame,  and  shake  or  brush  the 
bees  off  into  the  new  hive;  place  the  frame  upon 
the  transferring  board  (Fig.  38)  and  cut  out  the 
comb;  place  the  new  frame  over  it  and   cut  to  suit 

that  frame,  in  the 
best  way  possi- 
ble. Then  fasten 
as  b  e  f  o  r  e  de- 
scribed with 
wire  sticks  (Fig. 
37);  after  thus 
transferring    all 

Y,^.i%.-Transf erring  Board.  ^^^     ^^^^^^     ^^^_ 

ceed  to  hive  the  bees  as  above  directed,  letting  the 
queen  loose  upon  one  of  the  brood  combs  as  soon 
as  they  are  transferred. 

Uniting  Weak  Colonies.  Weak  colonies 
may  be  united  after  smoking  them  well,  by  re- 
moving the  combs  with  adhering  bees  and  placing 
them  together  in  one  hive,  spraying  them  with 
peppermint  water  by  an  atomizer  (Fig.  31),  to 
give  them  all  the  same  scent.  Give  them  ventila- 
tion and  close  the  entrance  till  sunset,  placing  them 
where  the  stronger  of  the  two  colonies  stood. 
Swarms  issuing  the  same  day  can  be  united  peace- 
ably. 

Feeding  Bees.  Extracted  honey,  or  coffee  A 
sugar,  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  honey,  is  best 
for  feeding,  in  the  absence  of  good  ceiled  honey. 
The  poorer  grades  of  sugar  and  glucose  are  totally 
unfit  for  feeding  bees.  To  stimulate  in  the  spring 
one-half  of  a  pound  per  day  is  all-sufficient  for  a 
colony.  Every  apiarist  will  receive  ample  reward 
by  practicing  stimulative  feeding  early  in  the  sea- 
son. Feeding,  too,  is  often  necessary  to  secure  suf- 
ficient stores  for  winter. 

Shuck's  Bee  Feeder  feeds  at  the  front  entrance, 
any  time  in  the  day,  without  danger  from  robbers, 
as  the  food  can  be  reached  only  from  the  inside  of 
the    hive;    it   is 

placed     on    the        ^.^s-^-  -^^--^.M 
alighting   board, 
with  the  side  (d) 
nearly    covering 
the  entrance.  In 

the      engraving,  F'G-  z^.—ShucVs  Bee  Feeder. 

the  top  is  cut  away  to  show  the  wood  divisions 
(a  a)  in  the  feed  cup;  the  food  is  poured  into  it 
without  removing,  through  the  hole  (c),  which  is 
covered  with  wire-cloth.  When  done  the  cap  (b) 
is  closed  over  it,  making  all  tight. 

Division-Board  Feeder.  The  top  bar  of  this 
(b)  is  two  inches  wide.  In  the  cut  the  lower  part 
of  the  face  of  the  can  is  removed  to  show  float, 
etc.  From  the  upper  central  portion,  beneath  the 
top  bar,  a  rectangular  piece  the  size  of  an  oyster- 
can  is  replaced  with  an  oyster-can  (_§•),  after  the  top 
of  the  latter  has  been  removed.    A  vertical  piece 


■Division-Board  Feeder. 


of  wood  {d)  is   fitted  into  the  can  so  as  to  separate 
e      <  b      ^  space    about    one 

inch  square,  on  one 
side  from  the  balance 
of  the  chamber.  This 
piece  does  not  reach 
quite  to  the  bottom  of 
the  can,  there  being  a 
one-eighth  inch  space 
beneath.  In  the  top 
bar  there  is  an  open- 
ing (e)  just  above  the 
smaller  space  below. 
In  the  large  space  is  a 
wooden  float  (/)  full 
of  holes.  On  one  side,  opposite  the  larger 
chamber  of  the  can,  a  half-inch  piece  of  the  top 
{c)  is  cut  off,  so  that  the  bees  can  pass  between 
the  can  and  top  bar  onto  the  float,  where  they  can 
sip  the  feed.  The  feed  is  turned  into  the  hole  in  the 
top  bar  (e),  and,  without  touching  a  bee,  passes  down 
under  the  vertical  strip  (li)  and  raises  the  float 
(/).  The  can  may  be  tacked  to  the  board  at  the 
ends  near  the  top.  Two  or  three  tacks  through 
the  can  into  the  vertical  piece  (ci)  will  hold  the 
latter  firmly  in  place;  or  the  top  bar  may  press  on 
the  vertical  piece  so  that  it  cannot  move.  Crowd- 
ing a  narrow  piece  of  woolen  cloth  between  the 
can  and  board,  and  nailing  a  similar  strip  around 
the  beveled  edge  of  the  division-board,  makes  all 
snug.  The  feeder  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
brood-chamber  and  the  top  bar  covered  by  the 
quilt.  To  feed  we  have  only  to  fold  the  quilt  over, 
when  with  a  tea-pot  we  pour  the  feed  into  the  hole 
in  the  top  bar.  If  a  honey  board  is  used,  there 
must  be  a  hole  in  this  just  above  the  hole  in  the 
division-board  feeder.  In  either  case,  no  bees  can 
escape,  the  heat  is  confined,  and  our  division-board 
feeder  is  but  little  more  expensive  than  a  division- 
board  alone. 

The  best  time  to  feed  is  just  at  nightfall.  In 
this  case  the  feed  will  be  earned  away  before  the 
next  day,  and  the  danger  to  weak  colonies  from 
robbing  is  not  so  great. 

In  feeding  during  the  cold  days  of  April,  all 
should  be  close  above  the  bees  to  economize  the 
heat.  In  all  feeding,  care  is  requisite  that  we  may 
not  spill  the  feed  about  the  apiary,  as  this  may,  and 
very  generally  will,  induce  robbing. 

Water  is  indispensable  to  bees  when  building 
comb  or  raising  brood.  Every  prudent  bee-keeper 
will  see  that  his  bees  are  supplied  with  water,  by 
placing  shallow  wooden  troughs  filled  with  straws 
or  floats,  that,  they  may  drink  without  danger  of 
drowning.  A  location  near  small  bodies  of  water 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  supply,  but  locations  near 
large  bodies  are  injurious. 

Extracted  Honey  is  obtained  by  the  combs 
being  uncapped  and  placed  in  the  basket  or  frame- 
holder  of  a  honey  extractor  (Fig.  41),  which  being 


94 


BEE-KEEPfNG. 


attached  to  a  single  rod  in  a  large  can  and  revolved, 
the  centrifugal  force  throws  out  the  pure  honey  from 
the  combs,  which  runs  down  the  sides  of  the  can 
and  is  drawn  off  and  placed  in  jars  or  some  other 
desirable  receptacle.  Extracted  honey  is  the  pure 
liquid,  minus  the  comb 

The  essential  points  in  a  good 
honey  extractor  are :  one  that 
can  be  easily  taken  to  pieces 
and  cleaned ;  one  that  the  shaft 
holding  the  revolving  basket  in 
position  does  not  revolve  in  the 
honey ;  one  that  has  sufificient 
room  below  the  comb-basket  to 
allow  the  honey  to  remain  and 
ripen  before  drawing  it  off,  leav- 
ing it  clean  and  free  from  sedi- 
ment, and  fit  for  the  market; 
one  that  has  an  over-motion 
and  strong  gearing,  so  essential 
to  ease  of  operation  and  effect- 
ive work;  one  that  has  covers 
to  protect  the  honey  from  in- 
sects; and  one  that  may  be 
easily  operated.  Such  are  all 
Y\(i-^\.— Honey  Extractor.^Q<c^X2im^A  in  the  One  illustrated 
on  this  page  (Fig.  41.) 
Honey  must  be  "  uncapped "  before  extracting, 
therefore  a  good  honey  knife  is  a  necessity ;  such  is 
the  Bingham  &  Hetherington  honey  knife  (Fig.  42). 
It  is  made  of  the  best  steel,  strong  at  the  bend  near 
the  handle,  and  is  wide  enough  to  allow  the  cappings 
to  remain  on  the  knife  while  running  across  the 
comb.  Both  edges  are  sharp  and  are  beveled  on 
the  side  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  combs. 
This  prevents  the  knife  from  adhering  to  the  combs 

and  tearing 
them,  while 
shaving  off  the 
cappings.  A  s 
both  edges  are 
alike,  it  admits 
of  being  used  for 
right  or  left  hand  work;  the  sharp  point  also  allows 
it  to  be  used  in  corners  or  uneven  places. 

Honey  can  be  extracted,  if  carefully  done,  without 
the  least  injury  to  the  bees  or  the  comb ;  the  latter 
may  be  replaced  in  the  hive,  and  often  are  refilled 
by  the  bees  within  three  or  four  days. 

A  drone  and 
queen  trap  (Fig. 
43),  is  used  to 
capture  the 
queen  when  a 
s  w  a  rm  issues, 
and  thus  pre- 
vent  its  ab- 
,  „        _  scondins.     Also 

Fig.  43. — Drone  and  Queen  Trap.  ,  °  , 

to    capture    the 
drones  when  their  presence  is  no  longer  desired  in 


Fig. 


-//(>«.>'   Knife, 


the  hive.  The  principle  of  its  use  is  that  the  per- 
forations in  the  metal  will  allow  the  worker  bees  to 
pass  at  will,  being  smaller  than  the  queens  and 
drones,  and  at  the  same  time  to  imprison  tlie  latter. 
As  a  swarm  will  not  leave  without  a  queen,  swarm- 
ing is  by  it  controlled  ;  and  surplus  drones  can  be 
caught  in  it  and  destroyed. 

Diseases.  Dysentery  in  the  latter  part  of  win- 
ter and  early  spring  is  a  malady  that  affects  some 
apiaries.  The  bees  discharge  their  excrement 
over  the  hives  and  combs,  producing  a  dark 
appearance  and  offensive  odor.  The  cause  is 
either  fermented  honey,  improper  food  or  no  food, 
or  too  warm  or  cold,  and  poorly  ventilated  quar- 
ters. Give  them  good  capped  honey  and  a  cleans- 
ing flight.  If  too  cold  for  this  out  of  doors,  take 
the  hive  to  a  warm  room,  make  a  box,  front  and 
top  of  wire  cloth  or  mosquito  netting,  adjust  it  to 
the  entrance,  so  the  bees  must  enter  it  on  leaving 
the  hive.  This  will  usually  prove  an  effectual 
remedy. 

Foul  brood  vs,  the  rotting  of  brood  in  a  hive;  the 
caps  of  the  ceiled  brood  appear  indented  and 
shriveled,  and  the  larvae  and  young  bees  in 
uncciled  cells  become  putrid,  emitting  a  disgusting 
stench.  With  an  atomizer  (Fig.  31)  spray  the 
hive,  bees,  brood,  honey  and  combs  with  a  solution 
of  salicylic  acid,  borax  and  rain  water,  repeated  on 
the  sixth  day.  Remove  the  diseased  brood  from 
tlie  hive  and  give  them  good  capped  honey,  and  if 
not  too  far  advanced  this  may  give  relief. 

Bees  apparently  dead  from  cold  may  sometimes 
be  restored  to  life  and  activity  by  warmth  and 
food. 

Beer.  The  process  of  making  the  strong  beers 
is  too  complicated  for  "  home  "  manufacture 

To  correct  acidity  in  beer  put  in  chalk,  lime  and 
alkalies ;  but  it  cannot  be  totally  destroyed  without 
spoiling  the  liquor. 

Bittern  is  employed  by  fraudulent  brewers  to 
impart  a  false  bitter,  and  strength,  to  their  beers. 
Bittern  balls  are  used  as  a  fraudulent  substitute  for 
hops  in  making  beer,  and  are  different  in  composi- 
tion to  suit  different  kinds  of  malt  liquors.  There 
are  several  processes  of  "  fining  "  ale  by  clarifying: 
it.  This  is  done  when  its  quality  has  not  been 
raised  high  enough  in  the  brewing  process. 

To  ripen  beer  add  a  small  lump  of  white  sugar 
to  each  bottle  of  ale  or  beer,  and  a  teaspoonful  of 
moist  sugar  to  each  bottle  of  porter,  at  the  time 
of  bottling  and  corking.  A  raisin  or  lump  of 
candy  is  often  added  to  each  bottle  with  a  like  in- 
tention. 

Mustiness  in  beer  is  remedied  by  adding  to  each 
hogshead  one  pound  of  new  hops,  boiled  in  a  gal- 
lon of  the  liquor,  along  with  seven  pounds  of  newly 
burned  charcoal,  coarsely  bruised,  and  a  four-pound 
loaf  of  bread,  cu*  into  slices  and  toasted  rather 
black ;  rouse   well   every  day   for  one  week,   then 


BEER— BEES  WAX. 


stir  in  moist  sugar,  three  or  four  pounds,  and   then 
bung  down  for  two  weeks. 

Common  Beer.  Allow  at  the  rate  of  two  gal- 
lons of  water  to  a  handful  of  hops,  a  little  frssh 
spruce,  or  sweet  fern,  and  a  quart  of  bran;  boil  it 
two  or  three  hours ;  strain  it  through  a  sieve;  stir 
in,  while  hot,  a  teacup  of  molasses  to  each  gallon 
of  liquor;  let  it  stand  till  lukewarm;  turn  it  into 
a  clean  barrel ;  add  a  pint  of  good  yeast  to  the 
barrel;  shake  it  well  together,  and  it  may  be  used 
next  day. 

Ginger  Beer.  To  make  ginger  beer,  put  into 
one  gallon  of  boiling  water  one  pound  lump  sugar, 
one  ounce  best  unbleached  Jamaica  ginger  well 
bruised,  three-fourths  ounce  cream  tartar,  and  two 
lemons  sliced.  Stir  the  fragments  frequently  in  a 
covered  vessel  until  lukewarm;  then  add  one  and 
a  half  to  three  ounces  yeast,  and  keep  it  in  a  warm 
place  so  as  to  e.xcite  a  brisk  fermentation ;  the  next 
day  rack  and  strain  through  flannel ;  let  it  work 
for  a  day  or  two,  then  strain  again  and  bottle, 
wiring  down  the  corks. 

Ginger  beer,  without  yeast,  can  be  made  by 
boiling  one  and  a  half  pounds  bruised  ginger  in 
three  gallons  of  water  half  an  hour ;  then  add  20 
pounds  white  sugar,  one  pint  lemon  or  lime  juice, 
one  pound  honey,  and  17  gallons  of  water;  strain 
through  a  cloth.  When  cold  add  the  white  of  one 
egg,  and  half  a  fluid  ounce  essence  of  lemon. 
After  letting  stand  three  or  four  days,  bottle. 

Root  Beer.  Take  sarsaparilla  (American), 
two  pounds  ;  spice  wood,  half  a  pound ;  guiacum 
chips,  one  pound;  birch  bark,  one-fourth  pound; 
ginger,  one-half  ounce;  sassafras,  four  ounces; 
prickly-ash  bark,  half  ounce ;  hops,  one  ounce. 
Boil  for  twelve  hours  ever  a  moderate  fire,  with 
sufficient  water,  so  that  the  remainder  shall  meas- 
ure five  gallons,  to  which  add  tincture  of  ginger, 
eight  ounces;  oil  of  wintergreen,  one  ounce;  al- 
cohol, one  quart.  This  prevents  fermentation. 
To  make  beer,  take  of  this  decoction  one  quart ; 
molasses,  eight  ounces;  water,  two  and  a  half  gal- 
lons; yeast,  four  ounces.  This  will  soon  ferment 
and  produce  a  good,  drinkable  beverage.  The 
root  beer  should  be  mixed,  in  warm  weather,  the 
evening  before  it  is  used,  and  can  be  kept  for  use 
either  bottled  or  drawn  by  a  common  beer  pump. 
Most  people  prefer  a  small  addition  of  wild  cherry 
bitters,  or  hot-drops,  to  this  beer,  and  some  prefer 
fewer  or  other  ingredients. 

Ottawa  Root  Beer.  Take  one  ounce  each 
sassafras,  allspice,  yellow-dock  and  wintergreen ; 
half  ounce  each  wild  cherry  bark  and  coriander; 
half  ounce  hops  and  three  quarts  molasses.  Pour 
boiling  water  on  them;  macerate  for  24  hours; 
then  filter  and  add  a  half  pint  of  yeast ;  add  about  six 
gallons  of  water,  or  to  taste.  In  twenty-four 
hours  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Hop  Beer.     For  half  a  barrel  of  beer,  boil  half 


a  pound  of  hops  in  a  pailful  and  a  half  of  water, 
with  a  teacupful  of  ginger.  When  brewed,  put  it 
warm  into  a  clean  cask,  with  half  a  gallon  molasses  ; 
shake  it  well,  and  fill  up  the  cask  with  water,  leav- 
ing the  bung  open.  Fill  the  cask  when  it  works 
over.  Before  bottling,  put  a  tablespoonful  of  mo- 
lasses into  each  bottle. 

Spruce  Beer.  Boil  nine  and  a  half  gallons  of 
water;  let  it  cool  down  to  80  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
then  dissolve  nine  pounds  of  sugar  in  it,  having 
previously  mixed  with  it  one  ounce  of  essence  of 
spruce.  Then  add  one  pint  of  good  brewer's  yeast, 
and  pour  it  in  a  ten-gallon  keg  till  fermentation  is 
over ;  then  add  a  handful  of  brick  powder,  and  the 
white  of  two  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth ;  mix  with  the 
beer,  let  it  stand,  and  then  bottle. 

White  Spruce  Beer.  Dissolve  ten  pounds  loaf 
sugar  in  ten  gallons  boiling  water ;  add  four  ounces 
essence  of  spruce;  when  nearly  cold  add  one-half 
pint  of  yeast.  Keep  in  a  warm  place.  Next  day 
strain  through  flannel,  put  into  bottles  and  wire  the 
corks. 

Spring  Beer.  Boil  down  three  small  bunches 
each  of  sweet  fern,  sarsaparilla,  wintergreen,  sassa- 
fras, prince  pine,  spicewood,  in  eight  gallons  of 
water  to  six  gallons  decoction,  or  extract;  strain; 
four  gallons  of  water  with  one-half  gallon  hops, 
boiled  down  to  three  gallons  of  decoction ;  strain ; 
mix  the  two  extracts  of  decoction  together;  dis- 
solve in  them  one-half  gallon  of  molasses,  and  when 
cooled  to  80",  one  and  a  half  pounds  roasted  bread 
soaked  in  fresh  brewer's  yeast ;  fill  up  a  ten-gallon 
keg.  When  fermentation  is  over,  mix  with  it  the 
white  of  one  egg  beaten  to  a  froth ;  .bung  it,  and  bot- 
tle when  clear.  -•■ 

Beeswax.  To  prepare  this  article,  take  an  old 
pan  (such  as  you  use  to  set  milk  in),  and  make 
quite  a  large  hole  in  the  bottom  of  it,  large  enough 
to  put  your  finger  through.  Then  have  another 
pan  smaller  tlian  the  first;  put  some  water  in  it 
and  set  it  in  the  oven;  then  fill  the  large  pan  with 
honey-comb  and  put  it  on  the  small  pan;  have  the 
oven  hot  and  the  honey-comb  will  melt  and  the 
wax  will  run  through  the  hole  into  the  small  pan; 
with  a  little  pressing  with  a  large  spoon  you  will 
get  all  of  the  wax  out.  When  the  pan  is  full  of 
wax,  have  a  bucket  of  cold  water  ready,  and  turn 
the  wax  into  the  water ;  when  you  have  enough 
wax  out  to  make  a  cake,  put  it  into  a  kettle  and 
melt  it  again.  Then  all  the  dirt  will  settle  to  the 
bottom,  and  you  can  pour  it  off"  and  leave  the  dirt 
in  the  kettle;  the  wax  will  be  clean  without  strain- 
ing. This  may  seem  a  long  process,  but  it  is  the 
best  known. 

To  bleach  or  whiten  beeswax,  take  the  cleanest 
beeswax  you  can  obtain,  melt  it  in  hot  water,  skim 
it  out  in  a  basin  previously  oiled;  when  cold  cut  the 
wax  in  thin  slices ;  expose  these  to  the  action  of  the 
sun  and  air  upon  white  dishes,  sprinkling  it,  unless 
there  is  rain,  once  or  twice  a  day  with  clean  water. 


96 


BEET— BENZINE. 


At  the  end  of  a  week  melt  the  wax  again,  and  pro- 
ceed as  before.  In  hot  weather  the  wax  may  be 
floated  on  water  in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

The  presence  of  spermaceti  in  what  is  sold  as 
"  virgin  wax "  is  shown  by  its  reduced  melting 
point,  its  bending  before  it  breaks,  and  by  its  flavor 
when  chewed. 

To  prepare  wax  for  polishing  floors,  take  iz 
pounds  yellow  wax,  rasp  it  and  stir  it  into  a  hot 
solution  of  6  pounds  of  good  pearlash  in  rain  water ; 
keep  the  mixture  well  stirred  while  boiling;  when 
the  frothing  ceases,  cool  off'  a  little  and  stir  in  6 
pounds  yellow  ocher  ;  pour  it  into  tin  cans  or  boxes 
and  set  it  away  for  use.  To  put  it  upon  the  floor, 
melt  a  pound  of  it  in  5  pints  of  boiling  water,  stir  it 
thoroughly,  and  put  it  on  with  a  paint-brush.  After 
drying  a  few  hours,  polish  with  a  large  floor-brush, 
and  wipe  with  a  coarse  woolen  cloth.  A  coat  of 
this  wax  ought  to  last  six  months. 

Beet.  The  best  soil  is  a  deep,  sandy  loam, 
manured  with  well  decomposed  compost ;  the  more 
mold  the  better;  sod  land  is  poor.  Do  not  manure 
heavily  with  ashes  or  lime.  Sow  in  drills  14  to  15 
inches  apart,  and  cover  one  inch  deep.  When  the 
young  plants  appear,  thin  to  four  or  five  inches 
apart.  For  early  use  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground 
can  be  worked  in  the  spring;  for  autumn  use,  about 
the  middle  of  May,  and  for  winter  use,  about  the 
middle  of  June;  the  long  varieties  a  little  earlier 
than  the  round,  early  kinds.  When  sown  late,  in- 
crease the  quantity  of  seed.  When  young,  the 
plants  make  excellent  greens.  To  preserve  during 
winter,  cover  with  earth  to  keep  them  from  wilting. 
The  species  called  mangel-wurzels  are  raised  princi- 
pally for  stock,  and  as  they  grow  larger  than  other 
beets,  they  require  more  room.  They  should  be 
sown  in  drills  about  two  feet  apart,  and  thinned  to 
12  or  15  inches  in  the  row. 

Beet  crops  are  valuable  for  stock  feeding  and  for 
sugar.  They  are  easily  raised,  and  there  is  "  money  " 
in  them.     See  Sugar. 

Varieties.  Early  Bassano.  One  of  the  earliest, 
and  an  old  standard. 

Early  Blood  Turnip.  Good  for  both  summer  and 
winter. 

Long,  Smooth,  Dark  Blood.  Flesh  dark  red  ;  skin 
smooth;  excellent  for  winter  use. 

Fhiladelphia  Early  Turnip  Beet.  Follows  very 
closely  after  the  Bassano;  it  is  neither  red  nor 
white,  but  with  alternate  rings  of  lighter  or  darker 
pink;  it  boils  red,  and  is,  withal,  rich,  tender  and 
sugary.  It  is  a  highly  popular  sort,  identical  with 
the  Bastian  and  Simon  beet  of  some  catalogues. 

Batch's  Early  lurnip.  Somewhat  flat  in  form, 
but  a  favorite  with  some. 

Yellaiii  Turnip.  Of  a  beautiful  golden-yellow 
color;  as  early  as  Bassano. 

Egyptian.  Earlier  than  Bassano  ;  tops  remark- 
ably small  ;  excellent  for  market. 

Eclipse  Turnip.  Much  like  Bastian 's  Early ;  top 
small. 


Dewing's  Early  Blood  Turnip.  Very  symmetri- 
cal ;  free  from  fibrous  roots  ;  dark  red. 

Bastian's  Half  Long  Blood.  A  new  sort,  of  a  fine 
dark  color. 

Hendersons  Pine- Apple.     Excellent  for  family  use. 

Dell's  Ornamental  Dwarf.  Leaves  of  a  peculiarly 
deep,  rich  red  color,  and  ornamental ;  root  grows 
partly  above  ground. 

See  also  Mangel-Wurzel. 

Beets,  To  Cook.  Beets  should  not  be  cut  off  or 
scraped  before  they  are  boiled,  or  the  juice  will  run 
out,  and  make  them  insipid.  In  summer  they  will 
boil  in  an  hour ;  in  winter  it  takes  three  hours  to 
boil  them  tender.  The  tops  in  summer  are  good 
boiled  for  greens.  Boiled  beets  cut  in  slices,  and 
put  in  cold  spiced  vinegar  for  several  days,  are  very 
nice.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  ways  to  cook 
beets  is  to  bake  them.  When  boiled,  even  if  their 
jackets  are  left  on,  a  great  deal  of  the  best  part  of 
the  beet  is  dissolved,  and  so  lost.  It  will,  of  course, 
take  a  little  longer  to  bake  than  to  boil  them,  but 
this  is  no  objection.  Allow  from  15  to  20  minutes 
more  for  baking;  slice  them  and  treat  as  you  would 
if  they  were  boiled.  One  nice  way  to  serve  them  is 
to  chop  them  fine.  After  they  are  cooked,  season 
with  pepper,  salt  and  butter. 

Beetle,  a  maul;  also,  an  insect  with  wing  covers. 
It  constitutes  one  of  the  largest  orders  of  insects : 
See  Insects,  and  the  various  plants  which  they 
infest. 

To  destroy  such  bugs  when  they  infest  a  cup- 
board, sprinkle  on  the  shelf  powdered  borax,  black 
hellebore,  or  gypsum.  Cucumber  parings  are  said  to 
drive  them  away,  and  powdered  camphor,  spread  on 
the  cracks  where  they  frequent,  is  said  to  bring 
them  out,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  caught  and 
killed. 

Belladonna,  a  very  subtle  vegeta\)le  poison,  ex- 
tracted from  the  deadly  nightshade,  a  plant  native 
in  Europe.  It  is  a  powerful  narcotic,  and  with 
ointments  is  much  used  as  an  anodyne,  or  pain- 
killer. It  is  a  popular  drug  among  the  homeop- 
athists,  but  is  too  dangerous  for  unprofessional  hands 
to  deal  with. 

Bell  Crank,  a  double  crank,  one  arm  of  which  is 
at  an  angle  to  the  other.  It  is  to  change  the  direc- 
tion of  motion. 

Bellwether,  the  sheep  which  has  a  bell  on  his 
neck  and  leads  the  flock. 

Belt,  a  strip  of  timber;  a  disease  among  sheep; 
also  to  shear,  as  the  buttocks  and  tails  of  sheep. 
The  other  meanings  of  this  word  do  not  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  work. 

Bent  Grass.  By  this  name  are  known  several  of 
our  most  valuable  grasses,  as  red-top,  white  bent, 
etc.  These  species  have  creeping  stems,  and  are 
therefore  difficult  to  exterminate. 

Benzine  (ben  zeen'),  or  Benzole  (ben'zole),  a 
highly  explosive  oil  distilled  from  petroleum,  and 


BENZOIN— BIRCH. 


97 


very  useful  in  removing  grease  spots  from  fabrics. 
A  bottle  of  it  should  not  be  opened  within  several 
feet  of  a  flame,  especially  on  the  windward  side. 
To  remove  the  stain  it  leaves  on  certain  cloth  ma- 
terials, apply  moistened  gypsum,  and  take  it  off 
when  it  is  dry.  A  mixture  of  lo  parts  benzine,  5 
parts  soap  and  85  parts  water  has  been  very  suc- 
cessfully used  to  destroy  the  parasites  which  infest 
dogs.  It  has  also  been  used  with  good  results  in 
veterinary  practice  as  an  application  in  certain 
diseases  of  the  skin,  and,  thus  diluted,  is  found  to 
answer  better  than  when  used  pure. 

Benzoin  (ben-zoin'),  a  kind  of  resin  from  a 
foreign  tree,  valuable  in  medicine  and  in  perfumery. 

Berberry :  see  Barberry. 

Bergamot.  The  oil  of  bergamot,  often  called 
essence  of  bergamot,  is  distilled  from  the  fruit  of 
the  bergamot  tree,  which  is  akin  to  the  lemon. 
This  oil  is  chiefly  used  as  a  perfume.  "  Wild  ber- 
gamot "  is  a  name  given  in  this  country  to  an  herb 
similar  to  hoisemint,  and  is  called  horsemint  in  the 
West. 

Bevel,  the  narrow  surface  at  the  edge  of  a  piece 
of  wood  or  other  material,  at  an  angle  to  the  gen- 
eral surface.  Used  also  to  denote  the  action  ;  as, 
"  to  bevel." 

Bevel  Gear,  the  placing  of  cog-wheels  obliquely 
to  each  other  to  change  the  direction  of  motion. 

Beverages:  see  Ale,  Barley  Water,  Beef  Tea, 
Beer,  Broth,  Champagne  (Summer),  Chocolate, 
Cider,  Cocoa,  Coff'ee,  Cordials,  Currant  Sherbet, 
Egg  Nog,  Ginger  Pop,  Gruel,  Lemonade,  Mead, 
(Metheglin,  etc.),  Milk,  Porridge,  Sago  Milk, 
Sago  Tea,  Shells,  Sirups,  Soda  Water,  Tea,  Toast 
Water  and  Wine. 

Bezoar  (be'zore),  a  chalky  or  stony  mass  some- 
times found  in  the  stomachs  of  cattle. 

Bias.  To  cut  cloth  "  bias  "  or  biasing,  is  to  cut 
it  slanting  across  the  stripes,  warp  or  figure-work. 

Biennial,  every  two  years  ;  also,  living  for  only 
two  seasons,  as  plants.  Cabbage,  turnips,  pars- 
nips, carrots,  beets  and  many  other  herbs  develop 
large  roots  or  leaves  the  first  season,  and  go  to  seed 
the  next,  immediately  after  which  they  die,  root 
and  all.  They  are  called  biennials.  Some  plants, 
by  changing  climate  or  cultivation,  can  change 
their  character  from  annual  to  biennial,  or  from 
biennial  to  annual. 

Biestings,  the  first  milk  of  cows  after  calving. 

Biffin,  a  baked  apple  c»ushed  down  into  a  flat, 
round  cake. 

Bigaroon,  the  large  white-hearted  cherry. 

Biggin,  a  child's  cap  or  hood,  or  something 
worn    about    the    head.       Also,    a    contrivance    for 


holding    coffee   grounds,     through     which     boiling 
water  is  poured  ;  a  kind  of  strainer. 

Biggon,  or  Biggonet,  a  cap  or  hood  with  pi-eces 
covering  the  ears. 

Bight,  the  double  part  of  a  rope  when  folded, 
in  distinction  from  the  ends  ;  that  is,  a  round  bend 
or  coil  not  including  the  ends.  Also,  the  inward 
bend  of  a  horse's  chambrel,  and  the  bent  of  the 
fore  knees. 

Bilberry:  see  Huckleberry. 

Bile,  the   bitter,   greenish   fluid   secreted  in   the 

gall-bladder  by  the  liver. 

Bilge,  the  larger  portion  of  a  barrel  or  a  cask, 
which  is  generally  in  the  middle. 

Biliousness,  a  feverish  state  of  the  system  which 
develops  a  yellowish  skin  and  an  appetite  for  sour 
or  bitter  drinks,— the  condition  supposed  to  be 
due  to  an  overflow  of  the  "  bile "  throughout  the 
system,  caused  by  a  general  clogging  of  the  excre- 
tories,  from  malaria,  bad  diet,  etc. 

Remedies  for  BiLrousNEbS.  Regular:  A  blue 
pill,  followed  by  a  mild  purgative.  Homeopathic:  i 
drop  of  aconite  3  times  a  day ;  or  i  drop  of  mercu- 
rius  vivus  in  6  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  one  of  which 
may  be  taken  3  times  a  day.  Nux  vomica,  given 
like  the  last,  is  indicated  by  costiveness,  loss  of 
appetite,  nausea,  crampy  headache,  etc.  Botanic: 
Soak  some  dandelion,  both  root  and  leaves,  in  soft 
water  until  the  essence  is  extracted,  boil  down  to  a 
sirup  and  take  i  to  3  glasses  of  this  a  day.  Hy- 
gienic:  Diet  principally  on  unseasoned  fruits,  gra- 
ham crackers  and  vegetables ;  take  a  good  sweating 
bath  2  or  3  times  a  week  and  receive  friction  or  pas- 
sive exercise.     Take  no  active  exercise. 

Bill,  or  Bill-hook,  a  hatchet  or  hedging  knife 
with  a  curved  point. 

Bill  of  Exchange,  an  order  drawn  by  a  creditor 
upon  his  debtor,  demanding  of  him  payment  of  a 
specified  sum  of  money  at  a  designated  time. 
These  bills  are  used  for  the  settlement  of  accounts 
between  parties  separated  by  great  distances.  The 
acceptance  of  such  a  bill  renders  it  a  binding  obli- 
gation upon  the  person  on  whom  it  is  drawn. 

Bill  of  Lading,  a  printed  receipt  given  by  the 
master  of  a  vessel  or  the  agent  of  a  transportation 
company  for  freight  shipped  by  such  vessel  or  com- 
pany, such  receipt  specifying  the  conditions  upon 
which  the  freight  is  to  be  transported. 

Bill  of  Sale,  list  of  goods  sold,  usually  attested  by 

a  notary,  justice  or  witnesses. 

Bills  Payable.  Written  obligations,  as  promis- 
sory notes,  etc.,  are  "  bills  payable  "  in  the  payer's 
accounts  and  "  bills  receivable  "  in  the  payee's  ac- 
counts. 

Birch,  a  forest  tree,  several  species  of  which  are 
found   in  the  temperate  zone  all  around  the  world. 


98 


BIRDS. 


The  black  birch  is  handsome,  and  valuable  for  tim- 
ber. Red  or  river  birch  is  found  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  and  grows  as  high  as  the  soft  maples,  with  a 
diameter  sometimes  of  as  much  as  two  feet.  The 
canoe  or  paper  birch  is  common  throughout  the 
Northern  States  in  the  wooded  sections.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  a  white  or  papery  bark.  Many  orna- 
mental varieties  of  birch  can  be  had  of  nurserymen. 
The  weeping  variety  is  very  graceful. 

Birds  As  to  the  comparative  utility  of  most 
birds,  statistics  are  yet  too  meager  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion. Song  and  feather  enter  so  largely  into  the 
subject  that  it  will  mostly  be  relegated  to  the  do- 
main of  taste.  Many  persons  are  willing  to  sacri- 
fice some  of  their  fruits  and  garden  and  field  pro- 
ducts for  the  presence  of  song  birds  and  birds  of 
beauty.  But  from  the  low  utilitarian  standpoint, 
birds  are  classified  as  follows : 

Birds  to  be  Preserved  and  Fostered:  Blue 
birds,  titmice  (chickadees),  warblers  (small  warbling 
birds  found  on  trees  and  in  gardens),  kinglets  (ruby- 
crowned  and  goiden-crowned  wrens),  nut-hatches 
and  creepers  (black,  white  and  brown) ;  wrens,  mar- 
tins (swallows),  vireos  (greenlets),  tanagers,  finches, 
song  sparrow,  chipping  sparrow,  field  sparrow,  clay- 
colored  sparrow,  black-throated  bunting,  indigo  bird, 
cardinal  grosbeak,  ground  robin  (chewink)  ;  black- 
birds (crow,  bobolinks,  meadow  lark  and  others) ; 
all  the  fly-catchers  (including  king-birds  and 
the  peewee);  cuckoos,  night-hawks  (goat- suckers 
and  whip-poor-wills);  swifts  (chimney-swallows); 
all  the  woodpeckers  except  the  yellow-billed  (or 
sap-sucker)  and,  perhaps,  also  the  large,  red- 
headed woodpecker ;  plovers,  prairie  snipe  (prairie 
plover,)  quail.  It  is  also  recommended  to  fruit- 
growers to  raise  all  species  of  domestic  fowls 
except  geese. 

Birds  Doubtful,  or  whose  habits  are  not  suffi- 
ciently known  to  Justify  full  recommendation,  and 
whose  habits  are  sometimes  beneficial  and  some- 
times injurious  :  Thrushes — including  the  common 
robin,  cat-bird,  mocking-bird,  brown  thrasher,  wood- 
thrush,  tawny  thrush  and  hermit  thrush;  shrikes 
— including  the  great  northern  shrike  and  white 
rumpled  shrike  (butcher  bird),  Savannah  bunting, 
crow,  blue-jay,  red-headed  woodpecker,  saw-whet 
owl,  screech  owl,  horned  lark,  orchard  oriole  and 
pigeons. 

Birds  to  be  Destroyed:  Cedar  bird,  Balti- 
more oriole  (hanging  bird),  larger  owls,  hawks, 
the  English  sparrow  and  the  yellow-billed  wood- 
pecker (or  sap-sucker).  This  species  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  small  woodpeckers  by  its  pale  yel- 
lowish breast,  a  large  patch  of  black  upon  the 
upper  part  of  the  breast;  the  throat  of  the  male  is 
a  bright  red  and  that  of  the  female  is  white  ;  the 
adults,  both  male  and  female,  have  the  top  of  the 
head  also  red.     These  points  distinguish  it  from  the 


downy  woodpecker  and  the  hairy  woodpecker, 
which  it  closely  resembles  in  size  and  form.  These 
two  species  have  the  outer  tail  feathers  white  (or 
in  the  former  barred  with  black  and  white),  while 
the  sap-sucker  has  the  outer  tail  feathers  black, 
while  the  center  ones  are  nearly  white.  The  hairy 
woodpecker  has  a  small  red  spot  on  the  back  of  the 
head  only,  which  is  easily  distinguished  from  the 
red  upon  the  head  of  the  yellow-billed  (or  sap- 
sucker),  which  extends  from  the  beak,  covering 
almost  the  entire  crown. 

Bird-Catching.  A  simple  method,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  is  to  burn  sulphur  under 
them  when  at  roost  in  the  low  trees.  Another  plan 
is  to  steep  some  grain  in  wine  lees  and  hemlock 
juice,  and  scatter  it  in  some  place  where  the  birds 
frequent.  On  eating  it  they  become  intoxicated 
and  drop  over.  The  ordinary  "  quail  trap,"  with 
which  every  country  lad  in  America  is  ac- 
quainted, is  still  a  source  of  uncloying  entertain- 
ment. Catching  birds  by  the  use  of  "  bird  lime  " 
has  long  been  popular  in  the  "  old  country."  It  is 
a  viscous  substance,  usually  made  of  the  juice  of 
holly  bark  or  mistletoe  berries,  extracted  by  boiling, 
mixed  with  a  third  part  of  nut  oil  or  thin  grease. 
It  may  be  obtained  through  a  druggist.  Put  this 
substance  into  an  earthen  dish,  adding  one  ounce 
of  fresh  lard  to  every  quarter  of  a  pound,  and  melt 
the  whole  gently  over  a  fire.  Take  a  number  of 
wheat  heads,  with  a  foot  of  straw  attached  to 
each,  and  spread  the  warmed  lime  over  the  stalks 
for  six  inches  below  the  heads ;  scatter  a  little  chaff 
and  throw  the  heads  over  a  space  of  20  yards ; 
stick  the  limed  straws  into  the  ground  with  the 
heads  inclining  downward,  or  even  touching  the 
ground;  then  traverse  the  vicinity  in  order  to  dis- 
turb the  birds  and  make  them  fly  toward  the 
snare.  By  picking  at  the  heads  they  will  become 
so  entangled  with  the  limed  straws  that  they  can 
be  easily  taken  with  the  hand.  This  "lime"  may 
also  be  applied  to  cords,  rods  or  twigs,  especially 
when  it  is  intended  to  entangle  the  larger  birds, 
such  as  snipes,  plovers,  thrushes,  etc.  For  the  lat- 
ter purpose,  take  the  main  branch  of  any  bushy 
tree,  with  long,  straight  aad  smooth  twigs,  such  as 
willow  or  birch;  clear  the  twigs  of  every  notch 
and  prickle;  lime  the  branches  to  within  two  or 
three  inches  of  the  bottom,  leaving  the  main  bough 
from  which  the  others  rise  untouched  with  the 
composition,  and  place  the  bush  where  the  birds 
resort. 

Hair  nooses,  baited  with  grain  and  certain  seeds, 
are  often  successfully  used  with  woodcocks,  larks 
and  other  small  birds  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow.  Stretch  over  the  ground  100  to  200 
yards  of  twine,  pegging  it  down  every  20  yards, 
and  fastening  at  every  six  inches  a  noose  of  double 
horse-hair.  Scatter  white  oats  along  the  line  of 
the  nooses,  and    await  the  result.     When  three  or 


BIRDS. 


99 


four  birds  are  taken,  remove  them  from  the  noose  so 
the  other  birds  will  not  be  deterred. 

One  of  the  most  successful  modes  of  bird-catching 
is  by  the  net,  which  is  chiefly  employed  during  the 
night.  The  method  succeeds  best  on  cold,  dark 
nights.  Take  two  light,  straight  poles  lo  or  12  feet 
long  ;  tie  two  corners  of  the  net  to  the  smaller  ends, 
and  fasten  the  other  two  corners  as  far  as  they  can 
be  stretched  toward  the  thicker  part,  connecting  the 
sides  of  the  net  along  the  poles  with  twine.  Go  to 
the  thicket  where  the  birds  are,  unfold  the  net  and 
pitch  it  exactly  the  height  of  the  bushes  on  the  wind- 
ward side,  as  the  birds  always  roost  with  their  breasts 
toward  the  wind.  Let  some  one  with  a  lantern  stand 
behind  the  middle  of  the  net  while  another  beats  the 
bushes  on  the  opposite  side,  driving  them  toward  the 
light;  the  birds  will  fly  toward  the  illuminated  net 
and  fall  into  it. 

In  open  countries  a  trammel  net  may  be  used, 
which  is  generally  about  36  yards  in  length  and  six 
in  breadth.  The  lower  end  is  weighted  to  make  it 
lie  close  while  the  upper  is  kept  suspended  at  the 
two  corners.  The  net  is  dragged  along  the  ground 
at  about  a  yard  in  height.  At  each  end  lights  must 
be  carried,  and  persons  stationed  with  long  poles  to 
raise  up  the  birds  as  they  proceed,  and  to  take  them 
as  they  ascend  under  the  nets.  Along  with  the  nets 
and  lights  a  bell  is  frequently  employed  in  open 
fields,  from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  end  of 
March.  At  night,  when  the  air  is  mild,  take  a  low 
bell  of  a  deep  and  hollow  sound;  provide  a  lantern 
or  a  square  box,  lined  with  tin,  and  open  at  one 
side,  into  which  two  or  three  large  lights  are  placed; 
fix  the  box  to  the  breast,  carry  the  bell  in  the  left 
hand  and  a  hand-net  in  the  right;  this  net  may  be 
two  by  three  feet  in  size,  or  the  bell  may  be  tied  to 
a  girdle  around  the  waist,  and,  as  it  hangs  down 
to  the  region  of  the  knees,  the  motion  of  walking 
will  keep  it  sounding.  A  companion  may  walk  on 
each  side  provided  with  a  hand-net  three  or  four 
feet  square,  but  keeping  a  little  behind,  that  he  may 
not  be  within  the  reflection  of  the  light.  The  sound 
of  the  bell  makes  the  birds  lie  close,  while  the  light 
also  tends  to  overpower  them  as  they  are  seen  lying 
on  the  ground. 

Some  birds,  as  the  goldfinches,  wood-larks,  tit- 
larks, yellow-hammers,  etc.,  may  be  taken  in  the  day- 
time. They  fly  until  noon,  and  against  the  wind. 
Take  nets  12  yards  long  and  2^  wide,  spread  them 
on  the  ground  parallel  in  such  a  manner  as  to  meet 
when  turned  over ;  have  lines  attached  to  them  so 
that  by  a  sudden  pull  you  can  draw  them  over  the 
birds  which  light  between  them.  Use  bird  calls  and 
decoy  birds,  and,  better  still,  birds  in  cages,  one  or 
two  individuals  of  the  kind  you  wish  to  catch. 
These  will  see  their  species  before  the  catchers  can, 
and  call  them  to  the  place.  Whole  flocks  are  some- 
times taken  in  this  way. 

Skylarks,  in  fine  sunny  weather,  may  be  allured 


within  the  reach  of  clap-nets  by  means  of  small  bits 
of  looking-glass  fixed  in  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nets,  and  put  into  a  quick,  whirling  motion 
by  a  string.  Quails  and  pheasants  may  be  taken  in 
the  evening,  by  observing  where  they  alight  and 
drawing  a  net  over  them. 

Cage  Birds,  Care  of.  Watch  your  birds  to  see 
if  they  have  diarrhoea  or  costiveness;  examine  nests 
and  wood-work  for  mites,  and  examine  birds  for  lice  ; 
take  each  bird  out  and  raise  its  feathers  on  head  and 
body  with  darning-needle  for  lice.  Crackers  will 
make  them  costive.  Recipes :  Diarrhoea,  give  cay- 
enne pepper ;  costiveness,  half  drop  castor  oil  and 
change  food;  for  mites,  whitewash  nests  and  wood- 
work with  lime  and  a  little  carbolic  acid  to  make  it 
pinkish,  or  repaint  cages ;  and  for  lice,  anoint  heads 
with  olive  oil,  with  a  touch  of  carbolic  acid  in.  Do 
not  keep  birds  too  warm,  nor  in  a  draught;  give  a 
pint  of  sand  in  a  saucer  to  rub  in  and  eat,  and  a 
saucer  of  wa'er  to  wash  in. 

Canaries.     The  last  of  February  or  the  first  of 
March   is   early   enough    to   mate   birds.      In   cool 
weather   the   eggs    hatch   in    14    days,  and    in  hot 
weather,  13  days.     When   the   birds  wish   to   hatch, 
tie  to  the  side  of  the   cage,  near  the   top,  and  tight 
enough   to  prevent  swinging,  a  nest,  which  may  be 
a  small,  round   paste-board  box,  or  a   little  basket 
made  for  that  purpose.     Arrange  cotton   in  the  nest 
in  the  form  of  wild-bird  nests,  and   hne  it  with  flan- 
nel.    The  nests  can  and  should  be  changed  as  often 
as   they   require   it.       In   raising    any    considerable 
number  of  birds  it  is   next  to    impossible  to  keep 
them   free   from   mites   if  you    do   not  change   the 
nests.     Nests  can  be  made  of  old  collar-boxes,  filled 
with  hay  or  cotton,  and  covered   with  cloth.     There 
are  very  few  birds,   however,  but  what  will   leave 
the  nest  if  the  cage  is  changed  from    place  to  place. 
They  do  not  like  to  have   strangers    around.     One 
person    should    have    the     care    of     them.      Feed 
crackers    and    milk   when    they  are    raising    their 
young.     After  hatching,  take  out  the   old   nest,  and 
put  a   new  one   in   the  same    place.      Feed  at  all 
times  hard-boiled   egg  (cut  the  egg   in  two,  and  let 
them  have  it,  shell  and  all).     Allow  them  to  bathe 
at  all  times.     A  sitting  bird  will   not  go  back  to  the 
nest,  after  bathing,  until  her  feathers  are  dry.     Feed 
oats,  bread  and  vegetables  during   winter.     Hemp 
and  canary  seed  will  make  them  too  fat,  and  should 
not  be  fed  till  time  of  mating.      Mates   should  be 
changed   as  often   as  once   in  two    years,  or  three 
years  at  the  longest.     The  young   birds  will  then 
hatch  out  strong  and  healthy,  and  will  have  much 
better  constitutions.     As  soon  as  the  birds    begin  to 
hatch    supply    them    with    hard-boiled    eggs    and 
cracker  chopped  together;    also  their  usual  supply 
of  seed,  water,  cuttle-fish  bone  or  sand.     The  posi- 
tion  of  the  cage   must   not   be  changed  until   the 
birds  are  hatched,  as  the  change  of  position  some- 
times causes  the  female  to  desert  the  nest.     Con- 


lOO 


BIRTH-MARK— BISCUIT. 


tinue  the  chopped  egg  and  crackers  Hntil  the 
young  birds  are  at  least  a  month  old.  After  that 
they  can  take  care  of  themselves,  and  will  not 
need  such  food.  They  will  not  tlirive  without  it  dur- 
ing the  first  few  weeks.  They  do  wrong  who  re- 
move the  male  bird  as  soon  as  liatching  begins,  as 
it  generally  happens  that  the  male  bird  takes 
better  care  of  tlie  young  ones  than  the  female. 
Should  the  female  begin  to  pick  the  feathers  from 
the  young  birds  (and  tliat  is  often  the  case  when 
they  are  two  weeks  old),  remove  her,  and  the  male 
bird  will  continue  to  feed  them  until  they  can  take 
care  of  themselves,  and  even  longer.  As  soon  as 
the  young  birds  are  old  enough,  remove  them  to 
another  cage,  and  remove  the  mother  bird  to  the 
hatching-cage,  and  she  will  hatch  again.  Cana- 
ries generally  hatch  six  or  eight  times  a  year. 

Four  or  five  times  a  year  is  often  enough  for 
a  bird  to  hatch  young.  Oftener  than  that  is  too 
great  a  tax  on  their  vigor  and  vitality.  The  male 
birds  will  get  poor  in  flesh  if  allowed  to  feed  the 
young  birds.  Let  the  female  attend  to  that.  If 
they  act  dumpisli  and  puny,  with  rough  feathers, 
put  a  rusty  nail  in  their  drinking  water.  Besides 
the  usual  care  nothing  more  than  this  is  necessary 
in  order  to  be  successful  in  raising  canaries. 

To  clean  canaries  of  lice,  place  a  clean,  white 
cloth  over  their  cage  at  night.  In  the  morning  it 
will  be  covered  with  small,  red  spots,  so  small  as 
hardly  to  be  seen  except  by  the  aid  of  a  glass  ;  these 
are  the  lice,  a  source  of  great  annoyance  to  the 
birds. 

To  Stuff  Birds  :  See  Taxidermy. 

Birth-mark,  some  peculiar  mark  or  blemish  at 
birth.  Some  such  marks  can  be  removed  by  the 
following  process :  Mix  together  one  part  pure 
carbonate  of  potash,  four  parts  of  rose  water,  two 
parts  of  Hoffman's  Life  Balsam  and  two  parts  of 
distilled  water.  Shake  well  and  apply  to  the  mark 
twice  a  day. 

Biscuit,  an  unleavened  cake  made  from  flour, 
generally  unsweetened  and  of  a  certain  size,  say 
two  or  three  to  the  pint. 

Plain  Biscuit.  One  pound  of  flour,  hah  a  pint 
of  milk,  two  ounces  and  a  half  of  fresh  butter.  Dis- 
solve the  butter  in  the  milk,  made  warm,  but  not  hot, 
and  stir  it  into  the  flour  to  make  a  firm  paste  ;  roll  it 
out  thin  with  a  plain  tin  shape  or  a  tumbler;  prick 
each  biscuit  and  bake. 

'Light  Biscuit.  Take  2  pounds  of  flour,  i  pint 
of  buttermilk,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus;  put 
into  the  buttermilk  a  small  piece  of  butter  or  lard, 
rubbed  into  the  flour;  make  it  about  the  consistency 
of  bread  before  baking. 

Mother's  Raised  Biscuit.  Scald  one  quart  of 
milk;  into  this,  while  hot,  put  a  piece  of  butter  the 
size  of  an  egg ;  when  cold,  add  one  egg,  a  teacupful 
of  baker's  yeast,  or  home-made ;   thicken  with  sifted 


flour  to  a  batter  as  thick  as  muffin  batter;  let  rise, 
mold,  rise  again,  bake  quickly. 

TucKAHOE  Bisc^uit.  Three  eggs,  three  cups 
sugar,  one  cup  butter,  one  cup  sour  cream,  one  tea- 
spoonful  soda,  essence  of  lemon  to  taste,  sufficient 
flour  to  roll  out  soft  and  thin.     Bake  in  tins. 

Tea  Biscuit.  One  quart  of  sifted  flour,  a  little 
salt,  three  leaspoonfuls  Royal  baking  powder,  a 
small  handful  of  sugar;  mix  lightly  through  the 
flour ;  rub  a  large  teaspoonful  of  lard  through  the 
dry  mixture:  mix  with  sweet  milk  or  water,  the 
colder  the  better;  roll  out  soft  to  thickness  of  about 
one-third  of  an  inch ;  cut  with  a  large-sized  cutter, 
and  bake  in  a  really  hot  oven. 

Coffee  Cakes.  Take  some  rice  that  has  been 
boiled  soft,  twice  as  much  flour  as  rice,  a  little  fine 
Indian  meal,  and  a  little  yeast;  mix  it  with  cold 
water,  and  let  it  rise  over  night ;  this  will  make  a 
very  fine  biscuit /or  breakfast. 

Bread  Biscuit.  Three  pounds  of  flour,  half  a 
pint  of  Indian  meal  sifted,  a  little  butter,  two  spoon- 
fuls of  lively  yeast ;  set  it  before  the  fire  to  rise  over 
night;  mix  it  with  warm  water. 

Graham  Biscuits.  Three  parts  of  Graham,  one 
part  of  flour;  use  good  shortening,  and  work  into  the 
flour  well ;  to  every  pint  of  sour  milk  use  one  large 
spoonful  of  sugar;  make  them  just  as  you  would  any 
biscuit ;  do  not  mix  them  hard,  and  bake  in  a  quick 
oven. 

Brown  Bread  Biscuits.  One  pound  of  coarse 
Graham  flour,  two  ounces  of  butter,  and  a  little 
water.  Make  the  butter  and  water  boiling  hot,  add 
it  to  the  flour,  keeping  it  very  firm.  Roll  the  bis- 
cuits out,  not  too  thin,  and  bake  them  in  a  rather 
quick  oven. 

Brown  Bread  Biscuit.  Two  quarts  of  Indian 
meal,  i  J^  pints  of  rye,  i  cup  of  flour,  2  spoonfuls  of 
yeast,  and  i  tablespoonful  of  molasses.  It  is  well 
to  add  a  little  saleratus  to  yeast  almost  always,  just 
as  you  put  it  into  the  article.  Let  it  rise  over 
night. 

Ginger  Biscuits.  Eight  ounces  of  flour,  four 
ounces  of  butter,  four  ounces  of  loaf  sugar,  yolks  of 
three  eggs  and  some  ground  ginger.  Beat  the  butter 
to  a  cream  before  the  fire,  add  the  flour  by  degrees, 
then  the  sugar,  pounded  and  sifted,  and  a  flavoring 
to  taste  of  ground  ginger,  and  mix  the  whole  with  the 
yolks  of  three  well-beaten  eggs.  When  thoroughly 
mixed,  drop  the  biscuit  mixture  on  buttered  paper,  a 
sufficient  distance  from  each  other  to  allow  the  bis- 
cuits to  spread,  and  bake  them  a  Hght  color  in  a 
rather  slow  oven. 

Lemon  Biscuits.  Dry  well  before  the  fire  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  flour;  rub  into  it  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  butter  as  fine  as  possible;  mix  with  it  a 
pound  and  a  half  of  loaf  sugar,  pounded,  and  the 
peel  of  three  lemons,  chopped  very  fine.  Well  beat 
two  eggs,  add  to  them  the  juice  of  two  lemons, 
and   stir  thoroughly.      Put   the   mixture    into    the 


BISCUIT— BLACKBERR  Y. 


flour,  and  mix  all  well  together  till  you  have  a  stiff 
paste  ;  roll  it  out  to  the  thickness  of  a  penny  piece, 
and  divide  it  into  biscuits  with  a  pastry  cutter.  Bake 
them  on  a  tin.  These  biscuits  should  be  kept  in  a 
tin  box  near  the  fire  till  wanted,  as  they  are  apt  to 
give  and  spread  out. 

Bishop,  to  make  an  old  or  bad  horse  look  tem- 
porarily young  and  well,  by  clandestine  arts,  in 
order  to  deceive  a  purchaser. 

Bismuth.  For  poisoning  by  this  mineral  give  a 
salt-and-warm-water  emetic. 

Bite  of  Mad  Dog,  or  other  mad  animal.  Band- 
age around  the  part  bitten,  to  prevent  the  poison 
from  spreading  into  the  circulation ;  suck  the 
poison  out  with  the  mouth  as  thoroughly  as  possi- 
ble ;  this  must  be  done  by  a  friend  of  the  patient, 
if  such  can  be  found  who  will  undertake  the  task  , 
if  one's  mouth  is  not  wounded,  sore  or  raw  any- 
where, no  poison  will  affect  it ;  next,  cauterize  the 
place,  either  with  a  hot  iron  or  with  a  solid  piece 
of  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic)  ;  sometimes  the 
patient  must  be  chloroformed  or  etherized.  Let 
him  drink  plenty  of  warm  water ;  or  take,  imme- 
diately after  tbe  bite,  warm  vinegar  or  tepid  water, 
wash  the  wound  clean  therewith,  and  dry  it;  then 
pour  upon  the  wound  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  because  mineral  acids  destroy  the  poison  of 
the  saliva.  Another  method  is  to  cut  the  wound  ; 
to  do  this  well,  cut  out  a  piece  of  wood  the  shape 
of  the  wound  and  insert  it,  to  support  its  walls,  that 
the  cutting  may  be  done  more  perfectly.  In  the 
course  of  six  weeks  one  can  tell  whether  all  danger 
is  passed  ;  for,  if  by  that  time  the  wound  has  healed 
over  with  a  sense  of  itching  or  burning  still  persist- 
ing in  the  place,  all  hope  is  gone,  and  the  patient 
must  in  the  course  of  time  have  Hydrophobia, 
which  see. 

Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  or  other  poisonous  reptiles. 
Treatment,  same  as  for  the  foregoing;  or,  take  30 
grains  iodide  of  potassium,  30  grams  iodine,  i 
ounce  water;  mix  and  apply  to  the  wound  by  sat- 
urating lint  or  batting,  the  same  to  be  kept  moist 
with  the  antidote  until  the  cure  be  effected,  which 
will  be  in  one  hour  or  sooner.  Or,  dilute  carbolic 
acid  or  ammonia,  applied  every  few  minutes. 
Some  say,  when  treatment  begins,  cover  up  the 
patient  in  bed ;  others,  that  he  ought  to  be  kept 
moving,  in  order  to  keep  him  out  of  the  stupor 
that  generally  sets  in  at  such  times.  To  aid  the 
latter  it  is  recommended  to  give  brandy  and  water; 
or,  take  of  brandy,  2  drams;  spirits  of  sal  volatile, 
40  drops;  tincture  of  valerian,  j4  dram;  sulphuric 
ether,  15  drops,  and  camphor  water,  i  oz.  The 
effects  of  bites  of  insects  can  generally  be  dissipated 
by  rubbing  the  part,  and  sometimes  putting  on  a 
strong  solution  of  some  alkaline  substance,  as  am- 
monia.     The   juice   of  plantain    leaves  applied   or 


drinking  a  large  draught  of  whisky  are  also  popular 
prescriptions ;  see  Stings. 

Bite,  in  mechanical  work,  is  the  hold  which  the 
short  end  of  a  lever  has  upon  the  thing  to  be  lifted. 

Bitters,  the  bitter  properties  of  bitter  roots,  barks 
or  herbs  preserved  in  whisky  for  medicinal  purposes. 
Generally,  the  beverage  is  only  an  excuse  for  whisky- 
drinking, — in  effect,  if  not  by  design.  We  give  a 
few  of  the  best  recipes: 

No.  I.  Make  a  strong  tea  of  thoroughwort ;  strain 
it ;  when  cool,  put  to  two  quarts  of  it  a  pint  of 
whisky,  the  peel  of  two  or  three  fresh  oranges,  cut 
in  small  bits,  and  six  bunches  of  fennel  seed.  Turn 
the  tea  and  liquor  on  the  peel  and  seed  in  a  bottle, 
and  cork  it  tight.  The  bitters  will  keep  good  a  long 
time;  they"  are  excellent  for  bilious  complaints,  and 
can  often  be  taken  when  thoroughwort  tea  will  not 
suit  the  stomach.  Put  a  wineglass  of  the  bitters  to  a 
tumbler  of  water,  adding  a  little  sugar  at  the  time 
of  drinking  them. 

No.  2.  ^  Take  of  poplar  bark  three  pounds,  prickly 
ash,  golden  seal,  cloves,  ginger,  each  three-fourths 
of  a  ix)und;  balmony,  one-half  pound;  cayenne,  six 
ounces;  sugar,  five  pounds;  mix  and  sift.  Dose: 
a  teaspoonful  in  boiling  water.  Good  in  debility, 
loss  of  appetite,  dyspepsia,  etc. 

No.  3.  Take  four  ounces  of  columbo  root,  two 
ounces  wormwood,  two  ounces  tansy,  two  ounces 
qi^ssia,  six  ounces  gentian,  four  ounces  dried 
orange  peel.  Bruise  and  mix  well  together,  and 
put  in  two  quarts  of  good  whisky.  Shake  well  every 
day,  and  at  the  end  of  ten  days  strain.  Take  a 
tablespoonful  before  each  meal  and  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  after.  This  is  valuable  in  indigestion  and  all 
bilious  complaints. 

No.  4.  Take  one  quart  of  good  whisky,  half 
pound  bruised  gentian,  two  ounces  dried  orange 
peel.  Mix  all  together,  shaking  the  ingredients 
occasionally  during  the  day,  and  after  six  days 
strain  off  the  hquor.  The  dose  is  a  wineglassful 
mixed  with  a  little  water. 

Bitumen  (bit-u'men),  mineral  pitch.  The  term 
includes  petroleum,  asphaltum,  mineral  tar  and 
naphtha.  Bituminous  coal  is  the  soft  kind,  which  in 
combustion  yields  a  luminous  flame. 

Blackberry.  Thsre  are  several  species  of  this 
valuable  plant  native  in  this  country.  The  best 
for  dessert  or  for  cooking  are  the  low  blackberry, 
a  trailing  shrub,  and  several  varieties  of  the  high 
b!ackl)erry,  which  we  will  name  and  describe 
further  on. 

Cultivation.  The  blackberry  is  universally 
propagated  by  suckers,  or  offshoots,  springing  up 
from  the  main  roots.  It  may  also  be  grown  from 
pieces  of  the  roots.  Blackberry  roots  are  as  per- 
sistent as  those  of  witch  grass.  The  plants  should 
be  set  two  or  three   feet   apart  in   the  row,  and  the 


103 


BLACKBERRY. 


rows  seven  to  eight  feet  apart,  with  a  twelve- foot 
road  at  every  sixth  row  for  wagoning  through  the 
field.  Some  prefer  the  closer  limit,  as  the  ground 
is  thereby  better  shaded,  keeping  it  moist  and  pre- 
venting the  weeds  and  grass  from  starting.  Also 
the  plants  interlock  with  their  branches  and  thus 
support  each  other  when  laden  with  fruit,  and 
sometimes  hold  the  snow  up  in  a  body  and  thus 
protect  the  twigs  from  freezing  in  severe  cold 
weather.  The  general  advice  is  to  plant  in  the  fall, 
placing  a  forkful  of  manure  to  each  plant  for  mulch- 
ing and  plant  food. 

As  to  the  selection  and  treatment  of  the  ground 
we  should  in  general  endeavor  to  imitate  nature  as 
closely  as  possible ;  therefore  the  soil  should  be  a 
rich  loam,  well  drained,  thoroughly  and  constantly 
mulched.  Leaf  mold  is  the  best,  but  ir  is  rather 
too  tedious  to  collect.  Very  low  and  level  land  is 
objectionable  for  two  reasons,  namely :  it  does  not 
drain  well,  and  fruit  trees  and  plants  are  far  more 
liable  to  winter-kill  in  such  situations.  Even  the 
Snyder,  the  hardiest  of  the  blackberries,  has  been 
killed  by  freezing  on  low  ground.  No"  ground, 
however,  can  be  made  to  last  longer  than  five  or 
six  years  with  ever  so  much  attention,  as  some 
essential  element  not  yet  discovered  becomes  con- 
sumed from  the  soil.  The  winter  of  1878-79  killed 
all  the  varieties  in  the  West  excepting  the  Snyder, 
and  even  that  was  damaged  in  some  places. 

The  cane  should  be  cut  back  the  first  week  or  so 
of  June  to  two  or  three  feet,  and  the  branches 
checked  at  12  to  15  inches.  This  work  can  be  done 
very  rapidly  with  a  sharp  butcher-knife.  Some 
horticulturists,  in  the  treatment  of  the  Snyder  va- 
riety, pinch  back  the  branches  but  once  during  the 
summer,  and  then  depend  on  the  winter  pruning, 
when  they  cut  back  one-third  to  one-half. 

The  object  of  this  clipping  off  is  to  cause  the 
canes  to  throw  out  lateral  or  side  branches  down  to 
the  ground,  like  a  low-trained  pyramidal  tree,  and 
to  make  the  canes  stocky  and  self-supporting. 
These  laterals  will  soon  extend  to  from  one  to  two 
feet  all  around,  and  must  themselves  be  cut  back 
late  in  the  winter  or  early  spring.  Those  nearest 
the  ground  may  be  left  ten  or  twelve  inches  lo.ng, 
those  near  the  top  say  about  two  or  three  inches, 
and  the  intervening  ones  four,  five  or  six  inches. 

The  weakness  of  the  blackberry  is  to  overbear, 
and  the  very  frequent  drouths  common  in  summer 
aid  to  ruin  a  crop. 

While  this  attention  is  given  to  the  young  canes 
the  grower  should  also  be  careful  to  keep  the  earth 
mellow  by  frequent  culture  and  thorough  hoeing 
to  kill  weeds.  These  grow  on  rich  blackberry 
land  in  May  and  June  with  surprising  rapidity. 
The  cultivator  will  take  care  of  those  between 
the  rows,  but  for  those  that  come  up  in  the  rows 
and  between  the  hills  (unless  so  planted  as  to  cul- 
tivate both  ways)  the  hoe  must  be  used.     But  the 


hoeing  need  not  be  deep.  The  work  should  not 
be  neglected  so  long  that  the  weeds  can  become 
large  or  well-rooted,  and  small  weeds  hacked  or 
shaved  off  by  a  sharp  hoe  just  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil  become  very  much  discouraged  after  two 
or  three  operations.  The  ground  then  needs  no 
special  stirring,  as  blackberry  roots  are  great  ram- 
blers and  do  not  depend  for  sustenance  on  the  soil 
within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  hills.  The  weeds 
should  be  killed  because  they  pump  up  moisture, 
are  in  the  way  for  picking,  and  are  untidy,  but  the 
few  that  grow  just  about  the  hills  cannot  do  ex- 
traordinary harm,  even  if  left.  But  begin  with 
them  on  their  first  appearance,  and  again  on  their 
second  appearance,  and  the  work  is  then  easy  and 
rapid. 

Moisture  is  what  the  blackberry  specially  needs 
for  its  perfection.  When  the  rains  are  insufficient 
the  cultivator  and  the  hoe  will  go  far  toward  sup- 
plying the  lack.  Constant  work  only  will  keep  the 
soil  in  light  and  moist  condition.  The  cultivator 
running  through  the  plantation  two  or  three  times  a 
week  will  usually  put  the  crop  beyond  serious  dan- 
ger. But  when  the  time  for  ripening  is  preceded  by 
a  long  drouth  and  the  yield  of  berries  promises  to  be 
heavy  the  question  of  thinning  out  then  becomes  a 
serious  one. 

The  greatest  enemy  in  the  culture  of  this  fruit 
is  the  orange  rust,  which  alone  has  caused  black- 
berry-raising to  be  given  up  entirely  in  some 
localities.  The  Snyder  so  far  has  been  almost  free 
from  this  disease,  but  it  is  feared  that  it  also  may 
yet  succumb  to  it.  No  remedy  is  discovered  ex- 
cept to  burn  the  canes  affected  as  fast  as  they 
appear.  A  mite  also  attacks  the  blackberry  in 
some  fields,  and  does  perceptible  injury.  The 
Kittatinny  is  sometimes  so  thoroughly  sapped  by 
insects  in  the  fall  as  to  take  away  their  life  entirely, 
and  the  next  year  they  seem  to  have  been  winter- 
killed. Indeed,  some  think  that  this  variety  never 
winter-kills,  but  is  sapped  to  death  by  insects  in  the 
fall. 

Wild  blackberries  are  cultivated  to  some  extent, 
but  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  imitating  their 
wild  and  native  surroundings  perfectly,  they  do  not 
do  as  well  as  in  the  forest.  Most  blackberries  do 
better  when  protected  by  trees  and  shrubs. 

Varieties.  The  principal  varieties  of  the  black- 
berry which  have  been  cultivated  in  this  country  are 
the  following : 

Ancient  Briton  or  Britain.  Good  in  the  North- 
west ;  fruit  medium  size  and  very  sweet ;  canes 
hardy,  and  the  plant  tolerably  free  from  suckers. 

Barnard.  This  berry  is  a  good  one  in  the  North- 
west, and  the  plant  stands  the  winters  well. 

Bruntons  Early  Prolific.  Hardy,  ripens  a  week 
before  Wilson's  Early,  of  uniform  medium  size,  but 
being  a  pistillate  it  has  to  be  with  the  Kittatinny  or 
Snyder  for  the  sake  of  fertilization. 


BLACKBERR  Y— BLACKING. 


103 


Early  Wilson  or  iVilson's  Early.  Hardy, 
productive ;  fruit  large,  oblong  oval,  black,  firm, 
sweet.  Not  much  subject  to  rust.  A  good  market 
sort. 

Kittatinny.  In  quality  of  fruit  this  is  the  best 
blackberry  and  out-sells  any  other  variety ;  its 
season  is  very  long,  being  about  six  weeks;  it 
does  well,  even  during  seasons  of  comparative 
drouth.  Fruit  very  large,  roundish  conical,  rich 
glossy  black,  moderately  firm,  juicy,  rich,  sweet. 
Until  lately  it  was  planted  more  extensively  than 
any  other  kind  but  the  Lawton.  The  cane  of  the 
Kittatinny  is  heavily  set  with  thorns. 

Lawtaii  or  A'ew  Rochelle.  This  variety  is  of 
very  vigorous  growth,  hardy  and  productive,  but 
thorny ;  fruit  very  larpe,  oval,  fleshy,  and  when 
fully  ripe  intensely  black;  when  mature  it  is  very 
juicy,  rather  soft  and  tender,  with  a  sweet,  excel- 
lent flavor;  when  gathered  too  early  it  is  acid  and 
insipid.  It  ripens  about  the  first  of  August,  and 
continues  in  use  five  or  six  weeks.  In  the  older 
sections  of  the  Union,  in  protected  situations,  and 
where  it  is  best  known,  it  is  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular small  fruits  that  has  ever  been  cultivated.  It 
has  been  known  to  produce  over  one  thousand 
full-grown  berries  in  one  season  on  a  single  stalk, 
the  average  size  of  fruit  being  from  three-fourths 
to  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter;  quality  ex- 
cellent, very  juicy ;  seeds  very  small  and  few  in 
number.  Eight  quarts  of  berries  will  make  one 
gallon  of  juice,  which,  mixed  with  two  gallons  of 
water  and  nine  pounds  of  refined  sugar,  will  make 
three  gallons  of  wine,  equal  in  quality  to  the  best 
grape  wine. 

Missouri  Mammoth.  This  is  the  largest  black- 
berry, quite  black,  firm,  rich,  juicy,  sweet,  without 
any  core,  ripens  early,  and  continues  a  long  time  in 
bearing. 

See's  Early.  This  new  variety,  which  is  now 
being  extensively  introduced,  is  very  hardy,  pro- 
lific ;  berries  uniform  in  size  and  good  for  shipping. 
It  ripens  about  two  weeks  earlier  than  most  other 
kinds. 

Snyder.  At  present  this  variety  takes  the  lead 
in  the  West  in  respect  to  hardiness.  It  does  not 
winter-kill  except  in  low  grounds  in  the  severest 
winters,  and  so  far  it  has  resisted  the  rust  better 
than  any  other.  It  has  a  tendency  to  overbear,  is 
second  best  in  quality,  and  ripens  late.  The  canes 
bear  the  most  the  fourth  year  and  afterward.  The 
Snyder  requires  good  cultivation  and  careful  thin- 
ning and  pruning. 

Taylor.  This  new  candidate  for  public  favor  is 
said  to  be  hardy  and  prolific,  the  fruit  large  and. 
delicious. 

Triumph  of  the  West  or  Western  Triumph. 
Canes  hardy  and  very  thorny ;  fruit  highly  flavored, 
but  rioens  late. 


but  ripens  late. 


Wallace.  This  prolific  blackberry  is  a  compara- 
tively new  variety  now  being  tested  in  the  West. 

Blackberry  Brandy.  To  half  a  gallon  of  black- 
berry juice  put  one  pound  and  a  half  of  lump  sugar, 
half  an  ounce  of  cinnamon,  half  an  ounce  of  grated 
nutmeg,  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  cloves,  and  one 
ounce  of  allspice.  Boil  it  a  few  minutes,  and  when 
cool  add  one  pint  of  brandy.  This  is  an  invaluable 
remedy  for  diarrhoea. 

Blackberry  Cordial.  To  one  quart  of  black- 
berry juice  add  one  pound  of  white  sugar,  one 
tablespoonful  each  of  cloves,  allspice,  cinnamon 
and  nutmeg.  Boil  all  together  15  minutes;  add  a 
wineglass  of  whisky,  brandy  or  rum.  Bottle  while 
hot,  cork  tight  and  seal.  This  is  an  astringent. 
Dose  :  one  wineglassful  for  an  adult ;  half  that  quan- 
tity for  a  child.  May  be  taken  three  or  four  times  a 
day  in  severe  cases. 

Blackbird:  See  Birds. 

Blackboard,  Coating  for.  Take  pulverized 
slate  or  quartz,  moisten  it  to  the  consistency  of  a 
thick  fluid  with  silicate  of  soda,  "  water  glass  "  of 
commerce,  and  apply  with  a  brush.  Or,  make  a 
paint  of  asphaltum  or  grahamite,  dissolved  in 
naphtha.  Or,  mix  flour  emery  with  shellac  varnish, 
which  has  been  dissolved  with  alcohol,  and  add 
enough  lampblack  to  give  the  required  color.  It  re- 
quires a  day  or  two  to  dissolve  the  shellac. 

Blacking,  for  Boots  and  Shoes.  For  liquid 
blacking,  take  ivory  black,  one  pound ;  molasses, 
three-fourths  pound  ;  sweet  oil,  two  ounces;  beer^nd 
vinegar,  each  one  pint.  Rub  together  the  first 
three  until  the  oil  is  perfectly  killed,  then  add  the 
beer  and  vinegar.  Other  recipes  for  liquid  black- 
ing are  given,  most  of  which  contain  oil  of  vitriol, 
which,  while  it  gives  a  brighter  gloss,  is  said  to 
injure  the  leather.  For  paste  blacking,  take  of 
molasses  one  pound ;  ivory  black,  one  and  one- 
fourth  pounds ;  sweet  oil,  two  ounces;  rub  together 
and  add  a  little  lemon  juice  or  vinegar. 

Blacking,  for  Harness  and  Shoes.  Take 
three  ounces  spermaceti,  melt  it  in  an  earthen  ves- 
sel over  a  slow  fire;  add  six  Sranis  India-rubber 
cut  into  thin  slices ;  let  it  dissolve ,  then  add  eight 
ounces  tallow,  two  ounces  lard,  and  four  ounces 
amber  varnish  ;  mix,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Another:  Take  camphene,  one  pint,  and  put 
into  it  all  the  India-rubber  it  will  dissolve;  when 
dissolved  add  currier's  oil,  one  pint,  tallow,  six 
pounds  ;  lampblack,  two  ounces;  mix  thoroughly  by 
heat.  This  is  a  nice  thing  for  old  harness  or  car- 
riage tops,  as  well  as  for  boots  and  shoes.  Or  you 
can  dissolve  the  rubber  in  the  oil  by  setting  them 
in  rather  a  hot  place  for  a  day  or  two. 

Another:  Beeswax,  two  pounds;  resin,  one-half 
pound ;  fish  oil,  three-fourths  of  a  pint ;  neatsfoot 
oil,  three-fourths  of  a  pint ;  spirits  turpentine,  two 


I04 


B  LADDER— B  LEA  CHING. 


and  a  half  pints  ;  glycerine,  one-half  ounce ;  lamp- 
black, one-fourth  pound.  Melt  the  wax  and  resin, 
then  stir  in  the  other  ingredients,  when  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Apply  with  a  brush,  and  polish  with  a 
wet  brush. 

Bladder,  Inflammation  of.  "Until  the  doc- 
tor comes,"  take  a  warm  sitting  bath  for  half  an 
hour,  free  the  bowels  with  tepid  or  cool  injections, 
and  remain  in  a  state  of  rest.  The  general  fever 
may  be  reduced  a  little  by  wetting  the  body,  under 
the  cover  of  the  bed-clothes,  and  gently  wiping  off. 
Bathe  only  a  part  at  a  time,  and  avoid  any  draft  of 
cold  air  upon  the  body.  Eat  no  highly  seasoned 
food,  and  drink  no  herb  teas.  Any  acrid  matter 
has  a  tendency  to  irritate  the  bladder,  especially 
when  it  is  tender  and  inflamed. 

Bladders,  To  Prepare.  Soak  them  for  24 
hours  in  water,  to  which  a  little  chloride  of  lime 
or  potash  has  been  added ;  then  remove  the  extra- 
neous membranes,  wash  them  well  in  clean  water, 
and  dry  them. 

Blain,  a  disease  of  cattle  known  by  various 
names :  See  Cattle. 

Blanc  Mange  (bla-monj'),  a  fine  white  pudding 
made  from  starch,  isinglass  or  sea  moss,  with  milk, 
sugar,  cinnamon  or  nutmeg,  etc. 

Arrow-Root  Blanc  Mange.  A  teacup  of 
arrow- root  to  a  pint  of  milk;  boil  the  milk  with 
twelve  sweet  and  six  bitter  almonds,  blanched  and 
beaten;  sweeten  with  loaf  sugar  and  strain  it; 
break  the  arrow-root  with  a  little  of  the  milk  as 
smooth  as  possible ;  pour  the  boiling  milk  upon  it 
by  degrees ;  stir  the  while ;  put  it  back  into  the 
pan  and  boil  a  few  minutes,  still  stirring;  dip  the 
shape  in  cold  water  before  you  put  it  in,  and  turn  it 
out  when  cold. 

Oswego  Blanc  Mange.  Four  tablespoonfuls, 
or  three  ounces,  of  Oswego  prepared  corn,  or  corn- 
starch, to  one  quart  of  milk.  First,  dissolve  the 
corn  in  some  of  the  milk ;  put  into  the  remainder  of 
the  milk  four  ounces  of  sugar,  a  little  salt,  a  piece  of 
lemon  rind,  or  stick  "of  cinnamon,  and  heat  to  near 
boiling.  Then  add  the  mixed  corn  and  boil  four 
minutes,  stirring  briskly.  Take  out  the  rind  or  cin- 
namon, and  pour  into  a  mold  or  cup,  and  keep  until 
cold.  When  turned  out,  pour  around  it  any  kind  of 
preserved  fruit  or  jelly  ;  or  a  condiment  of  milk  and 
sugar  may  be  used,  and  you  will  have  a  delightful 
and  ornamental  dish. 

Rice  Blanc  Mange.  Swell  four  ounces  of  rice, 
drain  and  boil  it  in  good  milk  to  a  mash, 
with  sugar,  a  bit  of  lemon  peel  and  a  stick  of  cin- 
namon. Extraordinary  care  will  be  required  to 
keep  it  from  burning.  Mold  as  above,  and  gar- 
nish with  currant  jelly  or  any  red  preserved  fruit, 
or  serve  with  cream  or  plain  custard.  See  also 
Puddings. 


Blanch,  to  bleach  or  whiten. 

Blaze,  a  white  mark  or  star  in  the  face  of  an 
animal. 

Bleaching.  Under  this  head  are  included  gen- 
eral recipes  for  bleaching  or  decolorizing  fabrics  and 
goods,  and  if  the  directions  given  are  carefully  fol- 
lowed the  best  results  may  be  expected. 

To  Bleach  Cotton  Pure  White.  Boil  for 
three  hours  in  water  containing  one  gill  to  the  gallon 
of  either  caustic  potash  or  caustic  soda;  wash  well 
from  the  lye;  then  lay  the  yarn  or  fabric  to  steep 
for  four  or  five  hours  in  cold  water  containing  one 
pint  of  bleaching  liquor  to  the  gallon  (to  make 
this,  see  next  article) ;  then  lift  out  and  steep  for 
an  hour  in  a  sour  of  one  wineglassful  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  the  gallon  of  water ;  lift,  and  wash  well ; 
then  boil  for  two  hours  in  caustic  lye,  half  the 
strength  of  the  first;  wash  from  this,  and  steep 
again  for  four  hours  in  the  bleaching  liquor ;  wash 
from  this,  and  steep  again  for  one  hour  in  a  clean 
sour,  made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  first;  wash 
well  from  this,  and  dry.  A  little  smalt  blue 
is  put  into  the  last  washing  water  to  clear  the 
white. 

Feathers.  By  the  process  given  below  the 
feathers  of  ostriches  and  other  birds  may  be 
bleached,  even  if  these  are  naturally  of  a  black  or 
gray  color:  Place  the  feathers  for  from  three  to 
four  hours  in  a  tepid  dilute  solution  of  bichromate 
of  potassa,  to  which,  cautiously,  some  nitric  acid 
has  been  added.  After  this  lapse  of  time  the 
feathers  will  be  found  to  have  assumed  a  greenish 
hue,  owing  to  the  oxide  of  chromium  precipitated 
on  the  substance.  In  order  to  remove  this,  the 
feathers  are  placed  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphu- 
rous acid  in  water,  whereby  the  feathers  become 
perfectly  white  and  bleached.  Care  is  to  be  taken 
that  the  solution  of  bichromate  be  not  made  too 
strong,  and  especially  that  not  too  much  nitric  acid 
be  used,  which  would  cause  an  irremovable  yellow 
color. 

Wool.  The  first  kind  of  bleaching  to  which 
wool  is  subjected  is  to  free  it  from  grease.  This 
operation  is  called  scouring.  In  manufactories  it  is 
generally  performed  by  an  ammoniacal  lye,  formed 
of  five  measures  of  river  water  and  one  of  stale 
urine;  the  wool  is  immersed  for  about  20  minutes 
in  a  bath  of  this  mixture  heated  to  about  130  degs. 
Fahr.,  then  taken  out,  suffered  to  drain  and  rinsed 
in  running  water.  This  manipulation  softens  the 
wool,  and  gives  it  the  first  degree  of  whiteness. 
It  is  then  repeated  a  second  time,  and  even  a  third; 
after  which  the  wool  is  fit  to  be  used.  In  some 
places  scouring  is  performed  with  water,  slightly 
impregnated  with  soap;  and,  indeed,  for  valuable 
articles,  this  process  is  preferable;  but  it  is  too  ex- 
pensive for  articles  of  less  value.  Bisulphide  of 
carbon  and  benzine  have  been  employed  for  cleans- 
ing wool.     The  fat  may  be  saved  by  distilling  all 


BLEACHING— BLEACHING  POWDER. 


105 


the  solvent,  which  may  be  used  over  and  over  again. 
Sulphurous  acid  gas  unites  very  easily  with  water, 
and  in  this  combination  it  may  be  employed  for 
bleaching  wool  and  silk. 

Instead  of  using  the  fumes  of  sulphur,  one  may 
use  the  following  mixture :  Four  pounds  oxalic 
acid,  four  pounds  table  salt,  200  quarts  of  water. 
The  goods  are  laid  in  this  mixture  for  an  hour. 
They  are  then  generally  well  bleached,  and  then  only 
require  to  be  thoroughly  rinsed  and  washed. 

Woolen  Rags.  These  are  most  efifcctually 
bleached  by  the  application  of  sulphurous  acid. 
Of  course  in  many  instances  the  color  of  the  rags, 
supposing  the  same  to  be  dyed  or  printed  goods, 
will  also  be  destroyed.  Chlorine  cannot  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  because  it  causes  woolen  and  silk 
fabrics  to  become  yellow,  and  iuipairs  the  strength 
of  the  fiber  by  entering  into  chemical  combination 
with  the  wool,  silk,  and  other  similar  substances  of 
animal  origin;  as,  for  instance,  sponge,  animal  gut, 
isinglass,  etc.,  all  of  which,  if  requiring  bleaching, 
are  bleached  by  sulphurous  acid. 

Bed  Blankets.  These  can  be  bleached  by 
burning  sulphur  or  brimstone,  as  in  the  case  of 
straw  hats. 

White  Flannel.  This  fabric  can  be  bleached 
with  brimstone.  The  goods  should  be  washed  and 
rinsed  clean  before  the  process  is  begun. 

Wax.  Ordinary  beeswax  is  bleached  by  expos- 
ure to  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  weather.  The 
wax  is  sliced  in  thin  flakes  and  laid  on  frames, 
raised  from  the  ground,  and  frequently  turned  over 
and  sprinkled.  It  will  require  about  four  weeks. 
If,  on  breaking,  it  is  yellow  inside,  it  must  be  rs- 
melted  and  exposed.  Wax  cannot  be  bleached  by 
chemicals.  Chlorine  will  whiten,  but  also  greatly 
injure  it. 

Straw  Bonnets.  Get  a  deep  box,  air  tight  if 
possible;  place  on  the  bottom  a  stone;  on  the  stone 
a  flcit  piece  of  iron,  red  hot,  or  a  pan  of  charcoal, 
on  which  scatter  powdered  brimstone  ;  close  the  lid, 
and  let  the  bonnet  remain  a  night,  suspended  on 
a  hook. 

Straw  Hats.  The  process  of  bleaching  straw 
hats  is  the  same  as  that  of  bonnets.  Here  is  an 
excellent  recipe  for  bleaching  them  :  If  the  hat  is 
badly  sun-burned,  soak  it  in  sour  milk  a  few  days. 
Wash  the  hat  clean  in  lively  soap  suds,  with  either 
a  flesh  or  tooth  brusli,  then  rinse.  Have  a  tight 
barrel  or  box  ready.  Drive  a  nail  in  on  one  side 
to  hang  the  liat  on,  putting  a  thread  through  the 
rim  to  form  a  loop  to  suspend  it  by.  Have  the 
cover  ready.  Take  an  old  dish,  put  in  some  live 
coals,  then  throw  on  some  stick  sulphur  or  brim- 
Stone,  previously  pounded  iiito  small  lumps.  Five 
cents'  worth  would  be  enough. 

Linen.  The  lye  called  "  bowking,"  or  "  bucking," 
is  prepared   by  dissolving   potash  in  soft  water,  to 


wliich  some  soap  is  added.  This  liquor  is  heated 
to  about  100  degrees  and  poured  upon  the  linen. 
After  the  cloth  is  well  down  in  the  lye,  it  is  drawn 
off,  heated  a  little  higher,  and  again  poured  upon 
the  cloth.  This  operation  is  repeated  at  intervals, 
allowing  the  lye  to  remain  longer  at  each  success- 
ive time,  and  moderately  increasing  the  heat  for 
five  or  six  hours.  The  cloth  should  then  be  left 
steeping  for  three  or  four  hours,  when  it  is  takeo, 
out  and  well  rinsed.  But  each  filament,  after  the 
alkaline  process,  retains  a  certain  impregnation  of 
coloring  matter  so  intimately  united  as  to  resist  the 
further  action  of  it.  This  is  removed  by  the  slow 
and  gradual  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  which  together  decompose  it. 
This  is  done  by  spreading  the  linen  upon  the  grass, 
securing  it  by  pins;  sprinkle  water  on  it,  so  that  it 
shall  not  become  dry  for  some  hours.  After  it  has 
lain  for  about  half  a  day,  the  watering  may  be  less 
frequent,  and  at  night  it  is  left  to  the  full  action  of 
the  air  and  dews.  On  the  succeeding  days  it  is 
watered  three  or  four  times  a  day,  if  the  weather 
be  dry.  When  it  has  remained  till  the  air  seems  to 
have  done  its  work,  it  should  be  again  returned 
to  the  coppers  and  bucked  again  with  a  lye  some- 
what stronger  than  the  last,  rinsed  and  again 
spread  upon  the  grass.  It  is  thus  bucked  and 
watered  ten  or  fifteen  times,  according  to  the 
weather,  making  the  bucking  stronger  and  stronger 
till  about  the  middle,  and  weaker  and  weaker  till  t!;e 
finish  of  the  process.  The  scouring  can  be  done  as 
in  bleaching  cotton. 

Silk.  This  textile  must  first  be  deprived  of  the 
natural  varnish  with  which  the  filaments  are  coated^ 
and  to  which  is  ascribed  much  of  its  stiffness  and 
elasticity.  This  varnish  is  of  a  resinous  nature,  and 
is  soluble  in  alkaline  lyes.  Soap  generally  removes 
it;  but  as  the  matter  separated  is  very  fetid,  putrid 
fermentation  will  take  place  and  injure  the  silk,  if 
it  be  not  well  rinsed  in  water.  Steam  is  employed 
in  France  for  this  purpose,  and  to  give  silk  its  com- 
plete, splendid  whiteness,  it  is  necessary,  also,  to 
expose  it  to  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  to  de- 
stroy a  substance  of  a  yellowish  color  with  which 
the  European  silk  is  impregnated.  The  silk  intend- 
ed to  be  white  requires  to  be  more  completely 
scoured  than  that  which  is  to  be  dyed. 

Bleaching  Liquor.  This  is  made  by  taking, a 
quantity  of  bleaching  powder  (chloride  of  lime)  and 
adding  to  it  as  much  water  as  will  make  it  into  a 
thin  cream ;  take  a  flat  piece  of  wood  and  break  all 
the  small  pieces  by  striking  them  against  the 
sides  of  the  vessel ;  then  add  two  gallons  of  cold 
water  for  every  pound  of  powder;  stir  well,  put  a 
cover  upon  the  vessel,  and  allow  the  whole  to  settle. 
This  will  form  a  sort  of  stock  vat  for  bleaching  oper- 
ations. 

Bleaching  Powder,  lime  chloride,  or  chloride 
of  lime. 


io6 


BLEEDING— BLOOn. 


Bleeding  from  an  artery  being  divided   or  torn 
may    be    known    by   tiie    blood    issuing  out   of  the 
wound  in  leaps  or  jerks,  and  being  of  a  bright  scar- 
let    color.     To     arrest     arterial     bleeding,    get    a 
piece   of    wood    (part   of  a   mop  handle   will    do) 
and  tie  a  piece  of  tape  to  one  end  of  it ;  then  tie 
a  piece  of  tape   loosely  over  the  arm,  and  pass  the 
other   end  of  the    wood    under   it;    twist  the  stick 
round  and  round  until  the  tape  compresses  the  arm 
sufficiently  to  arrest  the  bleeding,  and  then  confine 
the  other  end  by  tying  the  string  around  the  arm. 
A  compress   made   by  enfolding  a  penny    piece  in 
several   folds  of  lint  or   linen  should,  however,  be 
first  placed  under  the  tape  and  over  the  artery.     If 
the  bleeding  is  very  obstinate,  and  it  occurs  in  the 
arm,  place  a  cork  underneatli  the  string,  on  the  in- 
side  of   the   fleshy    part,  where  the   artery  may  be 
felt  beating  by  any  one;  if  in  the  leg,  place  a  cork 
in    the   direction  of  a  line    drawn    from    the  inner 
part   of    the    knee    toward    the   outer    part  of    the 
groin.     It  is   an   excellent  thing  to  accustom  your- 
self to   find   out    the    position  of  these  arteries,  or, 
indeed,  any  that  are  superficial,  and  to  explain   to 
every   person  in  your  house   where   they  are,  and 
how   to   stop   bleeding.     If  a    stick  cannot  be  got, 
take   a    handkerchief,  make    a   cord    bandage  of  it, 
and  tie  a  knot  in  the  middle;  the  knot  acts  as  a 
compress,  and    should    be   placed  over  the  artery, 
while   the   tvi^o   ends    are   to   be   tied    around    the 
thumb.     Observe  always  to  place  the  ligature  be- 
tween  the   wound    and    the    heart.     Putting    your 
finger  into  a  bleeding  wound  and  making  pressure 
until  a  surgeon  arrives  will  generally  stop    violent 
bleeding. 

Ordin.4RY  bleeding  from  a  wound  on  man  or 
beast  may  be  stopped  by  a  mixture  of  wheat 
flour  and  salt  in  equal  parts  bound  on  with  a  cloth. 
If  the  bleeding  be  profuse,  use  a  large  quantity, 
say  from  one  to  three  pints.  It  may  be  left  on  for 
hours,  or  even  days,  if  necessary.  Soot  applied  to 
a  fresh  cut  or  wound  will  stop  the  blood  and  abate 
the  pain  at  the  same  time.  To  check  bleeding 
from  the  lungs,  let  the  patient  eat  freely  of  raw 
table-salt.  Loaf  sugar  and  resin,  equal  parts,  pow- 
dered ;  take  a  teaspoonful  four  or  five  times  a  day. 
It  will  be  found  of  great  use.  A  tea  made  of 
yarrow  is  very  useful  in  this  complaint.  Choose  a 
light  diet,  chiefly  of  milk  and  vegetables,  and  avoid 
all  hot  and  stimulating  drinks.  For  bleeding  at 
the  stoinach,  take  one  pound  of  yellow-dock  root, 
dry  it  thoroughly  and  pound  it  fine;  boil  this  in  a 
<iuart  of  milk  and  strain  it  off.  Use  one  gill  three 
times  a  day.  Or,  take  a  teaspoonful  of  chamomile 
tea  every  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  until  the  bleeding 
«tops. 

In  regard  to  bleeding  a  horse  or  other  animal  in 
the  treatment  of  disease,  see  under  the  names  of  the 
respective  animals. 

Blotting,  the  spotted  appearance  of  over-ripe 
fruit  from  decay  setting  in. 


Blight,  death  and  decay  of  a  plant,  caused  by 
various  invisible  influences  or  microscopic  germs. 
See  the  respective  trees,  as  Apple,  Pear,  etc.  The 
term  is  also  used  for  an  eruption  on  the  human  skin, 
consisting  of  minute  reddish  pimples. 

Blinkers,  bridle  blinds :  See  Bridle. 

Blister,  of  Spanish  Flies.  Melt  together  seven 
and  one-half  ounces  each  of  yellow  wax  and  suet, 
six  ounces  of  lard  and  three  ounces  of  resin  ;  when 
mixed,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  a  little  before  it 
hardens  sprinkle  in  and  mix  thoroughly  one  pound 
of  very  finely  powdered  "  cantharides,"  or  Spanish 
flies.  A  stronger  blister  of  this  kind  is  made  by 
mixing  at  a  heat  just  below  boiling  point  four 
and  a  half  ounces  of  Venice  turpentine,  three 
ounces  each  of  Burgundy  pitch  and  cantharides, 
one  ounce  of  beeswax,  one-half  ounce  of  finely 
powdered  verdigris,  and  two  drams  each  of  pow- 
dered mustard  and  black  pepper:  See  Plaster. 
This  blister  may  sometimes  be  dangerous  in  the 
hands  of  unprofessional  practitioners,  and  even  in 
the  hands  of  shrewd  doctors.  In  applying  it  the 
case  should  be  closely  watched,  and  as  soon  as  the 
skin  is  reddened  the  plaster  should  be  removed  and 
a  poultice  of  bread  and  milk,  or  something  else  as 
bland,  be  substituted. 

Blood,  To  Purify.  Take  falsegrape,  dogsbane, 
burdock  root  and  yellow  parilla  root,  each  in  coarse 
powder,  one  ounce;  boil  all  together  in  three 
quarts-  of  water  slowly  to  two  quarts ;  strain  and 
add  four  pounds  of  white  sugar;  then  boil  again 
for  a  few  moments,  and  skim  off  the  scum  that 
rises  to  the  surface.  Bottle  and  keep  in  a  cool 
place.  The  dose  is  half  a  gill  three  times  a  day. 
Or,  agrimony,  borage,  burdock  (sea),  chickweed, 
chervil,  fennel,  fir  tree,  fumitory,  garden  cresses, 
wild  water  cresses,  ground  pine,  hops,  maiden  hair, 
sorrel  or  tansy,  made  into  decoctions  with  hot 
water,  and  taken  every  morning.  The  "  Hygienic' 
method,  as  taught  by  the  responsible  authors  of  our 
school-books,  is  to  live  an  outdoor  life,  take  a 
thorough  sweat  every  two  or  three  days,  follow  a 
clean,  vegetable,  grain  and  fruit  diet,  and  keep  in 
good  humor.  The  blood,  which  supplies  every  por- 
tion of  the  frame,  can  never  be  any  more  impure 
than  the  rest  of  the  body  is. 

Blood,  Spitting  of.  In  cases  of  spitting  of 
blood  it  is  often  difficult  to  determine  whether  it 
proceeds  from  the  internal  surface  of  the  mouth, 
from  the  fauces,  from  the  stomach,  or  from  the  lungs. 
When  the  blood  is  of  a  florid  or  frothy  appearance, 
and  brought  up  with  more  or  less  coughing,  preced- 
ed by  rigors,  a  short,  tickling  cough,  a  saltish  taste, 
uneasiness  and  tightness  across  the  chest,  its  source 
is  the  lungs.  The  blood  proceeding  from  the  lungs 
is  usually  of  a  florid  color  and  mixed  with  a  little 
frothy  mucus  only.  It  may  be  distinguished  from 
bleeding  from  the  stomach  by  its  being  raised  by 


BLOODED  STOCK— BLOWN. 


107 


hacking  or  coughing,  and  by  its  florid  and  frothy 
appearance ;  that  from  the  stomach  is  vomited  in 
considerable  quantities,  and  is  of  a  dark  color. 
What  is  strictly  meant  by  "spitting  of  blood"  is 
when  the  blood  is  discharged  from  a  ruptured  ves- 
sel in  the  lungs.  In  all  cases  consult  a  good 
physician,  and,  until  he  otherwise  forbids,  moderate 
the  discharge  of  blood  by  avoiding  whatever  tends 
to  irritate  the  body  and  increase  the  action  of  the 
heart.  A  low  diet  should  be  strictly  observed,  and 
external  heat  and  bodily  exercise  avoided;  the  air 
of  the  room  should  be  cool,  and  the  drink  (which 
should  consist  chiefly  of  barley-water  acidulated 
with  lemon  juice)  taken  cold,  and  the  patient  not 
suffered  to  exert  his  voice.  1  he  recurrence  of 
spitting  of  blood  should  be  prevented  by  invigor- 
ating the  lungs  and  purifying  the  blood,  and  by 
the  use  of  cooling  and  astringent  medicines.  Keep 
in  the  mouth  a  little  alum  or  saltpeter.  The  pa- 
tient should  partake  very  freely  of  acidulous  fruits, 
as  roasted  apples,  fresh  oranges,  lemons,  etc.  Al- 
coholic drinks  should  be  strictly  forbidden.  A 
decoction  of  bark  with  lemon  juice,  or  a  few  drops 
of  elixir  of  vitriol,  is  of  great  service. 

Blooded  Stock,  that  which  is  of  pure  or  distinct 
"breed.  "  Blood,"  in  this  connection,  means  breed, 
and  "  purity  of  blood  "  denotes  the  absence  of  any 
mixture  with  other  breeds.  As  example  we  have, 
among  horses,  the  "  Thoroughbred "  (racers), 
•Clydesdale,  Morgan,  Percheron,  etc.;  among  cat- 
tle, "  Short-horn,"  Alderney,  Galloway,  Devon, 
etc.;  among  sheep,  Cotswold,  South  Down,  Ox- 
ford Down,  Merino,  etc.;  among  swine,  Poland- 
China,  Suffolk,  Chester  White,  etc.,  and  among 
poultry.  Cochin  China,  Leghorn,  Houdan,  Brahma, 
Black  Spanish,  etc.  :  See  Breeding,  and  the  respect- 
ive animals. 

Blood-Hound,  a  vaiiety  of  dog,  with  long, 
■smooth  and  pendulous  ears,  remarkable  for  the 
acuteness  of  his  smell,  and  employed  to  recover 
game  or  prey  which  has  escaped  wounded  from  a 
hunter,  by  tracing  by  the  blood  it  had  spilt. 

Blood-Root.  This  root  is  of  a  red  color  ;  is  valua- 
ble in  medicine,  being  used  as  an  emetic  and  in 
coughs.  In  large  doses  it  is  poisonous,  and  should 
not  be  given  except  under  the  advice  of  a  physician. 
The  leaves  are  sometimes  given  to  horses  to  assist 
in  shedding  the  hair  in  the  spring,  and  tha  root,  also, 
to  extirpate  bots. 

Blood-Shot.     In  farriery,  a  popular  term  for  that 
red  appearance  which  the  eye  exhibits  when  inflamed 
The  best  treatment  is  to  bathe  the  eye  with  a  lotion 
composed  of  one  dram  of  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of 
zinc)  dissolved  in  half  a  pint  of  water. 

Blood  Spavin,  or  Bog  Spavin.  In  farriery,  a 
swelling  of  the  vein  that  runs  along  the  inside  of 
the  hock  of  the  horse,  forming   a  soft  tumor  in  the 


hollow  part,  often  attended  with  weakness  or  lame- 
ness of  the  hock.     See  Spavin. 

Bloom,  or  Blossom.  A  general  name  for  the 
flowers  of  plants,  but  more  especially  of  fruit  trees. 
The  ofifice  of  the  blossom  is  partly  to  afford  protection, 
and  partly  to  draw  or  supply  nourishment  to  the 
fertilizing  organs  of  the  plant,  for  the  perfecting  of 
the  embryo  fruit  or  seed.  Bloom  is  a  term  applied 
to  the  delicate  powder  which  coats  the  outer  surface 
of  such  smooth-skinned  fruits  as  the  grape  and  plum. 
In  gathering  such  fruits,  care  should  always  be  ob- 
served to  prevent  this  bloom  from  being  removed  by 
handling  or  otherwise,  as  it  injures  the  appearance. 

Blotch,  on  the  skin,  is  a  pustule,  a  pimple  contain- 
ing pus  or  "  matter ;  "  more  particularly  a  large 
pustule,  or  a  collection  of  them,  discoloring  the 
skin,  etc.  Some  of  them  can  be  obliterated  by 
wetting  the  part  once  or  twice  a  day,  for  four  or 
five  days,  with  a  five-per-cent.  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  or  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  one  grain  to  a 
half  ounce  of  water.  Blotches  often  proceed  from 
bad  dietetics,  foul  air,  or  the  miserable  habit  of 
constant  dosing  for  other  ailments.  In  such  cases 
external  applications  are,  of  course,  of  but  little  use. 

Blouse  (blowz),  a  light,  loose  over-garment, 
worn  especially  by  workingmen  in  France.  In 
America  the  garment  is  sometimes  worn  by  work- 
men, and  a  certain  form  occasionally  worn  by  little 
boys  is  so  termed. 

Blow-Fly.  It  deposits  eggs  upon  meat,  which 
in  a  few  hours  become  maggots,  and  hasten  the  de- 
cay rapidly.  Gauze  cloths  are  used  to  keep  them 
off;  salt  or  cayenne  pepper  serves  as  a  preventive, 
by  indisposing  the  fly  to  lay  eggs  on  surfaces  smeared 
with  them. 

Blown,  or  Hoven.  Undue  distension  of  the 
stomach,  from  fermentation  of  food,  as  wet  grass,  bad 
fodder,  musty  hay,  ergoty,  or  even  sound  grain  eaten 
in  undue  quantities,  causing  the  liberation  of  gas 
faster  than  it  can  be  passed  off,  is  usually  termed 
hoven  in  cattle,  and  also  blast,  blown,  colic  and 
wind-dropsy  in  farm  animals.  In  cattle  and  sheep 
the  trouble  is  in  the  third  stomach,  and  if  relief  is 
not  given  often  ends  in  death.  There  will  be  swell- 
ing of  the  belly  on  the  left  side.  The  bowels  will 
be  torpid  and  constipated,  the  breathing  difficult, 
the  eyes  wild,  with  other  indications  of  intense  pain. 
If  the  distension  has  extended  to  both  sides,  the 
danger  is  imminent.  A  trocar,  or,  in  lieu  thereof,  a 
sharp-pointed  penknife,  should  be  thrust  into  the 
rumen,  where  the  swelling  is  greatest,  and  the  open- 
ing kept  apart  by  a  silver  tube,  or  a  large  quill  thrust 
in  the  opening,  to  allow  the  escape  of  the  gas.  In 
cases  not  so  severe,  pressing  and  kneading  of  the 
stomach,  to  force  the  gas  up  the  gullet,  may  give 
relief,  or  a  half-inch  rubber  tube  well  oiled,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  button  of  wool  also  well  oiled,  may  be 


io8 


BLUEBERRY— BOARD  OF  TRADE. 


carefully  worked  down  into  the  stomach.  As  a  stim- 
ulant, one  dram  of  green  mustard  and  one  ounce 
of  whisky,  mixed  in  a  little  water,  may  be  given  by 
allowing  it  to  trickle  down  slowly,  to  insure  its  sate 
passage  into  the  third  stomach.  This  may  be  re- 
peated as  may  be  deemed  necessary.  If  this  does 
not  give  relief,  four  drams  of  the  solution  of  potash, 
and  one  ounce  of  lard-oil  and  of  common  salt  may 
be  mixed  in  a  gill  of  water,  and  be  given.  Prevent- 
ives are,  not  to  turn  stock  into  flush  pastures  wet 
with  dew  when  hungry.  Sheep  may  have  one-quar- 
ter of  the  above  dose.  Colic  or  gripes  in  the  horse 
must  not  be  confounded  with  this  affection.  It  is  a 
contraction  of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  stomach, 
and  is  caused  by  bad  food,  exhaustion,  drinking  cold 
water,  change  of  food,  and  various  other  causes.  In- 
testinal colic  is  shown  by  severe  pain,  looking  at  the 
flanks,  pawing,  lying  down,  rolling,  and  then  suddenly 
getting  up. 

Blueberry :  See  Huckleberry. 

Blue-Bottle,  a  kind  of  a  plant  with  blue,  bottle- 
shaped  flowers,  growing  in  corn;  also  a  species  of 
fly,  with  a  large,  blue  belly. 

Blue  Vitriol,  sulphate  of  copper  ;  a  combination 
of  sulphuric  acid  with  copper.  Water  will  dissolve 
out  the  acid  and  deposit  the  copper  as  a  lining  to 
the  vessel  containing  the  solution.  Blue  vitriol  is 
useful  in  many  of  the  arts  of  life. 

Bluing.  To  mike  liquid  bluing,  for  rinsing 
white  clothes,  mix  Prussian  blue,  pulverized,  one 
ounce ;  oxalic  acid,  one  ounce,  with  one  quart  of  soft 
water. 

Board  Measurement :   See  Lumber. 

Board  of  Trade,  an  organized  body  of  active 
business  men,  not  on  a  stock  or  money  basis,  but  for 
mutual  protection,  for  system  in  business,  and  as  a 
safeguard  for  the  rights  of  all  concerned.  It  is  com- 
posed of  nien  through  whose  hands  the  products 
of  the  surrounding  country  must  pass  on  their  route 
to  their  final  destination,  the  consumers.  Its  mem- 
bers are  either  actively  engaged  in  the  kinds  of 
business  that  come  under  the  supervision  of  the 
board,  or  have  been.  Some  belong  who  do  not 
actively  engage  at  the  business  of  the  board,  for 
once  a  member  a  person  rarely  fails  to  keep  up  his 
identity.  Boards  of  trade  in  different  cities  have 
somewhat  different  spheres  of  action  in  many  de- 
tails, but  the  nature  of  such  a  body  in  general  is 
well  described  in  the  following  account  of  that  at 
Detroit,  Mich.: 

It  is  organized  under  the  State  law,  having 
a  president,  vice-president,  board  of  directors,  com- 
mittee of  appeals,  committee  of  finance,  secretary 
and  treasurer,  committee  on  inspection  of  flour  and 
grain,  committee  on  inspection  of  provisions,  com- 
mittee on  membership,  inspector  of  flour  and  grain, 
and  inspector  of  provisions.     The   duties  of  these 


officers  and  committees  need  not  be  stated  in  detail. 
The  board  makes  its  own  by-laws  and  regulations. 
They  occupy  rooms  called  "  Board  of  Trade 
Rooms,"  "  Chamber  of  Commerce,"  etc.  The  meet- 
ing of  the  board  is  generally  at  120'  clock,  and 
lasts  one  hour.  What  is  meant  by  being  "on 
'change'  is  being  at  the  session  of  the  board 
during  this  hour  of  business.  Thisistne  only  hour 
in  the  day  devoted  to  business,  and  during  this  brief 
hour  all  the  buying  and  selling  of  the  day  is  done. 
The  transactions,  even  in  grain,  sometimes  amount 
to  hundred  of  thousands  of  dollars,  and  it  is  easy 
enough.  Every  man  comes  in  knowing  just  what 
he  wants,  either  to  buy  or  sell,  and  with  that  state 
of  mind  business  is  rapidly  done.  After  the  board 
closes  the  members  spend  the  remainder  of  the  day 
in  paying  for  grain  bought  and  giving  receipts  for 
what  has  been  sold,  and  getting  ready  for  the  next 
session  of  the  board.  The  expenses  of  the  board  are 
kept  up  by  membership  fees,  usually  from  $25  to 
$100  per  year  for  each  member.  This,  with  a 
large  membership,  enables  them  to  erect  buildings 
of  their  own,  and  soon  to  become  wealthy.  Any 
person  wishing  to  become  a  member  must  have  his 
name  presented  to  the  board  by  some  member,  and 
is  then  voted  in  or  out,  after  having  had  his  case 
duly  examined  by  the  board ;  and  it  is  not  every  one 
that  gains  admission.  No  person  is  allowed  on 
'change,  except  he  is  a  membei,  or  upon  invitation 
of  a  member,  as  there  is  a  janitor  at  the  door  who 
refuses  admission  to  all  who  do  not  come  as  stated. 
The  method  of  working  is  as  follows :  As  sooi» 
as  a  new  crop  of  wheat  is  harvested  sam[)les  are 
obtained  from  all  portions  of  the  surrounding 
country  as  soon  as  possible,  and  these  samples  are 
given  to  tlie  committee  of  inspection,  who,  after 
carefully  examining  the  different  qualities,  fix  upon 
a  standard  for  the  different  grades.  They  take 
Diehl  wheat  from  the  different  sections,  and  select- 
ing the  best  mix  them  togetiier,  thereby  equalizing 
the  color,  as  the  color  differs  with  the  soil  some- 
times, and  forming  a  grade  of  "  extra  white  "  which 
will  suit  the  whole  State.  In  the  same  manner 
they  take  samples  of  all  white  wlieat,  the  best,  and 
mixing  them  together  they  form  a  grade  for  No.  t 
white ;  in  like  manner  all  the  otlier  grades.  After 
the  committee  have  done  their  work  it  is  then  sub- 
mitted to  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  the  board, 
for  it  is  the  most  particular  part  of  all  their  busi- 
ness, and  requires  knowledge  of  a  superior  kind 
relating  to  grain.  Now  comes  the  trouble.  Here 
the  farmer  finds  protection  by  having  two  sides  to 
a  question — in  having  bulls  and  bears.  The  bulls, 
or  the  sellers,  want  the  grade  just  as  low  and  easy 
as  possible,  in  order  that  the  country  buyer  and 
farmer  may  get  the  highest  price  for  their  inferior 
wheat,  while  the  bears,  or  buyers,  want  the  grade 
as  high  as  possible,  so  their  customers,  the  millers,, 
will  get  as  good  wheat  as  possible  for  the  money. 
They  usually  come  to  some  compromise  that  is 
satisfactory   and   just   to    all.     Having   settled   the 


BOAT. 


109 


standard  which  shall  be  their  basis  for  buying  and 
selling  from,  samples  are  sent  to  all  the  interior 
buyers,  that  they  may  know  how  to  buy.  These 
grades  last  from  one  crop  of  wheat  until  the  next, 
and  the  old  grade  holds  good  until  the  new  one  is 
established. 

The  buyers  get  the   grades    and  dispatches   that 
state  the  price  of  each    grade   on  'change,    for   in- 
stance, to-day.     A  farmer  comes  in  with    a   load    of 
wheat,  the  first  of  the    season ;    he   does    not   know 
what    grade   it   is,  but    usually  hopes  it  is  -"extra." 
The  buyer   takes    and  compares    the   standard    of 
extra  with  it  and  they  tell   immediately  whether  it 
will  go  extra.     If  not  that,  tlien   it  must  go  No.  i, 
as  there   is    no  intermediate  grade.     If  not  No.  i, 
then  No.   2,  for  there  is  none  between.     If  not  No. 
2,  then  rejected.     Just  so  with  amber.     The  buyer 
elevates  his  wheat  into  separate  bins,  each  kind  by 
itself.     He  ships  out  a  car  of  No.   1,  for  instance. 
If  he  is  a  good  buyer  he  feels  sure  it  will  go  through 
all  right;  but  if  lie  is  green  at  the  business,  and  has 
bought  recklessly,  has  put  into  his  No.   i   bin  some 
friend's  wheat  that  was  not  quite  up  to  the  standard, 
he  feels   uneasy  until  he  gets  the  inspector's  report. 
The  car  goes  to  market,  where  it   is  inspected  by 
the  inspector  of  the  board,  a  man  chosen  for  that 
purpose.     He   examines    every   car   and    puts    his 
ticket  on  it,  giving  the  grade.     He  does  not  know 
who  the  car  came  from,  or  who  it    belongs   to,   and 
is  calculated   to  give   an   impartial   decision   of  its 
grade,  based  on  the  standard   furnished   him  by  the 
board ;  and  he  is  under  heavy  bonds  to  discharge 
his  duties  honestly.     It  then    goes    to    the    elevator 
and  is  elevated  into  bins    for   that   kind    of  wheat. 
The  shipper  sends  his  agent  notice  of  the  kind  and 
number  of  the  car;  the  agent  goes  to  the  elevator, 
finds  the  car  inspected,  elevated  and  weighed,  gets 
his  receipt,  goes  to  the  board  and  sells  it  for  all  he 
can,  pays  the  freight  and  other  charges,  deducts  his 
own    commission,  sends  the  shipper  statement  and 
net  proceeds.     It  can  remain  in  the  elevator  for  ten 
days  without  charge;  after  that  it  must  pay  storage. 
The   receipt    given    the    agent   has    the  number  of 
bushels  and  the  grade  of  wheat.     There  is  no  speci- 
fied number  of  bushels  in  a  car   sold  on  'change,  as 
they    vary ;    but   a   carload   is    20,000    pounds,   or 
about  333  bushels.     The  same  wheat  while  in  the 
elevator  may  change  hands  any  number  of  times 
before  being  shipped  out,  as  the  wheat  is  held  for 
storage. 

We  have  now  traced  the  wheat  to  the  elevator 
and  to  the  board  of  trade;  let  us  now  see  what 
becomes  of  it,  and  how  the  board  benefits  that 
part  of  the  transaction.  Samples  of  the  standards 
are  sent  to  all  the  different  boards  of  trade  in  this 
country,  also  in  Europe,  whither  our  grain  is  exported. 
Now,  for  example,  a  dealer  in  Liverpool  wants 
some  grain ;  he  examines  the  different  samples 
before  him  and  chooses  No.  i  Michigan  white.  He 
telegraphs  to  his  agent  in  New  York  for  so  many 
thousand   bushels  of  that    grade.     In    time    that 


agent  dipatches  to  his  buyer  in  Detroit  for  the 
amount.  This  last-named  agent  goes  on  'change 
and  buys  it  of  the  agent  to  whom  had  been  sent 
the  wheat  bought  of  the  farmers,  making  a  long 
series  of  operations,  which  pass  through  a  large 
number  of  hands,  over  thousands  of  miles  of  land 
and  water;  and  yet,  through  the  medium  of  grades 
established  by  the  board  of  trade,  each  transaction 
has  been  done  intelligently,  both  parties  knowing 
just  what  they  were  buying  and  selling.  Neither 
does  it  stop  here;  it  is  frequently  sold  more  than 
once  before  it  reaches  port,  while  in  transit,  and  all^ 
is  done  smoothly  and  easily. 

It  enables  the  farmer  to  know  just  how  thoroughly 
to  clean  up  his  wheat  in  order  to  get  such  a  grade, 
and  it  connects  the  whole  business  from  the  time  it 
is  first  taken  to  market  until  it  is  finally  consumed. 
There  is  no  use  of  enlarging  on  its  usefulness  or  its 
necessity,  as  it  is  just  as  essential  to  have  the  board 
estabUsh  the  standards  of  grain,  in  order  to  do  busi- 
ness understandingly,  as  it  is  for  Congress  to  estab- 
lish the  standard  of  our  coin.  The  influence  of  the 
board  does  not  stop  here.  You  will  find  that  all 
foreigners  coming  here  for  information  in  regard 
to  our  productions,  our  commerce,  or  for  any  infor- 
mation as  to  the  development  of  the  country, 
go  to  the  board  of  trade  for  such  knowledge, 
for  they  there  find  practical  business  men  who 
can  give  information  from  practical  experience. 
In  fact,  that  body  is  generally  the  headquarters  for 
the  enterprise  and  business  of  the  producing  portion 
of  the  country. 

Any  person  buying  anything'  and  refusing  to 
receive  it  is  expelled  from  the  board,  and  not  per- 
mitted to  do  business  there  any  longer.  _  If  a  party 
is  reported  not  sound,  their  affairs  are  immediately 
investigated  and  reported  to  the  board.  They  have 
uniform  rates  to  be  charged  for  doing  business,  and 
any  one  charging  either  more  or  less  is  summarily 
dealt  with.  During  the  hour  of  'change  the  board 
receives  telegraphic  information  from  all  over  the 
country,  and  the  markets  of  Europe.  Grain  deal- 
ers accept  the  price  paid  for  wheat  "  on  'change  " 
as  their  guide  to  make  prices  from. 

The  influence  of  the  board  tends  to  remunerate 
business  integrity,  and  gives  preference  to  those  old, 
honorable  dealers  who  have  spent  the  best  part  of 
their  lives  in  building  up  business  reputation.  A 
man,  to  become  influential,  has  to  do  so  by  years  of 
patient  industry  in  his  business.  A  man  of  no  ex- 
perience cannot  be  recommended  to  engage  in  trans- 
actions on  the  Board,  or  to  send  to  commission  men 
to  have  them  make  investments  for  him. 

Boat.  Many  farmers,  as  well  as  sportsmen, 
combine  profit  and  pleasure  by  hunting.  One  of 
the  requisites  of  a  successful  hunter  is  a  good  boat, 
without  which  certain  kinds  of  game  cannot  be 
successfully  hunted.  A  boat  will  also  be  found  a 
great  convenience  in  many  other  ways,  besides  a 
source  of  much  healthful  recreation. 


no 


BOAT. 


a  cheap  and  durable  boat,  we  give  plans  of  two  of 
the  leading  kinds  of  small  boats. 

A  cheap  and  durable  flat-bottomed  boat  may  be 
made  in  the  following  way :  The  bottom  is  of  two 
white-pine    boards,    or    other    light,    strong    stuif, 


Fig.  t,.—  Tke  Trestles,  Keel,  Stem,  Stern,  etc.,  of  Lap-Streak  Boat. 

tongued  and  grooved  together,  and  afterward  cut 
to  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  proportions 
given  in  the  engraving  may  vary  to  suit  circum- 
stances. Cut  the  edge  very  accurately,  giving  to  it 
a  slight  bevel  upward  that  the  joint  with  the  side- 
boards may  be  close  and  water-tight.  The  stern  is 
usually  made  of  a  tamarack  "  knee,"  though  other 
wood  will  answer,  in  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
The  front  of  the  upright  part  of  the  "knee  "  should 
be  beveled  to  an  edge,  the  bottom  being  dressed 
and  fastened  to  the  keel  with  screws  or  wrought 
nails.  The  stern  should  be  six  inches  wider  at  the 
top  than  at  the  bottom  ;  j^-inch 
spruce  stuff  is  best  for  the  sides. 
To  give  the  proper  shape  to  the 
boat,  two  mold-boards  are  put 
in  at  the  dotted  lines  shown  in 
Fig.  7,  to  be  removed  when  the 
Clamps  should  be  used  to  hold 


gunwale,  and  the  seats,  etc.,  put  in,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
8.  The  pair  of  oars  may  be  of  ash,  but  many  will 
prefer  paddles  for  a  small  boat  of  this  kind.  The 
cost  of  such  a  boat  will  depend  very  much  upon  the 
finish  given  it. 

Lap-Streak  Boats,  suitable  for  row- 
ing  or  sailing,  may  be  made  of  any  de- 
sired size  ;  the  proportions  to  be  observed 
in  building  them  are,  to  have  the  length 
four  or  five  times  the  width,  the  greater 
width  being  adapted  for  mast  and  sail. 
The  first  item  in  the  construction  of  this 
boat  is  the  keel,  which  should  be  a  piece 
of  strong  white  oak,  six  inches  wide  and 
two  inches  thick,  dressed  to  an  inch  at 
the  bottom,    and   grooved    at  the  top  ta 
receive    the    first    streak,   or   side-board. 
This  keel  should  be  fastened  upon  trestles, 
by  means  of  wedges,  to  enable  the  work 
to   be  conveniently  done.      The  stem  of  the  boat 
may  be  of  a  "  natural  crook  "  of  hard-wood,  sawed 
to  a  proper  curve,  and  mortised  to  the  end  of  the 
keel.     The  stem,  after  being  cut  to  a  proper  shape, 
is  firmly  fixed  to  the  rear  end  of  the  keel  of  the 


Fig    7.—  Bottom  a/  Flat- Bottomed  Boat. 


Fig.  5. — A  "A'««." 

sides  are  in  place, 
the  side-boards  in  position  while  being  fitted  to  the 
stem  and  stern.  Lap  the  second  board  nearly  one 
inch  over  the  first,  and  place  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth 
dipped  in  tar  between  the  boards  to  make  the  joints 
water-tight.  After  the  sides  are  in,  remove  the 
molds  and  put   in   two   ribs,   which   should*  be  of 


Fig.  6-  —  Tke  Lap-Streak  Boat  Completed 

white  oak,  ]4hy  i}4  inches. made  pliable  by  soaking 
in  water,  and  secured  in  place  by  clinched  nails.  A 
strip  of  board,  two  inches  wide,  should  be  nailed 
around  the  outside  of  the  boat   near  the  top,  or 


The  Flat-Bottomed  Boat  Completed. 

boat  by  a  "  knee."  The  three  mold-boards,  to  give 
shape  to  the  boat,  are  next  made,  and  fitted  lightly 
to  the  keel,  as  they  are  to  be  removed  when  the 
sides  are  finished.  The  trestles  and  keel,  with  the 
stem,  stern  and  mold-boards,  are  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
The  next  work  is  laying  on  the  streaks,  or  side- 
boards. These  should  be  made  of  white 
pine,  spruce,  or  cedar,  smoothly  dressed. 
They  need  to  be  cut  of  a  particular  shape, 
and  this  is  determined  by  clamping  the 
streak  upon  the  molds,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4,  marking  the  line  to  he  cut,  with  a, 
pencil.  The  first  board  is  fitted  to  the 
keel  and  firmly  nailed  the  whole  length,, 
no  nails  being  driven  into  the  mold- 
boards.  The  nails  should  be  very  plia- 
ble, so  that  they  can  be  easily  clinched 
on  the  inside  with  a  light  hammer,  a  heavy  one 
being  held  on  the  head  of  the  nail.  As  soon  as 
the  sides  are  finished,  the  ribs  may  be  put  in ; 
they  should  be  made  of  white  oak,  and  secured  ia 


BOBBIN— BONE  SPA  VI N. 


Ill 


place  by  clinched  nails.  There  should  be  some 
short  ribs  running  up  only  part  way  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boat.  A  narrow  board  is  nailed  upon 
the  inside  to  the  ribs,  a  short  distance  below  the 
rim,  for  holding  the  seats,  etc.  The  gunwale  is 
made  by  nailing  a  streak  along  the  inside  of  the 
boat,  it  resting  upon  the  ribs.  The  row-locks, 
rudder,  etc.,  may  be  ar\anged  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 
If  it  is  desired  to  have  the  boat  arranged  for  a 
sail,  the  mast  can  be  "  stepped "  into  a  piece  of 
plank  placed  in  the  forward  part  of  the  boat,  with 
a  strap  of  iron  to  embrace  the  mast,  fastened  to  one 
edge  of  the  forward  seat.  All  the  parts  as  they  are 
put  together  should  receive  a  good  coat  of  paint,  so 
that  the  boat  may  be  water-tight,  and  as  durable 
as  possible.  When  not  in  use  keep  it  under 
cover. 

Bobbin,  a  small  wooden  pin  or  bolt,  with  a 
head,  on  which  thread  is  wound  for  making  lace. 
A  similar  instrument  bored  through  to  receive  an 
iron  pivot,  and  with  a  border  at  one  or  both  ends,  is 
used  in  spinning,  to  wind  thread  on,  as  in  sewing- 
machines,  etc. 

Bockey,  a  bowl  or  vessel  made  from  a  gourd. 

Body,  Human.  The  proportions  of  a  perfect 
human  body  are  these  :  The  height  is  equal  to  the 
distance  between  the  tips  of  the  middle  fingers 
when  the  arms  are  fully  extended.  Ten  times  the 
length  of  the  hand,  or  seven  and  a  half  times  the 
length  of  the  foot,  or  five  times  the  diameter  of 
the  chest  from  one  armpit  to  the  other,  are  also 
each  equal  to  the  height  of  the  whole  body.  The 
distance  from  the  junction  of  the  thighs  to  the 
ground  is  the  same  as  from  that  point  to  the  crown 
of  the  head.  The  knee  is  just  midway  between 
the  same  point  and  the  bottom  of  the  heel.  The 
distance  from  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle 
finger  is  the  same  as  from  the  elbow  to  the  middle 
line  of  the  breast.  From  the  top  of  the  head  to 
the  level  of  the  chin  is  the  same  as  from  the  latter 
point  to  the  level  of  the  armpits,  and  from  the 
heel  to  the  toe.  The  length  of  the"  face,  or  distance 
from  the  hair  over  the  center  of  the  forehead  to  the 
tip  of  the  chin,  is  one-tenth  of  the  height  of  the  in- 
dividual. 

Body  Lice  or  Vermin :  See  Lice. 

Boil,  a  hard,  painful,  inflamed  tumor  which  on 
suppuration  discharges  pus  ("  matter  ")  mi.xed  with 
blood,  and  discloses  a  small  fibrous  mass  of  dead 
tissue  called  the  "core."  Treatment:  Poultice  the 
boil  and  paint  it  with  aqueous  extract  of  opium,  or 
tincture  of  iodine;  renew  the  process  every  two  or 
three  hours.  A  piece  of  lint  soaked  in  olive  oil 
may  be  strapped  over  the  boil  if  the  person  is 
necessitated  to  do  business.  Take  alterative  pills 
night  and  morning,  and  a  decoction  of  sarsaparilla. 
If  a  boil  breaks  apply  the  black  salve  or  APply  a 
little   Venice  turpentine;  or   an  equal   quantity  of 


soap  and  brown  sugar  well  mixed;  or  a  plaster  of 
honey  and  flour;  or  of  figs;  or  a  little  saffron  in  a 
white  bread  poultice ;  or  a  tablespoonful  of  yeast  in 
a  glass  of  water  twice  a  day.     Take  an  aperient. 

Hygienic :  Constant  application  of  cold  water;  do 
not  let  the  wet  cloth  become  warm  before  renew- 
ing it  with  cold  water.  Preventive:  Clean  food, 
well  prepared  and  well  chewed,  and  out-door 
work.  Physicians  begin  to  believe  that  boils,  car- 
buncles and  other  eruptions  do  not  purify  the  sys- 
tem. 

Boiler.  To  prevent  lime  from  being  deposited  in 
a  bofler,  put  in  the  cistern,  from  which  the  boiler 
is  fed,  a  sufficient  amount  of  oak  tan-bark  to  color 
the  water  rather  dark;  run  four  weeks  and  renew. 
Sprouts  from  malted  barley,  two  or  three  quarts 
to  each  boiler,  have  been  used  with  success.  In 
using  these  the  engineer  must  not  be  deceived  by 
the  foaming  of  the  water  when  he  is  heating  up. 
See  Engine. 

Boll,  the  seed-pod  of  a  plant. 

Bologna  (bo-lon'ya)  Sausage,  a  large  sausage 
made  of  bacon,  veal  and  pork  suet,  chopped  fine 
and  enclosed  in  a  skin. 

Bolster,  of  a  Wagon,  the  beam  fixed  under  the 
fore  end  of  the  box  -to  sr.pport  it  square  with  the 
iiinder  axle  while  the  wagon  is  turning.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  fore  axle  by  the  "  king  bolt." 

Bolt.  To  "bolt  "food  is  to  swallow  it  without 
sufficient  chewing.  Domestic  animals  often  do  this 
as  well  as  human  beings.  A  bolt  is  a  strong  pin 
used  to  fasten  or  hold  anything  in  its  place. 

Bond,  a  written  contract,  whereby  the  principal 
maker  agrees  and  obligates  himself,  under  certain 
penalties  therein  named,  to  do  or  not  to  do  a  cer- 
tain thing,  or  that  some  other  person  shall  do  or  not 
do  a  certain  specified  thing.  There  must  be  two 
parties,  a  maker  and  the  person  to  be  paid.  It 
must  be  in  writing  and  generally  under  seal.  No 
particular  form  of  words  is  essential,  but  any  words 
which  distinctly  declare  the  intention  of  the  parties 
and  indicate  that  one  is  bound  to  the  other  will  be 
sufficient.  After  it  is  signed  and  witnessed  it  must 
be  delivered. 

Bones,  Broken,  to  Manage.  When  a  bone 
in  the  arm  or  leg  is  broken,  take  several  sheets  of 
cotton  batting,  a  piece  of  comfort  or  thin  pillow, 
wrap  it  around  the  arm  or  leg,  pulling  on  the  foot 
or  hand  as  the  case  may  be.  On  the  outside  of  the 
wrapping. apply  common  laths  or  slats  of  wood,  and 
bandage  firmly.  In  case  of  fractured  rib,  skull, 
spinal  column  and  jaw,  do  nothing  until  the  surgeon 
arrives. 

Bones,  as  Fertilizers  :  See  Fertilizers. 

Bone  Spavin,  a  disease  of  horses;  See  Horse. 


112 


BONN  Y-CLABBER~B00K-KEEP1NG. 


Bonny  Clabber,  or  Clabber,  sour  milk  that  has 
thickened,  or  set  like  jelly.  In  Ireland  the  word  is 
used  for  sour  buttermilk. 

Book:  How. TO  Distinguish  a  Good  One. 
There  are  no  reliable  external  "  ear-marks  "  of 
a  good  book.  Our  best  publishers  and  "  best " 
authors  often  put  forth  poor  books — at  least  poor 
for  some  people.  As  a  general  rule  those  books 
are  best  which  have  originality  or  freshness  in  tlieir 
style,  either  in  the  thought  or  language,  or  both; 
but  it  requires  a  student  to  discern  even  these 
characteristics.  To  ascertain  the  degree  of  tht)r- 
oiighness  in  a  work  requires  a  scholar.  Books 
which  show  great  care  in  their  compilation  and 
make-up  are  generally  the  most  popular  among  the 
■  critics  in  their  respective  roles.  Our  general  ad- 
vice is,  first  fix  clearly  and  precisely  in  your  mind 
what  you  want,  and  then  consult  the  men  you  con- 
sider the  best  judges  in  that  line.  At  the  present 
day  book  agents  introduce  nearly  all  the  good 
books.  « 

The  farmer  who  "  cannot  afford  "  to  buy  books 
which  are  specially  designed  to  help  him  in  his  work 
is  practicing  a  false  economy.  The  lawyer  who 
should  try  to  get  along  without  a  library  because 
books  cost  money  which  he  did  not  want  to  spare 
would  never  succeed.  The  doctor  who  used  no 
books  and  read  no  papers  devoted  to  his  profession 
would  ruin  himself  and  the  few  patients  who  might 
employ  him.  The  farmer  who  has  books  and  papers 
devoted  to  his  work  has  an  immense  advantage  over 
his  neighbor  who  has  neither  of  these  aids.  One 
man  plods  on  alone  while  the  other  has  the  recorded 
experience  of  many  successful  farmers  and  the  re- 
sults of  an  immense  amount  of  hard  study  and  close 
observation  to  help  him.  Instead  of  saying  that  he 
cannot  afford  to  purchase  these  aids,  the  farmer 
should  feel  that  he  cannot  afford  to  do  without 
them. 

Book-Case,  Holders,  Stands,  etc.  The  book-case 
which  every  laboring  man  in  the  country  wants  is 
a  closed  one,  which  will  keep  the  books  away  from 
dust  and  vermin;  but  the  books  and  papers  should 
be  aired  occasionally,  to  prevent  a  rank  decay  that 
poisons  the  atmosphere.  A  large  one,  set  in  the 
parlor,  should  have  glass  doors.  Stands,  for  hold- 
ing books  when  one  is  reading  them,  have  been 
invented,  but  racks  fastened  to  easy  chairs  are  bet- 
ter. A  rack  for  this  purpose  is  easily  devised,  to 
be  attached  to  the  arms  of  the  chair,  and  made 
adjustable  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  reader. 
Straps  for  carrying  books  to  school  are  very  com- 
mon at  the  present  day,  and  are  a  great  economy. 
Insects  often  collect  in  the  book-case,  where  their 
presence  is  a  constant  annoyance.  One  of  these 
IS  a  kind  of  small  beetle  which  makes  a  clicking 
noise  like  the  ticking  of  a  watch,  and  hence  called 
by  the  superstitious  the  "death-watch."  Books 
should  all  be  taken  down  occasionally  and  smartly 


slapped  upon  a  table  where  the  little  'creatures, 
thrown  out,  cannot  get  away  until  they  are  killed. 
There  is  no  drug  that  will  keep  them  out  of  the 
book-case  but  what  is  worse  than  the  pest. 

Book-Keeping.  The  keeping  of  a  systematic 
record  of  transactions  and  events,  carried  out  in 
money  value.  While  it  is  not  expected  that  every 
person  can  or  will  become  a  first-class  book-keeper, 
yet  it  is  necessary  for  every  one  engaged  in  the 
ordinary  pursuits  of  life  to  have  such  knowledge  of 
the  essential  principles  of  the  science  as  will  enable, 
them  to  keep  an  ordinary  set  of  books  accurately. 

If  persons  in  general  were  to  keep  correct  accounts, 
they  would  be  less  liable  to  run  in  debt  beyond  their 
ability  to  pay,  and  there  would  be  far  less  litigation 
among  neighbors  and  those  who  have  occasion  to 
transact  business  with  one  another.  Indeed,  were 
persons  universally  to  receive  an  equivalent  for  their 
wares  when  sold,  and  were  they  able  to  pay  at  the 
time  for  what  they  have  occasion  to  purchase,  it 
would  still  be  desirable  to  keep  a  record  of  their 
business  transactions.  This  necessity  becomes  im- 
perative whenever  products  and  goods  are  bought 
and  sold  without  making  payment  at  the  time. 

The  object  of  this  article  is  to  give  such  plain  and 
practici.1  information  of  the  science  as  will  enable 
young  rnen  and  women  to  keep  a  set  of  books,  either 
in  the  single  or  double  entry  systems,  also  to  provide 
the  merchant  and  professional  man  with  full  direc- 
tions for  keeping  a  systematic  account  of  his  business. 
A  very  plain  and  simple  system  of  book-keeping  has 
been  prepared  for  the  farmer.  The  various  illustra- 
tions of  bookkeeping  given  are  after  the  most  modern 
forms,  and  are  recognized  as  standard  by  the  best 
authorities. 

Debtor  and  Creditor.  Before  giving  explana- 
tions of  the  different  systems  of  book-keeping,  we 
wish  to  speak  of  two  or  three  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  science,  which  must  always  be 
taken  into  consideration. 

Whenever  one  person  receives  anything  from  an- 
other, which  he  does  not  pay  for  at  the  time,  he  is 
said  X.0  go  in  debt  for  it,  and  is  called  a  Debtor.  A 
person  who  sells  property  without  receiving  his  pay 
at  the  time  is  said  to  give  credit  for  it,  and  is  called 
a  Creditor.  In  other  words,  the  receiver  is  always 
the  Debtor,  and  the  giver  is  always  the  Creditor. 
In  keeping  accounts  it  is  customary  and  more  con- 
venient to  abridge  and  write  Dr.  for  Debtor,  and  Cr. 
for  Creditor. 

Transaction.  The  act  of  buying  or  selling  is 
called  a  Transaction.  In  every  transaction  there 
must  be  both  a  buyer  and  a  seller.  Where  the 
property  which  exchanges  hands  is  not  paid  for  at 
the  'ime  of  tlie  transfer,  the  buyerbecomes  a  Debtor, 
and  the  seller  a  Creditor.  The  following  will  serve 
as  an  illustration  of  the  correct  use  of  the  terms 
alre.ndy  employed. 

Example. — L.  W.  Johnson  buys  of  Samuel  Smith 
one  suit  of  clothing,  for  which  he  is  to  pay  him  $37. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


113 


In  this  transaction  L.  W.  Johnson  is  the  Debtor, 
because  he  is  the  receiver^  and  Samuel  Smith  is  the 
Creditor,  because  he  is  X\\t  furnisher. 

These  gentlemen  make  the  following  entries  in 
their  respective  books,  under  the  date  of  the  trans- 
action. 

L.  W.  Johnson  writes  in  his  book  as  follows  : 
Samuel  Smith,  Cr. 

By  one  Suit  0/ Clothing,        .         ,     $37.00 

Samuel  Smith  writes  in  his  book, 

L.   JV.  Johnson,  Dr, 

To  one  Suit  of  Clothing ,        .         .     $37.00 

It  will  be  observed  in  the  above  that  the  debtor 
writes  the  creditor's  name  in  his  book,  and  the  credit- 
or writes  the  debtor's  name  in  his  book.  This  must 
always  be  done. 

This  transaction  would  be  entered  in  their  books 
in  the  following  manner: 

Samuel  Smith  writes  in  his  book, 


1SS3. 
Mar. 

1 

L,  W,  Johnson,          .          . 
To  one  Suit  Clothing, 

Dr. 

37 

00 

L.  W.  Johnson  writes  in  his  book, 

1SS3. 
Mar. 

1 

Samuel  Smith, 
B\i  one  Suit  Clothing  . 

Cr. 

37 

00 

The  word  7'o,  with  which  the  creditor  commences 
the  entry  in  his  book,  indicates  the  passage  of  what- 
ever has  been  sold  from  him  to  the  debtor;  and  the 
word  By.  with  which  the  debtor  commences  the  entry 
in  his  book,  the  reception  Ay  him  of  that  which  the 
creditor  has  charged  to  him.  In  otiier  words,  the  To, 
on  the  Dr.  side  of  an  account,  indicates  indebtedness 
A>  us  from  the  person  named  in  the  account,  and  the 
By,  on  the  Cr  side  of  the  account,  indicates  indebt- 
edness liy  us  to  the  person  named  in  the  account. 

Abbreviations  Used  in  Book-Keeping. 

We  give  below  the  abbreviations  used  in  book- 
keeping. The  object  of  abbreviations  is  to  express 
the  facts  definitely  and  clearly,  and  yet  save  both 
time  and  space  : 


A. 

@. — At  or  to. 
Aat. — Account. 
Amt. — Amount. 
Ans. — Answer. 
A^r. — April. 
Aug. — August. 


B. 

B.  or  ^/i.— Bank. 
Bal. — Balance. 
B.  Rec. — Bills   Receiva- 
ble. 
B.  /'ay.— Bills  Payable. 
Bbl.  or  .ffr/.— Barrel. 


Bot — Bought. 

Brot.  or  brot. — Brought. 

hu. — Bushel. 

bgs. — Bags. 

bills. — Bundles. 

bis. — Bales. 

C. 
(f  or  ct. — Cents, 
c'.  B. — Cash  Book. 
Chgd. — Charged. 
Co. — Company. 
C.  O.  /^.—Collect  on  de- 
livery. 
Com  — Commission. 
Cr. — Creditor. 
cs. — Cases. 
Cwt. — Hundred-weight. 

D. 
d. — Pence. 
n.  or  rt'.— Dollar. 
Dec. — December. 
(/(?.— Ditto  (the  same). 
Dep. —  Deposit. 
i^//.— Draft. 
Dis. — Discount. 
doz. — Dozen, 
jyr.— Debtor. 
d's. — Days. 
dwt. — Pennyweight. 

E. 
E.  E. — Errors  Excepted. 
Exch. — Exchange. 
E.  cr"  O.  E. — Errors  and 

Omissions  excepted. 
embd. — Embroidered. 
Eng. — English. 
Ex. — Example. 
Exp. — Express    or    Ex- 
penses. 

F. 
fav. — Favor. 
Feb. — February. 
/j?-'^/--Figured. 
Ford  — Forward. 
fol. — Folio. 
frt. — Freight. 
fr. — Francs. 
//.—Feet. 

G. 
gal. — Gallon. 
gr. — Grain  or  Gross. 

H. 
//.—Half. 
hhd. — Hogshead. 

I. 

Ins. — Insurance. 
I.  B. — Invoice  Book. 
inst. — Present  month. 


int. — Interest. 

i?iv. — Invoice,  Inventory. 

I.  O.  U.—l  Owe  You 

J- 

/. — Journal. 
Jan. — January. 

L. 
lb. — Pound  or  Pounds.     , 
Led. — Ledger. 
L.  F. — Ledger  Folio. 

M. 

M. — One  Thousand. 
Mar. — March. 
Mdse. — Merchandise. 
mo. — Month. 
MS. — Manuscript. 
MSS. — Manuscripts. 

N. 
^V.^.— Note  Book.  Take 

particular  notice. 
Ao. — Number. 
A  ov. — November. 
A.  F. — Notary  Public. 

O.  ' 
Oct. — October. 
oz. — Ounce,  ounces. 

P. 
/.—Page. 
//. — Pages. 
F.  B.—Pass  Book. 
payi. — Payment. 
/'^.— Paid. 
per — By. 

P.  is'  Z.-Profit  and  Loss 
pr. — Pair. 
pes. — Pieces. 
pts. — Pints. 
//■««.— Premium. 

Q. 

qr. — Quarter. 
qts. — Quarts. 

R. 

R.  i?.— Railroad. 

Rec  dor  reed — Received 

rec't — Receipt.  * 

S. 
Sept. — September. 
Sund. — Sundries. 
Schr. — Schooner. 
Str. — Steamer. 

T. 
Treas. — Treasurer. 
Treas'y — Treasury. 
Trcs. — Tierces. 

U. 
«//. -Ultimo  (las.  month). 


114 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


viz. — To  wit.  Namely. 

Y. 
yds^ — Yards. 
yr. — Year. 

SIGxNS. 

$.— Dollar. 


". — Ditto  (the  same). 
jQ. — Pound  Sterling. 
%. — Per  cent. 
— . — Sign  of  subtraction. 
^. — Sign  of  equality. 
cjc. — A'ccount. 


SYSTEMS  OF  BOOK- KEEPING. 

There  are  two  recognized  systems  of  book-keep- 
ing, or  distinct  methods  of  keeping  accounts,  termed 
Book-Keeping  by  Single  Entry  and  Book-Keeping  by 
£>ouble  Entry. 

The  particular  mode  of  keeping  one's  accounts, 
and  the  number  of  books  necessary  for  use,  must  de- 
pend upon  the  nature  and  extent  of  his  business. 
While  we  give  the  different  systems  and  forms, 
which  may  be  adopted  by  mechanics,  farmers,  mer- 
cantile or  professional  men,  we  have  prepared  a 
special  system  for  the  farmer,  given  in  the  latter  part 
of  this  article,  which  we  believe  will  be  found  of 


SAMUEL  STOVER, 


Dr. 


1886. 
Mar. 
May 
Dec. 


To  8  Bn.  Potatoes 
"    5  Bbls.  Flour     . 
"    Cash  to  Balance 


.30 
7.00 


41 
4 
35 
10 


49 


cts. 
00 
00 
50 

50 


great  value  to  him.  He  may,  however,  should  he 
desire  to  do  so,  adopt  any  of  the  forms  given. 
Should  his  business  be  expensive  he  should  keep  his 
books  by  the  double-entry  system. 

Single-Entry  Book-Keeping. 

This  system  is  denoted  by  the  name  it  bears, 
transactions  being  posted  singly,  or  only  once  in  the 
Ledger,  that  is,  consists  of  but  one  debit  or  one  credit. 
Under  this  system  of  book-keeping  we  shall  give  two 
forms  of  accounts.  The  first  form  is  adapted  to 
persons  who  have  but  a  limited  amount  of  business 
to  transact,  and  is  the  simplest  form  of  book-keeping. 

First  Form  of  Accounts.  The  Ledger  is  the  only 
book  necessary  in  this  form  of  accounts,  and  its  ob- 
ject is  to  show  how  the  owner  stands  toward  the 
various  persons  with  whom  he  has  credit  transactions. 

Two  pages  opposite  each  other  are  appropriated 
for  each  individual  account  The  name  of  each  per- 
son with  whom  we  open  an  account  (and  his  resi- 
dence, when  this  is  necessary  to  identify  him)  should 
be  written  in  a  bold  hand  at  the  top  of  the  page,  or  at 
the  head  of  the  account,  as  in  the  annexed  examples. 

The  left-hand  page  is  devoted  to  the  Dr.  entries 
of  the  account,  and  the  right-hand  page  to  the  Cr. 
entries. 

The  words  To  and  By,  as  signs  of  Dr.  and  Cr. 


entries,  are  sometimes  omitted  in  both  Single  and 
Double  Entry;  and  the  Dr.  and  Cr.  sides  of  an  ac- 
count are  often  both  kept  on  the  same  page,  though- 
not  in  this  form  of  accounts.  But  in  every  form  ol 
accounts  two  sets  of  money  columns  are  required.  The 
left-hand  set  is  uniformly  employed  for  Dr.  entries,, 
and  the  right-hand  set  for  Cr.  entries. 

In  the  first  form  of  accounts  each  page  is  divided 
by  perpendicular  lines  into  five  spaces ;  in  the  first 
of  which,  commencing  at  the  left  hand,  the  year  and 
month  are  entered ;  in  the  second,  the  day  of  the 
month;  in  the  third,  the  items  bought  or  sold;  and 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth,  their  value  in  dollars  and 
cents. 

The  index  may  be  written  in  a  few  of  the  first  pages 
of  the  Ledger;  but  where  large  Ledgers  are  used  it  will 
be  found  more  convenient  to  have  a  separate  index. 

Example.  Below  we  give  an  account  with  Samuel 
Stover,  a  carpenter,  in  which  five  transactions  are 
entered.  Each  column  is  intended  to  represent  a 
separate  page  : 


SAMUEL  STOVER, 


Cr, 


1880. 

Mar. 

6 

July 

22 

Sept. 

9 

By  5  (lays'  Work         .        .         3.00 
"   2  M ft.  Lumber  .      ^.  15.00 

"   100 Jt.  Molding     . 


9 
15 
30 
4 


40 


cts. 
00 
00 
50 


50 


In  the  first  transaction  Samuel  Stover  works  forme 
five  days,  for  which  I  agree  to  pay  him  $3.00  per 
day.  Here  I  am  the  receiver,  and  hence  the  debtor, 
Samuel  Stover  is  the  giver,  and  therefore  the  creditor. 
Having  written  his  name  in  my  book,  I  credit  him 
with  the  amount  of  work  done  for  me. 

In  the  second  transaction  I  sell  Samuel  Stover  S 
bushels  of  potatoes,  for  which  he  pays  me  50  cents 
per  bushel.  In  this  transaction  he  is  the  receiver,, 
and  hence  the  debtor,  and  I  accordingly  debit  him 
with  the  amount. 

In  the  third  transaction  I  sell  him  5  barrels  of 
flour,  amounting  to  $35  00,  for  which  amount  I  again 
debit  him,  as  in  the  preceding  transaction. 

July  22,  I  bought  of  him  2,000  feet  of  lumber  at 
$15.00  per  thousand,  and  on  September  9,  100  feet 
of  molding  for  $4.50.  In  these  two  transactions  he 
becomes  the  furnisher  and  I  the  receiver.  I  there- 
fore credit  him  accordingly. 

Settlement.  Accounts  should  be  settled  at  least 
once  a  year.  Therefore  at  the  close  of  the  year,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  new  year,  I  call  upon  Mr.  Stover 
for  annual  settlement.  We  first  add  the  sums  in 
the  money  colums  of  the  credit  side  of  the  ac- 
count, and  find  they  amount  to  $49' 5°.  We  next, 
in  like  manner,  add  the  sums  of  the  debit  side,  and 
they  amount  to  $39.00,  which  is  the  sum  total  of  all 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


"5 


goods  I  sold  to  him.  We  then  subtract  the  amount 
of  the  debits,  and  find  we  have  $10.50  remaining, 
which  is  the  amotint  of  my  indebtedness  to  him.  I 
pay  him  this  sum  and  debit  him  "To  Cash  to  Bal- 
ance, $10.50."  I  then  draw  a  single  line  under  the 
money  columns,  and  after  adding  them  and  placing 
the  amount,  $49.50,  under  each,  draw  a  double  line 
beneath,  to  show  that  the  acount  is  balanced  and 
closed. 

Should  one  side  of  the  account  contain  more  en- 
tries than  the  other,  an  oblique  line  should  be  drawn 
across  the  unoccupied  space,  as  you  will  notice  is 
done  in  examples  given  further  on  in  this  article. 
The  Dr.  and  Cr.  amounts,  when  footed,  should  equal 
each  other,  and  be  on  the  same  horizontal  line. 

Accounts  may  be  kept  with  individuals,  with 
wheatfields,  with  bills  receivable,  cash,  etc.,  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  above  example,  or  as  given  in 
the  following  form  of  the  Cash  account. 

Cash.  An  account  may  and  should  be  kept  with 
Cash,  the  same  as  with  an  individual,  as  in  the  above 
example.  Persons  who  have  limited  cash  dealings 
may  keep  their  Cash  account  in  the  Ledger,  and  in 
the  same  manner  they  do  their  personal  accounts. 
But  when  one's  account  is  extensive,  or  the  en- 
tries in  it  become  frequent  and  numerous,  it  will 


CASH, 


Dr. 


188G. 

S 

cts. 

Jan. 

1 

To  Cash  on  hand 

2o 

75 

Feb. 

2 

"    2  Bhls.  Flour 

8.00 

16 

00 

fck 

10 

"    5  Gal.  Molasses  , 

1.08 

5 

40 

(fc 

23 
1 

"    10  Cords  Wood    . 

3.00 

30 

00 

77 

13 

Mar. 

To  Balance  brought  doion 

67 

25 

be  best  to  keep  the  account  in  a  separate  Cash- 
Book  provided  for  that  purpose,  which  should  be 
balanced  at  the  close  of  each  day.  In  opening  the 
account.  Cash  should  be  debited  with  the  amount  on 
hand.  All  moneys  received  should  be  entered  on  the 
Dr.  side  of  the  Cash  account,  and  all  moneys  paid 
out,  on  the  Cr.  side  of  the  account.  In  balancing 
the  account,  Cash  should  be  credited  with  the  amount 
on  hand.  But  as  this  is  not  paid  out,  it  is  here  en- 
tered in  different  type,  and  usually  in  red  ink,  to  de- 
note that  fact.    Cash  is  then  debited  for  the  balance. 

The  amount  on  hand  at  the  opening  of  an  account 
with  Cash,  together  with  the  sums  received  at  differ- 
ent times,  should  exactly  equal  the  amount  of  the 
sums  paid  out  and  the  cash  on  hand  at  the  time  of 
balancing  the  account  The  Dr.  entries  show  what 
Cash  has  been  received  for,  and  the  Cr.  entries  show 
what  Cash  has  been  paid  for. 

The  first  entry  in  the  Cash  account  must  always 


be  on  the  Dr.  side;  for  no  person  can  payout  money 
unless  he  first  has  it  on  hand.  It  is  likewise  appar- 
ent that  the  credit  entries  in  the  Cash  account  can 
never  exceed  the  debit  entries.  When  these  are 
exactly  equal,  there  can  be  no  Cash  on  hand.  When 
the  Dr.  side  of  the  account  amounts  to  more  than 
the  Cr.  side,  the  difference,  if  the  account  has  been 
correctly  kept,  will  exactly  equal  the  Cash  on  hand. 

An  account  may  be  balanced  and  continued  on  the 
same  page.  Whenever  a  folio  is  filled,  and  the  ac- 
count not  closed,  the  two  sides  of  the  account  should 
be  added  and  the  amount  carried  to  some  other  folio 
designated. 

Rule  for  Dr.  .\nd  Cr.  Entries.  The  books  of 
the  Creditor  should  specify  every  item  sold,  and  give 
tlie  value  and  quantity.  The  books  of  the  Debtor 
should  likewise  specify  both  the  quantity  and  value 
of  every  article  purchased  by  him,  unless  bills  are  re- 
ceived of  goods  bought  by  him.  Should  this  be  done, 
which  is  preferable,  the  holder  of  them  may  only  enter 
the  amountm  his  account,  but  he  should  keep  the  bills 
on  file  until  the  settlement.  In  case  goods  are  paid 
for  in  money  when  purchased,  it  is  sufficient  for  each 
party  to  enter  the  transaction  in  his  Cash  account. 

When  payment  is  made  "  by  note,"  the  Creditor 
should  make  the  necessary  entry  under  the  head  of 


CASH, 


Cr. 


1886, 

$ 

eta. 

Jan. 

10 

By  liepairinr/  Wayon 

0 

50 

i» 

23 

'■  Books  as  per  Bill 

4 

00 

4i 

26 

"  20  lb.  Bice 

.  .07 

1 

40 

Feb. 

9 

"  20  "  Sugar 

.  .10 

2 

00 

ii 

28 

"  Balance  on  hand 

07 

77 

25 
15 

Bills  Receivable,  and  the  purchaser  under  the  head 
of  Bills  Payable ;  and  in  case  there  is  an  account 
between  the  parties  the  whole  transaction  should  be 
shown.  But  when  a  bill  of  goods  is  "  charged  in 
account,"  the  merchant  should  simply  debit  the  pur- 
chaser with  the  items  sold,  which  should  be  credited 
in  the  books  of  the  latter. 

Bills  Receivable.  This  term  includes  all  writ- 
ten obligations  for  the  payment  of  money  which  you 
hold  against  other  persons,  such  as  Promissory  Notes, 
Due  Bills,  Orders,  Drafts,  etc.  When  any  of  these 
are  received  by  you,  they  should  be  at  once  entered 
under  the  head,  Bills  Receivable,  noting  particulars, 
after  which  they  may  be  placed  on  their  proper  files. 
Then  by  referring  to  the  Bill-Book  it  will  be  easy  to 
see  when  any  obligation  you  hold  against  another  be- 
comes due,  where  it  is  payable,  etc.  You  thus  save 
yourself  the  trouble  of  examining  various  packages  of 
papers,  the  contents  of  which  are  here  noted.      Bills 


ii6 


BOOK-KEEFIJVG. 


when  thus  entered  may  be  readily  referred  to  by 
number.  Persons  engaged  in  extensive  business  find 
it  convenient  to  keep  separate  Bill-Books;  but  those 
who  transact  a  limUed  business  may  require  only  a 
folio  of  their  Ledger,  properly  ruled. 

Bills  Payable  include  all  written  obligations  for 
the  payment  of  money,  of  whatever  kind,  given  by 
you  to  other  persons.  Whenever  you  give  such  an 
obligation  you  should  enter  the  particulars  in  the 
Bill-Book.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  note,  at 
the  time,  at  least  the  amount  and  zvhen  due,  together 
with  t.\\t  payee's  name  and  where  payable. 

The  wa/Cvr  of  a  note  (called  also  the  giver  or  drawer) 
is  the  person  who  gives  the  note,  and  who  must  sign  it. 
The  payee  of  a  note  is  the  person  to  whom  it  is  made 
payable.  The  place  where  a  note  is  payable  should 
always  be  specified  whenever  the  payee  (or  holder  of 
the  note  at  the  time  it  becomes  due)  does  not  expect 


to  call  at  the  maker's  place  of  business,  or  at  his 
residence,  for  payment. 

In  connection  with  the  general  statement  concern- 
ing Bills  Receivable  and  Bills  Payable,  presented 
above,  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  keep  a  Dr.  and 
Cr.  account  with  each.  This  is  done  in  the  same 
manner  that  an  account  is  kept  with  an  individual, 
or  with  Cash. 

When  we  give  anything  for  a  Bill,  or  on  its  ac- 
count, we  debit  it.  When  we  receive  anything  for  a 
Bill,  or  on  its  account,  we  credit  it.  The  first  entry 
to  every  Bills  Receivable  is  on  ibe  Dr.  side  of  the 
account.  The  first  entry  to  every  Bills  Payable  is 
on  the  Cr.  side  of  the  account. 

Bills  receivable  and  bills  payable  may  be  kept  in 
the  first  or  simplest  form  of  accounts,  as  given  in  the 
following  example : 


NOTES  AND  BILLS  RECEIVABLE. 


No. 

Date. 

Maker's  Name. 

Indorser's  Name. 

Where  Payable. 

When  Due. 

Amount. 

Remarks. 

1884. 

iSSs- 

I 

Jan. 

2 

Allen  Ferry 

Joshua  Miller 

My  Store 

July 

5 

25075 

Pd.  July  3,  1885. 

2 

July 

20 

Thomas  Lincoln 

Martin  James 

1st  A  at.  Bank 

Jan. 

2J 

7500 

Paid  at  Maturity. 

3 

Dec. 

1885. 

J 

Wm.  Sherman 

None 

My  Store 

June 
1886. 

4 

180 

00 

ti     t(         (1 

4 

Mar. 

5 

Damond  Lever 

Samuel  White 

Farmer's  Bank 

Jan. 

2 

400 

50 

Pd.  Dec.  I,  188^. 

NOTES  AND  BILLS  FA  YABLE. 


No. 

Date. 

Payee's  Name. 

Indorser's  Name.  Where  Payable 

When  Due. 

Amount. 

Remarks. 

1885. 

1886. 

I 

Jan. 

4 

Calvin  Cutter 

None 

Cutters  Office 

July 

7 

50 

00 

Paid  at  Maturity. 

2 

1886. 

20 

D.  G.  Goodman 

Harvey  Roberts 

My  Home 

Dec. 
1887 

20 

284 

50 

Pd.  Dec.  18,1886. 

3 

Jan. 

20 

Doc  Johnson 

None 

Farmer  s  Bank 

Jan. 

I 

500 

00 

General  Settlement.  A  General  Settlement 
shows  how  a  person  stands  with  the  world,  or  with 
all  persons  with  whom  he  transacts  business,  taken 
collectively.  It  is  made  by  taking  an  inventory  of 
one's  property,  to  the  fair  value  of  which  he  must  add 
the  sum  of  the  balances  due  him  from  others  in  the 
settlement  of  his  personal  accounts,  and  the  balance 
due  him  on  bills  receivable.  From  the  total  amount 
of  these  he  must  deduct  the  sum  of  the  balances  due 
others  in  the  settlement  of  his  personal  accounts,  to- 
gether with  the  balance  that  may  become  due  from 


him  on  bills  payable.  The  difference  of  these  ac- 
counts' will  evidently  represent  his  exact  standing 
with  all  persons  with  whom  he  has  business  relations. 
When  a  person's  indebtedness  exceeds  what  he 
possesses  and  what  is  due  him,  taken  together,  he  is 
insolvent,  and  is  sometimes  said  to  be  worse  off  than 
nothing. 

Second  Form  of  Accounts  in  Single  Entry. 

In  this  form  of  accounts,  which  is  adapted  to  per- 
sons more  extensively  engaged  in  business  than  rep- 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


117 


resented  by  the  foregoing,  two  principal  books  are 
used — the  Day-Book  and  the  Ledger.  Besides  these 
there  are  some  smaller  books  which  are  convenient, 
some  of  which  are  necessary  to  be  kept.  Of  these 
the  Cash-Book  is  the  most  important. 

Day-Book.  All  transactions  are  entered  in  this 
book  which  require  a  debit  or  credit  to  any  person 
with  whom  you  have  dealings.  The  form  of  entry 
is  very  simple,  thus  :  "  John  Carter  Dr.  To  6  lb. 
Nails  @  7,  42,"  or  "  Ira  Kost  Cr.  By  Cash  on  acct. 
$5.00;"  in  every  case  specifying  the  details  which 
constitute  the  debit  or  the  credit. 

Whenever  you  do  a  job  of  work  for  a  person  or 
sell  him  anything,  or  pay  him  money,  or  he  in  any 
Other  manner  becomes  indebted  to  you,  he  must  be 
charged  or  (debited)  with  the  same  in  this  book,  to 
show  that  he  owes  you.  And  whenever  any  person 
sells  you  anything,  pays  you  money,  or  does  work 
for  you,  or  you  in  any  other  manner  become  indebted 
to  him,  he  must  be  credited  with  the  same  in  this 
book  to  show  \\MiX.  you  07ve  him. 

This  is  the  only  book  from  which  you  post ;  and 
therefore  every  entry  which  you  wish  to  bring  into 
any  account  in  the  Ledger  must  be  entered  here. 

Erasures  are  not  allcnuable  in  the  Day-Book,  as 
they  look  suspicious,  and  frequently  render  invalid 
the  evidence  of  entries  therein. 

In  ^'Cii&cmg pztrchases.,  it  is  allowable  to  say,  "Am't 
as  per  bill,"  or,  "Am't  as  per  Invoice,"  and  omit  the 
detail  of  items,  since  you  have  the  Invoice  filed 
away,  or  pasted  in  a  book  so  that  you  can  refer  to  it 
at  any  time;  but  in  entering  sales,  the  items  should 
always  be  mentioned  in  your  Day-Book,  as  this  is 
your  legal  evidence  of  the  transaction  ;  and  in  order 
to  be  taken  as  evidence,  each  article  must  be  dis- 
tinctly named. 

Ledger.  Into  this  book  all  sums  entered  in  the 
Day-Book  are  transferred,  an  account  being  opened 
with  each  different  person,  into  which  every  debit 
and  credit  made  to  that  person  is  collected.  This 
process  is  called  posting,  and  the  advantages  derived 
from  it  are,  that  by  looking  at  any  person's  account 
in  the  Ledger,  you  can  see  at  a  glance  your  whole 
dealings  with  that  person,  and  also  the  balance  which 
is  due  him  or  you,  which  you  could  not  find  without 
much  trouble  and  great  liability  to  error,  if  the 
amounts  of  debit  and  credit  were  all  left  standing 
scattered  through  the  Day-Book.  The  amount  only 
of  the  articles  purchased  at  any  one  time  is  carried 
to  the  Ledger. 

Instructions  are  sometimes  given  to  note  in  con- 
nection with  debit  and  credit  entries  in  the  Ledger 
the  words  "  Sundries,"  "  Groceries,"  "  Goods,"  "  Mer- 
chandise," "  Cash,"  "  Note,"  "  Order,"  etc.,  as  the 
case  may  be.  This  may  be  properly  done  whenever 
such  an  entry  will  save  the  necessity  for  referring 
to  the  Day-Book  for  explanation ;  for  we  should 
keep  as  few  books  as  will  answer  our  purpose,  and 
with  the  least  writing  practicable  make  them  tell 
the  most   possible.     But   as   such   entries   give  the 


Ledger  a  bad  appearance,  they  should  be  employed 
only  when  useful. 

Cash-Book.  The  Cash-Book  is  simply  a  memo- 
randum for  keeping  the  Cash  account  correctly. 
There  are  various  ways  of  keeping  ihe  Cash-Book, 
but  the  form  heie  shown  is  perhaps  as  simple  as  any, 
as  easily  kept,  and  as  liitle  liable  to  mistakes, 
for  persons  whose  cash  transactions  are  not  very 
numerous,  and  who  are  not  scientific  accountants. 

Wherever   money    is    received    from    any   source 
whatever,  it  must  be  entered  in  this  book  as  "Rec'd" 
(describing  for  what),  and  the  amount  must  be  ex- 
tended into  the  left-hand  dollars  and  cents  column, 
which   is   called  tlie   debit  column  ;  and  whenever 
money  is  paid  out  for  any  purpose  whatever,  it  must 
be  entered  in  this  book  as  "  Paid"  (telling  for  what), 
and  the  amount  extended  to  the  right-hand  dollars 
and  cents  column,  called  the  credit  column.    Thus  if 
the  account  is  kept  correctly,  the  difference  between 
these  two  columns  will  show  at  all  times  the  balance 
of  cash  on  hand  and  will  agree  with  the  actual  amount 
of  money  in  possession,  counting  that  which  is  de- 
posited in  the  bank  as  well  as  what  is  in  the  store  or 
shop ;  and  if  it  does  not  so  agree,  there  has  been 
some  error,  which  must  be  searched  for  and  corrected. 
The  credit  column  can  never  be  the  larger,  since  it  is 
impossible  to  pay  out  more  money  than  you  receive. 
The  Cash-Book  should  be  balanced  at  the  end  of 
each  week — or  daily  when  much  business  is  done — 
by  entering  in  the  credit  column  the  balance  of  cash 
on  hand(usually  done  in  r^^ink)rulingand  footing  both 
columns,  and  underneath  the  closure    entering   the 
balance  on  hand  (in  black  ink)  in  the  debit  column. 
The  Cash-Book  should  bs  jjosted  once  a  month. 
That  is,  the  entries  in  it  should  be  transferred  to  the 
Ledger,  and  entered  there  each  in  its  proper  account. 
As  these  transfers  are  made,  iht  folio  (or  number  of 
the  page)  of  the  Ledger  to  which  the  Ledger  is  post- 
ed should  be  written  in  the  Cash-Book  in  the  col- 
umn ruled  for  that  purpose,  which  is  immediately  on 
the  left  of  the  dollars  and  cents  column.     This  in- 
sures accuracy  in  referring  from  the  Cash-Book  to 
the  Ledger.    The  Cash-Book  is  said  now  to  be  closed 
— that  is,  all  the  entries  for  the  month  have  been 
transferred  to  their  proper  places  in  the  Ledger;  and 
the  book-keeper  is  ready  to  commence  the  record  of 
the  transactions  of  the  next  month. 

The  Cash  account  may  be  tested  at  any  time,  with- 
out balancing  the  Cash-Book,  by  finding  the  differ- 
ence between  the  debit  and  credit  columns,  on  a 
scrap  of  paper,  and  comparing  that  difference  with 
the  cash  on  hand.  This  should  be  done  daily  when 
the  Cash-Book  is  balanced  only  once  a  week. 

Petty  Cash-Book.  It  is  the  custom  of  most 
book-keepers  to  use  what  is  called  a  Petty  Cash-Book. 
Any  blank  book  ruled  with  dollars  and  cents  columns 
will  answer.  The  Petty  Cash-Book  is  used  for  ex- 
penditures only,  and  its  use  saves  the  book-keeper  a 
great  deal  of  time  and  labor  which  would  be  required 
were    all   the  minor  expenses  of  an  establishment 


ii8 


BOOK-KEEPfNG. 


entered  in  the  Cash-Book  and  transferred  separately 
to  their  proper  accounts  in  the  ledger.  The  book- 
keeper enters  all  the  sums  paid  out  day  by  day  in  the 
Petty  Cash-Book  as  "Sundry  Expenses,"  "Freights," 
"  Interest,"  money  paid  to  employes  who  have  no 
fixed  pay-day,  "  Telegrams,"  "Porterage,"  etc.  At  the 
end  of  the  week  or  month,  as  his  custom  may  be,  he 
adds  these  expenditures  in  the  Petty  Cash-Book,  and 
enters  the  aggregate  amount  on  the  credit  page  of  the 
regular  Cash-Book,  from  which  it  is  posted  to  the 
Ledger  in  the  ordinary  way.  Bear  in  mind  that  the 
Petty  Cash-Book  is  used  for  entering  minor  expendi- 
tures only,  and  never  for  entering  money  received. 

Posting.  Posting  books  is  transferring  the  ac- 
counts of  various  persons  from  the  Day-Book  through 
which  they  are  scattered  to  the  Ledger  and  arrang- 
ing each  on  a  folio  by  itself,  with  the  proper  refer- 
ence figures  in  the  Day-Book  to  show  the  folio  of  the 
Ledger  into  which  each  entry  is  posted,  and  with 
corresponding  reference  figures  in  the  Ledger  to 
show  the  page  of  the  Day-Book  from  which  each 
entry  is  posted. 

Posting  is  done  as  follows :  Take  the  Day-Book 
and  turn  to  the  first  unposted  entry,  and  by  means  of 
the  index  find  the  account  in  the  Ledger  to  which 
the  entry  belongs,  if  such  an  account  has  been 
opened.  If  no  such  an  account  has  been  opened  in 
the  Ledger,  write  the  proper  title  in  the  index,  oppo- 
site which  place  the  folio  of  the  Ledger  that  is  to  be 
devoted  to  the  account,  and  then,  having  entered  the 
title  in  the  Ledger,  proceed  with  the  posting.  Entries 
may  be  posted  directly  from  the  Cash-Book. 

If  at  any  time  it  is  ascertained  that  a  transaction 
has  not  been  recorded  in  its  proper  place,  and  under 
its  appropriate  dale,  the  entry  should  be  immediately 
made  with  the  proper  explanations. 

Should  an  entry  at  any  time,  by  accident  or  care- 
lessness, be  made  on  the  wrong  side  of  an  account,  it 
should  not  be  erased;  but  the  same  amount  should 
be  entered  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  account,  "  To 
Error,"  or  "  By  Error,"  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  ap- 
parent that  the  only  effect  of  the  last  entry  will  be 
to  counteract  the  mistake;  this  done,  the  correct  entry 
should  be  made.  In  case  a  transaction  is  entered  to 
the  wrong  account,  the  correction  is  made  in  a  simi- 
lar manner;  but  too  great  pains  eannot  be  taken  to 
make  the  original  entries  correct.  It  should  be  the 
aim  and  pride  of  the  book-keeper  never  to  make  a 
mistake  in  the  entry  of  his  accounts. 

When  the  Ledger  is  filled  and  a  new  one  is  opened, 
any  unsettled  accounts  may  be  carried  to  the  new 
Ledger  in  the  same  manner  that  an  account  is  car- 
ried from  one  folio  to  another. 

When  a  person  has  several  Ledgers,  they  should  be 
designated  by  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  thus : 
Ledger  A,  Ledger  B,  etc.  Day-Books  should  be  let- 
tered in  the  same  manner;  and  the  first  entry  that  is 
posted  from  a  new  Day-Book  into  the  Ledger  should 
showinthe  Ledger  the  Day- Book  from  which  it  is  post- 


ed. For  example,  if  you  commence  Day-Book  A  and 
Ledger  A,  at  the  same  time,  the  Day-Book  may  be 
filled  when  the  Ledger  is  not  more  than  one-fourth 
full.  In  this  case  the  first  entry  to  each  account 
that  is  posted  from  Day-Book  into  Ledger  A  should 
be  entered  thus :  To  or  By  (as  the  case  may  be) 
Day-Book  B,  p.  i. 

Example.  To  illustrate  the  mode  of  making  entries 
in  the  Day-Book,  and  posting  them  into  the  Ledger,  we 
give  the  following  forms.  These  show  a  number  of 
transactions  made  by  a  retail  merchant,  with  the  day- 
book entries  and  ledger  postings  which  such  trans- 
actions require.  The  learner  can  regard  himself  as 
the  merchant,  and  suppose  these  to  be  actual  transac- 
tions occurring  in  real  business.  The  following  are  the 
transactions  given  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence  : 

Tuesday,  Jan.  4,  1886. 

I  sold  to  C.  P.  Corey  i  overcoat  at  $35.00,  i  pair 
rubbers  75  cts.,  i^  dozen  linen  handkerchiefs  at 
$4.00  per  dozen. 

Wednesday,  Jan.  j,  1886. 

This  day  I  sold  to  Winter  Scripps  25  yards  of 
sheeting,  at  105^  cents  a  yard,  4  gallons  sirup  at 
%i.oo  a  gallon.  I  bought  of  him  8  bushels  of  apples 
at  60  cents  per  bushel,  and  16  bushels  of  potatoes 
at  40  cents  per  bushel. 

The  same  day  I  sold  to  W.  H.  Lawrence  ij^ 
pounds  of  cinnamon  at  80  cents  a  pound,  8  pounds  of 
sugar  at  10  cents  per  pound,  i  barrel  of  flour  at  $7.50. 

Thursday,  Jan.  6, 1886. 

I  received  of  Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  Chicago,  5 
dozen  handkerchiefs,  $3.00  per  dozen;  75  yards  of 
lace,  30  cents  per  yard  ;  500  yards  prints,  5  cents  per 
yard ;  187  Vi  yards  carpet  at  65  cents  per  yard,  and 
I  rug  at  $7.50. 

The  same  day  I  sold  David  Clarke  18  yards  car- 
pet at  90  cents  per  yard,  22  yards  prints  at  7  cents 
per  yard. 

Saturday,  Jan.  7,  1886. 

On  Saturday,  C.  P.  Corey  settled  his  account  by 
paying  me  $41.75  cash. 

Upon  the  same  date  Winter  Scripps  bought  10 
yards  carpet  at  90  cents  per  yard,  and  one  valise, 
$6.00. 

Tuesday,  Feb.  2,  1886. 

David  Clarke  bought  of  me  to-day  i  pair  of  boots 
at  $6.50,  and  Winter  Scripps  bought  18  yards  of  silk 
at  $1.75  per  yard,  and  r  umbrella  at  $3.50. 

Wednesday,  Feb.  j,  i88j. 

I  sold  C.  P.  Corey  i  set  of  spoons  at  $9.00  and  r 
set  of  forks  at  $12.00. 

The  same  day  Winter  Scripps  bought  two  window 
curtains  at  $3.00  each,  and  paid  $51.48,  being  the 
balance  due  me. 


Specimen  Page  of  Day-Book. 
MANSFIELD,  JANUAR  V  4,  1886. 


119 


L.  F. 

C.  P.  Corey 

Dr. 

85 

To  I  Overcoat 
"   I  Pair  Rubbers 

• 

35 

00 

75 

"   i^  doz.  Handkerchiefs  @  $4.00 

. 

6 

00 

41 

75 

—    PI  curtcsiiLjy,  jLiK.  J." 

Winter  Scripps 

Dr. 

21 

To  25  yds.  Sheeting  @  lodyi^ 

, 

2 

68 

"     4  gal.  Syrup®  $1.00 

. 

4 

00 

6 

68 

Cr. 

2\ 

By    8  bu.  Apples  @  60^ 

, 

4 

80 

"   16  bu.  Potatoes  @  40^ 

6 

40 

1 1 

20 

• 

^.  Z^.  Lawrence 

Dr. 

33 

To  1 1^  lb.  Cinnamon  @    8c^ 
"  7  lb.  Sugar  @  10^ 

I 

20 
80 

«   I  bbl.  Flour 

7 

5°   1 

9 

SO 

Marshall  Field  &-  Co. 

Cr. 

By    5  doz.  Handkerchiefs,  $3.00     . 

15 

00 

40 

"  75  yds.  Lace,  30^ 

"  500  yds.  Prints,  5^ 

"  1875:^  yds.  Carpet,  65^  . 

22 

25 
121 

50 
00 
80   i 

1 

"     I  Rug    . 

7 

50 

191 

80 

David  Clarke         , 

Dr. 

41 

To  18  yds.  Carpet,  90^ 

. 

16 

20 

"  22  yds.  Prints,  7^ 

I 

54 

17 

74 

« •  — ■ouiurUiiy ^  jdn,   /. 

ss 

C.  p.  Corey 

By  Cash        .... 

Cr. 

41 

75 

Winter  Scripps 

Dr. 

■0  T 

To  10  yds.  Carpet  @  90^    . 

. 

9 

00 

^  1 

"     I  Valise 

. 

6 

00 

IS 

00 

—lucstiuy,  ecu.  ^, 

David  Clarke 

Dr. 

41 

To  I  Pair  Boots 

6 

50 

Winter  Scripps 

Dr. 

2\ 

To  18  yds.  Silk  @  Si. 75       . 

. 

31 

5° 

"      I  Umbrella 

3 

50 

35 

00 

— -— yyeanesaay,  i^co.j. 

C.  P.  Corey 

Dr. 

35 

To  I  set  Silver  Spoons 

9 

00 

"   I    "       "       Forks 

■ 

12 

00 

21 

00 

Winldr  Scripps 

Dr. 

21 

To  2  Window  Curtains  @  S3'Oo 
Cr. 

• 

6 

00 

:2I 

By  Cash  to  Balance 

. 

51 

48 

I20 

Sp 

3cimen 

Page  of  Ledger. 

Dr. 

C.  P.  COREY. 

Cr. 

1886. 

! 

1886. 

' 

Jan. 

4 
3 

7(?  Sundries 

30 
35 

41 

75 
00 

Jan. 

1       By  Cash 

3° 

41 

75 

Feb. 

21 

Dr. 

WINTER  SCRIPPS. 

Cr. 

1886. 

1886. 

Jan. 

5 

To  Sundries 

30 

6 

68 

Jan. 

5       By  Produce 

3° 

A 

20 

(1 
Feb. 

7 
7 

If           t( 

32 
32 

IS 
35 

00 
00 

Feb. 

3         "   Cash 

31 

51 

48 

t( 

2 

K                       (( 

35 

6 

00 
68 

^^^^ 

62 

i    62 

68 

Dr. 

1       11                II 
W.  H.  LA  WRENCE. 

1 
Cr. 

1886. 

1 

i 

Jan. 

5 

Tc?  Sundries 

30 

9 

00 

■ 

Dr'. 

MARSHALL  FIELD  &'  CO. 

Cr. 

1886. 

• 

Jan.     t 

>      By  Mdse. 

30 

191 

80 

Ur. 

DAVID  CLARKE. 

Cr. 

18^6. 

Ja.. 

6 

To  Sundries 

30 

•7 

74 

Feb. 

2 

n              u 

30 

6 

1 
5° 

• 

1 

BOOK-KEEPING. 


Proof  of  Postings  and  Balances. 

We  give  below  a  test  of  the  correctness  of  posting 
the  preceding  accounts,  The  debit  and  credit  sums 
of  each  account  of  the  Day-Book  are  entered  as 
though  they  were  each  an  entire  page  of  the  Day-Book. 
The  sums  of  each  page  of  the  Day-Book  need  only 
be  taken  in  testing  your  postings  and  balances.  As 
every  debit  amount  of  the  Day-Book  has  been  posted 
to  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Ledger,  and  every  credit  sum 
to  the  Cr.  sides  of  the  Ledger,  the  difference  in  the 
amounts  of  the  Dr.  and  Cr.  sides  of  the  Ledger  bal- 


ances should  exactly  equal  the  Day-Book  balances. 
All  those  accounts  which  exactly  balance  should  be 
omitted  from  the  trial  balance. 

It  appears  that  the  Cr.  amounts  of  the  Day-Book 
when  added  together  exceed  the  Dr.  amount  $137.06, 
as  shown  by  the  Balatue.  In  obtaining  the  Ledger 
balances,  equal  amounts  have  been  omitted  from  each 
side  of  the  account,  and  the  difference  in  the 
amounts  of  the  Dr.  and  Cr.  Ledger  balances  is 
also  $137.06,  or  exactly  equal  to  the  Day-Book  bal- 
ances ;  hence  we  conclude  that  the  postings  and 
balances  of  the  Ledger  are  correct. 


PBOOF  OF  POSTING  AND  BALANCES. 
Day-Book  Drs.  and  Crs.,  March  i,  1886. 


Pr.   Sums. 

Cr.  Sums. 

JDr.  sums  on  page 

J 

41 

75 

Cr. 

sums  on  page 

2  1 

II  20 

i.              .(          (( 

2 

6 

68 

(( 

• 

•        .   5 

igi   80 

(I              ((          i( 

2 

9 

50 

U 

U                     (( 

7 

41   75 

((              ((          (I 

6 

'7 

74 

a 

<C                      (C 

J3 

51 ,4& 

i(              «          (( 

8 

^5 

00 

a                   (I             (( 

9 

6 

50 

^^ 

it                   ((             (( 

10 

35 

00 

■^ 

U                          ((                 (t 

22 

21 

00 

((                    t(             ti 

23 

6 

00 

Balance 

137 

06 

57 

» 

2g6 

2g6 

23 

Dr. 


Ledger  Balances,  March  /,  1886. 


Cr. 


C.  p.  Corey  p.             .             .             8j 
W.  H.  Lawrence  p.    .  *          .            jj 
David  Clarke  p.          .             .             42 
Balance 

21 

9 

24 

137 

00 
50 
24 
06 

80 

Marshall  Field  &•  Co.  p           .           40 

191 

80 

\ 

igi 

igi 

80 

~ 

Double-Entry  Book-Keeping. 

Double  Entry  is  a  system  of  book-keeping  in  which 
every  transaction  is  l7vice  entered;  first  on  the  debtor 
side  of  one  or  more  accounts,  and  then  on  the  credit 
side  of  one  or  more  accounts,  to  which  it  also  be- 
longs. It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  it  derives 
its  name.  It  is  now  universally  admitted  that  this 
system  is  better  adapted  to  heavy,  responsible  or 
speculative  trades,  and  for  extensive  mercantile  con- 
cerns, and  indeed  is  the  system  in  general  use  where 
any  considerable  business  is  transacted. 


The  origin  of  the  science  of  keeping  books  by  Dou- 
ble Entry  has  been  a  matter  of  much  speculation  by 
different  writers  on  the  subject,  but  nothing  definite 
can  be  ascertained  respecting  it.  McCullough,  in  his 
Commercial  Dictionary,  says  "  it  was  first  practiced  in 
Venice,  Genoa  and  other  towns  of  Italy  where  trade 
was  conducted  on  an  extensive  scale  at  a  much  ear- 
lier date  than  in  England,  France  or  other  parts  of 
Europe."  Kelly,  in  his  treatise  on  Book-Keeping,  pub- 
lished in  Ixandon  in  1833  (first  edition  in  1801),  says 
"  it  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  first  practiced 
at  Venice  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the  city  was 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


the  grand  Emporium  of  Europe ;"  although  he  adds 
"  it  is  remarkable  that  the  first  European  who  trans- 
lated Algebra  from  the  writings  of  the  Arabians  is  also 
supposed  to  have  written  the  first  treatise  on  book  - 
keeping.  It  was  published  in  the  Italian  language  at 
Venice,  about  the  year  1495,  ^y  Lucas  de  Burgo,  a 
friar,  who  likewise  wrote  several  useful  books  on 
mathematical  subjects."  Colt,  in  a  lecture  delivered 
at  Boston,  says  the  Italians  "most  likely  picked  up, 
among  other  things,  all  they  ever  knew  of  Double- 
Entry  Book-Keeping,  at  Constantinople,  Alexandria, 
or  some  other  eastern  city,  whose  traders  more  an- 
ciently may  have  practiced  it  in  their  commerce  with 
Northern  Africa,  Hindostan,  and  the  countries  border- 
ing on  the  Red  Sea  ;"  and  thinks  it  more  likely  that 
Hanseatic  merchants  are  the  inventors  of  Double 
Entry  than  the  Italians. 

To  whomsoever  the  credit  properly  belongs,  the 
Italians  have  pretty  generally  received  it,  and  that  sys- 
tem (embracing  the  day-book  in  history  form  (origi- 
nally called  waste-book  or  blotter),  the  journal  and 
ledger,  as  the  main  books  of  entry — is  usually  denom- 
inated the  Italian  method. 

The  Golden  Rule  of  Double  Entry,  which  may  be 
concisely  stated  in  six  words,  is.  Every  Debit  must 
have  its  Credit. 

By  bearing  this  constantly  in  mind,  and  applying  it 
to  each  and  all  of  the  details  of  practical  book-keep- 
ing, the  difficulties  of  the  system  will  entirely  disap- 
pear and  its  perfect  simplicity  be  apparent. 

Different  Books. 

In  Double-Entry  Book-Keeping  three  principal 
books  have  generally  been  employed,  viz,:  a  Day- 
Book,  a  Journal  and  a  Ledger.  But  many  of  our  best 
book-keepers  now  dispense  with  the  use  of  one  of 
these  books,  by  combining  in  one  all  that  is  essential 
of  two,  and  thereby  save  themselves  much  time  and 
labor  in  writing.  A  set  of  books  should  contain  a  dis- 
tinct and  systematic  record  of  all  we  wish  or  need  to 
know  about  our  business.  That  is  the  best  system  of 
book-keeping  which  is  most  easily  kept,  which  enables 
us  most  readily  and  certainly  to  know  the  exact  state 
of  our  affairs,  and  which  is  most  intelligible  toothers. 

While  we  shall  only  illustrate  the  forms  of  the 
Ledger  and  the  Journal,  we  shall  briefly  define  all 
books  ever  kept  in  any  form,  without  it  be  for  a  pe- 
culiar business  that  might  demand  a  special  book, 
suited  only  to  it. 

Dav-Book.  The  Day-Book  is  a  plain  history  of 
your  business  transactions,  written  in  the  order  and 
date  of  their  occurrence.  It  is  necessary  to  open  the 
Day-Book  by  giving  therein  a  statement  of  your  ef- 
fects at  the  commencement  of  business,  and  also  of 
what  debts  you  owe.  Afterward  record  in  detail 
every  transaction  that  occurs  in  the  course  of  busi- 
ness, making  the  entry  in  history  form,  should  you 
choose  to  do  so,  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  have 
it  complete.    [See  Day-Book,  page  115.] 


Journal.  This  book  is  intended  to  either  contain 
the  particulars  of  every  business  transaction,  or  to 
make  special  reference  to  the  name  and  page  of  the 
book  in  which  they  are  to  be  found,  or,  if  to  papers  on 
file,  to  their  titles  and  numbers.  In  it  the  entries  are 
so  recorded  that  they  may  readily  be  posted  to  their 
proper  accounts  in  the  Ledger.  It  is  ruled  like  the  Day- 
Book,  but  is  used  differenily.  The  Dr.  amounts  are 
all  entered  in  the  left-hand  columns,  and  the  Cr. 
amounts  in  the  right-hand  columns. 

In  all  cases  the  Dr.  amount  pasted  from  an  entry, 
whether  to  one  or  more  accounts,  should  exactly 
equal  the  Cr.  amount. 

In  case  there  are  several  Dr.  items  in  an  entry,  to 
be  posted  to  as  many  different  accounts,  their  sum 
will  exactly  equal  the  sum  of  the  Cr.  items.  In  such 
cases  it  is  customary  to  use  the  word  "  Sundries  "  be- 
fore the  several  particulars  that  are  entered  on  the 
Dr.  side  of  the  account. 

When  a  page  of  the  Journal  has  been  written  up, 
the  money  columns  should  be  footed,  and  in  case  the 
Dr.  and  Cr.  sides  exactly  agree,  the  inference  is  that 
the  sums  have  been  correctly  entered.  If  they  dis- 
agree, it  is  certain  a  mistake  has  been  made.  The 
work  should  then  be  carefully  reviewed,  and  all  errors 
corrected. 

In  writing  up  the  Journal,  the  principles  already 
elucidated  for  debtor  and  creditor  are  applicable.  But 
the  usual  Dr.  and  Cr.  signs  are  omitted.  The  word 
"To,"  as  employed  in  the  Journal,  indicates  that  the 
titles  of  accounts  preceding  it  are  Dr.,  and  those  fol- 
lowing it  Cr. 

Invoice-Book.  This  is  a  book  in  which  are  entered 
at  length  all  invoices,  or  bills  of  goods  purchased.  It 
may  be  made  by  copying  invoices  into  a  book  for  that 
purpose.  But  this  requires  much  unnecessary  labor 
and  is  really  of  little  use ;  for  in  case  of  any  diffi- 
culty with  the  seller,  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  his  own 
list,  and  not  to  a  copy  of  it.  Invoices  should  be  care- 
fully compared  with  the  gogds  actually  received,  so 
that  in  case  of  disagreement  any  error  may  be  cor- 
rected, and  then  placed  on  file  for  future  reference, 
as  occasion  shall  require.  When  found  correct,  they 
should  be  entered  in  the  Day-Book,  to  the  credit  of 
the  person  of  whom  the  goods  have  been  receives, 
as  in  case  of  credits  per  bill. 

Sales-Book.  ,  In  this  book  are  entered  at  length 
all  bills  of  merchandise  sold.  It  is  kept  like  the  Day- 
Book. 

Bill-Book  is  a  book  in  which  is  kept  a  memoran- 
dum of  notes,  bills  receivable,  bills  payable  and  bills 
of  exchange.  For  a  description  of  the  manner  of  keep- 
ing this  book  see  forms  of"  Bills  and  Notes  Receiv- 
able" and  "  Bills  and  Notes  Payable,"  given  on 
page   117. 

Memorandum-Book  is  used  for  recording  memo- 
randums of  various  kinds,  agreements,  and  all  impor- 
tant particulars  relating  to  a  person's  business  that 
belong  neither  to  the  Day-Book  nor  Ledger. 

Letter-Book    contains    copies  of  all  business 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


123 


letters,  which  ought  always  to  be  written  in  a  neat, 
legible  hand,  and  to  be  as  clear  and  as  concise 
as  possible.  By  using  a  copying-press  much  labor 
may  be  saved  in  keeping  this  book,  and  at  the  same 
time  perfect  accuracy  secured.  Copies  of  letters 
thus  taken  afford  better  evidence  before  a  legal  tri- 
bunal than  the  most  perfect  copies  with  the  pen. 
The  Letter-Book  should  contain  copies  of  all  impor- 
tant business  letters. 

Ledger.  The  Ledger  may  be  appropriately  styled 
the  grand  resorvoir  of  accounts,  into  which  all  rec- 
ords in  the  other  books  flow  as  naturally  as  streams 
to  the  ocean.  It  may  also  be  styled  the  business 
man's  directory,  from  which  he  can  refer  to  the  de- 
tails contained  in  the  books  of  original  entry,  with 
the  same  ease  as  he  would  trace  out  the  residence  of 
a  friend  by  searching  the  street  and  number  in  the 
city  directory.  Its  principal  use  is  to  collect  under 
one  head  all  sums  belonging  to  the  same  account. 

Titles  of  Accounts. 

An  account  is  a  written  statement  of  business 
transactions  so  arranged  as  to  show  the  debits  and 
credits.  The  following  are  the  different  accounts 
usually  kept  in  the  Ledger  of  a  merchant  or  a  firm 
engaged  in  business : 

Stock  or  Partner's  Account.  This  is  the  first  ac- 
count opened  in  the  Ledger  on  beginning  business. 
It  represents  the  person  or  company  that  conducts  a 
business.  The  term  "  Stock  "  is  used  to  denote  the 
proprietor  of  the  business.  In  a  partnership  the 
names  of  each  of  the  persons  composing  it  are  used 
instead. 

On  the  Dr.  side  of  this  account  are  entered  all  the 
sums  they  owe  on  commencing  business,  and  on  the 
Cr.  side  the  amount  of  money  and  the  value  of  prop- 
erty they  carry  into  business.  The  excess  of  the 
credits  over  the  debits  will  be  the  net  amount  of 
property  invested  in  trade. 

Merchandise  Account.  This  is  usually  the  second 
account  opened  in  the  Ledger.  It  shows  how  much 
has  been  paid  for  Merchandise,  and  how  much  it  has 
been  sold  for.  On  the  Dr.  side  of  this  account  are 
entered  the  value  of  all  the  Merchandise  on  hand  at 
the  time  of  commencing  business,  and  the  amounts 
paid  for  all  subsequent  purchases.  On  the  Cr.  side 
of  the  account  are  entered  the  amounts  of  sales.  In 
case  the  Merchandise  is  all  sold,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  Dr.  and  Cr.  sides  of  the  account  will  ex- 
hibit the  gross  gain  or  loss  on  Merchandise.  If  any 
goods  remain  unsold,  their  value  should  be  ascer- 
tained by  taking  an  inventory  of  them,  and  then  be 
■entered  on  the  Cr.  side  of  the  account. 

Cash  Account.  The  third  account  opened  is  the 
"  Cash  Account."  This  account  shows  the  receipts 
and  disbursements  of  cash,  including  specie  and 
bank  notes.  In  it  may  also  be  entered  certificates 
of  deposit,  checks  and  drafts,  which  are  the  repre- 
sentatives of  cash. 

Expense  Account.   This  account  represents  the  ex- 


penses of  the  business  for  which  there  is  no  return. 
All  expenses  of  this  kind  must  be  posted  in  the  Ledg- 
er to  the  Dr.  side  of  this  account.  The  entries  em- 
brace such  expenses  as  rent,  clerk  hire,  furniture  and 
fixtures,  freight,  etc.  The  Cr.  side  of  this  account 
contains  nothing  until  the  close  of  the  books.  The 
amount  necessary  to  balatice  the  account  is  then  en- 
tered on  the  Cr.  side,  the  same  amount  likewise  be- 
ing entered  on  the  Dr.  side  of  Profit  and  Loss  ac- 
count. 

Profit  and  Loss  Account.  .'Vs  its  title  implies,  this 
account  exhibits  the  profits  and  losses  in  one's  busi- 
ness. On  the  debtor  side  of  this  account  are  entered 
all  losses  sustained,  and  money  paid  for  labor,  taxes, 
etc.,  which  do  not  belong  more  properly  to  other 
accounts,  including  the  sum  necessary  to  balance  the 
"  expense  account."  Upon  the  credit  side  are  entered 
all  gains  of  whatever  kind  arising  from  the  business. 
On  closing  the  account,  if  the  sum  of  the  credit  en- 
tries x'i  greater  Xhz.r\.  that  of  the  debtor,  the  difference 
will  be  the  amount  oi  profit  that  has  risen  from  the 
business,  but  if  it  is  less,  it  will  exhibit  the  amount 
of  loss  sustained. 

Personal  Accounts.  These  are  accounts  kept  with 
persons  and  show  the  relation  of  the  individual,  com- 
pany or  corporation  to  our  business,  whether  they 
owe  us  or  we  owe  them.  They  are  debited  with  all 
they  buy  or  receive  on  account,  and  credited  with  all 
we  buy  or  receive  from  them.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  sides  of  the  account  will  show  the  balance 
due  us  or  them.  If  the  debit  b&  the  larger,  the  per- 
son or  company  owes  us;  if  the  credit,  we  owe  them. 

Bills  Receivable.  This  account  shows  the  notes 
received  by  us  in  the  course  of  business.  It  is  deb- 
ited \n'Ca.  the  notes  and  drafts  given  us,  and  credited 
as  these  are  paid  or  indorsements  made  thereon. 
The  difference  between  the  sides  should  show  exactly 
the  amount  due  on  all  negotiable  time  bills.  These 
are  always  debited  and  credited  with  the  sum  ex- 
pressed on  their  face  ;  if  more  or  less  is  received,  the 
amount  goes  to  "  Interest  and  Discount."  See  para- 
graphs on  this  account  on  page  115. 

The  following  items  come  under  the  head  of  Bills 
Receivable : 

I  St.  A  note  in  our  possession  drawn  to  another 
person,  payable  to  us  or  order. 

2d.  A  note  drawn  by  another  person,  purchased 
by  us,  although  not  originally  made  payable  to  us. 

3d.  A  draft  or  bill  of  exchange  drawn  by  one  party 
on  a  second,  and  coming  in  our  possession  as  a  third 
party,  whether  accepted  or  not. 

4th.  Our  draft  on  another,  accepted  by  him  and 
retained  in  our  possession. 

Bills  Payable.  These  are  notes  and  bills  held  by 
other  parties.  The  account  is  credited  when  our 
notes  are  given,  and  debited  as  they  are  paid.  The 
difference  will  show  the  amount  of  our  written  obli- 
gations outstanding. 

The  following  items  come  under  the  head  of  Bills 
Payable : 


124 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


ist.     Our  notes  payable  to  another  person. 

2d.  A  draft  or  a  bill  of  exchange  on  us,  and  ac- 
cepted by  us. 

3d.  Any  bond  or  obligation  in  contract,  with  our 
signature  and  requiring  payment  of  us. 

Bank  Account.  This  account  represents  the  deal- 
ing with  the  bank  in  which  the  funds  of  our  business 
are  deposited.  It  is  the  reverse  of  the  account  kept 
by  the  bank  with  him.  All  money  deposited  by  him 
is  posted  in  the  Ledger  to  the  ^^(^//of  this  account,  and 
all  money  drawn  out  of  the  bank  by  him  is  posted  in 
the  Ledger  to  the  credit  oi\\\\s  account. 

Interest  Accotmt.  This  account  represents  the  in- 
terest due  on  all  notes  of  accommodation  given  by 
the  merchant  or  accepted  by  him  in  the  transaction 
of  his  business.  The  rate  of  interest  varies  in  the  dif- 
ferent States.  All  interest  due  by  the  merchant  to 
other  persons,  zuhen  paid,  is  posted  in  the  Ledger  to 
the  debit  of  the  interest  account,  and  all  interest  due 
by  his  customers  to  the  merchant,  when  paid,  is  posted 
in  the  Ledger  to  the  credit  ol  the  interest  account. 

Balanee  Account  is  the  title  of  an  account  some- 
times employed  for  the  purpose  of  balancing  unclosed 
accounts  ;  hence  its  name.  In  this  work  the  Ledger 
Balances  are  obtained  without  the  use  of  this  ac- 
count. 

Illustrative  Example. 

Having  described  the  various  books,  and  explained 
the  uses  to  which  they  are  put,  we  will  now  illustrate 
the  method  of  opening  a  set  of  books,  and  the  mode 
of  journalizing  and  posting  transactions.  We  also 
wish  to  give  the  method  of  closing  a  set  of  books 
in  Double  Entry.  We  suppose  the  merchart  to  have 
kept  a  full  set  of  books.  References  to  accounts  or 
transactions  that  have  been  made  in  the  various 
books  are  given.  We  have  explained  how  these 
should  be  entered  in  these  books  and  therefore  refer 
to  them  as  having  been  fully  recorded  in  their  right 
books  and  in  a  proper  manner. 

Monday,  Feb.  i,  1886. 

We  suppose  the  merchant  begins  his  business  this 
day.  The  first  step  is  to  state  his  capital.  The  mer- 
chaht  now  purchase^  his  stock  of  goods,  and  these 
being  received  are  entered  by  the  book-keeper  in  the 
Day-Book,  the  entry  being  made  in  the  name  of  the 
various  persons  from  whom  the  goods  were  pur- 
chased. 

These  entries  have  placed  the  merchant  (so  far  as 
his  books  are  concerned)  in  a  condition  to  commence 
business.  "  Cash"  has  been  debited  with  the  capital 
paid  in,  and  the  merchant  has  received  credit  for  this 
amount.  Merchandise  has  been  debited  with  the 
goods  purchased  by  the  merchant,  and  the  persons 
from  whom  they  were  purchased  have  been  properly 
credited  with  the  goods  supphed  by  them. 

The  next  step  is  to  enter  the  sales  made  and  the 
money  received  and  paid  out  in  the  course  of  busi- 
ness.    These  must  be  entered  in  the  proper  books 


and  under  the  proper  heading  as  explained,  the 
book-keeperbeing  careful  that  each  entry  is  correctly 
made  in  the  right  place. 

The  Ledger  is  then  prepared  for  the  various  ac- 
counts it  is  to  contain,  the  first  portion  of  it  being 
given  to  the  accounts  we  have  described  as  common 
to  every  business.  New  accounts  will  have  to  be 
opened  with  individuals  and  firms  as  the  business 
progresses,  and  the  book-keeper  must  use  discretioa 
in  the  arrangement  of  these. 

His  capital  is  as  follows  :  Cashon  hand,  $4,000.00; 
Merchandise  in  store  as  per  Inventory,  $3,565.00, 
and  one  note  (No.  i)  against  Lorenzo  Davis  for 
$258.00,  and  one  (No.  2)  against  S.  B.  Nelson  for 
$190,000. 

His  indebtedness  is  as  follows  :  He  owes  Franklin 
MacVeagh  &  Co.,  on  account  for  Mdse.,  as  per  In- 
voice Book  A,  p.  6,  $1,850.00,  and  Williams,  Johnson 
&  Co.,  as  per  Invoice  Book  A,  p.  9,  $1,261.50. 

Tuesday,  Feb.  2,  1886. 
I  have  this  day  sold  Mdse.  to  S.  S.  Chapman,  as 
per  Sales  Book  A,  p.  18,  to  the  amount  of  $456.00. 

Wednesday,  Feb.  j,  1886. 
I  have  sold  this  day  for  cash,  Mdse,  to  various  per- 
sons, as  per  Sales  Book  A,  p.  21,  to  the  amount  of 
$360.50. 

'Saturday,  Feb.  6,  1886. 

The  sixth  transaction  was  the  payment  by  S.  S. 
Chapman  in  cash  on  account  of  Mdse.  bought  Feb. 
2,  $150.00. 

Monday,  Feb.  8,  1886. 

This  day  I  bought  Mdse.  for  cash  in  Chicago,  as 
per  Invoice  Book  A,  p.  29,  to  the  amount  of  $2,187.00. 
I  paid  freight  on  the  above  goods  to  the  amount  of 
$3r.5o,  and  my  expenses  were  $18.25. 

Tuesday,  Feb.  p,  1886. 

Lorenzo  Davis  paid  his  note  of  $258.00  to-day, 
S.  S.  Chapman  bought  Mdse.  as  per  Sales  Book  A,  p. 
27,  amounting  to  $67.35. 

Wednesday,  Feb.  10,  i88(>. 

I  paid  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.,  on  account, 
$1,000.00,  and  paid  Williams,  Johnson  &  Co.  $1,- 
261.50,  in  full  of  their  account. 

Thursday,  Feb.  11,  1886. 

I  bought  Mdse.  of  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.,  on 
account,  amounting  to  $765.50,  as  per  Invoice  Book 
A,  p.  30. 

Friday,  Feb.  12, 1886. 

I  paid  $7S-oo  clerk  hire  this  day. 

I  also  accepted  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.'s  draft 
to  Williams,  Johnson  &  Co.  for  $650.00.  I  have  paid 
$500.00  of  this  amount  in  cash,  and  the  balance  is 
placed  to  the  credit  of  Williams,  Johnson  &  Co. 


JOURNAL  A— DOUBLE  ENTRY. 


125 


3 
4 

5 

I 

2 
I 
2 

5 
I 


2 
3 

S 

I 

2 
I 

3 

4 

2 

I 

3 
7 
I 
3 
4 


Friday,  Feb.  i,  i886. 


Sundries 

Merchandise  in  Store 
Cash  on  Hand 
Bills  Receivable 

No.  T,  Lorenzo  Davis 
"    2,  S.  B.  Nelson     . 
To  Stock 


Stock 

Invoice  Book  A,  pp.  6  &  9 

To  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  &'  Co. 
"    Williams,  Johnson  6^  Co. 
Feb.  2. 


6'.  ^.  Chapman 

Sales  Book  A,  p.  18 
To  Merciiandise 

Cash 

Sales  Book  A,  p.  2 1 
To  Merchandise 

Cash 
Rec'd  of  him  on  acct. 
To  S.  S.  Chapman 


-Feb.  3. 


-Feb.  6.- 


Feb.  7. 


Sundries 

Merchandise       .  '   . 

Invoice  Book  A,  p.  29 
Expense :  To  Chicago  for  Goods 
"    Freight  on       " 
To  Cash 

Feb.  8.- 

Cash 
Of  Lorenzo  Davis,  Note  No.  i 
To  Bills  Receivable     . 


S.  S.  Chapman 

Sales  Book  A,  p.  27 
To  Merchandise 

Cash 

Sales  Book  A,  p.  30 
To  Merchandise 


-Feb.  g. 


Franklin  Mac  Veagh  &>  Co.     Paid  them  on  Acct. 
Williams,   Johnson  &'  Co.     Paid  them  on  Acct. 
To  Cash  .... 

Feb.  10. — 


Merchandise 
Invoice  Book  A,  p.  30    . 

To  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  er-  Co. 
— Feb.  12. — 


Expense 

Clerk  Hire  i  month 
To  Cash 


Franklin  Mac  Veagh  cf*  Co. 
For  their  Draft 

To  Williams,  Johnson  &  Co.  . 
To  Cash      . 


Dr. 


$258.00 
190.00 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 

|i8.2S 
31-5° 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


3565 
4000 


448 
3111 

456 
360 

2187 

49 

258 
67 

765 

1000 
1261 

75 
650 


00 
00 


50 


50 


75 


35 


00 
SO 


8013 


1850 
1261 


456 


360 


15° 


2236 

258 

67 

765 


75 


IS" 
500 


00 

50 


50 


75 


35 


00 


2261   1  50 
76s 


00 


00 


00 
00 


i886.  Dr. 


STOCK. 


Cr.  1886. 


Feb. 


Feb. 


13 


'lo  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  of  Co. 
"    Williams,  Johnson  ^  Co. 
"  Bal.  [for  trial] 


To  Bal.  [of  acct.] 


1 

1850 
I26I 
4901 

00 

50 
50 

Feb. 

I 
14 

8013 

00 

4976 

75 

Feb. 

14 

a 

497675 

1  — 

By  Sundries 


By  Bal.  [for  trial.] 
"  Loss  and  Gain  [Gain] 


8013 


8013 


4901 
75 


4976 


OO' 


00 
25 


75 


1886.  Dr. 


MERCHANDISE. 


Cr.  1886. 


Feb. 


To  Stock 
"  Cash 

"  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  &'  Co. 
"  Loss  and  Gain  [Gain] 


1 

3565 

00 

Feb. 

2 

1 

2187 

00 

k( 

3 

I 

765 

00 

(( 

8 

200 

00 

9 
14 

6717 

00 

=r 

By  S.  S.  Chapman 
"  Cash 

"  S.  S.  Chapman 
"  Cash 
"  Bal.  Inv. 


456 
360 

67 

765 
5068 


6717 


00 
5«> 
35 
00 

15 

CO 


1886 

Dr. 

EXPENSE. 

Cr. 

1886 

Feb. 
Feb. 

7 
II 

14 

To  Cash 
To  Bal. 

I 

49 

75 

124 

75 
00 

75 

Feb. 
Feb. 

14 
14 

By  Bal.  [for  trial.] 
By  Loss  and  Gain 

124 

124 

75 
75 

1886 

Dr. 

CASH. 

Cr 

1886 

Feb. 

u 
u 

I 

3 
6 

8 
9 

To  Slock 
"  Mdse. 

"  S.  S.  Chapman 
"  Bills  Receivable 
"  Mdse. 

•«- 

4000 
360 

150 
258 
765 

00 

5° 
00 

00 

00 

Feb. 

(( 
U 
(i 

7 

9 

12 

12 

14 

By  Sundries                                 1 
"       "                                            1 
"  Expense                                   1 
"  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  df  Co.  1 
"  Bal.  [on  hand] 

2236 
2261 

75 
500 
460 

5533 

75 
50 
00 
00 
25 

5533 

5° 

SO 

' 

1886.  Dr. 


FRANKLIN  Mac  VEAGH  &•  Co. 


Cr;  1886. 


Feb. 


To  Cash 
"  Sundries 
"  Bal.  [due  them] 


I 
I 

1000 
650 

965 

00 

00 

00 

Feb. 

1 
10 

2615 

00 

By  Stock 
"  Mdse. 


1850 
765 


2615 


OO' 
CO- 


OO 


1886.  Dr. 


WILLIAMS,  JOHNSON  (s'  Co. 


Cr.  1886. 


Feb. 


To  Cash 
"  Bal.  [due  them] 


1261 
150 


1411 


50      Feb. 
00 

5° 


By  Stock 
"  Franklin  Mac  Veagh  &•  Co. 


1261 
150 


1411 


5* 
00 

5» 


1886 

Dr. 

5 

S.  CHAPMAN. 

0. 

1886. 

Feb. 

ti 

2 
8 

To  Mdse. 

I 
I 

456 
77 

523 

00 
35 



35 

Feb. 

(t 

6 
14 

By  Cash 
"  Bal.  [due  us] 

I 

15000 
373  35 

52335 

BOOK-KEEPING. 


127 


Dr. 


Trial  Balance. 


{February  14,  /SS'j.) 


Cr. 


Merchandise 

Expense 

Cash 

Bills  Receivable 

S.  S.  Chapman 


4868 
124 
460 
igo 


37335 


6o/6\^o 


Slock 

Williams.,  Johnson  &"  Co. 

Franklin  Mac  Veagh  &=  Co. 


4901 
150 
965 


50 
00 
00 


6016  30 


Dr. 


Ledger  Balance. 


{February  14,  i88j.) 


Cr. 


Merchandise 
Bills  Receivable 
S.  S.   Chapman 
Cash 


I 

5068 

^5 

3 

igo 

00 

5 

373 

35 

2 

460 

25 

6ogi 

75 

Stock 

Franklin  Mac  Veagh  df  Co. 

Williams,  Johnson  er*  Co. 


4976  75 
965  00 
I  JO  00 

6091  75 


My' Assets  and  their  value. 

My  assets,  February  14,  1883,  consist  of — 

Mdse.  as  per  Inventory ^5,068.15 

Cash,  as  per  Cash  Acct 460.25 

Bills  Rec.  (notes  due) 190.00 

S.  S.  Chapman  owes  me 373-35 

Total  Assets $6091.75 

liiabilities. 

I  owe  Williams,  Johnson  &  Co.  $150.00 
I  owe  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.    965.00 

Total  Liabilities %\\  15.00 

Net  Assets  Feb.  14 $4976.75 

((        t(         tt 

I 490i-S° 

Net  Profits $75.25 

Process  of  Closing. 

The  Trial  Balance.  If  the  Ledger  is  correct,  the  total  debits  and 
the  total  credits  will  be  the  same  ;  hence  the  trial  balance  as  a  test. 

Alt  iKvenlaiy  of  M  goods,  etc.,  unsold,  that  should  go  to  the  Ledger. 

We  now  open  an  additional  account  in  the  Ledger,  "  Loss  and  Gain,^' 
to  show  all  the  losses  and  gains  from  the  different  accounts  ;  and  another, 
called  "  Balance,"  to  exhibit  all  the  balances,  that  is,  the  resources  and 
liabilities.  Some  book-keepers  put  the  balance  account  in  the  Ledger, 
butwe  prefer  to  indicate  it  on  the  balance  sheet  as  above  shown. 

The  next  step  is  to  carry  to  the  credit  of  their  respective  accounts  the 
value  of  such  unsold  or  other  property  as  has  not  been  credited  by  sales 
or  otherwise— the  Inventories.  If  there  is  remaining  on  hand  Mer- 
chandise to  the  value  of  $5,068.  !<;,  that  sum  must  go  to  the  credit  of  that 
account.  The  words  "  By  Balance"  are  used  because  the  unsold 
goods  are  a  resource. 

Begin  with  all  these  accounts  to  which  inventory  balances  have  been 
carried  and  close  them  up  first.  The  difference  in  the  sides,  if  any,  will 
show  a  gain  or  a  loss;  either  that  the  account  has  produced  more  than  it 
co.st,  OTViceversa,  The  closing  entry  (in  red  ink)  expressing  this  differ- 
ence is  To  or  By  Loss  and  Gain.  These  finished,  take  the  other 
accounts  in  the  Ledger  not  closed,  omitting  Stock  or  Partners'  Account, 
closing  By  or  To  P..alance,  if  a  resource  or  a  liability,  and  To  or  By 
Loss  and  Gain,  if  there  is  a  loss  or  gain  ;    rule,  and  bring  down  the  totals. 

The  Loss  and  Gain  red-ink  entries  in  the  several  accounts  are 
now  all  carried  in  black  ink  to  the  opposite  side  of  Loss  and  Gain,  and 


the  ''balances"  to  the  Balance  Sheet.  When  this  is  done  the  first  will 
exhibit  all  the  gains  and  losses  of  the  business  under  one  head,  and  the 
latter  all  the  resources  and  liabilities. 

Loss  and  Gain  .\ccount  is  now  closed  in  red  ink.  By  (or  To)  Stock, 
because  the  investment  has  been  increased  if  there  has  been  a  gain,  or 
diminished  by  the  loss,  and  this  is  carried  to  Stock,  in  black.  In  a 
partnership  each  partner  is  credited  or  charged  with  his  proportion. 

All  the  accounts  are  now  cUsed  except  Stock  and  Balance,  should  one 
be  kept.  Take  the  difference  between  the  sides  of  Stock  Account,  and 
enter  in  red  ink.  To  or  By^Balaiice.  This  goes  to  Balance,  in  black, 
and  completes  the  process  of  closing  the  Ledger. 

Farm  Book- Keeping. 

While  it  cannot  be  said  that  an  exact  statement  of 
the  business  of  the  f.irin  is  essential  to  success,  yet 
the  importance  of  keeping  a  true  record  of  everything 
connected  with  tharfinancesof  the  farm  will  be  denied 
by  no  intelligent  farmer.  Those  who  understand  the 
value  of  farm  accounts  are  surprised  at  the  general 
neglect  of  them  by  farmers.  The  principal  reason  of 
this  neglect  is  from  the  misapprehension  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  work.  To  the  uninitiated,  book-keep- 
ing seems  like  a  dark  science,  and  only  suited  to 
commercial  transactions.  And  in  our  agricultural 
journals,  which  earnestly  and  properly  in^lst  on  the 
importance  of  exact  farm  accounis,  the  plans  sug- 
gested are  usually  too  complicated,  and  those  who 
enter  upon  them  get  puzzled  and  give  it  up.  The 
books,  also,  which  are  prepared  for  farm  records  are 
usually  exposed  to  the  same  objection.  They  overdo. 
Very  few  continue  to  use  them. 

The  first  and  most  important  question  answered 
by  a  correct  farm  account  is.  What  is  the  profitable 
income  of  the  farm?  This  is  answered  by  finding  the 
difference  between  the  whole  income  and  the  expen- 
ses, and  the  simplest  way  to  find  this  is  the  best  way. 
It  is  not  practicable  to  open  an  account  with  eac1i 
particular  field  or  crop,  or  with  every  animal  or  kind 
of  stock  on  the  farm,  as  some  theorists  have  advised. 

The  farm  expenses  should  be  separated  from  the 
family  expenses,  and  from  all  others. 

The  "  income  "  of  the  farm  arises  from  what  is 
sold  and  what  is  used  for  the  family.     The  record 


128 


BOOK-KEEPING 


the 
pro- 
and 


of  income  does  not  take  notice  of  all  that  is  produced 
on  the  farm.  The  hay  and  grain  fed  to  the  stock 
appear  in  the  returns  of  the  dairy,  or  in  the  beef  and 
pork.  Grain  sowed  or  fed  is  not  counted  in  the  in- 
come But  the  provisions  raised  on  the  farm  and 
used  for  the  family — grain,  meat,  milk,  butter,  eggs, 
chickens,  vegetables  and  fruit — are  as  much  a  |)art 
of  the  income  of  the  farm  as  anything  sold  from  it. 
They  may  constitute  a  principal  part  of  the  income 
when  the  farmer's  family  is  large  or  his  farm  small. 
There  can  be  no  true  statement  of  the  value  of  the 
farm  products  if  these  are  not  counted,  and  the  exact 
figures  wiiich  exhibit  this  part  of  the  farmer's  income 
will  surprise  some  of  the  most  careful  observers. 
Besides  these,  any  addition  to  the  value  of  the 
stock  produced  on  the  farm  is  a  part  of 
income.  Also  any  permanent  improvements 
diued  by  tlie  ordinary  labor  of  farm  hands 
t(.ams 

I  ue  "  expenses  "  of  the  farm  are  labor,  repairs, 
taxes,  stock  purchased,  feed  purchased,  seed  and 
fertilizers  purchased,  decrease  in  value  of  stock  (if 
any),  board  of  laborers  and  insurance.  That  is 
all. 

Interest  on  the  value  of  the  farm  and  stock  is  not 
a  part  of  the  annual  expense  of  the  farm,  but  it  will 
naturally  enough  be  compared  with  the  net  income. 
Neither  is  the  interest  on  any  debt  which  may  be  due 
for  the  farm  or  stock.  The  salary  of  the  manager,  if 
he  is  the  owner,  is  not  a  part  of  the  expenses.  His 
salary  is  in  the  net  income. 

Necessary  repairs  of  buildings  and  implements 
are  expense,  but  any  entirely  new  building,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  was,  and  any  other  improvements 
of  the  farm,  are  not  expense,  aad  if  these  im- 
provements are  made  by  the  farm  labor  in  part, 
so  much  of  the  cost  of  them  must  appear  in  the 
account.  As  it  is  a  valuable  addition  to  the  farm, 
it  is  so  much  increase  of  capital,  and  so  much  of  it 
therefore  as  appears  in  the  account  of  labor  may  be 
put  in  the  column  of  income,  as  will  be  shown  by 
example. 

INCOME  AND  EXPENSES  OF  THE  FARM. 


INCOME. 

Sheep  sold $176.29 

Wool 116.95 

Wheat 5'3-6i 

Corn 500 

Pork 185 .  40 

Beef  and  Cattle 3»9  43 

Milk.% 2,6so.87 

Butter 252.00 

Veal   53=° 

Haysold 68.70 

Woodsold 21. 00 

Apples 3S'0° 

Potatoes 60.00 

Poultry 750° 

Rent  of  tenant-house 50.00 

Improvements 250.00 

Increase  of  stock 13000 

$4,978.45 


EXPENSES. 

Farm  labor $1,011.13 

Repairs 224.38 

Extra  labor 210.00 

Seed  purchased 73-48 

Taxes 123.76 

Stock  purchased ^20. 00 

Board  of  men 240.00 

Plaster,  fertilizer 36.00 


$2.438 .75 


Net  income a,539-7o 

$4,978.45 


This  example  is  taken  because  it  presents  nearly 
all  the  variety  of  accounts.     The  income  includes 


what  was  sold  and  what  was  used  in  the  family. 
The  corn  raised  was  all  fed  to  the  stock  except  $5 
worth  used  in  the  family.  The  hay  and  wood  sold 
include  that  to  the  tenant,  which,  with  rent,  is  part 
of  his  wages.  The  permanent  improvements  were 
in  conducting  a  spring  of  water  to  the  barn,  and 
the  exact  cost  is  put  down,  and  not  the  value.  The 
cost  of  it  apjjears  in  the  farm  labor  and  extra  labor, 
and  as  it  is  not  an  annual  expense,  but  a  valuable 
investment,  it  must  appear  in  the  income  column. 
If  it  should  appear  only  in  the  expetise  column,  it 
would  show  money  out  of  jwcket.  Farm  labor 
and  extra  labor  are  increased  by  the  permanent  im- 
provements in  the  other  column.  The  repairs 
include  farm  tools,  horse-shoeing,  etc.  No  part  of 
family  expenses  is  Jiere.  The  board  of  farm-hands 
is  a  farm  expense,  and  as  it  adds  so  much  to  the 
cost  of  the  household,  it  should  appear,  either  being 
deducted  from  the  sum  of  the  family  ex|)enses,  or 
added  to  the  income  of  the  household,  as  if  the 
farmer  paid  his  wife  so  much,  say  ^240,  for  board- 
ing his  men,  which  would  be  a  handsome  way  of 
putting  it. 

Insurance  will  probably  not  appear  every  year. 
Decrease  in  value  of  stock  may  not  appear  every 
year.  It  may  increase  in  value,  and  will  then  ap- 
pear in  the  column  of  income.  To  ascertain  this, 
and  for  other  reasons,  an  inventory  of  the  stock  is 
taken  at  the  end  of  the  year.  The  board  of  farm 
laborers  is  clearly  one  of  the  farm  expenses,  and 
should  be  properly  noted  and  separated  from  the  ac- 
count of  family  expenses. 

Dav-Book.  This  book  is  kept  as  a  daily  mem- 
orandum, out  of  which  the  ledger  is  posted.  This 
may  be  a  simple  pocket  diary,  or  a  larger  book  kept 
at  the  house.  In  this  all  sales,  contracts,  etc.  are 
noted  under  their  proper  date,  similar  to  the  fol- 
lowing : 

April  I,  1865.  Have  this  day  taken  in\'entoryof  farm  and  what  is  on 
it,  all  of  which  are  worth,  at  the  market  value,  about  $2,000. 

May -t,,  1865.     Sold  one  yoke  of  oxen  for$iso,  which  cost  $100  last  fall. 

yx/v  4,  1865.  Sold  Miio  C.  Summers  2  horses,  for  $200.  Received 
cash  $100,  and  his  note,  due  in  60  days,  for  vioo. 

Sept.  1,1865.  Paid  S.  J.  Chapman  $15  for  15  bushels  of  wheat  for 
seed,     deceived  for  milk  for  Augu(it,$i8. 

Dec.  20,  1865.     Paid  for  provisions,  cloth  and  sundries,  $56. 

Dec.  31,  1865  Paid  Michael  (the  hired  man)  in  full  for  services  for 
four  months, $So 

Tliese  items  should  be  posted  under  their  proper 
headings  in  the  ledger  at  least  once  a  week. 

The  Ledger  should  be  ruled  so  that  the  "  Dr." 
account  will  always  be  on  the  left,  and  the  "Cr." 
account  on  the  right  hand  side.  The  first  ten 
pages  of  the  ledger  should  be  left  for  inventories, 
or  accounts  of  stock,  which  should  be  taken  once 
a  year,  if  possible  on  the  first  of  January.  It  must 
be  a  fair  statement  of  the  resources  of  the  farmer, 
and  include  everything  he  owns — cash,  land,  tools, 
stock,  notes  and  accounts  due  him,  the  amount 
spent  for  crops  in  the  ground,  all  of  which  are 
entered   under    the    head    of    "Resources;"    also 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


129 


everything  he  owes,  which  are  entered  under  the 
head  of  "  Liabilities."  Then  foot  up  the  columns 
of  each,  subtract  the  smaller  from  the  greater,  and 
he  will  know  just  how  he  stands.  Compare  this 
inventory  with  the  one  taken  last  year,  and  he  will 
know  whether  he  is  making  or  losing.     Example : 

Inventory  of  the  resources  and  liabilities  of  Harvey  Williams, 
January  i,  1886. 

RESOURCES. 

Farm  of  160  acres  and  im- 
provements, @  $75  per  a.  $12. coo 


10  head  horses,@$ioo. 

5  cows  f(!  $35 

20  hens  ((1^50  c 

1  mowing  machine 

150  bushels  corn  @  50  c. .. 
^ote  against  S.  Johnson. 

Outstanding  accounts 

Cash  on  hand 


1,000 

175 
10 
90 

75 
300 
200 
200 


Total $14,250 


LIABILITIES. 

Mortgage  on  farm $2,000 

NotetoC.C.  Chapman...  150 

Taxes  due 60 

Small  accounts 100 


Total $2,310 


Net  resources 11,940 


$14,250 


The  first  account  opened  in  the  Ledger  should 
be  "  Cash."  In  it,  the  farmer  keeping  the  account 
considers  "  Cash "  as  an  individual  and  charges 
"  To  "  him  the  amount  on  hand  and  all  moneys  re- 
ceived, and  credits  all  moneys  paid  out  "  By  "  him. 
Thus  all  moneys  received  are  entered  on  the  "  Dr." 
side,  and  all  moneys  paid  out  on  the  "  Cr."  side. 
The  amount  on  hand  at  the  opening  of  the  account, 
together  with  the  sums  received  at  different  times, 
should  exactly  equal  the  sums  paid  out  and  the  cash 
on  hand  at  the  time  of  balancing  the  account.  The 
Cash  account  should  be  balanced  every  month.  The 
following  illustrates  the  manner  in  which  the  Cash 
account  should  be  kept : 


Dr. 


CASH. 


Cr. 


1885. 

Jan. 

I 

" 

6 

" 

■3 

16 

23 
I 

To  cash  on  hand' 
"  4cords  Wood 

"  10  lb.   Butter 
(ai25C.      - 

"  D.   Love, 
account     - 

"  I  pair  Horses 


$200 

00 

1885. 
Jan. 

J 

1    1 

8   00 

" 

I 
6 

i      1 
2   50 

Feb. 

"3 

I 

100  00 

200  00 

$510 

1 
50  1 

j$483 

90  j 

By  I  pr.  Pants  $5 

"  10  lb.  Sugar   j        I 
"  lolb.  Nails     I  60 

"  Bill  Crockery 
"  Bal.  on  hand    483'9o 


$510  50 


After  the  Cash  account  will  come  accounts  with 
individuals.  That  of  a  farm  hand  would  run  some- 
thing as  follows : 


D 

'. 

JOHN  MORG 

AN. 

Cr. 

1885. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 
Apr. 

I 
6 
8 
4 
27 
10 

■ 

To  Suit  Clothes 
"  Pair  of  Boots 
'''   Tobacco     - 
"  Cash      -      - 
*'  I   Knife    -    - 
"  Cash      -      - 
"  Note  at  3mos. 
to  balance  - 

$20 
S 
I 
2 

1 
I 

74 

00 
00 
00 

00 
00 

00 
00 

1885. 
Jan. 
i  Api . 

1 

I 
I 

By  Bal,  from  1884 

"  3  Mos.  work  at 

$i8.oo    -    - 

$So 
54 

00 
00 

$104 

00 

1 

$104  00 

The  following  may  have  been  Mr.  Williams'  ac- 
count with  the  store  and  shows  the  manner  of 
balancing  an  account  and  opening  a  new  one  on  the 
same  page : 


Lr. 


JAMES  CHAPMAN. 


Cr. 


.885. 

Jan. 

!To  10  lb.  Butter, 

1885. 

Jan. 

I 

By  loolb.  Sugar,  - 

$10 

00 

Feb. 

j    **    @  IOC.       -       - 
*'  100   bu.     Corn, 

|i 

00 

Feb. 
Mar. 

4 
S 

•■*  20  yds.  Calico  - 
"•  Cash  advanced 

I 

00 

1        @50c.      -     - 
Oct.   4I  **  50  bu.  Wheat, - 

50 

00 

Mav 

■K 

on  Corn     -     - 
*'  Cash  advanced 

30 

30 

1886. 
Jan. 

@$i.oo    -     -      - 

"  Bal.  due  him 

50 

I 

00 
10' 

Oct. 

Nov. 

t 

I 

on  Wheat      •      - 
•'  10  lb  nails  @  6  c 
"  I  Curry-comb, 

40 

00 
60 
SO 

^^^^^^''^^ 



— 

Dec. 

M 

'*  Cash  on  acc't  - 

20 

00 

^ 

$t02 

10 





1886. 
Jan. 

To  4  cords  Wood 
@$5S0     -    - 

I22 

00 

1886. 
Jan. 
Jan. 

I 

By  bal.  due  him    - 

$I02 

$. 

10 

10 

■■      ' 

— 1 

^ 

"  Cash  to  bal. 

20 

qo 

$22 

~! 

fj? 

1     ; 

All  accounts  should  be  balanced  as  in  the  above 
example  at  least  once  a  year.  The  best  time  to  do 
it  is  at  the  time  the  annual  inventory  is  taken, 
January  i  ;  the  balances  can  then  be  inserted  in  the 
"  Resources  "  or  "  Liabilities,"  according  as  they  are 
on  the  "  Dr."  or  "  Cr."  side. 

We  believe  the  foregoing  comprise  all  that  is 
necessary  to  show  how  to  keep  an  accurate  and  com- 
plete account  of  farm  affairs.  Nothing  can  be  more 
simple,  and  the  farmer  who  fails  to  adopt  some 
method  and  stick  to  it  faithfully  will  undoubtedly  be 
a  loser  in  many  inscrutable  ways,  and  will  suspect 
that  his  neighbors  or  his  own  family  have  been 
cheating  him  when  they  are  entirely  innocent.  In 
case  a  farmer  cannot  "journalize  "and  "  post  "  books, 
he  should  at  least  keep  a  full  memorandum  of  all  his 
transactions,  so  that  some  one  else  can  post  them  for 
him. 

Farming  on  Shares  requires  a  method  of  its 
own,  in  keeping  the  accounts  between  the  proprie- 
tor and  the  tenant.  The  book  should  be  kept  by 
one  or  the  other  in  his  own  name,  and  not  as  a 
partnership.  The  pecuniary  relation  of  the  two 
parties  sometimes  becomes  perplexed,  and  difficult 
to  settle,  when  the  book  is  kept  in  the  name  of 
both  parties.  It  is  generally  better  that  the  book 
be  kept  by  the  tenant,  who  is  always  on  the  ground, 
and  manages  a  greater  number  of  sales  and  pur- 
chases. All  his  dealings  with  others,  except  the 
owner  of  the  farm,  are  accounted  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  accounts  of  other  farmers  are  kept. 
There  are  three  methods  or  conditions  of  farming 
on  shares :  First,  when  the  owner  furnishes  all 
the  stock  and  tools,  and  pays  the  taxes,  pays 
for  the  seed  and  commercial  marures,  and  has 
two-thirds  of  the  products  of  the  farm.  This  is 
on  the  theory  that  one-third  of  the  products  is  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  the  labor  on  the  farm,  which  is 
correct  if  the  farm  is  a  pood  one.  Second,  when 
the  tenant  owns  the  stock  and  tools,  and  pays  for 
the  seed  and  manure  and  taxes,  and  has  two-thirds 
of  the  products.  Third,  when  half  of  the  stock 
belongs  to  the  owner,  and  half  to  the  farmer,  and 
the  products  equally  divided.  The  theory  in  these 
three  conditions  is,  that  one-third  of  the  products 


13° 


BOOK-KEEPING— BORAX. 


of  the  farm  pays  the  interest  on  its  value,  one-third 
pays  for  the  labor,  and  one-third  pays  the  interest 
on  the  cost  of  the  stock  and  tools,  the  depreciation 
in  the  value  of  the  stock  and  tools,  and  the  taxes, 
insurance  and  repairs.  In  all  the  conditions  the 
grain  used  for  seed  or  for  feeding  is  taken  out  of 
the  common  stock,  which  is  the  same  as  each  party 
furnishing  his  portion  of  the  grain.     If  any  feed  is 


receives  his  part  of  the  income  at  the  time  in  cash, 
or  pay  his  part  of  the  expenses  at  the  time  in  cash, 
there  would  be  no  place  for  error.  If  the  account 
is  treated  as  such,  the  party  who  keeps  the  account 
is  to  pay  over  to  the  other  his  portion  when  he  re- 
ceives it,  or  otherwise  he  treats  it  as  so  much 
money  borrowed,  for  vrhich  he  gives  the  party 
credit. 


1885.  EwiNG  Summers,  Proprietor.  Cr.  1885. 

April    I. — Cash  for  Oxen.  etc.  (by  check) $500.00         April 

14, — Cash  by  Brown  for  Hay,  3  tons,  $43    (halO   21.00 

Calves  sold  to  butcher, $26  do      13.00 

28. — Calf  sold  to  butcher,  $14  do         7-00 

Butter  used  in  my  family  do       3-50 

Butler  to  myself,  30  lb. ,  25c.,  do      2.50 

$547  00 

Dec.  8.— Beeffor  myfamily,  280  lb.,  at  8c..  $22.40    (half) $11.20 

Beef  to  himself,  1301b.,  $10.40  do     ....        5. 20 

Cash  for  Beefsold  to  Brown,  200  lb.,  $16,       do     8.00 

Hide  sold  for  $3.60  do     1.80         Dec. 

Cash  for  Wheat  sold,  at  the  Mill, 

z6o  bu.,  $280,  do    ....  140.00 

$166.20 


EwiNG  Summers,  Proprietor.  Dr. 

I.— Cash  Paid  T.  Smith  for  Oxen,  $180  (half) $90.00 

Cash  paid  for  6  cows,  300    do     150.00 

20. — Cash  paid  for  bran, 2tons,  50     do    25.00 

25. --Cash  paid  J  .  Jones  by  his  order la.oo 

Cash  paid  to  himself 40.00 

30. — Cash  paid  Mills  for  Horse,  $120  (half) 60.00 

Cash  freigrht  on  Horse  as  agreed 3.00 

Butter  to  himself,  2olb.,  at  25c s-oo 

Cash  to  balance. 162.00 

$547.00 

8.— Beef  to  himself,  130  lb.,  at  8c $10.40 

20. — Wheat  put  into  his  granaiy,  35  bu.,  $1.75 43-75 

Cash ioo»oo 

31. — Cash  to  balance 12.05 

$166.20 


purchased,  each  party  pays  his  proportion.  The 
farmer  generally  has  the  rent  of  a  house,  and  other 
things,  according  to  agreement. 

The  account  between  the  parties  is  most  con- 
veniently kept  in  a  book  by  itself.  The  farmer  (if 
he  keeps  the  account)  gives  credit  or  makes  a  charge 
for  every  item  between  them,  on  separate  pages,  as 
above. 

The  proprietor  is  charged  $90,  his  half  of  the 
$180  paid  for  a  yoke  of  oxen.  So  of  the  other  stock. 
The  whole  cost  should  be  stated,  and  the  lialf  in- 
dicated. April  30,  the  .proprietor  is  charged  $5  for 
20  pounds  of  butter,  and  on  the  Cr.  page  he  is 
credited  with  $2.50,  which  is  his  half.  So  also 
December  8th  the  beef  delivered  to  the  proprietor 
is  charged  to  him,  130  pounds  at  8c.,  $10.40.  Then 
his  half  of  its  value  is  put  to  his  credit,  $5.20. 
So,  also,  the  proprietor  has  credit  for  one-half  of 
the  beef  which  the  farmer  puts  to  his  own  use. 
By  this  method  the  account  between  the  two  parties 
is  clear,  and  can  be  balanced  at  any  time.  At  the 
end  of  April  the  balance  due  to  the  proprietor,  who 
seems  to  furnish  the  capital,  is  $162,  and  at  the  end 
of  December,  $12.05,  which  is  paid  or  allowed  to 
stand,  as  agreed.  It  is  decidedly  best  that  the 
balance  should  be  found  often — every  month  if  the 
proprietor  is  at  hand,  at  least  two  or  four  times  a 
year.  It  requires  but  a  few  minutes  of  time,  and 
often  would  save  endless  perplexity.  This  is  in 
accordance  with  the  teaching  of  long  experience  in 
the  books  to  which  we  have  been  permitted  to  refer. 
If  it  is  more  convenient,  the  proprietor  may  keep  the 
account,  in  his  own  name,  and  give  to  the  farmer 
Dr.  and  Cr.  in  a  similar  manner,  which  is  much 
better  than  to  keep  the  account  as  of  a  partner- 
ship. 

If  all  the  transactions  between  the  two  parties 
are   considered   cash   transactions,  and  each  party 


Boots  and  SHoes.  Almost  everybody  seems  to 
know  what  a  good  shoe  is,  theoretically,  yet,  on 
account  either  of  his  own  negligence  or  the  mad 
persistence  of  the  fashion-mongers  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  unhealthful  articles,  he  has  corns,  or  bunions, 
or  blisters,  or  cold  feet,  or  tender  feet,  or  some 
other  ailment — more,  indeed,  than  he  is  willing  to 
acknowledge.  A  good  boot  or  shoe  has  low  heels, 
wide  toes,  thick,  stiff  soles,  soft  uppers,  and  all  of 
porous  leather.  The  trouble  is,  most  people  will 
claim  that  their  shoes  are  large  enough,  when  they 
are  not,  as  is  evinced  by  their  tender  or  sore  feet. 
A  perfectly  formed  foot  is  that  which  one  would 
have  if  he  went  barefoot  the  year  through  in  a  cli- 
mate that  would  admit  of  it.  India-rubber,  oil- 
cloth and  water- proof  boots  are  all  necessarily  un- 
healthful, and  should  be  worn  only  a  short  time  in 
special  emergencies. 

Water-proof  Composition  for  boots  and 
shoes:  Beef  tallow,  4  ounces  ;  rosin,  i  ounce;  and 
beeswax,  i  ounce ;  melt  together.  When  cold, 
add  an  equal  quantity  of  neatsfoot  oil.  Rub  into 
the  boot  well  white  it  is  being  heated  before  a  fire. 
Two  such  applications  should  be  made.  Or,  dis- 
solve a  piece  of  paraffine  in  the  best  winter-strained 
lard  oil— a  piece  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  in  a  pint 
of  the  oil,  aided  with  a  gentle  heat.  Or,  dissolve 
by  heat  an  ounce  of  pure  bottle  India-rubber  shav- 
ings in  a  quart  of  neatsfoot  oil,  and  add  two 
ounces  of  tallow.  Specially  recommended  for 
sportsmen.  For  the  soles,  tar  is  best.  See  Black- 
ing. 

Borage,  a  rough  weed,  growing  about  two  feet 
high.     It  is  an  excellent  honey  plant. 

Borax,  an  alkaline  substance  of  great  utility.  It 
is  a  necessity  in  welding  steel.  It  removes  stains 
and  dirt  from  the  hands  better  than  soap,  and   a 


BORAX— BRAIN. 


131 


the  same  time  softens  and  smooths  the  skin.  It  is 
splendid  for  washing  the  hair,  and  will,  without 
injury  cleanse  brushes  and  combs  in  a  few  mo- 
ments. For  washing  purposes  it  saves  both  soap 
and  labor.  It  will  extract  the  dirt  from  articles  of 
delicate  texture  without  rubbing,  it  being  only 
necessary  to  put  the  articles  to  soak  in  a  solution  of 
borax,  over  night,  and  needs  only  to  be  rinsed  in  the 
morning.  Two  tablespoonfuls  of  pulverized  borax 
dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  which  water  enough 
is  added  to  cover  a  pair  of  blankets,  will  cleanse 
them  beautifully.  It  also  saves  great  labor  in  wash- 
ing paint.  It  drives  away  ants  and  roaches,  if  sprin- 
kled on  the  shelves  of  safes  and  pantries. 

Border,  in  Gardening,  the  edges  of  beds ;  also, 
a  specially  prepared  and  protected  bed  for  assisting 
the  early  growth  of  plants  that  require  some  forcing 
to  enable  them  to  mature  before  the  autumnal  frosts, 
and  also  used  for  hardening  plants  before  they  are 
transplanted. 

Bore:  A  horse  is  said  to  "bore"  when  he  carries 
his  head  to  the  ground. 

Borecole  (bore'cole) :  See  Kale. 

Borer :   See  under  Apple,  Peach,  etc. 

Bot-Ply,  an  insect  which  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
hair  of  horses,  especially  on  the  under  jaw  and  on 
the  legs.  These  eggs  are  taken  into  the  stomach 
and  intestines  of  the  animal,  where  they  hatch, 
and  as  larves  eat  into  the  walls  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  causing  the  disease  called  "bots."  See 
Horse. 

Bots,  small  worms  found  in  the  intestines  of 
horses.     They  are  the  larves  of  the  bot-fly. 

Bottles,  To  Clean.  Chop  up  a  potato  very  fine, 
or  break  up  some  charcoal,  put  it  in  the  bottle 
with  some  water,  and  shake  it  violently.  Empty 
bottles,  unless  absolutely  clean,  should  not  be  left 
with  the  corks  in  them,  as  in  such  case  a  very 
foul  odor  develops  in  them  which  is  very  difficult  to 
get  out. 

Bouillon  (bool'yong),  soup. 

Boulet  (boo-let'),  a  horse  whose  fetlock  or  pastern 
joint  bends  forward,  out  of  its  natural  position. 

Bound,  costive  or  constricted  ;  said  of  an  animal 
when  constipated  in  the  bowels.     When  a  horse  is 
subject  toother  kinds  of  unnatural  constriction  he, 
is  said  to  be  "  hide-bound,"  "  hoof-bound,"  etc. 

Bovine  (bo' vine),  pertaining  to  the  ox  genus ;  be- 
longing to  cattle. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of.  Apply  wet  cloths 
to  the  abdomen,  of  tlie  temperature  which  is  the 
most  soothing,  until  the  pain  and  inflammation  are 
somewhat  reduced;  then  give  tepid  injections. 
When   diarrhea  accompanies,  give  a   warm  sitting 


bath  and  cool  injections.  Let  the  food  be  very 
bland,  and  let  the  patient  rest.  These  things  do, 
and  if  the  case  does  not  get  along  well,  send  for  a 
doctor. 

Bowel  Complaint.  This  is  a  mixture  of  diar- 
rhea, dysentery  and  cholera  morbus.  The  best 
medicine  is  a  dose  of  castor  oil  and  a  few  drops  of 
laudanum.  Oil  is  the  best  purgative  for  children  in 
tliis  disorder.  Give  it  every  other  day  with  lauda- 
num until  the  disease  is  checked.  The  non-medic- 
inal plan  is:  Free  the  bowels  with  copious  injections 
of  tepid  water ;  cool  hip  baths  every  two  or  three 
hours;  entire  abstinence  from  food  until  the  inflam- 
mation is  somewhat  subsided ;  then  take  bland  food, 
such  as  toasted  bread,  gruel  or  mush,  with  sweet 
cream,  etc. ;  rice,  arrow-root  and  farina  pudding,  if 
made  plain,  are  good. 

Bows,  of  a  Saddle,  two  pieces  of  wood  laid  arch- 
wise to  fit  the  upper  part  of  the  horse's  back,  and  to 
give  a  saddle  its  proper  form  and  to  keep  it 
steady. 

Box  Elder  or  Ash- leaved  Maple:  See  Forest- 
ry, etc. 

Boxes,  Contents  of.  A  box  24  inches  by  16 
inches,  and  22  inches  deep,  contains  i  barrel;  a 
box  16  inches  by  165^  inches  and  8  inches  deep 
contains  r  bushel ;  a  box  7  inches  by  4  inches 
and  4J/^  inches  deep  contains  ^  gallon;  a  box  8 
inches  by  8}^  inches  and  8  inches  deep  con- 
tains I  peck;  a  box 4  inches  square  and  4^  inches 
deep  contains  i  quart. 

The  general  rule  for  finding  the  contents  of  any 
box  is  to  multiply  together  the  length,  width  and 
height  in  inches  and  divide  the  product  by  2150.42, 
for  bushels,  or  by  231,  for  gallons,  "struck,"  or  even 
measure. 

Boy  :  See  Children. 

Brace,  in  rural  affairs,  when  said  in  connection 
with  fowls,  and  (rarely)  some  other  animals,  de- 
notes a  pair ;  as,  a  brace  of  Houdans,  etc.  Also 
a  piece  of  timber  or  iron  framed  into  a  part  of  a 
building  or  any  other  structure,  to  support  or 
strengthen  it. 

Bracket,  a  piece  or  combination  of  pieces,  of 
wood,  stone  or  metal,  triangular  in  general  shape, 
and  either  plain  or  ornamental,  usually  projecting 
from  or  fastened  to  a  wall  or  other  surface  to  support 
shelves,  statuary  or  other  objects,  and  to  strengthen 
angles. 

Brad,  a  nail  with  scarcely  any  head,  to  drive 
into  nicely  finished  wood  without  breaking  the 
surface  around  it. 

Bragget :   See  Mead. 

Brain,  Compression  of,  may  be  from  any 
cause,  such  as  apoplexy,  or  a  piece  of  fractured 


132 


BRAIN— BRANY. 


bone  pressing  on  it,  and  there  is  loss  of  sensation. 
If  you  tickle  the  feet  of  the  injured  person,  he 
does  not  feel  it.  You  cannot  arouse  him  so  as 
to  get  an  answer.  The  pulse  is  slow  and  labored, 
the  breathing  deep,  labored  and  snorting ;  the  pupil 
enlarged.  Raise  the  head,  loosen  strings  or  tight 
things,  and  send  for  a  surgeon. 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain  begins  with  in- 
flammatory fever,  a  flushed  countenance,  redness 
of  the  eyes,  pain  in  the  head,  disturbed  sleep, 
dryness  of  skin,  constipation,  restlessness,  irrita- 
bility, pain  in  the  stomach,  a  tendency  to  de- 
lirium. It  is  caused  by  hard  study,  intemperance, 
grief,  anxiety,  stopping  of  evacuations,  exposure  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  external  injuries,  etc. ;  res- 
piration deep  and  slow,  and  sometimes  difficult.  The 
disease  is  a  dangerous  one,  and  often  proves  fatal  in 
a  few  days,  if  not  speedily  arrested.  Cure  :  promote 
the  evacuations.  Remove  constipation  by  purga- 
tives, clysters,  and  mix  niter  with  tea  and  other 
beverages.  Divert  the  blood  from  the  head  by  re- 
storing the  circulation  in  the  extremities;  equalize 
the  circulation.  Bathe  up  to  the  knees  in  hot  wa- 
ter. In  excessive  inflammation  apply  cups  to  the 
temples  and  the  nape  of  the  neck.  Perspiration 
should  also  be  promoted  as  much  as  possible. 
Should  the  disease  appear  obstinate,  put  a  mustard 
plaster  between  the  shoulders  and  to  the  feet  at 
night.  Frequently  apply  vinegar  cloths  to  the 
head  and  temples.  The  less  irritation,  noise,  light, 
the  better  it  will  be  for  the  patient.  Cold  water 
to  the  head,  or  tepid  water  if  more  comfortable, 
and  tepid  or  hot  water  to  the  surface  of  the  body, 
have  a  powerful  effect  in  forcing  the  congested 
blood  from  the  head  and  restoring  an  equilibrium  in 
the  circulation  The  food  must  be  simple  and 
light,  as  panada,  water-gruel,  toast  and  water,  or 
lemonade,  light  jellies,  barley-water.  Nothing 
stimulating  must  be  taken.  The  unbeliever  in 
drug  medication  will  do  all  the  above  things  ex- 
cept administering  the  drugs,  with  greater  hope  of 
success. 

Braising.  By  this  process  more  than  mere 
"stewing  "  is,  of  course,  intended.  In  braising,  the 
meat  is  just  covered  with  a  strong  liquor  of  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  juices,  in  a  closely  covered  vessel, 
from  which  as  little  evaporation  as  possible  is  per- 
mitted, and  is  exposed  for  a  considerable  time  to  a 
surrounding  heat  just  short  of  boiling.  By  this 
treatment,  tough,  fibrous  flesh,  whether  of  poultry 
or  of  cattle,  or  meat  unduly  fresh,  such  as  can 
alone  be  procured  during  the  summer  season  in 
towns,  is  made  tender,  and  is  furthermore  im- 
pregnated with  the  odors  and  flavors  of  fresh 
vegetables  and  sweet  herbs.  Thus,  also,  meats 
which  are  dry  or  of  little  flavor,  as  veal,  become  sat- 
urated with  juices,  and  combined  with  sapid 
substances,  which  render  the  food  succulent  and  de- 
licious to  the  palate. 


Brake,  in  Machinery,  is  a  lever  or  other  contriv- 
ance used  for  retarding  the  motion  of  a  wheel  by 
friction  against  it;  also,  in  agriculture,  a  large,  heavy 
harrow  for  breaking  clods  after  plowing. 

Bramble,  wild  briars  of  the  blackberry  and  rasp- 
berry kind. 

Bran,  the  skin  or  husk  of  corn,  particularly 
wheat,  separated  from  the  flour  by  the  process  of 
bolting.  It  operates  by  mechanical  irritation,  as  a 
very  gentle  aperient,  merely  quickening  the  pas- 
sage of  the  contents  of  the  intestinal  canal;  and 
when  given  in  the  form  of  mash,  and  used  with  cau- 
tion and  moderation,  it  certainly  is  useful  as  an  oc- 
casional aperient.  But  it  ought  in  no  instance, 
whether  in  the  raw  or  in  a  scalded  state,  be  used 
constantly  as  an  article  of  diet ;  for,  if  so  used,  it  is 
apt  to  weaken  a  horse's  bowels,  and  to  excite  in  them 
many  disorders.  A  very  large  proportion  of  ammo- 
niacal  phosphate  of  magnesia  exists  in  wheat  bran, 
and  this  salt  forms  large,  crystalline  concretions, 
often  amounting  to  several  pounds  in  weight,  in 
the  coecum  of  horses  belonging  to  millers.  Bran 
is  used  for  dry  food  for  sheep,  and  in  the  stall- 
feeding  of  cattle,  and  an  infusion  of  it  is  said 
to  be  a  remedy  for  scurf  and  dandruff. 

Branches,  of  a  Bridle,  are  two  pieces  of  bent 
iron  which  bear  the  bit,  the  cross  chains  and 
the  curb. 

Branding,  the  stamping  upon  an  animal  of  the 
initials  of  its  owner's  name,  or  other  marks  to  denote 
property.  One  method  is  to  burn  in  the  initials 
or  marks  with  a  hot  iron,  and  this  is  properly 
branding.  Another  method  is  to  stamp  them  on  with 
an  iron  dipped  in  a  boiling  mixture  of  tar  and  pitch; 
this  is  termed  "  buisting." 

Brandy,  an  ardent  spirit  distilled  from  wine. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  spirit  distilled  from 
other  liquors,  particularly,  in  this  country,  to  that 
which  is  distilled  from  cider  and  peaches.  In  the 
north  of  Europe  the  term  is  also  applied  to  a  spirit 
obtained  from  grain.  The  art  of  distilling  spirituous 
liquors  is,  of  course,  entirely  without  the  scope  of  this 
work,  but  we  will  tell  how  to  make  some  kinds  of 
fruit  brandy : 

Blackberry  Brandy.  Grind  to  a  coarse 
fMDwder  one-fourth  ounce  each  of  cinnamon,  cloves 
and  mace,  and  one  dram  of  cardamom;  mix  these 
with  sixteen  pounds  of  mashed  blackberries  and 
five  gallons  of  ninety-five  per  cent,  alcohol ;  let  it 
stand  two  weeks,  press  it  and  add  ten  pounds  of 
sugar  dissolved  in  three  gallons  and  three  pints  of 
water.     Filter. 

Cherry  Brandy.  Mash  sixteen  pounds  of 
black  cherries,  with  their  stones ;  add  five  gallons 
of  ninety-five  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  let  stand  two 
weeks ;  press ;  add  ten  pounds  of  sugar  dissolved 
in  three  gallons  and  three  pints  of  water.     Filter. 


BRASS  AND  COPPER  UTENSILS— BREAD. 


133 


Another  :  Cherries,  thirty-six  jx)unds,  half  red 
and  half  black;  squeeze  them  with  the  hands,  and 
add  one  and  a  half  gallons  of  brandy  ;  let  them 
infuse  twenty-four  hours;  then  put  the  bruised 
cherries  and  liquor  into  a  canvas  bag,  a  little  at  a 
time,  and  press  it  as  long  aa  it  will  run ;  sweeten 
it  with  fine  sugar  and  let  it  stand  a  month;  bottle 
off  putting  loaf  sugar  into  every  bottle. 

Another  :  To  every  gallon  of  brandy  put  four 
pounds  of  red  and  two  pounds  of  black  cherries, 
one  quart  of  raspberries,  with  a  few  cloves,  a  stick 
of  cinnamon  and  a  little  orange  peel;  closely  stop 
for  a  month  in  a  barrel ;  bottle  oflT  as  before. 

Peach  Brandy.  Masli  eighteen  pounds  of 
peaches,  with  their  stones;  macerate  them  for 
twenty-four  hours  with  four  and  three-fourths  gal- 
lons of  ninety-five  per  cent,  alcohol  and  four  gal- 
lons of  water;  strain,  press  and  filter;  add  five 
pints  of  white,  plain  syrup;  color  dark  yellow  with 
burnt-sugar  coloring. 

Pepper.mint  Brandy.  Take  forty  gallons  of 
proof  spirit,  add  four  ounces  essence  of  peppermint 
dissolved  in  ninety-five  per  cent,  alcohol  ;  color 
with  half  pound  powder  of  turmeric  infused  in  one 
gallon  of  ninety-five  i)er  cent,  spirit ;  use  this  infu- 
sion in  sucli  quantity  as  to  get  the  proper  shade. 

Brass  and  Copper  Utensils.  Many  lives  have 
been  lost  in  consequence  of  carelessness  in  the  use 
of  these  utensils.  Thoroughly  cleanse  with  salt 
and  hot  vinegar,  brass  and  copper,  before  cooking 
in  them,  and  never  suffer  any  oily  or  acid  sub- 
stance, after  being  cooked,  to  cool  or  remain  in  any 
of  them.  Take  one  ounce  of  oxalic  acid,  three- 
quarters  of  a  pint  of  New  England  rum,  and 
three-quarters  of  a  pint  of  oil.  Put  the  mixture 
into  a  bottle,  cork  it  close,  and  let  it  stand  two  or 
three  days  before  using  it.  It  should  be  shaken 
occasionally.  Rub  the  brass  with  a  clean  woolen 
cloth  dipped  into  a  small  quantity  of  this  liquid, 
tlien  rub  it  with  dry  rotten  stone  with  another  cloth. 
The  bottle  should  be  labeled  as  poison.  At  the 
present  day  brass  and  copper  utensils  are  supersed- 
ed by  the  greatly  superior  granite  ware,  which  may 
be  found  in  every  market. 

Breaehy,  apt  to  break  fences  and  get  into  or  out 
of  enclosures;  said  of  live  stock.  See  respective 
animals. 

Bread.  In  order  to  secure  good  bread,  it  is  best 
economy  to  purchase  the  best  flour,  even  at  greater 
cost.  Newly  ground  flonr  which  has  never  been 
packed  is  much  superior  to  barrel  flour.  Indian 
meal,  also,  is  much  the  best  when  freshly  ground. 
Ground  rice  is  best  if  picked  over  and  then  washed 
and  prepared  like  the  wheat.  Rye  flour  is  very 
apt  to  be  musty  or  grown.  No  one  thing  is  of 
more  importance  in  making  bread  than  thoroughly 
kneading  it.  When  bread  is  taken  out  of  the  oven, 
never  set  it  flat  on  a  table,  as  it  sweats  the  bottom. 


and  it  acquires  a  bad  taste  from  the  table.  Always 
take  it  out  of  the  tins,  and  set  it  up  edgewise,  lean- 
ing against  something.  If  it.  has  a  thick,  hard 
crust,  wrap  it  in  a  cloth  wrung  out  of  cold  water. 
Bread  made  of  wheat  flour  when  taken  out  of  t-he 
oven  is  unprepared  for  the  stomach.  It  should  go 
through  a  change,  or  ripen  before  eaten.  Bread 
will  always  taste  of  the  air  which  surrounds  it,  while 
ripening — hence  it  should  ripen  where  the  air  is 
pure.  It  should  be  light,  well  baked  and  ripened, 
before  it  is  eaten.  In  summer,  bread  should  be 
mixed  with  cold  water ;  in  damp  weather  the 
water  should  be  tepid,  and  in  cold  weather  quite 
warm. 

Rice  flour  added  to  wheat  flour  enables  it  to  lake 
up  an  increased  quantity  of  water.  Boiled  and 
mashed  potatoes  mixed  with  the  dough  cause  the 
bread  to  retain  moisture,  and  prevent  it  from  drying 
and  crumblinsj.  Rye  makes  a  dark-colored  bread; 
i)ut  it  is  capable  of  being  fermented  and  raised  in 
the  same  manner  as  wheat.  It  retains  its  freshness 
and  moisture  longer  than  wheat.  An  admixture  of 
rye  floar  with  that  of  wheat  decidedly  improves 
the  latter  in  this  respect.  Indian  corn  bread  is 
much  used  in  this  country.  Mixed  with  wlieat  and 
rye,  a  dough  is  produced  capable  of  fermentation, 
but  pure  maize  meal  cannot  be  fermented  so  as  to 
form  a  light  bread.  Its  gluten  lacks  tlie  tenacious 
quality  necessary  to  produce  the  regular  cell  struct- 
ure. It  is  most  commonly  used  in  the  form  of 
cakes,  made  to  a  certain  degree  light  by  eggs  or 
sour  milk  and  saleratiis,  and  is  generally  eaten 
warm.  Indian  corn  is  ground  into  meal  of  various 
degrees  of  coarseness,  but  is  never  made  so  fine  as 
wheaten  flour.  Bread  or  cakes  from  maize  require 
a  considerably  longer  time  to  be  acted  upon  by  heat 
in  the  baking  process  than  wheat  or  rye.  If  ground 
wheat  be  unbolted,  that  is,  if  its  bran  be  not  sepa- 
rated, wheat  meal  or  graham  flour  results,  from 
which  graham  or  dyspepsia  bread  is  produced.  It 
is  made  in  the  same  general  way  as  other  wheaten 
bread,  but  requires  somewhat  peculiar  management. 
Wheat  meal,  and  especially  if  it  is  ground  coarsely, 
swells  considerably  in  the  dough,  and  therefore  the 
dough  should  not  at  first  be  made  quite  so  stiff  as 
that  made  of  superfine  flour;  and  when  it  is  raised, 
if  it  is  found  too  soft  to  mold  well,  a  little  more 
meal  may  be  added.  It  should  ije  remarked  tliat 
dough  made  of  wheat  meal  will  take  on  the  acetous 
fermentation  or  become  sour  sooner  than  that  made 
of  fine  flour.  It  requires  a  hotter  oven,  and  to  be 
baked  longer,  but  must  not  stand  so  long  after 
being  mixed  before  baking,  as  that  made  from 
flour. 

Good  yeast  is  essential  in  making  bread.  It  can 
either  be  made  out  of  potatoes  or  hops,  viz. :  Boil 
potatoes  soft,  peel  and  mash  them  and  add  as  much 
water  as  will  make  them  of  the  consistence  of  com- 
mon yeast ;  while  the  potatoes  are  warm  put  in  half 
a  teacupful  of  molasses,  and  two  tablespoonfi;ls  of 


'34 


BREAD. 


yeast.     Let  it  stand  near  the  fire  until  done  fer- 
menting, when  it  will  be  fit  for  use.     Or, 

Boil  a  handful  of  hops  in  two  quarts  of  water; 
strain,  and  pour  the  liquid  hot  upon  half  a  teacupful 
of  wheat  flour.  When  about  milk  warm  add  one  tea- 
cupful  of  yeast.  Let  it  ferment,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use  and  may  be  bottled. 

For  the  yeast  cakes,  take  a  large  handful  of  hops, 
tie  securely  in  a  cloth  ;  pare  three  large  potatoes ; 
put  hops  and  potatoes  in  a  quart  of  water  and  boil 
until  potatoes  are  done ;  take  them  and  mash  fine; 
pour  the  hop  water  over  them,  thicken  with  corn 
meal;  when  cool  stir  in  two  good  yeast  cakes,  or 
one  cup  of  soft  yeast ;  when  light  add  more  meal 
(never  use  flour)  until  hard  enough  to  roll  out ;  roll 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick  and  cut  with  a  biscuit 
cutter;  lay  on  tins  or  on  a  clean  board  under  the 
stove;  when  dry  ihey  are  ready  for  use.  The 
night  before  you  are  ready  to  bake,  take  the  amount 
of  water  you  wish,  thicken  with  flour,  stir  in  two 
of  you  yeast  cakes  well  soaked,  let  them  stand  till 
morning ;  then  take  the  sponge,  a  tablespoonful  of 
salt,  one  quart  of  water  (never  use  milk  in  warm 
weather),  mix  hard  and  let  rise  twice;  make  in 
loaves  ;  when  light  bake  in  moderate  oven  over  one 
hour.  In  cold  weather  set  the  sponge  at  noon  and 
mix  at  night ;  then  you  get  your  bread  baked  early 
in  the  morning. 

"  Bread  Preparation,"  sold  in  some  groceries, 
seems  to  work  very  well,  but  on  account  of  its 
liability  to  adulteration,  it  is  safe  to  avoid  using  it. 
All  so-called  "baker's"  bread  is  adulterated  with  alum, 
sometimes  with  other  drugs  and  common  dirt,  and 
should  never  be  eaten. 

Standard  White  Bread.  The  day  before  you 
bake,  either  in  the  morning  or  at  dinner  time,  or,  if 
the  weather  is  warm,  it  will  do  at  tea  time,  boil 
about  a  dozen  good-sized  potatoes,  pared,  mash 
them  in  the  water  in  which  they  were  boiled,  and 
rub  them  through  a  coarse  sieve ;  have  enough  wa- 
ter to  make  it  quite  thin;  when  cool,  add  a 
handful  of  yeast-cakes  which  have  been  soaked  in 
warm  water.  In  a  few  hours  this  will  be  very  light, 
and  ready  for  use  at  any  time.  Early  the  next 
morning  fill  the  bread-bowl  with  flour;  salt, 
then  pour  in  the  potato  mixture,  with  enough 
warm  water  to  mix  the  flour ;  knead  just  long 
enough  to  make  a  smooth  dough ;  set  by  the  stove, 
and  cover  with  a  warm  blanket ;  usually  it  will  be 
light  enough  to  mold  into  loaves  in  less  than  two 
hours,  when  you  should  endeavor  to  get  it  into  the 
oven  at  just  the  right  lightness. 

Another  :  Put  seven  pounds  of  flour  in  a  deep 
pan ;  make  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  flour, 
into  which  pour  one  quart  of  warm  water,  in  which 
has  been  dissolved  one  cake  of  compressed  yeast. 
Now,  with  a  large  spoon  beat  the  mixture  well,  cover 
the    flour,    and  set   to   rise   in   a   warm  place.     In 


two  or  two  and  a  half  hours  it  will  be  ready 
for  kneading.  Dissolve  a  handful  of  salt  in  about 
three  pints  of  warm  water,  with  which  make  the 
whole  into  a  soft,  smooth  dough.  Knead  well  with 
the  hands,  and  set  to  rise  for  two  or  three  hours. 
Then  work  and  make  into  loaves  ;  set  these  to  rise 
about  two  or  three  hours ;  then  bake  in  a  good 
hot  oven. 

Cream  Tartar  Bread.  One  quart  of  flour; 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  tartar ;  one  of  saleratus  . 
or  soda ;  two  and  a  half  cups  of  milk ;  bake  20 
minutes.  Rub  the  flour  and  cream  tartar  well  to- 
gether; dissolve  the  saleratus  or  soda  in  the  milk; 
wet  the  flour  with  it;  bake  immediately.  Water  can 
be  used  in  place  of  the  milk,  but  the  bread  will  not 
be  quite  so  rich.  This  also  makes  good  pie-crusl 
or  biscuit. 

Milk  Bread.  One  pint  of  boiling  water,  one 
pint  of  new  milk,  one  teaspoonful  soda,  the  same 
of  salt,  flour  enough  to  form  a  batter;  let  it  rise; 
add  sufficient  flour  to  form  a  dough,  and  bake  im- 
mediately. 

Sour  Milk  Bread.  Have  ready  the  flour ;  sweet- 
en the  milk  with  a  little  saleratus;  add  a 
little  salt ;  make  it  rather  soft,  and  pour  it  into  the 
pan  and  bake  it. 

Breakfast  Rolls.  Two  quarts  of  flour,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  white  sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
cold  lard ;  rub  these  thoroughly  together,  then  add 
a  pint  of  scalded  milk,  partly  cooled,  and  two-thirds 
cup  of  yeast ;  mix  milk  and  yeast  with  two-thirds 
of  the  flour  and  set  in  warm  place  to  rise.  When 
light  mix  all  together,  and  mold  thoroughly,  and  let 
rise  again.  When  very  light  roll  out  with  as  little 
flour  as  possible;  cut  in  shape,  rub  melted  butter 
over  the  top,  fold  together  and  bake. 

Graham  Bread.  Take  two  cups  buttermilk  or 
sour  milk,  one-half  cup  of  best  sugar-house  sirup, 
one'  teaspoonful  of  soda,  half  teaspoonful  of  salt. 
Stir  with  a  spoon  to  a  stiff  mass  (not  too  stiff' or  the 
bread  will  be  too  hard);  put  it  into  a  three-pint  or 
a  two-quart  basin  well  buttered ;  put  into  a 
steamer  over  cold  water,  which  gives  the  loaf  more 
time  for  rising.  Steam  about  an  hour ;  then  place 
it  in  the  oven  just  long  enough  to  give  it  a  good  rich  / 
brown  color. 

Another  :  Take  one  quart  of  graham  flour  at 
bed -time ;  scald  it  thoroughly,  and  after  it  cools,  mix 
in  a  cupful  of  good  yeast  (potato  preferred),  cover 
with  flour  (dry)  and  set  in  a  warm  place  to  rise.  In  , 
the  mornipg  add  a  teacup  of  warm  miik  and  six  des- 
sert spoonfuls  sirup  or  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  sugar. 
If  you  use  sirup  it  will  need  an  even  teaspoonful  of 
soda  to  counteract  acidity.  Make  up  in  a  sponge, 
and  let  rise  till  light ;  then  bake  one  hour  in  a  mod- 
erate oven.  If  preferred,  it  may  be  placed  in  a  pan 
and  steamed  for  two  hours. 


BREAD. 


1 35 


Graham  Gems.  The  old  method  is  to  make  a 
thin  batter  of  graham  flour,  with  sour  milk  and 
soda,  sometimes  shortening,  salt  (and  an  egg  to 
one  dozen  gems) ;  put  it  into  hot,  well-greased 
patty-pans,  and  bake  -in  a  quick  oven  for  about  20 
minutes.     But — 

Another :  The  standard  kind  among  the  mod- 
€rn  "  Hygienists  "  is  made  as  follows:  Take  freshly 
ground  graham  flour  (made  from  sound  white 
wheat  and  ground  soon  after  the  millstones  have 
been  sharpened,  as  the  hulls  are  much  finer  cut,  is 
the  best) ;  sift  through  a  very  coarse  sieve,  which 
■will  remove  only  what  whole  hulls  there  may  be  in 
the  flour;  mix  the  graham  flour  with  sweet  milk 
to  a  batter  a  little  stiffer  than  for  griddle-cakes,  but 
which  will  quickly  pour  from  the  spoon,  and 
smooth  on  the  surface ;  stir  till  all  is  well  mixed 
and  no  need  of  more  stirring ;  bake  in  cast-iron 
gem  pans;  put  the  pans  on  top  of  the  stove,  and 
grease  well  with  a  little  mop;  heat  them  as  hot  as 
they  will  bear  without  burning  off'  the  grease ;  fill 
them  quickly  with  the  batter,  dropped  from  the 
spoon,  and  put  them  into  a  hot  oven,  much  hotter 
than  for  fine- flour  biscuits,  and  have  it  the  hottest 
when  the  gems  go  into  the  oven,  and  let  the  heat 
gradually  diminish  toward  the  last  of  the  baking; 
the  sudden  heat  crusts  them  slightly,  and  the  con- 
fined gas  lightens  them ;  the  heat  should  be  as 
nearly  equal  above  and  below  as  possible,  and  cold 
drafts  of  air  from  opening  the  oven  door  should 
be  avoided.  Let  thembakeabout  20  minutes,  or  until 
they  become  a  nice  brown;  if  the  crusts  seem  hard 
upon  taking  them  up,  put  them  on  a  plate  and  turn 
a  tin  pan  over  them  a  few  minutes,  which  will 
soften  the  crusts.  They  may  be  eaten  hot  without 
•disturbing  the  most  delicate  stomach.  They  would 
be  just  as  light  mixed  with  water  instead  of  milk, 
but  not  quite  so  tender;  part  of  each  does  very 
•well,  and  a  little  fine  corn  meal  and  sweet  cream 
.are  an  improvement.  Any  one  who  will  follow 
these  directions  strictly  and  practice  a  few  times 
will  find  they  have  such  delicious  gems  that  all  the 
family  will  prefer  them  to  any  crther  kind  of  bread. 

Oatmeal  Gems.  Mix  a  cup  and  a  half  of  oat- 
meal, half  a  cup  of  corn  meal  and  a  cup  of  flour 
with  two  cups  of  sour  milk;  add  a  tablespoonful 
of  shortening,  two  of  sugar,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
.and  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in  a  tablespoon- 
ful of  boiling  water;  heat  the  muffin  tins  and  bake 
in  a  hot  oven. 

Rye  and  Indian,  or  Brown  Bread.  For 
each  good-sized  loaf  being  made  take  one  and  a 
half  pints  corn  meal,  and  pour  boiling  water  upon 
it  to  scald  it  properly;  let  it  stand  until  only  blood 
warm ;  then  put  about  one  quart  of  rye  flour  upon 
the  meal,  and  pour  in  a  good  bowl  of  emptyings, 
with  a  little  saleratus  dissolved  in  a  gill  of  water, 
Icneading  in  more  flour,  to  make  of  the  consistence 
of  common  bread.     If  you  raise  it  with  yeast,  put 


a  little  salt  in  the  meal,  but  if  you  raise  it  with  salt 
risings,  or  emptyings,  no  more  salt  is  needed. 
Form  into  loaves,  and  let  them  set  an  hour  and  a 
half,  or  until  light — in  a  cool  place  in  summer, 
and  on  the  hearth  or  under  the  stove  in  winter — 
then  bake  about  two  hours.  Make  the  dough 
fully  as  stiff  as  for  wheat  bread,  or  a  little  harder, 
for  if  maSe  too  soft  it  does  not  rise  well.  The  old 
style  was  to  use  only  one-third  rye  flour,  bat  it 
does  not  wear  if  made  that  way  ;  or  in  other  words, 
most  persons  get  tired  of  it  when  mostly  corn 
meal. 

Steamed  Brown  Bread.  One  pint  of  sifted 
corn  meal,  one  pint  of  flour,  one  pint  of  buttermilk, 
one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus.  If  preferred  sweet- 
ened, one-half-cup  of  molasses  is  used.  Steam  two 
hours  and  serve  hot. 

Rye  Bread.  Make  a  sponge  as  you  would 
for  wheat  flour.  When  light,  stir  in  rye  flour  as 
stiff  as  you  can  with  a  paddle  or  large  iron  spoon. 
Put  it  in  the  baking  pans,  and  let  it  get  very  light 
before  baking.     A  little  sugar  improves  it. 

Rice  Bread.  Boil  one  pint  of  rice  soft,  add 
one  pint  of  yeast,  then  three  quarts  of  wheat  flour ; 
put  it  to  rise  in  a  tin  or  earthen  vessel  until  it  has 
risen  sufficiently;  divide  into  three  parts;  then  bake 
as  other  bread,  and  you  will  have  three  large 
loaves. 

Pumpkin  Bread.  Take  a  pumpkin  and  boil 
it  in  water  until  it  is  quite  thick,  then  add  flout 
so  as  to  make  it  dough. 

Corn  Bread.  Take  one  quart  of  sweet  milk, 
corn  meal  enough  to  thicken,  three  eggs,  half  a 
cup  of  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  brown  sugar, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda  and  two  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar; bake  in  a  moderate  oven  one  and  a  half  hours. 

Southern  Style.  The  main  difference  is,  wet 
the  meal  and  set  it  where  it  will  keep  warm, 
and  it  will  by  its  own  tendency  to  ferment  become 
light  without  any  yeast  or  saleratus.  Then  steam, 
boil  or  bake  it,  as  you  desire,  at  once,  and  you  will 
iiave  the  nicest  and  most  wholsome  pone,  or  corn 
dodgers,  or  hoe-cake  that  can  be  made  from  corn 
meal.  One  thing  may  cause  you  trouble:  it  must 
be  watched  very  closely,  for  it  sours  very  quickly 
after  it  is  light. 

Corn  Pone^  Make  one  quart  of  corn  meal 
mush  in  the  usual  way,  except  extra  salting;  take 
from  the  fire  and  add  one  quart  of  cold  water  and 
meal  enough  to  make  it  very  stiff;  set  in  a  warm 
place  to  rise,  and  when  light  bake  in  an  oven  with 
a  tight  lid.     This  is  genuine  corn  pone. 

Uses  of  Stale  Bread.  i.  To  make  dressing 
for  meat — Crumb  it  fine;  turn  hot  broth  over  it; 
season,  add  butter,  and  a  well-beaten  egg,  or  more, 
according  to  quantity.  2.  Make  bread  pudding — 
Soak  two  hours  in  sweet  milk;  then  beat  eggs, 
sugar  and  spices,  and  bake;  sometimes  add  fruit. 
3.  Make    biscuit — Soak   over    night  in  sour  milk; 


136 


BREAD— BREA  TH. 


mash  fine  with  the  hand ;  mix  in  your  biscuit  for 
breakfast,  adding  salt,  lard  and  soda.  They  are 
better  than  without  the  stale  bread.  4.  Make  pan- 
cakes or  gems — Soak  overnight  in  sour  milk;  add 
well  beaten  eggs,  flour,  corn  meal  or  graham  flour 
to  make  a  batter ;  add  soda  and  salt  and  bake  on  a 
griddle  or  in  gt.-m  pans.  5.  Crumb  fine  rfnd  put  in 
the  next  omelet  you  make.  6.  Toast  your  bread,  set 
a  pan  of  milk  on  the  stove,  but  do  not  remove  tlie 
cream  from  it ;  add  butter  and  salt ;  dip  the  bread 
in  this,  and  send  to  the  table  for  supper  or  tea. 
7.  Crumb  fine  and  put  in  your  tomatoes  when  you 
are  stewing  them.  8.  Batter  bread — Take  half  a 
cup  of  bread  crumbs  soaked  in  a  pint  of  milk, 
and  two  eggs;  beat  this  to  a  smooth  batter;  add 
two  cups  of  Indian  meal,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt 
and  one  tablespoonful  of  butter;  stir  all  together 
very  hard,  and  bake  in  shallow  tins  very  quickly. 
9.  Toast  drv,  and  serve  either  dry  or  dipped  in  hot 
water,  and  eat  with  sauce,  meat,  or  both 

As  far  as  possible,  have  pieces  of  bread  eaten 
up  before  they  become  hard;  spread  those  that  are 
not  eaten,  and  let  them  dry,  to  be  pounded  for 
puddings,  or  soaked  for  brewis.  Brewis  is  made 
of  crusts  and  dry  pieces  of  bread  soaked  a  good 
while  in  hot  milk,  mashed  up  and  eaten  with  salt. 
Above  all,  do  not  let  crusts  accumulate  in  such 
quantities  that  they  cannot  be  used.  If  proper 
care  be  taken  there  is  no  need  of  losing  a  particle  of 
bread. 

Fried  Bread.  Beat  four  eggs  very  light,  add 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  good  brown  sugar,  a  little 
grated  nutmeg,  a  tablespoonful  of  orange  or  rose 
water,  and  a  quart  of  milk.  Cut  into  nice  slices 
an  inch  thick,  a  stale  loaf  of  bread ;  remove  the 
crust  from  the  sides,  and  cut  each  slice  into  halves. 
Butter  your  frying-pan,  and  when  hot,  lay  in  your 
bread  (dipped  in  the  custard)  and  brown  on  both 
sides.  Lay  them  on  a  hot  dish  and  sprinkle  over 
them  a  little  loaf  sugar. 

Another :  Slices  of  toasted  bread  dipped  in 
milk  or  wine  and  fried  in  honey  are  excellent. 
Then,  instead  of  calling  them  "  fried  bread,"  they 
are  torejas,  an  excellent  Spanish  delicacy.  Please 
understand  that  there  is  neither  butter  nor  lard. 
Simply  melt  the  honey  in  a  pan,  and  when  it  is 
very  hot  put  in  the  bread,  which*is  served  hot 
also,  after  becoming  nicely  browned.  See  also 
Biscuit  and  Cakes. 

Bread  may  be  preserved  for  long  periods  by 
cutting  it  into  thick  slices  and  baking  it  in  an  oven 
until  perfectly  dry.  When  on  a  journey  this  dried 
bread  may  be  dipped  an  instant  into  hot  water,  re- 
dried  and  eaten  with  butter.  The  taste  will  be 
like  that  of  toast. 

Break.  To  "  break  "  a  horse  is  to  reconcile  him 
to  the  use  of  the  saddle  or  harness,  that  he  may  be 
made  serviceable  to  man.  Also,  a  "  break,"  a 
stout  two-wheeled  vehicle  used  in  breaking  horses. 


To  "  break "  a  piece  of  ground  is  to  plow  it  up 
thoroughly,  either  from  its  primeval  condition  or 
after  it  has  settled  for  a  season. 

Breast,  Inflammation  of.  The  breasts  of  fe- 
males are  sometimes  inflamed,  swelled,  and  sul)ject 
to  abscesses.  In  mothers  these  alTeciions  are  pain- 
ful, and  prevent  the  flow  of  milk.  A  swelling  in 
the  breast  may  be  reduced  by  applying  spirits 
of  camphor  or  the  adhesive  strengthening  plas- 
tea.  If  there  be  chill  it  must  be  removed  by 
perspiration.  Take  one  teasixwnfulof  best  rum, one 
teaspoonful  of  ginger,  one-quarter  teaspoonful  of 
cayenne  pepper;  boil  four  or  five  minutes,  and 
thicken  with  coarse  flour  or  ground  elm  bark,  or 
slippery  elm ;  put  a  little  oil  upon  the  breast, 
then  apply  the  poultice,  and  repeat  three  or  four 
times.  If  the  pain  be  excessive,  add  a  small  quan- 
tity of  laudanum  to  the  poultice.  This  generally 
cures.  In  hard  swellings  of  the  breast,  rub  with 
sweet  oil,  or  friction  with  soap  liniment;  one 
dram  of  comp'iund  tincture  of  iodine  to  each 
ounce  will  render  it  more  effectual.  The  bowels 
should  be  kept  gently  open  to  subdue  the  fever. 
When  matter  has  formed;  it  is  best  to  let  it  break 
and  discharge  spontaneously;  or  it  may  be  punct- 
ured with  a  lancet.  An  abscess  in  the  breast  will 
discharge  for  a  long  time.  The  diet,'  therefore, 
should  be  nutritious,  light  and  strengthening.  A 
warm  bread  poultice  is  good  for  an  abscess;  it 
should  be  changed  every  four  or  five  hours,  and 
covered  with  oiled  silk.  When  the  discharge  has 
nearly  ceased,  simple  warm-water  dressings  may 
be  substituted.  Or,  boil  a  handful  of  chamomile 
and  as  much  mallows  in  milk  and  water.  Foment 
with  it  between  two  flannels,  as  hot  as  can  be 
borne,  every  twelve  hours.  This  also  dissolves 
any  knot  or  swelling  in  any  part.  Or,  take  one- 
half  dram  of  powdered  gum  arable,  ten  grains  of 
borax  and  one  dram  of  tincture  of  myrrh.  To 
hard  breasts  some  apply  roasted  turnips,  mashed 
and  mixed  with  a  little  oil  of  roses. 

Any  disease  of  tlie  breast  is  a  delicate  matter  to 
experiment  with,  and  it  is  generally  safer  to  con- 
sult a  physician  than  to  run  the  risk  of  letting  the 
disease  gain  a  foothold. 

Breast  Pang.  Take  a  warm-water  emetic,  ab- 
stain from  food,  rub  the  chest  and  remain  composed 
as  possible. 

Breast  Wheel.  A  water  wheel,  where  the  cur- 
rent is  delivered  upon  it  about  one-half  or  two- 
thirds  its  height,  which  distinguishes  it  from  "over- 
shot "  and  "  undershot  "  wheels. 

Breath,  Impure.  There  are  few  things  more 
offensive  than  a  foul  or  fetid  breath,  not  only  as  a 
source  of  annoyance  to  the  person  himself,  but  a 
ix)sitive  nuisance  to  all  who  have  the  misfortune  to 
approach  him.  Impure  breath,  except  in  cases  of 
illness,  and  when  the  patient  is  under  a  course  of 


BREA  TH— BREEDING. 


137' 


mercury,  proceeds  from  two  causes — a  neglected 
state  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  or  from  decayed 
teeth  and  an  unclean  mouth;  and  as  in  either  case 
the  remedy  is  easy,  it  must  be  owing  to  an  innate 
disregard  for  others'  comfort,  and  neglect  of  his 
own,  that  any  person  allows  so  noxious  an  offense 
to  continue.  To  counteract  such  exhalations,  al- 
most the  only  substance  that  should  be  admitted  at 
the  toilet  is  the  concentrated  solution  of  chloride 
of  soda;  from  five  to  ten  drops  of  it  in  a  wine-glass 
of  pure  spring  water,  taken  immediately  after  the 
operations  of  the  morning  are  completed.  In 
some  cases  the  odor  arising  from  carious  teeth  is 
combined  with  that  of  the  stomach.  If  the  mouth 
is  well  rinsed  with  a  teaspoonful  of  the  solution  of 
the  chloride  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  the  bad  odor 
of  the  teeth  will  be  removed.  See  also  Teeth 
and    Hygiene. 

For  breath  tainted  by  onions,  it  is  said  that 
eating  leaves  of  parsley  with  vinegar  is  a  good 
thing. 

Breath,  Shortness  of.  Take  of  vitriolated 
spirits  of  ether  one  ounce,  and  of  camphor  twelve 
grains.  Make  a  solution,  of  which  take  a  teaspoon- 
ful during  the  paroxysm.  This  is  usually  found  to 
afford  instantaneous  relief  in  difficult  breathing, 
depending  on  internal  disease  and  other  causes, 
where  the  patient,  from  a  rjuick  and  very  laborious 
breathing,  is  obliged  to  be  in  an  erect  ixjsture.  Or, 
take  one-quarter  ounce  of  powder  of  elecampane 
root,  one-half  ounce  of  powder  of  licorice,  as  much 
flour  of  brimstone  and  powder  of  anise-seed,  and 
two  ounces  of  sugar-candy  powdered.  Make  all 
into  pills,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  tar;  take 
four  large  pills  when  going  to  rest.  This  is  an 
incomparable  medicine  for  asthma,  and  should  be 
taken  for  some  time. 

Breech,  of  a  Gun,  is  the  butt  of  the  stock, 
which  in  firing  is  placed  against  the  shoulder.  A 
"  breeoh-loading "  gun  is  one  which  is  loaded  at 
the  juncture  of  the  breech  with  the  barrel.  "Breech 
wool "  is  the  coarse,  short  wool  which  is  taken 
from  the  hinder  quarters,  or  breech,  of  common 
sheep. 

Breeching,  that  part  of  the  harness  which  ex- 
tends around  the  breech,  or  hind  quarters,  of  an 
animal,  enabling  him  to  push  backward  the  vehicle 
to  which  he  is  attached. 

Breeding,  in  a  pastoral  sense,  is  the  propagation 
of  animals;  also,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  the 
propagation  of  good  breeds,  on  scientific  principles, 
for  the  improvement  of  the  stock. 

All  breeding  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  like 
begets  like.  This  is,  however,  liable  to  some 
exceptions,  and  is  much  more  generally  true  when 
breeding  down  than  when  breediiig  up,  If  two 
animals  which  can  never  be  exactly  similar  in  all 
respects  are  requisite  to  the  perpetuation  of  the 
species,  it  necessarily  results  that  the  progeny  must 


differ  in  a  more  or  less  degree  from  each  parent. 
With  wild  animals  and  such  of  the  domestic  as  are- 
allowed  to  propagate  without  the  interference  of 
art,  and  whose  habits,  treatment  and  food  are 
nearly  similar  to  their  natural  condition,  the  change 
through  successive  generations  is  scarcely  percept- 
ible. It  is  only  when  we  attempt  to  improve  their 
good  quahties  that  it  is  essential  carefully  to  de- 
termine and  rigidly  to  apply  what  are  adopted  as 
the  present  scientific  principles  of  breeding.  We 
cannot  believe  that  we  have  penetrated  beyond  the 
mere  threshold  of  the  art.  Unless,  then,  we  launch 
into  experiments,  which  are  necessarily  attended 
with  uncertainty,  our  duty  will  be  to  take  for  our 
guide  the  most  successful  practice  of  modern  times, 
until  further  discoveries  enable  us  to  modify  or  add 
to  such  as  are  already  known  and  adopted.  We 
may  lay  down,  then,  as  the  present  rules  for  this  art: 
Therefore, — 

1.  That  the  animals  selected  for  breed  should 
unite  in  themselves  all  the  good  qualities  we  wish 
to  perpetuate  in  the  offspring. 

2.  These  qualities,  technically  called  "points,"' 
should  be  inbred  in  the  animals,  as  far  as  practi- 
cable, by  a  long  line  of  descent  from  parents  simi- 
larly constituted.  The  necessity  for  this  rule  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  in  mixing  different 
species,  and  especially  mongrels,  with  a  long- 
established  breed,  the  latter  will  most  strongly 
stamp  the  issue  with  its  own  peculiarities.  This  is 
forcibly  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  foreign  cattle 
of  ancient  races,  whose  color,  form  and  character- 
istics are  strikingly  perpetuated,  sometimes  to  the 
sixth  or  even  a  later  generation.  So  far  is  this 
principle  carried  by  many  experienced  breeders 
that  they  will  use  an  animal  of  different  external 
appearance,  but  of  approved  descent  (blood),  in 
preference  to  a  decidedly  superior  one,  whose  pedi- 
gree is  imperfect. 

3.  All  the  conditions  of  soil,  situation,  climate, 
treatment  and  food  should  be  favorable  to  the 
object  sought. 

4.  Perfect  health  and  sound  constitution  in  the 
breeding  animals,  and  freedom  from  blemish,  either 
inherent  or  chronic. 

5.  As  a  general  rule,  the  female  should  be 
relatively  larger  than  the  male.  This  gives  ample 
room  for  the  perfect  development  of  the  foetus, 
easy  parturition,  and  a  large  supply  of  milk  for  the 
offspring,  at  a  period  in  its  existence  when  food  has 
a  greater  influence  in  perfecting  character  and  form 
than  at  any  subsequent  time. 

6.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  be  made  when 
greater  size  is  required  than  can  be  obtained  from 
the  female,  and  especially  when  more  vigor  and 
hardiness  of  constitution  are  desirable.  _  For  this 
purpose,  strong,  masculine  development  in  the  sire 
is  proper,  and,  if  otherwise  unattainable,  something 
of  coarseness  may  be  admitted,  as  this  may  be 


138 


BREEDING. 


afterward   corrected ;    but    nothing  will    atone    for 
want  of  constitution  and  strength. 

7.  Pairing  should  be  with  strict  reference  to 
correcting  the  imperfections  of  one  animal  by  a 
corresponding  excellerce  in  the  other. 

8.  Breeding  in-and-in,  or  propagating  from  ani- 
mals very  nearly  allied,  may  be  tolerated  under 
certain  circumstances.  When  the  animal  possesses 
much  stamina  and  peculiar  merit,  which  it  is  desired 
to  perpetuate  in  the  breed,  it  may  be  done  either 
in  the  ascending  or  descending  line,  as  in  breeding 
the  son  to  the  parent  or  the  parent  to  his  own 
progeny.  This  has  been  practiced  with  decided 
advantage,  and  in  some  cases  has  been  continued 
successively  as  low  as  the  sixth  generation  with 
good  results. 

9.  Yet,  with  inexperienced  breeders,  it  is  usually 
better  to  avoid  close  relationship,  by  the  selection 
of  equally  meritorious  stock-getters  of  the  same 
breed  from  other  sources,  unless  the  breeder  be  a 
perfect  master  of  the  art  of  close  breeding.  It 
requires  the  soundest  judgment  and  long  experience 
to  long  follow  in-and-in  breeding  with  entire 
success. 

10.  Wholesome,  nutritious  food,  at  all  times 
sufficient  to  keep  the  animals  steadily  advancing, 
should  be  provided,  but  they  should  never  be 
allowed  to  get  fat.  Of  the  two  evils,  starving  is 
preferable  to  surfeit.  Careful  treatment  and  the 
absence  of  disease  must  be  always  fully  considered. 

11.  Animals  should  never  be  allowed  to  breed 
too  early  or  too  late  in  life.  These  periods  cannot 
be  arbitrarily  laid  down,  but  must  depend  on  the 
time  of  maturity,  the  longevity  of  the  breed  and 
the  stamina  of  the  individual. 

12.  No  violent  cross  or  mixing  of  distinct 
breeds  should  ever  be  admitted  for  the  purpose  of 
perpetuation,  as  of  cattle  of  diverse  sizes  ;  horses  of 
unlike  characters;  the  Merino  and  long-wools,  or 
even  the  long  or  short  and  the  middle-wool  sheep. 
For  carcass  and  constitution,  the  last-named  crosses 
are  unexceptionable,  and  it  is  a  practice  common 
in  this  country,  and  well  enough,  where  the  whole 
produce  is  destined  for  the  shambles;  but  when  the 
progeny  are  designed  for  breeders,  the  practice 
tends  to  a  total  uncertainty  in  fixed  character  and 
quality. 

If  an  animal  is  capable  of  transmitting  any 
characteristic  to  its  young,  it  must,  of  course,  pos- 
sess that  characteristic  itself,  although  now  and  then 
qualities  may  predominate  in  the  offspring  which 
were  almost  or  quite  latent  or  hidden  in  the  parent, 
but  were  manifest  in  some  of  the  ancestry. 
Now,  if  any  characteristic  quality  becomes  heredi- 
tary in  an  animal,  it  must  correspond  with  a  similar 
quality  inherent  in  the  parent  from  which  it 
descended.  But  if  we  breed  from  a  female  of 
certain  qualities  by  a  male  of  an  opposite  character, 
so  far  as  these  peculiar  qualities  are  concerned,  we 
cannot   expect   to  peroetuate  in  the  offspring  both 


characteristics.  We  should  obtain  a  result  which 
might  appear  to  contradict  the  maxim  that  "  like 
produces  like."  And  here  we  come  at  once  upon 
one  of  the  leading  principles  in  the  breeding  of 
all  stock — that  though  "  like  produces  like,"  and 
can  produce  nothing  else,  when  the  two  parents 
possess  opposing  or  unlike  qualities,  the  one  which 
possesses  the  strongest  hereditary  qualities,  or  the 
strongest  power  of  transmitting  his  qualities,  will 
gain  a  preponderating  influence  over  the  offspring. 
Take,  for  instance,  a  cow  with  some  special  pe- 
culiarity of  form,  and  put  her  to  a  bull  having  points 
of  form  quite  opposite  in  this  respect,  and  the  calf 
will  take  the  character,  so  far  as  this  peculiarity  of 
form  is  concerned,  of  the  parent  which  possesses  the 
greatest  hereditary  power,  or  the  greatest  purity 
and  unity  of  influence — what  we  may  call  fixity  of 
type.  And  these  hereditary  powers  are  very 
largely  under  our  control,  to  be  increased  or  dimin- 
ished by  our  own  course  of  action,  and  at  our 
pleasure. 

If  we  take  two  animals  to  breed  together,  both 
possessing  a  strong  similarity  of  type,  the  result 
we  shall  have  will  be  an  offspring  possessing  the 
like  character,  but  in  a  higher  degree.  The  result 
of  putting  together  two  animals  of  a  strong  simi- 
larity of  characteristics  is  not  only  to  perpetuate 
their  corresponding  peculiarities,  but  to  intensify 
them  in  the  offspring;  that  is,  if  the  parents  actually 
possess  a  striking  similarity  of  type  in  any  given 
ix)int,  each  successive  generation  which  they  pro- 
duce receives  an  increase  of  hereditary  force,  or  an 
increase  of  power  in  transmitting  its  peculiar  stamp 
upon  its  young.  It  is  a  cumulative  power.  But 
if  this  hereditary  power  accumulates,  and  becomes 
stronger  and  stronger,  with  a  strong  similarity  in 
the  parents  to  start  from,  it  absolutely  and  invari- 
ably diminishes,  if  the  parents,  instead  of  possessing 
similarity  of  character,  really  possess  an  opposite 
or  antagonistic  character. 

It  reminds  one  of  the  familiar  and  well-known 
principle  of  mathematics,  that  two  plus  or  p)ositive 
quantities  multiplied  together  vnll  produce  a  far 
larger  plus  or  positive  quantity  as  the  product; 
while  if  we  multiply  two  unlike  quantities,  a  plus 
and  a  minus,  for  instance,  the  result  will  be  a 
minus,  or  negative  quantity.  Suppose,  for  example, 
we  have  a  well-bred  ram,  that,  by  long  and  careful 
breeding  through  several  generations,  has  acquired 
certain  strong  and  valuable  hereditary  powers ;  and 
suppose  these  powers,  for  the  sake  of  illustration, 
are  equal  to  100,  if  they  could  be  expressed  in 
figures.  Now,  suppose  we  put  this  ram  to  a  ewe 
of  a  different  character,  one  that  has  been  cross- 
bred, or  bred  without  any  care  or  system — very 
much  as  our  native  sheep  or  our  common  cattle 
have  been  bred.  She  has,  of  course,  far  less 
hereditary'  power ;  far  less  fixity  of  type  and 
strength  of  blood,  as  we  say.  Her  hereditary 
power  may  be  represented,  we  will  suppose,  by  60 


BREEDING. 


■39 


The  result  would  be  a  lamb  possessing  very  much 
the  same  characteristics  as  the  ram,  because  we 
have  seen  the  ram  possessed  a  greatly  superior 
hereditary  power.  To  the  eye  he  may  look  very 
like  his  father;  but  the  hereditary  capacity  of  this 
lamb  will  be  greatly  reduced,  and  his  jx)wer  of 
transmitting  his  peculiar  characteristics  will  be 
represented  by  loo — 60=40.  He  may  still  look 
to  the  eye  about  as  good  as  his  father ;  but  he  will 
possess  less  than  half  of  his  father's  hereditary 
power,  and  less  even  than  that  of  his  mother.  In 
other  words,  he  may  have  all  the  perfection  of  form 
and  marked  characteristics,  but  his  power  of  trans- 
mitting these  peculiarities  will  be  only  in  the  propor- 
tion of  40  to  100,  and  for  a  breeding  animal  to  get 
stock  from  he  will  be  worth  less  than  half  as  much 
as  his  sire. 

In  other  words,  if  you  select  animals  of  a  simi- 
larity of  type,  that  is,  if  the  likeness  is  strongly 
marked  and  well  developed  in  both  parents,  the 
young  will  not  only  possess  the  same  character  as 
the  parents,  but  it  will  possess  an  increased  or 
multiplied  power  of  hereditary  transmission  of  these 
■characteristics.  But  opposite  characteristics  mu- 
tually weaken  each  other's  influence,  and  the  off- 
spring will  have  the  power  of  hereditary  transmission 
only  in  a  greatly  reduced  degree.  The  exact 
pro[X)rtion  of  this  reduction  of  the  power  of  trans- 
mission, or  hereditary  power,  may  not  be  precisely 
like  that  stated  above,  but  it  will  correspond  with  it 
in  the  main,  and  sufficiently  for  illustration. 

These  are  a  few  general  and  well-established  prin- 
ciples which  have  been  arrived  at  by  the  most  skill- 
ful and  scientific  breeders  during  the  last  half  or 
three-quarters  of  a  century;  and  it  would  be  idle  to 
dispute  them  or  to  deny  their  force. 

We  are  to  bear  in  mind,  also,  that  capability  of 
transmitting  the  qualities  or  characteristics  from 
the  parent  10  the  offspring  is  not  limited  to  any  one 
peculiarity  of  the  animal — like  the  secretion  of  milk, 
the  disjwsition  to  take  on  fat,  the  strength  of  consti- 
tution, the  likeness  of  figure,  or  the  habit  of  growth 
— but  extends  to  all  the  characteristic  jxsints  of  the 
parent  anim  il.  All  the  peculiarities  of  the  system, 
physical  and  constitutional,  are  very  largely  within 
our  control ;  and  the  character  which  results  will  be 
governed  by  the  tendencies  of  the  parents  we  select 
to  breed  from,  and  will  depend  on  the  adjustment  of 
the  balance  of  qualities,  sometimes  inclining  to  the 
side  of  one  parent  and  sometimes  to  the  other,  ac- 
cording to  the  respective  power  of  transmission 
which  has  been  spoken  of. 

If  this  power  largely  preponderates  in  one 
parent,  owing  to  the  length  of  tinip  in  which  it 
has  been  carefully  bred,  or  the  number  of  genera- 
tions through  which  it  has  become  fixed  and  intens- 
ified, while  it  has  been  broken  and  weakened  in 
the  Other  by  cross  or   promiscuous    breeding,  the 


cliaracter  of  the  offspring  will  be  governed  almost 
exclusively  by  the  parent  that  has  the  stronger  blood ; 
while  the  other  will  have  but  slight  influence  over 
the  qualities  of  the  ofl'spring.  But  if  there  is  a  more 
even  adjustment  of  this  power  of  transmission  on 
the  part  of  the  parents — that  is,  if  they  are  nearly 
or  quite  equally  well  bred — the  dam  will  succeed 
in  imparting  some  peculiarities,  and  the  sire  will 
communicate  others.  The  dam  may  impart  the 
general  form  of  the  body,  for  instance,  but  be  un- 
able to  control  or  overcome  the  stronger  power  of 
the  sire  over  certain  points  of  the  body.  The  dam, 
for  example,  might  have  slightly  deficient  hind 
quarters,  and  the  sire  a  strong  tendency  to  iiopart 
a  good  hind  quarter ;  and  in  this  respect  she  would 
be  compelled  to  yield  to  the  superior  strength  of 
influence.  In  those  points  of  character  or  features 
where  they  correspond,  or  were  similar,  both  being 
good  or  both  being  bad,  the  result  would  be  to  in- 
crease and  intensify  such  points,  and  to  reproduce 
them  in  a  still  stronger  form.  In  some  particulars 
the  influence  of  the  male  will  predominate;  in 
others,  that  of  the  dam.  So  we  see  the  hereditary 
qualities  of  long  and  carefully  bred  stock  will  repre- 
sent the  maximum  of  good  qualities  and  the  mini- 
mum of  undesirable  ones. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  rule  is  to  breed  only 
from  the  best — not  merely  the  best-looking,  the 
animal  that  strikes  and  fills  the  eye  the  most  com- 
pletely, but  from  the  one  that  has  the  hereditary 
power,  the  capacity  to  transmit  his  good  qualities 
in  the  highest  degree  to  his  offspring;  and  the 
strongest  evidence  of  this  power  will  be  the  length 
and  perfection  of  his  pedigree,  showing  the  quali- 
ties of  his  ancestors  for  some  generations  back,  un- 
less, indeed,  some  of  his  stock  can  be  seen  to  tell 
as  plain  a  story  to  the  practiced  eye  of  a  judge 
of  stock. 

We  have  often  heard  practical  men,  intelligent 
men,  who  profess  to  know  something  about  stock, 
and  who  ought  to  know  better,  say:  "I  don't  care 
anything  about  your  pedigree;  let  me  see  the  ani- 
mal, and  I  can  tell  whether  I  want  to  breed  from 
him  or  not."  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves  by  any 
such  assumption,  from  whatever  source  it  may 
happen  to  come.  It  will  be  sure  to  lead  to  fre- 
quent disappointment;  for,  as  we  have  shown,  an 
animal  may  possess  an  almost  faultless  form,  and 
strike  the  eye  of  even  the  most  experienced  judge 
as  possessing  remarkably  fine  qualities,  and,  indeed, 
really  ixDSsess  them,  and  yet  have  no  fixity  of  type, 
no  great  hereditary  power;  when,  if  put  to  a  low 
or  ill-bred  female,  he  will  be  more  likely  than  not 
to  get  poor  stock,  or,  at  any  rate,  there  will  be  no 
reasonable  certainty  of  transmitting  his  own  qual- 
ities. 

The  importance  of  the  greatest  care  in  the  se- 
lection of  the  male  will  be  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  his  influence  extends  to  a  far  more  numerous 


14° 


BREEDING. 


progeny.  He  should  not  only  possess  in  the  highest 
degree  the  good  qualities  sought  after  in  the  class 
of  animals  to  which  he  belongs,  but  he  should 
possess  the  power  of  transmitting  them  in  the 
highest  degree;  and  as  this  power  is  latent  or 
hidden,  and  does  not  appear  to  the  eye,  it  is  to 
be  judged  either  from  the  stock  already  got,  or 
more  commonly  from  the  qualities  of  his  ancestors 
through  several  generations.  And  here,  again,  the 
quality  of  the  pedigree — that  is,  the  quality  of  the 
ancestry — is  more  important  than  its  length.  It  is 
of  little  use  or  satisfaction  to  trace  a  pedigree 
back  through  inferior  or  ill-bred  stock,  except  as  a 
warning  against  the  use  of  the  male  at  the  end 
of  it. 

At  the  same  time,  the  longer  it  is  the  better, 
provided  it  shows  a  high  character  in  the  ancestry ; 
for  we  have  seen  that  the  hereditary  power,  or 
capacity  for  transmission,  is  cumulative;  that  is, 
it  becomes  stronger,  and  more  intense  and  fixed, 
from  generation  to  generation,  where  the  respect- 
ive parents  possess  similarity  of  characteristics, 
as  is  commonly  the  case  in  our  well-established 
breeds. 

We  have  said  that  the  choice  of  the  male  to  breed 
from  is  of  special  importance,  because  of  the  great 
extent  of  his  influence;  that  is,  the  very  large 
number  of  his  offspring  in  proportion  to  that  of 
the  female,  among  our  domestic  animals.  But  it 
is  well  established  now  that  ihe  influence  of  the 
male  imparts  vigor  of  body,  and  the  general  confor- 
mation of  the  system,  especially  of  the  forward  parts, 
and  that  he  transmits  to  his  progeny  the  qualities  of 
Ihe  mother  by  which  he  was  born.  A  well-bred 
bull  dropped  by  a  first-rate  dairy  cow  will  pro- 
duce a  calf  that  will  make,  if  a  heifer,  another 
good  dairy  cow.  He  will  transmit  to  his  daugh- 
ter the  qualities  of  his  mother,  if  he  have  well 
fixed  in  his  constitution  the  hereditary  power  of 
which  we  have  spoken.  In  breeding  dairy  stock, 
therefore,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  study 
and  to  know  the  quality  of  the  stock  from  which  the 
male  has  descended. 

The  animal  in  a  wild  state,  or  in  a  state  of 
nature,  has  stronger  reproductive  powers,  greater 
energy  of  the  system  and  constitution,  than  one 
long  under  the  influence  of  domestication.  The 
natural  laws  are  to  some  extent  interfered  with 
by  the  efforts  we  have  to  make  to  establish  and 
perpetuate  certain  peculiarities  of  the  animal  sys- 
tem, the  extraordinary  development  of  which  is 
unnatural  and  artificial,  but  which  development 
may  be  essential  to  our  interests.  The  tendency 
to  secrete  milk  is  a  natural  one,  found  in  all  animals 
that  suckle  their  young;  but  the  extraordinary  de- 
velopment of  milking  powers  is  artificial.  In  the 
wild  state  the  cow  yields  milk  for  only  a  short 
time,  and  that  only  in  sufficient  quantities,  probably, 
to   nourish   her  young.     As    we    recede   from  this 


wild  condition  by  domestication,  and  subject  the 
animal  to  a  variety  of  circumstances  which  modify 
her  form  and  system,  we  do  it  at  the  expense  of 
certain  qualities,  for  the  sake  of  gaining  other 
qualities  better  calculated  to  promote  our  immediate 
interest.  The  reproductive  powers  become  weaker; 
the  vitality  and  vigor  of  constitution  lessened ;  but 
the  formation  of  fat,  or  the  tendency  to  produce 
meat,  and  the  profitable  production  of  milk,  may 
be  largely  increased.  That  high  breeding  has  this 
tendency  to  diminish  the  vital  force  and  strength 
of  constitution  is  apparent  enough  when  we  con- 
sider how  utterly  absurd  it  would  be  to  attempt  to 
pit  an  improved  Short-horn  bull  against  a  rough  and 
ill-bred  bull  in  a  Spanish  arena.  He  would  have 
the  improvement  knocked  out  of  him  before  he  had 
time  to  turn  around. 

Good  dairy  quahties,  therefore,  being  artificial  to 
a  great  extent,  there  will  always  be  a  natural  ten- 
dency to  revert  to  the  natural  state  ;  and  hence  the 
necessity  of  constant  and  unremitting  care  to  pre- 
serve and  improve  by  the  methods  already  inti- 
mated what  we  have  already  gained — that  is,  by 
the  most  careful  selection  of  the  animals  from 
which  we  propose  to  raise  dairy  stock,  especially 
to  have  the  male  from  a  family  remarkable  for 
milk. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  among  farmers  that  in 
all  classes  of  stock,  as  cows,  ewes,  sows,  etc.,  a 
strong  disposition  to  accumulate  fat  in  the  system 
is  commonly  attended  by  a  marked  deficiency  in 
the  secretion  of  milk ;  and  thgre  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  general  structure  of  the  animal  exercises 
an  important  control  over  the  quantity  and  richness 
of  the  product  in  milk. 

This  must  be  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  first 
process  which  the  food  taken  into  the  system  is 
made  to  undergo  after  digestion  is  the  separation 
and  preparation  of  the  fatty  and  nutritive  parts, 
so  as  to  introduce  them  into  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  In  some  animals  this  process  apparently 
goes  on  with  less  loss  than  in  others;  but  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  elements  of  food  pass 
on  into  the  circulation  of  the  blood  is  plainly 
seen  in  the  shortness  of  time  it  takes  to  show  itself 
in  the  various  secretions  of  the  body.  Thus  certain 
plants  or  other  substances  taken  into  the  stomach 
half  an  hour  previous  to  milking  will  perceptibly  affect 
the  taste  and  quality  of  the  milk.  If  you  administer 
a  dose  of  aloes  to  a  horse  in  the  form  of  a  ball 
wrapped  up  in  paper,  and  within  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  minutes  after  put  a  bullet  through  his  head,  and 
dissect  him,  you  will  find  the  paper  left  in  an 
undigested  mass  in  the  stomach ;  but  you  will  find 
traces  of  the  aloes  far  along  at  the  very  mouth  of  the 
large  intestine.  It  has  dissolved  and  entered 
with  wonderful  rapidity  into  the  circulation  of  the 
system.  This  has  been  tried  time  and  time  again. 
It  is  related,  also,  that  an  ox  going  to  the  butcher 


BREEDING. 


141 


caught  up  an  onion  and  ate  it.  In  a  very  short 
time  he  was  knocked  in  the  head,  when  it  was  found 
that  the  onion  had  tainted  the  whole  body. 

Juicy  food  causes  the  milk  to  be  thin  and  watery 
as  well  as  abundant,  showing  that  there  must  be  a 
diffusion  of  water  directly  from  the  blood.  It  is  in- 
credible that  su«h  great  quantities  of  water  could  be 
obtained  from  the  decomposition  of  the  gland-cells ; 
and,  as  water  constitutes  by  far  the  largest  part  of 
milk,  it  is  practically  correct  to  describe  it  as  a  secre- 
tion from  the  blood,  even  if  we  admit  that  the  milk 
solids  have  their  origin  in  the  decomposition  of  the 
mammary  glands. 

Now,  if  the  blood  is  poor,  thin  and  watery,  if  it  is 
but  slighdy  charged  with  the  fatty  elements  which 
have  been  taken  up  in  the  food,  the  quality  of  the 
tnilk  secreted  from  this  blood  must  of  necessity  be 
poor,  because  the  quality  of  richness  of  milk  is  sup- 
posed to  depend  on  the  amount  or  proportion  of 
fatty  constituents,  or  what  is  more  commonly  known 
as  cream  and  butter.  And  you  will  generally  find 
that  the  quality  bears  an  intimate  relation  to  the 
quantity  produced. 

Tlie  second  step  in  the  process  of  assimilation  is, 
therefore,  the  separation  of  a  larger  or  smaller  pro- 
portion of  these  fatty  elements  in  the  blood,  in  the 
form  of  milk,  the  richness  of  which  will  be  governed 
very  materially  by  the  food  and  by  the  perfection, 
vhe  completeness,  with  which  the  fatty  elements 
have  been  separated  from  the  food,  and  enter  into 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  economical  preparation  of  the  raw  material 
of  the  food  is  equally  important  for  the  fat  in  the 
blood,  whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  form  into 
which  the  animal  system  is  to  convert  it ;  and  the 
internal  structure  which  accomplishes  this  process 
differs  widely  in  different  individuals,  so  that  one 
animal  will  effect  this  separation,  preparation  or 
elimination  completely,  with  the  least  possible  loss 
or  waste  of  food,  while  another  will  fail  to  extract 
the  fatty  elements  of  the  food,  and  allow  them  to 
pass  on  to  be  excreted  with  the  other  cast-off  wastes 
of  the  body,  and  we  see,  also,  that  animals  best 
formed  for  fattening  are  also  best  formed  to  fulfill 
the  first  condition  essential  for  the  production  of 
rich  milk. 

The  object  in  breeding  stock  for  the  dairy,  there- 
fore, is  to  stimulate  the  mammary  glands  to  the 
greatest  possible  activity,  to  increase  their  natural 
energy  and  power  of  secretion,  and  to  prolong 
their  period  of  activity.  Now,  they  are  so  largely 
subject  to  hereditary  influence  that  great  progress 
has  been  made  in  increasing  their  power  to  perform 
their  natural  functions,  as  we  see  in  the  establish- 
ment of  various  breeds  of  cattle  remarkable  for 
milking  qualities;  while  a  neglect  to  develop  and 
encourage  the  functions  of  these  glands  has  in  some 
breeds  so  far  reduced  their  energy  and  activity  that 
■whole  classes  of  animals — like  the   Herefords,  the 


Devons,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  Short-horns — have 
ceased  to  yield  milk  in  quantities  to  be  profitable 
upon  the  dairy  farm. 

In  those  breeds  where  the  tendency  to  produce 
meat  has  been  encouraged,  where  the  yield  of  milk 
has  been  overlooked  and  sacrificed  to  early  maturity, 
we  could,  no  doubt,  by  judicious  management,  bring 
the  condition  of  the  mammary  system  to  its  re- 
quired standard  of  efficiency,  and  even  elevate  this 
standard  to  a  high  degree ;  but  we  should  probably 
injure  or  reduce  the  tendency  to  the  economical 
supply  of  meat.  We  should  impair  the  value  of 
certain  very  important  qualities  which  have  been 
highly  developed  for  specific  purposes,  and  should 
get  only  what  we  find  already  highly  developed  in 
other  breeds,  viz.,  a  tendency  to  the  largest  produc- 
tion of  milk.  Not  that  the  two  qualities  aie  irrecon- 
cilable or  incompatible  in  the  same  animal,  but 
that  they  have  not  as  yet  been  combmed  with  any 
degree  of  success  in  the  meat-producing  breeds. 
We  find  generally  in  practice  that  a  cow  that  pro- 
duces a  large  amount  of  rich  butter  will,  when  the 
secretion  of  milk  falls  off,  feed  most  properly  for  the 
butcher,  unless  there  are  other  counteracting  or  ob- 
jectionable peculiarities. 

The  second  object  we  have  in  breeding  stock  is 
the  production  of  meat ;  and  while  upon  the  general 
principles  of  breeding,  let  us  allude  to  the  difference 
between  breeding  for  the  production  of  milk  and  for 
the  production  of  meat.  For  the  latter  a  large  part 
of  the  success  to  be  expected  will  depend  upon 
management  and  attention  to  feeding.  It  is  abso- 
lutely essential  to  keep  the  animal  in  a  thriving  con- 
dition from  its  birth ;  but  still  we  can  exert  a  power- 
ful influence  over  the  natural  predisposition  of  the 
animal.  We  are  to  choose  a  female  that  yields  an 
abundant  supply  of  milk.  An  animal — a  cow,  for 
instance — that  yields  a  liberal  supply  of  milk  will 
nourish  the  fxlus  in  utero  more  completely,  and 
bring  larger  calves;  her  offspring  will  be  fatter,  finer 
and  in  far  better  condition  at  birth  than  that  of  a 
poor  milker.  A  cow  that  has  a  strong  predisposi- 
tion to  form  fat,  and  secretes  little  milk,  will  almost 
invariably  bring  a  puny  calf,  and  one  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  the  size  and  condition  of  its  dam.  The 
cows  of  the  breeds  most  noted  for  the  production  of 
beef,  pure  and  high-bred  Short-horns  for  instance,  are 
far  from  being  the  best  for  raising  calves  designed 
especially  for  the  most  economical  production  of 
veal.  A  well-formed  grade  or  common  cow  (if  in 
sound  health,  and  capable  of  nourishing  its  young), 
put  to  a  carefully-bred  Short-horn  bull  whose  ances- 
try through  some  generations  had  possessed  a  strong 
disposition  toward  the  production  of  fat  and  meat, 
will  bring  forth  a  larger  calf  than  a  high-bred 
Short-horn.  The  bull  from  such  a  parentage  will 
possess  hereditary  powers  so  strong  as  to  transmit 
all  his  essential  characteristics  to  his  offspring  with 
as  great  certainty  as  if  that  offspring  came  from  a 


142 


BREEDING. 


too  finely  bred  cow.  This,  of  course,  supposes 
her  to  be  large  and  roomy,  and  well  proportioned 
in  size  to  the  bull.  But  the  bull  must  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  good  pedigree  or  careful  breeding. 

But  it  would  be  a  fatal  mistake  to  adopt  the  op- 
posite course,  and   to   put  a  high-bred   pure  Short-   j 
horn  cow  lo  a  low-bred  or  scrub  male ;    for,  though   j 
the  cow  would  succeed  in  stamping  her   character   j 
upon  the  calf,  she  could  not  nourish  it  so  well ;  she 
would  be  less  hardy  in  constitution,  and  not  so  cer- 
tain as  a  breeder.     It  is  far  better  to  impart  through 
the  male  in  breeding  the  qualities  we  want  for  the 
production  of  meat;    and,  in  the  economical  con- 
version of  vegetable  into  animal  matter,   purity  of 
blood  is  not  essential  in  the  offspring. 

For  the  breeding  of  stock  for  the  most  econom- 
ical production  of  beef,  take,  therefore,  good,  fair 
dairy  cows  of  good  size,  and  put  them  to  a  bull  of 
first-rate  pedigree,  either  Short-horn,  Devon  or 
Hereford. 

With  respect  to  breeding  for  purity  of  blood,  the 
object  is  to  create  and  preserve  a  fixity  of  type,  and 
we  must  select  animals  possessing  the  same  char- 
acteristics in  order  tliat  we  may  invariably  reproduce 
the  good  characteristics  with  greater  certainty,  and 
in  an  improved  form,  in  the  offspring.  If  the  indi- 
vidual animals  be  well  selected,  we  shall  in  every 
generation  ,  gain  stronger  and  stronger  hereditary 
powers  and  permanence  of  qualities.  We  shall 
concentrate  the  peculiarities  of  the  race  or  breed. 
But  we  must  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  any  opposing 
influences  in  the  parents,  as  tending  to  weaken  the 
hereditary  tendency  in  the  young.  We  are  to  avoid 
anything  like  crossing,  with  the  strictest  care. 

With  respect  to  the  practice  of  breeding  in-and- 
in,  as  it  is  termed,  which  comes  naturally  in  this 
connection,  many  conflicting  opinions  have  been 
expressed;  and  the  general  conclusion  arrived  at  is, 
that  it  is  safe  only  within  certain  narrow  limits, 
and  then  only  under  the  hands  of  the  skillful 
breeder. 

Breeding  in-and-in  is  commonly  understood  as 
an  indefinite  term  applying  to  any  near  relation- 
ship ;  but  its  legitimate  and  proper  application  is  to 
designate  animals  of  the  same  blood,  as  own 
brother  and  sister.  But  a  son  is  only  half  the 
blood  of  his  mother,  and  a  daughter  is  only  half 
the  blood  of  her  father.  You  may  breed  such  re- 
lationship together  to  a  certain  extent  without 
injury;  that  is,  you  may  put  a  bull  to  his  mother 
or  to  his  daughter,  and  greatly  concentrate  the 
hereditary  power  in  the  offspring.  But  even  this 
course  is  to  be  followed  with  care  and  judgment, 
and  not  pursued  too  far.  After  reaping  the  first 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  it,  the  breeder  will 
do  well  to  stop  and  consider.  Breeding  in-and-in, 
/.  e.,  own  brothers  and  sisters,  will  give  a  more 
perfect  form  ;  but,  if  carried  beyond  one  generation, 


it  will  be  at  a  certain  sacrifice  of  size,  and  per- 
haps of  the  strength  of  constitution.  It  greatly 
weakens  the  reproductive  powers,  and  often  leads 
to  other  and  still  more  serious  evils.  Bear  in  mind 
that  we  refer  to  own  brothers  and  sisters.  More 
distant  relationship  can  be  put  together  with  less 
risk,  of  course,  and,  if  carefully  «vatched  to  dis- 
cover the  least  injury  to  the  vigor  of  constitution, 
this  course  may  be  adopted  to  some  extent  where 
the  design  is  to  bring  up  a  pure  herd  having  cer- 
tain highly  important  qualities  which  it  is  desirable 
to  concentrate  and  perpetuate.  At  the  same  time 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  pure-bred  animals 
have  now  become  so  common  and  so  numerous 
that  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  change  the  strain  of 
blood  sufficiently  often  to  avoid  any  necessity  of 
breeding  from  too  near  relationships.  The  neces- 
sity of  breeding  from  close  affinities  will  rarely 
exist,  except  for  the  purpose  of  trying  to  build  up  a 
new  breed,  where,  in  some  instances,  it  may  be  un- 
avoidable. 

Cross-breeding  is  the  coupling  of  two  animals 
of  different  and  distinct  breeds.  Where  it  is  prac- 
ticed for  the  sake  of  getting  size  and  early  maturity 
for  the  butcher,  it  is  often  expedient ;  but  where  it 
is  the  object  to  produce  animals  to  breed  from,  it  is 
never  judicious.  The  use  of  a  pure-bred  male 
upon  a  mongrel  or  grade  female  is  not  a  case  of 
crossing;  but  the  term  is  often  used  as  between 
two  strains  of  blood  or  two  families  of  the  same 
breed.  Crossing  with  the  purpose  of  procuring 
animals  for  the  butcher  offers  many  important  ab- 
vantages  in  individual  cases;  but  it  is  seldom  the 
object  upon  New  England  farms.  There  are  few 
sections  in  the  Eaet  where,  in  the  case  of  cattle,  it 
is  thought  desirable  to  breed  especially  for  the 
butcher.  But  the  use  of  a  pure-bred  male  upon  a 
low-bre<i  female  will  almost  invariably  succeed, 
and  produce  good  results. 

In  breeding  for  the  dairy,  we  bring  the  heifers 
in  at  two  vears  old ;  for  the  reason  that,  at  that  age, 
the  organs' of  secretion,  like  all  parts  of  the  body, 
are  in  a  more  pliant  condition  than  they  will  be  at 
a  later  period,  and  they  are  consequently  more 
readily  influenced.  The  secretion  of  milk  is  well 
calculated  to  develop  them  and  to  enlarge  them  to 
their  utmost  capacity.  If  the  animal  is  to  become 
a  large  milker  when  she  arrives  at  maturity,  she 
must  have  abundant  room  to  lay  away  large  sup- 
plies of  milk;  and  the  capacity  for  holding  these 
supplies  must  be  created  while  her  system  is  pliant, 
elastic  and  easily  influenced. 

Let  the  heifer  take  the  bull  toward  the  end  of 
July,  in  August  or  early  in  September,  if  she  will, 
and  you  bring  the  parturition  in  the  following 
spring,  at  a  time  very  favorable  for  the  production 
of  milk.  In  spring  the  grasses  are  green,  abun- 
dant and  tender,  full  of  rich  milk-producing  juices. 


BREEDING— BREEDING  CALENDAR. 


'43 


which  cause  the  largest  development  of  the  milk- 
forming  organs. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  first  parturition  of  the 
young  heifer  takes  place  in  winter,  the  distension 
of  the  udder  on  dry  forage  is  slight,  and  the  prod- 
uct in  milk  corresponds.  The  milky  glands  will 
have  but  slight  development.  Soon  this  habit  will 
become  a  second  nature,  so  to  speak,  which  no 
amount  of  feeding  can  wholly  correct.  The  ex- 
ternal signs  of  a  good  milker  may  be  there,  but 
the  yield  does  not  come  up  to  the  production  which 
they  indicate;  and  this  fact  will  often  explain  an 
apparent  exception  to  the  established  rules.  A 
heifer  coming  in  in  May  or  June,  and  properly 
treated,  will  be  worth  a  great  deal  more  as  a  dairj 
cow  than  one  coming  in  with  her  first  calf  at  any 
other  season  of  the  year. 

A  heifer  coming  in  at  two  years  old,  if  properly 
fed,  carefully  milked,  forced  up,  if  you  please,  lo 
her  utmost  capacity  of  production,  and  made  to 
hold  out  almost  till  the  new  milk  springs  for  a 
second  calf,  will  invariably  make  a  belter  milker 
than  one  coming  in  at  three  years  old.  Of  course 
this  supposes  that  the  animal,  as  a  calf,  has  been 
well  fed,  and  kept  in  a  thriving  condition  up  to  the 
age  of  a  year  or  fifteen  months,  when  she  will  go 
to  tiie  bull.  She  should  have  a  fair  development 
and  good  growth;  and  i.  is  better  that  she  should 
go  to  a  small  rather  than  a  large  bull.  The  draft 
on  her  system  for  the  nourishment  of  the  foetus 
will  be  less  severe  than  if  she  is  fecundated  by  a 
large,  overgrown  bull. 

To  offset  these  great  and  manifest  advantages, 
there  is  the  liability  to  some  check  in  her  growth 
and  size,  owing  to  the  strain  upon  her  system  be- 
fore it  has  reached  its  full  development.  This  may 
be  guiirded  against  and  counteracted  by  liberal  and 
judicious  feeding ;  and  with  this  there  will  be  no 
appreciable  difference  in  size  and  thrift  between 
such  an  animal  and  one  brought  in  at  three  years 
old,  when  they  reach  the  age  of  four  or  five. 

As  to  the  age  of  the  bull  when  put  to  service, 
our  theory  and  practice  are  widely  different;  for, 
while  most  intelligent  farmers  are  ready  to  admit 
that  one  year  is  too  young,  that  the  system  is  not 
mature,  that  the  animal  is  not  developed,  and 
ought  not  to  be  used,  they  do,  in  fact,  use  yearUng 
bulls  far  more  commonly  than  older  ones.  If  well 
fed  ana  thrifty,  we  sliould  not  object  to  a  limited 
use  of  a  bull  at  fifteen  months,  and  from  eighteen 
months  and  onward  more  Ireely,  in  getting  dairy 
stock  and  stock  for  beef.  For  getting  working 
cattle,  or  animals  for  labor,  the  bull  should  be  at 
least  two  years  or  two  years  and  a  half  old.  The 
bull  is  better  to  be  worked ;  and  if  it  were  our 
custom  to  use  all  our  bulls  more  or  less  in  the  yoke, 
they  would  undoubtedly  be  all  the  better  for  it. 

As  to  controlling  the  sex  of  progeny,  the  sex  of 
the  most  vigorous  parent  will  be  generally  the  sex 
of  the  offspring. 


With  respect  to  the  period  during  what  is  called 
the  "  heat,"  at  which  the  cow  should  be  put  to  the 
bull,  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  upon  any  rational 
grounds.  Perhaps  we  have  too  few  facts  in  regard 
to  the  effect  or  influence  of  a  service  early  or  laie 
in  the  heat.  Some  fanners  think  conception  is 
much  more  likely  to  take  place  if  the  copulation 
is  deferred  till  near  the  end  of  the  term;  and  this 
is  a   fact  very  generally  accepted  by  physiologists. 

There  is  no  fixed  time  during  which  the  "  heat," 
or  desire  for  the  bull,  continues  in  the  cow;  it 
varies  according  to  condition,  age,  and  many  other 
circumstances.  It  may  last  two,  three  or  four 
days;  but  sometimes  it  ceases  in  24  hours.  In 
very  rare  cases  it  continues  10  to  15  days,  and  in 
some  cows  not  more  than  four,  five  or  six  hours. 
In  some  cows  the  length  of  its  duration  diminishes 
with  age  to  such  a  degree  that  it  has  been  known 
to  last  only  an  hour.  Conception  always  causes  it 
to  cease,  and  not  infrequently  a  copulation  that  is 
not  fruitful  will  prevent  its  recurrence;  but  usually, 
if  the  cow  does  not  conceive,  the  period  of  heat 
will  return  in  20  or  21   days. 

Mental  impressions  received  by  the  female  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  oestrum,  or  heat,  affect  the 
offspring,  often  to  a  very  remarkable  degree. 

Now,  this  peculiar,  excited  state  of  the  cow  is 
the  moment  indicated  by  nature  for  connection 
with  the  bull;  and  it  is  generally  better  to  follow 
nature,  and  put  her  to  the  bull  as  soon  after  it  ap- 
pears as  practicable. 

Some  cows  will  come  in  heat  nearly  every 
month,  and  it  is  quite  difficult  to  get  them  with 
calf.  This  often  occurs  among  high-bred  cows,  or 
cows  kept  too  fat ;  but  with  other  cows  it  indicates 
an  internal  scrofulous  disease,  commonly  phthisis, 
or  pneumonia.  It  is  better  to  fat  and  kill  or  sell 
such  obstinate  cases.  To  stimulate  heat  in  the 
cows,  as  well  as  in  the  bull,  there  is  nothing  better 
than  more  abundant  or  more  nutritive  feeding, 
with  some  grain,  bean,  or  especially  pea  meal. 
Salt  stimulates  the  appetite,  and  facilitates  diges- 
tion ;  and  exercise  and  moderate  labor  will  also  ex- 
excite  sexual  desire.  The  better  a  cow  or  heifer  is 
fed,  the  more  intense  and  frequent  will  be  the 
"  heat "  till  conception  takes  place.  If  the  "heat" 
is  allowed  to  pass  several  times  without  satisfac- 
tion, the  fecundity  of  the  animal  is  injured. 

Never  countenance  the  absurd  and  ridiculous 
practices  in  some  neighborhoods,  of  running  a  cow 
after  copulation,  or  giving  her  a  cold  bath.  Never 
cut  off  the  end  of  her  tail  to  make  her  "  stick." 
All  these  pracrices  are  utterly  absurd — as  absurd 
as  sticking  a  plug  of  garget-root  into  the  dewlap 
to  cure  garget  in  the  udder. 

Breeding  Calendar.  The  following  table  gives 
the  dates  of  delivery  for  the  animals  named,  the 
date  of  "covering "  being  as  in  the  first  column. 
If  served  Jan.  i.the  mare  will  drop  her  colt  about 


144 


BREEDING  CALENDAR— BREIVI NG. 


Dec.  6;  the  cow  her  calf  Oct.  12;  the  ewe  her 
lamb  June  3;  and  the  sow  her  pigs  April  30.  In 
the  table  five  days  intervene  between  each  date  of 
service  given,  to  save  space;  therefore,  in  making 
your  calculations,  add  the  omitted  days  to  those 
given. 

BREEDING  CALENDAR  FOR   HORSES,    CATTLE,    SHEEP 
AND  HOGS. 


DATE   OF 
COVEKINti. 


MAKES. 

340  Days 


cows. 
285  Days. 


EWKS. 

154  Days 


uly  5.... 

uly     10 

uly     IS 

u!y  20 — 

uly     25 

_uly     30 

Aug.  4  — 

Ang.  9.... 

Aug.  14  — 

Aug.  19.   .. 

Aug.     24 

Aug.    29 

Sept.  3  — 

Sept.  8.... 

Sept.     II 

Sept.  18   ... 

Sept.     2^ 

Sept.  28.... 

Oct 

Oct 

Oct 

Oct 

Oct.  21 

Oct. 

Nov. 

No«. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov.  22 

Nov.  27 

Dec.  2 


J"ly 
July 
July 
July 


13- 


28 


17. 


Oct. 

12 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

22 

Oct. 

27 

Nov. 

I 

Nov. 

•6 

Nov . 

II 

Nov. 

16 

Nov. 

31 

Nov. 

2fi 

Dec. 

I 

Dec. 

6 

Dec. 

It 

Dec. 

16 

Dec. 

21 

Dec. 

26 

Dec. 

.11 

Jan. 

.■> 

Jan. 

10 

Jan 

15 

Jan. 

20 

Jan. 

2'; 

Jan. 
Feb. 

30 
4 

Feb. 

9 

Feb. 

14 

Feb. 

ig 

Feb. 

24 

March 

I 

March 

6 

March 

II 

March 

16 

March 

21 

March 

26 

Ma.ch 

31 

April 

5 

April 

10 

April 

"i 

April 

20 

April 

2<; 

April 

30 

May 

5 

May 

10 

May 

M 

May 

20 

May 

2i 

May 

3° 

June 

4 

lune 

9 

lune 

14 

June 

■0 

lune 

24 

June 

29 

J"iy 

4 

Inlv 

<) 

July 

14 

July- 

'0 

July 

••4 

July 

29 

Aug. 

3 

Aug. 

8 

Aug. 

13 

Aug. 

18 

Ang. 

»1 

Aug. 

28 

Sept. 

2 

Sept. 

7 

Sept. 

12 

Sept. 

17 

Sept. 

22 

Sept 

27 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

7 

Oct. 

II 

SOWS. 

130  Days. 


June 

, 

June 

8 

J  une 

13 

June 

18 

June 

21 

June 

23 

July 

3 

July 

8 

July 

13 

July 

t3 

July 

23 

July 

28 

Aug. 

2 

Aug. 

7 

Aug. 

12 

Aug. 

'7 

Aug 

22 

Aug. 

27 

Sept. 

2 

Sept. 

6 

Sept. 

II 

Sept. 

16 

Sept. 

21 

Sept. 

26 

Oct. 

I 

Oct. 

6 

Oct. 

ir 

Oct. 

16 

Oct. 

21 

Oct. 

26 

Oct. 

31 

Nov. 

S 

Nov. 

10 

Nov. 

"i 

Nov. 

20 

Nov. 

=5 

Nov. 

30 

Dec. 

5 

Dec. 

10 

Dec. 

IS 

Dec. 

20 

Dec. 

»5 

Dec. 

30 

Tan. 

4 

Jan. 

9 

Jan. 

14 

Jan. 

19 

Jan. 

24 

Jan. 

29 

Feb. 

Feb , 

a 

Feb. 

13 

Feb. 

18 

Feb. 

23 

Feb. 

28 

March 

5 

March 

10 

March 

IS 

March 

20 

March 

=5 

March 

30 

April 

4 

April 

9 

April 

14 

April 

'9 

April 

24 

April 

29 

May 

4 

May 

9 

May 

14 

May 

19 

May 

24 

29 

June 

2 

April 
May 

30 

May 

10 

May 

IS 

May 

20 

May 

2S 

May 

30 

.  une 

4 

.  une 

9 

.  line 

14 

,  une 

19 

,  une 
une 

24 

20 

July 
.  uly 

4 

9 

.  uly 

14 

.  uly 

19 

.uly 

24 

.  uly 

29 

Aug. 

1 

Aug. 

8 

Aug. 

13 

Aug. 

i3 

Aug. 

23 

Aug. 

28 

Sept. 

2 

Sept. 

7 

Sept. 

12 

Sept. 

17 

Sept. 

32 

Sept. 

37 

Oct. 

2 

Oct. 

7 

Oct. 

12 

Oct. 

17 

Oct. 

22 

Oct. 

27 

Nov. 

I 

Nov. 

6 

Nov. 

II 

Nov. 

i« 

Nov. 

21 

Nov. 

26 

Dec. 

I 

Dec. 

6 

Dec. 

Dec. 

16 

Dec. 

21 

Dec. 

26 

Dec. 

31 

Jan. 
Jan. 

5 

10 

Jan. 

'S 

Jan. 

20 

Jan. 

2,S 

Jan. 

30 

Feb. 

Feb. 

0 

Feb. 

14 

Feb 

19 

Feb. 

24 

March 

t 

March 

6 

March 

II 

March 

ifi 

March  21 

March 

26 

March 

31 

April 

.■; 

April 

10 

April 

M 

April 

20 

April 

25 

April    30 


Brewing.  Cleanliness  and  care  are  the  principal 
things  to  be  observed  in  brewing.  It  consists  of 
five  operations,  namely:  masliing,  boiling,  cooling, 
fermenting  and  cleaning.  The  first  process  is  sim- 
ply to  obtain  an  infusion  of  the  malt.  In  the  sec- 
ond this  infusion  is  further  impregnated  with  the 
flavor  of  the  hops  in  boiling,  which  is  necessary 
for  preserving  the  beer.  In  the  third  the  decoc- 
tion is  cooled  to  the  requisite  temperaturjs  for  fer- 
mentation, and  is  excited  with  yeast,  filling  it  with 
carbonic  gas,  giving  to  the  liquor  that  lively  and 
pangent  taste  for  which  it  is  esteemed. 

The  utensils  necessary  for  brewing  on  a  small 
scale  (say  for  a  hogshead,  or  fifty-four  gallons  of  beer) 
will  consist  of  a  copper  vessel  containing  seventy 
gallons ;  a  mash-tub  with  a  false  bottom  about  tliiee 
inches  above  the  other  bottom,  bored  full  of  small 
holes  to  prevent  the  malt  stopping  up  the  hole  of 
the  faucet.  For  the  sake  of  economy  two  jiieces 
of  wood  can  be  nailed  together,  bored  full  of  holes 
and  fitted  to  the  side  of  the  tub  so  as  to  cover  ihe 
hole  of  'the  faucet.  This  is  to  prevent  the  malt  or 
grain  from  flowing  out  with  the  wort,  which  would 
spoil  its  transparency.  The  tub  should  hold  ten 
or  twelve  bushels  of  malt,  with  plenty  of  room 
for  mashing  or  stirring.  An  underback  to  receive 
the  wort  from  the  mash-tub,  an  oar  or  rudder  to 
stir  up  the  malt  in  the  mash-tub,  and  two  or  three 
coolers  should  be  provided.  The  latter  must  be 
broad  and  flat  that  the  wort  may  cool  quickly; 
for  if  the  wore  is  too  long  cooling  it  is  likely  to 
become  sour  in  the  coolers.  These  should  be 
raised  at  one  end,  that  the  wort  may  run  off  at  the 
lower  end  without  being  disturbed  or  shaken  ;  and 
also  that  the  sediment  that  falls  down  may  not 
again  be  mixed  with  the  wort.  Further,  there 
must  be  a  fermenting  tub,  the  mash-tub,  when 
emptied  of  grain,  also  serving  this  purpose,  casks, 
and  oak  stands  for  the  casks  and  tubs  to  be  placed 
on.  These  articles,  the  vessel  just  mentioned,  must 
be  of  proportionate  size  with  the  copper  vessel,  whicli 
contains  seventy  gallons. 

The  object  of  mashing  is  to  convert  into  sugar 
as  much  as  ix)ssible  of  the  flour  of  malt,  so  that 
the  extract  drawn  from  it  may  contain  the  greatest 
amount  of  saccharine  matter  it  is  capable  of  giving. 
To  do  this  perfectly,  care  must  he  taken  as  to  the 
lieat  of  the  water  used  in  mashing,  whether  hard  or 
soft,  or  of  good  quality,  the  perfect  mixing  of  malt 
with  water,  and  the  time  of  t'neir  remaining  to- 
gether. 

High-dried  malt  does  not  produce  as  much  sac- 
charine matter  as  pale  malt.  The  goodness,  flavor 
and  clearness  of  the  extract  depend  on  the  tem- 
perature of  the  liquor  used.  When  near  the  boil- 
ing point  the  flour  of  the  malt  will  be  set,  forming 
a  kind  of  paste  or  st.irch,  and  'he  extract  obtained 
will  be  little  better  than  water.  If  the  temperature 
be  too  low  the  wort  will  be  poor  and  devoid  of 
strength.     For    pale   malt   the   heat  of    the    water 


BRE  W  ING. 


143 


must  be  higlier  than  for  the  brown.  Thus  for  the 
pale  malt  the  heat  of  the  water  for  the  first  mash 
should  be  178°  Fahr.;  for  the  second,  182°. 
Pale  and  amber  mixed,  or  pale  malt  appr(,)aching 
amber,  172°  for  the  first  mash;  second,  178'^. 
All  amber,  first,  170°;  second,  176°.  For  very 
brown,  or  brown  malt,  such  as  is  used  for  porter, 
154*^  for  the  first;  second,  164°.  When  liard 
water  is  used  the  heat  in  each  case  should  be  about 
2°  less.  An  equal  portion  of  pale  amber  and 
brown,  or  half  pale  and  half  brown,  first,  160°; 
second,  166°.  The  tiine  for  the  standing  of  the 
mash  is  from  an  hour  and  a  half  to  two  hours. 
Heat  the  water  in  the  copper  to  the  required  de- 
gree by  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  In  reducing 
the  heat  in  the  copper  add  cold  liquor,  but  be  care- 
ful to  stir  the  hot  and  cold  well  together,  and  mix. 
Stir  in  the  malt  gradually,  and  mix  thoroughly  by 
means  of  the  oar,  and  leave  no  lumps  or  clots. 
The  remainder  of  the  liquor  may  be  added  by  de- 
grees, as  the  mash  becomes  too  stiff  to  stir,  until  the 
whole  is  used.  Reserve  about  one-half  bushel  of  the 
malt  to  throw  over  the  top  when  the  mashing  is 
finished.  Cover  the  tub  with  malt  sacks  or  cloths 
to  keep  in  the  heat,  and  let  it  stand  the  required 
time.  Turn  the  tap  partiallv,  to  allow  the  wort  to 
run  oW  slowly,  and  draw  ofl!"  some  in  a  pail  or 
bucket.  The  first  running  will  not  be  clear,  and 
the  liquor  should  be  turned  carefully  back  into  the 
tub.  Repeated  trials  shoidd  be  made  until  it  runs 
clear,  then  draw  off  into  the  underback.  As  the 
wort  runs  out  more  slowly  tiie  tap  should  be 
opened  wider,  until  the  whole  has  run  out,  and  the 
bed  of  the  grain  looks  dry;  then  turn  the  tap  to 
prevent  an}*  more  running  off.  While  the  mash 
is  standing,  heat  water  for  the  second  mash;  this 
shouli!  be  ready  by  the  time  the  first  wort  is  drawn 
off;  then  with  a  bowl  or  ladle  pour  over  the  grains, 
gentlv,  about  half  as  much  water  as  for  the  first; 
cover  the  tub;  let  it  remain  ten  minutes,  and  draw 
off  as  before.  The  wort  from  the  first  is  always 
the  best.  The  proportion  of  wort  to  be  obtained 
from  <acli  bushel  of  malt  depends  entirely  on  the 
proposed  strength  of  the  liquor  required.  To  ale 
or  beer  of  a  superior  kind  the  produce  of  the 
first  mashing  only  should  be  used.  For  ordinary 
drinking  ale,  take  the  produce  of  the  first  and  sec- 
ond mashings;  mix  them  well,  and  ascertain  the 
gravity  by  a  saccharometer,  if  you  have  one. 

As  soon  as  the  water  is  taken  from  the  boiler  for 
table  beer,  damp  the  fire  and  put  in  the  wort.  For 
every  bushel  of  malt  used,  allow  one  pound  of 
hops  previously  soaked  in  water  taken  from  the 
first  mash  at  160°  of  heat.  Add  half  the  hops  at 
first,  and  the  other  half  after  the  wort  has  boiled 
half  an  hour.  Two  pounds  of  hops  by  this  method 
are  considercii  equal  to  three  pounds  used  in 
the  ordinary  way.  The  water  in  which  they  are 
steeped  is  strained  off  and  put  into  the  tub,  instead 

1) 


of  the  copper,  which  preserves  the  flavor  of  the 
hops.  Boil  the  wort  as  quicklj'  as  possible.  Try 
it  occasionally  in  a  glass  to  see  if  it  has  separated 
into  large  flakes;  if  it  has  not,  boil  a  little  longer; 
when  nearly  ready  it  will  appear  liroken  into  fine 
particles.  The  extremes  of  under  and  overboiling 
must  1  e  avoided. 

In  drawing  off  into  the  coolers  the  hops  should 
be  well  stirred  to  prevent  their  being  burned  on 
the  bottom.  Strain  through  a  hair  sieve  to  extract 
the  hops.  The  coolers  should  be  as  shallow  as 
possible,  that  the  wort  may  not  be  too  long  in  cool- 
ing. When  the  first  wort  is  drawn  off,  return  the 
hops  again  into  the  boiler,  with  the  wort  for  the 
table  beer,  and  let  it  boil  quickly  for  one  hour  and 
a  half.  When  the  wort  has  been  cooled  down  to 
75^  or  So°,  draw  it  off  into  the  fermenting  tub 
without  disturbing  the  sediment  at  the  bottom,  for 
that  gives  the  ale  or  beer  a  disagreeable  taste. 

To  ferment,  it  will  require  about  three  pints  of 
good  white,  fresh  jeast  to  work  a  hogshead  of 
beer.  Mix  the  yeast  with  a  gallon  or  two  of  the 
wort,  and  a  handful  or  two  of  bean  or  wheat  flour, 
in  the  fermenting  tub.  As  soon  as  the  wort  is  at 
the  proper  degree  of  temperature  run  it  into  the 
tub,  reserving  out  some  of  the  ferment  to  feed  the 
beer  as  occasion  may  require.  When  it  becomes 
languid,  or  there  is  sufficient  yeast  in  it,  it  can  be 
left  out  altogether.  The  fermentation  should  be 
gradual  at  first,  for  if  it  goes  on  too  quickly  the 
beer  is  liable  to  become  "  foxed,"  that  is,  have  a 
rank  and  disagreeable  taste.  The  next  morning 
the  beer  should  have  a  thin,  white,  creamy  head; 
then  with  a  bowl  or  ladle  rouse  it  and  mix  it  well 
together.  If  the  fermentation  has  not  been  favor- 
able, add  some  of  the  ferment;  and  if  rather  cold, 
wrap  some  sacks  or  old  carpet  round  the  tub  and 
place  a  covering  on  the  top;  also  keep  the  doors 
and  windows  closed,  and  let  the  fermentation  go 
on  till  it  is  sufficient. 

To  cleanse  beer  or  ale  the  yeast  should  be 
skimmed  from  the  top,  and  the  liquor  drawn  off 
gentl}',  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  bottom.  The  casks 
should  be  plugged  a  little  on  one  side,  that  the 
yeast  may  work  and  discharge  itself  at  the  bung- 
hole.  A  tub  or  pan  must  be  placed  underneath  to 
receive  the  yeast  as  it  works  over.  The  greatest 
attention  should  be  paid  to  filling  up  the  casks 
with  the  wort  that  is  left,  which  should  be  done 
every  half-hour  at  first,  and  as  the  working  be- 
comes slow,  every  three  or  four  hours,  that  the 
yeast  may  continue  to  discharge  itself.  When  the 
yeast  has  ceased  to  discharge  itself,  plug  the  casks 
upright,  mix  a  round  of  the  best  hops  with  the  best 
old  ale  or  beer,  and  scald  them  oyer  the  fire.  Mix 
it  well  into  the  cask  by  means  of  a  long  stick  and 
bung  the  cask  close;  make  a  spile  hole  near  the 
bung,  and  put  in  a  spile,  rather  loosely  at  first,  and 
after  two  or  three  days  knock  it  in  firmly. 


146 


BRE  WIS— BRICK. 


Brewis,  bread  soaked  in  gravy,  or   prepared    in 
water  and  butter.    See  Bread. 

Brick.     The  best    brick  and    fire  clay    is    free 
from  stones  and  gravel,  and  when  cut  with  a  knife 
it  presents  a   uniform,  greasy-looking  surface,  free 
from  the  appearance  of  coarse  sand.      Wlien  it  is 
bruised  in   a   mortar  and   mixed   with  water,  and 
the  water,  after  remaining  in  the  mortar  five  min- 
utes, is  poured  off  with  the    finely  divided  matters 
suspended    in   it,  and  the  washing  is   repeated  so 
long  as  the   water,  after  five  minutes  of  rest,  car- 
ries   avvay   any    suspended    matter,  there   should 
remain  in   the  mortar  not  more  than  5  or  10  per 
cent,   of  sand.       The   greater    the    proportion    of 
alumina   in    the    clay    the  more  plastic  it   is,  and 
the  "fatter"  it  is;  it  is  more  tenacious  than  "poor" 
clay.     The  coloring  matter  of  the  common  clays 
is  due  to   oxyd    of  iron,  a    little  oxyd    rendering  it 
yellow,  and   more  of  the  oxy    making  it  red,  or 
reddish.     The  alumina  or  silica  of  the  clay  are  in- 
fusible; the   Huxes   are,  oxyd   of  iron,  lime,  mag- 
nesia, potash,  and  soda.     The  more  flux  and  sand 
there  is  in  the   clay,  the  more  will  it  fuse  and  vit- 
rify,    that  is,  glaze,    or  become  glass;  therefore, 
too  much  of  both  these  classes  of  elements  should 
not  be  in  the  clay  at  the  same  time.     When  there 
is  lime  present,  forming  nodules,  the   clay  should 
be  screened,  and   this  should  be  done   before  it  is 
"puddled."      When   rich    clays  dry   slowly    and 
crack   in   the    kiln,  they   may   advantageously  be 
mixed  with  a  portion  of  fine   silicious  sand.      The 
tenacity    of    clays    containing    coarse    gravel    or 
stones   may  be  increased  by  screening  or  washing, 
so  as  to  separate  the  clay  from  sand  and   stone's. 
When  clays  run  in  the  kiln,  the  defect  may  be  cor- 
rected   by    adding    to    them    some   silicious  sand. 
When  rich  clays  are  found  costly  to  burn,  the  ex- 
pense of  fuel  may  be   lessened  by   a  proper  addi- 
tion of  chalk  or  lime. 

A  good  brick  machine  can  now-a-days  be  ob- 
tained for  $40,  and  most  farmers  can  find  time  in 
August  and  September  to  make  a  lot  of  brick, 
which  will  be  sure  to  net  them  some  money.  A 
machine  will  last  several  years.  (See  Tile  and 
Brick  Machine.)  Experiment  a  little  with  the 
clay  to  see  that  all  is  right,  and  if  not,  make  it  so 
by  the  addition  of  sand,  clay,  or  lime,  as  indicated 
above.  As  the  brick  are  taken  from  the  machine, 
pde  them  up  in  a  smooth  yard  as  openly  as  possi- 
ble, and  under  a  shed  to  dry.  They  should  also 
be  screened  from  the  wind,  as  too  great  exposure 
to  it  will  crack  and  warp  the  brick.  The 
burning  and  cooling  must  be  done  with  a 
great  deal  of  care,  commencing  with  a  moderate 
fire  for  a  day  or  two,  to  expel  the  remaining 
moisture;  when  there  appears  no  longer  any  white- 
ness in  the  smoke,  the  moisture  is  all  out,  and  the 
fire    may  be   increased    until    the  arches   attain    a 


white  heat.  Then  allow  the  fire  to  abate  in  some 
degree,  to  prevent  vitrification;  it  is  alternately 
raised  and  lowered  until  the  brick  are  sufficiently 
burned,  which  will  be  in  six  or  seven  days.  The 
exact  point  of  burning  can  be  ascertained  at  the 
top  of  the  ki-hi.  The  cooling  should  be  slowly 
effected,  by  closing  the  arches  and  sides  and  the 
top  of  the  kiln  with  moist  clay,  and  letting  it  re- 
main until  cool.  The  manner  of  piling  up  the  brick 
in  a  kiln  can  be  best  learned  by  visiting  some  good 
brick  yard.  A  kiln  13  feet  long,  10  feet  6  inches 
wide,  and  12  feet  high,  the  walls  being  perpendic- 
ular on  the  inside  and  piled  full,  deducting  the 
arch  openings,  will  contain  about  25,000  brick. 

Good  brick  exhibits  a  fine,  compact,  uniform  text-  • 
ure  when  broken  across,  gives  a  clear,  ringing 
sound  when  struck,  and  is  of  a  cherry-red  or 
brownish  color.  Three  varieties  are  found  in  the 
kiln:  arch  brick,  which  are  more  or  less  vitrified, 
being  glassy  at  one  end.  They  are  very  hard,  but 
brittle  and  of  inferior  strength,  and  set  badly  with 
mortar.  They  are  good  for  walling  wells.  Those 
from  the  interior  of  the  kiln,  usually  called  "  red  " 
or  "  hard  "  brick,  are  of  the  best  quality.  Those 
from  near  the  top  and  sides,  which  are  generally 
under-burnt,  are  called  "  salmon  "  brick;  they  are 
too  soft  for  outside  work,  but  are  good,  when 
pounded  up,  to  make  filters. 

Brick-work  is  generally  measured  by  the   thou- 
sand, sometimes  by  the  cubic  yard  or  foot,  includ- 
ing labor,  mortar  and  scaffolding.     In  measuring 
walls  faced  with  stock  or  pressed  brick,  take  the 
area  of  such  facing  as  for  common  work,  and   add 
eight  inches  in  breadth  and  four  inches  in   height 
on  each  opening,  and  four  inches  at  each  corner  for 
the  workmanship  only,  and  deduct   the  openings. 
In   many  sections,    however,   it    is   customary    to 
measure  one-half  of  all  openings  five  feet  or  less  in 
width.     A  superficial  foot  effacing  fronts  will  take 
seven  and  a  half  bricks   to   the    square    foot.       In 
measuring  for  the  length   of  partition   walls,  take 
the  dimensions  clear  of  the   outside  walls,  no  de- 
ductions to  be  made  for  plates  and  bond  timbers, 
sills,  lintels,  etc.,  but  two  inches  in  height   to    be 
allowed  for  bedding  plates  where  no  brick  work  is 
over  them.     In  plain  wall  just   17   times  as  many 
brick  will  be  required  to  the  foot  as  there  are  inches 
in  the  thickness  of  the  wall.     Chimneys  are  meas- 
ured solid,  to  allow  for  the  trouble  of  forming  and 
plastering  the  flues.     In  chimney  breasts,  take  the 
width  of  the    face  on  each  floor,   and  multiply  by 
the  height  and  by  the  thickness  projecting  into  the 
room,  the  fire-places   not  deducted.      In  chimney 
tops,  take  the  width  and  multiply  it  by  the   height 
above  the  roof,  and  by  the  thickness  or  number  of 
bricks  thick.     When  projections  on  the  top  exceed 
two  courses  of  brick,  two  courses  are  to  be  added  to 
the  height.     All  chimney  stacks,  whether  otsquare, 
circular  or  octagon  shafts,  are  measured  solid. 


BRICK— BRID  GES. 


147 


Five  courses  of  brick  will  lay  one  foot  in  height 
on  a  chimney;  six  bricks  in  a  coiir.>ie  will  lay  a  flue 
four  inches  wide  and  12  inches  long,  or  a  flue  eight 
inches  square;  and  eight  bricks  in  a  course,  a  flue 
eight  inches  wide  and  16  inches  long. 

A  cubic  foot  of  brick-work  weighs  from  100  to 
125  pounds.  A  9-inch  wall  requires  15  bricks, 
and  a  13-inch  wall  233^  bricks.  One  bushel  of 
hydraulic  cement  will,  where  mixed  with  two 
bushels  of  cheap  sand,  serve  to  lay  150  bricks. 
Mortar,  when  made  up,  should  not  be  disturbed  for 
several  days,  and  during  the  period  of  its  consump- 
tion should  be  broken  down  and  "tempered"  in 
no  larger  quantities  than  may  be  required  for  use 
from  day  to  day. 

Brick  Earth,  any  stiff  clay  containing  50  to  70 
per  cent,  of  real  clay  and  the  rest  sand. 

Brick  Ovens,  How  to  Make.  A  good  brick 
oven  separate  from  the  dwelling  is  worth  more 
than  all  the  stoves  and  ranges  that  one  could  store 
in  his  kitchen.  In  such  an  oven  everything  will 
be  baked  just  right,  and  free  from  danger.  In  its 
construction,  lay  the  foundation  as  a  simple  pave- 
ment, until  of  proper  heiglit,  and  on  this  lay  two 
courses  of  hard  brick  for  the  bottom  of  the  oven ; 
then  build  the  mouth  and  part  of  the  sides,  until  it 
is  high  enough  to  draw  the  sides  inward;  then  sand 
or  mellow  earth  may  be  placed  on  the  foundation, 
and  the  surfoce  smoothed  ofFand  pressed  down  to  the 
desired  form  of  the  oven ;  then  let  the  brick-work 
be  built  over  this  form  of  sand ;  let  two  courses  of 
hard  brick  be  laid  over  the  form  with  the  best 
mortar;  and  after  the  last  brick  is  laid,  the  sand 
may  be  removed.  The  brick  should  be  soaked  for 
several  hours  previous  to  being  laid,  so  that  it  will 
not  absorb  the  moisture  until  it  has  set.  A  smoke- 
stack a  few  feet  high  at  one  end  of  the  furnace  will 
finish  the  structure.  In  using  such  an  oven,  heat 
it  all  through  for  several  hours  before  placing  in  it 
the  article  to  be  baked,  and  then  withdraw  the  fire, 
as  the  baking  is  commenced. 

Brick,  Red  Wash  For.  To  remove  the  green 
that  gathers  on  bricks,  pour  over  it  boiling  water 
in  which  any  vegetables,  not  greasy,  have  been 
boiletl:  do  this  for  a  few  days,  and  the  moss  will 
disappear.  For  the  red  wash,  melt  I  ounce  of  glue 
in  a  gallon  of  water;  while  hot,  put  in  a  piece  of 
alum  the  size  of  an  egg,  i^  pound  of  Venetian  red 
and  I  pound  of  Spanish  brown.  Try  a  little  on 
the  brick,  let  it  dry,  and  if  too  light,  add  more  red 
and  l)rown,  and  if  too  dark  add  more  water. 

Bridges.  As  road  and  bridge  overseers  are 
often  incompetent  or  derelict,  we  take  the  oppor- 
tunity here  to  offer  a  few  suggestions,  which  may 
do  some  good.  Such  officers  are  responsible  to 
the  township  or  county,  and  the  township  or 
county  is  responsible  to  any  party  injured  by  the 
carelessness  of  the  officers. 


As  wooden  bridges  are  fast  being  replaced  by 
iron  structures,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  some  im- 
portance, financially  as  well  as  for  safety,  that  only 
first-class  bridges  are  built.  Too  often,  on  country 
roads  and  in  smaller  towns,  this  is  not  the  case, 
and  taxpayers  will  find  to  their  sorrow  before 
many  years  have  elapsed  that  they  have  been 
most  shamefully  swindled.  A  bridge  should  be 
cai:)able  of  sustaining  a  load  of  about  65  lbs.  per 
square  foot  of  floor  surface,  over  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  the  same,  or  should  jjass  a  log  cart  carry- 
ing 15,000  lbs.  on  two  wheels,  in  addition  to  the 
weight  of  the  bridge,  without  straining  any  piece 
to  exceed  10,000  lbs.  per  square  inch,  or  one-fifth 
of  its  ultimate  strength,  and  when  fully  loaded  the 
bridge  should  not  deflect  more  than  1-1200  of  its 
length,  and  when  the  load  is  removed  should  re- 
turn to  its  original  camber. 

No  bridge  should  be  planned  except  by  a  com- 
petent engineer,  and  the  execution  of  the  plan 
should  be  under  his  immediate  supervision,  or,  at 
least,  under  the  supervision  of  a  responsible  me- 
chanic. For  large  structures,  there  are  competent 
bridge  manufacturers,  builders  and  contractors, 
who  exclusively  follow  their  respective  lines  of 
business;  but  responsible  parties  will  scarcely  ever 
put  in  a  bid  at  a  bridge-letting  where  they  see  that 
the  commissioner  is  likely  to  let  the  contract  to  the 
lowest  bidder  irrespective  of  quality  of  work. 
Small  wooden  bridges  are  easily  planned,  but  large 
iron  ones  should  have  no  guess  work  in  their 
designs. 

In  bridging  a  stream,  care  should  be  exercised 
not  to  narrow  the  channel,  but  rather  widen  it  a 
little,  that  the  water  of  freshets  do  not  become 
dammed  up  and  carry  away  the  bridge.  Also  the  ' 
abutments  should  be  laid  deeper  than  ihey  gener- 
ally are.  Stone  abutments,  especially,  require  a 
solid  foundation.  In  laying  plank  upon  a  bridge, 
a  common  error  is  to  use  wide  oak  plank,  which, 
when  exposed  to  the  weather,  will  invariably  warp, 
draw  out  their  spikes,  get  loose,  and  so  become  an 
intolerable  source  of  danger  and  vexation.  Oak 
plank  is  probably  the  best  flooring  for  bridges,  but 
it  should  be  in  narrow  strips  and  firmly  spiked  or 
bolted  down. 

Another  very  common  failure  is  in  the  narrow, 
unwalled  or  unprotected  approaches  to  the  bridge. 
The  embankments  soon  wash  down  and  become 
as  great  a  nuisance  as  the  slovenly  made  bridge 
itself.  It  is  next  to  impossible  to  make  a  narrow 
embankment  safe,  especially  if  it  has  steep  sides. 
The  embankment  should  be  wide,  and  its  sides 
sloping  enough  for  the  formation  of  a  good  turf  by 
grass,  willow,  etc.,  upon  its  sides.  Nor  should  ap- 
proaches be  so  steep  as  they  often  are,  as  they 
make  teaming  up  their  declivity  unnecessarily  hard, 
and  down  it  extremely  hazardous. 


148 


BRIDLK. 


Bridle.  An  apparatus  of  straps  of  leather 
and  pieces  of  metal  for  keeping  a  horse  in  subjec- 
tion and  controlling  his  motion.  The  several  parts 
of  a  bridle,  as  they  are  generally  niade,  are  the  bit; 
the  headstall,  or  leather  piece  from  the  top  of  the 
head  to  the  rings  of  tJie  bit;  the  fillet,  over  the 
forehead  and  under  the  foretop;  the  throat-latch, 
buckling  from  the  head-band  under  the  throat;  the 
nose-lsands,  going  through  the  loops  at  the  back  of 
the  headstall,  and  buckled  under  the  cheeks;  and 
the  reins,  attached  lo  tlie  rings  of  the  bit.  To  some 
bridles  are  attached  blinds  or  blinkers.  These  are 
leather  plates  permanently  fixed  to  the  sides  of  the 
bridle,  and  so  adjusted  as  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
seeing  objects  on  either  side  without  obstnacting 
his  vision  in  front. 


O^^-^^i 


Fig.  \.—  Thc  Doughty  Magic  Bits. 

Bits.  The  essential  part  of  the  bridle  is  the  bit, 
which  is  of  different  shapes  and  with  various  at- 
tachments, according  to  the  purposes  intended. 
The  "  gag-bit "  has  a  semi-circular  curve  in  the 
middle,  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  better  control  over  a 
—  II  H        "hard-mouthed"   or   unman- 

fi  U       ageable  animal.     Fig.   i   rep- 

FiG.  a.—  World's  ifoiicier   resents    a    new    style    of  bits 
Bridle-Bit.  ^p^.g  gxj„„pi^.g^  ,,11  „„  the  same 

principle),  which  is  represented  lo  work  wonders 
in  giving  a  rider  or  driver  control  of  vicious  horses. 
The  "  World's  Wonder  Bridle-Bit,"  represented  by 
Fig.  2,  is  constructed  on  humane  principles.  It  is 
claimed  for  it  that  it  stops  side-pullers,  cures  vicious 


VlG.  l.—  Up/ier-Jni"  Check.. 

pullers,  toughens  tender  mouths,  prevents  lolling 
of  the  tongue,  and  does  not  press  the  lips  against 
the  teeth. 

Check    Rein,     Fig.    3    represents    Sherman's 


upper-jaw  check  rein,  a  late  invention  for  the  nat- 
ural, graceful  and  easy  carriage  of  the  horse's  head, 
and  comfort  and  pleasure  of  the  driver.     It  holds 

the  check  bit  to 

the  upper -jaw 

I  so  that  it  does 

not  come  in 

Fig.  4. — £mmeri^s  Check  Ease.  ^     i.       t.  '4.U 

^  contact    with 

the  driving  bit,  does  not  in  the  least  cramp  the 
muscles  of  the  neck  or  the  windpipe,  and  is  some- 
what ornamental  as  a  part  of  the  outfit. 


^§■1       \mMQ 


Fig.  $.—Side  C/ieck. 

Check  Ease.  Figs.  4,  5  and  6  illustrate  the 
form  and  use  of  Emmert's  spiral-spring,  cylinder- 
tube  check  ease.     It  can  be  attached  to  any  style 


Fig.  (■'.-^Oz'er-draz'j  Check. 


of  check  rein,  over  check,  side  check,  double  or 
single.  It  is  ornamental,  durable  and  humane. 
The  spiral  spring  yields  to  the  motion  of  the 
horse's   head,  thereby  preventing  sore  mouth,  sore 


BRIDLE— BROKEN  WIND. 


149 


tails  and  sore  backs,  enabling  him  to  move  freely, 
and  consequently  trot  faster.  They  save,  in  case 
of  stumbling,  breaking  the  clieck  rein,  check  hook 
or  back  strap. 

They  are  a  neat  tube  within  a  tube,  containing 
a  steel  spiral  spring,  two  eyes  (i,  i),  one  for  the 
check  to  pass  through,  the  other  for  the  leather 
(k)  that  attaches  to  the  check  hook.  This  device 
is  three  and  one-half  inches  long ;  will  expand  and 
contract  two  inches;  is  durable  and  ornamental. 
They  are  good  for  breaking  colts,  as  they  give 
with  the  motion  of  the  head,  preventing  the  neck 
becoming  tired  and  bearing  down  or  lugging  on 
the  bit,  invariabl)'  giving  a  sore  mouth  and  bad 
habits  that  will  laat  through  life.  It  also  prevents 
sore  backs  by  expanding  with  the  motion  of 
the  horse's  head,  thereby  preventing  the  rock- 
ing motion  of  the  back-saddle  which  we  get 
from  an  ordinary  check,  and  which  causes  sore 
backs  in  hot  weather.  It  also  prevents  sore  tails, 
by  expanding  and  taking  the  strain  off  the  back- 
strap.  Horses  can  trot  faster  and  steadier  than  it 
is  possible  for  them  to  do  without  it. 

After  all,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  human- 
ity, the  check  rein  is  a  relic  of  barbarism.  It  holds 
the  horse's  head  in  a  stiff",  constrained  position, 
spoiling  all  chance  for  fine  driving.  A  simple 
bridle  rein  ■which  does  not  pass  through  the  looj^s 
of  the  throat  lash  is  better,  though  with  a  horse  of 
any  natural  spirit  neither  is  necessary. 

The  i-iding  bridle  should  be  of  white  or  russet 
leather,  of  good  quality,  and  it  will  be  more  satis- 
factory if  its  buckles  are  of  polished  steel  or  nickel 
and  detachable  (that  they  may  be  easily  cleaned), 
rather  than  covered  with  leather  and  sewed  fast 
to  the  bridle.  Covered  buckles  are  usually  so 
weak  as  to  easily  get  out  of  order.  The  bridle 
should  be,  for  elegance,  as  plain  as  possible,  and  it 
may  have  either  single  or  double  head-straps  ac- 
cording to  the  sort  of  bit  which  has  to  be  used. 

Bridle,  of  a  Plow-beam,  is  the  iron  on  the 
fore  end  which  holds  the  clevis. 

Bright's  Disease:    see  Kidneys. 

Brining  Grain,  the  practice  of  steeping  it  in 
pickle  (the  strongest  brine),  in  order  to  prevent 
smut  and  other  diseases. 

Britannia  Metal,  an  alloy  of  equal  parts  of  tin, 
plate  brass,  bismuth  and  antimony.  So  far,  there- 
fore, as  it  oxidizes  it  yields  a  substance  that  is  poi- 
sonous. Ti^  clean  Britannia  ware,  first  .wash  it 
with  a  woolen  cloth  and  sweet  oil,  then  in  suds, 
and  lastly  with  soft  leather  and  whiting.  Or,  first 
wash  with  hot  suds,  then  rub  with  a  mixture  of 
rotten  stone  (powdered  very  fine  and  sifted),  soft 
soap  and  turpentine,  of  the  consistency  of  stiff 
putty;  finally,  rub  off"  briskly  with  a  dry,  clean 
rag  or  leather. 


Broadcast  Sowing,  the  scattering  of  seed  upon 
the  sm-face  of  the  ground.  This  is  generally  done 
by  hand,  but  several  little  machines  have  been  in- 
vented to  do  the  work  more  perfectly,  one  of 
which    is    represented    by    the  annexed  engraving. 

j57^ It  is  the  "  Michi- 

g  a  n  Wheelbar- 
row  Seeder," 
made  by  M.Gibbs, 
Wheelbarrow  Seeder.  Homer,  Mich, 

This  seeder,  it  is  claimed,  relieves  the  farmer  of 
much  of  the  trouble  attending  the  seeding  of  land 
with  clover  or  grass  seed.  But  few  men  can  sow 
clover  or  timothy  seed  by  hand,  even  on  a  still 
day ;  but  a  common  laborer  can  do  the  work  with 
this  machine.  It  will  sow  as  well  on  a  windy 
day  as  on  a  still  day,  and  any  amount  per  acre 
from  two  to  twelve  quarts.  It  will  sow  clover  or 
timothy  seed,  mixed  or  separate.  The  seeder  has 
an  index,  by  which  tlie  machine  can  be  set  for  any 
amount  per  acre  desired.  It  consists  of  a  light 
hopper,  14  feet  long,  mounted  on  a  wheel-barrow, 
made  as  light  as  possible,  consistent  with  strength 
and  durability. 

Broadcast  sowing  will  be  practiced  "  as  long  as 
the  world  stands."  The  seed  thus  sown  is  either 
brushed  or  harrowed  in,  or  left  to  take  care  of  it- 
self, according  to  circumstances.  Grass  seed  sown 
just  before  a  rain  does  not  require  harrowing  in; 
the  larger  seed  do  require  it.  To  sow  evenly  by 
hand  requires  some  practice  and  skill,  and  windy 
days  interfere  with  even  the  most  skilled  work.  It 
is  an  old  adage  that  "  whatever  should  be  done  at 
all  should  be  done  well;"  but  it  always  depends 
upon  circumstances  how  much  pains  should  be 
taken  with  a  given  task. 

Brocade  (bro-cade'  ),  silk  stuff",  variegated  with 
gold  and  silver,  or  raised  and  enriched  with  flow- 
ers, foliage  and  other  ornaments.  Also  applied  to 
other  stuffs  wrought  and  enriched  in  like  manner. 

Broccoli  (brock'o-ly),  almost  exactly  like  the 
cauliflower,  only  it  is  more  generally  planted  late, 
for  winter  use.  Cultivation  the  same.  The  best 
varieties  are  Walcheren  White,  Large  White 
Early  French,  Knight's  Protecting,  which  is  dwarf, 
very  hardy,  with  very  large  heads.  Purple  Cape, 
Early  Purple,  Elletson's  Mammoth,  Carter's  Sum- 
mer and  Southampton. 

Brogan  (bro'gan  or  bro-gan'),  a  stout,  coarse 
shoe. 

Broken-backed  Horse,  one  having  his  spinal 
ligaments  hardened  into  bone. 

Broken  Wind,  a  disease  of  horses,  aff"ecting  the 
lungs  and  air  passages.  It  is  often  accompanied 
with  enlargement  of  the  lungs  and  heart,  which 
disables  the  animal  from  bearing  fatigue. 


15'= 


BROMB    GRASS— BROOM-CORN. 


Brome  Grass,  cheat  or  chess,  and  one  or  two 
other  kindred  species. 

Bronchitis  (brong-ki 'tis),  a  disease  affecting  the 
respiratory  organs,  generally  accompanied  with  a 
cough,  and  is  very  difKcult  to  cure.  Avoid  ex- 
posure to  cold  or  damp  air,  and  refrain  from  read- 
ing aloud,  public  speaking,  singing,  or  blowing  in- 
struments; keep  clear  of  stimulants,  and  use  a  diet 
•of  milk  and  vegetables;  take  some  soothing  sirup 
to  allay  the  irritation;  wear  no  cravat  or  other 
bandage  about  the  neck — a  light  ribbon  is  suffi- 
cient; let  the  neck  have  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and 
apply  cold  water  to  it  every  morning  when  you 
wash. 

Bronzed  articles  should  be  oiled  and  wiped  with 
a  cloth  every  day  or  two,  to  keep  them  bright. 

Broom,  besides  being  the  name  of  several  plants, 
is  the  name  also  of  a  well-known  household  neces- 
sity. Good  brooms  are  furnished  by  the  regular 
manufacturers  so  cheaply  at  the  present  day  that 
no  farmer  cares  to  make  them.  If  brooms  are 
wetted  in  boiling  suds  once  a  week,  they  will  be- 
come very  tough,  will  not  cut  a  carpet,'  will  last 
much  longer,  and  always  sweep  like  a  "  new 
broom." 

Broom-Corn.  The  raising  of  broom-corn  is  a 
prominent  industry  in  the  West,  the  soil  being 
particularly  adapted  to  it.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
it  will  ever  be  superseded  as  a  material  for  brooms. 
In  its  early  growth  and  general  appearance  it  re- 
sembles Indian  corn.  It  stands  upright  to  a  height 
of  eight  feet  or  more,  with  a  stalk  of  nearly  uni- 
form size  its  entire  length,  from  which  an  occasional 
leaf  appears ;  and  at  the  top  a  long,  compact  bunch 
of  slender,  graceful  stems  is  thrown  out,  familiarly 
termed  "the  brush,"  which  bears  the  seed.  There 
is  a  dwarf  variety  latterly  introduced. 

Any  soil  that  will  grow  Indian  corn  will  pro- 
duce broom-corn.  It  should  be  rich,  warm  land, 
and  not  subject  to  unseasonable  frosts.  Spring 
frosts  injure  broom-corn  more  than  maize,  as  the 
roots  do  not  strike  so  deep;  nor  has  it  the  power 
to  recover  from  the  effects  of  frost  equal  to  the 
latter.  Clay  lands  are  not  suitable  for  this  crop. 
It,  like  corn,  can  be  grown  on  the  same  soil  for 
years  in  succession,  but  rotation  is  better.  Excel- 
lent crops  are  usually  raised  on  a  green-sward, 
turned  over  as  late  as  possible  in  the  fall,  so  as  to 
kill  the  worms.  Barn-yard,  hog-pen  and  sheep 
manure,  well  rotted,  are  good  for  broom-corn.  If 
the  land  is  in  good  condition,  three  cords,  or  eight 
loads,  is  sufficient.  The  manure  is  usually  placed 
in  the  hills  or  in  drills.  Land  plaster,  lime  and 
ashes,  separately,  or  mixed,  are  often  used.  Any 
fertilizer  that  promotes  the  growth  of  corn  is  good 
for  broom-corn.  Poudrette,  at  the  rate  of  a  gill  in 
each  hill,  if  the  African,  or  two-thirds  the  quantity 


if  the  Peruvian  is  used,  mixed  into  a  compost  with 
ten  times  its  quantity  of  good  soil,  is  an  excellent 
application,  especially  if  the  land  is  not  in  good 
heart.  To  repeat  either  of  the  latter  around  the 
hill  after  each  hoeing  or  cultivating  will  hasten  the 
maturity  of  the  crop. 

Broom-corn  is  planted  in  both  hills  and  drills. 
If  in  hills  it  should  be  three  feet  between  the  hills 
and  four  feet  between  the  rows;  if  in  drills,  three 
feet  and  a  half,  north  and  south,  that  the  sun  may 
shine  alike  on  all  the  plants.  If  the  seed  is  good 
12  or  15  seeds  should  be  placed  in  a  hill.  Sown 
in  drills,  the  seeds  should  be  dropped  two  inches 
apart,  or  three  to  ten  are  dropped  at  intervals  of 
15  to  18  inches.  Fine,  thick,  tough  brush  is  the 
result  of  thick  planting,  but  if  the  plants  are 
too  close  the  stalks  will  be  unprofitably  slender. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  from  three-fourths  to 
one  and  one-half  inches  deep.  Plant  as  early  as 
possible  and  at  the  same  time  escape  the  spring 
frosts. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  are  visible  run  a  cultiva- 
tor between  the  rows,  and  if  the  soil  is  full  of 
weeds,  follow  with  a  hoe.  If  the  crop  is  kept 
clean  until  it  gets  a  good  start,  in  the  West,  where 
there  are  no  obstructions,  and  the  farmer  has  a 
modern  cultivator,  the  weeds  can  easily  be  kept 
down  without  resort  to  the  hoe.  Where  the 
plants  are  in  hills  they  should  be  check-rowed  so 
as  to  admit  the  cultivator  both  ways.  At  the  first 
cultivating  or  hoeing,  thin  out  the  plants  to  two  or 
three  inches  apart  in  the  drills,  or  five  or  six  plants 
to  the  hill. 

Lopping  the  brush  or  breaking  the  tops  be- 
comes necessary  when  standard  varieties  are 
grown,  and  when  the  season  is  liable  to  be  too 
short  for  the  corn  to  mature.  This  consists  in  go- 
ing through  the  field  and  bending  each  top  at  a 
point  13  to  iS  inches  below  the  brush,  allowing 
tile  latter  to  hang  down  against  the  stalk.  Lop- 
ping hastens  the  ripening,  and  protects  the  brush 
from  injury  by  rain.  It  also  secures  straight 
brush,  which  is  an  important  item. 

Tabling  consists  in  breaking  down  the  stalks  of 
two  rows,  so  they  will  cross  each  other  diagon- 
ally. The  bend  is  usually  made  about  two  and  a 
half  feet  from  the  ground.  Cutting  may  be  done 
without  tabling  if  the  brush  can  be  reached.  The 
time  to  cut  is  when  the  blossoms  begin  to  fall. 
Cut  off  not  more  than  eight  inches  from  the 
brush,  using  a  knife.  Place  in  convenient  bundles, 
and  then  take  to  the  barn  or  shed  for  curing.  The 
stalks  remaining  on  the  ground  may  be  cut  close, 
or  pulled  up  and  buried  in  the  furrows  for  man- 
ure, or  burned,  and  thus  be  restored  to  the  earth 
to  enrich  it ;  or  they  maj'  be  carried  to  the  barn- 
yard to  mix  in  a  compost,  or  with  the  droppings 
of  the  cattle. 


BR  00  M-  C  ORN—BR  USHES. 


151 


Broom-corn  should  be  cured  under  cover,  for 
exposure  makes  it  brittle.  A  roof  and  free  circu- 
lation of  air  is  all  that  is  necessary.  The  brush  is 
cleaned  by  hand,  by  passing  it  through  a  kind  of 
hatchel,  made  by  setting  upright  knives  near 
enough  together,  or  it  may  be  cleaned  by  a  long- 
toothed  curry-comb.  In  the  first  method  none  of 
the  little  branches  are  broken,  and  the  brush  makes 
a  finer  and  better  broom.  Horse-power  machines 
are  frequently  used  for  cleaning  seed,  which  they 
do  with  great  rapidity.  The  average  yield  is 
about  500  pounds  of  brush  to  the  acre.  It  varies 
according  to  the  season  and  soil,  from  300  to  1,000 
pounds.  The  price  also  varies  materially,  depend- 
ing on  the  extent  of  the  crop  and  the  demand. 
When  well  matured  the  seed  will  average  three  to 
five  pounds  to  every  pound  of  the  brush. 

Assorting  the  brush  is  merely  keeping  the 
crooked  and  otherwise  defective  heads  from  the 
straight  and  perfect.  This  may  be  done  in  the 
field,  at  the  time  of  hatcheling,  or  after  curing. 
But  it  must  be  done,  and  the  two  qualities  must 
be  kept  separate. 

Prices  obtained  for  broom-corn  depend  much  on 
the  appearance  of  the  bale.  The  usual  size  of  the 
bale  is:  Length,  3  feet  10  inches;  width,  3  feet, 
and  height,  2^  feet.  The)-  weigh  from  150  to 
450  pounds,  according  to  wgight  applied  in  press- 
ing. The  hay,  cotton,  or  hop  press  can  be  used, 
or  the  farmer  can  devise  one  himself.  No.  9  fence 
wire  is  generally  used  for  binding.  Each  bale 
should  be  made  true  and  even  at  the  ends.  Bale 
the  crooked  brush  by  itself,  and  sell  it  for  second 
quality. 

The  uses  of  broom-corn  are  limited  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  brooms  from  the  brush,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  the  seed  when  grown  and  mixed  with 
other  grain,  in  feeding  to  fattening  or  working 
cattle,  sheep  and  swine,  and  occasionally  to  horses. 
Brooms  manufactuied  from  it  have  superseded 
every  other  kind  for  general  use  in  the  United 
States,  and  within  a  few  years  thev  have  become 
an  article  of  extensive  export  to  England  and 
other  countries.  The  brush,  and  wood  for  the 
handles,  are  imported  by  foreign  dealers,  to  avoid 
the  payment  of  duties,  and  then  put  together. 
The  cultivation  of  broom-corn  was  once  almost 
exclusively  confined  to  the  Eastern  States,  but  it 
is  now  largely  raised  in  the  corn-growing  legions 
of  the  Northwest. 

When  it  is  desired  to  grow  broom-corn  on  a 
large  scale,  some  capital  must  be  invested,  and 
special  preparation  for  curing,  etc.,  must  be  made. 
A  revolving  sci'aper  must  be  pix>vided,  with  horse, 
water,  and  steam-power  to  run  it.  This  machine 
is  sometimes  made  with  two  cylinders  revolving 
in  opposite  directions.  A  box  made  in  the  form 
of  a  saw-buck,  with  the  sides  and  one  end  boarded 
up,  should  stand   where  the   operator  can  deposit 


the  brush  as  it  is  cleaned.  From  this  box  it 
is  bound  and  taken  to  the  dry  house.  The  dry 
house  is  usually  built  for  the  purpose,  though  a  to- 
bacco house  may  serve.  For  50  acres  a  building 
20  by  40  feet,  16  feet  high,  with  a  shed  at  one  side 
10  feet  wide  and  8  feet  high,  will  be  required. 
Put  on  a  shingle  roof,  and  cover  the  sides  with 
boards,  battened.  Hang  every  fifth  board  on 
hinges,  with  a  button  fastener,  that  they  may  be 
opened  to  admit  the  air,  and  be  securely  closed 
during  storms. 

Drying-racks  must  be  provided  by  taking  two 
poles  or  light  scantlings,  12  feet  long;  to  these  nail 
narrow  strips  or  laths  six  inches  apart.  Fasten  at  top 
and  bottom  the  length  of  a  lath  apart,  if  laths  are  to 
be  used.  Lay  other  laths  across  the  strips,  and 
place  upon  them  the  brush,  not  more  than  two  or 
three  inches  thick.  Here  it  remains  until  thor- 
oughly drv.  Give  it  all  the  air  possible,  and  the 
least  amount  of  dampness.  Make  as  many  racks 
as  your  building  will  accommodate. 

It  is  said  that  broom-corn  seed  makes  very  fair 
breadstuff,  especially  palatable  to  some  people. 

Brougham  (broo'am  or  broom),  a  kind  of  car- 
riage, two  or  four-wheeled,  to   carry  two  or  four 

persons. 

Brown,  a  dusty,  dark  brick  color,  like  that  of 
dead  foliage.  In  all  species  of  domestic  animals, 
some  individuals  are  found  of  this  color,  and  a 
large  portion  have  the  legs,  feet,  tail,  neck,  head, 
or  back  of  some  shade  of  brown.  It  is  not  a  beau- 
tiful color  to  have  prevailing  on  all  parts  of  any 
individual,  and  should  be  therefore  avoided  by  the 
management  of  breeding.  The  most  beautiful 
brown  horses  are  those  which  are  also  finely  dap- 
pled. 

To  "brown  "  an  article  of  food  for  the  table  is 
to  bake  it  until  it  is  slightly  scorched,  or  brown, 
over  the  surface,  as  potatoes,  parsnips,  etc. 

Brown  Stout,  strong,  brown  beer,  brewed  from 

high-dried  malt. 

Browse,  to  eat  or  nibble  off,  as  the  ends  of 
branches  of  trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  by  cattle  or  deer; 
to  feed  upon  twigs,  scattering  grass,  etc.;  also,  the 
food  thus  eaten.  , 

Bruise.  It  is  amusing  to  see  how  many  salves 
and  poultices,  ointments  and  liniments,  compounds 
and  compositions,  decoctions  and  infusions,  embro- 
cations and  macerations  are  recommended  for 
bruises,  when  the  common  bread-and-milk  poultice 
is  always  as  good  as  any  or  all  of  them. 

Brushes.  At  the  present  day  brushes  are  man- 
ufactured for  every  specific  purpose,  and  are  made 
of  bristles,  hair,  feathers,  broom-corn,  gr.iss,  wire, 
wood,  etc.  Broom  brushes  for  clothing  are  called 
"  whisks,"  though  this  latter  term  literally  includes 


152 


BR  USHES—B  UDDING. 


a  variety  of  brushes.  Hair  brushes  should  be 
cleaned  with  an  ammonia  solution,  and  not  soap, 
and  dried  in  the  sun.  Do  not  expose  the  mahog- 
anized  or  other  delicately  finished  wooden  back  of 
the  brush  to  the  solution.  Feather  brusiies  for 
greasing  pans  and  brushing  eggs  over  tarts  and 
pastry  are  made  by  boiling  the  wing  feathers  of  a 
Turkey  or  chicken  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  rinsing 
them  in  tepid  water,  drying,  and  tying  up  in 
bunches. 

Brush-wheel,  one  which  is  turned  by  the  surface 
of  another  wheel,  without  cogs  or  bands. 

Brussels  Sprouts,  a  garden  vegetable  of  tiie 
cabbage  family,  having  small  heads  crowded  along 
a  tall  stem.  It  grows  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
and  is  cultivated  like  cabbage.  Where  winter 
is  not  very  severe,  the  plants  can  be  left  out,  and 
sprouts  gathered  as  wanted  for  the  table;  other- 
wise, store  as  cabbage.  The  cooking,  of  course, 
is  also  the  same  as  for  that  vegetable.  The  best 
varieties  are  Dwarf  Improved,  Dalmeny  Sprouts, 
a  h\brid  between  Drum-head  Savoy  and  Brussels 
Sprouts,  and  Scrymger's  Giant  Dwarf,  anew  vari- 
ety with  a  close  and  compact  head. 

Buck,  to  rear  and  plunge,  in  order  to  throw  off 
the  rider:  said  of  horses. 

Buck-bean,  a  bitter,  three-leaved  herb,  growing 
in  swamps.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  used  as 
hops,  and  medicinally  they  are  a  tonic.  Abundant 
as  far  west  as  Lake  Michigan. 

Buck-thorn,  a  thorny  shrub,  sometimes  grown 
as  a  liedge.     The  berries  are  cathartic  and  griping. 

Buckwheat.  This  is  the  only  cultivated  "  grain  " 
which  does  not  belong  to  the  grass  family  of  plants. 
It  belongs  to  the  order  of  knot-weeds  and  "  goose- 
grass."  It  is  one  of  the  honey  plants,  growing 
freely  on  light  soils,  but  yielding  a  remunerative 
crop  only  on  those  which  are  fertile.  Sandy  loams 
are  its  favorite  soils,  especially  such  as  have  been 
long  in  pasture;  and  these  should  be  well  plowed 
and  harrowed.  Fresh  manure  is  injurious  to  buck- 
wheat. It  may  be  sown  from  May  I  to  August 
lo,  but  always  early  enough  to  ripen  before  frost. 
It  is  sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four 
pecks  to  the  acre,  and  harvested  when  the  earliest 
seed  is  fully  ripe.  It  often  continues  to  flower  after 
this,  but  when,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the  early 
seed  is  blighted,  tlie  crop  may  be  permitted  to  re- 
main until  the  later  yield  of  grain  is  ripe.  As  it  is 
liable  to  heat,  it  should,  after  cutting,  be  put  into 
little  stooks  about  two  feet  high  over  the  field,  and 
as  soon  as  dry,  taken  in  and  threshed  out.  The 
straw  will  be  eaten  with  avidity  by  sheep  and 
young  horses.  A  serious  objection  to  the  raising 
of  buckwheat  is  its  tendency  to  take  possession  of 
the  soil  as  a  weed. 


Buckwheat  Cakes.  One  quart  buckwheat  flour, 
four  tablespoonfuls  yeast,  one  teaspoonful  salt,  one 
handful  Indian  meal,  two  tablespoonfuls  molasses 
(not  sirup),  warm  water  enough  to  make  a  thin 
baiter;  beat  very  well  and  set  to  rise  in  a  warm 
place;  if  the  batter  is  in  the  least  sour  in  the  morn- 
ing, stir  in  a  very  little  soda  dissolved  in  hot  water; 
mix  in  an  earthen  crock,  and  leave  some  in  the 
bottom  each  morning — a  cupful  or  so — to  serve  as 
sponge  for  the  next  night,  instead  of  getting  fresh 
yeast;  in  cold  weather  this  plan  can  be  successfully 
pursued  for  a  week  or  ten  days  without  setting  a 
new  supply ;  add  the  usual  quantity  of  flour,  etc., 
every  night,  and  beat  up  well;  do  not  make  the 
cakes  too  small;  they  should  be  of  generous  size. 
Some  put  two-thinls  buckwheat  and  one-third  oat- 
meal, omitting  the  corn  meal. 

Buckwheat  Short-Cake.  Take  three  or  four 
cups  of  nice  sour  milk,  one  teaspoon  of  soda  or 
saleratus  dissolved  in 'the  milk;  if  the  milk  is  very 
sour,  you  must  use  saleratus  in  proportion,  with  a 
little  salt;  mix  up, a  dough  with  buckwheat  flour, 
thicker  than  you  would  mix  the  same  for  gridtlle- 
cakes,  say  quite  stiflf;  put  into  a  buttered  tin,  and 
put  directly  into  the  stove  oven  and  bake  about 
thirty  minutes,  or  as  you  would  a  short-cake  from 
common  flour.  It  takes  the  place  of  the  griddle- 
cake,  also  of  the  shortacake,  in  every  sense  of  the 
word;  nice  with  meat,  butter,  honey,  molasses, etc. 
No  shortening  is  used,  and  no  need  of  setting  your 
dish  of  batter  over  night.  Wet  the  top  a  little,  and 
warm  it  up  at  next  meal,  if  any  is  left;  it  is  just  as 
good  as  when  first  made,  while  griddle-caUes  have 
to  be  thrown  away.     It  is  also  very  good  cold. 

Self-raising  buckwheat  flour  is  now  furnished 
through  the  groceries,  and  the  cakes  from  it  are 
very  palatable  and  rich;  but,  like  all  things  com- 
pounded for  the  market,  we  should  suspect  dirt  and 
adulteration,  and  do  all  our  own  compounding  at 
home. 

Buckwheat  diet  is  suspected  of  producing  an 
itch,  sometimes  called  the  "  scratches;"  but  it  is  not 
yet  determined  how  much  of  the  disease  may  be 
due  to  the  extraordinary  amount  of  burnt  grease 
and  alkaline  substances  eaten  in  the  buckwheat- 
cake  season.  About  the  only  treatment  for  this  trouble 
is  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  buckwheat  altogether. 

Budding.  This  process  of  propagating  a  variety 
of  fruit  consists  in  the  insertion  of  the  bud  of  the 
variety  to  be  propagated  into  a  stock.  There  are 
various  modes  of  performing  the  work,  and  how- 
ever well  they  may  be  described  in  a  book,  it  is 
advised  that  every  beginner  visit  a  good  nursery- 
man or  amateur  fruit-grower  in  his  neighborhood, 
and  witness  the  operation.  Both  the  stock  and 
graft  or  bud  should  be  in  a  healthy,  vigorous  state. 
The  time  for  budding  the  several  fruits  is  indicated 
under  the  headings  of  those  fruits  respectively. 


B  UDDING—B  UHR-iS  J  OJVE. 


153 


Fig. 


Buddino^  is  real  grafting,  and  differs  from  what 
is  ordinarily  called  grafting  only  in  that  the  bud  is 
used  instead  of  the  twig.  Cuttings  of  buds  for 
budding  may  be  made  at  any  time  when  the  tree 
has  formed  its  terminal  buds  of  growth  for  the 
year  and  the  buds  are  ripe. 

mi^  American    shield    budding 

requires  that  a  piece  of  wood 
be  left  at  the  base  of  the  bud, 
which  is  neatly  cut  into  a 
kind  of  thin  shaving  so  as  to 
form  a  foot,  as  it  were,  to  be 
inserted  under  the  bark  of  the 
stock  (Figs.  I  and  3).  The 
bark  on  the  north  side  of  the 
stock  is  just  cut  through  by 
the  incision  (Fig.  3) ;  the  first  is 
horizontal  from  one-sixteenth 
to  one-eight  of  an  inch  long, 
and  the  other  perpendicularly  down  from  that  a 
half  an  inch  or  more,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
bud;  the  bud  is  then  cut  from  its  cion  as  before 
directed,  and  slipped  in  place  and  bound  there  with 
strips  of  bass  bark.  This  work  is  generally  per- 
formed with  a  budding  knife,  one  end  of  the  handle 
being  of  ivory  or  bone,  and  so 
smoothly  shaped  that  in  using  it  to 
elevate  the  bark  no  injury  will  be 
done.  The  bass  bark  may  be  tak- 
en from  Russia  matting,  or  from 
the  bass-wood  trees  in  the  spring, 
and  tempered  into  strips  by  keep- 
i  n  g  it  in 
water  for  a 
time.  In 
tj'ing  in  the 
bud,  com- 
mence at 
the  lower 
end  of  the 
around    and 


mcision 
around 


and  wrap  the  strip  of  bark 
upvvard  until  the  bud  is  reached,  where 
it  is  then  tied  (Fig.  4).  The  pressure  should  be 
just  sutHciint  to  keep  the  in- 
serted portion  closely  to  the 
stock  but  not  such  as  to  crush 
or  bruise  the  bark.  Woolen 
yarn,  however,  or  soft  strips 
of  old  cotton  cloth  can  be 
used  in  place  of  the  bark, 
but  they  are  not  quite  so 
good.  In  about  ten  days  or 
two  weeks  after  insertion 
has  been  made,  the  strips  or 
b<mdages  will  require  to  be 
loosened,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  three  weeks  removed  altogether. 

The  ensuing  spring,  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to 
swell  strongly,  cut  oft  the  stock  about  six   inches 


FlQ.  3. 


Cut  away  the  leaf,   to 


above  the  bud,  and  as  the  shoot  of  the  bud  grows, 
tie  it  with  any  soft  material  to  the  piece  of  the 
stock  above  its  insertion  until  about  midsummer,  or 
when  it  has  made  two  feet  of  growth,  when  the 
stock  should  be  cut  away  above  the  bud.  Never 
insert  the  buds  in  water, 
prevent  too  great  evapo- 
ration, whereby  its  vital- 
ity would  be  exhausted  or 
injured.  Buds,  having  the 
leaf  removetl,  may  be  kept 
fresh  and  full  of  vitality 
for  a  number  of  days,  if 
placed  in  a  cool  room 
wrapped  in  damp  moss  or 
cloths.  In  sending  them 
by  mail  or  otherwise  ship- 
ping them,  they  should 
have  damp  moss  wrapped 
around  them  and  he  en- 
veloped in  oiled  silk  or 
linen.  ^'"'-  t- 

Annular  or  ring  budding  is  another  style 
adapted  to  hard-wood  trees,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  it  is  as  good  as  side  grafting  (see  Grafting). 
In  |5erforming  this  a  ring  of  bark  is  taken  from  a 
limb  or  stock,  and  one  of  corresponding  size,  con- 
taining the  bud,  is  put  in  its  place.  Trees  that  have 
been  girdled  by  mice  or  rabbits  during  the  winter 
may  be  restored  by  the  process  of  putting  in  live 
bark  from  a  tree  of  its  kind. 

In  all  the  processes  of  budding  or  grafting, 
especially  if  above  ground,  the  wound  should  be 
covered  with  a  grafting  composition  of  some  kind 
(for  the  best  "composition  see  Grafting);  but  a 
great  many  other  mixtures  are  good,  particu- 
larly if  well  put  on.  By  using  a  greater  proportion 
of  tallow  or  lard,  or  less  of  rosin,  the  wax  or  taffy 
will  be  softer,  and  can  be  spread  upon  rags  like 
butter,  and  these  rags  be  used  on  the  grafts  with 
the  greatest  convenience. 

BuflFalo,  the  name  of  a  wild  animal,  in  Asia  and 
Africa,  of  the  ox  genus,  and,  also,  despite  Ifie 
dictionaries,  the  popular  name  of  the  American 
bison. 

Bug,  any  beetle  or  beetle-like  insect;  more 
strictly,  a  fly  which  has  the  mouth  parts  in  the  form 
of  a  slender,  horny  beak,  consisting  of  a  horny 
sheath,  containing  three  stiff  and  intensely  sharp 
bristles,  and  whose  wing  covers  are  thick  in  their 
basal  portion,  and  lying  flat  ou  the  back,  the  thin 
portions  crossing  each  other.  • 

Buggy:  see   Carriage. 

Buhr-Stone  (bur' stone),  a  flinty,  quartzose, 
cellular  stone  used  in  grist  mills.  Most  of  these 
mill-stones  come  from  Paris,  but  quarries  of  the 
same  material  are  now  discovered  in  several 
sections  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  Georgia, 


154 


B  UILDINGS—B  UNS. 


Buildings :  see  Residence,  Barns,  etc. 

Bulb,  a  spheroidal  body  growing  from  a  plant 
just  above  the  roots  and  usually  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  which  is  sti'ictly  a  bud,  its 
scales  being  large  and  fleshy.  These  scales,  the 
second  year,  develop  into  stems  and  leaves.  Lilies, 
tulips,  onions,  etc.,  are  familiar  examples. 

Bull,  the  male  of  the  ox  genus.  The  general 
structural  characteristics  of  a  good  bull  are  com- 
mon with  those  of  any  other  neat  cattle,  with  only 
the  difference  that  the  bull  must  possess  all  the  ad- 
mirable points  in  their  fullest  development,  com- 
bined with  the  highest  vigor  of  masculine  qualities. 
The  bull  selected  should,  if  possible,  be  pure  in 
blood,  of  whatever  bieed  may  be  adopted.  He 
should  be  masculine  in  appearance,  strong,  vig- 
orous, but  not  coarse.  He  should  be  fine  in  bone, 
his  skin,  and  the  flesh  under  it,  elastic  to  the  touch, 
with  good,  thick,  woolly  hair.  The  color  should 
be  true  to  its  breed.  His  flesh  should  be  well  laid 
on  in  the  best  parts  for  beef,  according  to  tlie 
models  of  tlie  best  breeds.  He  should  be  well  fed 
and  cared  for,  but  should  not  be  forced  either  to 
grow  lean  or  fatten.  It  is  bad  to  keep  a  bull  half 
st;trved,  and  bad  to  keep  one  stuffed  with  food. 
He  ought  to  grow  up  naturally,  and  be  developed 
at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  nature  indicates. 
He  should  be  used  little  for  breeding  till  he  is  two 
years  old ;  he  then  can  safely  serve  from  50  to  So 
cows  during  the  season.  If  kept  in  the  stable  he 
should  be  led  around  the  vard  for  exercise,  each 
day.  He  should  never  be  turned  into  the  common 
pasture  with  the  cows.  During  his  first  year  a 
cojjper  ring  should  be  put  in  his  nose,  with  which 
to  master  and  lead  him.  He  should  be  led  by  a 
light,  strong  stick,  seven  or  eight  feet  long,  witii 
two  links  of  a  chain,  and  a  snap  at  the  end  may  be 
used  in  leading  him.  This  method  is  much  safer 
than  to  use  a  rope,  the  stick  serving  the  purpose  of 
a  pike  to  fend  off  the  animal  in  case  he  becomes 
infuriated.  Sometimes  a  bull,  usually  kind  and 
docile,  will  have  a  fit  of  frenzy,  and  if  unprepared 
the  keeper  may  be  serioush'  injured  or  even 
killed;  and  such  cases  are  not  rare.  Some  bulls 
are  made  cross  by  violent  treatment.  From  a  calf 
the  bull  should  be  treated  kindly,  but  always 
handled  with  a  firm  hand.  If  he  is  not  cross,  and 
is  a  good  stock-getter,  he  may  be  kept  until  he  he- 
gins  to  fail  from  age — at  ten  or  twelve  years  old. 
When  a  bull  is  regularly  serving  many  cows,  the 
food  should  be  increased.  See  also  Cattle,  and 
for  castration   see  article  Calves. 

Bull,  in  commerce,  the  party  who   endeavors  to 
raise  prices.     See  Bear.  ■ 

Bullion,  uncoined  gold  or  silver,  in  the  mass. 

Bull's  Eye,  besides    denoting    several   things  in 
nautical  science,  etc.,  is  also  the   name  of  a  police- 


man's lantern  (or  "dark"  lantern),  which  emits 
light  at  only  one  side,  through  a  glass  of  the  shape 
of  a  bull's  eye.  Also,  certain  watches,  from  their 
general  shape  and  appearance,  have  been  denomi- 
nated  "  bull's  eye." 

Bung-Hole  Borer.  This  is  a  very  convenient 
tool  to  have  in  the  farm  workshop.  The  one 
represented  in  this  connection  has  some  advantages 
over  the  ordinary  ones.     It  has  inserted  in  the  end 


Enterprise  Bung- Hole  Borer, 


of  the  stock' or  reamer  an  auger  or  bit  for  boring 
the  hole.  It  bores  a  complete  round  hole,  regular 
taper,  and  holds  its  own  chips,  preventing  them 
from  entering  the  cask. 

Bunion.  An  inflaivied  and  painful  swelling  of  the 
sac  containing  the  oil  of  the  joint,  chiefly  situated 
on  the  outside  of  the  great  toe.  This  tlisease,  if  not 
remedied  in  time,  is  certain  to  lead  to  a  permanent 
enlargement  and  disfigureinent  of  the  toe.  The 
exciting  cause  is  generally  a  long-continued  pressure 
from  a  tight  boot  or  shoe.  Treatment:  This  should 
commence  with  a  warm  bran  poultice,  continue<l 
for  one  or  two  hours,  so  as  to  soften  the  cuticle  of 
the  part;  a  piece  of  lint,  wetted  in  the  extract  of 
lead,  is  then  to  be  applied,  cold,  round  the  toe,  and 
the  lint  moistened  from  time  to  time  with  more  of 
the  extract.  In  a  few  hours  all  inflammation  will 
have  subsided,  and  if  care  be  taken  not  to  repeat 
the  pressure,  but  use  a  large  boot,  the  bunion  will 
be  cured.  Or,  treat  as  for  corns.  The  cure  will 
be  more  tedious. 

Buns,  very  light,  small,  sweet  cakes.  To  make 
them,  take  one  quart  of  flour,  one  pint  of  warm 
milk,  two  ounces  of  butter  and  a  gill  of  yeast;  mix 
these  and  set  it  to  rise  three  or  four  hours.  Then 
beat  up  two  eggs,  one-fourth  pound  sugar  and  a 
few  currants;  mix  this  into  the  dough,  and  set  it  to 
rise  again  two  hours.  When  very  light,  make  the 
tlough  into  buns,  quite  small,  set  them  very  close 
together  on  tins,  and  let  them  ri^e.  When  all  of  a 
sponge,  brush  the  top  with  a  little  milk  and  inolasses 
mixed.  Bake  in  a  quick  oven,  fifteen  or  twenty 
minutes. 

Buns  Without  Eggs.  Three  cups  of  warm 
milk,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  yeast;  make  a 
batter  of  this  with  flour,  and  when  it  has  risen  very 
light,  add  a  cup  of  butter,  a  cup  of  sugar,  a  cup  of 


B  UNS—B  USHEL. 


n^ 


currants  and  a  little  nutmeg;  work  in  flour  enough 
to  roll  out,  and  let  it  rise  very  light.  Make  it  into 
cakes,  and  let  them  stand  in  the  tins  awhile  before 
baking. 

Easter  Buns.  Boil  a  little  saffron  in  a  small 
quantity  of  water,  strain  and  cool  it;  make  a  sponge 
of  a  quart  of  flour  and  warm  milk,  making  it 
yellow  with  the  safFron  decoction;  add  a  gill  of 
yeast  or  a  small  cake  of  compressed  yeast  dissolved ; 
set  it  to  rise  in  a  warm  place,  covered;  when  very 
light,  beat  into  it  a  half  pound  of  granulated  sugar 
and  y^  pound  of  butter,  rubbed  to  a  cream;  four 
eggs  beaten  very  light,  a  tahlespoonful  of  salt,  and 
half  a  nutmeg  grated;  mold  into  a  soft  dough  and 
let  it  rise  again;  when  as  ligiit  as  possible  roll  out 
in  a  middling  thick  sheet,  and  cut  into  round  cakes 
with  a  cutter;  bake  on  flat  tins,  well  buttered;  they 
must  be  pennittcd  to  stand  until  very  light,  after 
they  are  cut  out,  before  putting  them  into  the  oven ; 
while  hot,  wash  over  with  milk,  in  which  is  a  little 
sugar.  Make  an  icing  with  the  white  of  an  egg 
and  white  sugar,  and  with  it  forin  a  large  E  in  the 
center  of  the  bun.  For  variety,  a  few  currants 
may  sometimes  be  sprinkled  into  the  dough. 

From  the  above  standard  recipes  a  cook  can 
vary  to  suit  her  tastes  and  fancies  without  much 
difficulty.  These  recipes  often  appear  in  print,  with 
little  variation,  under  different  names. 

Bunting,  a  bird  of  several  species;  also,  a  thin 
woolen  stuff,  of  which  the  colors  or  flags  and 
signals  of  ships  arc  made. 

Burdock,  a  common  weed,  with  leaves  as  large 
as  those  of  pie-plant,  and  similar  in  shape.  The 
root  has  been  popular  as  a  "blood-purifier."  The 
name  also  has  been  applied  to  the  cockle-bur,  a 
common  plant  of  poisonous  odor  and  bearing  thorny 
burs. 

Burnet,  a  plant  the  leaves  of  which  are  used  as 
salads,  put  into  soups,  etc.  When  slightly  bruised 
they  smj;ll  like  cucumber,  and  they  have  a  some- 
what warm  taste.      But  little  cultivated. 

Burns  and  Scalds.  The  best  application  for  a 
burn  or  scald  we  believe  to  be  common  wheat 
floiu'.  This  is  always  at  hand,  and  while  it  re- 
quires no  skill  in  using,  it  produces  most  astonish- 
ing effects.  The  moisture  produced  upon  the  sur- 
face of  a  slight  or  deep  burn  is  at  once  absorbed  by 
the  flour,  and  forms  a  jjaste  which  shuts  out  the 
air.  As  long  as  the  fluid  matters  continue  flowing, 
they  are  absorbed  and  prevented  from  producing 
Ijritation,  as  they  would  do  if  kept  from  passing 
off"  by  oily  or  resinous  applications,  while  the 
greater  the  amount  of  those  absorbed  by  the  flour 
the  thicker  the  protective  covering.  Another  ad- 
vantage of  the  flour  covering  is,  that  next  to  the 
surface  it  is  kept  moist  and  flexible.  It  can  also  be 
readily  washed  off  without  further  irritation  in  re- 


moving. It  may  occasionally  be  washed  off  ver)' 
carefully  when  it  has  become  matted  and  dry,  and 
a  new  covering  sprinkled  on.  The  next  best 
method  is  to  plunge  the  part  in  cold  water,  or 
apply  cold  water  to  it,  until  the  pain  is  considerably 
reduced,  then  spread  on  any  alkaline  poultice,  as  a 
cloth  or  cotton  batting  saturated  with  sweet  or 
linseed  oil  and  lime-water,  chalk,  or  a  solution  of 
saleratus  or  cooking  soda.  When  the  burn  is  so 
severe  as  to  take  the  skin  off,  put  on  sweet  cream 
or  milk.  In  serious  cases,  use  no  strong  drug  until 
a  physician  is  called  and  he  advises  it.  It  would 
be  safe,  however,  to  use  the  following,  which  is 
very  efficient :  Take  equal  parts  of  turpentine, 
sweet  oil  and  beeswax;  melt  the  oil  and  wax  to- 
gether, and  when  a  little  cool  add  the  turpentine 
and  stir  until  cold,  which  keeps  them  evenly 
mixed.  Apply  by  spreading  upon  thin  cloth: 
linen  is  the  best. 

Body  in  Flames.  Lay  the  person  down  on 
the  floor  of  the  room,  and  throw  the  table-cloth, 
rug,  or  other  large  cloth  over  him,  and  roll  him  on 
the  floor. 

Burst,  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  Rupture, 
which  see. 

Bush,  in  mechanics,  a  perforated  piece  of  metal, 
as  hard  brass,  let  into  certain  parts  of  machinery  to 
receive  the  wear  of  pivots,  journals  and  the  like, 
as  in  the  pivot-holes  of  a  clock,  the  hub  of  a  cart- 
wheel, etc.  Also,  any  similar  lining  of  a  hole  with 
metal,  as  the  vent  of  a  gun.  In  the  larger  ma- 
chines, such  a  piece  is  called  a  "  box."  Bush 
metal  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  used  for  jour- 
nals, the  lining  of  pivot-iioles,  etc. 

Bushel.  A  standard  bushel  is  eight  inches 
deep  and  iS^  inches  inside  diameter,  containing 
2,150.42  cubic  inches.  The  heaped  bushel  re- 
quires the  middle  to  be  six  inches  higher  than  the 
circumference,  and  contains  2,748  cubic  inches  in 
all.  The  half  bushel  measure,  correspondingly, 
should  be  heaped  up  about  four  inches  in  the  middle. 
To  find  the  number  of  bushels,  struck  measure, 
any  box  will  hold,  multiply  the  length,  width  and 
height  together,  in  feet,  divide  by  56  and  multiply 

by  45-  •  . 

The  table  on  the  next  page  covers  every  article 
whose  weight  per  bushel  is  regulated  by  law  in 
each  of  the  States  and  Territories.  "Where  blanks 
occur  in  the  table  it  is  because  there  is  no  law  gov- 
erning the  subject.  In  sereral  of  the  States  no 
laws  fixing  standard  bushels  have  ever  been 
passed.  In  such  States  the  standard  fixed  by  Con- 
gress is  adopted;  but,  with  a  few  exceptions. 
Congress  has  fixed  no  such  standards.  The  rev- 
enue officers,  in  fixing  the  amount  of  duties  upon 
imported  grain,  are  d!)ected  to  allow  60  pounds  per 
bushel  for  wheat,  56  for  corn  and  rye,  48  for  barley, 
32  for  oats,  60  for  peas,  and  43  for  buckwheat. 


iS6 


BUSHEL. 


WEIGHT  OF  THE  BUSHEL  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCE,  ETC.,  AS  ESTABLISHED  BY  LAW  IN 

THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES,  COMPARED  WITH  THE 

MOST  RECENT  ENACTMENTS. 


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Buckwheat        .        

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Coal    Mineral                 

Corn,  Sheilcd 

52 

56 

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56 

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50 

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32 

52 

to 
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Dried    Peaches      

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■  55  5 
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Flax  Seed 

riraQK  Seed    Blue                            .         ..... 

56 

'4 
60 

'4 
60 

56 

frrais  Seed   Clover 

60 

to 

Cract;  Seed     Millet 

Orasfi  Seed    Red  ToD 

1 

44 
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32 

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Onions 

45 

Peas                -     .  .*. 

60 
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Rve              

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Salt,  Fine 

55 

60 
50 

60 
60 

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55 
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60 

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60 

Turnips 

Wheat     

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to 

White  Beans 

I64 

to 

"  Salt "  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Missouri  and  Nebraska  is  50  pounds  to  the  bushel.  In  Michi- 
gan, "  Michigan  Salt  "  is  56  pounds  to  the  bushel.     In  Massachusetts,  "  Salt"  is  70 pounds  to  the  bushel. 

Coal  in  Kentucky  is  76  pounds  per  bushel,  except  Wheeling  coal,  which  is  84,  and  Kentucky  River,  which  is  78 
pounds  per  bushel,  and  Adrian  Branch,  or  Cumberland  River  coal,  which  is  72  pounds  per  bushel.  Cotton  seed  Is  33 
pounds  to  the  bushel  in  Missouri. 

Sorghum  seed  is  30  pounds  to  the  bushel  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska.  Strained  honey  i«  12  pounds  to  the  gallon  in 
Nebraska. 

*  Mined  within  the  State,  70  pounds ;  without  the  State,  80  pounds.  t  Bituminous, — Cannel  Coal,  70  pounds. 


BUSHING— BUSINESS  LAWS. 


157 


Bushing,  a  ring,  tube  or  lining  placed  in  a  hole 
and  somelimes  acting  as  a  journal-box ;  a  thim- 
ble; also,  the  operation  of  fitting  bushes  into 
holes  or  places  where  wear  is  to  be  received,  or 
friction  diminished,  as  pivot-holes,  etc. 

Business  Forms:  see  Legal  and  Husiness  Forms. 

Business  Laws.    Ignorance  of  law  excuses  no  one. 

It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 

The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 

An  agreement  without  consideration  is  void. 

Signatures  made  with  a  lead  pencil  are  good  m 
law. 

A  receipt  for  money  paid  is  not  legally  conclu- 
sive. 

The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the  others. 

Contracts  made  on   Sunday  cannot   be  enforced. 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  or  a  lunatic  is 
void. 

Contracts  for  advertisements  in  Sunday  newspa- 
pers are  invalid. 

Principals  are  responsible  for  the  acts  of  their 
agents. 

Agents  are  responsible  to  their  principals  for 
errors. 

Each  individual  in  a  partnership  is  responsible 
for  the  whole  amount  of  the  debts  of  the  firm,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  special  partnership. 

A  note  given  by  a  minor  is  voidable. 

Notes  bear  interest  before  maturity  only  when 
so  stated. 

It  is  not  legally  necessary  to  say  on  a  note,  "  for 
value  received." 

A  note  drawn  on  Sunday  is  void. 

A  note  obtained  by  fraud,  or  from  a  person  in  a 
state  of  intoxication,  cannot  be  collected. 

If  a  note  be  lost  or  stolen,  it  does  not  release  the 
maker;  he  must  pay  it. 

An  endorser  of  a  note  is  exempt  from  liability 
if  not  served  with  notice  of  its  dishonor  within 
24  hours  of  its  non-payment. 

The  maker  of  an  "accommodation  "  bill  or  note 
is  not  bound  to  the  person  accommodated,  but  is 
bound  to  all  other  parties  precisely  as  if  there  was 
a  good  consideration.  An  "  accommodation  "  bill 
or  note  is  one  for  which  the  maker  has  received  no 
consideration,  he  having  lent  his  name  or  credit 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  holder. 

No  consideration  is  sufficient  in  law  if  it  be  ille- 
gal in  its  nature. 

Checks  or  drafts  must  be  presented  for  payment 
without  unreasonable  delay. 

Checks  or  drafts  should  be  presented  during 
business  hours. 

If  the  drawee  of  a  check  or  draft  has  changed 
his  residence,  the  holder  must  use  due  or  reason- 
able diligence  to  find  him. 

If  one  who  holds  a  check,  as  payee  or  otherwise, 
transfers  it  to  another,  he  has  a  right  to  insist  that 


the  check  be  presented  that  day,  or  at  the  farthest, 
on  the  day  following. 

A  note  indorsed  in  blank  (the  name  of  indorser 
only  written)  is  transferable  by  delivery,  the  same 
as  if  made  payable  to  bearer. 

If  time  of  payment  of  note  is  not  named,  it  is 
payable  on  demand. 

The  time  of  payment  of  a  note  must  not  depend 
upon  a  contingency.  The  promise  must  be  abso- 
lute. 

A  bill  may  be  written  U[)on  any  kind  of  paper, 
either  with  ink  or  pencil. 

The  payee  should  be  named  in  a  note,  unless  it 
is  payable  to  bearer. 

An  indorsee  has  a  right  of  action  against  all 
whose  names  were  on  the  bill  when  he  received  it. 
If  the  letter  containing  a  protest  of  non-payment 
be  put  into  the  post-office,  any  miscarriage  does 
not  affect  the  party  giving  notice.  Notice  of  pro- 
test may  be  sent  either  to  the  place  of  business  or 
of  residence  of  the  party  notified. 

Tlie  holder  of  a  note  may  give  notice  of  protest 
either  to  all  the  previous  indorseis  or  only  to  one 
of  them;  in  case  of  the  latter  he  must  select  tlie 
last  indorser,  and  the  last  must  give  notice  to  the 
last  before  him,  and  so  on.  Each  indorser  must 
send  notice  the  same  day  or  the  day  following. 
Neither  tiunday  nor  any  legal  holiday  is  counted 
in  reckoning  time  in  which  notice  is  to  be  given. 

The  loss  of  a  note  is  not  sufficient  excuse  for  not 
giving  notice  of  protest. 

If  two  or  more  persons,  as  partners,  are  jointly 
liable  on  a  note  or  bill,  due  notice  to  one  of  them 
is  sufficient. 

If  a  note  or  bill  is  transferred  as  security,  or  even 
as  payment  of  a  pre-existing  debt,  the  debt  revives 
if  the  note  or  bill  be  dishonored. 

An  indorsement  may  be  written  on  the  face  or 
back. 

An  indorser  may  prevent  his  own  liability  to  be 
sued  by  writing  "  without  recourse,"  or  similar 
words. 

An  oral  agreement  must  be  proved  by  evidence. 
A  written  agreement  proves  itself.  The  law  ])re- 
fers  written  to  oral  evidence,  because  of  its  pre- 
cision. 

No  evidence  can  be  introduced  to  contradict  or 
vary  a  written  contract;  but  it  may  be  received  in 
order  to  explain  it,  when  such  explanation  is  needed. 
Written  instruments  are  to  be  construed  and  in- 
terpreted by  the  law  according  to  the  simple,  cus- 
tomary and  natural  meaning  of  the  words  used. 

The  finder  of  negotiable  paper,  as  of  all  other 
property,  must  make  reasonable  efforts  to  find  the 
owner,  before  he  is  entitled  to  appropriate  it  for  his 
own  purposes.  If  the  finder  conceal  it,  he  is  liable 
to  the  charge  of  larceny  or  thefi:. 

Joint  payees  of  a  bill  or  note,  who  are  not  part- 
ners, must  all  join  in  an  indorsement 


tss 


BUSINESS  LAWS— BUTTER. 


One  may  make  a  note  payable  to  his  own  order, 
and  indorse  it  in  blanic.  He  must  write  his 
name  across  its  back  or  face  the  same  as  any  other 
indorser. 

After  the  death  of  a  holder  of  a  bill  or  note,  his 
executor  or  administrator  may  transfer  it  by  his 
indorsement. 

The  husband  who  acquires  a  right  to  a  bill  or 
note  which  is  given  to  the  wife,  either  before  or 
after  marriage,  may  indorse  it. 

"Acceptance"  applies  to  bills  and  not  to  notes. 
It  is  an  engagement  on  the  part  of  the  person  on 
whom  the  bill  is  drawn  to  pay  it  according  to  its 
tenor.  The  usual  way  is  to  write  across  the  face 
of  the  bill  the  word  "Accepted." 

Business  Maxims.  Caution  is  the  father  of  se- 
curity. 

He  who  pays  beforehand  is  served  behindhand. 

If  you  would  know  the  value  of  a  dollar,  try  to 
borrow  one. 

Be  silent  when  a  fool  talks. 

Never  speak  boastingly  of  your  business. 

An  hour  of  triumph  comes  at  last  to  those  who 
watch  and  wait. 

Word  by  word  Webster's  big  dictionary  was 
made. 

Speak  well  of  your  friends — of  your  enemies 
saj'  nothing. 

Never  take  back  a  discharged  servant. 

If  you  post  your  servants  upon  your  affairs,  they 
will  one  day  rend  you. 

Do  not  waste  time  in  useless  regrets  over  losses. 

Systematize  your  business,  and  keep  an  eye  on 
little  expenses.     Small  leaks  sink  great  ships. 

Never  fail  to  take  a  receipt  for  money  paid,  and 
keep  copies  of  your  letters. 

Do  your  business  proinptly,  and  bore  not  a  busi- 
ness man  with  long  visits. 

Law  is  a  trade  in  which  the  lawyers  eat  the 
oysters  and  leave  the  clients  the  shells. 

Have  nothing  to  do  with  an  unlucky  man. 

Be  both  cautious  and  bold. 

Make  your  bargains  with  but  few  words. 

Reduce  all  important  contracts  and  agreements 
to  writing,  leaving  no  merely  verbal  conditions  or 
understandings  to  be  remembered.  In  most  cases 
there  should  be  two  or  three  copies  of  the  agree- 
ment, to  be  held  by  as  many  parties. 

Do  not  tell  the  secrets  of  your  business  to  any 
one  except  those  to  whom  it  is  necessary. 

Short  (frequent)  settlements  make  long  friends. 

Learn  your  business  thoroughly. 

Keep  at  one  thing. 

Observe  system  and  order  in  all  you  do  and  un- 
dertake. 

Be  self-reliant,  after  consulting  friends. 

Earn  your  money  before  you  spend  it. 

Never  buy  anything  because  it  is  cheap. 


Make  few  promises,  and  be  sure  to  fulfill 
promptly  all  you  do  make. 

Keep  yourself  informed  on  the  discoveries,  do- 
ings and  reforms  of  the  age. 

Learn  how  to  be  silent. 

Do  not  abandon  the  superintendency  of  a  work 
because  you  have  employed  a  man  to  execute  it. 

In  collecting  debts,  never  give  the  idea  that  you 
are  in  need  of  the  money;  that  you  called  because 
you  happened  to  be  in  the  neighborhood;  never 
think  you  liave  done  wrong  because  your  debtor 
gets  angry ;  never  leave  a  debtor  without  his  set- 
ting a  time  when  he  thinks  he  can  pay,  and  never 
fail  to  be  on  hand  at  the  time  set;  shame  the 
debtor  into  an  arrangeinent  to  pay  by  installments, 
or  something  every  week  or  month;  drop  into  his 
favorite  haunts,  and,  without  dunning  him,  make 
him  uneasy. 

Never  "  fool  "  in  business  matters. 

If  you  have  a  place  of  business  be  found  there 
when  wanted. 

A  man  of  honor  respects  his  word  as  he  does 
his  bond. 

In  all  thy  quarrels,  leave  the  door  open  to  rec- 
onciliation. 

Do  not  allow  idleness  to  deceive  you,  for  while 
you  give  it  to-day  it  steals  from  you  to-morrow. 

Butter,  an  oily  substance  obtained  from  milk  or 
cream  by  churning.  The  amount  of  butter  mat- 
ter contained  in  pure  milk  usually  varies  from  two 
and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half  per  cent.  It  is  al- 
ready formed  in  the  udder  of  the  cow,  and  churn- 
ing merely  separates  it  from  the  cheese  and  whej-. 
In  all  good  milk  of  the  cow  it  is  enclosed  in  little 
round  globules  held  in  suspension  or  floating  in 
other  substances.  As  soon  as  the  milk  is  set  at 
rest  after  leaving  the  udder,  these  particles,  being 
lighter  than  the  other  components  of  the  milk, 
work  their  way  to  the  surface,  the  largest  rising 
first.  The  smaller  the  particles  the  more  they  are 
clogged  with  other  parts  of  the  milk  on  reaching 
the  surface.  Consequently,  the  richest  cream  and 
the  best  butter  are  obtained  by  the  skimming  of 
milk  which  has  stood  only  a  few  hours.  Suppose 
three  skimmings  to  have  been  made,  at  6,  I3  and 
1 8  hours,  the  last  will  give  the  poorest  cream  and 
butter;  the  first  the  richest,  and  the  second  a  me- 
dium quality.  For  reasons  stated  under  the  head 
of  Milk,  the  last  milk  given  by  the  cow  will  pro- 
duce richer  and  more  fragrant  butter  than  the  first. 
The  difficulty  of  separating  the  butter  particles 
from  the  milk  increases  in  proportion  to  its  thick- 
ness and  richness.  This  is  the  reason  why,  in 
winter,  when  the  cows  are  dry  fed,  and  the  milk  is 
thicker  and  richer,  the  cream  rises  much  more 
slowly  than  in  summer.  This  difficulty  is  met  by 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  milk,  or  by  mixing 
a  little  warm  water  with  it  when  it    is  set.     The 


BUTTER. 


rf^ 


quantity  of  buttei"  obtained  from  milk  treated  in 
this  way  \vill  be  greatei",  but  the  quality  will  be 
somewhat  poorer.  Although  the  best  butter  is 
made  from  cream  which  has  stood  about  i  2  hours, 
the  poorness  of  the  subsequent  product  induces 
most  dairymen  to  make  their  butter  from  all  the 
cream  obtained  at  one  setting.  This  course  secures 
the  best  market  butter.  Everything  relating  to  the 
treatment  of  Milk  and  Cream  has  been  treated 
under  tiiose  heads.  It  is  necessary  here  simply  to 
call  the  attention  of  the  dairyman  to  the  incalcula- 
ble importance  of  the  strictest  cleanliness  in  every 
step  of  the  process  of  butter-making.  It  is  im- 
possible to  lay  too  much  stress  upon  this  point. 
Cleanliness  contributes  perhaps  more  than  anything 
else  to  the  production  of  good  butter.  The  known 
absence  of  this  requisite  in  any  dairy  is  sufficient  to 
lessen  the  market  value  of  its  product,  for  there  are 
few  articles  of  food  about  which  the  public  is  more 
fastidious  than  about  butter,  or  for  alisolute  purity 
and  sweetness  in  which  it  is  willing  to  pay  a  higher 
price.  A  slight  taint  in  meat  is  no  great  bar  to  its 
sale;  a  mucii  slighter  taint  in  butter  would  either 
render  it  umnarketable  or  salable  only  at  such  a 
price  as  would  be  ruinous  to  the  dairyman.  Milk 
and  cream  are  exceedingly  sensitive  to  even  the 
slightest  taint  in  the  air,  and  any  want  of  sweet- 
ness produced  in  them  by  foul  odors  or  want  of 
cleanliness  in  handling  will  infallibly  betray  itself 
in  the  butter.  From  this  the  butter-maker  will  at 
once  see  that  the  greatest  attention  must  be  paid  to 
the  milk  and  dairy  room. 

Where  possible,  the  butter  dairy  should  be  a  sep- 
arate building.  It  should  be  at  such  a  distance 
from  the  yard  as  to  be  free  from  all  the  impurities 
of  the  latter's  air,  and  still  not  too  distant.  Es- 
pecially should  it  be  removed  from  all  damp,  low 
places  subject  to  noxious  exhalations.  It  should 
be  constantly  kept  sweet  and  clean  by  the  copious 
use  of  pure  water,  and  in  case  any  milk  be  spilled, 
even  if  it  is  but  a  single  drop,  it  should  be  imme- 
diately washed  up  with  fresh  water.  Taints 
in  the  air  imperceptible  to  our  senses  are  quite 
sufficient  to  injure  things  so  sensitive  as  milk  and 
cream.  Where  necessity  compels  the  dairyman  to 
use  a  room  in  the  house,  it  should,  in  warm  sea- 
sons, be  on  the  north  side,  and  used  for  nothing 
else.  If  a  cellar  be  used,  it  should  be  properly 
prepared:  it  should  be  large  and  dry,  and  have  an 
uncemented  bottoin  of  gravel  or  loam.  No  articles 
of  any  description,  except  such  us  are  needed  for 
the  purposes  of  the  dairy,  should  be  kept  in  it. 
The  temperature  should  be  kept  uniform  and  at 
about  50  degrees.  The  cows'  udders  should  be 
washed  and  wiped  dry  before  milking,  as  well  as 
the  hands  of  the  milker,  and  all  the  vessels  into 
which  the  milk  is  drawn,  or  in  which  it  is  placed 
to  set,  should  be  carefully  scalded  with  boiling 
water  and  cleaned.     Milk,  if  intended  to  be  used 


for  butter-making,  should  never  be  placed  on  the 
bottom  of  the  cellar.  Shelves  at  a  height  of  from 
six  to  eight  feet  from  the  bottom,  with  a  free  cir- 
culation of  pure  air  from  the  windows,  ^vill  be 
found  most  advantageous.  Cream  will  rise  here  in 
13  hours  which  it  would  take  24  hours  to  produce 
on  the  bottom  of  the  cellar.  A  very  simple  milk- 
stand  may  be  made  by  fixing  an  upright  working 
on  a  pivot  in  any  convenient  portion  of  the  milk- 
house,  and  fixing  to  it  circular  or  octagonal  shelves. 
If  possible,  the  dairy  house  should  be  constructed 
over  or  near  a  spring  of  clear  running  water,  and 
this  allowed  to  circulate  constantly  under  the  milk- 
stand.  Milk-pans  are  usually  either  of  tin  or 
earthenware,  the  main  objection  to  the  latter  being 
that  they  are  too  liable  to  break.  There  are  sev- 
eral contrivances  designed  to  obviate  the  necessity 
of  skimming  the  milk.  These  are  described  under 
the  head  of  Milk-strainers.  There  is  some  diversity 
of  opinion  as  to  the  best  depth  of  pan.  Some  use 
a  shallow  pan  not  more  than  two  inches  in  depth. 
Others  maintain  that  deep-setting  vessels  are  pref- 
erable, inasmuch  as  they  entail  much  less  labor, 
save  the  expense  of  a  large  number  of  pans  and 
the  greater  labor  of  cleaning,  make  it  possible  to 
secure  a  larger  amount  of  cream,  and  expose  much 
less  of  the  milk  surface  to  the  action  of  the  air.  If 
there  is  jjlenty  of  cold  spring  water  in  which  to 
set  such  cans,  the  improvement  is  sjiid  to  be  still 
more  marked.  These  cans  will  be  found  described 
under  the  proper  heading.  Their  advocates  claim 
that  with  these  cans,  properly  used,  much  better 
butter  is  produced  than  by  the  open  pan  process, 
and  that  perfect  uniformity  of  product  is  attained, 
this  latter  being  a  point  the  importance  of  which 
is  clear  to  every  thinking  dairyman.  Further,  they 
contend  that  good  butter  may  be  made  in  August 
with  quite  as  much  certainty  as  in  June,  and,  as  the 
milk  is  not  allowed  to  ferment  in  the  least,  the 
skim  milk  is  much  more  valuable  as  food  for  calves 
and  pigs. 

The  quality  of  the  butter,  as  every  farmer  and 
dairyman  knows,  is  greatly  affected  by  the  food. 
Carrots,  clover,  turnips,  blue-grass,  etc.,  will  each 
give  a  very  different  flavor  to  the  milk  and  but- 
ter. The  farmers  or  dairymen  should  see  that 
when  their  cows  are  at  pasture  they  are  kept  away 
from  stagnant  pools  as  well  as  from  sour,  marshy 
land.  Upland  pasturage  produces  a  much  better 
quality  of  milk  than  bottom-land.  When  fed  dry,  he 
should  take  care  that  the  cows  get  no  moldy  or 
otherwise  objectionable  food.  They  should  have  ac- 
cess to  pure  sjiring  water.  Where  possible,  it  is 
well  to  have  the  milk-house  so  arranged  as  to  allow 
a  stream  of  pure,  cold  water  to  run  through  troughs, 
in  which  the  cans  may  be  so  placed  that  the  water 
will  be  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  cans.  The 
temperature,  as  before  stated,  should  be  about  56 
degrees. 


16o 


In  this  way  the  milk  can  he  kept  sweet  thirty- 
six  hours.  Some  let  their  milk  stand  this  long; 
others  say  that  twenty-four  hours  is  sufficient. 
The  cream  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  either 
too  cold  or  too  warm.  In  either  of  these  cases  tlie 
butter  is  proportionately  longer  in  coming.  The 
temperature  should  lange  from  55°  in  warm 
Weather  to  64°  in  winter.  In  order  to  make  this 
tettaih,  a  thermometer,  such  as  is  made  specially 
for  the  dairy,  should  be  used  in  every  milk- 
room.  Should  the  cream  be  too  warm,  it  ought 
either  to  be  put  in  the  refrigerator  or  the  ves- 
sel containing  it  placed  in  another  containing 
cold  water.  This  is  in  every  way  preferable 
to  putting  ice  in  the  cream.  In  winter  it  may 
be  warmed  by  placing  it  in  a  warm  room  in  a 
closely  covered  vessel.  Everything  thus  being 
ready  it  is  placed  in  the  churn,  of  which  the  vari- 
ous kinds  will  be  found  described  in  the  proper 
place.  .  The  churn  should  be  kept  scrupulously 
clearVj  for  which  purpose  boiling  water  should  be 
used,  and  constant  airing.  Never  keep  the  churn, 
or  indeed  any  wooden  vessel,  closed  when  not 
in  use. 

Churning.  The  temperature  of  the  cream 
and  the  velocity  of  the  churn  are  very  impor- 
tant elements  in  the  process  of  churning.  There 
seems  to  be  a  certain  amount  of  agitation  needed 
to  produce  the  butter  at  a  normal  temperature, 
which  we  place  at  60°,  Fahr.,  and  this  requisite 
agitation  is  effected  by  making  sixty  revolutions 
or  strokes  of  the  churn  for  twenty  to  thirty  min- 
utes. The  effect  upon  the  cream  of  this  amount 
of  agitation  and  aeration  seems  to  be  precisely 
that  which  is  required  to  produce  the  best  quality 
of  butler  from  cream  that  has  undergone  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  ripening.  This  ripening  process 
is  effected  by  keeping  the  cream  for  forty-eight 
hours  on  the  average,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  cream 
has  been  seventy-two  hours,  or  three  days,  in  col- 
lecting, or  there  have  been  three  skimmings,  its 
condition  will  be  equivalent  to  that  of  cream  of 
one  skimming  which  has  been  kept  forty-eight 
hours.  The  cream  should  have  been  gathered 
from  milk  that  has  been  set  no  longer  than  thirty- 
six  hours.  If  cream  in  a  small  dairy  cannot  be 
churned  twice  a  week,  being  kept  only  three  days, 
it  should  be  kept  at  a  lower  temperature,  not 
exceeding  45°,  until  twenty-four  hours  before 
churning,  when  it  should  be  raised  to  a  temper- 
ature of  60°  for  a  whole  day  and  night  before 
it  is  put  into  the  churn.  As  this  point  is  very 
important  it  may  be  well  to  repeat  the  rule 
in  this  case,  viz.:  Cream  should  be  skimmed 
after  the  milk  has  been  set  thirty-six  hours;  it 
should  be  kept  forty-eight  hours  before  churn- 
ing at  a  temperature  of  55°  to  60°;  it  should 
go  into  the  churn  at  60°  ;  it  should  be  churned 
at  least  twenty  minutes,  and  not  more'than  thirty , 


the  churn   moving  about  sixty   strokes  or  turns  in 
a  minute. 

This  rule  is  subject  to  such  changes  oiilj'  as  will 
equalize  the  effect;  for  instance,  if  the  temperature 
is  lower  than  55°  to  60",  the  cream  may  be  kept 
longer;  if  the  cream  is  churned  at  a  higher  tem- 
perature than  60^,  the  churn  may  be  moved  more 
slowly;  and  if  the  cream  is  colder,  the  motion 
may  be  more  rapid.  Even  when  there  is  cream 
enough  for  daily  churning  of  six  pounds  only,  it  is 
better  to  churn  daily,  and  for  this  reason:  when 
the  conditions  are  alwa3's  the  same  the  butter  will 
always  be  of  the  same  quality.  There  are  two 
good  qualifications  foi'  a  dairyman:  One  is  to  be 
able  to  make  good  butter,  the  other  is  to  make 
good  butter  always,  and  to  have  no  variance  in  the 
quality  at  any  time  or  season.  When  the  butter 
appears  in  the  churn  in  small  grains  or  pellets,  the 
churning  should  stop.  One  can  \ery  soon  learn  to 
recognize  tlie  sound  made  by  tlie  churn  when  the 
butter  has  come.  Over-churning  has  the  effect  of 
injuring  the  texture  of  the  butter  and  changing 
the  waxy,  almost  crystalline,  appearance  into  a 
soft,  greasv  one.  When  the  butter  is  in  the  best- 
condition  after  churning  it  appears  as  a  mass  of 
small  granules  loosely  adhering  together,  but  which 
easily  fall  apart  when  floated  in  cold  water.  These 
granules  are  no  larger  tiian  the  capsules  of  beet- 
seed,  and  many  of  them  are  not  more  than  half 
or  quarter  as  large;  and  when  some  cold  water 
is  poured  into  the  churn  to  harden  them  they  are 
kept  separate,  and  do  not  cohere  in  a  mass. 

Butter  of  this  form  is  better  made  in  a  rectangu- 
lar or  other  dashless  churn  than  in  those  with 
dashers,  because  the  granules  are  not  crushetl, 
pressed  or  rubbed  when  there  is  no  dasher  used. 
(See  Churns.)  The  advantage  of  this  form  of  but- 
ter is  that  it  can  be  completely  freed  from 
buttenriilk  and  can  be  washed,  salted  and  packed 
into  pails  or  tubs,  or  made  into  cakes  without  any 
working. 

Working.  When  the  buttermilk  is  drawn  off  a 
small  hand-strainer  should  be  used  to  catch  an}-  of 
the  small  fragments  that  may  run  off  with  the 
milk.  After  the  milk  is  run  off,  cold  water  is  put 
into  the  churn  until  the  butter  floats;  the  churn  is 
slightly  moved  to  bring  the  water  into  contact  with 
all  the  butter,  and  the  water  is  drawn  off.  This  is 
repeated  until  the  water  comes  oft'  perfectly  clear, 
when  the  butter  is  ready  for  salting.  This  may  be 
done  in  a  rectangular  churn  without  removing 
the  butter,  as  the  butter  and  salt  may  be  thoroughly 
mixed  by  giving  a  few  turns  to  the  churn.  When 
other  churns  are  used,  butter  is  lifted  out  with  a 
ladle — it  should  never  be  touched  by  hand — into 
the  bowl  or  butter-worker  and  mixed  with  salt,  in 
the  usual  manner.  If  the  butter  is  worked  at  all 
it  should  be  done  at  once,  as  unless  separated  from 
the    milk,   which    is    mixed    with    it,   butter   soon 


BUTTER. 


161 


spoils.  In  working  the  butter  tlie  usual  course  is 
to  wasli  it  in  pure,  cold  water.  In  doing  this  the 
hand  should  never  he  allowed  to  touch  the  butter, 
even  the  least  amount  of  perspiration  being  liable  to 
injure  the  quality.  A  spatula  or  ladle  (Fig.  4)  made 


Fig.  t  .-Buller  Wfrker. 


for  the  purpose,  and  a  wooden  bowl  or  tray  should  be 
used  where  the  quantity  of  butter  is  not  too  large. 
In  the  latter  case  butter-workers  may  be  employed. 
The  one  manufactured  by  tlie  Vermont  Machine 
Company,  at   Bellows  Falls,  Vt.   (Fig.    l),  is  sim- 


FiG.  I.— Butler  Warier. 


pie  and  efficient,  and  gives  about  the  right  motion, 
not  grinding  tlie  butter  into  a  salvy  mass.  Fig.  3  rep- 
resents a  nice  machine,  manufactured  by  A.  II.  Rcid, 
of  Philadelphia. 


Fig.  4.— Suiter  Ladle. 


Fig.  3. — Power  Butter  Worker. 


The  power  butter  worker  is  to  the  creamery 
what  the  harvester  and  self-binder  is  to  the  field. 
Fig.  3  represents  Mason's  Worker,  as  supphcd 
by  Chas.  P.  Willard  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  It  will 
work  hard  or  soft  butler  with  equal  facilitv. 
Owing  to  the  revolving  table  and  Huted  roller, 
there  is  no  sliding  or  rubbing  motion,  and  the 
grain  of  the  butter  is  not  injured.  Its  work  is  so 
uniform  that  the  butter  needs  less  working  than 
by  ordinary  methods.  As  a  large  mass  of  butter  is 
worked  at  one  time,  and  in  a  few  minutes,  the 
table,  being  on  an  incline,  allows  the  buttermilk  or 
brine  to  run  off  as  fast  as  worked  out.  This 
machine  is  designed  to  be  operated  by  steam 
power,  but  can  also  be  operated  by  hand.  In 
large  creameries  it  will  save  the  labor  of  one  man. 
Ladle.  Among  the  many  useful  articles  in 
butter-making  is  the  laille. 
One,  as  represented  in 
Fig.  4,  costs  but  little,  and 
shouki  be  had  by  every 
housewife. 

Tray.  The  butter  tray  illustrated  by  Fig.  5  is 
designed  to  hold  the  butter  when  taken  from  the 
churn  to  be  re- worked  and  packed  for  market.  The 
oval  cover,  which  increases  the  capacity  of  the  tray 
one-third,  is  made  to  fit  tight,  to  exclude  bad  air 
and  dust.  They  are  strong  and  durable,  and  made 
in  nests  of  three. 

It  uscil  to  be 
consiilered  that 
butter  required 
to  be  woiked 
over,  cut, 
squeezed  a  n  d 
pressed,  work- 
ed even  with  the 

Fio.  i.— Butter  Tray.  hands    at      one 

time,  almost  in  the  manner  in  which  a  brick-maker 
works  his  clay  to  fit  it  for  the  molti,  and  make  it 
tough  and  plastic;  or,  more  recently,  with  butter- 
workers,  which  have  altnost  the  same  effect.  Work- 
ing butter,  if  it  is  at  all  necessary,  is  a  necessary 
evil;  because  it  is  an  injurious  operation  required 
to  avoid  the  more  injurious  presence  of  easily 
decomposed  material  (milk)  in  the  butter.  But 
there  is  no  necessity  for  working  butter  at  all. 
When  it  is  made  so  as  to  come  out  of  the  chum 
in  small  grains  it  may  be  washed  pc-rfectly  free 
from  the  buttermilk  with  the  greatest  ease,  and 
the  salt  may  be  mixed  in  with  it  in  the  most 
even  and  intimate  manner  without  disturbing 
the  texture  in  the  least,  by  the  slightest  degree 
of  working. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  washing  butter 
injures  the  flavor.  It  cannot;  but  it  does  wash 
away  most  of  the  foreign  ingredients,  the  taste  of 
which,  as  they  decompose,  some  persons,  on  ac- 


11 


iGz 


BUTTER. 


count  of  association,  prefer  should  remain.  Butter 
is  an  oil  or  fat,  totally  insoluble  in  water,  and  all  its 
flavors  are  component  parts  of  the  fat,  which  can- 
not possibly  be  separated  from  it  by  contact  with 
water.  In  washinjj  j^ranular  butter  it  is  necessary 
to  use  cold  water,  which  sets  or  liardens  the  granu- 
lar atoms  and  prevents  them  combining  in  a  mass. 
When  butter  is  taken  from  the  churn  in  masses, 
the  water  should  not  be  so  cold  as  to  harden  these, 
otherwise  the  milk  camiot  be  removed  easil)',  and 
then  the  butter  will  not  kce|)  for  any  length  of 
time,  in  spite  of  all  precauti<jns.  In  such  acasethe 
butter  placed  in  the  bowl  is  to  be  worked  down 
with  the  ladle  in  thin  slices,  so  as  to  provide  out- 
lets for  the  buttermilk  to  escape.  The  milk  which 
escapes  and  flows  to  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  should 
be  poured  off",  and  the  butter  wa.shed  with  clear, 
pure  water;  the  butter  is  then  turned  in  the  bowl 
and  sliced  in  the  opposite  direction  and  again 
washed,  and  if  the  work  has  been  skillfully  done 
this  is  all  the  workir.g  that  is  necessary.  The 
main  point  to  be  observed  in  working  butter  is  to 
avoid  plastering  it  with  the  implement  used, 
whether  it  be  the  band,  the  ladle,  or  a  lever  or  a 
rotary  crusher.  The  butter  may  be  squeezed  with 
impnnity,  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  if  it  is  plas- 
tered, or  the  implement  is  drawn  over  it  with  a 
sliding  motion,  it  is  seriously  damaged,  and  the  text- 
ure destroyed. 

Butter  is  salted  as  a  means  of  preservation.  .Some 
persons  prefer  it  unsalted  when  it  can  he  procured 
fresh.  In  this  condition  are  preserved  all  the  most 
delicate  flavors  which  are  lost  when  the  salt  is 
added.  In  the  domestic  dairy,  butter  may  be  sent 
to  the  market  in  this  way,  or  even  direct  from  the 
ciiurn  without  washing,  and  with  all  its  native  but- 
termilk adhering,  as  an  unusual  delicacy.  But  for 
ordinary  purposes  about  six  per  cent.,  of  salt  is 
added  to  tlie  butter;  this  is  equal  to  one  ounce  to 
the  pound.  The  salt  is  sprinkled  evenly  over  the 
butter  at  the  last  of  the  working,  when  it  is  sliced 
or  gashed.  The  butter  is  then  loosely  gathered  to- 
gether and  it  is  set  away  in  the  dniry  for  34  hours. 
During  this  time  some  milky  water  usually  c>capes 
from  it,  and  this  is  poured  oil  at  the  final  working. 
This  is  done  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and  is 
continued  until  any  streakiness  in  the  butter  is  re- 
moved, and  the  whole  is  brought  to  an  even  and 
regular  color  and  consistence.  Some  persons  color 
their  butter  when  working  it,  but  this  is  not  to  be 
advised,  for  the  color  cannot  be  made  even,  and 
the  butter  will  be  streaky  and  patchy  in  spite  of 
the  most  prolonged  and  injurious  mixing.  Some 
frightful  examples  of  such  butter  are  often  seen  at 
rural  hotels  and  railroad  restaurants.  Coloring 
should  always  be  done  in  the  churn  by  mixing  the 
proper  quantity  of  prepared  color  in  with  the 
cream.  The  usual  quantitj'  is  one  teaspoonful  to 
three  gallons  of  cream.     This  is  sufficient  with  the 


f^m 


best  Jersey  and  Ayrshire  cream;  but  each  dairy- 
man should  .test  that  matter  for  himself,  as  the  nat- 
ural color  of  the  cream  varies  with  the  cows,  the 
feed,  and  the  manner  of  keeping  the  milk  and 
cream. 

By  the  use  of  a 
salting  scale 
(Fig.  6\^\  airy- 
men  c:innot  fail 
to  salt  butter  uni- 
formly. Every 
d  a  i  r  y-w  o  m  a  n 
knows  the  diffi- 
culty of  doing 
this   by  g  u  e  s  s- 

Vxo.b.-Butter-Salti„g  Scale.  ^fiox\i,    OX    by    the 

old  method  of  weighing.  This  scale  will  salt  from 
three-quaiters  of  an  ounce  to  one  ounce  and  a  quar- 
ter of  salt  to  the  pound  of  butter  in  weight. 


ViQ,.'S..Reids  Butler 
Fig.  1.— The  NesHt  BuUerPrint  Machine.  Printer. 

For  a  family  dairy  a  desirable  manner  of  putting 
up  the  butter  is  in  quarter,  half  or  whole  pound 
cakes  pressed  in  a  mold',  as  shown  in  the  cuts. 
This  is  turned  out  of  beech,  birch,  or  soft  maple 
wood,  and  made  of  different  sizes. 

The  butter  is  now  ready  for  packing.  If  to  be 
kept  long,  or  sent  considerable  distances,  it  is 
packed  in  jars  or  tubs.  If  to  be  used  at  home, 
stone  jars  are  best;  otherwise  tubs,  for  fear  of 
breaking.  The  tubs,  or  firkins,  should  be  of  white 
oak.  They  should  be  filled  with  boiling  water 
and  allowed  to  soak  twenty-four  hours.  A  pound 
of  soda,  placed  in  a  thirty-two  pound  box  or  firkin, 
with  boiling  water  poured  upon  it,  dissolved,  well 
stirred,  and  allowed  to  stand  over  night,  is  a  cheap 
and  easy  meth(xl  of  frequently  avoiding  great  loss. 
New  pine-wood  should  never  be  used  for  butter- 
boxes  or  firkins.  After  scalding,  the  tubs  should 
be  filled  with  strong  brine  and  stand  two  or  three 
days.  This  should  then  be  turned  out,  the  tubs 
rinsed  with  pure,  cold  water  and  the  sides  rubbed 
with  fine  salt.  They  are  then  nearly  filled  with 
butter,  a  piece  of  clean  muslin  cloth  is  laid  on  the 
top,  a  strong  brine  is  poured  through  the  plug- 
hole so  as  to  fill  up  all  interstices  and  exclude  the 


BUTTER. 


163 


air,  the  plug^  is  put  in  and  the  butter  kept  in  a 
clean,  well-ventilated  cellar.  The  firkins  or  jars 
should  be  kept  absolutely  free  from  the  presence 
of  all  kinds  of  decaying  vegetables,  soap  and  every- 
thing which  could  impart  an  unpleasant  odor  to 
this  most  sensitive  product.  If  the  butter  is  to  be 
kept  long,  the  brine  should  be  ciiauged  at  least 
every  two  months.  Another  higiily  recommended 
method  is  to  make  a  muslin  bag,  a  little  smaller 
tlian  the  tub,  so  that  when  filled  there  will  be  a 
space  of  one  inch  all  round  it,  above  and  below. 
Tlie  butter,  when  ready,  is  packed  in  this  muslin 
bag  and  placed  in  the  tub;  the  head  is  put  in  with 
a  i|-inch  hole  in  it.  The  space  around  the 
bag  is  filled  with  a  strong  brine  and  a  plug  put 
in  reaching  one  inch  below,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
bag  of  butter  from  coming  to  the  top.  The  sack 
will  float  in  the  brine  and  the  air  be  absolutely 
excluded.  The  Irish  method  of  packing  is  as  fol- 
lows: Take  one  part  of  fine  sugar,  one  of  nitre, 
and  two  parts  of  the  best  Spanish  great  salt:  rub 
into  a  fine  powder.  This  is  mixed  with  the  butter 
as  soon  as  the  latter  is  freed  from  tiie  milk,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  sixteen.  The  butter  is  then 
))ressed  tight  into  the  firkins,  allowed  to  stand  a 
fortnight:  it  then  lias  a  rich,  marrowy  flavor.  Un- 
til the  middle  of  May  butter  siiould,  according 
to  tile  advice  of  some,  be  packed  in  quarter  firkins 
or  tubs,  with  white-oak  covers,  and  sent  directly  to 
market  as  fresh  butter.  From  this  time  until  the 
fall  frost  there  is  but  little  change  in  the  product 
of  the  same  dairy,  either  in  color  or  flavor,  and  it 
may  be  packed  in  whole  firkins  and  kept  in  a 
cool  place. 

The  M  AUKETING  of  butter  is  an  important  part  of 
the  dairyman's  business.  A  good  deal  of  money 
is  lost  by  mistakes  in  this  respect.  Good  butter 
is  thrown  away  when  put  up  in  ill-looking,  frowsy, 
unsavory  and  repulsive  packages.  A  good  pack- 
age will  often  sell  butter  of  doubtful  quality. 
Buyers  are  ver}'  much  impressed  with  the  sight 
of  what  tiiey  buy.  To  judge  of  butter  requires  a 
delicate  sense  of  taste  and  smell,  and  but  few  per- 
sons are  so  expert  in  this  way  as  to  decide  about 
the  quality  of  what  is  shown  to  them,  on  the  in- 
stant tiiey  touch  a  sample  to  their  palate.  But  if 
any  hesitation  or  doubt  is  felt,  tlie  sight  of  an  un- 
exceptionable package  will  help  to  determine  this 
in  favor  of  the  butter.  It  is  very  much  in  this 
respect  as  a  person  is  judged  by  his  clothes:  a 
well-dressed  man  and  one  with  an  agreeable  pres- 
ence is  treated  with  more  consideration  by  a 
stranger  than  one  that  comes  in  shabby  dress  or 
unclean  person.  The  dairyman  who  is  desirous  of 
opening  new  outlets  for  his  product  must  be  very 
particular  as  to  his  packages,  so  that  the  first  im- 
pression created  by  his  goods  may  lead  to  a  closer 
examination. 

The  package,  too,  has  much  to  do  with  the  pres- 


ervation of  the  butter.  If  it  is  ill-made,  of  timber 
with  a  bad  odor,  or  worm-eaten,  so  tiiat  the  moist- 
ure of  the  butter  will  soon  dry  out  and  air 
get  in,  the  butter  will  soon  spoil  and  become 
rancid.  In  the  family  dairy  the  package  is  to  be 
considered  as  much  as  in  the  business  dairy,  he- 
cause  there  are  times  when  a  surplus  product  needs 
to  be  put  away  for  use  when  the  supply  falls  oif 
or  is  suspended  altogether  for  a  time. 

Coloring.  The  best  method  of  coloring  butter 
is  to  supply  the  cow  with  such  food  as  will,  both 
in  winter  and  summer,  naturally  impart  a  good 
color  to  the  product  of  the  churn.  In  summer  the 
cow  usually  gets  such  food  as  gives  a  fine  nat- 
ural color  to  the  butter.  In  winter  carrots  are 
frequently  fed,  in  which  case  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  feed  them  in  such  quantities  as  to  affect  the 
flavor  of  the  butter.  If  it  be  found  desirable  to 
color  the  butter  artificially,  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  use  the  butter-colors  of  trade,  of  which  the  base 
is  lard-oil  and  the  coloring  matter  yellow  aniline. 
A  combination  of  annatto  and  curcuma  or  tur- 
meric, when  properly  used,  seems  to  be  the  most 
hannless  and  effective  coloring  matter.  Put  lluir 
ounces  of  annatto  and  one  ounce  of  curcuma  or 
turmeric  in  a  jar  with  one  pound  of  sal  soda;  put 
in  a  quart  of  hot  water,  and  stir  often,  Keejj  in  a 
warm  place.  After  two  days  add  three  quarts 
more  hot  water.  When  dissolved  strain  through 
toweling.  If  any  sediment  remains  dissolve  in 
more  soda  and  water.  Two  or  three  spoonfuls 
may  be  added  to  the  gallon  of  cream  when  the 
churning  begins.  Some  persons  grate  orSnge 
carrots  in  sweet  milk,  strain  the  milk,  and  add  to 
the  cream  before  churning.  This  method,  it  is  con- 
tended by  others,  is  injurious  to  the  keeping  quali- 
ties of  the  butter. 

The  following  are  the  best  recipes:  Take  of 
lard,  butter  or  olive  oil,  10  ounces;  ;innatto,  10 
drachms;  turmeric,  i|  drachms; salt,  I  oiuice;  nitre, 
iS  drachms  ;  bromo-chloralum,  5-|  drachms, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water.  The  lard, 
butter  or  oil  is  put  into  a  pan  and  heated  in  a 
water  bath ;  the  annatto  and  turmeric  are  then 
stirred  into  a  thin  paste  with  water,  and  this  is 
gradually  added  to  the  fatty  or  oily  matters,  kej)t 
at  a  temperature  of  about  110°  Fahr.  The  salt 
and  nitre  are  next  stirred  in  and  the  niixtme 
heated  to  boiling,  which  is  continued  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours,  or  until  the  color  of  the  mix- 
ture becomes  dark  enough;  the  bromo-chloralum 
is  then  introduced,  and  the  mass  is  agitated  until 
cold,  when  it  is  put  up  in  sealed  cans.  Or,  annat- 
toine,  8  ounces;  pulverized  turmeric,  10  drachms; 
saffron,  li  drachms;  lard  oil,  \  gill;  and  butter,^ 
pound.  The  butter  is  first  melted  in  a  pan  over  a 
water  bath  and  strained  through  a  fine  linen  cloth; 
the  saffron  is  made  into  a  tincture  and,  together  with 
the  turmeric  and  annattoine,  is  gradually  stirred  into 


164 


£  UTTER— B  UZZA  RD. 


the  hot  butter  and  oil,  and  boiled  and  stirred  for 
about  15  minutes.  It  is  then  strained  through  a 
cloth  as  before  and  stirred  until  cool. 

Dake's  butter  coloring  is  prepared  by  heating 
a  quantity  of  fresh  butter  for  some  time  with  an- 
natto,  by  which  means  the  coloring  matter  is  ex- 
tracted, straining  the  colored  oil  and  stirring  it 
until  cool. 

To  improve  rancid  butter:  Put  the  rancid  but- 
ter into  an  iron  vessel,  ami  suspend  that  into  another 
iron  vessel  containing  water,  after  the  fashion  of  a 
glue-pot.  Put  the  whole  over  the  fire  until  the 
butter  is  melted.  By  continuing  the  heat  for  some 
time,  at  about  190°,  the  cheesy  matter  will  settle  at 
the  bottom,  leaving  the  butter  pure  and  transparent, 
like  oil.  When  it  is  nearly  cold  take  the  pure  V)Ut- 
ter  off  from  the  dregs  that  have  settled,  let  it  get 
cold  and  solid,  and  salt  and  pack  it  up  in  the  same 
manner  as  ordinary  butter.  The  use  of  the  dou- 
ble vessel  is  to  prevent  the  butter  from  getting  a 
burnt  taste. 

Imitation  butter,  called  "  butterine,"  "oleomar- 
garine," etc.,  has  recently  become  very  abundant 
in  the  cities,  being  furnished  at  a  little  more  than 
half  the  price  of  good  creamery  butter.  The  ingre- 
dients consist  of  tallow  or  lard,  for  the  body,  cocoa- 
nut,  olive  and  palm  oils  and  salt  for  flavoring,  and 
the  usual  annatto  for  coloring.  If  this  imitation 
butter  had  nothing  in  it  except  these  articles,  and 
all  these  fresli  and  clean,  it  would  be  as  healthful 
as  genuine  butter;  but  we  may  depend  upon  it 
that  everything  which  is  secretly  compounded  in  a 
factory  to  be  put  clandestinely  upon  the  market, 
is  drugged  and  dirty.  It  is  so  with  cheese,  honey, 
sausage,  soap,  etc.  The  imitation  butters  are  all 
sold,  of  course,  as  genuine,  but  one  can  distinguish 
them  by  their   uniform   and    slightly  granular  ap- 


pearance, like  ice-cream,  while  genuine  butter 
looks  a  little  more  greasy,  fibrous  or  mottled,  cel- 
lular, etc. 

Melted  butter,  to  serve  with  certain  dishes  at 
table,  is  thus  prepared:  Put  about  two  or  two 
and  a  half  ounces  of  butter  into  a  very  clean  sauce- 
pan, with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water;  dredge  in 
a  little  flour,  and  shake  it  over  a  clear  fire,  one 
way,  until  it  boils.  Then  pour  it  into  your  tureen, 
and  serve. 

Butter,  from  the  fruits  and  melons,  consists  of 
their  fine  pulp,  obtained  by  filtering,  evaporated 
down  in  a  surplus  quantity  of  their  own  juices,  and 
sometimes  spiced:  see  Apple  Butter,  Plum  Butter, 
Pumpkin  Butter,  Muskmelon  Butter,  etc.  Fruit 
butters  at  the  grocery  are  generally  adulterated. 

Butterfly,  the  winged  or  "  perfect  "  form  of  cer- 
tain caterpillars,  many  of  which  are  injurious  to 
vegetation.  They  fly  around  in  the  daytime, 
while  moths,  the  winged  form  of  other  classes  of 
caterpillars,  are  nocturnal  in  their  flights.  All  of 
any  importance  are  described  under  the  various 
fruits  and  vegetables  which  they  infest. 

Butter  Scotch :  see  Candy. 

Butternut,  or  White  Walnut,  a  well-known  nut- 
bearing  tree,  of  great  utility  in  wooden-ware,  ve- 
neering, etc.  See  Forestry. 

Buttonwood:  see  Sycamore,  in  article  Forestry. 

Butts,  the  short  ridges  made  by  the  plow  in  the 
corners  of  irregular  fields. 

Buzzard,  a  large  bird  of  the  hawk  family,  more 
common  South,  feeding  principr.lly  upon  small 
animals,  and  often  trespassing  upon,  the  poultry 
yard. 


c 


AB,  a  kind  of  covered  ciiiriage,  with 
either  two  or  four  wheels,  drawn  by  one 
horse. 

Cabbage.  To  grow  a  good  crop  of  cab- 
bage a  rich  soil  is  necessary,  and  concentrated 
manures  can  be  used  to  advantage.  Horse 
manure  from  horses  fed  largely  on  grain, 
hog  manure,  sheep  manure  and  hen  manure  are 
all  well  adapted  to  the  purpose.  A  good  super- 
phosphate, highly  nitrogenized,  is  also  an  efficient 
fertilizer  for  cabbage.  The  ground  should  be 
plowed  deep  and  made  fine  and  mellow  with  the 
best  pulverizers,  and  then  it  will  be  well  to  roll  it 
down  smooth,  crushing  the  lumps  and  somewhat 
compacting  the  surface.  When  properly  prejiared 
the  ground  should  be  marked  straigiit  with  a  light 
marker  both  ways,  about  two  feet  nine  inches 
apart,  for  ordinary  improved  Flat  Dutch  variety, 
and  a  moist,  cloudy  day  selected  for  transplanting. 
The  plants  should  have  room  in  growing,  so  as  to 
be  of  stocky  growth  and  have  numerous  fine  roots. 
In  transplanting  them  it  will  pay  to  have  a  broad, 
shallow  vessel  containing  a  thin  mud,  and  to  im- 
merse the  feet  of  the  plants  in  the  mud  and  keep 
them  there  until  ready  to  transfer  them  to  the  earth. 
Everything  considered,  a  well-made  dibber  shod 
with  an  iron  point  is  the  best  implement  with 
which  to  plant  them.  One  thrust  into  the  earth 
will  make  a  suitable  hole  for  receiving  the  plant, 
and  another  made  obliquely,  so  that  the  point  of 
the  dibber  shall  strike  near  the  points  of  the  roots, 
and  then  pressing  toward  the  plant,  so  that  the 
earth  will  be  compressed  against  the  entire  root, 
will  fasten  the  plant.  The  root  should  be  fastened 
so  firmly  that  it  will  break  rather  than  pull  up. 
Transplanting  may  be  done  any  time  between  the 
middle  of  June  and  the  Fourth  of  July,  for  fall  and 
winter  use,  but  for  early  cabbage  transplant  as 
earl-y  as  possible  after  the  ground  gets  into  good 
condition.  Sowing  the  seed  must  therefore  be 
done  in  hot-beds  or  cold  frame  for  early  cabbage, 
and  later  in  the  season  for  later  crops.  After  the 
plants  have  been  set  for  a  few  days  they  should  be 
hoed  and  all  vacancies  filled.  A  few  will  probably 
die  from  setting,  and  a  few  more  be  taken  by  the 
cut-worm,  but  no  vacant  spots  should  be  tolerated. 
After  one  hoeing  a  horse  and  cultivator  will  take 
care  of  the  plantation,  and  you  need  entertain  no 
fear  that  ^ou  will  stir  the  surface  too  much.     In 

165 


time  of  drouth,  water  thoroughly.  When  cold 
weather  comes  on  in  the  fall,  if  there  is  a  ready 
demand  for  good  hard  heads  at  $3,  or  over,  a  hun- 
dred, either  without  the  roots  for  "  saner  kratd^'' 
or  with  the  roots  for  winter's  use,  take  the  hard- 
ened heads  to  market,  and  put  the  soft  ones  in  the 
barn  cellar  for  feeding.  If  the  demand  be  poor 
and  prices  very  low,  bmy  in  trenches  or  in  a  cheap 
outdoor  cellar  for  selling  in  winter  or  spring. 

The  usual  method  of  keeping  cabbages  over 
winter  is  to  lay  them  on  dry  ground,  roots  up, 
close  together,  in  three  rows,  the  third  on  top  of 
the  other  two,  and  cover  them  with  earth  eight  to 
sixteen  inches  deep.  They  generally  freeze 
through  in  December,  and  if  a  subsequent  winter 
thaw  threatens  to  spoil  them,  the  heap  or  ridge  is 
covered  with  straw,  cornstalks  or  something  of  the 
kind.  This  ought  always  to  be  done  in  cold 
weather,  so  no  warm  spell  will  commence  to  thaw 
them  out.  Once  thawing  out,  when  in  frozen 
earth,  does  not  injure  cabbage  immediately,  but 
the  leaves  soon  afterward  will  commence  to 
decay,  and,  if  the  weather  be  warm  enough,  the 
stem  will  commence  its  second  growth,  to  seed. 

Another  method  is  to  make  a  deep  furrow  in  a 
dry  position  convenient  to  the  buildings.  In  this 
the  cabbage  are  planted,  roots  downward,  and  if 
the  furrow  is  not  dee{3  enough,  at  an  oblique  angle 
or  inclination;  the  plants  or  heads  are  placed  in 
close  contact  with  each  other,  and  thus  the  work 
advances  till  the  furrow  is  occupied  from  end  to 
end;  another  furrow  is  then  drawn  as  before,  im- 
mediately alongside  and  parallel,  and  the  process 
is  repeated  until  a  bed  is  formed  four  feet  in  width 
—  confined  to  that  width  for  convenience  of  access 
to  cut  the  heads  during  winter.  As  many  such 
beds  are  formed  as  may  be  necessary  to  hold  the 
crop.  Thus  the  cabbage  remains  till  toward 
Christmas,  when  a  covering  of  straw,  hay,  or  other 
light  material  is  spread  over  the.  whole.  Some 
families  place  the  head  downward  in  the  furrow, 
the  root  upward ;  where  deep  snows  prevail  this  is 
a  good  plan,  as  the  head  is  well  preserved,  and  the 
root  above  indicates  its  position.  Cabbage  should 
never  be  kept  in  the  cellar,  as  they  are  apt  to  decay 
there  and  generate  a  very  foul  and  unhealthful  at- 
mosphere to  be  diffused  throughout  the  house. 

Insects.  For  cabbage  lice  and  most  other  ver- 
min, hot  water,  of  the  temperature  of  140°  to  150° 
Fahr.,  dashed  over  the  leaves  is  sufficient.     It  will 


1 66 


CABBA  GE. 


not  injure  the  cabbage.  To  make  the  work  more 
thorough,  drench  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  also 
with  a  syringe.  Many  other  remedies,  consisting 
of  some  drug  dissolved  in  hot  water,  are  pre- 
scribed by  persons  not  knowing  that  it  is  the  hot 
water  that  kills,  and  generally  not  the  drug.  The 
old  remedies  are  salt,  lime,  ashes,  plaster,  sulphur, 
whale-oil  soap,  and  decoctions  of  tobacco,  black 
walnut  leaves,  China  tree,  etc.;  but  the  most  effi- 
cient drug  for  most  cabbage  pests  is  pyrethrum,  an 
insect  powder  to  be  had  at  the  drug  stores.  Mix 
half  a  tablespoonful  of  this  powder  with  a  gallon 
of  water,  and  with  this  syringe  the  cabbage  all 
over  and  under  the  leaves.  Dusting  with  pyreth- 
rum and  flour,  in  similar  proportions,  is  about  as 
good,  but  more  tedious. 

Among  the 
larger  insects 
by  far  the  great- 
est pest  is  the 
cabbage  -worm, 
bred  from  small 
yellowish -green 
eggs  on  the  un- 
der  side   of  the 

1      ^  1         Vi    n  Vio.  i.—Cabbafft  ButUrfly !  male. 

hatched  out  consume  the  leaf.  Fig.  i  is  the  male 
butterfly  from  this  "worm."  Remedies:  Have  the 
children  captui'e  the  butterflies,  especially  the  spring 
brood;  kill  the  worms;  plant  eaiiy;  select  the 
firmest-headed  varieties,  and  keep  the  plants  as 
vigorous  as  possible.     See  Cut-Worm. 

A  parasite  of  the  cabbage-worm  has  recently 
been  imported,  the  propagation  of  which  is  encour- 
aged by  our  economical  entomologists.  Its  pres- 
ence may  be  known  by  the  livid,  discolored  and 
diseased  appearance  of  the  chrysalids  of  the  worm, 
and  at  this  time  no  sweeping  remedies  for  the  de- 
struction of  insects  should  be  employed.  To  in- 
crease their  numbers  more  rapidly  on  their  first 
introduction,  place  the  infested  caterpillars  or  chrys- 
alids in  a  box,  which  keep  in  a  dry  place  until  the 
parasites  grow  up  and  make  their  escape.  No  rub- 
bish of  any  kind  should  be  allowed  in  or  about  a 
garden,  as  it  harbors  and  helps  to  multiply  noxious 
insects.  To  raise  a  crop  in  spite  of  the  pests,  some- 
times thick  sowing  or  planting  is  resorted  to; 
sometimes  planting  in  a 
new  place,  not  infested. 
But  the  chief  care  should 
be  to  keep  the  plants  vig- 
orous by  proper  cultiva- 
tion, so  that  they  can  pro- 
tect themselves  against  all 
insects  and  diseases. 

Va  r  I  e  t  I  e  s  .  First 
Early:  English  Early 
York.  An  old  standard,  but  rather  small,  and  does 
not  stand  the  heat  of  summer  well. 


Fig.  2.    Lauireth's  Earlitst. 


Fig.  3.    Btoamsdale  Lats  Flat  Dutch. 


English  Large  York.  Larger  than  the  above 
and  a  little  later. 

Landreth' s  Earliest  is  an  improvement  on  the 
last. 

French  Ox-Heart.  Of  the  same  type  as  the 
preceding,  but  not  so  robust. 

Early  Jersey  Wakejield.  Resembles  Ox-heart; 
a  standard  early  cabbage. 

Early  Sugar  Loaf.  Good  for  home  use.  Well 
known. 

Second  Early:  Winningstadt.  Standard;  a  little 
better  South;  head  large,  solid  and  cone-shaped, 
Early  Schiveinfurth. 
Very  large.  Early 
Bleichficld  Giant. 
One  of  the  very  best. 
Bloomsdale  Early 
Market.  Hardy  and 
of  excellent  quality. 
From  Landreth  & 
Sons,  Philadelphia. 

Neivark  Early  Flat 
Dutch.     One  of  the  best. 

Early  Ulnt  Savoy.  One  of  the  earliest,  and  un- 
surpassed in  quality  for  family  use. 

Third  Early: 
Bloomsdale  Bruns- 
wick, and  Fottler''s 
I Jmpr ov ed  Early 
Brunswick  and  the 
Bloomsdale  Early 
Drumhead  are  the 
earliest  of  the  large 
Drumheads; heads  not 
very  hard,  but  re- 
markably tender   and 

•  Fig.  4.    Larf;e  Flat  Dutch.  x\c\\ 

Filderkraut.     Solid  and  good. 

Other  varieties  of  some  worth  are  the  Early 
Curled  Silesian,  Valmorin's  Early  Flat  Dutch, 
Henderson's  Early  Summer,  Crane's  Early,  Early 
Wyman,  Little  Pixie,  Bloomsdale  Bullock  Heart, 
Dutch  Butterhead,  Early  Red  Erfurth,  Cannon- 
Bail  (having  an  exceedingly  solid  head),  etc. 

Late:  Bloomsdale  Late  Flat  Dutch.-  Probably 
the  best ;  includes  the  "  Premium  Flat  Dutch." 
Imperial,  or  White. 
Excellent.  Alarblehead 
Mammoth  Drumhead. 
The  largest  in  the 
world.  Better  for  cattle. 
Alarblehead  Dutch. 
Good. 

Red  Drumhead. 
Large;  good  for  pick- 
ling; heads  round,  and 
under  high  cultivation 
heading. 

Large  Late  Drumhead. 


very 


Fig-.  5.    Drumhead  Savoy. 

hard;     reliable   for 


Best  for  sauer  kraut. 


CABB  A  GE—  CAISS  ON. 


167 


Drumhead  Savoy.     Large  and  curled. 

Green  Curled  Savoy.  The  very  finest  type  of 
winter  cabbage. 

Ii)ipro-ocd  American  Savoy,  Extra  Curled. 
One  of  the  best  for  winter;  very  finely  curled;  re- 
liable for  heading. 

St.  Dennis.  A  large  late  Drumhead  with  a 
solid  head;  popular  in  Caiiaila. 

Bergen  Drutnhead,  Stonc-AIason  Drumhead, 
Red  Dutch  and  a  few  other  varieties  are  good,  but 
quarter  of  what  we  have  already  gi\'en  would  be 
sufficient  for  any  purpose. 

Cabbage,  To  Prepare  for  the  Tabi.e: 
Boiled.  Take  off  the  outer  leaves,  cut  the  head 
in  quarters,  and  boil  in  a  large  quantity  of  water, 
until  done.  Drain  and  press  out  the  water,  chop  fine 
and  season.  Boil  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  or  till 
tender.  The  water  can  be  drained  off  when  they 
are  half  done,  and  fresh  water  added  if  desired. 

Another:  Before  cooking,  cut  the  head  in  half 
and  pour  boiling  water  on  it  to  prevent  the  disagree- 
able odor  which  arises  from  cooking.  Cabbage  is 
best  boiled  with  the  broth  from  salt  meat,  and  is  a 
nice  accompaniment  to  corned  beef.  It  requires  an 
hour  slow  simmering,  and  must  be  skimmed  con- 
stantly while  cooking.  If  not  cooked  with  salt 
meat  broth,  put  some  salt  in  the  water. 

Stewed.  Shred  the  cabbage  coarsely  and  par- 
boil in  fast  boiling  water  for  five  minutes,  then 
drain  and  add  rich  milk  enough  to  cover.  Cook 
until  tender  and  season  with  butter  rolled  in  fliour, 
salt,  and  white  or  red  pepper. 

Coi.D  Si. AW.  Shave  the  cabbage  fine;  scald 
half  pint  of  vinegar,  mix  one  small  teaspoonful  of 
corn-starch  in  two-thirds  cupful  of  cream  (or  con- 
densed milk  a  very  little  thinner),  with  one  egg 
well  beaten,  and  a  little  salt;  pour  the  scalded 
vinegar  on  the  mixture  very  slowly,  so  as  not  to 
break  the  egg,  then  boil  until  thick;  pour  hot  on 
the  cabbage;  a  few  capers  and  olives  will  improve 
the  slaw  for  those  who  are  fond  of  such  things. 
The  above  is  a  ver}'  nice  dish  to  eat  either  with 
fried  or  scalloped  ovsters. 

French  vSlaw.  To  one  head  of  cabbage  take 
eight  hard-boiled  eggs,  rub  the  yolks  with  three- 
quarters  cup  melted  butter,  6ne  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  strong  mustard,  one-half  tablespoonful 
of  salt,  same  of  black  pepper,  one  teaspoonful  of 
sugar.  Cut  cabbage  as  fine  as  you  can  on  a  cutter, 
then  cut  across  with  a  knife;  cut  whites  of  eggs 
verv  fine,  mix  with  the  yolks,  and  add  vinegar  to 
moisten,  like  chicken  salad. 

Nice  Dressing  for  Cabbage.  Beat  the  yolks 
of  two  eggs,  add  one  teaspoonful  pure  inustard,  one 
teaspoonful  salt,  one  tablespoonful  butter,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  cream,  two  tablespoonfuls  white  sugar, 
two-thirds  cup  of  vinegar.  Let  it  come  to  a  boil, 
then  pour  over  the  slaw,  lettuce  or  celery.     Cut 


the  cabbage  fine;  serve  hot  or  cold.     It  will  keep. 
Use  one  head  of  cabbage  for  above. 

To  Pickle  Cabbage,  or  make  «  sauer  kraut." 
Take  nice  sound  cabbage,  and  chop  it  very  fine  in 
a  wooden  bowl  with  a  chopping-knife;  then  put  a 
tiiin  layer  of  salt  and  black  pepper  (ground)  in  the 
bottom  of  a  stone  jar,  then  a  layer  of  the  chopped 
cabbage  about  one  and  one-half  inches  deep,  then 
a  little  salt  and  pepper,  alternating  with  the  cab- 
bage, until  the  jar  is  full;  then  cover  with  good 
strong  vinegar;  cover  and  keep  in  a  cool  place.  It 
is  very  nice  with  meat  and  vegetables.  It  does 
not  require  much  salt,  and  will  keep  for  weeks. 

Cabriolet  (cab-ri-o-let' ),  a  one-horse  pleasure 
carriage  with  two  seats,  having  a  calash  top  and  a 
covering  for  the  legs  and  lap. 

Cacao  (ca-ca'o,  or  ca'co),  the  chocolate  tree, 
growing  in  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
Chocolate  is  made  from  its  seeds. 

Cache  (cash),  a  hole  in  the  ground,  or  hiding- 
place,  for  concealing  and  preserving  provisions 
which  it  is  inconvenient  to  carry. 

Cactus,  a  juicy,  herbaceous  plant,  generally  with- 
out leaves,  and  thorny.  The  prickly  pear  is  the 
most  familiar  example.  The  cactus  has  many 
grotesque  forms,  and  some  have  gorgeous,  lily-like 
flowers.     Common  as  house  plants. 

They  are  very  easy  of  cultivation,  as  the  most 
of  them  may  be  regarded  as  half  hardy  in  the 
Northern  States.  They  are  generally  grown  in 
pots,  and  are  exposed  to  the  out-door  atmosphere, 
except  in  frosty  weather.  The  night-blooming 
cereus  is  a  homely  twiner,  which  requires  more 
care.  Its  value  consists  altogether  in  the  singular 
large  flower  which  it  puts  forth  during  an  evening, 
to  remain  open  but  a  few  hours.  These  flowers 
are  a  source  of  a  fine  perfumery,  to  be  had  at  the 
drug  stores.  The  fruit  of  the  prickly  pear  is  liked 
by  some  as  pickles,  but  has  never  been  very  popu- 
lar. It  grows  wild  in  most  sandy  regions  west  of 
Indiana.  A  kind  with  smaller  flowers  and  edible 
berries  grows  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Caddice,  Caddis,  Cadew,  or  Cade-worm,  a  kind 
of  worm  which  is  a  favorite  fish-bait. 

Cafe  (caf'ay),  a  cofTee-house. 

Caisson  (ca'sn),  a  wooden  box  or  frame  of 
strong  timbers,  used  for  laying  the  foundations  of 
a  bridge  in  situations  where  the  coffer  dam  can- 
not be  employed.  The  word  has  also  other 
meanings.  The  coffer  dam  is  a  water-tight  en- 
closure or  box  of  timber  placed  in  the  bed  of  a 
river,  or  some  like  position,  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
cluding the  water  during  the  progress  of  some 
work,  such  as  a  wharf,  or  an  abutment,  or  a  pier. 
The  water  is  pumped  out  of  the  enclosed  space, 
leaving  the  bottom  dry. 


i68 


CAKE. 


Cakes.  A  "cake,"  in  general,  consists  of  flour, 
sugar,  butter,  eggs,  with  yeast  or  milk  and  soda, 
and  salt  and  spicing  to  taste.  The  thousands  of 
recipes  published  for  cakes  amount  only  to  the 
foregoing,  with  slight  variations  as  to  proportion; 
and  it  would  seem  tliat  any  person  of  ordinary 
judgment  could  make  a  cake  to  suit  himself  with 
no  further  directions  than  the  mention  of  the  above 
ingredients.  To  begin  with,  milk  and  sugar  and 
egg  constitute  a  rich  dish  of  themselves,  in  all  pro- 
portions. But,  in  order  to  secure  fancy  flavors  and 
general  success,  many  desire  recipes,  and  we  give 
many  of  them,  alphabetically  arranged  as  nearly 
as  practicable. 

General  Directions.  An  oven  to  bake  well 
should  have  a  regular  heat  throughout,  but  partic- 
ularly at  the  bottom,  without  which  bread  or  cakes 
will  not  rise  or  bake  well.  An  earthen  basin  is 
best  for  beating  eggs,  or  cake  mixture.  Cake 
should  be  beaten  with  a  wooden  spoon  or  spatula; 
butter  may  be  beaten  with  the  same.  Eggs  should 
be  beaten  with  rods  or  a  broad  fork;  a  silver  fork, 
or  one  made  of  iron  wire,  is  best,  as  it  is  broadest. 
Eggs  should  be  clear  and  fresh  for  a  cake.  It  is 
well,  as  a  general  rule  in  cake-making,  to  beat  the 
butter  and  sugar  (which  must  be  made  fine)  to  a 
light  cream;  indeed,  in  the  making  of  pound  cake, 
the  lightness  of  the  article  depends  as  much  upon 
this  as  upon  the  eggs  being  well  beaten;  then  beat 
the  eggs  and  put  thgm  to  the  butter,  and  gradually 
add  the  flour  and  other  ingredients,  beating  it  all 
the  time.  A  pound  of  pulverized  sugar  is  three 
cupfuls;  a  pound  of  sifted  flour  five  cupfuls.  In 
common  cakes,  where  only  a  few  eggs  are  used, 
beat  them  until  you  can  take  a  spoonful  up  clear 
from  the  strings. 

In  receipts  in  which  milk  is  used  as  one  ingre- 
dient, either  sweet  or  sour  may  be  used,  but  not  a 
mixture  of  both.  Sour  milk  makes  a  spongy,  light 
cake;  sweet  milk  makes  a  cake  which  cuts  like 
pound  cake.  To  blanch  almonds,  which  are  used 
in  many  cakes,  pour  boiling  water  on  them  and 
let  them  remain  in  it  until  their  skins  may  be 
taken  off";  then  throw  the  almonds  into  cold  water  to 
whiten  them;  drain  the  water  from  them,  but  do  not 
wipe  them;  the  moisture  will  prevent  their  oiling. 

In  making  cakes,  if  you  wish  them  to  be  pleas- 
ing to  the  palate,  use  double-refined  sugar,  although 
light  brown  sugar  makes  a  very  good  cake.  For 
icing  cakes,  the  sugar  must  be  rolled  and  sifted,  or 
pounded  in  a  mortar.  To  ascertain  whether  a  cake 
is  baked  enough,  if  a  small  one,  take  a  very  fine 
splint  of  wood  and  run  it  through  the  thickest  part; 
if  not  done  enough,  some  of  the  dough,  or  unbaked 
cake,  will  be  found  sticking  to  it;  if  done,  it  will 
come  out  clean.  If  the  cake  is  large,  pass  a  small 
knife  blade  through  it  instead  of  the  splint.  Cakes 
to  be  kept  fresh  should  be  placed  in  a  tin  box, 
tightly  covered,  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 


Filling  (to  put  between  cakes).  •  One  egg,  half- 
pint  milk,  half-cup  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  corn 
starch;  scald  together;  make  thick  with  grated 
cocoanut,  or  two-thirds  cup  of  dessicated  cocoaniit 
soaked  in  the  milk. 

Fkosting  for  Cake.  Whites  of  eight  eggs; 
two  pounds  of  loaf  sugar;  half  an  ounce  each  of 
white  starch  and  gum  arable,  beaten  till  it  looks 
wliite  and  thick;  dry  it  in  a  cool  oven.  Or,  take 
one  cup  of  white  sugar,  add  a  very  little  water, 
and  boil  until  it  becomes  a  thick  sirup.  Just 
before  it  is  done  enough,  Vieat  the  white  of  one 
egg  to  a  froth,  and  pour  the  boiling  sirup  into  it, 
beating  it  all  the  time.  Continue  to  beat  until  it 
becomes  very  white  and  thick.  Icing  made  in  this 
way  is  very  nice,  and  will  not  crackle  or  turn 
yellow. 

Another:  For  one  large  cake  use  a  pound  of 
pulverized  white  sugar  and  the  whites  of  two 
eggs;  stir  the  sugar  gradually  into  the  whites; 
squeeze  in  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon;  stir  well;  put 
on  one  layer;  let  stand  half  an  hour,  then  put  on 
another.     This  makes  a  hard  frosting. 

Gelatine  Frostitig :  One  tcaspoonful  gelatine, 
two  table  spoonfuls  of  cold  water;  when  the  gela- 
tine is  soft,  one  tablespoonful  of  hot  water.  When 
entirely  dissolved,  add  one  cup  of  powdered  sugar, 
and  beat  it  while  it  is  yet  warm,  until  white  and 
light;  lemon  to  taste.    This  frosts  one  sheet  of  cake. 

Almond  Cake.  Take  one  cup  of  butter,  one 
cup  and  a  half  of  sugar,  tiiree  eggs,  half  a  cup  of 
milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  about 
two  cups  of  flour;  flavor  with  a  little  almond  ex- 
tract; blanch  one  pound  of  alinonds;  lay  aside 
enough  to  cover  the  top  of  the  cake  when  thev  are 
cut  in  halves;  chop  the  rest  and  put  into  the  cake. 
After  the  aike  is  in  the  tin,  lay  the  split  ones  over 
the  top  of  tlie  cake;  they  will  rise  and  brown  as 
the  cake  bakes. 

Another :  Two  cups  sugar,  one  cup  butter,  one 
cup  sweet  milk,  four  cups  flour,  three  eggs,  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder;  bake  in  layers  as 
for  jelly  cake.  Instead  of  jelly,  use  one  coffee  cup 
of  thick  sour  jam,  one  tablespoonful  extract  va- 
nilla, one  pound  almonds,  blanched  and  chopped 
fine.     Sugar  to  taste.     Make  rather  sweet. 

Dried-Apple  Cake.  Stew  two  cups  dried 
apples  so  as  just  to  cut  easily,  and  chop  them  fine 
as  raisins,  and  boil  them  in  two  cups  of  molasses 
till  preserved  through.  Then  for  the  cake:  drain 
the  molasses  from  the  apples  and  add  to  it  one  cup 
butter,  two  eggs,  one  cup  sour  milk,  two  teaspoons 
soda,  four  cups  floui",  and  spice  of  all  kinds;  lastly, 
add  the  preserved  apples. 

Black  Cake.  Two  pounds  of  currants,  two 
pounds  of  raisins  (after  washing  both  currants  and 
raisins;  when  they  are  dry,  dredge  with  flour), one 
large  spoonful  of  ground  cinnamon,  one  large 
spoonful  of  ground  mace,  four  nutmegs,  one  gill  of 


CAKE. 


i6g 


molasses,  one  gill  of  brandy,  one  gill  of  rose  water, 
if  you  choose;  sift  one  pound  of  flour  into  one  pan, 
and  one  pound  of  sugar  into  another;  add  to  the 
sugar  three  quarters  of  a  pound  of  butter  and  stir 
to  a  cream;  beat  six  eggs  light  and  stir  into  the 
butter  and  sugar  alternately  with  the  flour,  then 
add  by  degrees  fruit,  spice  and  liquors,  and  stir 
hard.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  about  four  hours; 
let  it  remain  in  the  oven  to  cool. 

Bread  Cake.  Tliree  large  teacups  light  dough, 
one  teacup  sugar,  one-half  cup  butter,  one  egg,  a 
small  teaspoonful  of  saleratus  dissolved  in  as  little 
water  as  possible;  spice  to  taste;  have  in  a  pan, 
and  mix  with  the  hand,  as  it  cannot  be  done  with 
a  spoon;  grease  the  pan  or  pans,  leaving  room  to 
rise,  and  when  very  light,  bake.  If  you  wish  the 
cake  richer,  add  butter  and  sugar.  Do  not  use  the 
dough  until  light  enough  to  bake. 

Another:  When  you  mold  your  bread  in 
loaves  reserve  a  small  loaf,  to  which  add  one  cup 
of  raisins,  one  of  fryings,  one  pint  of  sugar,  one  cup 
sour  cream,  three  eggs,  five  teasjjoons  soda,  one  of 
cloves,  one  of  cinnamon;  mix  well;  add  half  a  cup 
cold  coffee,  one  nutmeg,  and  enough  flour  to  mold 
in  loaves.  Set  in  warm  place  to  rise,  and  bake  one 
hour. 

Breakfast  Cakes,  for  warm  weather.  Take 
one  cup  of  molasses,  one  cup  of  brown  sugar,  nearly 
one  cup  of  butter,  or  lard  and  butter  mixed,  one 
cup  of  sour  milk,  four  cups  of  flour,  four  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  soda,  not  heaping  but  even  full,  one  teaspoon- 
ful each  of  cinnamon,  salt  and  ginger;  one  ng^;  bake 
in  gem  tins.     These  will  keep  well  for  a  week. 

Atiother:  Take  enough  bread  sponge  to  make, 
when  risen  and  baked,  a  cake  two  inches  thick ; 
knead  into  it  a  piece  of  butter  about  the  size  of  half 
an  egg;  after  it  is  in  the  tin  put  on  the  top  little 
lumps  of  butter  and  then  cover  it  with  fine  white 
sugar  and  ground  cinnamon;  when  baked  there 
will  be  a  sort  of  crust  over  the  cake.  This  is  very 
nice  with  coffee. 

Bride  Cake.  Beat  two  cups  of  sugar  and 
three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  butter  to  a  cream.  Beat 
three  eggs,  whites  and  yellows  separately.  Add 
the  beaten  yolks  to  the  butter  and  sugar;  beat  well 
and  tlien  add  three-fourths  of  a  cup  sweet  milk; 
add  the  beaten  whites;  two  teaspoonfuls  baking 
powder  mixed  in  three  and  a  half  cups  of  flour; 
add  this  to  the  other  and  mix  well;  beat  very  little; 
one  teaspoonful  soda,  if  sour  milk  is  used  in  place 
of  baking  powder. 

Chocolate  Cake.  Two  cups  of  sugar,  one- 
half  cup  of  butter,  whites  of  three  eggs,  one  cup  of 
milk,  two  and  three-fourths  cups  of  flour,  three  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  baking  powder;  bake  on  jelly-tins.  To 
the  whites  of  two  eggs,  well  beaten,  with  not  quite  a 
"up  of  pulverized  sugar,  add  six  tablespoonfuls  of 
grated  German  sweet  chocolate,  and  two  teaspoon- 
fuls of  vanilla;  spread  on  the  cakes. 


CocoANUT  Cake.  Four  cups  of  flour,  three  of 
sugar,  one  cup  of  milk,  five  eggs,  beaten  separately 
(save  the  whites  of  three  for  icing),  one  cup  of 
butter,  two  teasjjoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  tea- 
spoonful of  soda,  the  half  of  a  cocoanut  grated  and 
put  into  the  cake,  the  other  half  put  with  the  whites 
of  three  eggs  and  half  a  cup  of  powdered  sugar, 
with  a  little  orange  water  or  lemon  juice  for  the 
icing;  bake  the  cake  in  jelly-pans;  when  done 
spread  the  icing  between  and  on  top;  put  in  the 
oven  for  a  few  minutes. 

Another:  Three  eggs,  two  cups  sugar;  one  cup 
milk,  two  tablespoonfuls  melted  butter;  mix  to- 
gether; three  cups  flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  baking 
powder.     Bake  in  sheets. 

Cocoanut  Cookies.  Two  cups  of  sugar, one  of 
butter,  two  eggs,  half  a  grated  cocoanut,  with  flour; 
roll  thin  and  bake. 

Cocoanut  Dulcies.  Grate  half  of  a  medium- 
sized  fresh  cocoanut,  and  add  to  this  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  pulverized  sugar.  Beat  the  whites  of 
three  Qggs  to  a  froth,  and  mix.  If  a  little  thin,  add 
a  dust  or  so  of  corn  starch.  Take  a  piece  of  writing 
paper,  butter  it  and  lay  it  in  a  pan.  Take  a  spoon- 
ful of  the  mixture,  and  pour  it  around  on  the  paper. 
Oven  must  not  be  too  hot.  Time  to  cook  the  dul- 
cies, eight  to  ten  minutes. 

Coffee  Cake,  or  "  Kaffee  Kuchen,"  requires 
one  pound  of  risen  dough  ready  for  the  oven,  quar- 
ter pound  of  sugar,  three  ounces  of  butter,  one  e^^. 
Cream  the  butter  and  beat  it  well  with  sugar  and 
egg;  add  the  dough  and  mix  thoroughly  with  the 
hand  and  leave  it  in  a  warm  place  to  rise.  When 
light  pour  it  in  thinly  over  a  pan  (when  baked  it 
must  not  be  more  than  two  inches  thick)  and  let  it 
stand  to  rise  for  about  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in  a 
warm  place,  then  put  it  in  the  oven,  and  while  it  is 
baking  prepare  the  icing.  Have  ready  two  dozen 
almonds  previously  blanched.  Beat  the  whites  of 
two  eggs  with  enough  fine  sugar  to  stiffen  them, 
putting  the  sugar  in  very  gradually.  Shred  the  al- 
monds and  stir  them  with  the  icing;  spread  all  out 
over  the  loaf  of  cake,  and  leave  it  to  dry  in  the 
mouth  of  the  oven.  If  the  almonds  brown  a  little, 
it  improves  the  icing.  Cut  for  the  cake  plate  in 
oblong  slices. 

Another:  One  cup  sugar, two-thirds  cup  butter, 
one  cup  molasses,  one  cup  raisins,  one  egg,  one 
teaspoonful  soda  (level  full)  in  6ne  cup  coffee  to  be 
added  the  last  thing:  add  citron  and  currants  and 
flour  to  make  the  right  stiffness. 

Another :  One  cup  brown  sugar,  one  cup  molas- 
ses, one-half  cup  each  butter  and  lard,  one  cup 
cold  coffee,  two  eggs,  one  tablespoonful  cinnamon, 
and  one  of  cloves,  one  grated  nutmeg,  one  tea- 
spoonful soda,  flour,  one  pound  each  of  currants 
and  raisins. 

Cookies.  Rub  to  a  cream  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  of  butter  and  a  pound  of  sugar;  add  three 


fjo 


CAKE. 


well-beaten  eggs,  two  spoonfuls  of  caraway  seed, 
a  grated  nutmeg  and  a  pint  of  flour;  stir  in  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  saleratus  dissolved  in  a  teacup  of  milk, 
and  strained  into  half  a  teacup  of  cider;  add  flour 
to  make  the  cookies  stiff  enough  to  roll  out.  As 
soon  as  cut  into  c^ikes,  bake  in  a  quick  ove  i  till 
of  a  light  brown. 

Another  :  Three  eggs,  two  and  a  half  cups  si  igar, 
one  heaping  cup  of  butter,  not  quite  a  cup  of  sour 
milk,  a  little  nutmeg,  one  teaspoon  soda,  and  one 
of  baking  powder,  sifted  in  the  flour. 

Another :  One  cup  of  butter,  two  of  sugar,  two 
eggs,  well  beaten,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda  in 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  milk;  nutmeg  to 
taste,  ami  flour  enough  to  roll  out  without  sticking; 
roll  thin  and  bake  in  a  quick  oven.  Made  in  this 
way  they  will  almost  melt  in  your  mouth.  Some 
think  cookies  are  best  when  ten  days  old,  but  can 
never  keep  them  that  long. 

Ginger  Cookies.  One  cup  of  sugar,  one  cup 
molasses,  one  cup  of  lard,  two-thirds  cup  of  boiling 
water,  one  egg,  one  teaspoonful  cream  of  tartar, 
one  tablespoonful  ginger,  one  teaspoonful  soda, 
one  teaspoonful  salt. 

Molasses  Cookies.  Take  two  cups  of  mo- 
lasses, one  cup  of  sugar,  two  cups  of  butter,  four 
teaspoonfuls  of  alum,  put  in  two  cups  of  boiling 
water,  four  teaspoonfuls  of  soda  and  flour  enough 
to  roll  out. 

Composition  Cake.  One  pound  of  flour,  one 
cup  of  sugar,  half  a  pound  of  butter,  seven  eggs, 
half  a  pint  of  cream. 

Corn-Starch  Cake.  Half  pound  corn  starch, 
half  pound  wheat  flour,  six  eggs,  half  pound  butter, 
one  pound  sugar,  one  small  cup  sweet  milk,  two 
teaspoonfuls  baking  powder. 

Cream  Cake.  One  cup  sugar,  two  eggs,  four 
tablespoonfuls  boiling  water,  one  scant  rounding 
teaspoonful  baking  powder,  one  cup  and  a  half  of 
sifted  flour.  Beat  sugar  and  eggs  together,  mix 
baking  powder  with  the  flour,  and  stir  slowly  in, 
putting  the  boiling  water  in  last,  a  spoonful  at  a 
tiine.  Bake  in  two  or  three  tins.  The  cream  for 
same  is  one-half  pint  milk,  one-half  teacup  sugar, 
small  piece  of  butter,  one  heaping  tablespoonful  of 
corn  starch,  one  egg  or  none.  Cook  thoroughly. 
If  egg  is  used,  stir  in  just  before  taking  from  the 
fire.  When  nearly  cold  flavor  with  vanilla  or 
lemon  to  taste  and  put  between  the  layers. 

Another:  Two  eggs,  one  and  a  quarter  cups 
white  sugar,  eight  tablespoons  cold  water,  flour 
to  make  rather  stiff,  in  which  put  two  tea- 
spoons baking  powder.  Bake  in  two  pie  pans. 
Cream  for  cake:  Place  two-thirds  cup  sweet  milk 
in  skillet  on  stove,  to  which  add  the  following: 
two  eggs,  two-thirds  cup  sugar,  one  and  one-half 
tablespoons  of  corn  starch  wet  with  a  little  milk; 
boil  until  thick,  stirring  all  the  time;  empty  into  a 
bowl,  add  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  teaspoon 


extract  of  vanilla;  split  open  your  cakes,  place  the 
cream  on  them,  and  put  the  top  back  again. 

Another :  Three  cups  sugar,  one  of  butter,  and 
one  of  sweet  cream,  five  eggs,  four  cups  flour,  two 
teaspoonfuls  bak'ng  powder;  beat  well. 

Another :  Boil  together  half  a  pint  of  water 
and  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  butter;  while  boiling 
stir  in  one  and  a  half  cups  of  flour  thorough- 
ly; let  it  then  cool  sufficientl}'  not  to  cook  the 
eggs,  five  of  which  are  to  be  well  beaten,  and  the 
whole  mixed  together;  drop  on  tins  a  spoonful  in 
a  place,  and  bake  in  a  very  hot  oven  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes.  It  will  make  two  dozen.  For  the 
cream  boil  a  pint  of  new  milk,  stirring  in  beaten 
together  two  eggs  with  one  cup  of  sugar,  and  not 
quite  a  cup  of  flour;  boil  a  little,  stirring  briskly; 
when  cool,  flavor  with  lemon;  open  the  cakes  at 
the  side  with  a  sharp  knife  and  pour  in  the  cream. 

Cup  Cake.  Nine  cups  of  flour,  four  of  sugar, 
two  of  butter,  half  a  cup  of  milk,  two  spoonfuls  of 
saleratus,  eight  eggs;  spice  to  your  liking. 

Currant  Cake.  Put  a  pound  of  flour  into  a 
bowl,  and  with  it  a  pinch  of  salt,  and  a  large 
heaped  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder.  Mix  thor- 
oughly. Rub  in  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  good  beef 
dripping,  and  add  half  a  pound  of  currants  picked 
antl  dried,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  one  ounce 
of  citron  peel  thinly  cut,  and  half  a  teaspoonful 
of  grated  lemon-rind.  Make  into  a  stiff  paste  with 
milk,  and  bake  in  a  good  oven. 

White  Delicate  Cake.  Three  cups  of  sifted 
flour,  one  and  a  half  cups  of  sugar,  whites  of  seven 
eggs,  one  teacup  of  sweet  milk,  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  butter,  two  heaping  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder, 
and  teaspoonful  extract  of  vanilla,  almond  or  lemon. 
Beat  the  butter  and  sugar  to  a  cream,  add  to  it  the 
milk  and  eggs  well  beaten,  then  add  the  extract. 
Mix  with  this  very  slowly  three  cups  of  flour,  in 
which  the  baking  powder  has  been  well  mixed. 
Bake  in  a  quick  oven.  It  makes  a  delicious  cake 
fur  jelly,  chocolate  or  cocoanut  layers.  If  the  latter 
is  used,  grate  a  large  cocoaimt,  removing  the  brown 
skin  first;  then  add  to  it  the  beaten  white  of  one 
egg  and  one  coffee  cup  of  fine  sugar.  Stir  it  all 
together  and  spread  between  the  layers  of  cake,  icing 
the  upper  layer.  This  receipt  will  make  three 
layers  of  cake  and  a  plateful  of  small  frosted  cakes. 

Delicate  Cake.  Whites  of  eight  eggs,  one 
cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  white  sugar,  three  cups 
of  flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder.  Flavor 
with  lemon  or  vanilla.  Stir  butter  and  sugar  to  a 
cream,  add  one  cup  sweet  milk,  and  then  the  flour, 
adding  the  beaten  whites  last.      This  is  excellent. 

Drop  Cakes.  Mix  half  a  cup  of  butter,  one  of 
sugar,  a  quarter  of  a  cup  of  milk,  half  a  cup  of 
flour,  two  eggs,  and  a  half  a  teaspoonful  of  baking 
powder  into  a  batter:  flavor  with  vanilla  and  beat 
until  light.  Butter  diipping  pans  and  drop  in  tea- 
spoonfuls, leaving  plenty  of  room  between  each. 


CAKE. 


171 


Bake  in  a  quick  oven ;  they  should  be  brown  on 
the  bottom,  crisp  around  the  edges,  almost  white 
on  top,  and  extremely  thin. 

Another:  One  pound  of  flour,  one  pound  of 
sugar,  eight  eggs,  leaving  out  half  of  the  whites; 
rose-water,  and  nutmeg  to  your  taste. 

One- Egg  Cake.  One  and  one-third  cups  of 
flour,  one-third  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  cup  of  sugar, 
one  tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  one  egg  and 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  baking  powder. 

An  "  Egoless  Cake."  A  recipe  for  eggless 
cake  may  not  come  amiss  when  eggs  are  twenty 
cents  or  more  per  dozen :  Two  cups  sugar,  one- 
half  cup  butter,  two  cups  milk,  one  cup  raisins, 
four  cups  flour,  one  teaspoonful  soda ;  spice  to 
taste.  All  young  housekeepers  may  not  know 
that  cake  is  ver}-  much  nicer  mixed  with  the  hands, 
or  frosting  for  cake  is  just  as  nice  made  without 
beating  the  egg  at  all.  Just  stir  it  stifi"  with  sugar, 
and  apply  to  your  cake  with  a  knife  wet  in  cold 
water,  and  wet  your  knife  occasionally  all  through 
the  process  of  frosting  the  cake. 

Feather  Cake.  Two  cups  of  sugar,  one-half 
cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sweet  milk,  three  cups  of 
flour,  three  eggs,  beaten  separately,  one  teaspoonful 
of  soda,  and  two  of  cream  of  tartar.  Flavor  with 
the  rind  of  a  fresh  leinoii.  Bake  in  jelly-tins.  It 
is  also  nice  if  baked  in  a  loaf  and  frosted. 

Fig  Cake.  Two  cups  of  sugar,  one  of  butter, 
one  of  cold  water,  with  a  teaspoonful  of  soda  dis- 
solved in  it,  three  cups  of  raisins,  chopped  fine,  cin- 
namon and  nutmeg,  four  eggs,  one  pound  of  figs; 
use  the  figs  whole,  covering  them  well  with  the 
cake  to  prevent  burning.  J?ake  in  layers,  frosting 
between  each  layer.  Make  as  stifi"  as  pound  cake. 
Cut  with  a  very  sharp  knife  to  prevent  crumbling. 
This  receipt  makes  two  loaves. 

Fish  Cakes.  One  pint  bowl  salt  codfish,  picked 
very  fine;  two  pint  bowls  of  whole,  raw,  peeled 
potatoes;  put  together  in  cold  water  and  boil  till 
the  potatoes  are  thoroughly  cooked ;  remove  from 
fire  and  drain  ofi'all  the  water;  mash  with  potato- 
masher;  add  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg,  two 
well-beaten  eggs,  and  a  little  pepper;  mix  well 
with  a  wooden  spoon;  have  a  frying-pan  with 
boiling  lard  or  drippings,  into  which  drop  a  spoon- 
ful of  mixture  and  fry  brown;  do  not  freshen  the 
fish  before  boiling  with  potatoes,  and  do  not  mold 
cakes,  but  drop  from  spoon. 

Fruit  Cake.  The  material  should  be  prepared 
a  day  or  two  before  the  cake  is  made,  and  put  the 
cake  together  in  the  morning  in  order  to  have 
plenty  of  time.  Have  ever3'thing  ready,  even  to 
the  pans  lined  with  paper,  and  well  buttered,  that 
you  need  not  stop  after  you  commence  mixing  the 
cake.  Take  three  pounds  each  of  flour,  sugar, 
butter  and  raisins,  six  of  currants,  one  of  citron, 
two  dozen  eggs,  one  ounce  each  of  mace,  cloves, 
nutmeg,  cinnamon,  half  a  pint  of  brandy.    To  mix : 


Stir  the  butter  with  your  hand  to  a  cream,  then 
beat  tile  sugar  into  the  butter,  add  the  yolks  of  the 
eggs  well  beaten,  then  the  whites  beaten  to  a  froth; 
mix  the  fruit,  spice  and  flour  together;  then  beat 
them  in  gradually;  add  the  brandy  last.  The  usual 
way  of  testing  the  cake  with  a  smooth  needle  or 
straw  is  the  best  in  this  as  other  cases. 

Another:  One  cup  molasses,  one  pound  flour, 
one  of  sugar,  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  butter, 
two  pounds  of  seeded  raisins,  three  of  currants,  one 
of  citron,  half  a  pound  of  blanched  almonds,  half 
an  ounce  of  mace,  one  wineglassful  brandy,  ten 
eggs;  cream  the  sugar  and  butter,  add  the  eggs, 
beaten  separately;  stir  in  the  flour,  brandy,  spices, 
and  then  the  fruit. 

Another :  Two  cups  of  flour,  two  of  sugar,  one 
of  butter,  one  of  molasses,  five  eggs,  one  pound  of 
currants,  one  pound  of  raisins,  one  teaspoonful  of 
saleratus,  one  nutmeg,  one  teaspoonful  of  all  kinds 
of  spice.     A  little  brandy  improves  it. 

Another:  Two  eggs,  one  cup  sugar,  two-thirds 
cup  butter,  one  cup  fruits,  half  teaspoonful  soda. 

Ginger  Cake.  One  pint  molasses,  half-pint 
shortening,  half  teacup  of  water  with  tablespoon- 
ful of  soda  dissolved  in  it,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
ginger,  two  eggs;  knead  in  flour  to  roll  out  easily; 
cut  in  squares  size  of  soda  crackeis;  with  back  of 
knife  stripe  them  ;  bake  in  quick  oven  ;  soon  as  taken 
out  frost  slightly  with  icing;  the  dough  can  be  pre- 
pared night  before. 

Soft  Ginger  Cake.  One  cup  of  molasses, 
one  heaping  teaspoonful  of  lard,  one  teaspoonful  of 
ginger,  one  cup  of  buttermilk,  one  teaspoonful  of 
soda,  a  pinch  of  salt.  Flour  enough  to  make  a 
batter,  and  bake  in  flat  pans. 

Soft  Gingerbread.  One  and  one-half  cups 
sorghum  molasses,  two  eggs,  one  cup  of  sour  cream, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  spoonful  of  ginger  and 
a  pinch  of  salt.  Stir  about  as  thick  as  any  stirred 
cake. 

Another:  One  tablespoonful  butter,  one  table- 
spoonful  ginger,  one-half  cup  brown  sugar,  two 
cups  molasses,  two  cups  water  or  sour  milk,  one 
and  a  half  teaspoonfuls  soda ;  do  not  stir  very  long; 
bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Old  Fashioned  Gingerbread.  Take  four 
quarts  of  sifted  flour,  one  quart  of  molasses,  one 
tablespoonful  of  soda ;  dissolve  in  as  little  water  as 
possible;  add  to  molasses  one  tablespoonful  of  gin- 
ger and  one-half  pound  of  butter,  and  last,  one 
tablespoonful  of  alum  dissolved  in  half  a  teacupful 
of  boiling  water;  mix  as  soft  as  can  be  rolled,  and 
cut  in  cards.     It  will  keep  for  months. 

Grandmother's  Gingerbread.  Take  one 
pint  of  molasses,  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  shortening, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda,  a  small  tablespoonful  of 
ginger,  and  a  little  salt  if  you  do  not  use  butter  for 
shortening;  roll  it  in  strips  four  inches  wide  and 
mark  it  off  with  a  knife. 


lya 


CAKE. 


Mother's  Gingerbread.  One  cup  of  butter, 
one  of  brown  sugar,  one  of  sour  cream,  two  of  mo- 
lasses, one  tablespoonful  soda  dissolved  in  boiling 
watpr;  spice  to  taste;  flour  to  roll  out  as  tiiin  as 
possible. 

Excellent  Ginger  Snaps.  Put  into  a  tin 
pan  two  cups  of  molasses,  one  cup  brown  sugar, 
two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  laid,  one  tablespoonful 
ground  ginger.  Put  the  tin  on  the  stove,  and  let 
it  boil  until  they  thicken  a  little,  then  add  a  heaping 
tablespoonful  of  soda,  dissolved  in  one-half  cup  of 
tepid  water;  mix  thoroughly  before  taking  from 
the  stove;  then  add  flour  enough  to  make  pretty 
stiff  dough.  Roll  very  thin.  Cut  with  a  large  tin 
(as  they  "  shrink  "  a  good  deal),  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven.  These  are  as  good  as  you  get  in  the 
bake-shop. 

Another:  Work  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  but- 
ter into  a  pound  of  fine  flour,  then  mix  it  with 
a  half  pound  of  molasses,  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
brown  sugar,  and  one  tablespoonful  each  of  ginger 
and  caraway  seeds.  Work  it  all  well  together, 
and  form  it  into  cakes  not  larger  than  a  dollar 
piece;  place  them  on  a  baking  tin  in  a  moderate 
oven,  when  they  will  be  dry  and<:risp. 

Another:  One  teacup  molasses,  half  a  cup 
brown  sugar,  two-thirds  cup  lard  or  butter,  half 
a  cup  sour  milk,  tablespoonful  ginger,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  soda. 

Ginger  Jumbles.  Molasses,  three  pounds; 
sugar,  one  pound;  ginger,  one  and  a  half  ounces; 
butter,  half  pound,  rubbed  in  two  pounds  of  flour; 
put  in  small  lots  on  tins  and  bake. 

Gingerbread  Nuts.  One  pound  of  sugar, 
two  pounds  of  molasses,  three-quarters  of  a  pound 
of  butter,  four  pounds  of  flour,  four  ounces  of  ghi- 
ger,  one  ounce  of  allspice,  two  spoonfuls  of  corian- 
der seed,  some  candied  orange  peel,  two  spoonfuls 
of  brand}',  yolks  of  four  eggs.  Mix  the  sugar,  mo- 
lasses and  butter,  and  melt  all  together,  then  stir 
in  the  flour,  ground  ginger,  allspice,  coriander  seeil, 
and  the  orange  peel,  cut  very  small.  Mix  all  into 
a  paste  with  the  eggs  well  beaten,  and  the  brandy, 
and  make  them  into  nuts  or  cakes. 

Hickory-nut  Cake.  Two  cups  sugar,  one  of 
milk,  two-thirds  cup  of  butter,  three  of  flour,  three 
eggs,  two  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder,  one  cup  nut 
kernels  cut  fine. 

Ice  Cake.  Ten  eggs,  one  pound  sugar,  half  a 
pound  of  flour,  two  lemons.  Beat  whites  and  yolks 
separately;  add  to  all  the  yolks  and  whites  of  seven 
eggs  the  sugar,  the  rind  of  two  lemons,  and  juice 
of  one.  Bake  as  for  jelly-cake.  To  the  whites  of 
three  eggs  allow^  a  pound  and  a  quarter  of  pow- 
dered sugar;  beat  stiff'as  for  icing,  take  out  enough 
to  cover  the  top  of  the  cake,  and  set  aside.  Add  to 
the  rest  the  juice  and  half  the  grated  peel  of  a 
large  orange.  When  the  cake  is  nearly  cold,  spread 
this  between  the  layers.     Beat  into  the  icing  re- 


served for  the  top  a  little  lemon  juice,  and,  if  needed, 
more  sugar.  It  should  be  stiflfer  than  that  spread 
between  the  cakes. 

Jelly  Cake.  Beat  three  eggs  well,  the  whites 
and  yolks  separately ;  take  a  cup  of  fine  white  sugar 
and  beat  well  with  the  yolks,  and  a  cupful  of 
sifted  flour  stirred  in  gently;  then  stii  in  the  whites, 
a  little  at  a  time,  a  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder 
and  one  tablespoonful  of  milk;  pour  it  in  three 
jelly-cake  plates,  and  bake  from  five  to  ten  minutes 
in  a  well-heated  oven,  and  when  cold  spread  with 
currant  jelly,  and  place  each  layer  on  top  of  the 
other  and  sift  powdered  sugar  on  the  top. 

Roll  Jelly  Cake.  One  cup  of  white  sugar, 
half  a  teacupful  of  sweet  inilk,  two  eggs,  one  cup 
of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  saleratus,  a  pinch  of  salt.  This 
will  make  two  cakes  in  a  square  tin.  Have  the 
oven  ready,  put  the  cakes  in,  and  while  they  are 
baking  get  a  cloth  and  the  jelly  ready  for  the 
table.  As  soon  as  they  are  baked,  take  them  out, 
and  turn  them  one  at  a  time  on  the  cloth;  spread 
quickly  with  jelly  or  marmalade,  and  roll  up 
tightly  in  the  cloth,  and  lay  them  where  they  will 
cool.  Handle  them  carefully  or  they  may  fall. 
Cut  them  in  slices  with  a  sharp  knife.  This  will 
be  as  nice  jelly  cake  as  you  will  want  to  eat,  and 
will  not  taste  of  eggs.  You  can  flavor  them  with 
anything  you  like,  if  you  choose  to  do  so.  You 
can  also  bake  one  cake  at  a  time;  it  will  not  hurt 
the  mixture  to  stand. 

Snow  Jelly  Cake.  Beat  two  eggs  in  a  teacup 
and  fill  up  with  rich,  sour  cream ;  one  teacup  of 
white  sugar,  one  cup  of  flour,  a  little  soda;  not 
quite  half  a  teaspoonful  unless  the  cream  is  very 
sour.  Bake  in  four  round  tins  and  brown  as  little 
as  possible.  Have  a  jelly  prepared  by  soaking 
fourtablespoonfuls  of  tapioca  in  warm  water  until 
transparent,  then  add  more  water  and  place  j'our 
dish  in  boiling  water  on  the  stove  and  cook  until 
a  transparent  jelly;  flavor  strong  with  lemon,  al- 
mond, or  wintergreen.  Gelatine  is  just  as  nice  as 
tapioca.  This  cake  is  not  expensive  and  is  very 
nice  and  can  be  eaten  by  dyspeptics. 

Jumbles.  Take  four  eggs,  three  cups  of  sugar, 
a  little  nutmeg,  a  teaspoonful  of  saleratus,  a  cup  of 
butter.  Stir  in  the  flour  till  it  will  roll;  cut  it  in 
rounds  with  a  hole  in  the  center.  Roll  them  in 
sugar. 

Lemon  Cake.  Three  cups  of  sugar,  five  eggs, 
three-fourths  cup  butter;  beat  together.  Add  one- 
half  cup  of  sweet  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream 
tartar,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda;  dissolve  in  a  little 
water;  juice  and  rind  of  one  lemon  grated,  and 
flour  to  mix.  Bake  slow.  This  makes  a  large 
cake,  and  enough  for  two  layers  of  jelly  cake. 

Lemon  Cheese-Cakes.  Just  warm  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  butter,  stir  into  it  u  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  sugar  pounded  fine,   and    when  dissolved   mix 


CAKE. 


173 


with  it  the  peel  of  two  lemons  grated  and  the  juice 
of  one  straineil.  Mix  all  well  together,  and  pour 
it  into  patty-pans  lined  with  pufF paste.  Put  a  few 
blanched  almonds  on  the  top  of  each. 

Lemon  Puffs.  Beat  and  sift  a  pound  and  a 
quarter  of  loaf  sugar,  and  mix  with  it  the  peel  of 
two  lemons  grated;  whisk  the  whites  of  tliree  eggs 
to  a  firm  froth,  add  it  gradually  to  the  sugar  and 
lemon,  and  beat  it  all  together  for  one  hour.  Make 
it  up  into  any  shape  you  please,  place  the  pufis  on 
oiled  paper  on  a  tin,  put  them  in  a  moderate  oven 
and  bake. 

Loaf  Cake.  Take  two  pounds  of  flour,  half 
a  pound  of  sugar,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  butter, 
tliree  eggs,  one  gill  of  milk,  one-half  teacupful  of 
sweet  yeast;  cloves  and  nutmegs  for  spice. 

French  LoAf  Cake.  Two  cups  of  white 
sugar,  one  scant  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  three  heaping  cups  of  flour,  three  eggs,  two 
teaspoonfuls  cream  of  tartar,  one  teaspoonful  soda. 
Put  sugar,  butter,  eggs  (not  previously  beaten), 
soda,  and  cream  of  tartar  all  together;  beat  to  a 
froth;  add  the  milk,  beating  well;  flavor  with 
lemon  extract;  add  the  flour  gradually;  pour  into 
a  cake  tin  lined  with  buttered  paper;  sprinkle  a 
little  powdered  sugar  over  the  cake  before  baking. 
It  is  well  to  cover  it  when  first  putting  in  the  oven, 
in  order  not  to  haiden  the  top  too  soon. 

Chocolate  Macaroons.  Beat  the  whites  of 
two  eggs  to  a  stiff  froth.  Add  gradually  eight 
tahlespoonfuls  of  powdered  sugar,  and  when  well 
mixed  sift  in  half  a  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder 
mixed  with  two  tahlespoonfuls  of  corn-starch  or 
flour,  and  four  tahlespoonfuls  of  grated  chocolate. 
Drop  on  buttered  paper  and  bake  in  a  moderate 
oven  until  well  done. 

Marble  Cake.  White  part:  Whites  of  four 
eggs,  one  cup  white  sugar,  half  cup  of  butter,  half 
cup  of  sweet  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking 
powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla  or  lemon,  and 
two  and  a  half  cups  of  sifted  flour.  Black  part: 
Yolks  of  four  eggs,  one  cup  brown  sugar,  half  cup 
molasses,  half  cup  butter,  half  cup  sour  milk,  one 
teaspoonful  cloves,  one  teaspoonful  cinnamon,  one 
teaspoonful  mace,  one  nutmeg,  one  teaspoonful  soda, 
and  one  and  a  half  cups  sifted  flour.  Put  it  in  the 
cake  dish  alternately,  first  one  part  and  then  the 
other.  The  tin  should  be  lined  with  buttered 
paper. 

Molasses  Cake.  Two  cupfuls  of  molasses, 
one  cupful  of  lard,  three-quarters  of  a  cupful  of 
water,  one  tablespoonful  of  gingei-,  three  teaspoon- 
fuls of  saleratus  dissolved,  flour  enough  to  make  it 
as  stiff  as  pound  cake  dough. 

Plum  Cake.  One  pound  of  dry  flour,  one 
pound  of  sweet  butter,  one  pound  of  sugar,  twelve 
eggs,  two  pounds  of  raisins  (the  Sultana  raisins  are 
the  best),  two  pounds  of  currants.  As  much  spice 
as  you  please.    A  glass  of  wine,  one  of  brandy,  and 


a  pound  of  citron.  Mix  the  butter  and  sugar  as  for 
pound  cake.  Sift  the  spice  and  beat  the  eggs  very 
light.  Put  in  the  fruit  last,  stirring  it  in  gradually. 
It  siiould  be  well  floiired.  If  necessary,  add  more 
flour  after  the  fruit  is  in.  Butter  sheets  of  paper, 
and  line  the  inside  of  one  large  pan,  or  two  smaller 
ones.  Lay  in  some  slices  of  citron,  then  a  layer  of 
the  mixture,  then  of  the  citron,  and  so  on  till  the 
pan  is  full.  This  cake  requires  a  tolerably  liot  and 
steady  oven,  and  will  need  baking  four  or  five 
hours,  according  to  its  thickness.  It  will  be  better 
to  let  it  cool  gradually  in  the  oven.  Ice  it  when 
thoroughly  cold. 

Pound  Cake.  One  pound  of  flour,  one  pound 
of  sugar,  one  pound  of  butter,  ten  eggs,  rose  water 
and  nutmegs. 

Raised  Cake.  Three  cups  of  new  milk,  one 
cup  of  yeast,  two  cups  of  sugar;  work  it  into  a  stiff 
batter  in  flour;  let  it  rise  over  night;  in  the  morn- 
ing put  in  one  and  a  half  cups  of  butter,  one  more 
cup  of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda  dissolved  in 
milk;  put  in  spices  and  raisins  as  long  as  you  can 
stir  it  with  a  spoon. 

Raisin  Cake.  Put  ten  ounces  of  flour  into  a 
bowl,  and  add  a  small  pinch  of  salt  and  two  tea- 
spoonfuls of  baking  powder.  Rub  in  four  ounces 
of  butter  or  clarified  dripping,  and  then  add  two 
ounces  of  moist  sugar,  four  ounces  of  Sultanas,  an 
ounce  of  candied  peel,  a  teaspoonful  of  grated 
lemon-rind,  one  egg,  and  milk  to  make  a  stiff 
paste. 

Another:  Two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  butter  and 
one  and  a  half  of  sugar,  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of 
milk,  three  of  flour,  one  of  chopped  raisins,  three 
eggs,  a  teaspoonful  and  a  half  of  baking  powder. 
Bake  in  sheets  in  a  quick  oven. 

Rice  Cake.  Put  half  a  pound  of  rice  to  soak 
over  night;  boil  very  soft  in  the  morning,  drain 
off  the  water,  mix  it  with  four  ounces  of  melted 
butter,  and  set  it  away  to  cool.  When  cold  stir 
it  into  a  quart  of  milk,  adding  a  little  salt;  then 
stir  in,  alternately,  six  eggs,  and  half  a  pint  of 
sifted  flour.  Beat  all  well  together,  and  bake  on 
the  griddle  in  cakes  about  the  size  of  a  small  des- 
sert plate.  Butter  and  send  them  to  the  table 
hot.  Instead  of  preparing  the  rice,  cold  boiled 
rice  makes  very  nice  cakes,  mixed  and  cooked  as 
the  prepared. 

Sand  Tarts.  One  pound  of  sugar;  half  a  pound 
of  butter;  one  whole  egg  and  the  yolk  of  another; 
one  pound  of  flour,  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking 
powder  sifted  with  it.  Make  a  stiff  paste,  roll  thin 
and  cut  with  a  biscuit  cutter;  wash  them  with  beaten 
white  of  an  egg;  strew  over  powdered  sugar  and 
cinnamon,  and  lay  a  few  blanched  almonds  on  top. 

Sii.vKR  Cake.  Beat  half  a  cupful  of  butter  with  a 
cupfid  of  suGiar;  the  whites  of  four  ecigs  beaten  to  a 
stiff  froth;  half  a  cupful  of  milk;  25^  of  flour,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder;  Havor  to  taste. 


174 


CAKE—  CAL  C /MINING. 


Short  Cake.  When  the  dough  is  ready  to  be 
rolled,  cut  it  in  two  parts ;  roll  one-half  of  it  the 
proper  size,  put  it  in  the  tin  and  spread  butter  over 
the  top,  then  roll  out  the  other  half  and  lay  on. 
When  the  cake  is  baked,  the  top  layer  is  easily 
lifted  off,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  falling,  as 
sometimes  happens  when  a  cold  knife  is  used  to  cut 
it.  Delicious  shortcakes  may  be  made  with  black- 
berries, peaches,  oranges  and  pineapples  chopped 
fine,  as  well  as  with  the  time-honored  strawberry. 

Snow-ball  Cake.  Whites  of  three  eggs,  one 
cup  white  sugar,  one-half  cup  butter,  teaspoonful 
soda;  stir  thick,  and  bake  in  small  tins. 

Sour-Milk  Cake.  One  cup  of  sour  milk,  one 
cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of 
flour,  one  egg.  one  level  teaspoonful  of  soda,  half 
cup  of  raisins,  chopped,  and  spiced  to  taste. 

Sponge  Cake.  Three  eggs,  one  cup  sugar,  one 
cup  flour,  one  heaping  teaspoonful  baking  powder, 
four  tablespoonfuls  boiling  water.  Break  the  eggs 
into  the  mixing  dish,  beat  till  light;  stir  in  the 
sugar;  sift  the  flour  and  stir  the  baking  powder 
thoroughly  through  it,  and  mix  gradually  into  the 
sugar  and  eggs,  then  add  the  boiling  water,  a 
spoonful  at  a  time;  add  a  little  salt,  flavor  to  taste 
and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven.  The  same  recipe 
baked  in  a  large  dripping  pan  and  spread  with  jell, 
makes  a  nice  roll  jell  cake.  Turn  out  on  a  cloth 
and  roll  it  with  the  cloth  under  it  to  keep  it  from 
breaking. 

'  Cheap  Sponge  Cake.  Four  eggs,  three  cups 
of  sugai",  one  cup  of  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of 
saleratus,  flour  enough  to  make  a  good  stiff  batter, 
a  little  salt  and  spice;  quick  oven.  Bake  it  twenty 
minutes. 

Tea  Cake.  Take  four  cups  of  flour,  three  of 
sugar,  one  of  butter,  three  eggs,  one  cup  of  milk, 
one  spoonful  of  saleratus. 

Wafers.  One  pound  of  flour,  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  butter,  two  eggs  beaten,  one  glass  pre- 
served quince  juice,  and  a  nutmeg. 

Fried  Wafers.  Two  eggs,  two  large  spoon- 
fuls of  sugar,  one  nutmeg,  flour  enough  to  knead 
up  hard;  roll  thin. 

Waffles.  Beat  carefully  into  one  quart  of 
flour  one  quart  of  sweet  milk,  one  cup  of  melted 
butter,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  scant  half 
cup  of  good  home-made  yeast.  When  raised,  add 
two  eggs  well  beaten,  and  let  the  batter  rise  half 
^n  hour  longer.  Bake  as  soon  as  light  in  hot, 
greased  waffle-irons. 

Rice  Waffles.  A  pint  bowl  of  cold  boiled 
rice,  thin  it  with  cold  milk,  one  well  beaten  egg,  a 
small  piece  of  butter,  and  flour  to  make  a  batter 
stiff  enough  to  bake. 

Wedding  Cake.  One  pound  of  butter,  one 
pound  of  sugar,  nine  eggs,  one  pound  of  flour, 
three  pounds  of  cun-ants,  two  pounds  of  stoned 
raisins,  one-half  teacup   of  wine  or  brandy,  from 


one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  citron,  one 
grated  nutmeg,  some  mace  and  cinnamon.  Rub 
the  butter  and  sugar  together;  when  light,  add 
first  the  yolks  and  then  the  whites  of  the  eggs, — 
the  yolks  and  wliites  of  the  eggs  to  be  beaten  sep- 
arately,— then  put  in  nearly  all  your  flour,  keeping 
out  just  enough  to  dust  your  raisins  and  cement 
them;  cut  your  citron  in  such  slices  as  you  like, 
and  put  in  as  you  put  ihp  cake  in  the  pan;  after 
mixing  j-our  fruit  in  the  cake,  grease  a  four-quart 
pan  carefully,  line  it  with  clean  straw  paper,  a  little 
butter  on  the  paper;  put  your  cake  in  and  bake,  in 
not  too  quick  an  oven,  for  it  burns  easily.  After  it 
is  baked  take  it  out  of  the  pan,  paper  and  all,  and 
let  it  cool.  The  next  day,  to  keep  it  fresh  and 
moist,  put  it  back  in  the  pan,  or  in  a  tin  cake-box, 
and  keep  it  tightly  covered. 

Calash,  a  light  carriage  with  low  wheels,  having 
a  top  or  hood  that  can  be  raised  or  lowered,  seats 
for  four  inside,  a  separate  seat  for  the  driver,  and 
often  a  movable  front,  so  that  it  can  be  used  either 
as  an  open  or  close  carnage;  also,  a  carriage  top 
which  can  be  easily  thrown  back. 

Calcimining.  To  put  two  coats  on  a  room  1 2 
by  15  feet,  get  five  pounds  of  Spanish  whiting  and 
one-half  pound  of  white  glue.  Some  prefer  Pnris 
white  (zinc  white).  Pour  a  pint  of  boiling  water 
on  the  glue,  and  set  in  a  warm  place,  stirring 
frequently  till  it  dissolves.  The  glue  will  soak  in 
an  hour,  or  it  can  be  soaked  over  night.  Mix  the 
whiting  to  a  cream  with  warm  water,  and  add  the 
glue,  stirring  well.  If  too  thick  to  spread  easily, 
thin  with  water.  Now  try  a  little  on  the  wall,  and 
if  it  rubs  off  when  dry,  add  more  dissolved  glue; 
but  the  above  amount  will  make  it  stick  if  the  glue 
is  good.  Shade  with  any  dry  color.  Some  use 
one-fourth  pound  of  blue,  and  it  makes  French 
gray. 

To  make  white,  put  in  ultramarine  blue;  take 
enough  to  make  it  about  three  shades  on  the  blue; 
inix  it  well  with  water,  then  strain  into  your  calci- 
mine; try  it  on  some  wall,  and  let  it  dry,  and  see  if 
it  is  the  right  shade.  The  trouble  with  calcimine, 
it  is  often  put  on  too  thick,  causing  it  to  scale  off. 
To  make  a  job,  one  must  put  on  three  coats.  Making 
drab,  burnt  amber,  dry ;  buff,  chrome  yellow ;  stone, 
raw  amber  and  blue;  peachblow,  chrome  yellow 
and  red,  dry ;  lavender,  blue  and  red ;  crimson,  rose- 
pink;  mix  with  water  and  strain  through  fine  cloth. 
Sweep  the  walls  thoroughly  with  a  stiff  broom, 
and  scrape  grease  spots,  and  fill  all  cracks  or  holes 
with  whiting,  made  into  putty  with  water,  and 
allow  time  for  the  mending  to  harden.  If  the  walls 
are  very  dirty  wash  them  first  with  a  half  pound 
of  glue  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  then 
apply  the  calcimine  with  a  whitewash  brush.  Put 
on  the  ceiling  first,  always  passing  the  brush  in  the 
same  direction,  say  north  and  south.  In  putting  on 


CAL  CiMINING—  CAL  VBS. 


I7S 


the  second  coat,  pass  the  brush  east  and  west,  and 
your  ceiUng  will  not  be  streaked.  In  doing  the 
walls  go  around  for  the  first  coat  and  up  and  down 
for  the  second. 

If  the  walls  have  been  previously  whitewashed, 
wash  them  first  with  solution  of  two  ounces  of  white 
vitriol  in  two  gallons  of  water.  Ceilings  that  look 
rough  and  are  inclined  to  peel,  should  be  washed 
with  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  alum  in  one  quart 
of  water. 

Calcine  (cal-sine',  or  cal'sin),  to  reduce  to  a 
powder  or  brittle  state  by  heating;  or,  to  expel 
some  volatile  matter  from,  as  carbonic  acid  from 
limestone;  to  oxidize. 

Calculus  (cal'cu-lus)  is  sometimes  found  in  the 
excretory  canals  and  other  reservoirs  of  a  huinan 
or  animal  body.  They  are  solid,  hard  concretions, 
like  stones  in  appearance.  The  remedy  consists  of 
almost  any  alkaline  substance,  especially  the  popu- 
lar diuretics,  as  soda  and  carbonate  of  potash. 
Thorough,  scientific  treatment,  however,  requires 
the  services  of  a  skillful,  conscientious  physician. 

Calipers  (cal'i-pers),  or  Caliper  Compasses,  are 

compasses  with  curved  legs,  for  measuring  the 
caliber,  or  diameter,  of  round  bodies. 

Call-bird,  a  bird  taught  to  allure  others  into  a 
snare. 

Call  Loan,  money  lent  by  a  banker  or  other  per- 
son, secured  by  the  deposit  of  stocks,  bonds  or 
other  marketable  securities,  to  be  repaid  when  called 
for.  A  failure  to  repay  within  24  hours  after  due 
is  regarded  as  authoiity  to  the  lender  to  sell  the 
securities  in  his  possession. 

Callous,  hardened,  as  flesh. 

Callus,  new  growth  over  the  end  of  a  cutting, 
in  plants. 

Calves.  The  feeding  and  care  of  calves  are 
matters  which  are  often  left  to  the  calves  them- 
selves and  their  dams.  One  of  the  essentials  of 
beginning  a  good  breed,  however,  is  the  proper 
care  of  young  calves.  When  the  calf  is  permitted 
to  run  with  the  cow  for  a  few  months,  and  then 
left  to  take  its  chances  for  food  on  the  pastures 
with  other  cattle,  a  runt  is  often  the  result,  and  it 
will  remain  a  runt,  even  if  it  be  of  the  largest  and 
best  breed.  There  is  no  food  so  good  as  mother's 
milk  to  develop  a  calf,  and  if  really  excellent  stock 
is  to  be  raised,  the  calf  should  be  allowed  to  run 
with  the  mother  for  three  months  at  least.  But 
now,  in  the  older  States,  milk  has  become  so  val- 
uable that  few  stock-raisers  can  afford  to  give  up 
the  profits  of  the  milking  season  for  the  benefit  of 
the  calf  An  artificial  method  of  feeding  has 
therefore  to  be  adopted.  Food  should  be  given 
the  calf  that  most  resembles  the  mother's  milk. 
At  first  warm  new  milk  should  be  used,  and   this 


should  be  continued  ui>til  the  calf  is  fully  taught  to 
drink.  The  calf  can  be  taken  from  the  cow  when 
it  is  a  week  or  ten  days  old,  and  can  be  taught 
to  drink  by  inserting  the  finger  into  the  mouth, 
wetting  the  nose  with  milk,  and  dropping  the  hand 
into  it.  Thus  the  calf  will  continue  to  suck  the 
finger,  and  gradually  learn  to  draw  in  the  milk 
and  swallow  it.  If  the  calf  is  obstinate  and  im- 
petuous, and  is  inclined  to  butt,  hold  its  head 
firmly,  pressing  it  gently  into  the  vessel  so  that  its 
nose  shall  constantly  touch  the  milk,  but  not  so 
deeply  as  to  strangle  the  calf.  A  little  patience 
will,  after  a  day  or  two,  do  the  work;  but  occa- 
sionally a  calf  is  so  obstinate  as  to  render  it  almost 
impossible  to  teach  it  to  drink,  and  some  will  even 
pine  and  die  before  they  will  drink  anything  but 
mother's  milk.  Such  are  not  worth  the  trouble  of 
raising.  After  the  calf  has  been,  thoroughly  taught 
to  drink,  skim-milk  can  be  gradually  substituted 
for  new;  this  should  be  made  more  nutritious  by 
the  addition  of  shorts  or  coarse  wheat  flour, 
scalded,  flax-seed  meal,  or  oat  or  corn  meal,  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  keep  the  animal  dry  and  warm,  and  it  should 
be  fed  three  or  four  times  a  day.  When  it  is  a 
month  or  six  weeks  old  it  can  be  turned  out  to 
pasture,  but  separated  from  the  older  cattle;  but  it 
should  always  be  confined  under  shelter  of  nighls 
and  stormy  days.  Feeding  twice  a  day  will  now  be 
sufficient.  When  it  is  three  months  of  age  the 
calf  should  be  taught  to  rely  on  the  solid  foods,  and 
at  four  months  the  milk  can  be  discontinued  en- 
tirely, though  the  longer  the  milk  is  continued  the 
thriftier  will  be  the  growth  of  the  calf.  It  should 
be  faithfully  watered.  Calves  take  readily  to 
thickened  milk  in  the  summer  months,  and  devour 
it  with  avidity.  When  they  are  two  to  three 
months  old  they  are  often  allowed  to  drink  whey, 
but  this  is  not  a  valuable  food  for  calves,  and  they 
should  never  be  forced  to  live  on  it  exclusively. 
The  stock-raiser  should  constantly  aim  to  give  the 
growing  animal  all  the  well-adaplcd,  nutritious 
food  it  will  take  with  a  relish,  always  remem- 
bering that  to  make  stock-raising  profitable  the 
animal  should  be  brought  to  the  earliest  possible 
maturity.  The  practice  of  "  deaconing  "  calves  is 
large  at  the  East,  where  dairy  products  are  high, 
and  the  food  supply  scant  and  hard  to  be  obtained. 
"  Deaconing "  is  killing  the  calf  as  soon  as  the 
cow's  udder  is  sufficiently  drawn  down  as  to  re- 
duce inflammation  and  prevent  caking.  This  is 
done  so  that  the  dairymen  can  have  an  immediate 
use  of  the  cow's  milk  for  dairy  purposes  or  for 
sale,  and  is  thought  to  be  more  profitable  than 
raising  the  calves.  But  in  the  West,  even  in  the 
dairy  districts  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  Iowa,  this 
is  not  much  practiced,  the  abundance  and  cheap- 
ness of  forage  crops  and  grain  food  being  such 
that    it    is   thought   more    profitable    to     rear  the 


t'j6 


CAL  VE3-CAMPH0R. 


calves,  especially  those  that. promise  to  make  good 
dairy  stock.  The  first  winter  of  a  calf's  life  is  its 
critical  period.  It  is  the  time  of  severe  weather 
and  chan<(e  of  food,  and  a  time  when  shiftless 
farmers  abandon  the  calves  to  the  inclemencies  of 
the  season  and  a  make-shift  way  of  procuring 
their  food  about  stacks,  among  the  larger  cattle  in 
the  yard,  and  oblige  them  to  seek  shelter  in  the 
same  vagrant  fashion.  The  result  is  that  the  best 
calves  run  down  in  flesh,  become  hide-bound  and 
grubby,  and  often,  toward  spring,  die  of  sheer 
neglect.  The  opposite  method  should  be  practiced. 
First,  calves  in  winter  should  be  warmly  housed, 
but  with  ample  ventilation.  Their  sheds  or 
stables  should  never  be  damp,  close  or  stuffy,  and 
they  should  be  carefully  cleaned  each  day.  Be- 
sides plenty  of  hay  they  should  have  other  food, 
like  a  mixture  of  corn  meal,  oats,  oil-meal,  etc.; 
but  more  essential  than  all  is  the  feeding  of  roots 
during  the  winter.  Calves,  unless  rightly  fed,  are 
apt  to  become  constipated  in  the  cold  season. 
This  can  be  prevented  by  a  liberal  feeding  of  roots. 
For  this  purpose  carrots  are  the  best,  though  beets, 
turnips  and  potatoes  can  be  used.  The  object 
should  always  be  a  healthy,  full  feed  in  the  treat- 
ment of  young  animals,  and  an  avoidance  of  per- 
mitting them  to  run  down  and  stop  growing.  In 
this  way  only  can  profit  be  secured  in  raising 
calves. 

Diseases.  The  best  medicine  for  the  young 
calf  is  the  first  milk  of  the  cow,  which  it  should 
always  be  permitted  to  take.  Bleeding  at  the 
navel  may  be  safely  stopped  by  tying  a  string 
around  the  cord  hanging  from  it. 

Diarrhoea  is  the  disease  most  dangerous  to 
calves.  It  is  brought  on  by  neglect,  exposure, 
over  and  under  feeding.  The  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  remove  the  acidity  of  the  stomach.  Ounce 
doses  of  rhubarb  and  magnesia  may  be  given  with 
the  milk.  Two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts  or  two 
ounces  of  castor  oil  will  often  succeed.  Follow 
with  a  light  astringent.  Prepared  chalk,  two 
drams,  or  magnesia  one  ounce,  pow^dered  opium 
ten  grains,  powdered  catechu  half  a  dram, 
tincture  of  capsicum  two  drams,  essence  of  pep- 
permint five  drops.  Mix  and  administer  twice 
daily  in  milk  or  gruel. 

Castration.  When  the  bull  calves  are  three 
weeks  old,  if  in  good  health,  they  should  be  cas- 
trated. It  bhould  certainly  be  done  before  they 
are  four  weeks  old.  Many  of  the  best  stock- 
raisers  incline  to  the  opinion  that  as  soon  as  the 
calf  begins  fairly  to  gain  size  and  flesh,  say  at  two 
weeks  old,  is  the  proper  time.  Every  person  who 
purposes  to  breed  cattle  should  know  how  to  do 
this.  The  operation  is  quite  simple,  and  easily 
performed. 

Secure  the  calf  so  it  may  remain  standing  on  its 
feet,  but  cannot  struggle  severely.     Have  a  knife 


ready  with  a  keen-edged  blade.  The  blade  of  a 
budding-knife  is  the  proper  shape.  Seize  the 
scrotum  from  behind,  and  with  two  light,  swift, 
sharp  strokes  cut  through  and  into  the  testicle. 
Separate  the  membrane  where  it  unites,  pull  the 
testicle  out  until  the  cord  shows  from  four  to  six 
inches,  and  cut  it  with  a  pair  of  nippers  or  rather 
dull  shears.  It  will  save  loss  of  blood.  So  operate 
with  the  other,  and  the  work  is  done.  If  from 
any  cause  severe  bleeding  ensues,  inject  a  little 
tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  into  the  cavities,  and 
wet  a  soft  rag  with  the  tincture  and  press  it  well 
into  the  cavity.  If  these  be  not  at  hand,  push  a 
little  salt  and  lard  into  the  cavity.  If  tlie  opera- 
tion has  been  careful!}'  performed,  nothing  will 
generally  be  required.  The  calf  should  be  kept 
free  from  interference  by  other  animals  until  the 
parts  are  healed,  whicii  will  usually  occur  in  a 
week.  If  they  have  been  used  to  the  company  of 
other  calves,  they  should  not  be  deprived  of  it  now, 
else  they  will  pine.  One  reason  why  we  advise 
early  gelding  is,  it  should  be  done  before  the  calf 
is  taken  off  of  new  milk,  and  it  should  not  be  de- 
prived of  the  natural  milk  until  it  recovers  from  the 
shock.  Care  must  be  taken  that  flies  do  not  get 
near,  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  parts  operated 
on.  To  prevent  this,  if  there  are  flies,  keep  the 
calves  in  a  jiretty  dark,  but  well  ventilated,  place. 
Most  persons  will  find  it  awkward  at  first  to  geld 
as  we  have  directed.  A  little  practice,  however, 
with  tact  and  firmness,  will  render  all  easy,  es- 
pecially if  one  can  have  the  advantage  of  seeing  an 
expert  operate  once.  If  suppuration  ensues,  re- 
course must  be  had  to  mild  palliative  measures. 
Keep  the  parts  washed  clean,  twice  a  day,  with 
warm  rainwater  and  castile  soap,  and  inject  a  small 
quantity  of  tincture  of  aloes  and  myrrh.  If  the 
parts  become  unhealthy  or  ulcerated  (for  mere 
suppuration  is  healthy  action),  wash  with  a  weak 
and  clear  solution  of  sal  soda,  or  hard-wood  ashes. 
If  proud  flesh  should  arise  (a  rare  occurrence), 
burnt  alum,  pounded  very  fine,  may  be  applied, 
or  the  parts  may  be  touched  with  lunar  caustic. 

Calyx,  the  leaf-cup  of  the  flower.  The  calyx  of 
an  apple  or  pear  is  the  blossom  end,  which  is  op- 
posite the  stem  or  stalk  end. 

Cam,  the  projecting  part  of  an  eccentric  or  wavy 
wheel,  to  produce  alternate  or  reciprocating  motion. 

Cambium,  the  viscid  secretion  between  the  grow- 
ing wood  and  inner  bark.  It  is  plant  nutriment, 
forming  into  new  tissue,  both  of  wood  and  bark. 

Camphor  (cam 'fur),  an  odoriferous  gum,  of 
value  in  medicines,  household  art,  etc.  When  one 
swallows  too  much  of  this  drug  by  mistake,  he 
will  have  giddiness,  faintness,  nausea,  vomiting, 
stupor,  and  if  the  dose  was  large  enough,  he  will 
finally  suffer  delirium  and  death.     He  should  take 


CAMPHOR—  CANCER. 


177 


large  emetics  of  warm  water,  tickling  the  throat 
with  a  feather,  etc.  He  should  also  have  ammonia 
applied  to  the  nose,  have  cold  water  dashed  over 
the  chest,  and  take  40  drops  of  sal  volatile  in  strong 
coffee  every  half  hour,  and  be  kept  awake  by  two 
persons  walking  him  between  them  constantly. 

Camping.  Living  out  of  doors,  with  covered 
wagons  or  tents,  is  always  characteristic  of  frontier 
life,  and  in  the  older  sections  of  the  United  States, 
an  occasional  trip  by  covered  wagon  is  still  made, 
often  more  for  pleasure  and  romance  than  for 
saving  expenses;  and  camping  out  is  and  probably 
always  will  be  practiced  by  hunters  and  fishermen 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  After  one  has  had  some 
experience  in  such  life,  especially  if  he  has  sense 
and  energy  enough  to  improve  in  methods  and 
conveniences,  he  will  receive  many  valuable  ideas. 
We  have  space  here  for  only  general  directions. 

For  wagon  cover,  oiled  cloth  is  necessary  only 
for  very  long  journeys  or  protracted  life  in  camp. 
Unpainted  or  unoiled  ducking,  or  even  stout  mus- 
lin, will  sufficiently  protect  against  most  storms. 
Wagon  bows,  and  indeed  all  the  rigging  about  the 
wagon  and  harness,  should  be  made  very  secure 
before  starting  on  the  journey,  for  breakages  on  the 
road  cause  most  vexatious  delays,  annoyances,  and 
sometimes  considerable  expense.  The  old-time 
feed-trough,  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  wagon  box, 
is  particularly  difficult  to  manage.  It  should  be 
both  light  and  strong,  with  hoop-iron  nailed  on  the 
upper  edge  all  around,  or  else  there  will  be  trouble. 
Suspended,  as  it  has  to  be,  it  cannot  with  safety  be 
loaded  with  heavy  articles.  When  there  is  room 
inside  the  wagon  bed  for  a  couple  of  feed-boxes 
(being  one  small  one  for  each  horse),  it  is  better  to 
carry  such  boxes,  and  to  carry  them  in  that  way, 
than  to  have  a  suspended  feed-box  on  the  outside. 
As  to  the  essentials  of  good  wagoning,  see  article 
Wagon. 

In  the  care  of  the  team,  besides  what  may  be 
learned  from  the  articles  Horse,  Harness,  Bridle, 
Check  Ease  and  Rein,  etc.,  we  will  add  here  that, 
as  it  is  often  difficult  to  obtain  hay  or  fodder,  a 
feed  of  green  brush  is  a  good  substitute ;  and  not 
only  so,  such  feed  should  be  given  a  horse,  under 
all  circumstances,  two  or  three  times  a  week, — all 
he  will  eat.  Oak,  hickory,  bass-wood,  ash,  maple 
and  beech  are  all  proper.  On  the  road,  horses 
should  be  fed  three  times  a  day  and  offered  water 
from  four  to  six  times.  For  nearly  all  long  jour- 
neys the  horses  should  be  sharp  shod.  Watch 
their  motion  the  first  day's  travel  after  shoeing, 
and  if  any  limping  is  noticed,  ascertain  which  shoe 
it  is  that  "  pinches,"  and  have  a  blacksmith  re-set 
it.  In  hitching  the  horses  at  night  particular  care 
is  required.  Never  hitch  to  saplings  except  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  animal  cannot  wind  himself  up 
by   going  around  it.     The  sapling  should   be   so 

near  other  trees  or  some  other  object  that  the  horse 
12 


cannot  go  around  it,  or  a  cross  bar  from  it  to 
another  tree  should  be  nailed  or  tied  up.  It  is 
generally  unsafe  to  tie  to  dead  saplings.  Tying 
to  a  straight,  smooth  board  fence  is  safe.  In  hitch- 
ing to  a  rail  fence,  always  select  the  inner  corner, — 
that  is,  the  corner  further  from  you  as  you  approach 
the  fence. 

Camping  grounds  on  the  road  are  generally 
selected  from  an  eighth  to  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
some  occupied  dwelling,  if  practicable,  so  as  to  be 
conveniently  near  for  obtaining  favors  or  supplies, 
and  yet  not  so  near  as  to  molest  the  residents.  At 
those  times  of  the  year  when  mosquitoes  are 
troublesome,  it  is  well  to  take  along  some  drugged 
solution  to  rub  over  the  hands  and  face,  to  keep 
them  off.  It  is  difficult  to  manage  netting  satisfac- 
torily on  such  trips. 

As  to  diet,  one  wants  less  of  the  condiments 
with  him  than  anywhere  else,  as  his  out-door  life 
gives  him  a  good  appetite  for  plain  food,  and  con- 
diments create  a  preternatural  thirst  and  endanger 
the  health  in  almost  every  way.  Sugar  and  mo- 
lasses had  better  be  dispensed  with  almost  alto- 
gether. 

Apparatus  for  cooking  is  a  source  of  inuch 
anxious  thought.  Coal-oil  or  kerosene  stoves, 
made  purposely,  are  a  great  convenience,  especially 
in  a  prairie  country;  but,  taking  all  things  into  con- 
sideration, the  old-fashioned  pot,  the  skillet  or 
frying-pan  and  a  coffee-pot,  to  be  used  o\  er  a  com- 
mon wood  fire  on  the  ground,  are  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. Glass  and  earthen  ware  should  not  be  taken 
along.  Folding  sheet-iron  stoves  have  been  in- 
vented, and  when  a  good  one  can  be  obtained  it 
would  be  advisable  to  purchase  one.  In  rainy 
weather  the  party  will  of  course  take  the  precau- 
tion to  keep  constantly  on  hand  in  the  wagon  dry 
kindling  enough  at  least  to  start  one  fire,  as  they 
may  have  to  stop  at  night  where  it  is  difficult  to 
obtain  dry  wood. 

A  very  important  element  of  the  outfit  is  a  box 
with  shelves  or  partitions  in  it,  to  serve  as  a  cup- 
board and  larder,  and  it  should  be  kept  in  the  hind 
end  of  the  wagon,  convenient  of  access  to  one  who 
stands  on  the  ground.  In  stopping  for  camp,  the 
hind-gate  is  usually  taken  ouj  and  this  "cupboard" 
box  easily  slid  out  and  set  on  the  ground.  No 
rank,  stale  meat  should  be  allowed  in  this  box,  as 
it  would  taint  everything  kept  there.  Consider- 
able skill  is  required  to  so  arrange  this  box  and  its 
contents  that  the  different  articles  of  food  will  not 
spill  out. 

Canada  Thistle:  see  Thistle. 

Canary  Birds,  to  Clear  of  Lick  :  see  Bird. 

Cancer,  a  corroding  ulcer,  having  a  core  which 
consists  of  a  central  body  and  branches,  similar  in 
outline  to  that  of  a  crab  (Latin,  cancer^:  hence  the 
name.     It  comes  from  an  incurable  constitutional 


lyS 


CANCER  -  CAND  T. 


disease.  The  secret  of  the  cancer  doctor's  "  suc- 
cess" consists  in  his  curing  other  sores,  which  are  not 
really  cancers.  Said  one  of  them  to  us,  "  con- 
fidentially,"  "  I  know  a  cancer  when  I  see  it;  I 
give  it  some  other  name  than  cancer,  and  do  not 
undertake  to  cure  it."  Good  physicians,  doubtless, 
often  mitigate  the  sufferings  of  the  patient  and 
prolong  his  life.  This  is  the  best  advice  which 
can  be  given  by  the  medical  profession  at  the  present 
day.  Anodyne  poultices,  salves,  liniments,  etc.,  may 
be  applied  in  home  treatment,  and  a  surgeon  may 
extract  the  cancer  once  or  twice,  but  all  these  things 
give  but  temporary  relief.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
have  the  case  in  charge  of  a  doctor,  if  for  nothing 
but  to  keep  the  patient  from  injuring  himself  by 
injudicious  treatment. 

Caudles.  Candle-wicking  is  so  cheap  at  the 
present  day  that  no  farmer  wants  to  manufacture 
any  for  home  use.  In  order  to  make  candles  in 
molds,  which  are  far  better  than  dip  candles, 
first  secure  the  wicking  in  the  center  of  each  mold 
by  looping  one  end  over  a  stick  across  the  larger 
end  and  tying  knots  just  exterior  to  the  smaller 
end.  The  end  of  the  wick  at  the  smaller  end  of 
the  molds  has  to  be  drawn  through  by  a  hooked 
wire.  Pour  the  melted  tallow  in,  and  after  it  has 
become  cool,  warm  the  mold  just  enough  to  allow 
the  candles  to  slide  out  easily,  when  they  all  can 
be  readily  withdrawn  at  once. 

Dip  candles  are  made  by  looping  a  number  of 
separate  wicks  over  a  rod  and  dipping  them  into 
melted  tallow  until  the  required  thickness  is  at- 
tained, allowing  the  tallow  which  adheres  after 
each  dipping  to  cool  before  dipping  again.  Before 
the  second  dip,  it  is  well  to  lay  the  wicks  on  a  flat 
surface  and  straighten  them,  and  fix  a  suitable  con- 
trivance for  holding  the  rods  while  drying  between 
the  dips. 

A  good  tallow  for  candles  consists  of  about  Yi 
beef  and  2^  mutton  suet.  If  required  for  summer 
use,  it  will  be  improved  by  hardening,  as  fol- 
lows: Put  a  little  bees-wax  with  the  tallow,  espe- 
cially if  dark  and  not  fit  to  sell;  put  into  a  suitable 
kettle,  adding  ■weak  lye,  and  gently  boil,  an  hour 
or  two  each  day  for  two  days,  stirring  and  skim- 
ming well ;  each  morniijg  cutting  it  out  and  scrap- 
ing off  the  bottom  which  is  soft,  adding  fresh  lye 
(be  sure  it  is  not  too  strong),  i,  or  2,  or  3  gallons, 
according  to  the  amount  of  tallow.  The  third 
morning  use  water  in  which  alum  and  saltpeter  are 
dissolved,  at  the  rate  of  i  pound  each  for  30 pounds 
of  tallow;  then  simmer,  stir,  and  skim  again;  let 
cool,  and  you  can  take  it  off  the  water  for  use. 
They  may  be  dipped  or  run  in  molds.  For  dip- 
ping, allow  two  pounds  for  each  dozen  candles. 
Or,  dissolve  I  pound  of  alum  in  water,  and  stir  in 
5  pounds  of  tallow,  and  melt  them  together. 

To  make  lard  candles,  to  every  8  pounds  of  lard 
add  I  ounce  of  nitric  acid.     Weigh  the  lard  and 


place  it  over  a  slow  fire  and  just  melt  it;  then  add 
the  acid,  and  it  is  ready  to  mold.  A  little  bees- 
wax will  improve  it.  Tallow  can  be  hardened 
with  resin,  %  pound  of  the  latter  to  each  pound 
of  the  former. 

Candy,  a  preparation  of  sugar,  partially  crystal- 
lized and  generally  flavored  or  spiced.  Dissolved 
sugar  or  molasses,  boiled  only  to  such  an  extent 
that  when  drawn  out  it  forms  fine  threads,  which 
crystallize  and  break,  is  said  to  be  of  "  weak  candy" 
height;  boiled  a  little  moie,  so  that  it  will  draw 
out  into  a  larger  string,  and  bladders  can  be  blown 
through  the  thippings  from  the  ladle,  it  is  called 
"  bloom  sugar;"  boiled  still  more,  until  it  can  be 
clashed  off  into  a  feathery  form,  it  is  called  "  feath- 
ered sugar;"  still  more,  when  a  portion  of  it  on  a 
stick  dipped  into  cold  water  will  harden  and 
crackle,  it  is  called  "crackled  sugar;"  and  lastly, 
when  thus  dipjjing  it  into  cold  water  it  will  snap 
like  glass  as  soon  as  it  strikes  the  water,  it  is  "  full 
candy"  height,  and  is  called  "  caramel  sugar." 

Instead  of  being  imwholesome  or  injurious,  a 
pure  candy  supplies  not  only  a  pleasant  but  essen- 
tial element  of  food.  It  is  only  when  it  is  made 
the  vehicle  for  carrying  into  the  stomachs  of  the 
young  insidious  poisons  that  its  use  should  be  con- 
demned. Cane  sugar,  when  absolutely  pure,  is 
one  of  the  most  wholesome  dietetic  articles  known 
to  biological  science.  The  " 'lasses  "  candy  made 
on  the  farm,  if  made  from  pure  cane  sugar,  is 
beneficial  instead  of  detrmental.  The  best  and 
safest  articles  to  color  with,  are:  for  red  color, 
cochineal,  carmine  and  Brazil  wood;  for  purple 
colors,  madder  purple,  logwood  and  indigo;  for 
blue  colors,  indigo  and  litmus;  for  green  colors,5ap 
green,  yellow  lake  (or  French  berries)  and  indigo, 
etc. 

Adulteration.  "  Store"  candies  arc  adulter- 
ated in  a  thousand  different  ways,  many  of  them 
actually  poisonous.  Glucose  is  abundantly  used 
for  pure  cane  sugar,  but  the  greatest  danger  is  in 
colored  candies.  Not  being  able  to  determine  the 
article  by  which  candies  are  colored,  it  is,  perhaps, 
the  best  not  to  permit  the  child  to  buy  them; 
neither  should  the  confectioner  be  permitted  to 
wrap  his  candies  in  colored  paper,  for  the  child  is 
liable  to  get  it  into  the  mouth  and  swallow  it  and 
become  poisoned. 

To  make  common  sugar  candy  at  home,  to 
two  pounds  of  C  or  common  white  sugar  add 
enough  water  to  reduce  it  to  a  sirup;  add,  after 
having  dissolved  it,  one-half  teaspoon  cream  tar- 
tar and  lump  tartaric  acid  size  of  a  marrowfat 
pea  or  small  bullet.  Boil  in  a  brass  vessel,  if  con- 
venient; if  not,  copper,  which  is  better,  or  tin,  but 
never  use  an  iron  vessel;  be  very  careful  not  to 
scorch  it;  boil  until  brittle,  when  put  in  water; 
pour  into  a  greased  tin  pan  or  cooler,  and  flavor  to 
suit  the  taste.     This  should  be  immediately  well 


CANDT—CANE,  SUGAR. 


179 


pulled,  in  order  to  give  it  a  white,  silvery-like  ap- 
pearance. Handle  with  buttered  fingers.  It 
helps  the  candy  much  to  separate  a  batch  into  two 
parts,  and,  after  having  pulled  one  till  white,  to 
color  the  other  with  extract  of  raspberry  or  any 
harmless  colored  flavoring,  and  pull  and  mix,  giv- 
ing it  a  streaked  appearance. 

Or,  take  one  cup  of  sugar  and  one  cup  of  sweet 
cream ;  boil  it  till  it  is  of  a  light  brown  color,  then 
pour  it  into  a  buttered  dish. 

To  make  molasses  candy,  take  i  quart  molasses, 
1 1^  pounds  brown  sugar,  the  juice  of  a  large 
lemon;  mix  the  molasses  and  sugar  together,  but- 
ter the  inside  of  a  kettle  and  put  it  in.  Let  it  boil 
over  a  moderate  fire  for  2  hours,  then  add  the 
lemon  juice  and  boil  1^  hour;  stir  it  often,  to  pre- 
vent it  from  burning;  when  thoroughly  done  it 
will  cease  boiling;  then  butter  a  pan  and  put  it  in 
to  cool;  if  sufficiently  done  it  will  be  crisp  and 
brittle;  if  not  it  will  be  tough  and  ropy.  Nuts  of 
any  kind  may  be  added  just  before  it  is  put  in  the 
pan;  they  must  be  well  stirred  in.  The  candy  may 
be  worked  by  keeping  the  hands  well  covered  with 
flour,  or  by  greasing  them  well  with  butter.  The 
working  must  be  done  as  soon  as  it  is  cool  enough 
to  handle.  It  may  be  made  of  molasses  only — in 
this  case  it  requires  longer  boiling — and  other 
flavoring  may  be  used  instead  of  lemon. 

Another  Recipe  for  Making  Molasses 
Candy.  One  quart  good  molasses,  one  half  cup 
vinegar,  one  cup  of  sugar,  butter  the  size  of  an 
egg,  and  one  teaspoonful  saleratus. 

1st.  Dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  vinegar. 

2d.  Mix  with  the  molasses,  and  boil,  stirring 
frequently  until  it  hardens  when  dropped  from  the 
spoon  into  cold  water;  then  stir  in  the  butter  and 
soda,  the  latter  dissolved  in  hot  water. 

3d.  Flavor  to  your  taste,  give  one  hard  final 
stir,  and  pour  into  buttered  dishes. 

4th.  As  it  cools,  cut  into  squares  for  "  taffy,"  or, 
while  soft  enough  to  liandle,  pull  white  into  sticks, 
using  only  the  buttered  tips  of  your  fingers  for  that 
purpose. 

BuTTER-ScoTCH.  Sugar,  I  pound;  butter,  y^ 
pound ;  cream  of  tartar,  y^  teaspoonful.  When 
done,  which  you  can  determine  by  dropping  in  cold 
water,  pour  into  buttered  pans  to  cool,  then  cut  in- 
to any  shape  desired. 

Sugar  Candy.  Six  cups  sugar,  one  cup  of 
vinegar,  one  cup  of  water,  tablespoonful  of  butter 
put  in  at  the  last,  with  one  teaspoonful  of  saleratus 
dissolved  in  hot  water. 

1st.  Boil,  without  stirring,  half  an  hour,  or  until 
it  crisjis  in  cold  water. 

2d.  Pull  white  with  the  tips  of  your  fingers. 

3d.  Flavor  to  taste. 

Degrees  of  Boiling  Sugar.  In  preparing 
sugar  for  candies,  etc.,  the  confectioner  requires 
different  degrees  of  boiling  in  order  to  bring  the 


sugar  to  the  proper  state  for  the  various  articles  he 
prepares. 

Well  clarified  and  perfectly  transparent  sirup  is 
boiled  until  a  skimmer  dipped  into  it,  and  a  por- 
tion touched  between  the  forefinger  and  thumb,  on 
opening  them,  is  drawn  into  a  small  thread  which 
crystallizes  and  breaks.  This  is  called  a  -weak 
candy  height. 

If  boiled  again,  it  will  draw  into  a  larger  string, 
and  if  bladders  may  be  blown  with  the  mouth 
through  the  drippings  from  the  ladle,  it  has  ac- 
quired the  second  degree,  and  is  called  bloom  sugar. 

After  still  further  boiling,  it  arrives  at  the  state 
called  feathereil  sugar.  To  determine  this,  dip  the 
skimmer  and  shake  it  over  the  pan,  then  give  it  a 
sudden  jerk,  and  the  sugar  will  fly  off  like  feathers. 

The  next  degree  is  that  of  crackled  sugar,  in 
which  state  the  sugar  that  hangs  to  a  stick  dipped 
into  it,  and  put  directly  into  cold  water,  is  not  dis- 
solved off",  but  turns  hard  and  snaps.  The  last 
stage  of  boiling  reduces  it  to  caramel  sugar,  and  is 
proved  by  dipping  a  stick  into  the  sugar  and  then 
into  cold  water,  when,  on  the  moment  it  touches 
the  water,  it  will  snap  like  glass.  It  has  now  ar- 
rived at  a  full  candy  height.  Throughout  the 
boiling,  the  fire  must  not  be  too  fierce,  as  it  will 
discolor  the  sirup.  The  best  safeguard  against 
this  is  the  use  of  steam  heat. 

Color  may  be  given  to  the  candy  by  adding  the 
coloring  matter  to  the  sirup  before  boiling  it. 

Flavoring  essences  must  be  added  when  the  pro- 
cess is  nearly  complete. 

Cane,  Sugar.  Most  of  the  sugar  used  in  the 
United  States,  especially  the  refined  sorts,  is 
produced  from  the  tropical  sugar  cane,  and  Cen- 
tral Louisiana  is  as  far  north  as  it  will  succeed 
profitably.  The  West  and  the  East  Imlies  are  its 
h(jme.  In  Cuba  it  attains  a  height  of  twenty  feet, 
with  a  diameter  of  one  and  a  half  inches  one  foot 
above  the  ground.  In  the  Gulf  States  it  seldom 
exceeds  ten  or  twelve  feet.  It  is  propagated  by 
layers,  the  canes  being  placed  in  furrows  three  or 
four  feet  apart;  they  send  up  a  shoot  at  each 
Joint,  which  makes  the  canes  six  or  eight  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  Three  crops  are  generally  pro- 
duced from  one  planting,  though  each  succeeding 
crop  is  smaller  than  the  preceding  one,  but  the 
juice  is  richer  in  sugar.  In  Louisiana  the  planting 
is  generally  done  in  February,  and  cutting  com- 
mences in  October.  The  ripe  cane,  stripped  of  its 
leaves,  yields  12  to  20  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in 
sugar,  on  careful  analysis,  though  the  half  of  that 
amount  is  seldom  obtained  in  the  manufacture; 
and  of  this  amount  from  10  to  15  per, cent,  drains 
oflf  as  molasses.  The  yield  of  sugar  in  Louisiana 
ranges  from  500  to  2,000  pounds  per  acre.  To  ex- 
press the  juice,  expensive  machinery  is  required, 
and  to  manufacture  the  same  into  sugar  requires 
the  skill  of  trailed  artisans. 


i8o 


CANE. 


Cane.  In  this  article  we  treat  only  of  the  North- 
ern varieties  of  sugar  cane,  nameh':  Sorghum,  Ini- 
phee  and  Amber.  This  may  be  an  'mportant  prod- 
uct to  the  people  of  the  North,  as  it  enables  them  to 
make  their  own  sugar  and  molasses,  and  so  have  it 
pure  and  unadulterated.  The  culture  of  this  cane  and 
the  manufacture  of  its  juice  into  molasses  are  both 
pleasant  and  easy,  and  there  is  a  kind  of  charm  con- 
nected with  the  business  all  the  way  through.  It  is 
believed  that  it  is  more  valuable  tlian  corn  for  fall 
and  winter  fodder,  especially  when  grown  thick, say 
from  four  to  eight  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  antl  that 
it  is  next  to  corn  in  its  fattening  qualities  for  swine, 
who  feed  greedily  upon  it  through  the  winter.  It 
yields  150  to  250  gallons  of  sirup  to  the  acre,  which, 
at  50  cents  a  gallon,  W<juld  be  $75  to  $1 25,  with  no 
more  outlay  than  raising  so  rtiuch  wheat  or  corn. 

Culture.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  Sor- 
ghum and  Imphee  will  thrive  on  any  land  that  will 
produce  a  fair  crop  of  corn  or  wheat.  The  best  results, 
however,  can  be  expected  only  from  soil  adapted 
to  the  special  wants  of  these  canes.  Sand}',  upland 
soil  is  best,  and  black  bottom  soil  is  the  worst. 
New  land  yields  go<xl  sirup;  land  freshly  ma- 
nured gives  poor  sirup;  clay  land  gives  good  sirup, 
but  not  so  large  a  yield.  The  soil,  unless  rich, 
should  be  well  manured  in  the  fall  with  vegetable 
or  rotten  stable  manure;  this  is  especially  needed 
with  clay  land.  A  well  manured  crop  the  pre- 
vious year,  well  cultivated,  puts  the  ground  in  the 
best  condition  for  the  culture  of  cane. 

Plow  deep,  and- pulverize  thoroughly  by  throw- 
ing into  ridges;  the  soil  will  be  better  affected  by 
the  frost  during  the  winter  and  will  dry  out  sooner 
in  the  spring.  In  general,  prepare  the  ground  as 
for  corn.  In  sections  where  the  cane  will  be  liable 
to  frost  in  the  fall,  the  planting  should  be  done 
early, —  as  soon  as  the  grounil  is  thoroughly  warm. 
Ill  the  South,  early  planting  will  give  two  crops 
from  the  same  stand.  Test  the  seed  some  time 
before  planting,  so  that  if  found  poor,  there  will  be 
time  to  get  a  good  lot  in  due  season.  Soak  the 
seed  a  few  hours  in  warm  water,  put  it  into  a  small 
bag,  envelop  it  well  in  woolen  cloths  and  keep  it 
in  a  warm  place,  frequently  shaking  it  until  it  lie- 
gins  to  sprout.  Some  bury  it  in  the  ground.  Then 
roll  it  in  plaster  or  fine  loam  and  plant  one  inch 
deep,  rows  three  feet  apart  each  way,  at  the  rate  of 
two  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre.  Plant  in  check  rows, 
as  for  corn,  so  that  it  can  be  plowed  both  ways. 
Immediately  after  planting,  throw  a  handful  of 
plaster  or  fresh  ashes  on  each  hill.  In  the  Eastern 
or  older  States  it  is  well  to  fertilize  the  ground  with 
lime,  ashes,  salt,  guano  and  the  phosphates  gener- 
ally. On  th&  first  appearance  of  weeds  or  grass, 
run  the  cultivator  both  ways.  Experience  proves 
that  nine-tenths  of  the  chances  of  success  and  fail- 
ure lie  in  the  first  few  weeks  of  the  j'oung  plant's 
life,  and  therefore  all  the  cultivation  should  be  done 


then, — carefully,  thoroughly  and  well;  when  about 
30  inches  high  it  may  be  left  to  itself,  as  further 
plowing  will  only  damage  the  crop,  by  cutting  the 
roots  and  injuring  the  stalks.     Pull  off  the  suckers. 

Harvesting.  The  cane  should  not  be  cut 
until  the  seed  is  in  the  doughy  state,  the  Imphees 
a  week  or  two  earlier.  Some  cultivators  insist 
upon  making  up  the  cane  as  soon  as  cut,  and  others 
say  it  is  better  to  delay  the  manufacture  as  long  as 
the  cane  can  be  kept  in  perfect  condition.  Some 
also  are  in  favor  of  stripping  off  the  blades  about 
the  time  of  the  first  frost,  and  some  consider  that 
the  stripping  is  better  done  just  before  grinding;  a 
few  do  not  strip  at  all.  What  is  the  best  course 
to  pursue  may  depend  upon  circumstances, — such 
circumstances  as  have  not  vet  been  statistically  com- 
piled, so  as  to  determine  these  disputed  questions. 
To  prevent  the  dark  color  of  the  sirup  from  the 
Imphees,  they  should  be  stripped  early.  The  up- 
per third  of  the  stalks  should  be  cut  off  at  the  time 
of  harvesting,  bound  into  bundles  with  the  blades, 
to  be  used  as  fodder  for  cattle;  it  is  excellent  for 
this  purpose.  Freezing  is  thought  to  inoease  the 
amount  of  sugar,  but  when  the  cane  is  once  frozen, 
it  must  not  be  suffered  to  thaw  out  until  it  is  manu- 
factured. Preserve  the  seed,  as  it  also  is  valual.le 
for  stock  feed, — even  more  valuable  than  oats. 
The  seed  is  also  good  breadstuff  for  man;  some 
have  said  it  is  even  better  than  wheat.  Until  it  is 
made  up,  keep  it  in  piles  or  ricks,  under  cover. 

Varieties.  The  most  common  variety  of  sugar 
cane  in  the  Northern  States  is  the  Chinese  or  Sor- 
ghum (sometimes  spelled  Sorgho  or  Sorgo).  Its 
most  striking  difference  from  the  African  kinds 
consists  in  the  spreading  character  of  the  tassel. 
The  stalk  is  tall,  tapering  and  graceful,  reaching 
the  height  of  1 2  to  15  feet.  As  the  plant  ap- 
proaches maturit}'  a  whitish  efflorescence  appears 
underneath  the  leaf-stems.  This  variety  requires 
about  five  months  for  its  full  development,  though 
the  time  is  materially  modified  by  soil,  season,  etc. 
As  the  seed  approaches  maturity  and  ripeness,  it 
changes  its  color  from  green  to  a  dark  purple  or 
black. 

Of  the  African,  or  Imphee,  there  are  several  va- 
rieties, three  of  the  best  of  which  are  of  equal  \  alue, 
namely,  the  Liberian,  the  Neeazana  and  the  Oom- 
seeana.  They  all  have  heavy,  compact  tassels,  antl, 
although  two  weeks  later  in  maturing,  these  varie- 
ties may  be  cut  a  week  or  two  earlier  than  Sor- 
ghum, that  is,  when  the  seed  is  "  in  the  milk."  The 
Liberian  was  at  first  considered  inferior  to  Sor- 
ghum, but  its  reputation  is  growing  comparatively 
better.  '  In  some  places  it  yields  more  and  Wetter 
sirup  than  the  Chinese.  It  is  also  supposed  to  be 
freer  from  mildew,  rust  or  blight  of  any  kind. 
The  Neeazana  should  be  cut  while  green  and 
made  up  immediately,  when  it  yields  a  pure  and 
light-colored  sirup.     The  Oomseeana  is  good  for 


CANE. 


i8x 


sugar,   but   does  not  yield   as   largely   in  sirup  as 
either  the  Liberian  or  the  Sorghum. 

The  "Minnesota  Early  Ambei:"  cane  is  the  best 
for  the  high  North,  being  better  tlian  the  common 
Amber,  or,  of  course,  any  other  kind  of  cane. 
In  appearance  it  presents  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  both  Sorghum  and  Iinphee.  It  grows 
quite  tall  and  yet  not  quite  as  tall  as  the  Sorghum. 
Its  heads  are  not  so  open  and  V)ranching  as  the 
Sorghum,  but  are  more  open  than  either  the  Libe- 
rian, Oomseeana  or  Neeazana.  When  fully  ma- 
tured the  seed  is  but  slightly  enclosed  in  its  glumes. 
It  receives  its  name  from  its  ripening  early,  and 
from  the  bright,  amber   color  which   characterizes 

the  sirup  when 
properly  made 
from  it.  The  new 
Early  Amber  is 
three  to  four  feet 
taller  than  the 
ordinary  cane, 
and  is  very  rich 
in  saccharine 
matter,  the  pro- 
portion being 
larger  than  in 
any  of  the  many 
varieties  of  Chi- 
nese and  African 
cane  introduced 
into  this  coun- 
try. The  sirup, 
if  properly  made, 
is  free  from  the  cloudy  appearance,  oftensive 
odor  and  taste  peculiar  to  Sorghum.  It  is  of  a 
beautiful,  clear  amber  color,  and  of  a  delicious 
flavor  resembling  honey.  It  is  very  prolific,  the 
yield  to  the  acre  being  greater  than  any  variety 
ever  grown  in  the  North,  not  even  excepting  the 
old  regular  Sorghum.  As  much  as  288  gallons 
sirup  to  the  acre  has  been  obtained.  The  Early 
Amber  is  especially  adapted  to  a  high  latitude, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  a  very  early  cane.  It  will 
ripen  wherever  flint  corn  will  mature. 

Manufacture.  Under  this  head  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  obsei"ve  how  essential  it  is  to  keep  the 
material  perfectly  clean.  As  to  the  mill,  the 
stronger  the  better,  such  as  the  "  Star  "  cane  mill 
(Fig.  i).  It  is  very  heavy,  does  not  clog,  and  the 
rollers  have  guides  which  prevent  the  cane  from 
running  out  at  the  ends.  The  spur  gearings  are  all 
inside  the  side  plates,  and  are  protected  so  that  they 
are  free  from  obstruction,  thus  avoiding  the  danger 
of  breaking  the  mill  by  getting  anything  between 
the  cog-w^heels,  or  danger  of  accident  by  the  oper- 
ator having  clothes  caught  in  cogs  while  operating 
the  mill.  The  rollers  can  be  adjusted  to  any  de- 
sired capacity.  Thev  are  so  geared  as  to  make 
two  revolutions  to  one  of  the  horse's.    The  mill  can 


Fio,  \.—"Star  "  Cane  Mill. 


be  run  with  any  portable  farm  engine  or  threshing- 
machine  horse-power.  The  same  party,  J.  A. 
Field  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  manufacture  also  a 
vertical,  three-roll  mill  called  the  "  Forest  King," 
Fig.  2.  It  is  a  very  desirable  mill,  and  has  many 
points  of  excellence.  Two  sizes  of  this  mill  are 
made,  375  and  600  pounds,  with  a  capacity  of  40 
to  60  gallons  per  hour. 

To  save  Ijibor  in  handling  the  juice,  the  mill 
ma}'  be  placed,  where  the  location  will  permit, 
above  the  level  of  the  evaporator  on  a  hill-side,  or 
elevated  plane.  Where  the  location  prevents  such 
an  arrangement,  the  mill  should  be  set  on  posts 
firmly  planted  in  the  ground,  about  three  feet  above 
the  surface,  and  the  juice  conducted  by  a  trough  to 
the  evaporator  and  pumped  up  into  the  juice  tank 
ready  for  feeding  the  evaporator.  The  cane  should 
be  fed  butt  end.  The  mill  should  be  strong  enough 
to  press  out  all  the  juice,  leaving  the  bagasse  dry, 
or  there  will  be  serious  waste  of  juice.  The  mill 
should  have  three  rolls;  otherwise  there  will  be  a 
great  loss  of  juice. 

The  juice  should  be  evaporated  as  soon  as  practi- 
cable after  it  is  expressed.  It  should  not  be  ex- 
posed to  the  air  over  twenty  minutes  before  heating 
to  the  boiling  point. 
Filter  it  through 
bright  hay  or  a 
woolen  clnth,  and 
convey  it  to  a 
double  tank 
through  a  pipe. 
When  one  side  of 
the  tank  is  filled, 
shovel  in  one  gal- 
lon clay  subsoil, 
sprinkled  with 
lime,  to  fifty  of 
juice.  Stir  well 
and  allow  it  to  set- 
tle, packing  hay 
over  the  faucet, 
which  should  be 
near,  but  not  at 
the  bottom  of  the 
tank.  Prepare  one 
gallon  new  milk 
with  two  ounces  of  soda  to  every  100  gallons  juice. 
Place  over  the  evaporator,  so  as  to  make  a  contin- 
ual dropping  where  the  juice  breaks  into  the  boil. 
Use  no  other  drug,  especially  of  an  alkaline  nature. 
The  boiling  can  all  be  done  with  the  bagasse  and 
cane-tops  with  a  furnace  properly  constructed. 
Neither  wood  nor  coal  will  excel  this  fuel  for  the 
purpose. 

And  now  comes  the  climax  of  all  the  process, 
the  reduction  to  sirup,  and  without  that  simple 
combination  of  furnace,  boiler  and  cleanser,  in  the 
adjustable    rocking    machine    called    the   "Mound 


Fig.  z.—  The  Cane  Mill  "Forest  Kinir. 


I82 


CANE. 


City  Evaporator,"  Fig.  4,  or  some  equivalent,  no 
one  could  have  patience  to  engage  in  the  business 
at  all.  But  this  is  so  simple,  economical,  portable 
and  effective,  that  it  is  a  pleasure  to  run  it,  and 
instead  of  its  being  the  burning,  sooty,  dipping, 
daubing  operation  of  the  old  way,  the  work  is 
cleanly,  pleasantly  and  quickly  performed. 

Its  construction  is  upon  a  new  principle,  which 


nace,  so  as  to  give  a  cooling  surface  for  the  collec- 
tion of  the  scum. 

The  evaporator  should  be  capable  of  producing 
the  most  and  best  sirup  with  the  least  expense  and 
labor.  To  secure  the  best  result  the  juice  must  be 
exposed  to  the  fire  the  shortest  possible  time.  To 
do  this  a  shallow,  moving  body  of  juice  is  indispens- 
able.    Even  this  will  not  make  the  best  quality  of 


Fig.  3 Position  oj  Mill  and  Evaporator. 


secures  the  constant  flow  of  the  juice,  from  the 
time  it  enters  until  it  passes  off  sirup.  It  also 
retains  the  scum  and  feculent  matter  at  the  ends  of 


Fig.  4. — Mound  City  Evaporator. 

the  several  channels,  from  which  it  can  be  removed 
every  half  hour,  and  performs  the  cleansing  oper- 
ation better  than  by  introducing  alkalies  and  for- 
eign ingredients.  It  is  made  of  sheet  metal,  gal- 
vanized iron  or  copper,  of  thickness  proportioned 
to  the  size  of  the  pan,  having  ledges  to  project 
upward,  across  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  the  alternate 
ends  being  open  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  channel 
from  one  end  of  tlie  pan  to  the  other.  The  sides 
of  the  pan  extend  beyond  the  fire   line  of  the  fur- 


sirup  unless  the  juice  during  evaporation  is  exposed 
suddenly  to  alternate   heat  and   cold,  thus  freeing 
it  more  effectively  from  its  impurities.     Good,  well- 
seasoned   wood,  or  the    dried  bagasse, 
should  be  provided  for  the  evaporator, 
that  the   fire   may  be  kept  evenly  hot. 
The  evaporator  should  be  set  on  a  firm 
and  level  foundation,  with  the  mouth 
toward    the   prevailing    winds. 
An  ash  pit  should  be  dug  under 
the    grate,  and  kept  clean.    It 
should  be  protected  from 
the  wind.   Sour  juice  can 
not  be  worked  to  advan- 
tage.      The    skimmings 
make   excellent  food  for 
hogs. 

Fig.    5    represents    a   ^^''■^-"'•"t'-oved"  E-vaporator, 

very  simple  yet  efficient  apparatus  for  makmg 
maple  and  Sorghum  molasses  and  sugar.  It  is 
known  as  the  Improved  Evaporator,  and  is  made 


CANE—  CANNING. 


183 


by    the    Vermont    Farm    Machine    Co.,    Bellows 

Falls,  Vt. 

Prime  vinegar  may  be  made  from  the  washings 

of  the  evaporator,  that  is,  the  sweetened    water 

which  follows  the  sirup  on  finishing  for  the  day. 
This  shouki  be  run  off  into  casks, 
care  being  taken  to  give  it  air,  and 
to  keep  it  from  freezing  during 
the  wmtei  In  the  summer  expose 
it  to  the  an,  and  excellent  vinegar 


<i. — Galvanized  Iron  Evaporating  l^an  and  Furnace, 


Flo.  7. — Sectional  Vin"  of  Furnace, 


z 
<35 

WALL 

— 

J  E  Plate 

Ul 

C5-; 

WALL 

KiG.  S. —  Top  View  of  Furnace,    Pan  removed. 

will  be  the  result.  Good  vinegar  may  also  be 
m;ide  from  the  skiminings  by  much  the  same  pro- 
cess: see  Sugar. 

Canine  Teeth,  the  longest  and  most  pointed 
teeth,  of  which  there  is  one  in  each  side  of  each 
jaw;  called  also  "eye  teeth." 

Canker,  a  corroding  humor  or  ulceration,  espe- 
cially in  the  mouth.  For  this  disease,  one  should 
not  medicate  without  the  advice  of  a  physician. 


The  term  also  denotes   a  disease   in  trees,  causing 
the  bark  to  rot  and  fall  off:  see  Apple. 
Canker  Worm :  sec  Apple. 

Cannel  Coal,  a  kind  of  soft  coal  which   bin-ns 
with  a  steady  flame. 

Canning,  the  art  of  preserving  fruits,  vegetables, 
oysters,  meat,  and  other  food  in  their  natural  state  in 
cans,jars,  etc.,  hei'metically  sealed.  The  popularity 
of  canned  goods  arises  from  the  fact  that  this  process 
preserves  different  foods  in  their  natural  state,  which 
are  always  more  healthful,  and  gratefid  to 
the  taste.  'This  method  also  fiicilitates 
transportation,  and  defies  climatic  influ- 
ences and  changes  of  temperature.  Can- 
ning in  glass  jars  is  in  some  places  called 
"  bottling."  So  to  seal  as  to  exclude  all 
the  air  in  which  the  germs  of  decay  are 
not  killed,  is  the  great  object  in  canning 
fruit.  It  cannot  be  perfectly  done,  not 
even  with  an  air  pump.  It  may,  however, 
be  so  nearly  done  as  to  preserve  fruit  for 
years.  To  accomplish  this,  the  cans  have 
to  be  heated  after  the  fruit  has  been  do- 
posited  in  tliem.  Modern  science  asserts 
that  the  reason  why  heating  and  sealing 
preserves  fruit,  is  because  the  heat  destroys 
the  germs  of  fungoid  growth  (whethes  the 
germs  be  animal  or  vegetable),  and  thus 
prevents  decay,  the  sealing  preventing 
the  ingress  of  any  more  germs. 

In  making  the  canning  process  perfect, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  cans  and  their 
covers  are  not  defective,  and  that  the 
screw,  or  whatever  means  of  sealing  is 
employc<l,  fits  accurately  and  works  prop- 
erly. Have  both  fruit  and  jar  boiling 
hot,  and  the  jar  brim  full  when  sealed, 
that  as  nearly  all  the  air  as  possible  may 
be  excluded. 

The  scaling  must  be  done  quickly  after 
the  can  is  taken  from  the  water,  as  cool- 
ing w^ill  cause  condensation  of  air  in  the 
can,  and  this  should  be  prevented.  If  a 
rubber  screw  jar  is  used,  screw  tightly  at 
first,  and  turn  on  the  cover  two  or  three 
times  while  the  fruit  is  cooling.  The 
thread  of  the  screw,  on  jar  and  cover, 
must  be  perfectly  clean,  or  the  sealing 
will  be  imperfect.  If  these  directions  are 
faithfully  followed,  not  a  can  in  a  thou- 
sand will  turn  out  imperfect  fruit  when  opened. 

Glass  jars  are  better  than  tin  cans.  The  acids 
of  the  fruits  act  upon  the  tin  and  solder  of  tin  cans, 
which  sometimes  become  corroded,  forming  poison- 
ous salts.  The  danger  is  less  when  pure  tin  is 
used,  but  absolutely  pure  tin  is  rarely  used  in  mak- 
ing fruit  cans.  A  glass  jar,  with  a  porcelain-lined 
metal  cover,  screwed  down  upon  a  rubber  ring,  is 
a  good  article,  and  the  best  for  domestic  use.    They 


r84 


CANNING. 


are  not  very  expensive,  and  are  largely  used  by 
housewives.  They  have  the  great  advantage  of 
enduring  use  for  several  years. 

In  selecting  and  preparing  fruit  for  canning, 
freshness  and  freedom  from  blemish  are  the  first 
requisites.  The  sooner  canned  after  picking  the 
better.  All  table  fruit,  except  small  plums,  grapes, 
berries,  etc.,  should  be  pitted  and  peeled.  Some 
of  the  larger  fruits  will  need  to  be  halved,  quartered 
or  sliced.  White  sugar  is  best,  if  sugar  is  used  at 
all.  Peeling  peaches  and  tomatoes  can  be  facilita- 
ted by  plunging  them  into  hot  water.  A  corn- 
popper  is  handy  for  this. 

Tin  cans  must  either  be  sealed  with  wax  or 
soldered.  The  latter  is  the  better  method  if  it  can 
be  done  without  too  much  trouble  and  expense. 
There  are  irons  made  on  purpose,  and  almost  any 
one  can  learn  to  use  them.  Sealing  wax  is  made 
by  melting  together  rosin,  one  pound;  beeswax, 
lard  and  tallow,  one  ounce  each.  Melt  over  a  slow 
fire,  and  stir  occasionally.  When  using,  the  wax 
must  be  hot,  and  the  dish  large  enough  to  admit 
the  top  of  the  jar.  The  dish  should  have  a  snout 
to  enable  the  operator  to  pour  the  wax  upon  the 
can. 

When  glass  jars  are  used,  they  are  placed  in  cold 
water,  in  a  boiler  over  the  fire.  A  cloth  or  board 
is  put  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  fur  the  cans  to 
stand  on  to  prevent  breaking.  A  porcelain  or  cop- 
per kettle  must  be  used  for  cooking  the  fruit.  Iron 
or  tin  will  discolor  the  fruit,  besides  generating 
poison.  Have  as  much  fruit  in  the  kettle  as  vou 
can  handle  well,  and  cook  until  done,  using  only 
water  enough  to  prevent  scorching,  and  furnish 
sirup  enough  to  fill  the  cans.  A  boiling  hot  sirup 
made  of  white  sugar  is  used,  while  some  apply  the 
sugar  to  the  fruit  after  it  is  served  on  the  table. 
Sugar  is  not  necessary  to  preserve  the  fruit.  When 
used,  the  sirup  should  be  made  in  a  separate  ket- 
tle, and  poured  into  the  can  after  the  fruit  has  been 
placed  therein.  Sometimes  three  or  four  pounds 
of  sugar  is  added  to  the  bushel,  while  the  fruit  is 
cooking,  but  it  is  not  necessary.  After  placing  the 
fruit  in  the  cans,  leave  them  in  the  hot  water  for 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  to  settle;  then  fill  to  the  brim 
with  sirup,  or  the  liquid  from  the  fruit-kettle; 
clean  the  sirup  from  the  top  of  the  can,  then  put 
on  the  cover,  hold  it  down  with  a  sharp  instrument, 
and  pour  around  it  the  hot  wax,  or  solder  it  down. 
If  there  is  a  bubble  in  the  wax,  break  it  and  apply 
more  wax. 

When  bottles  or  jugs  with  corks  are  used,  push 
in  the  cork  firmly,  and  thrust  the  top  into  the 
melted  wax.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  place  the 
fruit  in  cans  while  they  are  standing  where  they 
were  heated,  they  may  be  put  into  a  pan  of  hot 
water  and  left  until  sealed. 

Each  can  or  jar  should  be  labeled  with  the  name 
of  the  variety  of  fruit  ■which  it  contains,  and  the 


date  of  canning.     A  good  and  cheap  cement  for 
this  purpose  is   made  by  dissolving  one  pound  of 
glue    in    one   pint  of  skim   milk.     Stir  well,  and  ' 
avoid  burning  the  mixture. 

A  cellar,  cool,  dry  and  nearly  dark,  or  a  closet, 
is  the  best  place  to  store  canned  goods.  The  cans 
should  not  be  placed  against  the  wall,  and  should 
be  raised  above  the  floor.  They  should  be  exam- 
ined occasionally  to  see  whether  fermentation  is 
taking  place.  Should  a  thick  mold  form  at  the 
top,  it  will  do  no  harm.  If  fermentation  is  noticed, 
boil  the  fruit  again  and  can.  In  case  fermentation 
is  well  advanced,  throw  the  fruit  away,  and  the 
can  may  be  filled  again  with  fresh  fruit  or  veg- 
etables. 

The  following  are  more  specific  directions  for 
canning  special  fruits  and  vegetables: 

To  can  peaches,  peel,  halve  and  pit  them;  boil 
the  pits  till  the  flavor  is  extracted,  and  pour  the 
liquor  into  a  porcelain  kettle;  put  into  the  kettle 
prepared  peaches  enough  for  three  or  four  cans, 
and  place  over  the  fire.  When  the  peaches  are 
hot,  can  them  and  seal. 

Pears  should  be  cut  in  halves,  and  the  stems  left 
on,  as  they  add  to  the  appearance  of  the  fruit. 
After  peeling,  dip  each  piece  into  cold  water  to 
prevent  discoloring.  Place  a  little  cold  water  in 
the  kettle  with  the  fruit,  and  boil  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes. 

Plums  should  be  canned  whole,  unless  large, 
when  they  may  be  halved  and  pitted;  but  they 
should  never  be  jieeled.  If  pitied,  boil  the  pits 
the  same  as  you  do  peach  pits. 

Blackberries,  raspberries,  cherries,  currants, 
strawberries  and  gooseberries  are  simplv  thrown 
into  a  little  sweetened  water  and  scalded,  not 
cooked. 

Crab-apples  can  be  treated  as  pears,  unless  small, 
when  they  should  be  canned  whole.  Quinces  may 
be  treated  as  pears.  Strawberries  come  so  early 
that  they  are  difficult  to  keep  with  perfect  flavor; 
yet,  put  up  with  care,  air-tight,  they  can  be  kept. 
The  bottles  should  be  buried  in  the  cool  earth, 
either  in  a  box,  or  simply  in  the  ground,  kept  from 
the  light  and  as  cool  as  possible.  In  this  way  they 
retain  flavor  nicely  and  make  a  delightful  char.ge 
on  the  table  later  in  the  year. 

In  canning  vegetables,  being  less  tender  and  acid 
than  fruit,  they  may  be  canned  with  less  risk  and 
loss.     The  process  is  the  same  in  all  respects. 

When  corn  is  to  be  canned,  cut  the  kernels  from 
freshly-gathered  corn.  Fill  the  cans  with  corn  and 
solder;  place  over  the  fire  the  cans  in  enough  cold 
water  to  cover  them,  and  boil  grailually  for  one 
and  a  half  hours;  then  punch  a  small  hole  in  the 
top  of  the  can  to  allow  air  and  gas  to  escape,  and 
instantly  solder.  Place  the  can  in  hot  water,  and 
boil  for  two  and  a  half  hours  longer.  The  juices 
supply  sufficient  moisture  in  the  cans  so  that  they 


CANNII^G—  CAPON. 


1 85 


need  no  water.  Wax  cannot  be  used  in  sealing. 
The  corn  should  be  of  the  sweet  or  evergreen  va- 
rieties, picked  when  just  right  for  the  table.  An- 
other method  is  to  cook  the  corn  as  for  present 
use,  plaic  in  the  can,  pour  in  enough  water,  well 
salted,  to  cover  the  corn,  fill  the  can,  then  seal. 
Some  put  one  ounce  of  tartaric  acid  to  eight  quarts 
of  corn,  and  cover  it  with  boiling  water.  Boil  it 
constantly  half  an  hour,  and  put  it  up  only  in  Ma- 
son porcelain-lined  jars.  Tighten  occasionally 
wliile  cooling,  to  exclude  air,  and  cover  the  jars 
with  rags  to  keep  light  off.  When  opened  to 
cook,  put  enough  soda  to  get  rid  of  peculiar 
sourness. 

To  can  corn  in  the  raw  state,  silk  your  corn 
well  and  cut  it  off"  the  cob  without  cooking,  and 
put  it  in  a  jar,  and  to  five  gallons  of  corn  put  one 
of  salt.  Have  just  brine  enough  to  cover.  This 
will  keep  two  or  three  years.  When  you  cook  it, 
drain  out  and  put  in  plenty  of  fresh  water  to  soak 
over  night,  and  season  with  butter  and  jiepper  and 
a  verv  little  white  sugar. 

To  can  rhubarb,  clean  and  slice  as  for  pies;  put 
in  a  glass  bottle;  fill  up  with  water  and  seal.  Do 
not  cook  it. 

Tomatoes  should  be  scalded  and  peeled,  and,  if 
large,  cut.  Have  a  board  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler,  with  holes  bored  in  it,  on  which  to  set  the 
cans.  Put  water  in  the  boiler  till  within  two 
inches  of  the  top  of  the  cans;  boil  till  the  tomatoes 
are  well  cooked;  with  a  spoon  crowd  down,  fill 
the  can  full,  seal  and  cover  quickly  with  several 
thicknessesof  cloth,  letting  stand  till  next  morning; 
then  set  the  cans  in  the  darkest  part  of  the  cellar, 
or  in  a  box  cuyboard  that  can  admit  no  light,  but 
where  they  will  be  dry  and  not  freeze.  Tomatoes 
treated  in  this  manner  will  often  keep  two  or 
three  years.  Corn  and  tomatoes  are  often  canned 
together — one  part  corn  to  three  parts  tomatoes; 
but  they  should  be  cooked  separately. 

Peas,  onions,  asparagus  and  beans  are  easily 
canned.  String  the  beans  and  break  in  two  or 
three  pieces;  throw  into  boiling  water  and  scald. 
After  filling  the  can,  pour  on  well-salted  hot  wa- 
ter, and  seal.  Succotash  can  also  be  canned,  the 
separate  vegetables  being  scalded  apart  from  each 
other. 

To  keep  fruits  without  loss  of  color  or  flavor, 
to  each  pound  of  resin  put  in  i  ounce  of  tallow, 
and  1  ounce  of  beeswax.  Melt  them  slowly  over 
the  fire  in  an  iron  kettle,  and  be  careful  to  not  let 
it  boil.  Take  the  fruit  separately  and  rub  it  over 
with  whiting  or  fine  chalk  (to  prevent  the  coating 
from  adhering  to  the  fruit),  then  dip  into  the  so- 
lution once  and  hold  it  up  a  moment  to  set  the 
coating;  then  pack  away  carefully  in  barrels  or 
boxes  in  a  cool  place.  When  you  dip  oranges  or 
lemons,  loop  a  thread  around  to  hold  them;  for 
pears  or  apples  insert  a  pointed  stick  to  hold  them 


by;  then  cut  it  off"  with  a  pair  of  sharp,  heavy 
shears.  Oranges  or  lemons  cannot  be  put  in 
boxes,  but  must  be  placed  on  shelves,  as  the  accu- 
mulated weight  would  mash  them  down. 

Peaches,  pears  and  plums,  also  green  tomatoes 
and  cucumbers,  may  be  kept  perfectly  by  packing 
them  in  fine  salt,  in  stone  jars,  allowing  them  to 
make  their  own  brine.  They  must  be  kept  cov- 
ered with  salt  until  the  brine  made  by  the  salt  and 
extracted  juice  covers  them;  then  kept  under  this 
brine  until  wanted  for  use,  when  they  must  be 
soaked  in  several  waters  until  fresh  enough  to  put 
into  vinegar. 

Cantaloupe:  see  Muskmelon. 

Canter,  a  gentle  gallop  in  which  all  the  feet  of 
the  animal  seem  to  follow  one  another  in  a  row, 
instead  of  two  following  two,  as  in  the  full  gallop. 

Cantharides  (can-thar'i-deez),  Spanish  flies; 
used  for  blistering. 

Cant-Hook,  a  wooden  lever  with  an  iron  hook 
at  the  end,  for  canting  or  turning  over  heavy 
logs. 

Cantle,  of  a  Saddle,  the  hinder  part,  project- 
ing up  in  the  form  of  a  rim. 

Canvas,  coarse  cloth  made  of  hemp  or  flax,  used 
for  tents,  sails  -of  ships,  painting  and  other  pur- 
poses; also,  a  clear,  unbleached  cloth,  woven  reg- 
ularly in  little  squares:  used  for  working  tapestry 
with  a  needle.  The  best  flexible  paint  for  canvas 
is  probably  the  following:  Dissolve  31^  pounds 
good  yellow  soap  in  i  y^  gallons  boiling  water, 
and  grind  the  solution  while  hot  with  140  pounds 
of  good  oil  paint. 

Caoutchouc  (coo'chook),  India  rubber. 

Capillary  Attraction,  that  which  exists  in  a 
small  tube,  in  which  a  liquid  will  rise  to  an  indefi- 
nite height.  Exemplified  by  masses  of  cotton, 
wool,  sponge,  sand,  etc.,  which  are  filled  with 
small  spaces. 

Capon  (ca'pon),  a  castrated  cock  f>r  rooster. 
Capons  grow  larger  than  roosters,  and  their  flesh 
is  as  much  better  for  eating  as  that  of  an  ox  is  bet- 
ter than  bull's  flesh,  or  as  a  barrow's  is  better  than 
that  of  a  boar.  The  Asiatics  or  large  breeds  are 
the  only  varieties  worth  caponizing,  and  of  these 
the  Brahma  and  Partridge  Cochins  are  the  best. 
Well-bred  specimens  will  average,  at  9  to  1 1 
months,  when  dressed,  10  pounds  each,  and  sell  for 
75  cents  to  $2.50.  Capons  are  very  quiet,  associat- 
ing only  with  each  other;  are  never  quarrelsome, 
and  may  be  taught  to  take  care  of  young  chickens. 
This  is  done  by  picking  most  of  the  feathers  from 
the  breast  of  the  capon,  and  placing  him  under  a 
barrel  at  night.  Some  young  chickens  are  also 
placed  under   the  barrel;  these  immediately  seek 


i86 


CAPONIZING—  CARB  UNCLE. 


shelter  under  the  cnpon,  and  he  is  wilHng  to  per- 
mit them  to  cluster  under  him  because  of  the 
warmth  they  impart  to  his  denuded  breast.  He 
will  even  spread  out  his  wings  and  draw  them 
imder  him.  This  soon  becomes  a  habit,  or  the 
capon  becomes  attached  to  the  chicks,  and  keeps 
with  them  and  cares  for  them  until  they  are  large 
enough  to  care  for  themselves. 

Caponizing,  castration  of  cocks  (roosters).  To 
perform  the  operation  well,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
some  preliminary  practice.  In  tlie  first  place  ex- 
amine carefully  the  fowls  that  you  kill  for  the  table, 
so  that  you  may  be  able  to  tell  the  exact  position 
of  the  organs  to  be  removed.  You  will  find  them 
attached  to  the  back,  one  on  each  side  of  the  spine; 
they  are  light  colored  and  shaped  something  like  a 
Lima  bean.  The  size  varies  with  the  age  and 
breed.  Next  kill  some  young  cockerels  and  prac- 
tice on  them  until  you  are  sure  that  you  can  per- 
form the  operation  quickly  and  successfully ;  then 
you  may  try  your  hand  on  the  living  chickens. 

Select  young  cockerels  that  are  fully  three 
mouths  of  age,  and  not  over  four  months;  but 
some  who  caponize  operate  successfully  upon  cock- 
erels that  are  five  or  six  months  old.  Keep  them 
from  food  for  34  hours  previous  to  the  operation; 
if  the  intestines  are  full  the  operation  will  be  more 
difficult.  Draw  the  wings  gently  backward  and 
secure  by  a  broad  strip  of  soft  cloth;  lay  the  fowl 
on  the  left  side,  draw  the  legs  backward  and  se- 
cure by  another  strip  of  cloth.  From  the  spot 
near  the  hip  joint,  and  between  the  last  two  ribs, 
pick  off  the  feathers  for  the  space  of  an  inch  square. 
With  a  small  sharp  knife  make  a  cut  an  inch  and  a 
half  long,  through  the  skin,  then  another  through  the 
flesh  between  the  ribs,  and  lastly  through  the  thin 
membrane  that  lines  the  abdominal  cavity — taking 
care  in  the  last  cut  not  to  injure  the  intestines,  and  see 
that  you  make  a  clean  cut  every  time.  Now  in- 
troduce the  fore  finger,  which  should  be  ^vell  oiled, 
find  the  testicles,  scratch  them  off  with  the  finger 
nail,  and  bring  them  out  with  the  finger.  If  you 
have  practiced  enough  on  the  dead  chickens  you 
can  do  this  quickly  and  readily;  and  if  you  haven't 
practiced  enough  on  the  dead  fowls  you  have  no 
business  to  attempt  the  operation  on  the  living  ones. 
This  part  of  the  operation  over,  bring  the  edges  of 
the  cut  together,  take  two  or  three  stitches  and 
press  the  feathers  that  were  removed  upon  the  cut 
to  absorb  the  blood  and  cover  the  wound.  Feed 
sparingly  for  a  few  days.  Of  course  some  of  the 
chickens  will  die,  but  unless  you  bungle  your  work 
awfully  the  loss  will  be  trifling. 

Instead  of  performing  the  chief  part  of  the  opera- 
tion with  the  finger,  as  above  directed,  some  use  the 
caponizing  instruments  that  are  made  especially 
for  the  purpose  ;  but  one  can  do  just  as  well,  if  not 
better,  with  no  instrument  except  a  sharp  knife,  his 
finger  nail,  a  needle  and  some  white    sewing  silk, 


Caps.  The  nature  of  this  work  allows  us  to  say 
nothing  under  this  "  cap"-tion,  except  that,  as  a 
general  rule,  they  confine  the  exhalations  of  the 
scalp  more  than  hats,  and  are  therefore  more 
unhealthful ;  but  they  have  the  advantage  of  being 
kept  on  the  head  better  when  one  is  at  work. 

Caramel  (car'a-mel),  burnt  sugar;  a  black,  po- 
rous substance,  obtained  by  heating  sugar  to  about 
400  °  .  It  is  soluble  in  water,  forming  a  dark  brown 
solution,  and  is  used  to  color  brandy  and  other  spirits. 
This  is  also  the  name  of  a  popular  kind  of  candy. 
See  Candy. 

Cheap  Caramels  for  Children.  Take  one 
cupful  of  water,  one  of  sugar,  one-half  cupful  of 
grated  chocolate,  and  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a 
walnut;  boil  the  water,  sugar  and  butter  to  a  sirup, 
and  add  the  chocolate  when  nearly  done;  stir  to  pre- 
vent lumping;  spread  on  greased  paper,  and  cut 
into  squares.  Or,  one  cupful  of  milk,  two  cupfuls  of 
sugar,  two  cupfuls  of  New  Orleans  molasses,  one 
cupful  of  chocolate;  boil  till  it  candies;  be  careful 
not  to  burn;  pour  on  greased  tins,  and  mark  in 
squares. 

Caraway  (car'a-way),  a  biennial  plant  of  the 
parsnip  family,  the  seeds  of  which  have  an  aromatic 
smell  and  a  warm,  pungent  taste.  They  are  used 
in  confectionery,  and  also  in  medicine  as  a  carmin- 
ative. Also,  the  term  denotes  a  kind  of  sweetmeat 
containing  caraway  seeds.  To  raise  caraway,  sow 
the  seeds  in  drills  six  inches  apart,  earlv  in  spring ; 
weed  and  hoe.  The  seeds  ripen  in  autumn.  The 
roots  are  perennial,  and  yield  well  for  three 
years. 

Carbolic  Acid,  an  oily  liquid,  ccflorless,  having  a 
burning  taste  and  the  odor  of  creosote,  to  which  it 
has  great  resemblance.  It  is  obtained  from  coal 
tar.  Its  form  is  that  of  an  acid  solution,  though  it 
is  sometimes  sold  in  crystals.  It  may  be  applied 
with  safety  to  all  parts  of  the  body  or  legs  of 
animals,  and  is  invaluable  for  destroying  lice,  wood 
ticks,  and  all  forms  of  parasite  life;  and  by  merely 
washing  or  moistening  those  parts  of  the  legs 
and  bodies  of  liorses,  cattle,  and  sheep  chosen  by 
the  bot,  horse,  or  other  flies  to  deposit  their  eggs, 
their  hatching  or  even  deposit  may  be  prevented. 
As  a  disinfectant  in  stables  and  buildings  infected 
with  malaria  and  distemper,  it  is  of  great  value. 
To  disinfect  such  places,  wash  the  walls  and 
ceilings  with  a  tablespoonful  of  the  solution  of  the 
acid  to  a  bucketful  of  water. 

For  sores  and  wounds,  when  unhealthy,  a  good 
application  may  be  made  by  adding  one  dram  of 
the  acid  to  one  pint  of  water.  This  will  destroy 
all  putrefaction  and  induce  the  wound  to  take  on 
a  healthy  action. 

Carbuncle.  This  commences  with  a  hard,  red 
swelling,  which  soon  becomes  of  a  purple  or  livid 
color;  the  tumor,  as  it  extends,  becomes  soft,  little 


CARDOON—  CARRIA  GES. 


187 


pimples  form  on  the  skin  around  the  center  mass, 
which  soon  break  into  small  ulcers,  from  each  of 
which  oozes  a  thin,  irritating  discharge.  After  some 
days  these  small  ulcers  spread,  and  uniting  form 
three  or  four  large  suppurating  surfaces,  from  which 
the  discharge  becomes  strong  and  tenacious.  A 
carbuncle  differs  from  a  boil  in  having  no  core,  and 
terminating  in  gangrene,  or  sloughing,  instead 
of  suppuration.  Treatment:  Keep  cold  by  one 
thickness  of  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  until  it  is  about 
as  large  as  it  will  probably  become,  then  cut  across 
as  for  a  boil,  to  relieve  the  pressure.  There  is  very 
little  or  no  discharge,  and  that  little  will  be  blood,  or 
bloody  pus.  After  the  incision  warm  applications 
may  be  made,  to  allay  the  pain.  No  medicaments 
can  huny  it  or  cure  it,  but  that  condition  of  the 
system  which  produces  carbuncles  may  be  altered 
by  a  radical  change  in  the  diet  and  mode  of  life. 

Cardoon,  a  plant  resembling  the  artichoke.  The 
stalks  of  the  blanched  inner  leaves  are  used  as  salad 
in  soups,  etc.  The  seed  is  sown  in  April,  in  rich 
earth.  It  requires  nearly  a  month  to  start.  The 
plants  should  be  thinned  to  five  inches  apart.  Trans- 
plant in  June,  and  allow  four  feet  to  each.  Dress 
like  celery.  As  they  grow,  tie  up  the  leaves  and 
earth  up  several  times;  they  may  thus  be  obtained 
two  feet  high.  Tiiey  are  to  be  taken  up  during 
winter,  like  celery.  An  ounce  of  seed  will  produce 
about  six  hundred  plants.  For  seed,  protect  the 
plant  without  blanching,  through  the  winter,  and 
it  will  flower  in  July  following. 

Carney,  a  disease  of  horses,  in  which  the  mouth 
is  so  furred  that  they  cannot  eat. 

Carpet.  The  time  has  passed  when  the  "  white 
sanded  floor"  is  the  pride  of  the  housewife.  Her 
pride  is  now  to  have  as  nice  a  cai-pet  as  her  neigh- 
bor, and  then  preserve  it  as  long  as  possible.  As 
to  the  quality  of  the  carpet  for  the  farm  house,  we 
must  let  you  judge;  we  can  do  no  more  than  tell 
you  how  to  take  care  of  them.  In  putting  down 
the  carpet,  the  first  thing  necessary  is  to  scrub  the 
floor  clean,  then  lay  newspapers  down  two  deep, 
or  clean  wheat  straw,  then  put  down  the  carpet.  A 
stretcher  should  be  used,  and  the  carpet  stretched 
as  much  as  possible  without  tearing  it.  Carpets 
should  be  taken  up  and  shaken  thoroughly,  if  in 
constant  use,  as  often  as  three  or  four  times  a  year, 
as  the  dirt  that  collects  underneath  them  wears 
them  out  very  fast.  Straw  kept  under  carpets 
will  make  them  wear  much  longer,  as  the  dirt  will 
sift  through,  and  keep  it  from  grinding  out. 
Carpets  should  be  taken  up  as  often  as  once  a  year, 
even  if  not  much  used,  as  there  is  danger  of  moths 
getting  into  them.  If  there  is  any  appearance  of 
moths  in  carpets  when  they  are  taken  up,  sprinkle 
tobacco,  powdered  alum  or  black  pepper  on  the 
floor  before  the  carpets  are  put  down,  and  let  it 
remain  there.     When  the  dust  is  well  shaken  out 


of  the  carpets,  if  there  are  any  grease  spots  on  them, 
grate  on  potter's  clay  very  thick,  cover  them  with 
a  brown  paper,  and  set  on  a  warm  iron.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  repeat  this  process  several  times,  to 
get  out  all  the  grease.  If  the  carpets  are  so  much 
soiled  as  to  require  cleaning  all  over,  after  the  dirt 
has  been  shaken  out,  spread  them  on  a  clean  floor, 
and  rub  on  them,  ■with  a  new  broom,  pared  and 
grated  raw  potatoes.  Let  the  carpets  remain  till 
perfectly  dry  before  walking  on  them.  If  they 
are  still  soiled,  take  a  pailful  of  clean  water,  put 
into  it  three  gills  of  ox-gall ;  take  another  pail  of 
clean  cold  water,  and  rub  with  a  soft  scrubbing- 
brush  some  of  the  ox-gall  water  on  the  soiled 
places,  which  will  produce  a  lather;  then  wash  the 
la  ther  off"  with  a  clean  linen  cloth  dipped  in  the 
clean  water;  open  the  window  to  allow  the  carpet 
to  dry.  Every  particle  of  grease  can  be  removed 
from  the  carpet  by  observing  the  following:  Scrape 
and  pound  together  in  equal  proportion  magnesia 
in  the  lump  and  fuller's  earth.  Having  mixed 
these  substances  well  together,  pour  on  them  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  boiling  water  to  make  them 
into  a  paste ;  lay  this  paste  as  hot  as  possible  upon 
the  grease  spots;  next  day  brush  it  off",  and  the 
grease  will  have  entirely  vanished.  Another  method 
to  remove  grease  is  to  mix  a  little  soap  into  a 
gallon  of  soft  water,  then  one-half  ounce  of  borax, 
and  wash  the  part  well  with  a  clean  cloth. 

To  sweep  a  carpet,  before  applying  the  broom 
scatter  over  the  carpet  the  refuse  tea  leaves  from 
the  tea-pot.  This  will  prevent  dust  and  brighten 
the  colors.  Indian  meal  is  also  recommended.  In 
using  a  "  carpet  sweeper,"  bear  down  upon  it 
slightly. 

Carriages.  In  a  country  where  riding  in  car- 
riages is  an  almost  universal  custom  among  those 
who  can  aff"ord  the  pleasure  and  convenience,  the 
selection  of  a  carriage  and  the  manner  of  taking 
care  of  it  are  subjects  of  no  small  importance. 
The  vehicle,  as  soon  as  it  rises  above  the  condi- 
tion of  a  "business  wagon,"  and  is  constructed 
with  a  view  to  comfort,  elegance  of  appearance, 
and  assumes  the  character  of  a  "  carriage,"  becomes 
an  article  of  luxury,  although  by  no  means  a  useless 
one;  and  its  selection  is  a  question  which  should 
exercise  both  the  judgment  and  the  taste  of  the 
purchaser. 

No  carriage  can  really  look  well  if  it  does  not 
look  serviceable.  If  for  heavy  work,  it  must  be 
strong  and  appear  strong,  without  appearing  heavy 
or  unwieldy.  If  for  light  work,  it  can  hardly 
appear  too  light;  for  it  is  so  generally  known  that 
delicately  made  carriages  may  be  very  strong,  that 
the  light  appearance  does  not  convey  an  idea  of 
weakness.  Economy  and  safety  demand  that  the 
purchaser  assure  himself  that  the  carriage  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  well  made  for  the  service  for 
which  it  is  required. 


i88 


CARRIAGES. 


In  these  hints  to  those  who  would  purchase  a  car- 
riage either  ready  made  or  made  to  order,  we  would 
not  claim  that  any  one,  however  experienced,  can 
avoid  being  cheated  if  he  falls  into  the  hands  of  a 
dishonest  maker  who  has  no  regard  for  his  reputation. 
In  a  hundred  things  can  a  purchaser  be  deceived;  the 
quality  of  the  iron  and  steel,  of  the  wood  and  leather, 
of  the  paint  and  varnish  even,  can  only  be  tested  by 
actual  use;  and  the  carriage-maker  himself  has  to  de- 
pend in  a  great  degree  on  the  "  brand  "  or  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  manufacturers,  for  the  quality  of  many  of 
the  materials.  Much  more,  then,  must  the  purchaser 
of  a  carriage,  which,  when  it  is  delivered  to  him  is 
covered  up  with  paint  and  trimmings,  depend  on  the 
character  of  the  carriage-manufacturers  or  merchants. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  carriages,  of  which  we 
describe  and  illustrate  the  most  common. 

Coach.  All  paneled  carriages  with  seats  for  four 
persons  inside,  and  an  elevated  coachman's  seat,  are 
designated  "  coaches."     Fig  i. 


Fig. 


-Coach, 


Calash  or  Caleche,  a  carriage  with  leather  top, 
portable  glass  shutters  on  the  sides,  and  a  paneled 
front,  with  sliding  windows.  The  whole  front  may 
be  removed  in  a  few  minutes,  making  it  an  elegant 
open  barouche,  with  a  half-top  over  the  back  seat.  No 
carriage  is  so  desirable  for  both  winter  and  summer 
use.     They  are  made  for  four  persons  inside. 

Landau  is  similar  to  the  caleche,  without  the 
portable  front  and  glass  sides ;  the  entire  top  being  of 
leather  supported  by  folding  joints  in  each  quarter. 
The  top  may  be  divided  in  the  center,  the  whole 
falling  front  and  back.  These  are  complex  in  con- 
struction and  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  which  pre- 
vents their  popular  use. 

Barouche  is  made  for  four  persons  inside,  and  has 
an  elevated  coachman's  seat;  leather  half  top  over 
the  back  seat,  or  an  extension  top,  covering  the  four 
inside  seats.  The  leather  form  is  desirable  for  coun- 
try use,  as  it  affords  protection  from  the  sun  and  rain. 
The  half-top  for  morning  and  evening  drives  is  much 
liked ;  the  top  being  thrown  down,  the  carriage  pre- 
sents an  elegant  appearance,  and  affords  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  display  of  full  dress ;  hence  it  is  jxjpular 
with  visitors  at  watering  places  and  public  parks. 

Coupe  or  Brougham.  A  half  coach,  with  body  for 
two  persons  inside  and  an  elevated  coachman's  seat. 
A  rockaway  proper  has   a  plain    square  or  straight 


body,  with  standing  top  and  leather  curtains  to  roll 
up  ;  for  either  four  or  six  persons  ;  all  seats  on  a  level. 
Of  late  years,  all  vehicles  with  standing  top  and  seat 
on  a  level  are  called  "  rockaways."  Some  are  made 
for  six  persons,  with  paneled  sides  and  glass  win- 
dows, which  approach  nearly  to  a  coach  in  weight 
and  cost. 

Brett.  A  brett  proper  is  a  French  half-top  barouche, 
with  all  the  lines  of  the  lx)dy  at  right  angle.  They 
are  generally  made  with  four  inside  seats,  and  eleva- 
ted coachman's  seat.  The  form  more  familiarly 
known  in  this  country  as  a  brett,  resembles  that  of  the 
English  barouche,  except  it  has  only  a  half-top. 
Phaeton.  There  is  an  infinite  variety  of  phaetons 


Fio.  2. — f'haetiin. 

now  manufactured.  As  originally  made,  they  have 
seats  for  four,  with  a  portable  lialf-top,  or  without  a 
top;  but  the  more  common  and  popular  kinds,  at 
present,  have  seats  for  two.  F"ig.  2  represents  an  ex- 
cellent build  of  the  phaeton.  This  is  a  good  carriage 
for  old  people  or  for  the  use  of  ladies,  being  wide  and 
roomy,  hung  low,  and  the  top  coming  well  over  the 
seat. 

Dog-Cart  is  made  with  two  or  four  wheels.     The 


Fig.  3. — AngTiiar  Side-Spring  Top  Buggy. 

original  English  dog-cart  is  on  two  wheels,  the  body 
being  nearly  square,  and  carrying  four  persons.  The 
back  end  of  the   body  is   made   to  drop  and  form 


CARRIAGES. 


189 


a  foot-board,  the  persons  on  the  front  and  back  seats 
riding  back  to  back.  The  sides  are  generally  made 
with  blinds  or  lattice-work,  to  accommodate  dogs,  when 
used  for  sporting  purjx)ses. 

Buggy.  Of  this  kind  there  is  a  great  variety :  all, 
however,  have  four  wheels,  and  seats  for  two  persons. 
They  are  made  of  every  conceivable  form,  both  with 
and  without  a  top;  at  all  prices,  varying  from   $75    to 

$400- 

We  represent  a  standard  and  vety  jxjpular  buggy 
by  Fig.  3.  This  is  an  angular,  side- 
spring  top  buggy.  Fig.  4  illustrates 
an  angular  or  flat-top,  side-spring, 
open  buggy.  These  are  made  with 
square-corner  body,  and  are  a  very 
neat  and  convenent  buggy  for 
country  use. 

A  most  excellent  family  buggy  or 
spring  wagon  is  shown  by  Fig.  5. 
This  is  a  far  more  convenient  and 
comfortable  vehicle  for  a  farmer  to 
take  his  family  to  town  in  than  the 
lumber  wagon ;  besides,  it  saves 
much  wear  of  the  wagon,  is  easier 
on  the  team,  and  transit  is  much 
quicker.  They  arc  large  and  strong 
enough  to  carry  four  or  five  jjersons, 
and  considerable  produce.  A  farm- 
er who  cannot  afford  other  carriages  should  at  least 
make  an  effort  to  have  one  of  these  spring  wagons. 

To  those  who  can  afford  a  more  imposing  carriage, 
one  adapted  to  all  circumstances  and  usages,  we 
recommend  the  style  illustrated  by  Fig.  6. 

In  the  construction  of  a  carriage  it  is  essential  that 
all  its  various  parts  should  be  made  of  good  material, 
well  proi»rtioned  and  made  well.  That  the  famier 
may   know   something  of  the  best  material  for   the 


ularly  strong  and  of  well-seasoned  wood.  Red  elm, 
white  elm,  and  particularly  the  gum,  are  good  timber 
for  this  part,  as  they  are  not  liable  to  crack  in  season- 
ing, or  split  by  the  pressure  of  the  spokes. 

Spokes  should,  for  heavy  work,  be  made  of  white 
oak  of  clear  grain,  and   free   from   checks   or   knots. 

F"or  light  carriages  hickory  is  preferable, — 14  in  the 
fore  wheel  and  16  in  the  hind  wheel,  except  in  the 
vehicles  of  the  lighter  kinds,  when  two  less  in  each 
wheel  will  answer.     If  the  tenon  or  "  tang,"  which  is 


Fig.  5. — Sfirini;  H'ag;on. 

different  parts  of  a  carriage,  and  of  the  manner  in 
which  it  should  be  handled,  we  give  at  some  detail 
a  description  of  these  parts. 

The  Hub  of  the  wheel,  being  at  once  its  center  and 
foundation,  mechanically  speaking,  should  be  partic- 


Side-Sprin^  Open  Buggy. 

inserted  in  the  felloe,  is  square  instead  of  round,  it 
will  greatly  add  to  the  strength,  though  few  makers 
are  found  who  will  take  this  trouble.  Every  spoke 
which  is  discovered  to  be  defective,  in  any  way, 
should  be  scrupulously  rejected  by  the  carriage-maker ; 
for  one  bad  sjxjke  will  six)il  the  wheel.  In  a  busi- 
••ness  wagon,  the  sjxjkes  should  be  set  in  the  hub  in 
range,  or  in  a  straight  line,  while  in  a  buggy  or  light 
carriage  they  should  be  placed  alternately  in  and  out, 
that  the  weakness  caused  by  their 
light  construction  may  be  compen- 
sated for  by  the  bracing  ix)sition, 
which  this  zigzag  position  affords. 

Felloes  or  Rim.  This  part  of 
the  wheel  should  be  of  the  best 
Eastern  white  ash  or  hickory.  (The 
Western  growth  is  softer  and  more 
brittle).  Oak  is  often  used  for  this 
purix)se,  but  is  much  more  liable  to 
sun-checks,  and  will  split  more 
easily,  and  is  more  apt  to  break  in 
at  the  joints.  For  pleasure  car- 
riages, which  are  kept  well  painted, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  secure 
from  the  weather,  the  bent  rim  is 
better  than  the  short  pieces  or  sawn 
felloes ;  but  for  business  wagons,  or 
those  much  exposed  to  the  sun  and  rain,  with  the 
paint  not  always  in  the  best  condition,  and  which  re- 
quire a  more  frequent  re-setting  of  the  tire  and  the 
consequent  cutting  of  the  ends  of  the  felloe-sections, 
it  is  better  not  to  be  obliged  so  often  to  cut  the  same 


190 


CARRIAGES. 


ends  as  in  the  case  when  there  are  only  two  pieces.' 

There  are   always,  when   the  felloes   are   sawn,  two 

spokes  in  each  section. 

The  wheel  should,  in  all  cases,  be  dished,  as  this 

adds  to  their  strength  and  durability.     A  light  wheel 

for  road  wag- 
ons, four  feet  in 
diameter, 
should  dish 
about  three- 
eighths  to  one- 
half  inch ;  the 
coach  wheels, 
three  feet  si.\ 
inches  in  diam- 
e  t  e  r,  s  h  o  uld 
dish  one  inch, 

-^^^^^S:::^.^^     l^tsTeTn^g 

F.o.  t.-F.mily  Carriage.  ^^^^^^    J^    ^^^^ 

cases,  after  the  tire  has  been  set. 

Tire.  It  is  upon  this  partfof  the  wheel  that  most 
of  the  wear  comes,  and  if  defects  exist  here,  no  ex- 
cellence in  the  other  parts  will  be  of  any  avail.  The 
important  jxjints  in  a  good  tire  are,  that  it  should  be 
made  of  good  iron,  that  it  should  be  of  the  size  best  ad- 
adapted  to  the  vehicle  on  which  it  is  to  be  used,  and 
that  it  be  "set"  well,  neither  so  tight  as  to  draw  the 
wheel  out  of  shape,  nor  so  loose  as  to  allow  any  rack- 
ing of  the  spokes.  Wide  tires  are  desirable  on  soft 
roads,  being  less  likely  to  cut  in  (causing  the  carriage 
to  run  heavily,  and  injuring  the  roads)  than  narrow- 
er tires.  All  tires  should  be  fastened  on  with  bolts, 
one  between  each  two  sfwkes. 

Axle.  Since  the  general  introduction  of  the  iron 
axle,  the  wooden  axle  has  gone  out  of  use,  except  for 
the  heaviest  description  of  wagons  for  the  farm  or 
other  heavy  work.  Axles  may  be  either  straight, 
arched,  or  cranked ;  the  arched  fonn,  which  is  essen- 
tial for  all  very  light  axles,  being  stronger  than  the 
straight  ones,  though  a  very  light  arch  answers  the 
purpose. 

Springs.  These  are  of  many  kinds,  as  the  old  C 
spring,  the  ellipitic  spring,  and  the  shackle  spring, 
the  platform.5pring,  etc.  That  in  most  common  use, 
and  by  far  the  best  for  ordinary  purposes,  is  the  ellip- 
tic spring.  It  is  ofthe  first  importance  that  the  springs 
should  be  ofthe  properdegree  of  stiffness  required  by 
the  weight  ofthe  carriage,  and  the  number  of  persons 
they  are  intended  to  bear;  if  too  stiff,  they  will  "ride 
hard,"  and  cause  great  discomfort ;  or  if  they  are  not 
stiff  enough  they  will  collapse  or  break.  The  stiff- 
ness is  regulated  by  the  thickness  of  the  steel  used, 
the  length  of  the  springs,  and  the  width  and  number 
of  leaves  or  plats.  The  body  should  be  set  on  the 
springs  a  little  inclined  backward,  as  the  tendency  is 
to  "run  forward"  in  use. 

Shafts.  The  best  wood  from  which  to  make  shafts 
is  hickory.  It  is,  however,  more  easily  affected  by 
wet  than  ash  or  oak.  Shafts  for  light  wagons  are  gen- 
erally steamed  and  bent  to  such  form  as  is  required. 


They  should  be  bowed  out  widely  at  the  rear,  and  in 
front  should  turn  well  out  from  the  horse's  shoulders. 
The  jxDle  for  light  wagons  should  be  made  of  hickory, 
steamed  and  bent. 

Body.  The  body  frame-work  for  coaches  should 
be  made  of  soft  western  ash ;  the  top  ribs,  of  hickory, 
ash  or  maple ;  the  panels  of  white-wood ;  and  roof,  of 
pine-wood  deal. 

Tops.  Enameled  leather  is  now  almost  universally 
used  for  tops,  and  though  less  durable  than  the  old- 
fashioned  "oil-top  leather,"  it  looks  better,  being  black 
and  brilliant,  and  is  not  so  apt  to  shrink. 

For  the  Dash,  "grain"  patent  leather  is  the  best. 
Its  quality  may  be  determined  by  its  pliability.  Hard, 
stiff  leather  will  crack  when  exix)sed  to  heat  and  cold. 
The  enamel  should  be  smooth  and  brilliant,  and  show 
no  "pitting,"  or  unevenness  in  jxjlish.  Good  dash 
leather  is  jet  black,  not  greyish  or  reddish  black. 

Trimming.  The  most  durable  material  for  trim- 
ming is  cloth ;  if  in  high  colors,  it  should  be  of  English 
manufacture,  as  in  the  grade  of  cloth  used  for  carri- 
ages; its  colon's  are  more  durable  than  those  of  French 
and  German  manufacture.  High  colors  in  American 
carriage  cloth  will  not  stand  the  sun. 

For  Stuffing  the  seats  and  backs,  nothing  but  the 
best  curled  hair  should  be  used.  If  hair  of  inferior 
quality  is  mixed  with  it,  it  will  breed  vermin,  especi- 
ally in  damp  situations.  Curled  hair  keeps  the  seat 
elastic. 

Rules  TO  be  Observed  in  Purchasing  Vehi- 
cles. —  First.  Choose  for  your  carriage-maker  one 
who  has  a  character  for  fair  dealing  and  good  work. 

Second.  Never  purchase  a  vehicle  made  for  two 
horses  with  the  hope  that  it  will  "do"  for  one  horse. 
Your  mistake  will  be  apparent  when  you  find  your 
horse  failing  from  over-work. 

Third.  Always  insist  ujxjn  "case-hardened,"  or 
steel-covered  axles.  If  you  have  any  doubts  of  their 
quality,  try  a  file  on  them.  If  hard  it  will  make  no 
impression. 

Fourth.  Insist  upon  tempered  springs,  made 
of  English  steel.  Test  your  springs  by  loading  the 
carriage  before  you  buy  it,  and  ascertain  what  weight 
they  will  carry  when  in  use  on  the  road. 

Fifth.  Examine  all  iron  plates,  clips  and  bolts.  If 
the  iron-work  is  not  fitted  to  the  wood  with  exactness, 
don't  buy  the  carriage:  a  poor  workman  has  been 
spoihng  good  material. 

Sixth.  See  that  the  "jacks,"  or  irons  conecring  the 
pole  or  shaft  with  the  axles,  are  well  fitted  and  suf- 
ficiently heavy.  If  badly  fitted  they  will  ratde ;  if  not 
strong  they  will  endanger  your  life,  if  you  use  the  car- 
riage. 

Seventh.  See  that  the  axles  are  "set"  with  exact- 
ness. No  carriage  will  be  durable,  or  run  with  ease, 
if  the  axles  are  not  set  with  mathematical  precis- 
ion. 

Eighth.  Never  select  a  carriage  because  it  is  elab- 
orately finished  with  silver  plate.  It  soon  looks  shab- 
by, and  requires  a  great  deal  of  care  to  keep  it  in 
order.     Carriages  are   often   elaborately   finished  to 


CARRIAGES. 


t9t 


cover    up     Serious     defects    in     the   workmanship. 

Ninth.  Examine  closely  the  painting.  A  few 
years'  owneaship  of  a  carriage  will  show  a  greater  out- 
lay in  making  good  original  defects  in  painting,  than 
for  any  other  item.  If  varnish  is  dull,  it  generally 
argues  that  the  painting  was  hurriedly  done.  The 
varnish  will  "strike  in"  on  bad  painting,  and  a  little 
exposure  in  bad  weather  will  crack  the  paint  on  the 
wood. 

Tenth;  Never  permit,  in  the  cushions  or  back,  any- 
thing but  curled  hair.     Moss  soon  gets  hard. 

Eleventh.  See  that  the  cloth  on  the  glass  frames 
has  been  shrunk  before  it  was  put  on ;  if  not  shrunk, 
the  first  rain  to  which  it  is  exjxised  will  draw  it  off  the 
frames. 

TVelfth.  See  that  the  door-locks  and  handles 
work  with  ease,  and  do  net  rattle.  Nothing  is  more 
annoying  than  bad  door-locks,  or  even  good  locks  bad- 
ly fitted. 

Thirteenth.  In  purchasing  a  carriage  for  road  use, 
see  that  it  is  made  to  "track  '  in  the  ruts  in  the  dis- 
trict where  you  intend  to  use  it.  There  are  at  least  a 
score  of  different  tracks  indifferent  parts  of  the  Union, 
— varying  from  four  feet  four  (from  center  to  center  of 
the  wheels  measured  on  the  ground)  to  five  feet  four 
and  a  half  inches. 

Care  of  the  Carriage.  Having  procured  a  car- 
riage which  has  a  fine  luster,  which  runs  easily  and 
smoothly,  and  which  is  generally  well  finished,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  maintain  it  in  this  condition  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. This  requires  it  to  be  properly  cleansed,  oiled 
when  necessary,  kept  free  from  dust  in  the  carriage- 
house,  and  to  have  its  bolts  tightened  whenever  they 
have  worked  loose. 

The  appurtenances  necessary  for  this  purpose  are  a 
pail  and  watering-pot  (the  water  should  not  be  thrown 
through  a  hose,  as  it  ruins  English  varnish,  and  pene- 
trates all  the  crevices  in  the  springs,  etc.,  causing  rust), 
two  large  soft  sponges,  free  from  grit,  two  full-sized 
chamois-skins,  an  unlimited  supply  of  water,  a  wisp- 
broom,  a  feather  duster  (a  cloth  one  will  answer),  a 
sheet  for  covering  the  whole  carriage,  a  can  of  sweet 
oil,  or,  which  is  better,  pure  sperm  oil,  and  a  screw 
wrench.  Soft  water  is  much  better  than  hard,  as  the 
latter  is  injurious  to  the  varnish. 

All  the  fine  carriages  now  made  being  varnished 
with  English  varnish,  it  may  be  well  to  call  to  mind 
that  it  has  these  peculiarities :  It  will  become  sjxitted 
whenever  the  mud  is  allowed  to  remain  long  upon  it, 
and  the  more  frequently  it  is  washed,  the  more  lus- 
trous will  it  remain ;  hence  it  is  necessary,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  kept  in  the  best  condition,  that  the  car- 
riage should  be  washed  every  time  it  comes  in,  and 
at  least  once  a  month  whether  it  is  used  or  not. 

All  freshly  varnished  carriages  should  be  nicely 
washed,  with  soft  cold  water,  four  or  five  times  before 
being  used ;  it  hardens  the  varnish  and  prevents  it 
spotting  ])y  mud.  Never  place  a  carriage  near 
stone  or  brick  wall ;  the  dampness  destroys  the  var- 
nish. Varnish  requires  a  well  ventilated  room.     Am- 


monia from  the  stable  will  also  destroy   varnish  in  a 
short  time. 

The  Washing  should  be  done  in  the  following  man- 
ner: 

1.  Supposing  the  top  to  be  sufficiently  clean, 
the  cushions  and  whip  removed,  the  inside  of  the  car- 
riage wiped  out,  and  the  curtains  fastened  down, 
sprinkle  water  on  the  body  of  the  carriage  with  the 
watering-pot  until  all  the  mud  is  washed  off,  by  the 
action  of  the  water  alone,  without  having  recourse  to 
rubbing,  and  until  you  are  sure  that  no  grit  remains. 

2.  Wash  the  whole  body  with  the  s^xsnge 
which  is  kept  for  this  purpose,  using  as  much  water 
as  possible,  and  rubbing  very  lightly,  continuing  the 
operation  until  the  water  runs  from  the  body  perfect- 
ly clear. 

3.  Wet  the  chamois-skin  which  is  used  for 
the  body,  and  wring  it  out  as  dry  as  possible.  This 
will  soften  it  so  that  it  cannot  scratch  the  varnish. 
Use  this  to  absorb  the  water  which  has  been  left  af- 
ter washing,  wringing  it  out  as  often  as  it  may  be  nec- 
essary. Continue  this  until  the  body  is  dry.  Do  not 
rub  it  with  the  chamois-skin,  and  do  not  use  the  skin, 
nor  any  substitute  for  it,  when  dry  and  stiff. 

4.  Pursue  this  course  with  the  running  gear  (the 
wheels,  springs,  etc.),  as  has  been  specified  for  the 
body,  but  lay  aside  the  sponge  and  chamois-skin 
which  were  used  for  the  body,  and  use  for  this  jjor- 
tion  the  ones  designed  for  it.  Be  careful  to  wash  the 
wheels  in  such  a  manner  as  to  throw  as  little  water  as 
[XDssible  on  the  body,  and  whenever  any  does  strike 
it  remove  it  at  once  as  before  directed.  Do  not  apply 
soap  to  any  part  of  the  <:arriage,  or  even  a  sponge 
which  has  been  used  with  soap,  as  it  will  destroy  the 
varnish. 

5.  Having  removed  the  dirt,  and  thoroughly  dried 
the  carriage,  paying  particular  attention  to  those  parts 
where  the  iron  is  likely  to  rust  if  any  water  is  left,  rub 
up  the  plate  with  dry  chamois-skin  kept  for  that 
purix)se,  adding  a  little  dry  whiting  where  necessary, 
though  if  the  plate  is  never  allowed  to  become  much 
tarnished  there  will  be  little  occasion  to  do  more  than 
to  rub  it  with  the  leather. 

6.  The  top  may,  when  necessary,  be  washed  by 
the  same  process  as  recommended  for  the  body,  and 
with  the  same  care. 

Having  cleaned  the  carriage  in  every  part,  replaced 
the  cushions  and  rolled  up  the  curtains,  throw  a  mus- 
lin sheet  over  it  to  keep  dust  from  it. 

If  the  carriage  has  not  been  out  since  it  was  washed 
before,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  wet  it  thoroughly 
and  dry  it  as  directed. 

This  is  the  best  method  for  washing  the  bist  carri- 
ages. It  may  be,  and  in  most  instances  it  prob- 
ably will  be,  modified  to  suit  the  purposes  of  tlwse 
who  do  not  care  to  devote  so  much  labor  to  this  work ; 
and  in  all  such  questions  of  object  and  expense,  the 
judgment  of  the  individual  must  establish  the  com- 
promise. 

At  least  once  a  month  place  a  wrench   on   every 


r 


11)2 


CARROTS— CART. 


nut  on  your  carriage.  You  will  thus  prevent  the  loss 
of  nuts  and  bolts,  and  preserve  your  carriage;  a  loose 
bolt  frequently  leads  to  serious  breakage. 

As  often  as  once  a  month,  and  oftener  if  necessary, 
the  wheels  shouM  be  taken  off,  and  the  axles  and 
boxes  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  by  scraping  them 
with  a  sharp-edged  piece  of  hard  wood,  covered  with 
flannel  or  woolen.  They  should  then,  if  full-patent 
axles,  receive  as  much  sweet  oil,  or  pure  sperm  oil,  as 
they  will  retain  without  allowing  it  to  work  out  over 
the  wheel.  One  tablespoonful  to  each  wheel  will 
be  a  good  quantity. 

When  the  leather-washers  are  worn  out,  replace 
them  with  new  ones.  A  patent  axle  running  with 
worn-out  washers  will  soon  be  good  for  nothing. 

For  the  half-patent  axle,  clean  lard,  or  other 
greases,  or  any  of  the  patent  wagon  greases,  will  be 
found  as  effective  as  oil,  and  more  permanent. 

Tire-setting  is  the  most  important  repair  which  will 
be  necessary  in  the  case  of  well-kept  carriages,  unless 
they  become  accidentally  broken  or  worn  from  long 
use.  This  operation  should,  unless  rendered  neces- 
sary by  accident,  or  improper  construction,  be  per- 
formed only  in  the  dryest  summer  weather,  when  the 
wood  of  the  wheel  is  shrunk  to  its  narrowest  limits. 

Carriage  Steps.  No  well  regulated  farm-house 
fence  should  be  considered  complete  without  a  car- 
riage step  at  the  front  gate.  A  cheap  form  of  step  is 
shown  in  Fig.  7.     It  is  2  feet  4  inches  high,  z^^   feet 

wide,  and  3  ]^ 
feet  in  length, 
and  is  provi- 
ded with  two 
steps.  Two 
by  3,  or  3  by 
3  inch  pieces 
Fir,.  T.— Carriage  sups.  are  placed  Up- 

right at  each  inside  comer,  to  nail  to.  This  is  gener- 
ally placed  at  the  left  of  the  gate  as  you  enter  the 
yard,  and  always  has  the  latch  end  of  the  gate  near- 
est the  step,  as  it  will  be  far  more  convenient. 

Carrots  thrive  best  in  rather  a  light  loam.  The 
ground  should  be  well  manured  with  fine  well  rotted 
or  comiX)sted  manure,  10  or  15  wagon-loads  to  the  acre, 
and  be  thoroughly  worked  quite  deep 
by  two  plowings  at  right  angles  with 
each  other ;  also  roll  and  harrow.  Plant 
in  rows  14  inches  apart,  and  thin  plants  % 
three  to  five  inches  in  a  row.  Plant 
from  middle  of  April  to  middle  of  May, 
putting  in  the  seed  liberally,  say  eight 
ounces  of  seed  to  300  feet  of  row,  or 
about  four  pounds  to  each  acre.  A 
thousand  bushels  to  the  acre  might  be 
raised.  Carrots  are  excellent  food  for 
horses  and  cattle. 

Varieties.      Long  Orange.      The 
standard  field  carrot;  good  for  stock. 

Short  Horn:  A  standard  early  van-     scarut  Horn. 


Fig.   2.      Extra      Early 
Forcing  Carrot. 


ety,  sweeter  than  Long  Orange  and  more  solid ;  good 
to  color  butter. 

Improved  Long  Orange.     Of  a  darkir  and  richer 
color  than  long  orange. 

Early  Scarlet  Horn.  The  best 
early  short  variety  for  forcing ;  ex- 
cellent for  the  table ;  very  deep 
orange. 

Extra  Early  E'orcing.  The 
earliest  and  smallest  of  all  vari- 
eties ;  of  special  value  for  forc- 
ing. 

Large  li'/iite  /Belgian.  Largest 
of  all,  white  and  most  productive; 
good  for  horses ;  entire  crop  can 
be  pulled  by  hand. 

Yelloiv  Belgian.  Grows  partly 
out  of  ground;  a  capital  sort  for 
kite  keeping. 
Danvers  is  anew  and  promising  variety,  having  the 
greatest  thickness  and  smallestlengthofroot;  easy  to  dig. 
To  Cook  Carrots,  first  scrape  them  nicely;  slice 
them  lengthwise  ;  put  in  cold  water,  then  boil  them 
till  tender,  and  drain  the  water  all  off;  then  season 
with  a  little  salt,  pepper  and  butter ;  then  take  about 
two  sixjonfuls  of  rich  milk  and  flour,  not  enough  for 
thick  gravy ;  you  only  want  a  little.  Cut  them  in  slices 
with  a  knife.     Carrots  are  good  for  flavoring  soups. 

Cart.  Mr.  T.  T.  Prosser,  of  Chicago,  111.,  has 
recently  invented  a  wagon  or  cart  for  the  use  of 
farmers  in  hauling  their  grain  to  railway  stations  or 
elevators,  on  the  prairies  and  in  newer  portions  of 
the  country  where  they  are  not  supplied  with  macad- 
amized or  planked  roads.. 

We  illustrate  on  next  page  this  novel  grain-wagon, 
a  brief  description  of  which  will  make  its  advantages 
clear  to  the  comprehension  of  the  ordinary  reader. 
Upon  the  forward  axle  of  the  wagon  is  attached  a 
truncated  hollow  cone,  which  takes  the  place  of  the 
ordinary  shear,  sand  board  and  bolsters.  Through 
this  the  base  of  the  tongue  of  the  vehicle  passes,  which 
is  held  in  neariy  rigid  ix)sition,  having  a  slight  per- 
pendicular movement,  but  no  side  or  horizontal  move- 
ment independent  of  the  wheels.  By  this  arrange- 
ment the  weight  is  relieved  from  the  necks  of  the 
team.  In  the  upper  end  of  this  cone  is  set  the  king 
bolt,  or  what  takes  the  place  of  this  article,  to  which 
is  attached  the  reach,  forming  the  connection  of  the 
carrj'ing  cylinders  of  the  wheels.  This  has  a  free  re- 
volving motion  inside  the  cone,  allowing  the  fore 
wheels  to  turn  either  way  to  a  right  angle  with  the 
reach  or  connecting  ix)le.  These  wheels  have  a  broad, 
corrugated  tire,  which  not  only  prevents  their  sinking 
in  soft  ground,  but  gives  them  the  very  best  holding 
capacity  in  leading  the  loaded  cylinders.  It  will  be 
seen  that  this  independent  action  of  the  fore  wheels 
has  another  advantage.  Should  one  or  both  the  cyl- 
inders or  loaded  hind  wheels  get  into  ruts  or  soft 
ground,  the  entire  force  of  the  team  may  be  e.xerted 
in   a    direct   transverse   draught    to    extricate    first 


CART— CARVING. 


193 


one  cylinder  and  then  the  other,  or  both  at  Once. 

The  cyHnders  or  grain-carr\'ing  wheels  are  intended 
to  be  about  ten  feet  in  diameter  wth  a  tire  about  12 
inches  in  width,  bellying 
out  to  about  three  feet  at 
the  center.  Such  a  pair  of 
cylinders  will  carry  about 
150  to  300  bushelsof  grain, 
which  is  three  to  six  ordi- 
nary wagon-loads.  These 
cylinders  with  their  load 
rest  directly  on  the  ground, 
the  trunnions  bearing  no 
weight,  and  thus  offering 
no  friction  except  the  hori- 
zontal force  necessary  to 
rollthccylinders.  So  much 
has  already  been  said  in 
reference  to  the  difference 
in  the  jxawer  recjuired  to 
move  a  given  load  when 
resting  uixin  the  axles 
with  small  wheels,  and  the 
same  load  when  resting 
directly  ujxin  the  track  or 
ground,  that  we  need  not 
go  into  that  question.  It 
has  been  demonstrated  by 
experiment  that  a  grain- 
cart  or  wagon  like  the  one 
illustrated,  carrying  150  to 
300  bushels  of  wheat,  will 
actually  require  less  ix)wer 

to  move  it  over  the  same  road  than  an  ordinary  wagon 
loaded  with  35  to  50  bushels,  the  usual  load  on  coun- 
try roads.  These  cylinders  are  intended  to  be  made 
ordinarily  of  hard  wood,  with  wrought-iron  tires  and 
trunnion  boxes.  The  only  frame  necessary  is  the 
light  wrought-iron  bar  passing  around  the  cylinders 
attached  to  the  trunnions  and  to  the  center  pole  both 
before  and  in  the  rear  of  the  cylinders. 

We  hardly  need  refer  to  the  advantages  of  such  a 
grain  cart  in  hauling  a  large  crop  of  wheat  to  the  rail- 
road station  or  warehouse.  On  many  large  prairie 
farms  the  wheat  crop  is  thrashed  out  in  the  fields, 
cleaned  up  and  moved  direct  to  the  station  for  ship- 
ment. One  team  with  one  of  these  grain  carts  would 
do  the  work  of  four  to  six  teams  with  four  to  six 
wagons  and  four  to  six  men  ;  or  a  man  with  one  team 
would  save  three  days'  time  and  labor  each  day  in 
getting  his  grain  to  market  or  to  a  shipping  point.  In 
many  cases  the  work  of  getting  the  grain  to  marketer 
to  a  shipping  point  comes  just  at  a  time  when  the 
farmer  wants  to  be  at  work  getting  his  ground  ready 
for  fall  sowing,  when  time  is  everything,  and  when 
the  time  thus  saved  in  a  single  season  would  pay  for 
the  cylinder  grain-cart. 

Carving.     To  be  proficient  in  this  is  an  accom- 
plishment  to    be   greatly   desired.     In    carving   the 
various  kinds  of  meats  and  fowls  we  give  the  follow- 
ing brief  and  jwinted  instructions ; 
13 


A  Roast  of  Beef.  The  carving-knife  should  be 
rather  light  and  ver^'  sharp.  Cut  the  outside  pieces 
thin,  and  lengthwise  of  the  bone,  drawing  the  knife 


Prosser^s  Cylinder  Grain  Cart, 

through  with  a  quick  motion,  and  then  lay  them  in 
order. 

Lay  them  in  order  on  the  platter  till  there  are  as 
many  as  there  are  persons  to  be  helped.  Then  cut  the 
inside  ineatin  theopjxjsite  direction,  across  the  bone, 
laying  lie  slices — cut  very  thin — in  order  by  them- 
selves. Give  each  person  an  outside  and  an  inside 
piece,  but  never  overload  a  plate. 

S.\DDLE  OF  Mutton.  Cut  the  slices  lengthwise 
from  end  to  end,  on  each  back-bone.  If  very  large 
divide  and  give  a  jxirtion  of  fat  with  each  piece. 

Loin  ov  Veal.  Same  as  sirloin  ofbeet,  except  that 
the  carver  turns  the  veal  over  and  removes  kidney 
and  fat  before  cutting  slices. 

Leg  of  Mutton.  Lay  it  back  down ;  cut  the  first 
slice  across  the  lower  part  about  one-fourth  of  the  dis- 
tance between  the  knuckle  and  cramp-bones ;  then 
cut  the  thin  part  near  the  thickest  until  it  is  sliced  to 
the  bone ;  cut  slices  toward  the  thickest  part  until 
sliced  to  the  bone ;  then  cut  the  part  near  the  knuck- 
le lengthwise.  The  best  pieces  are  the  thickest.  If 
any  is  left  let  it  be  the  thickest  and  best  part. 

Shoulder  of  Mutton.  Lay  the  back  up.  Cut 
the  leanest  part  to  the  bone  across  the  jwint.  The 
best  are  on  each  side  of  the  blade  bone. 

Ham.  Lay  back  up;  cut  thin  slices  near  the  mid- 
dle to  the  bone;  also  near  the  thin  end;  give  bit  of 
fat  and  lean  tofi;ether. 


194 


CASE-HARDENING— CA  T. 


Roast  Pig.  If  served  whole,  cut  off  the  head  at 
the  neck  joint ;  lay  open  along  the  back  bone  from 
neck  to  tail,  and  lay  crackling  side  down ;  divide  the 
ribs  and  help  part  crackling  and  dressing  to  each  per- 
son.    Cut  up  the  head  for  those  who  prefer  it. 

A  Fowl.  Place  the  fork  firmly  in  the  thick  part 
of  the  breast ;  take  slices  from  each  side  of  the  breast- 
bone, the  whole  length  of  the  fowl ;  unjoint  and  re- 
move the  wings;  divide  at  the  first  joint.  Cut  the 
ligaments  of  the  legs,  and  twist  them  out  of  their 
sockets,  dividing  at  first  joint;  cut  down  the  merry- 
thought or  wish  bone  and  separate  by  lifting  and 
pressing  backwards;  lift  up  the  collar-bones,  at  each 
side  of  the  merry-thought,  at  the  broad  end,  with  the 
knife,  and  force  them  toward  the  breast-bone  until 
they  break  off;  cut  through  the  ribs  on  each  side  and 
remove  the  breast.  Now  turn  up  the  back-bone  and 
press  the  knife  firmly  across  it  near  the  middle,  lift- 
ing the  lower  end  at  the  same  time  with  fork,  until 
the  bone  breaks  ;  then  turn  the  lower  end  away  and 
remove  the  bones  from  each  side,  by  placing  the  jxiint 
of  the  knife  on  the  spot  where  the  side  bones  are 
jointed  to  the  back  bone.  Ducks  and  prairie  chick- 
ens are  carved  in  the  same  way. 

Turkey  or  Goose.  Cut  as  many  slices  as  possi- 
ble without  cutting  up  the  carcass.  The  rest  is  like 
carving  fowls. 

Case-Hardening,  putting  a  steel  surface  on  iron. 
It  is  accomplished  by  heating  the  iron  in  contact  with 
animal  carbon  in  close  vesels.  The  articles  are  put 
into  a  box  with  animal  carbon,  and  the  box  made  air- 
tight by  luting  with  clay.  They  are  then  placed  in 
the  fire  and  kept  at  a  light  red  heat ;  in  half  an  hour 
after  the  box  and  its  contents  have  been  heated  quite 
through,  the  hardness  will  be  about  the  thickness  of  a 
dime;  in  an  hour  it  will  be  double  that,  and  so  on  un- 
til the  desired  depth  is  obtained.  The  box  is  then 
taken  from  the  fire  and  the  contents  emptied  into 
pure,  cold  water.  They  can  then  be  taken  out  and 
dried  by  riddling  them  in  a  sieve  with  dry  saw-dust, 
when  they  are  ready  for  polishing. 

Cashmere,  a  rich  and  costly  kind  of  shawl,  made 
from  the  soft  wool  of  the  Thibet  goat.  To  renovate 
black  cashmere,  take  about  one-half  teacup  spirits  of 
ammonia  to  one  quart  of  soft  water ;  then  with  a  soft 
sixinge  rub  the  pieces  dll  thoroughly  wet ;  then  roll 
tightly ;  when  the  pieces  are  all  six)nged,  iron  imme- 
diately; put  the  right  side  of  the  cashmere  next  to 
the  flannel;  use  as  hot  an  iron  as  possible  and  iron  till 
perfectly  dry.  Then  use  a  soft  brush  to  remove  flan- 
nel lint  from  the  right  side. 

Cassava  (cas'a-va),  a  starchy  food  prepared  from 
the  poisonous  roots  of  tropical  plants.  Sometimes 
kept  on  sale  at  groceries.  Tapioca  is  purified  cass- 
ava. 

Cassimere,  a  thin  twilled  woolen  cloth,  used  for 
men's  garments. 

Caster,  or  Castor,  a  small  wheel  fixed  to  the  feet 


of  articles  of  furniture  for  facility  in  moving.  At  the 
hardware  stores  nowadays  can  be  obtained  casters  so 
made  that  they  may  be  screwed  to  the  outside  of  any 
furniture  leg.  They  are  not  only  more  convenient 
but  also  more  substantial  than  the  old  or  common 
kind.  The  word  "caster"  denotes  also  a  vial,  cruet, 
or  other  small  vessel,  to  contain  condiments  at  the 
table  ;  also,  a  stand,  to  contain  a  set  of  such  cruets. 

Cast  Iron:  see  Iron. 

Castor  Bean.  This  is  cultivated  as  a  field  crop 
in  many  sections  south  of  latitude  39°,  and  will  grow 
very  vigorously  north  of  this  parallel.  It  thrives  best 
in  a  rich,  mellow  soil,  and  is  easy  to  raise,  as  it  is 
planted  and  cultivated  like  corn.  It  grows  five  or  six 
feet  high,  and  bears  20  to  30  bushels  per  acre.  The 
beans  are  taken  from  the  pods,  bruised  and  subjected 
to  a  great  pressure,  by  which  they  yield  nearly  a  gal- 
lon to  the  bushel  of  "cold-pressed"  castor  oil,  which  is 
better  than  that  extracted  by  boiling  and  skimming. 
The  last  is  done  either  with  or  without  first  slightly 
roasting.  The  oil  is  generally  used  for  medical  pur- 
poses, as  a  mild  cathartic,  but  it  has  even  been  used 
as  an  article  of  food.  Its  manufacture  into  a  limpid 
oil  for  machinery  and  lamps,  and  stearine  for  candles, 
has  of  late  been  superseded  by  the  products  of  pe- 
troleum. 

Castor  Oil,  To  make  Palatable.  Boil  it  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  milk,  sweeten  it  with  a  little  sugar, 
stir  it  well,  and  let  it  cool;  beat  it  up  with  white  of  egg; 
or,  envelop  the  oil  with  orange  or  lemon  juice  in  a 
glass. 

Castration,  removing  the  testicles.  See  Calves, 
Horse,  Sheep  and  Svirine. 

Cat.  This  domestic  animal  is  too  well  known  to 
require  description.  Its  usefulness  upon  the  farm 
and  in  the  household  for  the  suppression  of  rats  and 
mice  renders  it  deserving  of  mention  in  these  pages. 
The  rule  which  should  always  govern  a  farmer  to  keep 
nothing  but  the  best  stock  should  also  apply  to  his 
cats  and  dogs.  A  handsome,  well-conditioned  cat  is 
an  ornament  to  the  kitchen,  the  jxjrch,  or  the  lawn, 
and  is  always  noticed  by  the  visitor.  A  mean,  half- 
starved  cat  is  always  a  disgusting  object.  A  cat  of 
pure  breed  is  also  apt  to  be  the  best  niouser.  The 
varieties  of  the  domestic  cat  are  neither  numerous  nor 
strikingly  different.  The  Tortoise-Shell  cat  differs 
from  the  common  variety  in  color,  and  is  also  very 
elegant.  The  Angora  is  a  beautiful  variety  remark- 
able for  its  long,  silky  hair.  The  Chinese  cat  has  a 
fine  glossy  fur,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  pendulous 
ears.  The  Chartreuse  (shar-truss')  is  of  a  bluish  color. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  Toby  has  undergone  less 
change  by  domestication  than  any  other.  In  this 
country,  the  Maltese  variety  is  common  and  jxjpu- 
lar. 

Insect  powder  rubbed  on  the  bodies  of  dogs  and 
cats  for  the  purpose  of  killing  fleas,  is  apt  to  get  into 
their  noses  and  eyes  when  they  turn  to  bite  their 
itching  skin.     Liquid  home-made  soap  rubbed  over 


CA  TALEPSY—CA  TSUP. 


'9S 


their  skin  is  a  better  remedy.  After  leavinj^  it  on  half 
an  hour  or  so,  wash  it  off  clean  with  warm  water,  put 
the  dog  or  cat  in  a  clean  place  to  dry,  and  then  comb 
down  its  hair  nicely.  Kerosene  is  a  far  better  reme- 
dy. 

Catalepsy.  This  is  a  species  of  convulsion  in  which 
the  patient  lies  perfectly  calm,  with  the  muscles  par- 
tially or  totally  relaxed.  It  is  brought  on,  in  certain 
constitutional  conditions,  by  a  protracted  concentra- 
tion of  the  mind  or  some  particular  object,  and  seems 
akin  to  other  states  of  the  body  called  "trance,"  and 
'ecstasy."  It  continues  from  a  few  minutes  to  several 
days,  and  used  to  occur  frequently  at  exciting  religious 
meetings.  External  sensibility  is  suspended.  During 
the  fit  no  treatment  is  reciuired  except  to  keepthe  patient 
at  a  comfortable  temperature;  but  he  may  be  aroused 
with  a  careful  manipulation  and  an  application  of  cold 
water  to  the  face  and  head.  The  constitutional  and 
preventive  treatment  consists  in  abstinence  from  sex- 
ual and  other  excesses,  and  in  cultivating  sociability. 

Catalpa,  an  ornamental  and  useful  tree,  of  which 
there  are  two  species.  See  Forestry  and  Landscape 
Gardening. 

Catarrh,  mucous  flow  from  diseased  air  pas- 
sages, or  morbid  fluid  from  other  diseased  mucous 
surfaces;  also  the  disease  that  produces  such  flow. 

There  is  perhaps  no  complaint  so  common  as  ca- 
tarrh or  cold  in  the  head ;  it  occurs  both  in  winter 
and  summer,  and  generally  the  summer  cold  is  more 
difficult  to  get  rid  of  than  the  winter.  The  attack  be- 
gins with  pains  in  the  limbs  and  back,  tightness  across 
the  forehead,  repeated  sneezing,  watery  and  inflamed 
eyes,  increased  discharge  from  the  nose,  sometimes  in- 
flammation of  the  throat.  Treatment:  Wet  cloths  in 
cold  water,  and  wring  as  dry  as  you  can,  and  apply  to 
the  outside  of  the  throat,  and  wrap  a  towel  around 
the  neck,  so  as  to  exclude  the  air  ^s  much  as  possi- 
ble. Keep  this  up  during  the  night  for  a  succession 
of  nights.  Also  apply  some  good  liniment,  rubbing 
in  well  two  or  three  times  daily.  Two  parts  spirits 
camphor  to  one  part  turpentine  makes  a  very  good 
liniment.  Bathe  the  neck  frequently  with  cold  water, 
and  rub  dry  with  a  coarse  towel.  A  little  cayenne 
pepper,  with  saltpeter,  dissolved  in  water,  and  used  as 
a  gargle,  is  good  to  allay  inflammation.  If  the  throat 
is  raw  and  sore,  dissolve  two  teaspoonfuls  of  borateof 
soda  in  a  teacupful  of  soft  water,  and  gargle  every 
two  or  three  hours.  Smoking  dried  mullein  leaves 
and  exhaling  the  smoke  through  the  nostrils,  and 
breathing  into  the  lungs,  often  gives  relief  Avoid 
exposure.  In  connection  with  the  above,  take  some 
good  alterative.  The  following  we  think  excellent : 
Compound  extract  sarsaparilla,  4  ounces  ;  fluid  extract 
yellow-dock,  i  ounce ;  iodide  jxjtassium,  2  drams ; 
mix.  Dose,  one  teasjxjonful  three  times  a  day. 
Others  recommend  crushed  cubeb  berries  smoked  in 
a  pipe,  emitting  the  smoke  through  the  nose.  After  a 
few  trials  this  will  be  easy  to  do.  If  the  nose  is 
stopped  up  so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  breathe. 


one  pipeful  will  make  the  head  as  clear  as  a  bell. 
For  sore  throat,  asthma  and  bronchitis,  swallowing 
the  smoke  effects  immediate  relief.  It  is  also  a  good 
remedy  for  offensive  breath,  and  will  make  the  most 
foul  breath  pure  and  sweet.  Sufferers  from  that  horrid 
disease,  ulcerated  catarrh,  will  find  this  remedy  un- 
equaled,  and  a  month's  use  will  cure  the  most  obsti- 
nate case.  Eating  the  uncrushed  berries  is  also  good 
for  sore  throat  and  bronchial  complaints.  After 
smoking  do  not  exix)se  yourself  to  cold  air  for  at  least 
15  minutes,  and  let  the  pipe  be  a  common  clay 
one,  new  and  clean.  Let  the  diet  be  low,  drink  toast 
water,  warm  gruel,  or  barley-water  acidulated  with 
a  little  lemon  or  cream-of-tartar.  Bathe  the  feet 
at  bed-time  in  hot  water.  Use  the  vapor  bath,  or  wrap 
hot  bricks  in  cloths  or  flannels  dipped  in  vinegar  and 
water,  to  the  feet  and  sides.  Should  the  cough  be 
troublesome,  take  a  cough  pill  or  pulmonary  syrup. 
Or,  snuff  up  the  nostrils  about  as  much  iodoform  as 
would  lie  on  a  three-penny  piece. 

Cat-Bird,  a  species  of  thrush,  of  a  leaden  color, 
which  is  a  beautiful  singer  in  spring  and  early  sum- 
mer, but  late  in  the  season,  makes  only  a  mewing  cry 
like  a  cat. 

Catch  Drain,  a  large  drain  to  catch  the  collection 
of  water  made  by  other  and  smaller  drains  and  con- 
vey it  to  a  natural  water-course. 

Caterpillar,  the  larva  (or  worm  fonn)of  a  butterfly. 
A  general  remedy  for  driving  caterpillars  away  is : 
Sprinkle  ufxan  them  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime,  or  a  strong  decoction  of  rue,  wormwood  and 
cheap  tobacco:  the  latter  should  be  applied  every 
morning  and  evening  while  the  fruit  is  ripening.  See 
respective  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Cathartics,  medicines  increasing  the  discharge 
from  the  bowels. 

Cathartic  Powder.  Best  senna,  ginger,  camo- 
mile flowers,  of  each  i  ounce  ;  jalap,  ^  ounce.  Pow- 
der fine,  and  mix  well.  Take  from  a  half  to  a  tea- 
spoonful  in  warm  water  or  tea.  This  is  a  valuable 
aperient ;  it  is  powerful,  and  yet  mild ;  effectually 
cleanses  the  towels,  and  produces  a  healthy  action 
in  them,  and  also  ujwn  the  liver.  Among  the  "  Hy- 
gienists  "  the  most  common  cathartic  is,  raw  corn  meal, 
mixed  with  water,  in  doses  from  a  tablespoonful  to  a 
gill ;  injections  of  water  into  the  towels  with  a  syringe. 

Catsup,  or  Catchup.  There  are  several  ways  of 
making  catsups,  but  to  make  what  every  one  will  like 
and  will  keep  well,  try  one  of  the  following,  and  let 
the  wife  or  daughter  remember  she  should  not  permit 
any  thing  in  the  shape  of  copper,  pewter  or  lead  come 
in  contact  with  the  article  from  which  the  catsup  is 
made.  Only  earthenware  or  stoneware  should  be 
used. 

Ti^MATO  Catsup.  Cut  up  ripe  tomatoes,  toil  one 
hour  in  their  own  liquor ,  strain  ancj  press  through  a 
hair  sieve  ;  to  one  gallon  of  juice,  add  i  tablespoon- 
ful of  salt,  I  tablespoonful  of  black  pepper,  i  table- 
sjxxjnful  of  cayenne  pepper,  one  tablespoonful  of  nut- 


196 


CJ  TSUP—CA  TTLE. 


meg,  two  of  cinnamon,  two  of  allspice,  two  of  powdered 
cloves,  I  of  mustard  and  i  of  celery  seed  tied  in  a  bag, 
and  I  pint  of  vinegar ;  boil  until  quite  thick ;  Ixsttle 
and  cork  while  hot ;  seal  with  sealing-wax. 

Another:  Take  perfectly  ripe  tomatoes,  Yi  bushel ; 
wash  them  clean  and  break  them  to  pieces ;  then 
put  over  the  fire  and  let  them  come  to  a  boil,  and  re- 
move from  the  fire;  when  they  are  sufficiently  cool  to 
allow  your  hands  in  them,  rub  through  a  wire  sieve; 
and  to  what  goes  through,  add  salt,  i  tea-cup;  best 
vinegar,  i  quart.  Put  u[X)n  the  fire  again  and  cook 
one  hour,  stirring  with  great  care  to   avoid   burning. 

If  they  were  very  juicy  they  may  need  boiling  over 
an  hour. 

Green  Tomato  Catsup.  One  peck  of  green  toma- 
toes, one  dozen  onions,  not  the  largest.  Cut  the  to- 
matoes up,  peel  0:1;  stew  onions  and  tomatoes  together 
until  fine;  strain  through  a  colander,  then  put  on  and 
stew  again,  with  a  quart  of  good  vinegar,  spices  to  taste, 
half-cup  sugar,  spoonful  of  salt ;  put  two  red  peppers 
in  while  cooking,  then  throw  away  the  peppers.  When 
bottled,  seal  up  as  any  fruit ;  it  is  nice. 

Walnut  Catsup.  Take  green,  tender  walnuts, 
prick  them  in  several  places,  put  them  in  a  jar  and 
sprinkle  them  over  with  salt  and  water  enough  to 
cover  them  ;  let  them  remain  from  three  to  six  days ; 
break  them  and  let  them  remain  in  the  pickle  10  to 
12  days;  pour  off  the  liquor  and  cover  the  shells  with 
boiling  vinegar  to  extract  what  juice  remains  in  them; 
crush  to  a  pulp  and  strain  into  the  liquor.  Allow  for 
every  quart,  i  ounce  black  pepper,  i  ounce  of  ginger, 
Y-i  ounce  of  cloves  and  ^  ounce  of  nutmeg,  j4  tea- 
spoonful  of  cayenne  pepper  and  celery  seed  tied  in  a 
bag.  Boil  for  one  hour  and  a  half  and  bottle  when 
cold. 

Mushroom  Catsup.  Lay  alternately  in  a  pan 
the  mushrooms  and  salt ;  allow  half  a  pound  of  salt 
to  four  quarts  of  mushrooms,  let  them  remain  until 
next  day,  then  mash  them  well  and  let  them  remain 
for  three  days  longer ;  strain,  and  for  every  quart  of 
juice  allow  i  ounce  of  allspice,  i  of  ginger,  a  tea- 
sjxionful  of  ix)wdered  mace  and  2  of  cayenne  pep- 
per ;  put  into  a  stone  jar,  cover  closely,  and  boil  in  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water  for  seven  hours  ;  let  it  stand  in 
a  cool  place  over  night,  until  well  settled  ;  jxiur  off 
carefully  from  the  sediments  and  put  up  in  small  bot- 
tles, and  seal  up  air-tight. 

Oyster  Catsup.  Chop  the  oysters  and  boil  in 
their  own  liquor  with  a  teacupful  of  vinegar  to  every 
quart,  taking  off  the  scum  as  it  rises;  boil  from  three 
to  five  minutes  and  then  strain ;  return  the  liquor  to 
the  fire  and  add  one  cupful  of  sherry  wine,  some  cay- 
enne pepper,  one  tablespoonful  of  mace  and  one  of 
salt  to  every  quart.  Boil  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes, 
and  bottle  when  cold. 

Currant  Catsup.  Take  5  pounds  of  currants,  3 
of  sugar,  I  tablespponof  pepper,  1  tablesjxwn  of  cloves, 
I  tablespoon  of  cinnamon,  i  tablespoon  of  salt.  Steam 
the  i)ulp  and  juice  of  the  currants,  then  add  a  pint  of 
vinegar  and  boil  half  an  hour. 


Cattle.  At  the  present  day  all  domestic  ani- 
mals of  the  bovine  species  are  known  as  cattle,  though 
the  signification  of  the  word  in  former  times  had  a 
wider  range  of  meaning  and  applied  to  all  goods  and 
chattels  of  the  farmer  and  householder,  and  later  to 
all  live  domestic  animals.  The  genus  Bos  as  a 
domesticated  animal  has  been  the  useful  and  cher- 
ished companion  of  man  from  the  earliest  date  of  his- 
tory, either  sacred  or  profane.  In  the  fourth  chapter 
of  Genesis  we  are  informed  that  cattle  were  kept  by 
the  early  descendants  of  Adam.  The  natives  of 
Egypt,  India  and  Hindostan,  as  well  as  in  other  coun- 
tries, placed  the  cow  amongst  their  deities,  and  in- 
deed the  traditions  of  every  Celtic  nation  enroll  the 
cow  among  the  earliest  productions,  and  represent  it 
as  a  kind  of  divinity.  (3xen  have  also  been  used  for 
labor  in  husbandry,  and  more  or  less  in  commerce, 
in  all  countries  where  neat  cattle  were  kept,  and  could 
endure  the  climate  well,  as  being  the  most  conven- 
ient beast  of  burden.  It  is  probable  that  they  were 
bred  in  their  best  estate  by  those  who  used  them,  and 
the  cows  were  cultivated  for  dairy  and  household  uses 
in  the  family.  As  they  spread  from  Asia  west  and 
north  into  the  higher  latitudes  and  elevations  of 
Europe,  they  somewhat  changed  their  characters,  and 
became,  as  now  known  there,  acclimated  and  fitted 
to  their  new  conditions,  and  inured  to  the  habits  of 
the  people  who  kept  them.  We  may  suppose,  too, 
that  in  the  severer  climates  they  were  afforded  some- 
what of  shelter,  and  more  pains-taking  in  food  and 
treatment,  than  in  the  milder  latitudes  where  they 
had  long  ranged,  and  with  such  increased  care  im- 
proved in  quality  and  appearance.  They  took,  ix)ssi- 
bly,  somewhat  different  shapes,  and  conformed  more 
or  less  to  the  uses  to  which  they  were  subjected. 
The  Moors  of  Spain  reared  great  herds  of  neat 
cattle,  and  from  them  descended  the  dominant  races 
of  Spanish  herds.  They  were  there  the  progenitors 
of  the  savage  and'headstrong  bulls  still  sacrificed  in 
the  arena  of  bull-fights  and  picadores.  The  Gauls 
of  France  bred  the  gentler  and  more  economical 
forms  of  cattle,  adapted  to  a  better  husbandry.  By 
what  gradual,  peculiar,  or  natural  progresses  these 
European  cattle  acquired  their  present  distinctive 
characteristics',  we  have  no  definite  infonnation. 
History  is  either  altogether  silent  or  obscure  on  these 
subjects,  and  we  have  no  better  guide  than  conjecture 
to  inform  us.  Throughout  Western  Europe  numer- 
ous different  breeds  exist,  of  diverse  qualities,  all 
more  or  less  useful  for  the  purposes  to  which  they  are 
applied,  and  profitable  to  the  people  who  breed  and 
rear  them.  Italy,  France,  Spain,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, Holland,  and  other  northern  countries,  all 
have  their  peculiar  national  breeds,  while  England, 
Scotland  and  Ireland  have  many  varieties  widely  di- 
vergent in  character  and  appearance.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  necessary,  unless  for  speculation  or  curiosity,  that 
we  know  the  particulars  of  their  history  or  progress, 
inasmuch  as  we,  in  America,  are  already  in  possession 
of  the  best  breeds  in  Western  Europe,  fully  answer- 
ing our  own  immediate  purposes,  and  which  have 


iV\ — jaP^i — r- 


198 


CATTLE. 


been  successfully  naturalized  on  our  soil.  It  has  been 
said,  or  conjectured,  by  some  speculative  antiquarians, 
that  neat  cattle  were  introduced  to  the  continent  of 
America  by  the  Northmen,  who  are  supposed  to  liave 
made  a  descent  upon  the  coast  from  Northwestern 
Europe  some  centuries  before  the  discovery  of  the 
continent  by  Columbus.  This,  however,  is  simply  a 
conjecture,  as  no  cattle  were  known  liere  before  they 
were  brought  out  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  emi- 
grants, a  few  years  after  the  voyages  of  Columbus. 

We  may  supixsse  that  cattle  were  introduced  into 
Mexico  as  early  as -the  year  1525,  and  in  the  mild 
climate  and  abundant  pasturage  which  the  country 
afforded,  they  rapidly  increased.  As  Mexico  be- 
came peopled  and  spread  her  jwpulation  along  the 
coast,  and  into  the  interior,  in  the  course  of  time  Texas 
was  reached,  and  there  were  spread  the  foundations 
for  the  immense  herds  of  Mexican,  or,  as  we  now  call 
them,  Texas  cattle.  California  was  afterwards  settled 
by  the  Spanish  Mexicans,  who  drove  their  cattle 
thither  and,  in  time,  scattered  over  it  numerous  herds. 
The  first  English  settlement  was  made  in  what  is  now 
the  United  States,  in  1607,  at  Jamestown,  Va.  In 
1622  the  colony  was  massacred  and  broken  up  by 
Indians,  but  as  to  whether  their  cattle  were  destroyed 
or  not  history  does  not  state.  Soon,  however,  the 
colony  was  re-established  and  cattle  introduced  and 
propagated.  The  first  importation  of  cattle  in  New 
York  was  made  in  1625,  by  the  Dutch  from  Holland. 

In  1620,  the  English  Plymouth  colony  landed  in 
Massachusetts.  In  1623,  further  English  colonies 
came  and  settled  at  Boston  and  in  New  Hampshire. 
In  1624,  the  first  arrival  of  cattle  entered  Massachu- 
setts Bay.  These  were  soon  followed  by  other  arrivals. 
New  Jersey  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1624,  and 
Delaware  by  the  Swedes  in  1627,  who  brought  cattle 
with  them.  The  early  records  of  New  Hampshire 
state  that  in  the  years  1631,  '32  and  '33,  Captain  John 
Mason  made  several  imix)rtations  of  cattle  into  that 
State  from  Denmark,  to  supply  the  Danish  emigrants 
who  had  settled  on  the  Piscataqua  river.  These  Dan- 
ish cattle  were  coarse,  large  beasts,  and  yellowish  in 
color.  Settlements  were  made  in  Maryland  in  1633; 
in  North  and  South  Carolina  in  1660  and  1670;  and 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1682,  all  by  the  English,  who 
either  with  the  first  settlers,  or  soon  after,  brought  cat- 
tle over,  chiefly  from  the  countries  nearest  the  jxjrts 
whence  they  sailed.  In  all  probability,  numerous  im- 
portations of  cattle  were  annually  made  into  the 
several  colonies,  during  successive  years,  as  the  emi- 
grants came  in  rapidly,  and  the  few  early  importations, 
with  their  increase,  were  insufficient  to  supply  their 
wants.  That  cattle  multiplied,  both  by  natural  in- 
crease and  imjxjrtation,  is  evident.  We  see  it  recorded, 
that  in  the  year  1636,  a  party  of  emigrants  went  out 
to  settle  the  tJown  of  Northboro,  Massachusetts,  thirty 
miles  west  of  Boston,  and  in  a  company  of  one  hun- 
dred men,  women  and  children,  they  drove  with  them 
one  hundred  and  sixty  cattle,  and  that  was  but  twelve 
years  after  the  first  im|X)rtation  into  the  colony.  From 
these  diverse  and  miscellaneous  beginnings,  our  na- 


tive cattle  originated.  Of  what  distinctive  breeds  they 
were  selected,  if  selected  with  reference  to  lireed  at  all, 
we  have  no  information,  nor  at  this  distance  of  time 
can  we  be  at  all  certain.  Disrinct  breeds  did  then  ex- 
ist, well  defined  in  their  characterisrics,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  and  we  are  to  presume  that,  needy 
and  necessitous  as  the  emigrants  mostly  were — going 
out  for  conscience'  sake,  as  many  of  them  did,  and  in 
a  hope  to  better  their  fortunes  withal— they  paid  little 
regard  to  breed'or  race  in  their  cattle,  so  that  they 
gave  milk,  performed  labor,  and  propagated  their 
kind.  As  the  merchants  of  the  sea-coast  towns  grew 
rich,  some  enterprising  ones  made  imjxjrlations  of 
choice  breeds  from  England,  which  were  driven  into 
the  country  neighborhoods,  and  very  considerably 
benefited  their  common  stock.  Of  the  improved 
breeds  introduced  into  the  United  States  the  Here- 
fords  and  Short-horns  are  deservedly  the  most  popu- 
lar for  beef  and  early  maturity.  The  Devons  as  work- 
ing cattle  and  in  the  quality  of  their  flesh  are  acknowl- 
edged to  be  superior  to  any  other.  Of  dairy  cattle  the 
Ayrshire  originally  brought  from  Scotland,  the  Jersey 
from  the  Channel  Islands,  and  the  Dutch  and  Hol- 
steins  from  Holland  and  Holstein,  have  merits  of  ex- 
ceeding excellence.  The  Ayrshire  and  the  Dutch 
and  Holsteins  are  noted  for  large  messes  of  milk,  rich 
in  caseine,  and  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  as  cows 
giving  milk  exceedingly  rich  in  cream  and  consequent- 
ly in  butter. 

Of  late,  however,  the  importations  to  this  country 
have  been  limited  to  a  few  well  known  breeds, 
each  having  desirable  characteristics.  The  breeding 
of  these  and  the  improvement  of  the  natives  by  inter- 
mixture with  them  is  the  present  enthusiastic  work  of 
the  American  cattle  fancier.  While  every  farmer  can 
not  be  an  importer,  still  every  farm  must  have  its  cat- 
tle of  some  kind,  and  the  raiser  can,  in  a  few  years, 
have  a  herd  of  high  grades  with  a  few  pure  bloods 
at  a  verj-  little  expense  over  that  of  keeping  up  his 
herd  of  natives  or  "scrubs." 

Increased  prices  per  pound,  and  more  pounds  of 
beef  cattle  to  sell  annually,  will  be  the  speedy  result. 
He  should  be  a  breeder  of  cattle  to  the  extent  at 
least  of  keeping  one  bull  of  pure  blood. 

This  will  serve  a  large  number  of  native  cows.  The 
progeny  of  these,  called  "grades,"  will  show  a  marked 
improvement  uixin  their  dams,  having  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  the  characteristics  of  the  pure  bull.  The 
heifers  of  these  grades  should  be  kept  for  breeding 
purposes,  and  the  bull  calves  be  castrated  and  re- 
served for  oxen  or  fattening.  When  the  heifers  ar- 
rive at  a  proper  age,  two  years,  for  breeding  from,  the 
parent  bull  should  be  sold  or  exchanged,  and  an- 
other of  the  same  breed  procured.  The  second  gener- 
ation of  grades  will  be  a  great  improvement  ujxjn 
the  first,  approaching  more  nearly  the  desirable 
characteristics  of  the  pure  breed  of  the  bulls.  This 
process  may  be  continued  indefinitely,  and  in  a  few 
years  the  farmer  will  be  the  [assessor  of  a  herd  of 
cattle  as  good  as  the  pure  bloods,  except  for  breeding 
perfectly  pure  bloods.     His  beef  cattle  will  bring  the 


CATTLE. 


199 


highest  prices  in  the  market,  or  if  he  is  breeding  for 
dairy  purjxises,  his  herd  will  possess  the  qualities  of 
pure  bloods  to  which  the  bulls  belong.  If  possible, 
however,  the  farmer  should,  in  addition  to  the  improve- 
ments of  thenatives,  procure  one  or  more  pure-blood 
cows  of  the  same  breed  as  the  bull,  and  make  the  be- 
ginning of  a  herd  of  thoroughbreds.  If  he  desires  to 
make  a  specialty  of  cattle-breeding,  either  for  beef  or 
dairy  purposes,  he  must,  of  course,  be  governed  in 
his  selection  of  a  breed  or  breeds  by  the  sjjecific 
(jualities  of  each.  The  following  a;e  all  the  varieties 
bred  in  this  country,  given  alphabetically.  We  also 
must  fully  treat  the  breeding,  care  and  management 
of  cattle,  the  manner  of  diagnosing  for  diseases,  and 
treat  in  the  most  practical  and  modern  manner  all  of 
the  diseases  and  ailments  which  this  stock  is  heir 
to  in  this  country.  This  jxDrtion  of  the  work  will  be 
found  especially  valuable,  as  it  is  given  in  the  sim- 
plest and  most  common-sense  way,  and  no  remedy 
prescribed  but  has  been  thoroughly  tested.  Also,  as 
far  as  possible  such  remedies  were  given  as  the  farmer 
may  have  on  his  place,  or  to  be  easily  obtained  and 
easily  administered.  For  the  selection,  care,  manage- 
ment and  treatment  of  the  cow,  see  article  on  Cow, 
for  calf,  see  Calves,  for  bull,  see  Bull,  and  for  oxen, 
see  Oxen.  For  the  laws  and  principles  of  breeding, 
see  article  on  Breeding. 

Aldernevs.  The  original  stock  of  the  Alder- 
ncy  breed  was  from  Normandy,  France.  Between 
England  and  France,  in  the  British  Channel,  are  the 
islands  of  Jersey,  Alderney  and  Guernsey.  These 
islands  have  given  names  to  as  many  breeds  of  cattle, 
though  they  are  nearly  all  identical,  and  of  the  same 
Norman,  or  French  extraction.  In  describing  the  Al- 
derney breed,  a  jxjrtrayal  of  the  Jersey  and  (iuernsey 
breeds  is  really  given,  though  from  the  fact  that  the 
shipment  to  this  country  of  Jersey  stock  has  been 
very  large  of  late  years,  the  latter  name  has  become 
best  known  here  as  applied  to  the  Alderney  breed  of 
cattle.  The  pure-blood  Alderney  cattle  are  now 
found  in  England  mainly  in  gentlemen's  parks,  and  it 
is  thought  fashionable  that  the  view  from  the  draw- 
ing or  breakfast  room  of  the  house  should  jDresent  an 
Alderney  cow  or  two  grazing  at  a  little  distance.  In 
color  the  Alderneys  are  light  red,  yellow,  dun  or 
brown  colored;  short,  wild-horned,  deer-necked,  thin, 
and  small-boned ;  irregularly,  and  often  very  awk- 
wardly shaped.  Their  size  is  small ;  the  bellies  of 
many  of  them  are  four-fifths  of  their  weight ;  the  neck 
is  very  thin  and  hollow ;  the  shoulders  stand  up  and 
are  the  highest  part ;  they  are  hollow  and  narrow  be- 
hind the  shoulders ;  the  chin  is  nearly  without  flesh ; 
the  hocks  are  narrow  and  sharp  at  the  ends ;  the 
rump  is  short ;  and  they  are  light  and  narrow  in  the 
brisket.  This  is  a  description  of  the  pure  Alderney, 
as  seen  to-day  in  England,  and  does  not  adequately 
api)ly  to  the  Jersey  stock  as  latterly  improved  on  their 
native  island. 

The  Alderney  has  a  voracious  appetite  and  yields 
but  very  little  ailk,  but  it  is  however  of  excellent 
quality,  and  yields  more  butter  per  quart  than  can  be 


obtained  from  any  other  cow,  though  some  writers 
deny  this. 

AvRSHiRES.  This  breed  of  cattle  originated  in 
the  county  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  which  extends 
along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Frith  of  Clyde,  and  the 
North  Channel.  The  climate  of  the  district  is  moist 
and  mild,  and  eminently  adapted  to  the  pursuit  of 
dairying,  and  the  production  of  dairy  stock.  A  well 
informed  Scotch  writer  thus  describes  the  Ayrshire 
cattle: 

The  shapes  most  approved  of  are :  Head  small,  but 
rather  long  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle;  the  eyes  small, 
but  smart  and  lively ;  the  horns  small,  clear,  crooked 
and  their  roots  at  considerable  distance  from 
each  other;  neck  long  and  slender,  tapering  toward 
the  head  with  no  loose  skin  below;  shoulders  thin; 
fore  quarters  light ;  hind  quarters  large ;  back  straight, 
broad  behind,  the  joints  rather  loose  and  open  ;  car- 
cass deep  and  pelvis  capacious  and  wide  over  the 
hips,  with  round  fleshy  buttocks;  tail  long  and  small; 
legs  small  and  short,  and  firm  joints ;  udder  cajjaci- 
ous,  broad  and  square,  stretching  forward,  and  neither 
fleshy,  low  hung,  nor  loose ;  the  milk  veins  large  and 
prominent ;  teats  short,  all  ixjinting  outward,  and  at 
considerable  distance  from  each  other;  skin  thin  and 
loose;  hair  soft  and  woolly.  The  head,  bones,  horns 
and  all  parts  of  least  value,  small,  and  the  general 
figure  compact  and  well  proixsrtioned.  In  color  they 
are  not  uniform,  but  red  and  white,  brown  and  while, 
and  black  and  white  predominate.  Small  red,  black 
or  brown  spots,  on  a  white  ground,  is  perhai)s  a  more 
uniform  mark  than  any  other,  though  in  many  cases 
red  predominates.  The  cows  especially  have  small 
heads  and  horns,  light  necks  and  shoulders,  deej) 
flanks  and  heavy  hind-quarters,  with  all  the  marks  of 
deep  milkers.  The  Ayrshires  are  essenrially  a  dairy 
breed.  Though  the  milk  of  the  cows  is  not  especially 
rich  in  cream,  like  the  Alderneys  and  Holsteins,  yet 
in  all  other  respects  their  milk  is  equal  to  the  best ;  is 
of  average  richness  in  cream ;  and  the  breeders  of 
Ayrshire  cattle  claim  that  the  quantity  of  milk  pro- 
duced by  their  favorites  exceeds  that  of  any  other 
breed  of  dairy  stock.  Large  numbers  of  Ayrshire 
cattle  are  bred  for  dairy  puqxjses  in  the  United  States 
with  satisfactory  results.  Though  most  highly  valued 
for  their  milking  qualities,  the  Ayrshire  fattens  well 
and  easily — an  important  item  in  the  final  disi»sal 
of  the  cows. 

The  Devons.  The  native  country  of  the  Dev- 
ons,  and  where  they  are  found  in  the  greatest  purity, 
is  the  district  skirting  the  Bristol  Channel,  England, 
from  the  river  Taw  westward.  They  belong  to  the 
middle-horned  group  and  are  of  symmetrical  form, 
of  medium  size,  and  red  in  color.  They  arc  good 
milkers,  and  their  flesh  is  of  fine  quality.  When  well 
bred  they  are  the  most  beautiful  of  fann  animals, 
and  the  steers  are  susceptible  of  training  to  be  ex- 
cellent oxen.  The  perfect  specimens  of  the  Devon 
bull  are  admired  for  their  rich  red  color,  their  fine 
clean  heads,  adorned  with  long,  up-turned  horns, 
shapely  and  of  a  yellow  hue.     The  cows  are  not  con- 


CA  TTLE. 


sidered  very  profitable  for  dairy  purposes,  but  there 
are  exceptions.  They  certainly  give  very  rich  milk. 
The  Devon  ox  has  his  legs  placed  well  under  the 
chest,  and  they  are  straight  in  the  best  herds.  The 
fore  arm  is  particularly  large  and  ix)werful.  It  swells 
out  suddenly  above  the  knee,  but  is  soon  lost  in  the 
substance  of  the  shoulder.  Below  the  knee  the  bone 
is  extraordinarily  small,  but  the  smallness  is  only  in 
front,  and  in  the  bone,  not  in  the  sinews  and  muscles; 
the  leg  is  deep,  and  the  sinews  far  removed  from  the 
bone,  indicating  both  strength  and  speed.  The  leg  is 
rather  long,  which  is  necessary  to  a  working  animal. 
The  line  of  the  back  is  straight  from  the  withers  to 
the  tail.  The  hips  are  high  and  on  a  level  with  the 
back,  and  the  space  from  the  hip  to  the  ix)int  of  the 
rump  is  long  and  well  filled  up.  The  setting  on  of 
the  tail  is  high  and  level  with  the  back,  and  the  tail  is 
long,  small  and  tapering.  The  skin  is  thin,  and  the 
appearance  of  thickness  that  it  sometimes  bears  arises 
from  the  curly  hair  which  covers  it  when  the  animal 
is  in  good  health  and  keep ;  the  curled  hair  also  indi- 
cates purity  of  blood.  In  selecting  an  ox  of  the  Devon 
breed  the  paler  color  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are 
less  hardy  than  the  reds.  One  peculiarity  of  the 
Devon  breed  is  the  smallness  of  the  bulls  and  cows 
in  comparison  with  the  oxen.  The  bull  is  smaller 
than  the  o.x,  and  the  cow  than  the  bull.  This  has 
been  an  annoyance  to  breeders.  The  cows,  however, 
although  small,  possess  that  roundness  and  projec- 
tio.i  of  the  two  or  three  last  rii)s  which  make  them 
actually  more  roomy  than  a  careless  examination  of 
them  would  indicate.  The  cow  is  particularly  dis- 
tinguished for  her  full,  round,  clear  eye,  the  gold- 
colored  circle  round  the  eye,  and  the  same  color  on 
the  inside  skin  of  the  ear.  The  countenance  is  cheer- 
ful, the  muzzle  orange  or  yellow,  the  jaws  free  from 
thickness,  and  the  throat  from  dewlap.  The  points 
of  the  back  have  more  of  roundness  and  beauty,  and 
are  freer  from  angles  than  most  animals.  The  Devon 
cattle  were  formerly  great  favorites  with  the  New 
England  and  Middle  State  farmers,  on  account  of  the 
working  qualities  of  the  oxen,  and  the  easiness  of 
their  keep.  But  latterly  milking  qualities  are  more 
largely  sought,  and  the  Devon  ox  has  been  supersed- 
ed by  the  horse.  Many  farmers,  however,  value  the 
Devon  for  crossing  with  other  breeds. 

To  represent  the  Devon  stock  we  have  selected  two 
of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  breed  in  America.  The 
Devon  bull  as  shown  by  Fig.  i  is  a  likeness  of  the 
celebrated  bull  Shelto  2nd,  owned  by  L.  F.  Ross, 
Avon,  111.  The  cow,  Henrietta  (Fig.  2),  was  former- 
ly owned  by  the  same  gentleman,  who  is  one  of  the 
leading  breeders  of  this  stock  in  America. 

Dutch  Frif.sian.  This  breed  is  identical  with  the 
Holstein,  which  we  describe  at  length.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  name  of  Holstein  is  incorrectly  applied.  It 
has  become  jwpularized  and  more  common  than  the 
correct  name,  as  it  is  claimed,  the  Friesian.  Two  herd 
books  of  this  breed  are  kept  in  this  country,  the  Hol- 
stein and  the  Dutch-Friesian.  There  is  at  present  a 
controversy    going  on  in  this  country    between  the 


breeders  of  the  Holstein  and  Dutch-Friesian  cattle  as 
to  whether  the  latter  shall  be  admitted  under  the 
name  of  Holstein  and  to  compete  with  them  at  the 
State  and  county  fairs.  As  a  magnificent  representa- 
tion of  the  Dutch-Friesian  we  show  by  Fig.  3  a  pic- 
ture of  Sjoerd,  a  cow  owned  by  H.  Langworthy,  West 
Edmeston,  N.  Y. 

Galloway  Cattle.  This  breed  is  a  native  of  the 
shires  of  Kirkudbright,  Wighton,  Ayrshire  and  Dum- 
fries, which  were  embraced  in  the  ancient  province  of 
Galloway,  Scotland.  They  are  hornless  and  are 
therefore  called  "polled,"  "dodded,  "humble"  or 
"muley"  cattle. 

They  have  always  been  favorites  with  English 
farmers,  because  they  fatten  easily,  attain  large  size, 
their  flesh  loses  no  fineness  because  of  size,  and  they 
manifest  a  kind  and  docile  disposition.  They  are 
straight  and  broad  in  the  back,  round  in  the  ril>s,  and 
broad  in  the  loins,  without  any  projecting,  hooked 
bones.  In  roundness  of  barrel  and  fullness  of  ribs, 
they  will  compare  with  any  breed.  They  are  long  in 
the  quarters  and  ribs,  deep  in  the  chest,  but  not  broad 
in  the  twist.  There  is  less  space  between  the  hips 
and  ribs  than  in  most  other  breeds,  a  consideration  of 
importance.  The  Galloway  has  short  legs,  with  a 
clean  short  shank.  They  are  not  fine  and  slender,  but 
well  proiX)rtioned  and  clean  in  the  neck  and  chaps. 
The  neck  of  the  Galloway  bull  is  thick  almost  to  a 
fault,  the  head  is  rather  heavy,  the  eyes  not  promi- 
nent, the  ears  large,  rough,  and  full  of  long  hairs  on 
the  inside.  These  cattle  are  covered  with  a  loose, 
mellow  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  which  is  clothed 
with  long,  soft,  silky  hair.  The  prevailing  color  is 
black,  a  few  are  of  a  dark,  brindle  brown,  and  a  few 
speckled  with  white  sjxjts,  and  some  of  a  dun  or  drab 
color.  The  cows  are  not  good  milkers,  but  though  . 
the  quantity  of  the  milk  is  not  great,  it  is  rich  in 
quality,  and  yields  a  large  proiwrtion  of  butter.  The 
Galloway  cattle  have  never  been  largely  introduced 
into  this  country,  a  few  having  been  imported  and 
crossed  with  other  breeds.  Probably  many  of  the 
"jxjlled"  cattle  here  and  there  seen  mingled  with  the 
herds  of  this  country  have  received  their  hornless 
traits  from  the  Durham,  or  Short-horned  cattle,  that 
have  been  imjxirted  from  England,  the  Galloways 
having  been  considerably  crossed  with  that  kind  of " 
stock  by  Charles  and  Robert  Colling,  breeders  of  Dur- 
ham, England.  A  singular  trait  of  the  Galloway,  or 
[Xjlled  cattle,  is  an.  occasional  horn  that  hangs  from 
the  brow  of  individual  members  of  this  breed.  It  is 
dependent  from  the  frontal  bone,  and  is  not  attached 
to  any  bone  of  the  head,  but  grows  from  the  skin  and 
hangs  down  on  the  side  of  the  face. 

Guernseys.  The  Guernseys,  as  a  breed,  are  identi- 
cal with  the  Aldemeys  and  Jerseys,  though  they  are 
somewhat  larger  than  the  former.  Their  general 
characteristics  are  described  in  the  articles  on  the 
Aldemeys  and  Jerseys.  They  derive  their  names 
from  the  Island  of  Guernsey,  one  of  the  British  Chan- 
nel group. 

The  Hereford.     These  cattle  derive  their  name 


^01 


301 


CATTLE. 


from  a  county  in  the  western  part  of  England.  Their 
general  appearance  is  marked  by  a  white  face,  soma- 
times  mottled ;  white  throat,  the  white  generally  ex- 
tending back  on  the  neck,  and  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  still  further  along  on  the  back.  The  color  of 
the  rest  of  the  body  is  rad,  generally  dark,  but  some- 
times light.  Eighty  years  ago  the  best  Hereford  cat- 
tle were  mottled,  or  red  all  over,  and  some  of  the  best 
herds,  down  to  a  comparatively  recent  period,  were 
either  all  mottled,  or  had  the  mottled  or  speckled 
face.  The  qualities  of  the  Herefords  are  described 
thus :  The  expression  of  the  face  is  mild  and  lively ; 
the  forehead  open,  broad  and  large ;  the  eyes  bright 
and  vivacious ;  the  horns  are  glossy,  tapering  and  spread- 
ing apart,  the  head  small ;  chap  lean ;  neck  long 
and  tapering;  chest  deep;  breast-bone  large,  promi- 
nent and  very  muscular^  shoulder-blade  light,  and 
shoulder  full  and  mellow  in  flesh ;  brisket  and  loins 
large;  hips  well  developed,  on  a  level  with  the  chine; 
hind  quarters  long  and  well  filled  in ;  buttocks  on  a 
level  with  the  back ;  tail  slender  and  well  set ;  hair 
fine  and  soft ;  body  round  and  full ;  carcass,  deep, 
well  formed,  and  cylindrical  bones  small ;  thigh  short 
and  well  made;  legs  short  and  straight,  and  slender 
below  the  knee ;  as  handlers,  mellow  to  the  touch  on 
the  back ;  skin  soft,  flexible,  of  medium  thickness, 
rolling  on  the  neck  and  hips ;  hair  bright ;  and  face  al- 
most bare,  which  is  characteristic  of  pure  Herefords. 
The  Herefords  belong  to  the  middle-horned  division 
•of  the  cattle  of  Great  Britain.  They  arejioted  for 
•their  fattening  qualities,  and  take  on  a  much  greater 
-weight  than  the  Devons ;  and,  though  their  size  makes 
them  good  draft  oxen,  they  are  slower  than  the  Devon. 
The  ox  fattens  speedily,  at  an  early  age.  The  cows 
are  not  so  good  milkers  even  as  the  Devons,  and  a 
dairy  of  Herefords  is  rarely  to  be  seen.^  They  are 
an  aboriginal  breed,  and  descended  from  the  same 
stock  as  the  Devons.  In  }X)int  of  symmetry  and 
beauty  of  form,  well  bred  Herefords  may  be  classed 
with  the  improved  Short-horns,  though  they  arrive 
somewhat  more  slowly  at  maturity,  and  never  attain 
such  weight.  Their  beef  in  England  commands  the 
highest  price,  except,  perhaps,  that  of  the  West 
Highlanders,  but  they  are  far  less  spread  over  Eng- 
land than  the  improved  Short-horns.  They  have 
been  to  some  extent  imported  into  this  country,  and 
several  fine  herds  e.xist  in  different  sections.  The 
earliest  imjwrtations  were  made  by  Henry  Clay,  of 
Kentucky,  in  1817.  Some  difficulty  is  experienced 
with  Hereford  cows,  following  the  dropping  of  their 
calves,  especially  if  they  are  feeding  on  luxuriant 
grass,  on  account  of  the  swelling  of  the  udders.  This 
can  be  obviated  by  letting  the  calves  run  with  the 
cows  and  suckle  them  four  to  six  months.  This 
method  would  be  very  objectionable  to  the  dairymen 
but  could  be  practiced  by  the  stock  breeder.  As  a 
fine  illustration  of  this  stock  we  gi"e  a  picture  of  the 
famous  Hereford  bull,  Success  (Fig.  4),  the  property 
of  T.  L.  Miller,  Beecher,  111.  The  Hereford  cow 
shown  by  Fig.  5  is  Princess  B.,  owned  by  G.  S.  Bur- 
leigh, Mechanicsville,  Iowa. 


The  Highlanders.  This  breed  is  indigenous  to  Ar- 
gyleshire,  Scotland.  The  animals  of  this  variety  are 
famous  for  their  hardiness,  and  are  highly  prized  for 
the  excellence  of  their  flesh.  The  West  Highland 
cattle  are  universally  adapted  for  grazing  farms  in 
Scotland,  but  are  seldom  employed  in  the  dairy. 
They  have  not  been  introduced  into  this  country  to 
any  great  extent. 

The  Jerseys.  These  cattle  have  become  widely 
known  and  quite  popular  among  American  dairymen. 
As  elsewhere  indicated,  they  were  originally  identical 
with  the  Alderneys  and  Guernseys,  and  explanation  of 
their  origin  and  ancestry  can  be  found  in  the  para- 
graph under  the  head  of  "Alderneys."  The  head 
of  the  pure  Jersey  is  fine  and  tapering,  the  cheek 
small,  the  throat  clean,  the  muzzle  fine  and  encircled 
with  a  light  stripe,  the  nostrils  high  and  open ;  the 
horn  smooth  and  crumpled,  but  not  very  thick  at  the 
base,  tapering  and  tipped  with  black ;  ears  sn>all  and 
thin,  deep  orange  color  inside;  eyes  full  and  placid; 
neck  straight  and  fine ;  chest  broad  and  deep  ;  barrel 
bodied,  broad  and  deep,  well  ribbed  up;  back  straight 
from  the  withers  to  the  hip,  and  from  the  top  of  the 
hip  to  the  setting  of  the  tail ;  tail  fine,  at  right  angles 
with  the  back,  and  hanging  back  to  the  hocks ;  skin 
thin,  light  color  and  mellow,  covered  with  fine  soft 
hair ;  fore  legs  short ;  straight  and  fine  below  the  knee ; 
arm  swelling  and  full  above;  hind  quarters  long  and 
well  filled ;  hind  legs  short  and  straight  below  the 
hocks,  with  bones  rather  fine,  squarely  placed,  and  not 
too  close  together;  hoofs  small ;  udder  full  in  size,  in 
line  with  the  belly,  extending  well  up  behind;  teats 
of  medium  size,  squarely  placed  and  wide  apart,  and 
milk-veins  prominent.  The  color  is  generally  cream, 
dun  or  yellow,  with  more  or  less  of  white,  and  the  fine 
head  and  neck  gives  the  cows  and  heifers  a  fawn-like 
appearance,  and  make  them  objects  of  attention  in  the 
parks.  The  pre vaihng opinion  as  to  the  beauty  of  the 
Jerseys  is  based  on  the  general  appearance  of  the  cow 
while  in  milk,  no  experiments  in  feeding  for  beef  hav- 
ing been  made  public,  and  no  opportunity  to  form  a 
correct  judgment  from  actual  observation  having  been 
furnished.  As  an  illustration  of  this  stock  we  give 
a  cut  of  one  of  the  finest  specimens  in  America.  She 
is  owned  by  Messrs.  Hoover  &  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio, 
and  has  been  christened  the  Pride  of  Eastwood.  She 
is  represented  by  Fig.  6.  We  represent  by  Fig.  7  a 
fine  Jersey  bull,  owned  by  Geo.  Jackson,  of  Ingalls- 
ton,  Ind. 

The  Long-Horns.  Though  this  breed  of  cattle  is 
but  little  known  in  America  outside  the  books,  it  holds 
an  important  place  in  Great  Britain,  and  our  treat- 
ment of  horned  stock  would  not  be  complete  without  a 
description  of  it.  The  Long-horns  were  first  known 
in  Craven,  a  fertile  corner  in  the  ^Vest  Riding  of  York- 
shire. They  were  distinguished  from  the  home-breds 
of  other  counties  by  a  disproportionate  and  unbe- 
coming length  of  horn.  In  the  older  breeds  this  horn 
frequently  projects  nearly  horizontally  on  either  side, 
but  as  the  cattle  were  improved  the  horn  assumed 
other  directions;  it  hung  down  so  that  the  animal  could 


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■'SSS 


204 


CATTLE. 


scarcely  graze,  or  curved  so  as  to  threaten  to  meet  be- 
fore the  muzzle,  and  so,  also,  to  prevent  the  beast  from 
grazing;  or  immediately  under  the  lower- jaw,  so  as  to 
lock  it;  and  the  points  often  presented  themselves 
against  the  bones  of  the  nose  and  face,  threaten- 
ing to  perforate  them.  When  the  breed  was  improved 
the  horns  lengthened.  These  cattle  have  become 
spread  throughout  the  midland  counties  of   England. 

The  Holstein.  The  Holstein  breed  of  Dutch 
cattle,  now  largely  bred  in  North  Holland,  has  been 
greatly  improved  in  the  last  centur)'.  '  The  earliest 
British  writers  say  very  little  about  this  breed,  but 
some  have  asserted  that  the  Short-horns  were  greatly 
improved  by  the  Dutch  admixture.  It  is  a  fact  that 
there  is  a  great  similarity  in  form  and  character  between 
the  Short-horn  and  Dutch  cattle ;  but  there  is  sufficient 
distinction  to  show  that  for  centuries  past  each  kind 
has  been  bred  for  different  purjxises.  It  must  have 
been  more  tlian  a  century,  perhaps  two,  since  material 
improvement  was  begun  in  Dutch  cattle.  The  Hol- 
steins  are  noted  for  their  surpassing  excellence  in  milk- 
ing (jualities,  coupled  with  large  size,  compact,  massive 
frame,  capability  for  making  good  beef,  and  for  the 
strength  of  the  oxen.  In  color  they  are  black  and 
white,  sjjotted,  pitted  or  mottled.  The  lacteal,  or  milk- 
l)roducing  formations  are  wonderfully  developed,  which 
makes  the  breed  permanent  in  the  dairy.  It  is  but 
recently  that  this  valuable  variety  of  cattle  was  intro- 
duced to  any  considerable  extent  in  this  country.  The 
■  late  Mr.  Wm.  Jarvis,  of  Wethersfield,  Vt.,  the  noted 
-breeder  of  Merino  sheep,  early  in  the  present  century 
-imported  a  bull  and  two  cows,  placed  them  on  his  farm 
and  bred  them  successfully  for  a  number  of  years. 
Heman  Le  Roy,  a  New  York  merchant,  in  1820  and 
1825,  imjxjrted  some  improved  Dutch  cattle  and  kept 
them  on  his  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city.  Some  of  this 
stock  was  afterwards  kept  on  the  farm  of  Rev,  A. 
Le  Roy,  near  the  Genesee  river.  They  produced  fine 
cattle,  but  in  the  herds  of  both  gentlemen  the  pure 
breed  was  lost  and  none  but  grades  were  left  after  a 
few  years.  In  1852  a  single  cow  was  imported  by 
Winthrop  Chenery,  of  Boston.  This  arrival  was  fol- 
lowed by  successive  importations  until  1859,  when  the 
cattle  plague  having  broken  out,  all  foreign  cattle  were 
killed  pursuant  to  an  act  of  the  legislature,  for  the  pre- 
vention of  the  spread  of  the  contagion.  In  1861  Mr. 
Chenery  made  another  importation,  and  sipce  that  time 
the  Holstein  stock  have  been  bred  successfully  in  this 
country,  and  have  considerably  multiplied.  This  stock 
has  been  long  bred  to  develop  their  milk-producing 
qualities.  They  are  quick  feeders,  and  turn  their  food 
readily  to  milk.  Their  faculty  to  lay  on  flesh  is  satis- 
factory, and  as  workers  the  oxen  will  rank  with  other 
heavy  cattle  of  like  quality.  The  Holsteins  have  grown 
in  favor  with  stock-breeders  throughout  the  West,  and 
many  fine  herds  can  now  be  found  upon  the  farms  of 
Illinois  and  other  States. 

Fig.  8  represents  the  cow  Aagie,  a  magnificent  speci- 
men of  the  Holstein  breed.  She  is  owned  by  the  Smiths 
&  Powell,  of  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  At  six  years  of  age 
her  milk  record  was  18,004  pounds  and  15  ounces  for 


the  year.  We  also  give  an  illustration  of  a  Holstein 
bull.  Fig.  9,  owned  by  Severy  &  Sons,  Leland,  111. 

Native  Cattle.  For  many  years  of  the  early 
history  of  this  countr)',  even  down  to  a  quite  recent 
period,  the  native  herds  of  the  United  States  were  un- 
mixed with  the  pure-bred  cattle  of  Europe;  and  to-day 
a  large  proportion  of  the  bovine  stock  of  the  country 
are  native  cattle,  unimproved  by  the  blood  of  thor- 
oughbred animals.  Our  native  breed  (if  breed  it  may 
be  called)  originated  from  a  variety  of  sources.  Each 
company  of  colonists  that  settled  on  our  shores  brought 
w^th  them  individuals  of  their  own  native  cattle,  and 
these  became  mingled  as  time  passed,  and  finally 
merged  into  the  common  stock  that  is  now  known  as 
"native."  The  Spanish  conveyed  their  breeds  to  Mex- 
ico ;  the  Dutch  theirs  to  New  York,  which  produced 
cattle  of  a  fair  size,  but  roughly  formed ;  the  Swedes 
brought  herds  to  Delaware ;  the  Huguenots,  French  do- 
mestic animals  to  their  country,  and  the  English  their 
favorite  breeds  to  the  places  on  our  coast  where  they 
first  settled.  The  Devons  and  Herefords  were  early  set- 
tlers in  New  England,  and  in  due  time  the  Short-horns 
of  Lincolnshire,  and  tlie  Long-horns  of  Lancashire, 
the  ix)lled  or  hornless  cows  of  Suffolk,  and  ix)ssibly  the 
Galloways  of  Scotland  followed,  the  latter  hornless 
breeds  being  brought  to  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey. 
Gradually  the  ixjpulation  spread  into  the  interior,  the 
domestic  animals  of  tlie  farmers  of  course  increasing 
in  numbers  with  the  i)ioneers'  progress.  The  rugged 
nature  of  New  England  caused  oxen  to  become  the 
favorite  draft  animals  in  that  section,  and  the  Devons 
early  became  the  favorites  for  that  kind  of  service,  the 
Herefords  also  lieing  well  thought  of  for  oxen.  The 
south  branch  of  the  Potomac  is  bordered  with  broad, 
rich  lands,  and  this  section  early  became  famous  for 
fine  cattle.  Cattle  were  always  a  secondary  object  in 
the  South,  and  even  to  this  day  a  large  preponderance 
of  inferior  stock  prevails  there ;  yet  the  Blue-Grass 
region  of  Kentucky  is  noted  for  its  large  product  of 
improved  Short-horns.  Texas  cattle  may  be  classed 
as  native  stock,  but  their  ])eculiar  character  demanded 
their  separate  treatment  elsewhere  in  this  article. 
Improved  breeds  of  cattle  are  rapidly  superseding  the 
old  native  stock,  either  by  jnire  breeding  or  by  cross- 
ing. The  rich  lands  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan  and 
the  prairie  States'of  the  farther  Northwest,  are  becom- 
ing well  stocked  with  improved  breeds. 

Polled  Angus,  or  Aberdeen.  By  some  in  this 
country  there  is  a  tendency  to  confound  the  Angus 
with  the  Galloway.  The  Galloways,  however,  are  na- 
tives of  a  different  part  of  Scotland  and  claim  no  rela- 
tion to  theAnguses;  their  hair  is  longer  and  their  hides 
thicker;  their  eyes  not  so  full  and  their  heads  heavier. 

This  breed  of  cattle,  like  the  Galloways,  is  of  Scotch 
descent,  and  is  extremely  hardy  and  particularly 
adapted  to  a  severe  climate.  They  are  considered 
good  breeders  and  prime  beef-producers.  The  milking 
quality  of  the  breed  is  of  a  high  order.  It  is  claimed 
they  will  breed  until  their  twentieth  year.  They  are  be- 
ing extensively  introduced  in  the.  United  States  for 
dair)'  and  beef  purposes,  and  for  such  have  no  superiors. 


CATTLE. 


ios 


Red  Polled.  This  is  a  breed  of  polled,  or  horn- 
less, cattle  now  being  introduced  into  this  country. 
We  give  on  this  page  an  excellent  likeness  of  a 
pure  Polled  Norfolk  bull  and  cow.  These  were 
imported  by  G.  F.  Taber,  of  Patterson,  N.  Y.,  in 
1873.  These  are  different  from  the  Galloway  and 
Angus  breed  of  Polled  cattle,  but  are  more  like 
the  Jersey.  They  occupy  front  rank  as  milkers, 
and  must  prove  a  valuable  stock  for  the  dairy. 
Gen.  L.  F.  Ross,  of  Avon,  111.,  is  attempting  to 
establish  a  herd  of  Red  Polled  cattle  as  nearly 
like  the  Devon  as  possible. 


the  Short-horn  cattle  the  most  important  stock  to 
the  Western  farmer.  There  is  a  dispute  among 
the  most  eminent  breeders  as  to  how  far  the  Short- 
horns owe  their  character  to  the  early  importations 
from  Holland.  Durham  and  York  counties,  in 
England,  have  for  more  than  a  century  been 
famous  for  their  Short-horns,  and  they  were  once 
known  as  the  Teeswater  breed.  They  were  of 
large  size  and  extraordinary  milkers.  This  stock 
was  improved  by  crossing  with  the  Galloways.  It 
is  said  that  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  bulls  from   Holland   were   introduced  into 


Fig.  K.-Rtd  PolltJ  CaltU. 


Short-Horns.  Probably  more  of  this  breed  of 
cattle  aie  grown  in  the  United  States  than  any 
other  of  the  distinct,  high-breed  varieties.  The 
race  is  susceptible  of  breeding  for  the  production  of 
milk,  as  several  families  show,  and  great  milkers 
have  often  been  known  among  pure-bred  animals, 
but  it  is  more  common  to  find  them  bred  mainly  for 
the  butcher;  in  fact,  the  Short-horn  variety  is 
peculiarly  a  beef-producing  kind,  and  is  for  that 
reason  highly  esteemed  in  the  Western  States,  and 
fattens  rapidly  and  profitably  on  corn,  which  is  so 
abundantly  produced  in  this  region.     This  makes 


Durham,  and  the  blood  of  Dutch  cattle  was  thus 
mingled  with  that  of  the  Teeswater  stock,  giving 
to  our  present  Short-horns  much  of  that  trait  of 
squareness  of  buttock  and  readiness  to  take  on 
flesh  that  now  distinguish  the  famous  variety. 
However  the  present  breed  may  have  been  derived, 
none  could  be  better  adapted  to  meat-producing, 
which  is  more  important  to  the  American  farmer. 
The  desirable  traits  of  the  Short-horn  bull  may  be 
summed  up,  according  to  the  best  breeders,  as 
follows:  He  should  have  a  short,  but  fine  head, 
very  broad  across  the  eyes,  tapering  to  the  nose, 


2o6 


CA  TTLE. 


with  a  nostril  full  and  prominent ;  the  nose  should  be 
of  a  rich  flesh  color ;  eyes  bright  and  mild ;  ears  some- 
what large  and  thin ;  horns  slightly  curved,  and  rather 
flat,  well  set  on ;  a  long,  broad,  muscular  neck ;  chest 
wide,  deep,  and  rather  projecting;  shoulders  fine,  ob- 
lique, well  formed  into  the  chine ;  fore  legs  short,  with 
upper  arm  large  and  powerful;  barrel  round,  deep,  well 
ribbed  horns ;  hips  wide  and  level ;  back  straight  from 
the  withers  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail,  but  short  from 
hips  to  chine;  skin  soft  and  velvety  to  the  touch; 
moderately  thick  hair,  plentiful,  soft  and  mossy.  The 
cow  has  the  same  points  in  the  main,  but  her  head  is 
finer,  longer,  and  more  tapering;  neck  thinner  and 
lighter,  and  shoulders  narrower  across  the  chine.  In 
sections  where  the  climate  is  moist,  the  food  abundant 
and  rich,  some  families  of  the  Short-horns  may  be  val- 
uable for  the  dairy ;  but  they  are  most  frequently  bred 
in  this  country  exclusively  for  beef,  and  in  sections 
where  they  have  attained  the  highest  perfection  of 
form  and  beauty,  so  little  is  thought  of  their  milking 
qualiries  that  they  are  often  not  milked  at  all,  the  calf 
being  allowed  to  run  with  the  dam.  This  practice  is 
more  common  with  the  stock-growers  of  the  West. 

As  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Short-horn  breed  we  refer 
the  reader  to  Fig.  ii.  This  cut  represents  the  Short- 
horn cow.  Lady  Aberdeen  3rd,  owned  by  the  Canada 
West  Farm  Stock  Association,  Brantford,  Ont.  This 
animal  won  the  prize  at  the  Fat-stock  Show,  Chicago,  in 
1 88 1,  in  sweepstakes  of  any  age  or  breed. 

Texas  Cattle.  The  large  number  of  Texas  cat- 
tle that  are  now  grown  in  the  Lone  Star  State, 
and  in  New  Mexico,  and  find  their  way  to  sea- 
board markets,  makes  it  important  that  a  de- 
scription of  this  peculiar  breed  be  given  in  these 
pages.  The  Texas  cattle  are  descendants  of 
the  old  Spanish  stock  that  were  brought  to  Mex- 
ico and  the  other  Spanish-American  colonies. 
This  ancient  breed  is  thus  described :  They 
are  about  the  size  of  our  native  cattle  of  forty 
and  fifty  years  ago.  They  have  large,  coarse, 
long,  wide-spread  horns,  mostly  with  a  half  or 
a  full  twist  to  them,  and  set  back  rather  than 
forward,  and  the  points  turned  outward.  Their 
color  is  black,  dark  brown,  reddish  brown,  light 
yellowish  red,  with  some  white  on  the  throat 
and  belly,  with  occasionally  a  dark  roan  or  dark 
gray.  The  cows  are  nearly  as  large  as  the 
oxen,  with  the  same  style  of  horn.  They  are 
not  good  milkers.  Their  heads  are  long  and 
rather  fine.  Herdsmen  attend  to  them  in 
droves,  like  the  short-haired  Scotch 
Colleys.  In  this  description  may  be  detected 
the  origin  of  the  Texas  cattle,  the  latter  having  run 
wild  for  many  generations,  while  the  former  are 
thoroughly  domesticated.  Texas  cattle  are  a  half 
wild  race,  and  are  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  beef 
production  through  the  persevering  mastery  of  the 
herdsmen.  Vast  numbers  of  this  variety  of  animals 
have  for  a  century  or  more  been  herded  by  the  Span- 
ish inhabitants,  and  of  late  years  American  herdsmen 
have  taken  up  the  occupation,  and  have  developed 


the  Texas  stock  business  to  an  enormous  degree.  The 
building  of  numerous  trunk  lines  of  railroad  from  the 
seaboard  to  the  Missouri  river,  and  reaching  down 
into  Texas  and  New  Mexico,  has  given  stimulus  to 
cattle  production  in  those  regions,  and  at  present  there 
seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  extension  of  this  industry. 
It  is  customary  for  the  ranchman,  as  the  owner  or 
"  herder  "  of  a  flock  is  called,  to  seek  a  place  for  his 
cattle  that  possesses  the  advantages  of  both  pasturage 
and  water.  Here  he  locates  his  "  ranch"  (house  or 
farm),  sometimes  purchasing,  and  sometimes  only  tak- 
ing temporary  possession  of  the  premises.  He  gener- 
ally provides  a  "  corral,"  or  yard  in  which  to  confine 
stock  when  necessary,  but  his  farm  implements  are 
small,  and  most  of  his  capital  is  invested  in  cattle. 
Once  a  year  the  herd  is  rounded  up  for  identification, 
branding,  and  selecting  out  such  as  are  fit  for  sale. 
The  pure  Texas  breed  is  described  as  follows :  They 
are  tall,  lank  and  bony,  coarse-headed,  with  enormous 
horns.  Their  legs  are  long  and  coarse;  they  have  much 
dewlap  and  little  brisket ;  they  are  flat-sided  and  sway- 
backed  ;  high  in  the  flank,  with  narrow  hips  and  quar- 
ters ;  have  much  offal  in  proportion  to  their  consum- 
able flesh,  and  are  coarse  all  over.  Their  meat  is 
necessarily  tough,  stringy  and  of  coarse  quality.  A 
good  lot  of  Texas  steers,  fattened  for  the  market,  will 
average  from  1,000  to  1,200  pounds  in  weight.  The 
color  of  Texas  cattle  is  red,  dun,  yellow,  brindle  and 
roan,  all  mixed  more  or  less  with  patches  and  stripes  of 
white.  Attempts  have  been  made  from  Kentucky  to 
improve  the  native  Texas  stock  by  crossing  with 
Short-horns,  but  little  has  been  done  because  of 
»  ...  9 


Flo.  15. — Skeleton  of  the  Ox. 

the  wild  and  vagrant  habits  of  the  former.  The 
plague  has  been  a  great  bane  to  growers  of  Texas  cat- 
tle, and  legislation  has  been  invoked  on  several  occa- 
sions to  prevent  the  carrying  of  infected  animals  into 
or  through  other  States,  so  as  to  prevent  the  spread  of 
contagion. 

Anatomy.  To  enable  the  reader  to  become  famil- 
iar with  the  bony  structure  of  cattle  we  give  an  illus- 
tration, in  Fig.  15,  of  the  skeleton  of  the  ox,  with  the 
correct    names   of  the  various  parts.     This  will  be 


CATTLE. 


ioj 


found  valuable  for  reference,  not  only  to  the  student  in 
the  veterinary  art,  but  to  every  one  who  ])roposes  to 
keep  and  breed  cattle. 

Explanation  of  Fig.  15— i-.  The  upper  jaw-bone. 
2.  The  nasal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  nose.  3.  The 
lachrymal  bone.  4.  The  molar,  or  cheek-bone.  5. 
The  frontal  bone,  or  bone  of  the  forehead.  6.  The 
horns,  being  processes  or  continuations  of  the  frontal. 
7.  The  temporal  bone.  8.  The  parietal  bone,  low  in 
the  temporal  fossa.  9.  The  occipital  bone,  deeply 
depressed  below^  the  crest  or  ridge  of  the  head.  10. 
The  lower  jaw.  11.  The  grinders.  12.  The  nippers, 
found  on  the  lower  jaw  alone.  13.  The  ligament  of 
the  neck,  and  its  attachments.  15.  The  atlas.  16. 
The  dentata.  17.  The  orbits  of  the  eye.  18.  The 
vertebrae,  or  bones,  of  the  neck.  1 9.  The  bones  of  the 
back.  20.  The  bones  of  the  loins.  21.  The  sacrum. 
22.  The  bones  of  the  tail.  23.  The  haunch  and  pel- 
vis. 24.  The  eight  true  ribs.  25.  The  false  ribs,  with 
their  cartilages.  26.  The  sternum.  27.  The  scapula, 
or  shoulder-blade.  28.  The  humerus,  or  lower  bone 
of  the  shoulder.  29.  The  radius,  or  principal  bone  of 
the  arm.  40.  The  ulna,  its  upper  part  forming  the 
elbow.  41.  The  small  tones  of  the  knee.  42.  The 
large  metacarpal  or  shank  bone.  43.  Vhe  smaller  or 
splint  bone.  44,  The  sesamoid  bones.  45.  The 
bifurcation  at  the  pasterns,  and  the  two  larger  pasterns, 
to  each  foot.  46.  The  two  smaller  jxisterns  to  each 
foot.  47 .  The  two  coffin  bones  to  each  foot.  48.  The 
navicular  bones.  49.  The  thigh  bone.  50.  The  pa- 
tella, or  bone  of  the  knee.  51.  The  tibia,  or  proper 
leg  bone.  52.  The  point  of  the  hock.  53.  The  small 
bones  of  the  hock.  54.  The  metatarsals,  or  larger 
bones  of  the  hind  leg.     55.  The  pasterns  and  feet. 

"  Points  "  of  Cattle.  In  the  cut  shown  by  Fig. 
16  we  give  the  various  "  points  "  or  parts  of  cattle. 


Fig.   16. — Diagram   of  Points  o/  Cattle. 

I,  muzzle;  2,  nostrils;  3,  forehead  and  face;  4,  eye;  5,  horn  and  ear;  6, 
neck  and  throat;  7,  breast;  8,  brisket;  9,  shoulder-point;  10,  shoulder;  11, 
forearm;  12,  crops;  13  fore-ribs;  14,  fore-flank;  15,  back;  16,  back-ribs; 
»7,  belly;  18,  loins;  19,  flank;  20,  hip;  21,  rump;  22,  tail  and  seton;  23, 
quarters;  24,  thigh;  25,  twist  (inside  the  thighs);  26  testes;  27,  knee  and 
gambrel;  28,  leg;  29,  hoof. 

Teeth.  Cattle  have  eight  lower  incisors  and  none 
upper.  They  have  no  canine  teeth  or  tusks,  but  have 
24  molars  or  grinding  teeth;  six  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw,  and  six  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
upper  jaw  has  no  incisors ;  but  the  skin  u]X)n  which 
the  lower  incisors  meet  in  the  upper  jaw  are  thickened, 
hard,  and  in  aged  animals  almost  horny.     The  teeth 


may  be  represented  as  follows,  the  figures  above  the 
line  representing  the  upper,  and  the  figures  below  the 
line  representing  the  lower  jaw : 

o  o  6     6 

Incisors, — ,  canines,  — ,  molars, ;  total,  32  teeth. 

8  o  6     6 

Age  of  Cattle.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
be  able  to  judge  of  the  age  of  a  cow.  Few  farmers 
wish  to  purchase  a  cow  for  the  dairy  after  she  has 
passed  her  prime,  which  will  ordinarily  be  at  the  age 
of  nine  or  ten  years,  varying,  of  course,  according  to 
care,  feeding,  etc.,  in  the  earlier  part  of  her  life.  The 
common  method  of  forming  an  esrimate  of  the  age  of 
cattle  is  by  an  examination  of  the  horn.  At  two  years 
old,  as  a  general  rule,  the  horns  are  perfectly  smooth ; 
after  this  a  ring  appears  near  the  base,  and  annually 
afterward  a  new  one  is  formed,  so  that,  by  adding  two 
years  to  the  first  ring,  the  age  is  calculated.  This  is  a 
very  uncertain  mode  of  judg- 
ing. The  rings  are  distinct 
only  in  the  cow ;  and  it  is  well 
known  that  if  a  heifer  goes  to 
bull  when  she  is  two  years  old, 
or  a  little  oefore  or  after  that 
time,  a  change  takes  place  in 
the  horn  and  the  first  ring  ap- 
pears; so  that  a  real  three- 
year-old  would  carry  the  mark 
of  a  four-year-old. 

The  rings  on  the  horns  of  a 
bull  are  either  not  seen  unril 
five,  or  they  can  not  be  traced 
at  all ;  while  in  the  ox  they  do 
not  appear  till  he  is  five  years  old,  and  then  they  are 
often  very  indisrinct.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  by  no 
means  an  uncommon  prac- 
tice to  file  the  horns,  so  as 
to  make  them  smooth,  and 
to  give  the  animal  the  ap- 
pearance of  being  m  u  c  li 
younger  than  it  really  is. 
This  is,  therefore,  an  ex- 
ceedingly fallacious  guide, 
and  cannot  be  relied  upon 
by  any  one  with  the  degree 
of  confidence  desired. 

The  surest  indication  of 
the  age  of  cattle,  as  in  the 
horse,  is  given  by  the  teeth, 
but  different  markings  are 
.observed.  While,  in  the  horse  the  white,  elongated 
figure  in  the  center  of  the  crown  of  the  teeth,  which 
grows  rounder  and  of  a  darker  color  with  age,  in  cat- 
tle the  varying  number,  degree  of  wear,  position,  slant, 
etc.,  of  the  teeth  are  the  points  of  observation;  and 
while,  therefore,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  "  bishop  " 
a  horse  by  disfiguring  those  simple  figures  in  the 
crown  of  the  teeth,  and  thus  deceive  purchasers  as  to 
his  age,  no  clandestine  art  of  the  kind  can  be  practiced 
uix)n  cattle.  It  is  therefore  worth  while  to  study  the 
varying  features  of  cattle's  teeth. 


Fig.  ^j.— Teeth  at  Birth. 


Fig.  i8.— r«/o  Wieki  Old. 


208 


CATTLE. 


The  calf,  at  birth,  has  two  front  teeth — in  some  cases 
just  appearing  through  the  gums ;  in  others,  fully  set, 

varying  as  the  cow  falls 
short  of,  or  exceeds,  her 
regular  time  of  calving. 
If  she  overruns  several 
days  the  teeth  will  have 
set  and  will  have  at- 
tained considerable  size, 
as  appears  in  the  cut 
representing  teeth  a  t 
birth.  During  the  sec- 
ond week,  a  tooth  will 
usually  be  added  on 
each  side,  and  the  mouth 
will  generally  appear  as 
fi^. -.^.-Thrce  wetks  Old.         jnFig.  i8.     Before  the 

end  of  the  third  week,  the  animal  will  generally  have 
six  incisor  teeth,  as  denoted  in  the  cut  representing 
teeth  at  the  third  week ;  and  in  a  week  from  that 
time  the  full  number  of  incisors  will  have  appeared,  as 
seen  in  the  next  cut. 
These  teeth  are  ter%- 
porary,  and  are  often 
called  milk-teeth. 
Their  edge  is  very 
sharp ;  and  as  the  ani- 
mal begins  to  live  up- 
on more  solid  food, 
this  edge  becomes  a 
little  worn,  showing 
the  bony  part  of  the 
tooth  beneath,  and  in- 
dicates with  consider- 
able precision    the  Fic  ia.~One  Month  Old. 

length  of  time  they  have  been  used.  The  center,  or 
oldest  teeth  show  the  marks  of  age  first  and  often  be- 
come somewhat  worn  before  the  comer  teeth  appear. 
At  eight  weeks,  the  four  in- 
ner teeth  are  nearly  as  sharp 
as  before.  They  appear 
worn  not  so  much  on  the 
outer  edge  or  line  of  the 
tooth  as  inside  this  line; 
but,  after  this,  the  edge  be- 
gins gradually  to  lose  its 
sharpness,  and  to  present  a 
more  flattened  surface  ; 
while  the  next  outer  teeth 
wear  down  like  the  four  cen- 
tral ones;  and  at  three 
Fig.  n.—Fi-nt  to  Eight  Months,  mouths  this  Wearing  off  is 
very  apparent,  till  at  four  months  all  the  incisor  teeth 
appear  worn,  but  the  inner  ones  the  most.  Now  the 
teeth  begin  slowly  to  diminish  in  size  by  a  kind  of 
contraction,  as  well  as  wearing  down,  and  the  distance 
apart  becomes  more  and  more  apparent. 

The  temporary  or  milk  incisors  of  horses  differ  in 
shape  more  from  the  permanent  set  than  those  of  the  ox. 
In  the  horse  the  milk  teeth   are  altogether  much 


smaller,  but  especially  in  the  neck,  which  is  constricted 
in  them,  whilst  in  the  permanent  set,  which  go  on 
growing  as  they  wear  out,  the  diameter  is  nearly  the 
same  throughout.  The  former  are  also  whiter  in  color 
and  have  grooves  or  indentations  on  their  outer  sur- 
faces, running  towards  the  gum.  Lastly,  the  mark  on 
the  table  is  much  slighter  than  in  the  pennanent  teeth. 
The  temporary  molars  are  not  distinguishable  from  the 
permanent  teeth  of  that  class. 

As  a  consequence  of  this 
arrangement  of  parts,  the 
teeth,  as  they  wear  down, 
present  a  different  appear- 
ance according  to  the  ex- 
tent to  which  theirattrition 
has  reached. 

From  the  fifth  to  the 
eighth  month,  the  inner 
teeth  will  usually  appear 
as  in  Fig.  21  ;  and  at  ten 
months,  this  change  shows 
more  clearly,  as  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  22,  and  the 
spaces  betweeij  them  begin  to  show  very  plainly, 
until  alxut  "^a  year  old,  when  they  will  ordinarily 
present  the  appearance  as  shown  in  Fig  23,  showing 
absorption  in  all  nippers 
except  outside  pair,  and 
wear  in  these;  at  the  age 
of  15  months,  that  shown 
in  Fig  24,  where  the  corner 
teeth  are  not  more  than 
half  the  original  size,  and 
the  center  ones  still 
smaller. 

The   permanent    teeth 
are  now  rapidly    growing, 
and    preparing   to    take 
the  place  of  the  milk-teeth, 
which    are    gradually  ab-     Vig.  i^.—Twri-ne  Montht  ou. 
sorbed  till  they  disappear,  or  are  pushed  out  to  give 
place  to  the  two  permanent  central  incisors,  which  at 
a  year  and  a  half  will  generally  present  the  appear- 
ance indicated  by  Fig.  25,  which  shows  the  internal 

structure  of  the  lower  jaw, 
at  this  time  the  two  first 
pennanent  incisors  (i  —  i), 
and  next  two  pa  i  rs  (2 — 2) 
and  (3  —  3)  growing  and 
pushing  upward  toward 
the  surface,  also  (4  —  4,) 
5  — 5  and  6 — 6)  showing 
absorption.  At  8 — 8  is 
shown  the  alveoli,  or  cells 
for  the  teeth.  These 
changes  require  time;  and 
at  two  years  old  the  jaw  will 

T.c..,. -Fifteen  Month.  Old.      ^^^^^jjy    ^pp^^^    ^^    j^     yjg 

26,  where  four  of  the  permanent  central  incisors  are 
seen,  and  four  temjxsrary  ones,  absorption  nearly  com- 
plete ;  also  marks  of  weai  on  the  first  two  pairs.  After 


CATTLE. 


209 


this  the  other  milk  teeth  decrease  rapidly,  but  are 
slow  to  disappear ;  and  at  three  years  old,  the  third 
pair  of  permanent  teeth  are  but  formed,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  27,  showing  six  permanent  nippers,  and  two 

outside  temporary  ones 
nearly  gone ;  also  wear  on 
two  central  pairs.  At  four 
years  the  last  pair  of  inci- 
sors will  be  up,  as  shown 
in  the  cut  of  that  age  (Fig. 
28);  but  the  outside  ones 
are  not  yet  fully  grown,  and 
the  beast  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  full-mouthed  till 
the  age  of  five  years.  But 
before  this  age,  or  at  the 
age  of  four  years,  the  two 
inner  pairs  of  permanent 
teeth  are  beginning  to  wear 
Fig.  i^.—Eightetn  Months  Old.  at  the  cdges,  as  shown  in 
the  cut ;  while  at  five  years  old  the  whole  set  becomes 
somewhat  worn  down  at  the  top,  and  on  the  two  center 
ones  a  darker  line  appears  in  the  middle,  along  a  line 
of  harder  bone,  as  appears  in  the  appropriate  cut 
(Fig.  29). 

Now  will  come  a  year  or  two,  and  sometmies  three, 
when  the  teeth  do  not  so 
clearly  indicate  the  exact 
age,  and  the  judgment  must 
be  guided  by  the  extent  to 
which  the  dark  middle  lines 
areworn.  This  will  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  expos- 
ure and  feeding  of  the  ani- 
mal ;  but  at  seven  years 
these  lines  extend  over  all 
the  teeth.  At  eight  years  an- 
other change  begins,  which 
cannot  be  mistaken.  A  kind 
of  absorption  begins  with  the  F«3-  ■a.—Two  Years  Past. 
two  central  incisors — slow  at  first,  but  perceptible— and 
these  two  teeth  become  smaller  than  the  rest,  while  the 
dark  lines  are  worn  into  one  in  all  but  the  comer  teeth, 
till  at  ten  years,  four  of  the  central  incisors  have  be- 
come smaller  in  size,  with  a  smaller  and  fainter  mark, 
as  indicated  by  Fig.  30.  At  1 1 ,  the  six  inner  teeth  are 
smaller  than  the  comer  ones ; 
and  at  1 2  all  become  smaller 
than  they  were,  while  the 
dark  lines  are  nearly  gone, 
except  in  the  comer  teeth, 
and  the  inner  edge  is  worn 
to  the  gum.  The  age  of  the 
animal  after  this  period  is 
attained,  is  determined  by 
the  degree  of  shrinkage  and 
wearing  away  of  all  the  teeth 
in  the  order  of  their  appear- 
FiG.  IT.— Three  Years  Old.  ance,  until  the  15th  year, 
■^hen  scarcely  any  teeth  remain. 


IS  meant 


Cud.  The  situation,  the  structure,  and  the  size  of 
rumen,  or  the  paunch,  point  it  out  as  the  first  and  gen- 
eral receptacle  for  the  food,  which  received  in  the 
mouth  only  sufficient  mastication  to  enable  the  animal 
to  swallow  it.     When  swallowed  it  is  received  by  the 

rumen,  and  morsel  after 
morsel  is  taken  until  this, 
the  first  of  the  animal's 
four  stomachs,  is  compara- 
tively full.  A  sense  of  re- 
pletion precedes  rumina- 
tion, during  which  act  the 
animal  generally  prefers  a 
recumbent  [Xjsture.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  all 
the  food  taken  is  again 
ruminated ;  it  is  only  the 
Fig.  .li.—Four  Years  Old.  bulky  Or  solid  jxjrtions  that 
undergo  the  process.  When  the  rumen  is  moderately 
full  it  will  contract  on  its  contents,  and  first  squeeze 
out  the  fluid  jjortions,  which  will  pass  into  the  third 
and  fourth  stomachs,  while  the  solid  ]^art  will  be  em- 
braced by  the  oesophagus,  or  stomach  pipe,  and  return 
to  the  mouth.  By  the  term  "  loss  of  the  cud  "  '  ' 

a  cessation  of  chewing 
the  cud,  which  occurs  as  a 
symptom  of  most  intem.il 
diseases  of  cattle. 

Breeding.  In  the  breed- 
ing of  stock  the  farmer 
must  understand  the  nature 
and  adaptation  of  his  soil, 
and  its  adaptability  to  certain 
crops  and  animals.  In 
rocky,  hilly,  and  compara- 
tively barren  regions,  or 
where  the  soil  suffers  under  ^ ...  .<,.-Five  Years  aid. 
drought,  the  farmer  cannot  compete  either  m  the  rais- 
ing of  beef  cattle  or  in  dairying,  with  the  more  favored, 
well  matured  countries  of  deep  soils  and  flush  pas- 
tures. Again,  in  a  country 
noted  for  its  short,  sweet 
perennial  pastures,  and 
cold  springs  of  water,  the 
stock-breeder  cannot  com- 
pete with  the  dairyman. 
The  feeder  of  cattle  and 
hogs  must  be  in  a  region 
where  corn  or  other  feed- 
ing grains  can  be  cheaply 
and  abundantly  raised. 
Fortunately,  such  coun- 
tries are  well  adapted  to 
Fig.  IP— Ten  Years  Old.  ^^  meadow  grasses,  pro- 
ducing heavy  crops  of  hay  and  pasture. 

As  to  the  general  principles  of  breeding  we  refer  the 
reader  to  the  article  on  Breeding. 

As  to  what  breeds  are  best  becomes  a  most  import- 
ant subject.  In  all  that  great  region  of  the  West,  of 
gently  undulating  prairies  or  grassy  plains,  Short-horns 


14 


o 

o 

z 
< 

So 

w 

s 

5 

h 
Q 


ft. 


mm^ 


-B^sgg^ss^ 


CATTLE. 


211 


and  Herefords  will  be  found  the  very  best  cattle  to 
breed  from,  when  only  beef  is  the  object.  If  labor 
and  beef  are  wanted,  the  Devons  and  Herefords  will  be 
found  the  most  valuable.  If  beef  and  milk  are  to  be 
the  products,  the  Duchess  and  Princess  families  of 
Short-horns,  and  Holsteins  will  give  the  best  returns. 
If  dairying  is  to  be  the  chief  industry,  then,  for  butter, 
the  Ayrshire,  with  a  few  Jerseys  intermixed,  will  pro- 
duce the  best  results.  If  for  butter  and  cheese,  Ayr- 
shire and  Short-horns.  If  cheese  ;ilone,  the  Ilolstein, 
and  for  quantity  of  milk  given  this  latter  breed  will 
certainly  carry  the  palm.  If  milk  and  butter,  without 
reference  to  quantity,  be  required,  the  Jersey  is  the 
cow.  All  the  breeds  except  the  Jerseys  will  make  good 
weiglits  of  beef  and  fatten  readily  when  dry — the 
Short-horns,  Holsteins,  and  Ayrshires  making  weight 
in  the  order  named.  For  milk,  we  have  not  included 
the  Devons;  occasionally  a  cow  will  be  found  giving  a 
large  mess  for  her  weight.  Devons,  however,  are  not 
dairy  cows,  at  least,  now-a-days,  having  been  bred 
almost  exclusively  for  their  superior  quality  of  marbled 
beef,  and  their  uniform  excellence,  courage,  and  kind- 
liness in  the  yoke. 

It  is  evident  that  all  farmers  cannot  become  breed- 
ers of  highly  bred,  pure  stock.  For  this  the  animals 
must  be  isolated  from  all  other  breeds  of  the  same 
race.  At  least  the  males  must  be  strictly  confined,  so 
they  may  not  intermix  with  others.  Where  farms  join, 
divided  only  by  fences,  this  will  not  be  found  practica- 
ble in  a  majority  of  cases.  One's  neighbors  may  fancy 
scrub  stock.  They  are  notoriously  breachy.  Once 
they  intermingle  with  a  pure  breed  the  taint  of  their 
blood  is  not  only  found  in  the  calves,  but  in  the  dams 
themselves.  In  the  calves  and  their  progeny,  it  may 
never  be  bred  out. 

As  to  the  general  utility  of  the  stock  the  breeder 
cares  not  so  much  about  a  particular  strain  of  blood, 
as  he  does  to  get  certain  characteristics  that  will  fur- 
nish him,  at  the  lowest  expense,  either  the  most  beef, 
the  best  working  oxen,  or  the  most  and  best  milk. 
Those  who  undertake  breeding,  or  in  fact  any  other 
business,  in  a  hap-hazard  way,  always  fail.  The  fann- 
er, therefore,  who  undertakes  the  breeding  of  stock, 
with  a  view  to  the  money  they  will  bring  from  the 
butcher,  or  from  sale  of  dairy  products,  must  be  guided 
by  an  entirely  different  set  of  rules  from  that  of  the 
breeder  who  breeds  solely  with  a  view  to  selling 
sires  and  dams  to  other  breeders  of  pure  stock.  So 
particular,  now-a-days,  have  breeders  of  this  class  be- 
come that  some  of  them  will  breed  only  particular  fam- 
ilies. Some  will  not  allow  a  Booth  cross ;  others  ab- 
stain from  the  Bates  blood. 

Many  high-cast  breeders  are  pretty  well  agreed  that 
a  top  cross  of  what  are  known  as  Seventeens,  and  some 
other  sub-families  of  later  importations,  and  also  of 
particular  bulls  of  pure  breeding,  but  which  have  been 
considered  more  or  less  coarse,  must  be  rigidly  ex- 
cluded. They  have  their  particular  fancies.  To  grat- 
ify this  fancy  they  will  pay  extraordinary  prices,  while 
the  great  mass  of  really  superior  and  really  pure  Short- 
horns will  be  passed  unnoticed.    It  would  be  unadvisa- 


ble  for  the  ordinary  farmer,  or  even  the  Short-horn 
breeder,  to  buy  these  "terribly  bred  cattle."  And  the 
farmer  must  carefully  discriminate.  Let  him  get  staunch, 
healthy  cattle  to  start  his  herd,  if  beef  be  the  object, 
and  animals  with  good  milk  points,  if  milk  be  the  ob- 
ject, rather  than  to  strive  for  color.  So  long  as  the 
color  of  the  animal  is  characteristic  of  the  race,  the 
beef  ix)ints  and  milk  points  are  what  he  should  seek. 
The  body  in  the  beef  animal,  and  the  udder  in  the 
dairy  cow,  are  what  he  wants. 

Breeding  in  Line.  Breeders  of  pure  stock  are 
especially  particular  in  the  selection  of  sires ;  so  much 
so  tliat  many  of  them  breed  solely  with  reference  to 
the  strain  of  blood  particular  families  contain,  the  se- 
lection often  being  without  reference  to  the  uniformity 
or  ciuality  of  the  animal  selected.  Really,  however, 
breeding  in  line  means  the  selection  of  males  of  a 
common  type,  and  belonging  to  the  same  family.  Thus, 
in  breeding  in  the  line,  the  exi>ert,  while  he  objects  t  o 
going  out  of  a  sub-family,  nevertheless  seeks  to  couple 
animals  together  whose  imiformity  is  identical,  or, 
when  one  is  weak  in  some  essential,  to  improve  it  by 
coupling  therewith  an  animal  of  superior  excellence  in 
this  particular.  Thus,  if  the  head  and  horns  be  rather 
coarse  in  an  animal,  it  is  bred  to  one  fine  in  head  and 
horns,  but  not  lacking  in  other  essentials.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  fatal  mistakes  that  can  possibly  be  made  in 
breeding,  that  to  acquire  one  essential  other  disabiliries 
be  allowed  to  enter.  Many  breeders  have  committed 
irreparable  injury  to  their  stock  by  not  understanding 
the  necessity,  while  trying  to  improve  one  essential,  of 
keeping  all  others  intact.  Therefore  the  sagacious 
breeder  will  pay  more  attention  to  those  points  indica- 
tive of  heavy,  succulent  beef  laid  in  the  primer  points 
and  without  an  undue  portion  of  fat,  if  combined  wfc. 
general  symmetry,  rather  than  style  and  carriage,  con- 
nected with  deficient  characteristics  in  flesh.  The  one 
animal  may  be  striking  to  the  eye,  while  the  other  will 
bring  the  butcher's  money.  This  is  really  all  there  is 
to  beef  cattle. 

Breeding  Grades.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  oi  Short-horns  at  Indianapolis,  1872, 
"  pure-bred,"  "  full  blood,"  and  "  thorough-bred"  were 
defined  as  being  synonymous  terms,  and  to  indicate 
"  animals  of  a  distinct  and  well-defined  breed,  without 
any  admixture  of  other  blood."  The  following  defini- 
tions were  adopted  by  the  Association  : 

" '  Cross-bred  ' — Animals  produced  by  breeding  to- 
gether distinct  breeds." 

"  'Grades' — The  product  of  a  cross  between  a  'pure- 
bred' and  a  native." 

"  'High-grades' — An  animal  of  mixed  blood,  in 
which  the  blood  of  the  pure-bred  predominates." 

The  product  of  a  Devon  and  Short-horn  would  be 
a  cross-bred  animal.  In-and-in  breeding  is  considered 
to  be  the  coupling  of  animals  of  the  closest  relation- 
ship, as  the  product  of  one  sire  and  dam,  etc.  Close 
breeding  is  the  breeding  of  animals  together  that  are 
closely  related ;  as  animals  one  or  two  moves  from  the 
parent  stock,  in  relationship.  High  breeding  is  some- 
times incorrectly  used  in  this  connection ;  it  is  wrong. 


212 


CATTLE. 


Many  of  our  most  highly  bred  horses  are  not  close- 
ly related,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  our  pure  cat- 
tle. High  breeding  properly  signfies  the  selection  of 
the  breeding  stock,  within  the  limits  of  some  particu- 
lar family,  and  within  a  definite  standard  of  excellence 
and  characteristics. 

In  the  breeding  of  grades,  select  the  best  cows  you 
can  find,  that  is,  those  that  come  the  nearest  to  the 
standard  of  e.xcellence  for  the  purpose  wanted ;  then 
select  a  bull  combining  in  the  most  eminent  degree 
possible  the  jxjints  of  real  excellence  for  the  outcome 
expected,  not  in  fancy  breeding,  but  in  adaptability  to 
the  end  sought.  Thus,  if  for  beef,  he  should  be  of 
fair  size,  not  too  large,  certainly  not  too  small,  but  of  ex- 
cellent fineness,  combined  with  great  loins,  rumps  and 
thighs,  round-ribbed,  and  well  ribbed,  to  the  hip-bones, 
what  a  breeder  would  call  a  well  bred,  serviceable 
animal. 

If  for  milk,  the  bull  must  have  come  of  a  line  of 
uniform  milkers,  for  here  the  udder  and  milk-veins  are 
the  essential  part.  In  fact,  the  male  must  possess  the 
peculiarities  characteristic  of  the  breed,  and  better 
if  from  a  family  of  extraordinary  excellence.  Why? 
Such  animals  are  prepotent ;  that  is,  they  will  im- 
press upon  their  progeny  the  distinguishing  character- 
istics and  excellence  of  their  race.  By  following  the 
directions,  in  ten  yeairs  one  may  have  grades  bred  to 
such  excellence  that  none  but  critical  judges  can  tell 
them  from  pure-bred  cattle. 

Fat  Cattle  and  Fattening.  Whatever  may  be 
said  about  over-fed  cattle  in  a  disparaging  way,  there 
is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  the  butcher  cannot  sell  any- 
thing but  the  best  fatted  beef,  and  of  whatever  size  or 
shape  a  half-fatted  ox  may  be,  he  is  never  selected  by 
judges  as  fit  for  human  food.  Hence,  a  well-fatted 
animal  always  commands  a  better  price  per  pound 
than  one  im[5erfectly  fed,  and  the  parts  selected  as  the 
primest  beef  are  precisely  the  parts  which  contain  the 
largest  de[X)sits  of  fat.  The  rump,  the  crop,  and  the 
sirloin,  the  very  favorite  cuts — which  always  command 
from  20  to  25  per  cent,  more  than  any  other  part  of 
the  ox — -are  just  those  parts  on  which  the  largest 
quantities  of  fat  are  found;  so  that,  instead  of  the 
taste  and  fashion  of  the  age  being  against  the  excess- 
ive fattening  of  animals,  the  fact  is,  practically,  ex- 
actly the  reverse.  Where  there  is  the  most  fat,  there 
is  the  best  lean  ;  where  there  is  the  greatest  amount  of 
muscle  without  its  share  of  fat,  that  part  is  accounted 
inferior,  and  is  used  for  a  different  purjxjse ;  in  fact, 
instead  of  fat  being  a  disease,  it  is  a  condition  of  the 
flesh,  and  necessary  to  its  utility  as  food — -a  source  of 
luxury  to  the  rich,  and  of  comfort  to  the  poor,  furnish- 
ing a  nourishing  and  healthy  diet  to  their  families.  A 
tendency  in  an  animal  to  deposit  fat  is  indicated  by 
roundness  of  form.  Rules  have  been  laid  down  by 
which  one  may  know  whether  a  creature  has  a  dispo- 
sition to  fatten.  The  first  is  tested  by  the  touch.  It 
is  the  absolute  criterion  of  quality.  The  skin  is  so 
intimately  connected  with  the  internal  organs,  in  all 
animals,  that  it  is  questionable  whether  even  our 
schools  of  medicine  might  not  make  more  use  of  it  in 


a  diagnosis  of  disease.  The  skin  must  be  neither 
thick  nor  hard,  nor  adhere  firmly  to  tlie  muscles.  If 
it  is  so,  the  animal  is  a  hard  grazer,  and  a  difficult, 
obstinate  feeder.  On  the  other  hand,  the  skin  must 
not  be  thin,  like  paper,  nor  flabby.  This  is  the  oppo- 
site extreme,  and  is  indicative  of  delicateness,  bad, 
flabby  flesh,  and  possibly,  of  inaptitude  to  retain  the 
fat.  It  must  be  elastic  and  velvety,  presenting  to  the 
touch  a  gentle  resistance,  but  so  delicate  as  to  give 
pleasure  to  the  sensitive  hand,  a  skin  which  seems  at 
first  to  give  an  indentation  from  the  pressure  of  the 
fingers,  but  which  again  rises  to  its  place  by  a  gentle 
elasticity.  The  hair  is  nearly  as  im{X)rtant  as  the  skin. 
A  hard  skin  will  have  straight  and  stiff  hair;  it  will 
not  have  a  curl,  but  be  thinly  and  lankly  distributed 
equally  over  the  surface.  A  proper  grazing  animal 
will  have  a  mossy  coat,  but  absolutely  curled,  and  pre- 
senting a  heavy  inequality.  It  will  also,  in  a  thriving 
animal,  be  licked  here  and  tliere  with  its  tongue — a 
proof  that  the  skin  is  duly  performing  its  functions. 
The  eye  mifst  be  full,  bright  and  pressed  out  by 
the  fat  below ;  because,  as  this  is  a  part  where  na- 
ture always  provides  fat,  an  animal  capable  of  devel- 
oping it  to  any  considerable  extent,  will  have  its  indi- 
cations here,  at  least,  where  it  exists  in  excess.  Of 
course  there  must  be  size  in  the  animal  where  large 
weight  is  expected.  Small  animals  are,  however,  some- 
what more  easily  fed,  and  are  therefore  better  adapted 
to  second-rate  feeding  pastures.  But  beyond  this  there 
must  be  breadth  of  carcass.  Perhaps  this  is  indicative 
of  fattening  beyond  all  other  qualities.  The  head 
must  be  small  and  fine,  which  is  a  sign  of  the  quick 
fattening  of  the  animal,  and  also  of  smallness  of  bone 
and  shortness  of  legs.  The  beast  should  have  his  legs 
extend  well  towards  the  thigh  bones  or  hips,  so  as  to 
leave  as  little  unprotected  space  as  jx)ssible.  There 
must  be  no  angular  or  abrupt  points;  all  must  be  round, 
broad  and  parallel.  In  selecting  stock  for  fattening 
purjxjses  the  foregoing  hints  may  serve  a  good  purjXDse. 
That  kind  of  stock  most  in  confomiity  to  them  will  be 
most  sure  to  return  a  profit  for  the  feed  given.  Prob- 
ably the  Short-horns  are  most  abundant  in  these  fat- 
tening qualities,  while  a  well-bred  Devon,  Hereford  or 
Ayrshire  can  be  made  profitable  as  meat-producers. 
The  treatment  of  fattening  cattle  is  a  matter  about 
which  any  intelligent  farmer  should  have  judgment. 
Plenty  of  nutritious  food  is  a  chief  requisite,  and 
enough  good  water  is  another.  Regularity  in  feeding 
is  indispensable,  and  the  quieter  and  more  comforta- 
ble the  fattening  animal  can  be  kept  the  better.  Stall- 
fed  cattle  should  have  a  small  yard  in  which  to  exer- 
cise, as  that  will  j^romote  digestion ;  but  their  exercis- 
ing ground  should  not  be  too  large,  for  that  would  give 
an  opportunity  for  too  much  movement,  and  working 
off  of  flesh.  One  reason  why  so  many  persons  fail 
to  be  successful  in  fattening  stock  is  that  they  do  not 
use  due  consideration  in  their  treatment.  The  man 
who  kicks  and  clubs  his  stock,  or  allows  his  hired 
help  to  do  so,  never  yet  produced  a  prize  steer,  and 
never  will.  Obesity  and  activity  do  not  go  together, 
neither  will  undue  excitability  allow  of  a  steady  in- 


CATTLE. 


213 


Best  Mode  0/  Hitching, 


crease  in  fat.  Hence  the  feeder,  for  the  sake  of  his 
pocket,  should  see  that  fattening  cattle  are  kept  en- 
tirely quiet.  For  an  excellent  stall  and  appliances  in 
which  cattle  may  be  kept  we  refer  the  reader  to  Figs. 
4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  of  the  article  on  Bam.  A  safe  and 
convenient 
manner  of  tying 
cattle  in  stalls  is 
illustrated    b  y 

Fig-.  3.1-  The 
chain  is  short, 
preventing  the 
animal  from 
getting  entan- 
gled in  it,  and 
the  ring  around 
the  upright  is 
so  large  that  it 
slides  up  and  down  readily. 

Feeding  and  Care  of  Stock.  Important  as  the 
kind  and  quality  of  breed  is  in  the  profitable  produc- 
tion of  live  stock,  yet  feeding  and  care  are  equally  im- 
portant. The  doctrine  of  the  old  farmers  that  "  the 
breed  is  in  the  corn  crib  "  is  only  half  true,  but  that 
half  is  as  necessary  to  the  production  of  good  stock  as 
the  other  fraction  of  excellent  pedigree.  But  what- 
ever the  breed,  cattle  should  be  judiciously  cared  for. 
The  too  prevalent  custom  of  permitting  cattle  to  care 
for  themselves  should  be  changed  to  a  more  profit- 
able system.  Tiie  common  practice  is  to  turn  them 
upon  pastures  in  the  spring,  after  having  been  inade- 
quately fed  through  the  winter,  and  on  the  feed  which 
that  pasture  affords  they  have  to  subsist,  whether  it  be 
luxurious  from  frequent  and  copious  rains,  or  parched 
and  scant  from  long  continued  drought.  Throughout 
the  fall,  stock  is  obliged  to  run  the  hazard  of  beingover- 
fed  in  the  parched  pastures,  a  shortage  which  is  made 
worse  by  the  early  and  later  frosts.  In  winter  too 
many  farmers,  at  the  East,  oblige  their  stock  to  subsist 
on  poor  hay  or  straw,  and  in  the  West  the  practice  is 
to  turn  cattle  into  the  corn-field,  after  the  corn  is  picked, 
where  they  must  live,  and  if  possible  thrive,  on  dried 
corn-stalks.  Notable  improvement  has  lately  been 
made  on  this  slip-shod  and  inconsiderate  method,  but 
there  is  yet  vast  room  for  improvement.  The  secret 
of  heavy  weights  in  fat  cattle,  and  growth  and  health 
of  stock  generally,  is  in  constant  feeding  and  uniform 
good  treatment.  Cattle  are  often  in  splendid  condi- 
tion in  June  on  the  pasture,  but  during  the  succeed- 
ing dry  and  hot  months,  when  the  pastures  become 
short,  they  decline  rapidly  in  flesh.  They  fatten  up 
again  in  milder  autumn,  but  if  the  fanner  is  late  in 
gathering  his  corn,  they  become  scrawny  and  ill  con- 
ditioned before  they  are  turned  again  into  the  corn- 
fields or  meadows.  Here  they  cram  themselves  for 
the  first  few  weeks,  perhaps  become  almost  fat  enough 
for  the  butcher,  and  then  begin  a  steady  decline  in 
flesh  and  condition,  so  that  when  grass  comes  again, 
they  are  scarcely  able  to  walk  to  the  pasture.  The 
use  of  a  corn-field,  for  a  foraging  ground,  as  practiced 
in  the  West,  is  of  doubtful  utility.     Practical  experi- 


ence has  demonstrated  that  there  is  money  in  high 
feeding  at  an  early  age.  Calves,  according  to  breed, 
may,  as  an  average,  be  grown  to  the  weight  of  800  or 
1,000  pounds  at  one  year,  and  1,200  to  1,500  the 
second  year.  The  animal  will  also  be  as  fully  matured 
at  two  years  old  as  at  four  under  the  meager  system. 
It  will  require  more  than  double  the  food  to  supply 
the  waste  of  the  system  the  second  year  that  it  did 
the  first,  and  fifty  per  cent,  the  third.  This  explains 
the  reason  of  the  increased  cost  of  putting  live  weight 
on  animals  as  they  grow  older.  It  follows,  then,  that 
beef  creatures  should  be  sold  at  the  earliest  period  of 
maturity  required  by  the  market.  Profit,  then,  can 
only  be  expected  from  full  feeding  under  the  system 
of  early  maturity.  An  animal  to  be  fully  fed  and  sat- 
isfied requires  a  quantity  of  food  in  proportion  to  its 
live  weight.  No  food  is  complete  that  does  not  con- 
tain a  sufficient  amount  of  nutritive  elements ;  hay, 
for  example,  being  more  nutritive  than  straw,  and 
grain  than  roots.  The  food,  too,  must  possess  a  bulk 
sufficient  to  fill  up  to  a  certain  degree  the  organs  of 
digestion  of  the  stomach ;  and  to  receive  the  full  ben- 
efit of  its  food,  the  animal  must  be  fully  sadsfied,  since, 
if  the  stomach  is  not  sufficiently  distended,  the  food 
cannot  be  properly  digested,  and  many  of  the  nutri- 
tive elements  which  it  contains  cannot  be  properly  as- 
similated. About  one-sixtieth  of  their  live  weight  in 
hay,  or  its  equivalent,  will  keep  horned  cattle  on  their 
feet;  but  in  order  to  be  completely  nourished,  they  re- 
quire about  one  thirtieth  in  dry  substance,  four  thir- 
tieths in  water,  or  other  liquid.  The  excess  of  food 
above  what  is  necessary  to  sustain  life,  will  go,  in  milch 
cows,  to  the  production  of  milk,  or  to  the  growth  of 
the  fcetus  ;  but  not  in  all  cows  to  an  equal  extent ;  and 
in  young  cattle  to  growth,  in  beef  cattle  to  the  laying 
on  of  weight.  In  the  breeding  and  rearing  of  stock 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  render  cattle  comforta- 
ble in  summer  and  winter.  A  good  farmer  will  always 
afford  his  stock  abundance  of  nutritious  feed  and 
plenty  of  pure  water.  One  of  the  best  means  of  sup- 
plying water  is  an  automatic  stock-watering  device, 
invented  by  J.  G.  Brown,  Van  Cleve,  Iowa,  and  illus- 
trated by  Fig. 
32.  It  is  used 
f  o  r  utilizing 
water  from  tile 
drain  for  all 
kinds  of  stock. 
It  supplies 
clear,cool,run- 
n  i  n  g  -.v  a  t  e  r 
without  mud 
in  summer  or 

y\':,.  yi.— An  Automatic  stock-Watering  Device.    icC    in     winter. 

It  can  be  attached  to  a  drain  at  any  desired  point.  It 
is  made  of  wood,  at  a  trifling  cost,  and  any  farmer  can 
make  it.  The  cut  illustrates  the  principle  upon  which 
it  works.  When  this  is  done,  the  means  for  the  com- 
fort of  the  animals  should  be  at  hand — shade  in  the 
summer,  warm  housing  and  yard  shelter  in  the  winter- 


J 

.J 

a 

a 
a 
o 
(b 
a 
oi 


CATTLE. 


"S 


It  is  useless  to  furnish  abundance  of  feed  unless  cat- 
tle are  kept  warm  and  comfortable ;  for  in  winter,  when 
cattle  are  exposed,  much  of  their  food  goes  to  supply 
animal  heat.  To  sum  up  a  general  statement  about 
the  care  of  stock,  we  have  this : 

1.  Select  the  best  breeds  for  the  branch  of  stock- 
growing  you  wish  to  follow. 

2.  Provide  ample,  nutritious  and  constant  food,  the 
year  round,  for  your  cattle — of  hay,  or  other  long  food, 
grain  and  roots,  combined,  if  possible. 

3.  Feed  abundantly  and  judiciously,  when  the  an- 
imals are  young,  thus  bringing  to  maturity  as  early  as 
may  be,  and  by  this  means  secure  the  largest  amount 
of  profit  in  their  growth. 

4.  House  warmly  in  winter,  and  provide  ample 
shade  in  summer,  so  that  comfort  shall  be  secured, 
and  the  growth,  fineness  of  bone  and  flesh,  docility  of 
temper  and  economy  of  feeding  enhanced.  (For 
further  treatment  of  the  care  and  feeding  of  particu- 
lar kinds  of  stock,  see   Bulls,  Cows,  Calves,  etc.) 

To  prevent  the  wastage  of  hay  or  straw  fed  in  lots 
a  rack  should  be  provided.  Fig.  33  represents  an  old- 
fashioned  but  very  handy  feed  rack.     It  is  cheap  and 

easily  c  o  n- 
structed.  It  may 
be  made  of 
poles,  rails  or 
stakes,  of  any 
kind  and  any 
length,  which 
may  be  held  in 
place  by  laying 
a  pole  in  the 
rack,  or    each 


^.ts§ 


^J^^>=^ 


Fig.  i-i.—Feed  Rack. 

Stake  may  be  spiked  to  the  horizontal  pole. 

How  TO  Buy  and  How  to  Sell.  There  are  very 
many  farmers  who,  by  care  and  attention  to  details  in 
feeding  their  stock,  and  by  kindly  treatment,  have  done 
so  with  profit  to  themselves.  They  have  raised  them 
from  calf  hood.  Let  them  undertake  to  buy  cattle  for 
feeding  their  surplus  grain  and  fodder,  and  they  are 
very  apt  to  overrate  the  weight  and  true  value  of  the 
cattle  purchased.  One  point  should  always  be  kept 
steadily  in  mind  :  never  buy  an  old  steer  or  cow  for 
fattening.  They  never  repay  the  cost  and  trouble  they 
give.  Thin  cattle,  ready  for  grass,  if  healthy,  may  give 
good  returns  on  flush  summer  pasture,  if  bought  at 
the  price  per  pound  that  you  expect  to  get  in  the  fall. 
You  will  not  only  get  the  ])rice  of  the  flesh  put  on,  but 
the  cattle  being  thin  and  the  muscles  dry,  your  profits 
will  be  added  to  in  the  fluids  absorbed,  and  the  loss 
will  lie  with  the  former  owner  in  making  mere  frames 
to  build  uix)n.  So  animals  Ixiught  in  the  fall  in  com- 
mon grass  flesh,  will  increase  wonderfully  with  good 
feeding  and  shelter.  If  you  buy  at  $2.50  per  100  lbs., 
and  so  add  200  lbs.  in  flesh,  and  sell  at  I14  per  100 
lbs.,  you  not  only  get  $8  for  the  flesh  put  on,  but  the 
difl'erence  between  $2.50  and  $4,  or  $1.50  per  100  lbs. 
on  the  original  weight.  That  is,  you  buy  steers  at 
1,000  lbs.  each,  feed  500  bushels  of  corn  per  head. 
and  sell  them  weighing  1,200  lbs.   average.      They 


cost  $25  and  sell  for  $48,  leaving  $23  as  the  value  of 
the  com  fed  and  care  given.  The  manure  in  any 
country  will  pay  for  the  care  taken ;  so,  your  corn  will 
have  netted  you  near  46  cents  per  bushel.  From  this, 
knowing  the  cost  and  price  expected  when  fat,  it  will 
be  easy  to  figure  on  profits,  fluctuations  and  accidents 
excepted. 

Estimating  Weight.  An  expert  judge  will  esti- 
mate from  seeing  and  handling  steers  often  within  ten 
pounds  of  their  live  weight.  The  buyer  will  always 
underestimate  weight,  and  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten 
convince  the  inexpert  owner  that  the  guess  is  right; 
in  fact,  more  than  half  the  time  the  seller  will  be  con- 
vinced that  he  has  the  best  of  the  bargain.  The 
only  safe  way  in  such  cases  is  for  the  seller  to  weigh. 
Every  man  who  makes  a  business  of  fattening  cattle 
should  own  a  proper  scale.  He  may  save  the  cost  in 
a  single  year.  The  merchant,  the  manufacturer  and 
the  builder,  who  work  by  guess,  always  end  in  bank- 
ruptcy. The  only  reason  why  farmers  do  not,  is,  they 
have  that  generous  bank,  mother  earth,  which  never 
fails  to   resix)nd,  even  to  indifferent  managers. 

In  weighing  cattle  note  carefully  why  certain  ones 
weigh  out  of  projwrtion  to  others,  and  study  whether 
the  weight  is  in  the  prime  parts,  a  broad  loin  and  hips, 
and  good  barrel,  or  in  heavy  fore-quarters,  with  thick 
neck  and  big  head  and  horns.  Study  carefully  the 
points  as  given  in  detail  elsewhere  in  this  article,  and 
as  carefully  remember  them  for  future  use.  Thus 
you  may  in  time  become  yourself  an  expert  judge  of 
stock.  If  an  animal  is  to  be  killed,  estimate  his  weight 
alive,  how  much  he  will  shrink  in  offal  and  hide.  When 
the  (luarters  are  weighed,  if  the  record  is  not  as  you 
expect,  examine  carefully  wherein  the  discrepancy  lies. 
It  is  an  especially  interesting  study  for  the  young  man 
who  expects  himself  to  become  a  breeder  and  feeder 
of  cattle.  If  a  breeder,  he  must  know  how  to  sell; 
and  if  a  feeder,  he  must  know  both  how  to  buy  and 
sell. 

Estimating  by  Measurement.  Many  breeders 
have  rules  of  estimating  the  weight  by  measurements. 
There  is  no  rule  that  comes  nearer  than  good  guessing, 
and  all  guessing  should  be  avoided,  especially  when 
the  guessing  is  to  lie  on  the  part  of  the  buyer;  that  is, 
the  seller  should  avoid  trusting  to  the  guess  of  the 
buyer  based  ujxjn  measurement.  No  two  animals  will 
weigh  alike  according  to  measurement. 

One  rule,  perhaps  as  good  as  any  and  for  this  rea- 
son given,  is  to  find  the  superficial  feet  by  multiplying 
the  girth,  just  behind  the  shoulder-blade,  by  the  length 
from  tlie  fore  part  of  the  shoulder-blade  to  the  root  of 
the  tail.  Thus  an  ox  girthing  seven  feet  nine  inches 
and  measuring  six  feet  in  length  would  contain  seven 
and  three-fourths  times  six,  or  46 >^  superficial  feet. 
For  cattle  grass  fat,  the  following  is  given  as  the  weight 
per  superficial  foot : 

Girth  less  than  3  feet 11  pounds 

"     3  to  s  feet 16       " 

"     5  to  7  feet ^ 23       " 

"     7  to  9  feet 31       " 

Thus  the  steer  u  per  above  measurements  should 


2l6 


CATTLE. 


weigh  46.50  by  31,  or  1,441  lbs.  gross.  Under  this 
rule  it  is  usual  to  deduct  one  jwund  in  20  on  half-fatted 
cattle,  from  15  to  20  lbs.  on  a  cow  having  had  calves, 
and  if  not  fat  an  equal  amount.  The  rule  as  above 
stated  is  of  little  or  no  value,  except  to  those  having 
no  other  means.  In  taking  account  of  stock,  this  may 
may  come  somewhat  near  the  weight.  For  buying  or 
selling,  the  scale  is  the  only  true  standard. 

Buying  to  Feed.  In  buying  cattle  either  to  graze 
or  to  feed  fat,  choose  cattle  that  are  young,  that  is,  that 
will  not  have  become  mature  before  ready  for  sale.  If 
to  be  kept  a  year,  three  years  old  past  to  four  years  old 
for  natives  and  Devons,  and  one  year  less  for  Short- 
horns or  Hereford  grades.  Buy  no  overgrown,  leggy 
animals ;  they  are  hard  feeders.  Neither  should  they 
be  under-sized,  as  this  indicates  want  of  thrift.  The 
cattle  for  money,  whatever  their  breed,  are  compact, 
smooth,  fine-boned,  meek-eyed,  soft-haired  steers,  with 
skin  of  medium  thickness ;  thick  through  the  heart, 
round-barreled,  well  ribbed,  with  broad  rump,  and  the 
twist  well  down  to  the  hock.  Such  cattle,  whatever 
their  breed,  will  fatten  easily  and  the  meat  will  be  of 
excellent  quality.  So  far  as  age  is  concerned,  the 
teeth  must  be  the  test.  In  this  no  person  can  err  who 
has  carefully  studied  the  section  on  Teeth,  pages  181-83. 

How  TO  Buy  Breeders.  If  the  intention  is  to 
raise  beef  cattle,  the  same  rule  will  apply  as  in  buying 
steers.  In  no  case  should  the  cow  be  more  than  three 
years  old,  and  it  is  better  that  she  never  had  a  calf. 
In  breeding  for  beef,  milk  is  not  the  first  essential.  It 
is  necessar)',  however,  that  the  dam  give  a  fair  amount 
of  milk,  since  the  proper  sustenance  of  the  calf  is 
what  lays  the  foundation  of  the  future  value  of  the 
steer.  No  calf  starved  when  young  can  make  a  valua- 
ble cow  to  breed  from,  and  as  is  the  dam  so  naturally 
will  be  the  produce.  Whatever  is  to  be  the  outcome, 
avoid  at  any  price  a  vicious  cow,  or  one  with  a  wild 
eye,  or  having  a  dished  shape.  Her  progeny  will  be 
sure  to  give  you  trouble  and  will  not  give  you  cattle 
that  will  fatten  to  a  high  standard. 

Buying  Feeding  Stock.  The  novice  in  buying 
stock  should  carefully  note  the  shape  and  make-up. 
To  the  superficial  eye  the  superior  animals  when  thin 
will  ajjpear  worse  than  the  inferior  ones ;  the  bony 
parts  will  appear  more  prominent,  and  for  this  reason 
their  breadth,  when  thin,  will  seem  to  be  exaggerated  ; 
this,  however,  is  only  apparently  so.  An  animal  of 
no  particular  character  may  seem  fairly  smooth  to  the 
eye.  Those  accustomed  to  handling  stock  will  know 
that  superficial  observation  goes  for  little.  The  touch 
is  what  decides  the  value  of  an  animal.  The  well- 
bred  animal  carries  softer,  smoother,  and  finer  hair 
than  the  ill-bred  one ;  its  breadth  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  xwxw^i  gives  it  a  bony  appearance  when  thin, 
that  in  the  scrub  steer  is  partly  concealed  by  the 
higher  backbone  and  coarser  hair.  We  are  now 
speaking  of  no  particular  breed,  but  of  all  breeds  and 
crosses  that  have  characteristic  points  enabling  them 
to  lay  on  flesh. 

•  Proper  Shape  of  Well-bred  Fattening  Stock. 
Cut  off  the  head,  neck,  legs,  and  tail,  and  well-bred 


beef  cattle  will  present  the  appearance  of  an  oblong 
square.  Thus  there  is  ample  room  for  the  legs  and 
viscera  through  the  width  of  the  bosom  and  spring  of 
the  ribs,  and  this  carries  corresponding  breadth  be- 
hind, giving  a  broad  loin  and  massive  rump.  Such 
an  animal  will  feed  heartily  and  kindly,  satisfy  the 
butcher  when  brought  to  the  block,  and  be  profitable 
to  the  feeder.  There  is  no  profit,  however,  to  the 
feeder  in  cattle  fattened  to  obese  or  immense  weights ; 
they  are  mere  mountains  of  fat,  and  contain  no  more 
lean  meat  than  animals  fattened  fairly  ripe.  There 
are  few  people  who  do  not  like  well-fattened  beef. 
Few,  however,  care  to  eat  any  but  the  lean.  An  ani- 
mal, therefore,  that  is  fattened  just  ripe  is  the  heaviest 
in  muscle,  well  marbled  with  fat.  This  is  what  the 
consumer  wants  and  what  feeders  should  seek  to  make. 
Smooth,  fine-horned,  medium  cattle,  according  to  the 
breed  selected,  are  what  give  profits  in  this  respect. 

How  TO  Buy.  In  buying  ordinary  (that  is  native) 
cattle  for  pasturing  and  feeding  fat  during  the  summer 
and  fall,  always  buy  in  the  spring.  If  the  grass  is 
good  at  the  time  of  purchase,  as  it  should  be,  no  matter 
how  thin  the  stock,  if  healthy  and  hearty.  The  thin 
stock  will  weigh  less,  and  you  will  have  to  pay  less 
for  it.  The  loss  will  be  with  the  farmer  who  grudges 
his  animals  sufficient  to  eat  in  winter,  rather  than  with 
the  buyer.  Generally  all  this  class  will  sell  cheaper 
in  the  spring  than  in  the  fall,  and  as  a  rule  yearlings 
may  be  bought  for  less  money  in  the  spring  than  the 
same  calves  would  have  brought  in  the  fall.  If  they 
have  been  fairly  wintered  they  will  be  profitable  to 
feed ;  if  badly  wintered,  it  will  be  questionable,  unless 
the  price  paid  is  low  enough  to  warrant  the  purchase. 
In  any  event  the  feeder  must  usually  depend  uixsn 
buying  steers  off  of  common  keep.  Good  feeders  are 
not  apt  to  sell  half-grown  steers,  nor  those  that  one 
more  season's  keep  will  make  ripe.  The  best  money- 
making  friends  of  the  sagacious  buyer  are,  after  all, 
those  who  never  read,  and  will  not  believe  that  any- 
thing in  print  relating  to  agriculture  in  any  of  its  vari- 
ous departments  can  be  of  value.  They  do  not  know 
that  as  great  advances  have  been  made  in  agricultural 
art  within  the  last  thirty  years  as  any  other  industry, 
and  that  the  best  practical  talent  in  Europe,  and  with- 
in the  last  few  years  in  America,  have  been  earnestly 
engaged  in  elucidating  and  applying  practical  science 
to  agriculture. 

Administering  Treatment.  That  the  fariner  may 
form  some  intelligent  basis  of  distinguishing  disease 
and  administering  treatment  to  his  cattle  when  afflict- 
ed, we  give  the  following  concise  and  accepted 
theories  and  modes  of  practice  among  the  best  veter- 
inarians. 

Graduation  of  Doses.  As  a  rule  cattle  require 
one  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  horses ;  sheep  and  pigs 
require  one-third  as  much.  Professor  James  Law,  of 
Cornell  University,  in  his  work,  Veterinary  Adviser, 
has  presented  the  manner  of  graduation,  frequency, 
and  form  of  administering  doses,  in  the  following  con- 
cise language : 

The  doses  given  may  be  held  applicable  to  full- 


CATTLE. 


217 


grown  animals  of  medium  size,  therefore  some  allow- 
ance must  be  made  in  any  cases  in  which  the  patient 
exceeds  or  comes  short  of  the  average  of  his  kind.  A 
similar  modification  must  be  made  as  regards  young 
animals,  not  only  on  account  of  their  smaller  size  but 
also  of  their  greater  susceptibility. 

The  following  table  will  serve  as  a  guide : 

DOSES  OF  MEDICINE  FOR  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS. 


Ho 


Cattle. 


I 


Sh^ 


eep. 


3  years. 
xYi,  t0  3yr'&. 
9  to  18  mo. 

5  to  9      y 
I  to  5 


a  years. 
1  to  2  years.. 
6  to  12  mo. 
3  to  6      " 
r  to  3      " 


j    n  years. 

I  9  to  18  months. 

5  to  9 
I  3^0  5 

I   I  to  3 


15  months. 

1 

8  to  15  months 

% 

6  to  8 

Vi, 

3  to  6        " 

'A 

I  to  3 

I- 

Allowance  must  also  be  made  for  a  nervous  tem- 
perament, which  usually  renders  an  animal  more  im- 
pressible; for  habit,  or  continued  use,  which  tends  to 
decrease  the  susceptibility  for  individual  drugs;  for 
idiosyncrasy,  which  can  only  be  discovered  by  observ- 
ing the  action  of  the  agent  on  the  particular  subject, 
and  for  the  influence  of  disease  when  that  is  likely  to 
affect  the  action.  Thus,  in  most  diseases  of  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord,  and  in  some  impactions  of  ihe  stom- 
ach, double 'the  usual  quantities  of  purgative  medicine 
will  be  necessary ;  while  in  influenza,  and  other  low 
fevers,  half  the  usual  doses  may  prove  fatal.  In  acute 
congestion  of  the  brain,  stimulating  narcotics  (opium, 
belladonna,  hyoscyamus)  would  aggravate  the  symp- 
toms, etc. 

Frequency  of  Administering.  Anodynes,  anti- 
spasmodics, narcotics,  sedatives  and  stimulants  may 
generally  be  repeated  once  in  four  or  si.K  hours  in  order 
to  maintain  their  effect.  Alteratives,  diaphoretics, 
febrifuges,  refrigerants  and  tonics,  may  be  administered 
twice  daily.  Purgatives  should  only  be  given  when 
necessary,  and  should  never  be  repeated  until  from 
the  lapse  of  time  we  are  assured  that  the  first  dose  re- 
mains inoperative. 

Form  of  Doses.  Drugs  may  often  be  given  as  pow- 
der or  solution  in  the  food  or  water;  they  may  be 
made  into  a  soft  solid  with  syrup  and  linseed  meal, 
rolled  into  a  short  cylinder  and  covered  with  soft 
paper ;  they  may  be  converted  into  an  infusion  with 
warm  or  cold  water,  or  into  a  decoction  by  boiling;  or 
they  may  be  jxswdered  and  suspended  in  thick  gruel 
or  mucilage.  They  may  be  given  in  a  liquid  form, 
from  a  horn  or  bottle ;  or  as  a  short  cylinder  or  pill, 
which  may  be  lodged  over  the  middle  of  the  root  of  the 
tongue ;  or,  as  a  sticky  mass,  they  may  be  smeared  on 
the  back  of  the  tongue ;  may  be  given  as  an  injection 
into  the  rectum;  or,  finally,  in  the  case  of  certain 
powerful  and  non-irritating  agents,  they  may  be  in- 
jected under  the  skin. 

No  agent  should  be  given  until  sufficiently  diluted 
to  prevent  irritation,  if  retained  a  few  minutes  in  the 
mouth,  and  irritants  that  will  not  mix  with  water  (oil 
of  turpentine,  Croton  oil,  etc.)  should  be  given  in  a 
bland  oil,  in  milk,  or  in  eggs  after  being  thoroughly 
mixed. 

How  TO  Give  Medicine.  Few  things  are  so  awk- 
wardly done,  as  a  rule,  as    giving   medicine  to  farm 


animals.  In  the  hands  of  a  careful  and  expert  person, 
a  strong  glass  bottle  is  good.  A  better  instrument  is 
a  flattened  bottle  of  block  tin,  which  for  cattle 
should  hold  two  c^uarts.  The  most  usual  instrument, 
and  on  the  whole  the  best  for  ordinary  operations,  is 
the  horn.  Select  one  of  which  the  point  turns  down 
and  the  large  end  up;  form  this  of  the  proper  size  and 
fashion  so  the  opening  will  be  oblique. 

Drenches  should  always  be  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
well  shaken  before  they  are  given.  If  a  fit  of  cough- 
ing ensues,  free  the  animal  at  once  and  until  it  be 
ended.  In  operating  with  cattle  do  not  irritate  the 
animal  unduly.  Always  operate  from  the  right  or  off 
side.  Pass  the  left  hand  over  the  head,  and  in  front 
of  the  horn,  seize  the  upper  jaw  firmly  in  front  of  the 
grinders,  turn  the  head  firmly  back,  the  operator  stand- 
ing well  braced,  the  back  firm  against  and  as  well 
forward  of  the  shoulders  as  possible.  Thus,  having 
the  animal  with  one  side  against  a  wall  or  the  side  of 
the  stall,  it  must  be  a  very  vicious  cow  or  bull  that  a 
strong,  expert  man  cannot  handle.  If,  however,  the 
operator  does  not  stand  well  forward  and  well  braced, 
he  may  be  severely  kicked,  since  an  ox,  like  a  deer, 
can  reach  well  forward  with  its  hind  feet.  The 
usual  quantity  for  an  ox  is  from  one  to  two  quarts  at 
a  dose,  if  liquid,  of  ordinary  decoctions  and  solutions. 

Injections,  or  Clysters.  A  large  number  of  medi- 
cines, both  hquid  and  solid,  may  be  as  easily  adminis- 
tered per  rectum  as  by  the  mouth.  In  administering 
injections,  it  is  not  necessary  that  much  pressure  be 
used.  The  intestinal  canal  of  the  animals  is  lower 
than  the  opening.  Thus  fluid  substances  will  fall  by 
their  gravity.  A  good  instrument  for  use  may  be  a 
pail,  with  a  tube  extending  from  the  bottom  connect- 
ing with  a  half-inch  rubber  hose,  of  suitable  length,  so 
that  the  pail  may  hang  just  high  enough  above  the 
animal  to  be  out  of  its  reach  in  moving  about.  Oil 
the  end  to  be  inserted  into  the  rectum,  and  the  fluid 
may  be  passed  into  the  gut,  as  much  or  as  little  as  may 
be  desired,  and  with  much  better  effect  than  when 
strong  pressure  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  fluid. 

Vapors,  Spraying  and  Fumigation.  These  are 
medicaments  drawn  in  with  the  breath.  Chloroform 
and  ether  may  be  administered  by  means  of  a  sponge 
filled  with  the  agent  and  held  to  the  nose.  Vapors 
are  easily  produced  from  liquid  substances  by  means 
of  an  atomizer,  sold  by  all  druggists. 

Steaming  is  often  of  great  benefit.  Hot  water, 
either  plain  or  medicated,  may  be  held  under  the  an- 
imal's nose,  and  the  steam  strongly  driven  off  by 
plunging  a  hot  iron  into  it  at  intervals.  A  hot  bran 
mash,  in  a  nose  bag,  readily  gives  off  steam. 

When  an  anaesthetic  is  used,  it  should  not  be  held 
to  the  nose  continuously,  since,  if  undiluted  wth  air, 
it  is  fatal.  Watch  carefully  and  suspend  the  use  of 
the  anaesthetic  as  soon  as  unconsciousness  is  pro- 
duced, to  be  renewed  from  time  to  time  as  may  be 
necessary.  They  should  not  be  used  unless  under 
the  advice  of  a  surgeon  or  physician,  since  the  need 
can  hardly  be  expected  except  for  the  performaiice  of 
some  intricate   surgical   operation.     The   following  is 


2l8 


CATTLE. 


endorsed  by  high  veterinary  authority:  i  ounce 
alcohol,  2  ounces  chloroform,  3  ounces  ether.  Shake 
the  bottle  well  before  using  it ;  pour  a  teaspoonful 
or  more  at  a  time  on  a  sponge  ;  hold  it  to  the  nostril. 
Two  or  three  moments  should  be  enough  to  over- 
power the  strongest  ox. 

Blistering.  Blistering  is  a  valuable  remedy,  when 
it  is  required  to  ease  the  absorprion  of  deposit,  to 
stimulate  the  vessels  to  effect  organic  change,  as  has- 
tening the  ripening  cf  an  abscess,  or  the  reduction  of 
an  enlarged  gland ;  they  should  be  entirely  confined 
to  cases  where  the  acute  inflammatory  symptoms  have 
ceased.  BUstfers  do  no  good  in  deep-seated  inflam- 
mations. Yet  the  quack,  if  he  .faj/^c/ internal  inflam- 
mation, claps  on  a  blister,  which  only  agonizes  the 
dumb  brute,  and  generally  leaves  a  permanent  blem- 
ish. When  a  blister  is  found  necessary,  before  apply- 
ing, always  as  an  ointment  or  fluid,  and  never  as  a 
plaster,  cut  or  shave  the  hair  from  the  part,  wash  and 
dry  thoroughly,  and  apply  with  strong  friction  for  sev- 
eral minutes.  The  following,  if  thoroughly  applied, 
will  raise  a  blister,  and  will  not  leave  a  blemish : 


Kir..  1J3. — Aiamimer. 

I  ounce  ]xjwdered  cantharides,  12  ounces  lard, 
heated  to  212°  Fahr.  Mix  well  together  and  sUr, 
until  cool. 

A  sweating  blister  of  medium  strength  to  be  used 
to  produce  irritation  and  a  watery  discharge  without 
raising  a  full  blister,  and  which  may  be  applied  sepa- 
rately to  the  same  spot  and  without  removing  the  hair, 
is  made  as  follows  : 

I  ounce  jxjwdered  cantharides,  i  pint  alcohol. 

Add  neither  corrosive  sublimate,  arsenic,  acids,  nor 
turpenrine  to  blistering  agents.  They  are  not  useful, 
are  often  injurious,  and  always  give  unnecessary  pain. 

As  a  rule,  sufficient  irritation  can  be  produced  on 
cattle  by  mustard  and  hot  water,  well  rubbed  in,  and 
this  form  should  be  used  except  in  particular  cases. 
The  following  rules  should  be  carefully  remembered : 

1.  Never  blister  more  than  one  or  two  spots  at  the 
same  time. 

2.  Be  careful  about  blistering  in  hot  weather. 

3.  Never  blister  an  inflamed  part  when  there  are 
symptoms  of  mortification. 

4.  There  is  always  danger  of  producing  strangury 
in  horses  from  blistering. 

5.  When  a  blister  causes  great  nervous  irritability, 
loss  of  appetite,  or  difficult  urination,  wash  the  blister- 


ed surface  with  strong  soapsuds  of  soft  soap,  dress  it 
with  sweet  oil,  and  give  a  full  dose  of  opium. 

6.  The  second  day  after  a  blister  has  been  applied, 
foment  the  part  with  warm  water,  and  dress  it  with 
lard  or  oil. 

7 .  An  animal  that  has  been  blistered  should  be  pre- 
vented from  biting,  rubbing,  or  otherwise  irritating  the 
blistered  part. 

Firing.  The  actual  cautery  is  most  valuable  in 
bone  diseases,  or  chronic  lameness.  In  certain  dis- 
eases it  cannot  be  successfully  replaced  by  any  other 
counter-irritant.  The  iron  should  be  at  a  full  red  or 
white  heat,  and  used  with  a  light  hand,  so  that  a  dis- 
tinct impression  is  made.  More  than  one  leg  should 
not  be  operated  on  at  one  time.  It  should  never  be 
performed  by  inexpert  hands.  The  hair  must  be 
closely  shaved,  and  the  animal  securely  fastened. 
A  better  way  for  the  novice  is  to  cut  a  piece  of 
bacon  rind  with  some  of  the  fat  attached.  The 
iron,  which  should  be  flat  or  slightly  hollowed,  is 
to  be  heated  to  a  dull  read  heat.  Place  the  bacon 
rind  on  the  sprain  or  tumor,  and  apply  the  iron 
firmly  for  two  or  three  minutes,  and  after- 
wards more  lightly,  until  the  rind*  is  dried  or 
burned.  This  may  be  repeated  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  days.  The  influence  will  be 
potent,  and  will  leave  no  scar.  It  should 
never  be  used  on  cattle,  except  in  the  case 
of  a  tumor,  where  the  animal  is  valuable. 

Setons.  Setons  are  used  in  cases  of  bone 
disease,  in  the  healing  of  old  fistulas,  by  pro- 
ducing a  new  and  healthy  inflammation  in 
its  sides.  They  should  be  inserted  the  whole 
length  of  the  canal. 

Setons  are  comiX)sed  of  tapes,  threads,  or 
fine  wires,  pushed  just  underneath  the  skin 
by  means  of  a  seton  needle,  entering  at  one  ix)int 
and  coming  out  at  another.  Fasten  the  ends,  to  pre- 
vent dropping  out,  smear  with  irritant  salve  and 
turn  every  day  or  two  to  keep  up  a  constant  irri- 
tation and  discharge.  The  following  will  be  found 
good  ointments  for  smearing  the  setons :  i  part 
powdered  cantharides,  8  parts  oil  of  turpentine, 
8  parts  Canada  balsam.  Put  the  two  first  in  a  bottle 
and  keep  warm  for  two  days  and  add  the  balsam. 
A  simple  ointment  would  be :  3  parts  citrine  oint- 
ment, I  part  oil  of  turpentine.     Mix. 

Rowels.  These  are  wounds  made  with  rowel  scis- 
sors or  a  bistoury,  and  kept  open  with  a  pledget  of 
tow  or  other  substance,  smeared  with  ointment,  as 
used  for  setons.  They  are  rarely  used  now  by  good 
surgeons,  and  are  not  to  be  recommended,  since  their 
action  is  that  of  the  seton. 

Sewing  UP  Wounds.  The  bleeding  of  wounds  hav- 
ing been  checked  and  properly  cleaned,  the  edges  are 
brought  together  and  held  in  position  by  means  of 
stitches  or  sutures.  The  interrupted  suture  is  made 
by  carrying  a  suture  needle,  anned  with  white  silk  or 
white  linen  thread,  through  the  two  edges  of  the 
wound  and  cutting  off,  leaving  about  three-inch  ends 
on  each  side  of  the  cut ;  bring  together  and  tie.     So 


w 

M 
*^ 
O 

o 

o 

o 


CATTLE. 


proceed  until  you  have  the  wound  nicely  closed,  the 
lipsof  the  wound  or  skin  being  carefully  brought  to- 
gether. 

The  twisted  suture  is  better  in  inexpert  hands  when 
it  can  be  used.  Bring  the  edges  of  the  wound  togeth- 
er, press  a  strong  pin  through  to  hold  in  place,  and 
twist  a  fine  wire  or  lace  a  strong  thread  across  the 
protruding  ends  of  the  pin  to  hold  the  edges  of  the 
wound  firmly  together.  So  proceed  at  intervals  of 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  until  the  wound  is  closed. 

The  wound  thus  sewed,  dress  with  a  plaster  or  oint- 
ment and  bandage  to  prevent  threads  or  pins  from  be- 
ing torn  out.  Komove  them  as  soon  as  the  surfaces 
have  united,  which  should  be  in  four  or  five  days. 

Fomentations.  These  are  applied  by  wrapping 
the  part  to  be  treated  with  flannel  bandages  or  woolen 
cloths,  keeping  the  wrappings  constantly  wet  with 
hot  or  cold  water,  or  mixed  with  any  appropriate  ad- 
dition, as  vinegar,  laudanum,  etc.  They  are  used  to 
cleanse  or  soothe  irritable  wounds,  to  reduce  internal 
inflammation,  or  relieve  external  inflammation.  Unless 
persistently  used  for  hours  and  kept  constantly  wet, 
they  had  better  not  be  attempted.  After  the  operation 
is  finished,  rub  dry  and  clothe  warmly,  to  prevent 
chill,  which  will  surely  occur.  As  an  additional  pre- 
caution, a  little  mustard  rubbed  in  would  be  benefi- 
cial. When  it  can  be  applied,  a  sheepskin  with  the 
wool  on,  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  makes  a  good  agent 
fdr  fomentation. 

The  Operation  of  Bleeding.  There  is  no  opera- 
tion in  veterinary  practice  that  has  been  more  abused 
by  quacks  and  other  persons  ignorant  of  the  true 
necessity,  than  bleeding.  It  should  never  be  per- 
formed except  by  those  who  have  been  instructed  in 
the  operation,  and  only  in  those  cases  where  by  com- 
mon consent  of  the  profession  it  is  allowed.  If  a  de- 
cided impression  is  to  be  made,  as  in  ajwplexy,  from 
five  to  seven  quarts  should  be  taken  from  an  ox,  ac- 
cording to  the  conditions.  If  the  jugular  vein  is 
pressed  up  just  below  where  the  incision  is  to  be 
made,  it  will  soon  show  prominently.  Use  a  thumb 
lancet  in  preference  to  a  fleam.  When  sufficient  has 
been  taken,  raise  the  two  lips  of  the  wound,  and  bring 
them  together  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  pass  a 
common  small  pin  through  the  edges  and  weave  thread 
across  and  over  to  keep  all  in  place. 

Recognizing  and  Distinguishing  Diseases.  The 
following  explicit  rules  for  recognizing  diseases 
in  animals,  should  be  carefully  studied.  Any  one  who 
would  become  expert  in  recognizing  diseases  in  ani- 
mals, must  study  them  carefully  in  the  healthy  state, 
and  make  himself  thoroughly  familiar  with  their  hab- 
its, appearance  and  general  physiology.  He  must 
practice  feeling  their  pulse  and  the  heart,  listening  to 
the  sounds  of  their  lungs  in'  breathing,  and  taking 
their  temperature,  by  feeling  the  skin  and  also  by 
using  a  properly  constructed  thermometer.  He  should 
watch  the  appearance  of  the  eye  and  tongue,  and  note 
the  iX)sitions  assumed  when  asleep  and  awake.  He 
should  observe  the  character  and  frequency  of  their 
appetite.     For  it  is  in  the  variations  from  health  in 


these  particulars  that  the  veterinarian  discovers  the 
guides  which  lead  him  to»the  recognition  of  the  par- 
ticular disease  he  has  to  treat.  We  will  examine  each 
of  these  items  separately,  and  assure  our  readers  that 
if  they  will  verify  our  statements  by  practice  on  the 
living  animals,  they  will  soon  be  in  a  jyjsition  to  take 
charge  of  them  when  sick,  ([uite  as  well  and  often  a 
great  deal  better  than  the  average  farrier,  as  he  is  to 
be  found  in  this  country. 

The  Fulsc.  The  pulse  differs  very  much  in  .the  do- 
mestic animals.  In  the  full  grown  horse  at  rest,  its 
beats  are  about  forty  per  minute ;  in  the  ox,  from  fifty 
to  fifty-five ;  and  in  the  sheep  and  pig,  atout  as  in 
man,  that  is,  averaging  seventy  to  eighty  beats  to  the 
minute.  In  calves  and  colts,  and  in  animals  well  ad- 
vanced in  years,  the  pulse  increases,  in  health,  to 
about  twice  these  figures ;  and  it  is  also  increased  by 
hot,  close  stables,  full  feeding,  and  the  condition  of 
pregnancy. 

•  The  pulse  may  be  felt  wherever  a  considerable  art- 
ery passes  over  a  bone.  It  is  usually  examined  in 
the  horse  on  the  cord  which  runs  over  the  bone  of  the 
lower  jaw,  just  in  front  of  its  curved  portion ;  or  on  the 
bony  ridge  extending  upward  from  the  eye,  or  inside 
the  elbow.  In  cattle,  it  is  easily  reached  over  the 
middle  of  the  first  rib,  or  beneath  the  tail.  There  is 
a  marked  difference  of  force  in  the  pulse  of  the  two 
species;  that  of  the  horse  being  full  and  rather  tense, 
while  in  the  ox  it  is  soft  and  rolling. 

When  the  jjulse  differs  materially  from  these  con- 
ditions in  any  direction,  it  is  a  sign  of  disease.  If 
rapid,  full  and  hard,  there  is  high  fever  or  acute  in- 
flammation ;  if  rapid,  small  and  weak,  there  is  low  fever, 
loss  of  blood,  or  weakness.  If  very  slow,  we  may  sus- 
pect brain  disease ;  if  irregular,  now  fast  and  in  a  few 
seconds  slow,  we  should  look  for  a  diseased  condition 
of  the  heart. 

In  the  sheep,  the  pulse  is  felt  by  placing  the  hand 
on  the  left  side,  where  the  beating  of  the  heart  can  be 
felt ;  or  at  about  the  middle  of  the  inside  of  the  thigh, 
where  the  femoral  artery  passes  obliquely  across  the 
bone.  ' 

The  Breathing.  The  breathing  is  next  in  impor- 
tance. If  the  ear  is  applied  to  the  throat  of  a  healthy 
horse  or  ox  the  air  will  be  heard  passing  through  the 
windpipe  with  a  regular,  steady,  blowing  sound;  if  ap- 
pUed  to  the  chest  a  soft  rustling  murmur  will  be  heard, 
like  a  gentle  breeze  in  the  tree-tops,  caused  by  the  air 
passing  in  and  out  of  the  fine  tubes  and  vessels  of  the 
lungs.  But  where  the  lungs  or  throat  is  diseased, 
these  sounds  are  very  much  changed  and  in  many 
dii'ections,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  on  here, 
but  which  will  at  once  indicate  the  presence  of  some- 
thing amiss  with  these  imixirtant  organs. 

If  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  is  placed  firmly  on 
the  chest  and  smartly  tapped  with  the  ends  of  the 
three  first  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  the  sound  will  be  a 
noticed  to  be  more  resonant  and  clear  than  when  the 
same  i)roc(?dure  is  practiced  on  the  solid  thigh.  This 
is  becau  e  the  lungs  are  not  solid,  but  are  always,  in 
health,  well  expanded  with  air.     But  in  various  dis- 


CATTLE. 


221 


eases,  as  pneumonia  and  pleurisy,  they  fill  up  with 
fluid  and  become  solid ;  then  the  sound  given  out,  by 
thus  percussing  them,  as  it  is  called,  is  like  that  on 
any  other  solid  part  of  the  animal.  Hence  this  is  an- 
other very  important  indication  of  disease. 

By  practice  on  healthy  animals  the  character  and 
boundaries  of  these  sounds  can  be  learned  so  closely 
that  any  variation  from  them  will  be  at  once  detected, 
and  will  sometimes  reve.al  the  presence  of  an  unsound 
condition  when  nothing  else  will. 

The  rapidity  with  which  the  act  of  breathing  is  per- 
formed can  easily  be  counted  by  the  heaving  of  the 
chest.  In  health  in  the  adult  horse  at  rest  it  is  from 
8  to  1 2  times  a  minute,  and  in  the  ox  a  little  faster. 
Any  great  increase  without  obvious  cause,  is  a  positive 
sign  of  diseased  condition. 

The  Afiimal  Heat.  The  temperature  of  animals 
can  be  ascertained,  to  a  slight  extent,  by  the  feel  of 
the  skin,  the  ears,  and  the  legs.  A  hot,  dry  skin  in  a 
horse  generally  accompanies  a  feverish  condition. 
Cold  ears  and  legs  are  a  sign  of  serious  disease.  But 
the  only  scientific,  that  is,  accurate  plan,  is  to  use  what 
is  called  a  "  clinical  thermometer,"  namely,  one  the 
bulb  of  wliich  can  be  bared  and  inserted  into  the  rec- 
tum. After  it  has  remained  there  two  or  three  min- 
utes, the  mercury  will  accurately  indicate  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  blood.  This  in  health  is  g8  degrees,  and 
any  deviation  from  this,  even  of  a  few  degrees,  is  a  cer- 
tain sign  of  disease.  Those  veterinarians  who  have 
practiced  sufficiently  with  this  instrument  to  become 
skilled  in  its  use,  declare  it  invaluable  in  their  busi- 
ness, as  affording  them  grounds  for  opinions  about 
diseases  which  no  other  symptoms  could. 

The  Skin  and  Hair.  The  skin  in  its  general  feel- 
ing and  appearance  is  an  imjx)rtant  guide  to  the  con- 
dition of  an  animal  A  dry,  scurfy  appearance  is  a 
system  of  indigestion,  and  liability  to  joint  affections. 
What  is  called  "  hide-bound  "  is  a  symptom  of  a  gener- 
al state  of  iX)or  nutrition,  arising  from  indigestion,  im- 
proper food,  worms,  or  a  want  of  proper  exercise.  The 
skin  feels  stretched  and  hard,  as  if  too  small  for  the 
body.  The  condition  known  as  "  staring  coat,  "  when 
the  hairs  stand  out  like  Ijristles,  is  often  the  only  symp- 
tom of  a  low  state  of  health.  Whenever  an  animal 
is  disjxised  to  shiver,  with  shedding  of  the  coat,  when 
exix)sed  to  moderate  cold,  or  without  such  ex]X)sure, 
it  is  on  the  verge  of  some  disease.  A  persistently  star- 
ingcoat,  without  other  symptoms  of  disease,  often  in- 
dicates the  approach  of  an  attack  of  farcy  or  glanders; 
and  when  with  this  are  repeated  shivers  or  chills,  we 
may  expect  the  strangles,  weed,  or  other  diseases  with 
su])puration.  When  in  an  attack  of  disease  the  skin 
becomes  covered  with  a  cold  sweat,  the  life  of  the 
animal  is  in  great  danger. 

Special  Si^ns  in  Cattle.  In  cattle,*the  horn  at  its 
root  yields,  by  the  sensation  it  imparts  to  the  hand,  a 
rough  idea  of  the  temperature  of  the  blood,  and  the 
cow-leech  generally  feels  it  as  the  doctor  does  the 
pulse,  as  a  part  of  the  indispensable  programme  of  a 
professional  visit.  If  the  temperature  is  natural,  he 
concludes  there  is  no  fever;  if  cold,  and  the  tips  of 


the  ears  also  cold,  it  is  a  sign  of  some  serious  internal 
congestion,  the  blood  no  longer  circulating  in  natural 
force  through  the  extremities. 

The  muzzle  is  another  part  he  takes  note  of  In 
health  this  is  moist,  covered  with  "dew,"  as  the  saying 
is ;  but  in  disease,  especially  fever,  it  is  dry,  hotter  or 
colder  than  natural,  and  sometimes  changed  in  color, 
paler  or  injected  with  blood.  By  looking  at  the  flanks, 
the  regularity  of  the  respiration  is  noted,  rapid  and 
irregular  heaving  there  betraying  the  disturbance  of 
the  inifxirtant  function  of  breathing.  In  ruminants, 
also,  the  second  mastication  of  the  food  is  among  the 
first  of  the  vital  processes  to  become  disturbed  in  dis- 
ease. When  a  cow  or  an  ox  "  loses  the  cud,"  as  it  is 
called  by  herdsmen,  that  is,  ceases  to  ruminate  with- 
out apparent  cause,  there  is  sure  to  be  a  feeling  of 
sickness  about  the  animal  which  is  thus  interfering 
with  one  of  its  processes  of  digestion. 

Diseases.  The  dumb  beast,  like  his  master,  man, 
is  subject  to  a  multitude  of  physical  ailments.  This 
fact  often  becomes  a  matter  of  serious  difficulty  and 
loss  to  the  farmer.  How  to  avoid  disease  and  relieve 
the  animal  when  attacked  should  receive  no  small 
share  of  his  attention.  He  should  first  endeavor  to 
keep  his  stock  in  a  healthy  and  growing  condition,  but 
should  disease  or  accident  afflict  any  of  them  he 
should  be  prepared  to  restore  them  to  their  normal 
condition  in  the  quickest  possible  time.  This  should 
be  done  before  the  animal  becomes  run  down,  or  the 
disease  chronic.  The  object  of  this  treatise  is  to  en- 
able the  farmer  to  care  for  his  stock  properly,  and  tf) 
ward  off  disease,  and  to  cure  the  animal  when  afflicted. 
In  the  treatment  of  diseases  and  description  of  symp- 
toms we  will  not  go  into  a  learned  discussion  on  the 
nature  and  pathology  of  diseases,  but  in  the  plain- 
est and  simplest  language  describe  the  diseases  and 
the  kind  of  treatment  that  should  be  resorted  to. 
Great  care  and  attention  should  be  given  to  the  first 
symptoms,  as  also  to  good  nursing.  Discard  all  strong 
physics  and  heroic  treatment  by  purging,  bleeding  and 
the  surger}'  of  main  strength.  Good  care  and  nursing 
is  the  most  imix)rtant  means  of  cure.  Of  the  non- 
contagious and  local  diseases  every  farmer  should  seek 
to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  symptoms,  so 
that  ready  means  may  be  used  for  the  relief  of  suf- 
fering animals. 

In  treating  of  these  diseases  and  their  remedies  we 
will  begin  with  the  head. 

Infi.amm.'^tion  of  thf.  Frontal  Sinuses.  This 
disease  results  from  an  inflammation  of  the  membrane 
lining  the  cavity  called  the  frontal  sinuses,  which  ex- 
tend from  the  angle  of  the  eye  to  the  foramen  through 
which  the  brain  escapes  from  the  skull  to  the  very  tip 
of  the  horn.  The  symptoms  of  the  disease  is  a  weak 
cough  and  slight  nasal  discharge,  the  beast  becoming 
dull  and  drooping,  and  carrying  his  head  to  one  side. 
Grubs  or  worms  have  crept  up  the  nostril  and  become 
a  source  of  irritation  there,  or  common  cold  has  ex- 
tended along  the  cavity,  being  more  intense  in  some 
[jarts  than  others,  and  matter  is  generally  thrown  out 
alxjut  the  root  of  the  horns.     The  remedy  is  to  ojien 


222 


CATTLE. 


the  skin  at  the  root  of  the  horn,  or  cut  it  off  at  the 
root.  A  pint  or  more  of  pus  will  sometimes  escape, 
and  the  inflammation  will  be  relieved  by  the  bleeding 
that  follows.  The  opening  should  be  speedily  closed 
.after  the  escape  of  the  pus.  The  ox  often  suffers  from 
a  species  of  fly,  which  creeps  up  the  nose  and  lodges 
in  the  region  of  the  sinuses. 

Fracture  of  the  Horn.  If  only  the  bone  of  the 
horn  is  broken,  and  the  external  covering  is  not  dis- 
placed, nothing  is  necessary  but  to  fix  sphnts  to  the 
part,  and  bind  well  up,  so  that  the  fractured  edges 
shall  be  kept  securely  in  place,  and  healing  will  soon 
commence.  When  the  horny  covering  is  torn  off,  it 
will  be  best  to  let  nature  do  the  healing.  The  blood 
will  flow  freely,  and,  coagulating,  will  fonii  a  hard  cov- 
ering for  the  horn.  A  dense,  flexible  substance  will 
begin  to  form  at  the  base  of  the  bone,  which  will  rap- 
idly thicken  and  harden,  and  take  on  the  nature  of 
good  horn.  This  formation  gradually  grows  up  the 
bone  to  the  point  of  the  horn,  and  the  restoration  is 
thus  complete.  When  the  tearing  off  of  the  horny 
covering  fractures  the  bone,  the  broken  parts  must  be 
brought  carefully  together,  in  exact  opposition,  bound 
up,  and  confined  with  splints,  or  strong  bandages.  The 
fractured  parts  will  speedily  join,  new  horn  grow  over, 
and  scarcely  a  sign  of  the  injury  will  remain.  When 
the  bone  of  the  horn  is  wholly  separated  the  bone  will 
never  be  reproduced,  but  a  rude  mass  will  be  formed, 
half  bony  and  half  cartilaginous.  In  such  case  saw 
off  the  horn  below  the  fracture,  and  pass  a  hot  iron 
over  the  smooth  end  of  the  stub.  This  will  generally 
prevent  reproduction  of  substance.  If  slight  fonnation 
should  take  place  it  can  be  destroyed  by  cauterization. 
Bind  up  the  end  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  opera- 
tion, to.  prevent  the  ingress  of  air.  This  should  be 
done  with  several  layers  of  tar-cloth.  Thus  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain  and  lock-jaw  may  be  prevented. 

Diseases  of  the  Ear.  The  ears  of  cattle  are  not 
greatly  subject  to  disease.  The  passage  into  the  in- 
ternal ear  is  tortuous  and  guarded  with  hair.  The  ears 
of  cattle  are,  however,  much  exposed  to  contusions 
that  produce  swelling,  abscess  and  deafness.  Wash 
with  warm  water,  or  soap  and  water,  and  an  ap- 
plication of  a  weak  solution  of  Goulard,  while  much 
inflammation  remains,  and  a  still  weaker  solution  of 
alum  when  the  inflammation  has  subsided.  Simple 
inflammation  in  the  ear  is  a  rare  disease  in  cattle,  and 
is  known  by  the  animal  carrying  his  head  a  little  on 
one  side.  Bleeding  from  the  neck  vein,  a  dose  of 
physic,  and  fomentation  of  the  part,  will  usually  give 
relief;  and  afterwards  a  lotion  composed  of  a  drachm 
of  the  extract  of  lead  and  the  same  of  laudanum 
added  to  four  ounces  of  water ;  a  little  of  this  may  be 
poured  into  the  ear,  and  the  organ  gently  squeezed  so 
that  the  lotion  will  find  its  way  to  every  part  of  it. 

Itching  of  the  ear  and  dry  scurfiness,  which  causes 
it,  may  be  relieved  by  an  ointment*  composed  of  four 
pounds  of  lard,  one  of  resin,  and  one  of  calamine 
powder,  rubbed  fine.  Tumors  in  the  ear  must  be 
opened,  and  fungus  granulations  cut  down  with  a  knife. 
Nitrate  of  silver  must  be  applied  to  the  exposed  sur- 


face, and  an  alum  wash,  not  too  strong,  afterwards 
used. 

Diseases  of  the  Eve.  When  a  beast  is  wounded 
in  the  eye,  there  should  be  no  probing,  but  fomenta- 
tions, bleeding  and  physic. 

Bony  tumors  about  the  eyes  of  cattle  occasionally 
bend  toward  the  eye  and  press  upon  it,  thus  interfer- 
ing with  the  vision.  If  the  tumor  is  on  the  upper 
part  of  the  orbit,  and  is  attached  by  a  kind  of  pedicle, 
it  may  be  sawed  off  and  the  root  touched  with  the 
cautery.  These  tumors  are  often  obdurate  and  im- 
possible to  cure.  When  they  spring  from  the  back  of 
the  orbit  no  cure  can  be  effected.  When  the  eye  be- 
comes painful  and  begins  to  protrude,  the  only  course 
is  to  destroy  the  animal.  External  bony  tumors  fre- 
quently ulcerate,  and  the  bone  becomes  carious  or 
decays.  Humanity  then  dictates  the  speedy  killing  of 
the  beast. 

Cattle  are  subject  to  a  pustular  eruption  on  the 
edges  of  the  eyelids,  accompanied  sometimes  by  great 
soreness  and  ulceration.  The  first  remedy  is  the 
mild  nitrate  ointment  of  mercury,  but  it  does  not  al- 
ways yield  to  that ;  yet  on  the  approach  of  winter  it 
frequently  yields  sjxjntaneously.  It  indicates  a  foul 
habit  of  body,  and  is  often  connected  with  mange. 
Purges  of  sulphur  will  be  found  useful,  and  a  course 
of  alterative  medicine  will  do  good. 

A  "  haw,"  or  flat  piece  of  cartilage,  of  a  semi-circu- 
lar form,  is  found  in  the  corner  of  the  eye.  This  part 
is  disix)sed  to  disease,  inflammation  and  swelling 
sometimes  taking  place,  causing  the  haw  to  protrude 
over  the  eye. 

If  the  disease  is  connected  with  the  inflammation 
of  the  eye,  generally  it  will  subside  with  that  inflam- 
mation. If  the  part  itself  is  diseased,  the  zinc  lotion 
may  be  used  (2  grains  of  white  vitriol  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water,  and  the  vitriol  gradually  increased 
to  4  grains,  the  application  confined  as  much  as  pos- 
sible to  the  part,  and  the  liquid  not  suffered  to  get  to 
the  sound  part  of  the  eye).  A  perseverance  in  the 
zinc  wash  will  work  marvels.  If  it  becomes  necessary 
to  extirpate  the  part,  the  beast  must  be  cast.  Keep 
open  the  eye  with  the  fingers,  pass  a  needle  threaded 
with  strong  silk  through  the  cartilage,  and  draw  out 
the  part  as  far  as  possible,  and  then  with  a  pair  of 
crooked  scissors  the  haw  may  be  removed.  Proper 
care  will  restore  the  part  to  soundness. 

To  cure  ophthalmia,  give  bleeding  and  physic  as  the 
constitutional  treatment,  and  fomentations,  cold  lo- 
tions, opium  in  tincture,  saturnine  lotions,  as  local 
applications,  the  opium  during  the  acute  stage,  the 
lead  as  soon  as  the  inflammation  begins  to  subside, 
and  the  zinc  when  the  inflammation  is  nearly  sub- 
dued. 

Abortion.  Abortion  may  be  said  to  take  place  in 
cows  when  the  foetus  is  expelled  35  days  before  the 
normal  period.  It  may  occur  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
and  is  much  more  common  during  the  first  half  of 
the  normal  period  than  during  the  latter. 

Symptoms.  The  cow,in  this  condition,  is  somewhat 
off  her  feed,  she  is  listless  and  dull,  the  milk  dimin- 


CATTLE. 


223 


ishes  or  dries  up,  the  motion  of  the  foetus  becomes 
more  feeble,  and  at  length  ceases  altogether,  there  is 
a  slight  degree  of  enlargement  of  the  belly;  and 
a  little  staggering  in  her  walk.  As  the  abortion  ap- 
proaches, a  yellow  or  red  glairy  fluid  runs  from  the 
vagina  (this  is  a  symptom  which  rarely  or  never  de- 
ceives), her  breathing  becomes  laborious  and  slightly 
convulsive.  At  length  labor  comes  on,  and  is  often 
attended  with  much  difficulty.  Among  the  causes 
may  be  mentioned  fright,  blows,  falls,  overdriving, 
the  eating  of  grain,  hay  or  grasses  containing  ergot, 
nauseating  smells,  mow-burned  or  rusty  hay,  etc.  A 
cow  that  has  once  aborted  is  liable  to  do  so  again. 
When  a  cow  in  a  herd  has  aborted,  others  are  liable 
to  follow.  Remove  the  aborting  cow,  together  with 
the  calf  and  the  afterbirth,  from  the  field  or  stable, 
and  disinfect  the  stall  with  chloride  of  lime  or  a 
strong  solution  of  cojjperas.  With  a  view  of  preven- 
tion it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  cause.  If  due  to 
ergot,  grass,  or  otlier  deleterious  plants,  remove  the 
cows  to  other  pasturage.  When  due  to  musty  or  bad 
hay,  discontinue  its  use. 

The  bull  should  not  go  loose  among  cows  that  are 
in  calf.  The  f«tus  tnust  be  got  rid  of  urmieiUately.  It 
should  be  buried  deep,  and  far  from  the  cow  pasture. 
Proper  means  should  be  taken  to  hasten  the  expulsion 
of  the  placenta.  A  dose  of  physic  should  be  given ; 
ergot  of  rye  administered,  the  hand  should  be  intro- 
duced, and  an  effort  made,  cautiously  and  gently,  to 
detach  the  placenta.  The  parts  of  the  cow  should  be 
well  washed  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  or 
carbolic  acid,  which  should  be  injected  up  the  vagina, 
and  also  given  internally.  The  cow  when  beginning 
to  recover,  should  be  fattened  and  sold.  This  is  the 
first  and  grand  step  toward  the  prevention  of  abortion, 
and  he  is  unwise  who  does  not  immediately  adopt  it. 
Should  the  owner  be  reluctant  to  part  with  her,  two 
months,  at  least,  should  pass  before  she  is  permitted 
to  return  to  her  companions. 

Anbury  or  Angle  Berry,  a  sort  of  fleshy  ex- 
crescence to  which  cattle  and  some  other  animals 
are  subject  under  different  circumstances,  and  are 
supposed  to  proceed  from  a  rupture  of  the  cutaneous 
vessels,  which  give  vent  to  a  matter  capable  df  form- 
ing a  sarcoma  or  fleshy  excrescence.  They  frequently 
appear  upon  the  belly  and  adjacent  parts  hanging 
down  in  a  perpendicular  manner  and  may  be  removed 
by  means  of  ligatures  being  passed  around  their  base 
or  by  the  knife.  After  removal,  apply  caustic  to 
effectually  destroy  the  parts  from  which  they  arise. 

Apoplexy.  This  is  a  determination  of  blood  to  the 
head.  Animals  attacked  with  this  disease  are  gener- 
ally in  a  plethoric  condition.  The  usual  symptoms 
are  coma  (a  sleepy  state),  eyes  protruding,  respiration 
accelerated ;  finally  the  animal  falls,  struggles  and 
dies. 

Treatment.  Treat  the  case,  by  way  of  prevention, 
with  low  diet.  No  treatment,  however  well  directed,  is 
of  any  use  when  the  disease  has  once  manifested  itself 
Life  is  prolonged  a  few  hours  by  blood-letting,  but  no 
cure  can  be  effected. 


Aphthte  or  Thrush.  This  is  an  eruption  in  the 
mouth  similar  to  small  bladders,  and  is  often  mistaken 
for  a  contag^ious  disease  called  epizootic  aphthae.  The 
cause  is  irritation  in  the  mouth  of  young  cattle  from 
teething. 

Treatment.  If  treatment  is  at  all  necessary  a  weak 
mixture  of  vinegar  and  cold  water  will  answer,  or  a 
solution  of  alum  (alum  water)  applied  to  the  mouth 
twice  a  day,  will  be  all  that  is  needed. 

Black-Leg,  Joint  Felon,  Quarter  Evil.  A  ma- 
lignant and  rapidly  fatal  disease,  the  first  symptoms 
of  which  are  lameness,  sometimes  in  the  fore,  some- 
times in  the  hind  leg ;  puffy  and  blood-shot  swelling 
of  the  shoulder  or  hinder  parts,  as  though  the  animal 
had  been  beaten  with  a  heavy,  dull  instrument. 
Young  steers,  up  to  the  age  of  three  years,  are  most 
liable  to  the  disease,  particularly  those  which  have  be- 
come suddenly  fat.  The  great  difference  between  the 
temperature  during  the  day  and  night  at  this  season 
favors  the  development  of  the  disease.  The  cattle 
should  be  removed  to  an  elevated  dry  ground.  If 
the  hay  fed  is  from  marshy  groimd,  or  from  ground  uixsn 
which  animals  have  recently  died,  it  should  be  re- 
placed by  hay  you  are  sure  contains  no  traces  of  the 
disease.  The  water  supplied  should  be  pure  and 
sweet,  and  not  derived  from  surface  drainage  nor 
charged  with  decomposing  organic  matter.  The  hay 
should  be  sprinkled  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
to  the  amount  of  i  dram  of  the  acid  daily  to  each 
animal.  The  following  draught  may  be  given  night 
and  morning  for  some  time  :  Nitro-muriatic  acid,  60 
drops ;  iodide  of  potassium,  ^  dram ;  water,  i  pint. 
Should  the  nights  be  cool,  it  might  be  advisable  to 
provide  comfortable  sheds  for  the  stock. 

Black  Tongue:  see  Bloody  Murrain. 

Black  Water.  This  is  an  exaggerated  stage  of  what 
is  known  as  Red  Water,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

Blain,  Anthrax,  Glossitis.  When  bloody  mur- 
rain attacks  the  tongue  it  is  called  blain.  In  the  case 
of  blain  it  is  recommended  to  open  the  pustules  freely 
from  end  to  end,  with  a  sharp  lancet,  before  the  ix)i- 
son  has  been  absorbed.  Treat  the  same  surface  freely 
with  the  following:  20  grains  of  chloride  of  lime,  i 
ounce  water:  Mop  the  parts  freely.  Sulphuric  or 
nitric  acid,  nitrate  of  mercury,  lunar  caustic  and  other 
strong  caustics  are  equally  good.  When  it  may  be 
accomplished,  burning  with  a  hot  iron  is  advised. 

Bloody  Murrain.  Contagious  anthrax,  known 
also  as  charbon,  black  leg,  black  tjuarter,  black  tongue 
— is  so  called  because  the  parts  turn  black,  owing  to 
decomposition  of  the  blood.  It  arises  undoubtedly 
from  contagion,  eating  bad  food,  pasturing  on  swamp 
lands  in  summer,  drinking  stagnant  water,  etc.  What- 
ever the  poison,  it  is  certain  that  it  has  wonderful 
tenacity  of  life ;  every  part  of  the  animal  will  carry  it, 
even  the  excrement.  Flies  will  carry  it ;  a  yoke  worn 
by  a  deceased  ox  retains  it.  Even  alcohol  is  said  not 
to  be  able  to  kill  the  poison.  Fortunately  it  rarely 
occurs  in  its  truly  malignant  form.  There  are  many 
types  of  the  disease,  attacking  particular  parts.  In  the 
tongue  it  is  known  as  black  tongue,  or  blain ;  in  the 


^^^=^^1=^=1^ 


CATTLM. 


225 


throat  as  putrid  sore  throat.  When  it  attacks  the 
bowels  it  is  called  Bloody  Murrain. 

In  this  disease  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  its 
malignant  form  it  attacks  not  only  cattle  and  horses, 
but  all  the  other  herbivora,  swine  and  birds.  It  is 
communicable  to  other  and  different  animals  by  inoc- 
ulation, showing  itself  in  different  forms,  but  all  char- 
acterized l)y  the  breaking  down  of  the  globules,  rupture 
of  tissues  and  letting  out  blood  and  albuminous  fluids, 
with  gangrene,  yellow  or  brown  mucous  membrane, 
enlargement  and  sometimes  rupture  of  the  spleen,  and 
a  very  high  death  rate. 

Preventives.  Uixin  the  first  intimation  of  the 
disease  the  animals  of  the  herd  should  be  removed 
to  clean,  new  pasture,  where  there  is  pure  water. 
Avoid  all  bleeding,  purging,  and  lowering  medicines. 
The  animals  must  be  kept  up.  So  all  local  applica- 
tions to  the  swellings  seem  useless.  A  seton,  com- 
posed of  a  yard  of  broad,  coarse  tape,  inserted  in  the 
dewlaps,  turned  every  day  and  smeared  with  irritating 
ointment,  might  prove  beneficial.  This  should  re- 
main in  from  four  to  six  weeks.  Youatt  and  others 
advise  the  following:  2  to  4  drachms  chloride  of 
lime,  I  ounce  prepared  chalk,  2  drachms  laudanum. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  pint  of  warm  gruel  every  two  or 
three  hours. 

Recent  French  authors,  in  treating  the  malignant 
form  of  the  disease,  recommend  tiuinine,  i  or  2 
drachms,  repeated  every  two  or  three  hours  in  severe 
cases.  Also  hy[X)dermic  injections  of  a  solution  of 
iodine  as  follows:  2  grains  iodine,  5  grains  iodide  of 
potassium,  i  ounce  water. 

Use  a  syringe  full  every  hour  in  severe  cases.  In 
extreme  ones,  it  is  advised  that  this  be  thrown  directly 
into  the  veins;  also  that  the  strength  be  kept  up  by 
stimulants ;  among  those  recommended  most  strongly 
is  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

Bronchitis.  This  is  inflammation  of  the  wind- 
pipe, extending  often  to  the  lungs  themselves. 
Bronchitis,  and  throat  and  chest  diseases  in  cattle, 
are  insidious  and  deceptive,  for  the  ox  does  not,  even 
under  the  mo=t  severe  forms  of  these,  exhibit  fever, 
high  pulse,  irritation,  loss  of  appetite,  etc.,  which 
are  shown  at  once  when  attacking  the  horse. 
Not  until  the  disease  has  made  considerable 
progress  does  the  ox  or  cow  show  symptoms 
of  disease.  Careful  observation  and  close  attention 
is  demanded  on  the  part  of  farmers  to  discover  the 
early  symptoms  of  this  disease.  When  anything  in 
the  least  unusal  is  discovered,  such  as  a  very  sUght 
grating  sound  in  the  windpipe  when  the  ear  is  stead- 
ily applied,  the  cow  should  immediately  have  some 
iron,  or  tonic  jxiwders,  and  all  will  be  well  in  a  few 
days.  Fanners,  if  you  study  the  sounds  in  the  wind- 
pipe, both  in  the  sick  and  well  animal,  then  you  will 
not  only  be  able  to  detect  those  insidious  diseases  in 
the  beginning,  but  can  apply  the  remedy  also.  In 
this  way  you  can  prove  to  your  neighbors  that  cattle 
diseases  are  not  so  difficult  to  cure  after  all ;  and  while 
they  are  brooding  with  sour,  sullen  minds  ov<;r  their 
losses,  and  the  ignorance  and  inefficiency  of  cow  doc- 


tors,  you   have  obtained  a  mastery  of  the  situatioa 

Bronchitis  is  a  disease  which  rarely  attacks  one 
animal  only,  but  usually  most  of  the  herd  will  have 
been  attacked  before  it  leaves  the  place,  and  then  it 
will  leave  when  there  are  no  more  victims  to  seize. 
These  epizootic  diseases  depend  upon  what  is  called 
atmospheric  causes.  Such  conditions  are  usually  mani, 
fested  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  sometimes 
early  in  the  summer.  The  peculiarity  of  the  air  causes 
irritation  of  the  fauces,  the  mouth,  throat  or  wind- 
pipe, and,  as  before  stated,  sometimes  extends  to  the 
chest  and  lungs  themselves. 

Symptoms.  In  a  week  or  so  after  the  attack,  a 
slight  husky  cough,  with  weeping  from  the  eyes,  and  a 
watery  discharge  from  the  inner  corner  of  the  nose, 
will  be  seen;  and  by  applying  the  ear  to  the  course  of 
the  windpipe,  a  slightly  rough  and  grating  sound 
will  be  heard.  This  sound,  however,  can  be  heard 
in  twelve  hours  after  the  attack.  According  to  the 
amount  of  serum  jwured  out,  and  whether  the  cow  be 
in  calf,  and  how  far  she  is  gone  in  calf,  so  will  the 
quickness  and  depth  of  the  breathing  be.  Bronchitis 
is  a  forerunner  of  pleuro-pneumonia. 

Treatment.  If  the  disease  is  discovered  within 
48  hours  from  the  attack,-  take  from  four  to  five  doses 
of  the  tincture  of  aconite  root,  25  drops  to  a  dose, 
and  give  one  dose  every  four  hours.  If  there  be  un- 
certainty as  to  whether  the  disease  has  extended 
longer  or  shorter,  to  save  time,  the  aconite  may  be 
given  along  with  the  following  powders,  three  times 
in  the  day:  Powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  3  drachms; 
[xjwdered  gentian  root,  half  an  ounce;  powdered  gin- 
ger root,  half  an  ounce;  powdered  sulphate  of  soda, 
half  an  ounce ;  mix,  and  make  a  drench,  to  be  poured 
down  the  mouth  out  of  a  strong  bottle.  This  medi- 
cine is  to  l)e  continued  (omitting  the  aconite  after  the 
fifth  dose)  till  the  animal  is  well,  or  looks  brighter, 
and  eats  all  it  gets.  If  it  be  a  milch  cow,  the  usual 
cjuantity  will  be  given.  In  addition  to  the  above 
medicines,  give,  once  or  twice  daily,  half  an  ounce 
of  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  largely  diluted  or 
mixed  in  half  a  bucket  of  cold  water.  In  feed- 
ing, care  should  be  taken  not  to  give  too  much, 
so  as  to  bring  on  dangerous  indigestion.  Cold  water 
and  pure  air  are  indispensable  agents  in  the  treat- 
ment of  this  and  all  diseases  of  horses  and  cattle. 

Choking  is  most  commonly  brought  about  by  the 
cows  feeding  on  roots,  especially  round  and  uncut  ones, 
such  as  the  potato. 

If  not  too  large,  the  obstruction  may  often  be  re- 
moved by  the  introduction  of  a  hollow,  flexible  tube. 
If  low  down,  a  pint  of  linseed  or  olive  oil  will  aid 
the  operation,  which  must  be  very  cautiously  performed 
for  fear  of  lacerating  the  gullet.  In  case  of  great 
swelling,  a  dose  of  chloride  of  lime  or  ammonia 
should  be  given  after  the  removal  of  the  obstruction. 


Fig.  35. — Probang. 


When  a  cow  is  choked  with  a  nubbin  of  corn,  tur- 
nip, pumpkin  rind,  or  any  other  thing,  the  obstructing 


226 


CATTLE. 


article  should  be  pushed  down  into  the  paunch  with  a 
probang  (Fig.  35),  which  is  simply  a  wooden  rod  with 
a  cup-shaped  excavation  at  the  end  opix)site  the  han- 
dle.    One  should  be  kept  at  hand  on  the  premises. 

Consumption.  This  aflfection  is  the  termination  of 
the  chronic  disease  of  the  lungs.  These  organs  be- 
come filled  with  many  little  cysts,  or  sacs,  containing 
a  yellowish-white  fluid,  which  in  time  is  hardened, 
producing  a  condition  of  the  lungs  known  as  tubercu- 
lous. These  tubercles  in  time  undergo  another  change, 
becoming  soft  in  the  center  and  gradually  involving  the 
whole  of  the  hardened  parts,  which,  uniting  with  ad- 
joining ones,  soon  form  cysts  of  considerable  size. 
Like  consumption  in  individuals,  it  is  very  seldom,  if 
ever,  cured,  and  it  is  better  if  the  animal  is  not  too 
ixwr  in  flesh,  to  have  it  slaughtered. 

CoRYZA,  or  nasal  catarrh,  commonly  called  a  cold 
in  the  head,  is  not  very  common  among  cows.  The 
animal  will  be  observed  to  sneeze  often  ;  cough  some- 
times accompanies ;  there  is  also  a  discharge  from  the 
nose.  Neglect  to  attend  to  these  early  symptoms  fre- 
quently qccasions  disease  of  a  more  serious  nature ;  in 
fact,  coryza  may  be  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of  all 
epizootic,  pulmonary  disorders. 

Treatment.  The  animal  should  be  kept  on  a 
low  diet  for  a  few  days;  the  nostrils  occasionally 
steamed,  and  one  of  the  following  powders  given  night 
and  morning,  which,  in  most  cases,  will  be  all  the  med- 
icine required:  nitrate  of  potassa,  i  ounce;  digitalis 
leaves  pulverized  and  tartrate  of  antimony,  of  each 
I  drachm;  sulphate  of  copper,  2  drachms;  mix  and 
divide  into  eight  jwwders.  Should  the  disease  prove 
obstinate,  give  for  two  or  three  days  2  ounces  of  Epsom 
salts  at  a  dose,  dissolved  in  water,  three  times  a  day. 

Cow-Pox.  This  is  a  simple  affection  of  the  skin  of 
the  udder,  which  has  claimed  much  notice  on  account 
of  the  valuable  benefit  conferred  by  it  upon  the  human 
family,  in  furnishing  the  material  for  vaccination.  The. 
cause  of  this  disease  is  at  present  unknown.  It  is  a 
contagious  eruption,  running  a  fixed  course,  and  ac- 
companied by  slight  fever. 

Symptoms.  Teats  painful,  slightly  swollen,  a  faint 
blush  upon  the  udder,  and  in  about  three  to  four  days 
red,  hard  spots  are  seen,  succeeded  by  red  patches, 
which,  in  from  a  few  days  to  a  week,  form  bladders 
containing  the  true  vaccine  lymph.. 

Treatment.  Foment  the  teats  well  with  warm  water 
and  Castile  soap,  after  which,  wipe  the  bag  dry,  and 
dress  with  citrine  ointment.  Iodine  is  also  recom- 
mended ;  or,  to  I  pint  of  glycerine  add  i  drachm 
of  fluid  carbolic  acid. 

Croup.  Stridulous  croup  in  animals  is  rare,  but  it 
is  seen  occasionally  in  milch  cows,  and  is  very  fatal, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  situated  in  the  larynx,  which 
speedily  causes  suffocation,  unless  the  windpipe  be 
opened  with  a  knife  to  admit  of  the  act  of  respiration 
till  the  swelling  of  the  head  of  the  windpipe  has 
passed  off". 

Cause.  Cold  attacking  the  head  of  the  windpipe, 
followed  by  inflammation,  and  the  development  of  false 
membranes. 


Symptoms.  Loud,  stridulous  noise  or  murmur,  quick- 
ened breathing,  fever,  and  threatening  suffocation  of 
the  animal,  cough  and  distress. 

Treatment.  Place  the  animal  in  the  open  air,  if  in 
summer  time,  in  the  shade,  and  give  aconite,  in  the 
form  of  tincture,  25  drops  to  a  dose.  This  will  allay 
the  excitement,  fever  and  irritation.  If  this  gives  re- 
lief, rejieat  the  dose  in  a  few  hours  again.  But  on  the 
contrary,  there  being  no  relief  in  half  an  hour,  give 
no  more  aconite,  nor  indeed  anything  else.  There  will 
be  but  one  of  three  things  to  be  done ;  either  to  kill 
the  beast,  if  it  be  in  good  condition,  and  fit  for  market ; 
or  wait  for  the  animal  to  die,  or  have  the  boldness  to 
cut  out  a  hole  in  the  windpipe,  about  the  middle,  on 
the  front  of  the  neck.  In  case  the  latter  is  preferred, 
tighten  the  skin  on  the  front  of  the  windpipe,  and 
make  a  clean  cut  far  down  the  center,  and  through 
the  skin ;  when  the  white,  shining  windpipe  is  brought 
to  view,  have  an  assistant  to  hold  the  edge  of  the  skin 
back  out  of  the  way,  till  a  hole  is  cut  out  of  the  car- 
tilages of  the  tube,  as  large  as  a  fifty-cent  piece.  This 
will  give  instantaneous  relief  The  hole  will  gradually 
fill  up,  and  close  again  without  any  trouble  whatever. 

Cud,  Loss  of.  In  most  internal  diseases  of  cattle, 
the  functions  of  the  organs  of  digestion  become  more 
or  less  impaired,  whereby  the  natural  act  of  re-masti- 
cation, more  commonly  known  as  "  chewing  of  the 
cud,"  becomes  temporarily  suspended,  and  which  is 
called  "  losing  the  cud."  Treatment  must  necessarily 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  ailment  which  produces 
this  symptom  of  impaired  digestive  functions.  The 
treating  or  attempting  to  treat  one  of  the  symptoms 
of  any  disease,  which  may  be  remote  from  the  diges- 
tive organs,  would  lead  to  nothing  but  loss  of  time 
and  risk  of  the  life  of  the  animal,  if  the  original  dis- 
ease happens  to  be  a  serious  one.  The  administra- 
,tion  of  a  laxative  dose  of  salts  would  in  most  cases 
prove  beneficial,  and  at  all  events  would  do  no  harm, 
such  as  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  a  quart 
of  hot  water,  and  to  which  solution  may  be  added  a 
pint  of  molasses  and  an  ounce  of  ground  ginger. 

Diarrhoea  is  brought  on  by  a  sudden  change 
from  dry  to  green  food,  sometimes  by  impure  water  or 
poisonous  plants.  If  slight,  it  need  not  be  checked ; 
if  prolonged,  a  mild  purgative  may  assist  nature.  A 
few  ounces  of  pulverized  charcoal  will  sometimes 
check  diarrhcea.  Half  a  pound  of  Epsom  salts,  with 
a  little  gentian  and  ginger,  will  be  sufficient  for  a  mod- 
erate-sized animal.  This  may  be  followed  in  a  day 
or  two  by  an  astringent  composed  of  2  drachms  of 
powdered  catechu,  i  drachm  powdered  opium,  4 
drachms  of  powdered  ginger,  i  ounce  of  powdered 
oak  bark,  and  2  ounces  of  prepared  chalk.  Mix  to- 
gether and  give  in  a  quart  of  warm  gruel. 

Dysentery.  This,  when  seated,  is  a  troublesome  and 
dangerous  disease.  The  cow  strains  painfully  to  pass 
her  dung.  This  is  slimy,  thin,  olive-colored  and  offens- 
ive. Bubbles  form  on  the  top,  carrying  slime  on  them. 
The  animal  is  quite  restless.  When  the  hair  stands 
out  from  the  body  the  disease  is  generally  fatal.  It  is 
frequently  brought  on  by  poor  feeding  in   the   winter 


K 
W 


k- 


CATTLE. 


229 


and  exposure  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature. 
Good  nursing  is  needed,  and  much  the  same  treatment 
as  in  the  case  of  diarrhoja. 

Enteritis.  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  exter- 
nal or  internal  coat  of  the  intestines,  sometimes  at- 
tended with  violent  purging,  especially  when  it  is  con- 
fined to  the  internal  coats.  Oxen  in  good  condition 
are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than  are  cows.  It 
most  frequently  occurs  in  dry,  hot  weather. 

Symptoms.  The  animal  is  dull  and  not  disposed  to 
move  about ;  the  muzzle  is  dry,  and  the  coat  staring  ; 
the  animal  yields,  on  pressure  of  the  loins ;  a  weak, 
staggering  gait  when  forced  to  move  ;  eyes  red,  full  and 
fiery;  head  protruding ;  mouth,  ears  and  horns  hot ;  ap- 
petite bad;-  the  bowels  become  constipated,  the  ani- 
mal moans  continually  and  froths  at  the  mouth.  Cause, 
exposure  to  cold,  or  drinking  cold  water  when  over- 
heated with  work ;  exposure  to  hard  work  in  sultry 
weather;  the  use  of  stagnant,  impure  water;  the 
crowding  of  animals  into  a  confined  place. 

Treatment.  First  give  30  drops  of  tincture  of  aco- 
nite every  four  hours  for  one  day,  then  give  i  ounce  of 
cardamom,  i  ounce  of  sulphuric  ether,  i  ounce  of 
tincture  of  gum  catechu,  i  ounce  of  pulverized  chalk, 
I  ounce  of  charcoal,  in  linseed  tea.  In  severe  cases 
of  purgation  r  ounce  of  barberry  bark  may  be  occa- 
sionally added. 

Epizootic  Aphthae,  although  a  contagious  febrile 
disease  occurring  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and  communi- 
cable by  transmission  to  swine  and  even  man,  it  is 
fortunately  rarely  fatal,  and  is  characterized  in  animals 
by  an  eruption  of  small  blisters  in  the  mouth,  between 
the  clefts  of  the  hoofs,  and  along  the  upper  margin  of 
the  coronet.  It  is  a  specific  poision  of  obscure  origin, 
remaining  in  the  system  from  one  to  four  days  before 
producing  its  characteristic  symptoms. 

Symptoms.  There  is  an  increase  of  temperature  in 
the  lx)dy,  followed  by  an  eruption  of  small  blisters,  of 
the  size  of  a  dime,  situated  on  the  tongue,  the  roof  of 
the  mouth,  inside  the  lips,  and  occasionally  on  the 
udder.  The  blisters  in  the  cleft  of  the  hoofs  and 
around  the  coronet  and  heels,  are  identical  with  the 
others,  but  smaller,  diseases  of  this  class  have  the 
same  relation  with  inferior  animals  that  epidemic  dis- 
eases have  to  man.  They  occur  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  but  more  generally  prevail  in  the  spring  and  fall. 
The  period  of  their  duration  varies  from  months  to 
years.  They  are  at  times  mild  in  their  attacks,  and 
yield  readily  to  proper  treatment.  At  other  times 
they  become  painful  pestilences,  destroying  everything 
in  their  course  when  once  fairly  established  in  a  place. 
It  is  almost  a  certainty  that  all  cattle  will  take  it,  some 
developing  it  sooner  than  others.  To  save  time  and 
expense,  immediately  inoculate  every  one  of  them. 
By  producing  the  disease  in  this  way  a  week  or  two 
will  see  the  last  of  it,  and  by  good  care  not  much  time 
or  loss  will  have  been  incurred.  The  milk  of  cows 
affected  with  this  disease  is  jxjison.  Calves  by  drink- 
ing such  milk  will  perish  in  great  numbers. 

Treatment.  Apply  to  the  sores  a  lotion  of  2  drachms 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  i  pint  of  water. 


Foul  in  the  Foot.  Foul  Claw.  A  local  affec- 
tion, consisting  of  sores  or  ulcers,  first  appearing  be- 
tween the  claws.  Sometimes  a  swelling  shows  itself 
near  the  top  of  the  hoof.  The  cruel  practice  of  draw- 
ing a  rope  back  and  forth  over  the  affected  parts  ought 
to  be  abandoned.  A  knife  is  all  that  is  needed  to  re- 
move the  loose  matter;  the  parts  should  then  be  care- 
fully washed  with  a  sponge.  Where  the  case  has  been 
allowed  to  go  far,  and  the  pasterns  are  tender  and 
swollen,  the  parts  should  be  dressed  with  an  oint- 
ment comjxjsed  of  i  part  of  sulphate  of  iron  to  4  parts 
of  molasses.  Apply  on  cotton  batting  and  tie  over 
the  affected  parts.  If  there  is  any  fungus  or  other 
morbid  growth,  sprinkle  equal  parts  of  alum  and  pow- 
dered bloodroot  on  the  sore.  Some  administer  a  dose 
made  of  2  ounces  of  burdock,  1  of  powdered  sassa- 
fras bark  and  ]4  an  ounce  flowers  of  sulphur.  Steep 
in  boiling  water,  and  when  cool,  strain.  If  the  flow 
of  {)us  is  not  checked,  wash,  morning  and  evening, 
with  solution  of  i  tablesjxaonful  of  common  salt  in  i 
pint  of  water.  Or,  take  oil  of  tar  and  tincture  of 
arnica,  4  ounces  each,  and  i  drachm  of  carbolic  acid, 
fluid,  mix  well  and  apply  three  times  a  day. 

Garget  is  an  inflammation  of  the  internal  substance 
of  the  udder.  One  or  more  teats,  or  whole  sections  of 
the  udder,  become  enlarged  and  thickened,  hot,  tender 
and  painful.  The  milk  coagulates  in  the  bag,  and 
wherever  dejwsited,  causes  inflammation  accompanied 
with  fever.  It  is  most  frequently  met  with  in  young 
cows  after  calving,  especially  when  they  are  in  too  high 
condition.  The  secretion  of  milk  falls  off,  and  in  some 
cases  stops  altogether.  The  milk  is  sometimes  thick 
and  bloody.  In  severe  cases,  the  hind  extremities,  as 
the  hip-joint,  hock  or  fetlock,  are  swollen  and  inflamed 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  animal  cannot  rise.  In  mild 
cases,  the  simplest  remedy  is  to  put  the  calf  to  its 
mother  several  times  a  day.  By  restoring  the  flow  of 
milk  this  will  often  remove  the  congestion.  Sometimes 
the  udder  is  so  swollen  that  the  cow  will  not  let  the  calf 
suck.  If  the  fever  increases,  the  appetite  fails  and 
rumination  or  cud-chewing  ceases.  When  this  is  the 
case  a  skillful  veterinary  surgeon  should  be  called  in. 
Usually,  in  mild  cases,  a  purgative  and  frequent  wash- 
ing of  the  udder  dispel  the  trouble.  The  physic  should 
consist  of  I  [xjund  of  Epsom  salts,  %  an  ounce  of  gin- 
ger, yi  an  ounce  of  nitrate  of  potash,  dissolved  in  a  quart 
of  boiling  water ;  add  a  gill  of  molasses  and  give  to  the 
cow  lukewarm.  The  diet  should  be  moderate :  bran 
and,  in  summer,  green  food.  The  udder  should  be  fre- 
quently examined  and  any  matter  found  forming  there 
be  at  once  released.  The  causes  to  which  this  disease 
is  most  frequently  attributed  are  :  exjxjsure  to  cold  and 
wet,  or  want  of  proper  care  and  attention  to  the  cow 
during  parturition.  Hasty  drying  up  of  a  cow  often 
gives  rise  to  inflammation  and  hardness  of  the  udder, 
which  is  found  difficult  to  remove.  Another  is  failure 
to  milk  a  cow  clean. 

Treatment.  While  the  cow  is  suffering  from  this  com- 
plaint, the  calf  should  be  permitted  to  run  with  her 
often,  and  the  cow  milked  as  clean  as  jx)ssible  at  least 
twice  a  day.     In  case  the  udder  is  feverish  and  hot,  a 


230 


CATTLE. 


wash  may  be  used,  2  ounces  of  camphorated  spirit 
and  8  ounces  of  vinegar;  the  whole  thoroughly  mixed 
and  applied  just  after  milking  and  washed  off  care- 
fully before  milking  again.  In  extreme  cases,  iodine 
ointment,  containing  i  drachm  of  hydriodateofixjtash  to 
an  ounce  of  lard,  well  mixed,  may  be  used.  A  piece 
the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg  to  twice  that  amount  should 
be  well  rubbed  into  the  swollen  parts,  morning  and 
night.  When  milk  forms  in  the  bag  before  calving,  so 
as  to  swell  the  udder,  it  should  be  milked  away ;  a  neg- 
lect of  this  precaution  frequently  leads  to  violent  attacks 
of  garget.  The  liability  to  this  disease  engendered  by 
the  mixing  of  the  old  milk  with  the  new  secretion  is 
one  of  the  main  reasons  for  letting  the  cow  run  dry  a 
month  or  so  before  calving,  if  there  is  any  likelihood 
of  an  attack  from  the  opposite  course  being  followed. 
Fat  induced  by  high  feeding  after  drying  off  is  a  fre- 
quent cause  of  this  disease  ;  it  should,  therefore,  be 
avoided. 

Gastro-Enteritis  arises  from  eating  the  buds  of 
oak,  young  ash  and  other  trees  which  are  of  a  very 
highly  stimulating  or  irritating  character. 

Symptoms.  Lx)ss  of  appetite  and  suspended  rumin- 
ation ;  mouth  hot  and  frothy ;  skin  dry ;  pulse  from  60 
to  70;  swelling  and  pain  of  the  belly;  faeces  hard 
and  covered  with  blood ;  urine  of  a  strong  odor,  highly 
colored. 

Treatment.  Bleed  and  administer  a  strong  purga- 
tive. Follow  by  aconite  and  belladonna  as  in  enteritis. 
Injection  of  Castile  soap  and  water  should  be  used  ;  also 
mustard,  hartshorn  and  water  to  the  belly. 

HoosE  IN  Calves.  This  is  a  common  disease  in 
breeding  districts,  and  is  very  fatal  in  its  results,  at- 
tacking young  calves.    It  is  a  parasitic  disease. 

Cause.  The  presence  of  minute  worms  in  the 
bronchial  tubes.  These  worms  are  called  filaria 
bronchi,  and  inhabit  the  windpipe  of  cattle,  sheep 
and  lambs. 

Prevention.  Keep  calves,  sheep  and  lambs  on  dry 
land,  where  there  is  no  marsh,  wet   land   or  meadow. 

Symptoms.  Constant  husky  cough;  difficulty  in 
breathing;  emaciation,  and  loss  of  appetite.  Thus 
tiie  disease  goes  on  from  bad  to  worse,  until  death  takes 
place  in  from  two  to  three  weeks,  depending  much, 
however,  upon  the  age  of  the  beast. 

Treatment.  Linseed  oil,  2  ounces ;  oil  or  spirits  of 
turpentine,  j4  an  ounce;  mix  these  well  together 
This  dose  is  for  a  calf  six  months  old.  It  should 
be  repeated  every  two  days.  Give  the  calves  good 
feed,  such  as  oil  cake,  etc.  Another  form,  and  a  good 
one,  which  is  generally  used  in  sheep  to  save  expense 
and  trouble,  is  to  get  them  together,  and  drive  them 
into  a  pretty  close  house  or  shed,  no  larger  than  will 
hold  all  tlie  affected  ones.  Then  procure  an  earthen 
bowl  or  basin,  containing  one  ounce  each  of  common 
saltandoxide  of  manganese,  and  pour  over  this  mixture, 
say,  water,  ^  an  ounce;  sulphuric  acid,  i}^  ounces; 
stir  with  a  stick,  and  chlorine  gas  will  be  evolved. 
When  sufficiently  stirred,  leave  the  place  and  close  the 
door.  Repeat  the  inhalation  for  two  or  three  times, 
and  let  two  days  pass  before  each  subsequent  inhala- 


tion. If  the  animal  is  much  weakened  by  the  para- 
sites, mix  caraway  and  fenugreek  in  their  feed,  of 
each  a  quarter  of  an  ounce,  once  a  day  for  a  week 
or  so. 

Hoove,  or  Hoven,  in  Cattle,  is  flatulent  colic 
and  caused  by  eating  too  much  wet  grass,  especially 
clover.  Fermentation  takes  place  and  generates  car- 
bonic acid  gas  in  large  quantities,  and  if  not  relieved 
speedily,  will  end  fatally  in  a  few  hours.  To  get  rid 
of  the  gas,  give  every  half  hour :  i  ounce  chloride  lime, 
I  ounce  hypo-sulphite  soda,  i  qt.  water.  The  common 
soda  will  do  where  the  hypo-sulphite  can  not  be  pro- 
cured. If  this  fails  to  give  relief,  which  it  seldom  will, 
resort  must  be  had  to  the  trocar.  Fig.  36,  which  every 
farmer  should  be  provided  with. 

Thrust  it  into  the  left  flank 
half  way  between  the  short 
ribs  and  the  haunch  bone, 
and  midway  from  the  top  of 
the  back  to  the  belly.  A 
common  knife  will  do  in  the 
absence  of  the  trocar.  Fig.  34 
represents  a  hyjwdermic  syr- 
inge and  canula,  with  the  tro- 
car. 

Inflammation  of  t  h  e 
Bladder.  The  symptoms 
of  this  disease  are  frequent 
efforts  to  stale,  passing  but 
few  drops  of  urine  at  a  time  ; 
pulse  full  and  rapid ;  eyes 
bloodshot ;  appe  t  i  t  e  lost; 
moaning,  and  walking  with  a 

f^mfmoL.   Trf-  staggering  gait. 
^MHwH^  Ma.      Treatment.     Inject  into  the 
^^Hhf^    iu     bladder  one  quart  tepid  water, 
^y  O     and  from  one  to  two  ounces 

of  tincture  of  opium  mixed 
together  in  slippery  elm  bark 
water.  Give  internally  one 
of  the  following  powders 
every  hour  until  relieved :  nitrate  of  (xjtassa,  one  ounce ; 
tartrate  of  antimony,  and  pulverized  digitalis  leaves, 
each  one  drachm;  mix  and  divide  into  six  jxjwders. 
Inflammation  of  the  Liver.  Diseases  of  the  liver 
are  of  very  common  occurrence,  a  fact  with  which  all 
beef  butchers  are  familiar.  Perhaps  no  organ  in  the 
animal  economy  is  so  liable  to  disease.  The  obscur- 
ity of  the  symptoms  and  the  good  condition  of  the  ani- 
mal prevent  its  discovery,  as  a  general  thing,  during 
its  lifetime.  When,  however,  the  disease  assumes  an 
active  form,  known  as  the  yellows,  jaundice  or  inflam- 
mation of  the  liver,  the  symptoms  are  more  readily 
detected. 

Symptoms.  A  yellowish  color  of  the  eye  will  be  ob- 
served ;  skin,  urine,  etc.,  highly  colored ;  soreness,  on 
pressure,  on  the  right  side ;  loss  of  appetite ;  dullness ; 
constipation  of  the  bowels,  etc. 

Treatment.  Calomel  is  the  most  reliable  medicine 
known  to  practitioners  for  diseases  of  the  liver.  Its 
abuse,  however,  has  brought  it  into  disrepute.     Yet,  as 


Fig.  36. —  Trocar. 


CATTLE. 


231 


with  ordinary  care  it  may  be  advantageously  used,  we 
will  prescribe  it  as  that  upon  which  the  most  depend- 
ence is  to  be  placed,  and  in  doing  so,  will  endeavor 
to  have  it  used  safely.  Bleeding  has  been  recom- 
mended by  some,  but  no  good  result  has  ever  been  ob- 
tained. Give  Epsom  salts  in  doses  of  four  ounces 
each,  with  one  scruple  of  calomel,  until  the  animal  is 
relieved.  Mustard  and  water  should  frequently  be 
applied  to  the  right  side,  and  well  rubbed  in. 

Jaundice,  Icterus.  This  is  a  common  disease  in 
the  ox,  from  the  fact  that  he  is  supplied  with  a  gall- 
bladder, and  gall  in  great  <iuantity.  Jaundice  maybe 
pro[)erly  biliary  intoxication,  or  distribution  of  bile 
throughout  the  whole  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Causes.  Closure  of  the  biliary  ducts  in  the  liver, 
and  the  consequent  absorption  of  the  bile  into  tiie 
stomach.  The  bile  duct  may  be  closed  from  gall- 
stones. 

Symptoms.  In  the  white  skinned  oxen,  jaundice  is 
seen  at  once  from  their  yellow  color.  In  dark-colored 
animals  we  are  satisfied  to  examine  the  lining  of  the 
mouth,  nose  and  eyes,  for  this  yellow  appearance.  In 
addition  to  these  signs,  we  have  dullness,  and  costive- 
ness,  while  the  dung  is  of  whitish  or  straw-colored  look. 
Treatment.  If  the  symptoms  be  not  very  promi- 
nent, the  ,  animal  may  be  left  with  safety  to  the  jxjwers 
of  nature,  which  can  be  assisted  by  giving  slop  food  or 
placing  it  uix)0  bare  pasture  for  a  few  days.  If  the 
case  be  more  of  an  acute  kind,  give  a  dose  of  purga- 
tive medicine,  as  follows  :  Epsom  salts,  one  jxjund ; 
table  salt,  half  a  ix)und ;  ginger,  half  an  ounce ,  mix, 
and  dissolve  in  four  bottles  of  water,  sweetened  with 
molasses. 

Lice.  Cattle  are  often  subject  to  lice,  particularly 
when  they  are  neglected,  half  starved  and  in  (Kjorcon.- 
dition.  Good  care,  and  good  feeding,  in  connection 
with  the  treatment  recommended  in  Mange,  to  which 
the  reader  is  referred,  will  comprise  all  that  is  req- 
uisite. 

Lock-jaw.  Kill  the  beast  and  dress  it  for  market 
as  soon  as  it  is  known  that  it  is  lock-jawed. 

Malignant  Catarrh.  Caused  by  feeding  in  damp, 
cold  situations,  and  feeding  on  marshes  in  peculiar 
seasons.  Low,  wet  river  bottoms  are  most  apt  to 
give  it  to  stock.  The  disease  somewhat  resembles  the 
Russian  cattle  plague,  but  is  not  usually  contagious. 
Professor  James  Law  gives  symptoms  and  treatment 
as  follows : 

Symptoms.  A  slight  diarrhoea  may  be  followed  by 
costiveness,  the  dung  being  black,  firm  and  scanty. 
The  hair  is  rough  and  erect;  shivering  ensues;  the 
head  is  depressed ;  the  roots  of  the  horns  and  forehead 
hot;  eyes  sunken,  red,  watery,  wilh  turbidity  in  the  in- 
terior and  intolerance  of  light ;  muzzle  dry  and  hot ; 
mouth  hot,  with  much  saliva ;  the  membranes,  mouth, 
nose  and  vagina  blush-red;  pulse  rapid;  impulse  of 
the  heart  weak  ;  breathing  hurried ;  cough  ;  urine  scanty 
and  high-colored,  and  surface  of  the  body  alternately 
hot  and  cold.  In  twenty-four  hours  all  the  symptoms 
are  aggravated ;  the  nose  discharges  a  slimy  fluid ; 
forehead   is  warmer  and  duller   on  percussion ;    the 


mouth  is  covered  with  dark  red  blotches,  from  which 
the  cuticle  soon  peels  off,  leaving  raw  sores ;  appetite 
is  completely  lost ;  dung  and  urine  passed  with  much 
pain  and  straining,  and  there  is  generally  stiffness  and 
indisposition  to  move.  From  the  fourth  to  the  sixth 
day  ulcers  appear  on  the  nose  and  muzzle,  swelling 
takes  place  beneath  the  jaws,  chest  and  abdomen,  and 
on  the  legs  the  skin  may  even  slough  off  in  patches;  a 
foetid  saliva  drivels  from  the  mouth  and  a  stinking 
diarrhoea  succeeds  the  costiveness.  Death  usually 
ensues  from  the  eighth  to  the  tenth  day,  preceded 
perhaps  by  convulsions  or  signs  of  suffocation. 

Treatment.  Clean  the  bowels  with  the  following : 
I  pint  olive  oil,  i  ounce  laudanum  ;  mix.  In  eight  or  ten 
hours,  if  it  does  not  operate,  give  another.  Follow 
this  with  diuretics — sweet  spirits  of  nitre  in  half-ounce 
doses ;  and  also  with  antiseptics,  }X)tassa  chlorate,  in 
doses  of  one-<iuarter  drachm.  Wet  cloths  should  be 
kept  on  the  head ;  the  mouth  and  nose  sponged  with 
quite  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Give  as  food 
^ly  soft  mashes. 

Mange.  Mange,  or  leprosy,  is  one  of  the  most  un- 
pleasant and  difficult  diseases  to  manage  of  all  the 
ailments  to  which  cattle  are  subject,  requiring  the  nicest 
care  and  attention  to  render  it  easy  of  cure.  An  ani- 
mal badly  nursed  will  not,  under  the  most  skillful 
treatment,  quickly  recover.  Its  causes  are,  in  the  main, 
due  to  ixx)r  food,  which  produces  a  debilitated  condi- 
tion of  the  system,  and,  in  connection  with  a  want  of 
cleanliness,  causes  a  development  of  the  acari,  or 
minute  insects,  exciting  very  great  irritation  upon  the 
skin  and  causing  the  cow  to  rub  herself  against  every 
object  with  which  she  comes  in  contact.  The  hair 
falls  off,  a  scurfy  appearance  of  the  skin  is  perceptible, 
and  the  animal  is  ixxjr  in  condition  and  milk.  The 
great  trouble  in  treating  this  disease  springs  from  its 
contagious  character ;  for  no  sooner  is  the  animal,  oft- 
times,  once  free  from  the  acari  than  it  comes  in  contact 
with  some  object  against  which  it  has  previously  been 
rubbing,  when  the  acari  which  were  left  u]X)n  that  ob- 
ject are  again  brought  in  contact  with  the  animal  and 
the  acari  and  the  disease  are  reproduced.  If,  imme- 
dfately  after  the  proper  apphcations  are  made,  the  an- 
imal is  removed  to  other  quarters,  and  not  allowed  to 
return  to  the  former  ones  for  six  or  eight  weeks,  there 
is,  generally  speaking,  but  little  trouble  in  treating  the 
disease. 

Treatment.  Take  the  animal  upon  a  warm,  sunny 
day,  and  with  a  scrubbing-brush  cleanse  the  skin 
thoroughly  with  Castile  soap  and  water;  when  dry, 
apply  in  the  same  manner  the  following  mixture :  white 
hellebore,  i  ounce;  sulphur  flowers,  3  ounces;  gas- 
water,  r  quart ;  mix  all  well  together.  One  or  two 
applications  are  generally  all  that  will  be  required. 

Give  internally  one  of  the  following  powders  in  the 
feed,  night  and  morning:  flowers  of  sulphur,  2  ounces; 
black  antimony,  i  ounce;  nitrate  of  potassa,  i  ounce; 
mix  and  divide  into  eight  powders. 

Milk  Fever.  Milk  fever  occurs  from  the  first  to 
the  third  day  after  calving, — rarely  after  tlie  third 
day.     It  is  seldom  met  with  before  the  fourth  calving, 


o 
u 


H 
•S) 

J 

O 


CATTLE. 


m 


then  attacking  chiefly  cows  of  select  breeds,  and  good 
milkers.  Milk  fever  consists  in  inflammation  of  the 
womb,  which  sometimes  even  extends  to  the  bowels. 

Symptoms.  Loss  of  appetite ;  chewing  the  cud,  or 
rumination,  ceases;  staggering  gait;  wild  look;  fall  and 
cannot  rise.  If  the  disease  is  not  checked  the  brain 
will  soon  be  affected  also,  when  the  cow  will  dash 
about  with  her  head  and  horns  plowing  the  ground. 

Cause.  Undue  determination  of  the  blood  to  the 
womb  from  over-feeding  before  and  immediately  after 
calving,  and  from  sudden  changes  of  the  weather  at 
the  time  of  calving. 

Prevention.  Give,  one  week  before  calving,  i  pound 
Epsom  salts,  J^  pound  of  table  salt,  and  J^  an  ounce 
of  ground  ginger,  mixed  in  4  bottles  of  cold  water  and 
sweetened  with  molasses.  Let  the  cow's  feed  be  of  the 
lightest  kind,  such  as  hay  and  thin  slop  mashes,  and 
no  meal,  grain  or  solid  food.  This  measure  will  lessen 
the  tendency  to  interruption  of  the  circulation,  and  will 
improve  the  health  and  tone  of  the  whole  system.  To 
avoid,  as  much  as  jMssible,  the  effects  of  sudden 
changes  of  weather,  have  the  cow  brought  into  the 
barn.  When  the  milk  fever  is  anticipated,  give,  a  few 
hours  after  calving,  25  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite 
root,  which  may  be  repeated  every  six  hours,  till  four 
doses  have  been  given. 

Treatment.  When  the  disease  is  present,  give  at 
once  30  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root,  and  }^  an 
ounce  of  pure  opium  in  powder,  in  a  bottle  of  thin 
gruel.  The  aconite  must  be  repeated  every  4  hours 
without  the  opium,  until  4  or  5  doses  are  given.  Place 
chopped  ice  in  a  bag  on  the  forehead,  and  attach  it  to 
the  horns,  renewing  it  when  wanted.  This  being  done 
quickly,  at  more  leisure  get  Epsom  salts,  i  }X)und ; 
table  salt,  j  pound ;  ginger,  ^  an  ounce ;  mix  and 
dissolve  in  4  bottles  of  cold  water,  with  a  little  molasses 
to  sweeten  it,  and  give  at  one  dose.  After  this  medi- 
cine has  been  given,  turn  the  cow  from  side  to  side 
every  4  hours,  or  when  the  aconite  is  given,  which 
will  save  labor  and  unnecessary  excitement  to  her.  She 
should  be  left  as  quiet  as  possible,  and  her  legs  and 
body  kejit  warm,  thereby  relieving  the  womb  to  that 
extent.  Do  not  deny  pure  air,  nor  plenty  of  cold  water 
to  the  afflicted  animal,  for  she  not  only  needs  them, 
but  they  are  indispensable  to  sure  and  perfect  recov- 
ery in  most  diseases,  and  as  much  so  if  not  more  in  a 
disease  of  this  kind. 

Murrain.  The  proper  meaning  of  this  word  is,  to 
die;  but  it  and  the  term  Cattle  Plague  are  applied  in- 
discriminately to  diseases  by  many  cow  doctors  in 
order  to  mystify  the  farmers.  They  may  give  the 
name  of  murrain  to  any  disease  or  diseases,  however 
differenfthe  one  may  be  from  the  other  in  sign,  symp- 
tom and  result,  providing  the  beast  die.  It  will  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  if  the  animal  should  live,  mur- 
rain cannot  be  its  proper  name.  Murrain,  as  applied 
to  cattle  diseases,  conveys  no  idea  of  the  nature  or  seat 
of  tlie  disease.  In  some  parts  of  the  world  murrain 
is  applied  to  epizootic  aphthae,  a  disease  affecting  the 
mouth  and  feet,  and  not  deadly  or  fatal.  Without 
fatality  there  can  be  no  murrain,  and  the  absurdity  of 


the  name  will  be  apparent  to  every  farmer;  and  they 
should  not  permit  themselves  to  be  mystified  by  veter- 
inarians applying  this  name  and  that  of  cattle  plague 
to  diseases  they  know  nothing  about. 

Navel-Ill.  Inflammation  of  the  navel  in  calves 
occasionally  occurs,  causing  redness,  pain,  and  sud- 
den swelling  in  the  part  affected.  This  disease,  if  not 
promptly  attended  to,  speedily  carries  off  the  creature. 

Treatment.  Foment  the  part  well  with  warm  hop 
tea;  after  which,  the  application  of  a  cloth,  well  sat- 
urated with  lead-water  and  secured  by  bandages, 
should  be  applied.  Internally,  doses  of  Epsom  salts, 
of  2  ounces  each,  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  should 
be  given  until  the  bowels  are  acted  upon.  After  the 
inflammation  has  subsided,  to  counteract  the  weak- 
ness which  may  follow,  give  a  bottle  of  porter  two  or 
three  times  a  day. 

Phrenitis.  Inflammation  of  the  brain  is  one  of 
those  dreadful  diseases  to  which  all  animals  are  liable. 
It  is  known  to  the  farmer  as  frenzy,  mad  staggers,  etc. 
The  active  symptoms  are  preceded  by  stupor ;  the  an- 
imal stubbornly  stands  in  one  position  ;  the  eyes  are 
full,  red  and  fiery ;  respiration  rapid ;  delirium  sooni 
succeeds  ;  the  animal,  bellowing,  dashes  wildly  about, 
and  seems  bent  on  mischief,  rushing  madly  at  every 
object  which  comes  in  its  way.  The  causes  of  this 
disease  are  overwork  in  warm  weather,  a  plethoric  con- 
dirion  of  the  system,  and   stimulating  food. 

Treatment.  As  this  is  attended  with  considerable 
risk,  unless  it  is  taken  prior  to  the  frenzied  stage, 
bleeding  almost  to  fainting  should  be  resorted  to,  and 
followed  by  a  brisk  purge.  Take  i  ounce  of  Barba- 
does  aloes,  and  10  to  15  drops  Croton  oil;  mix  the 
aloes  with  i  pint  of  water  and  the  oil,  using  the  mix- 
ture as  a  drench.  One  pound  Epsom  salts  will  answer 
the  purpose  very  well,  in  cases  where  the  aloes  and 
oil  cannot  be  readily  obtained.  Application  of  bags 
of  broken  ice  to  the  head  is  very  beneficial.  Spirits 
of  turpentine,  or  mustard,  together  with  spirits  of 
hartshorn  and  water,  should  be  well  rubbed  in  along 
the   spine  from  the  neck  to  the  tail. 

Pleurisy.  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pleura, 
or  the  serous  membrane  which  lines  the  cavity  of 
the  cow's  chest,  and  which  is  deflected  over  the  lungs. 
Inflammation  of  this  membrane  rarely  occurs  in  a 
pure  form,  but  is  more  generally  associated  with  in- 
flammation of  the  tissues  of  the  lungs.  If  this  dis- 
ease is  not  attended  to  at  an  early  period,  its  usual  ter- 
mination is  hydrothorax,  or  dropsy  of  the  chest.  The 
same  causes  which  produce  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
of  the  bronchia,  and  of  the  other  respiratory  organs, 
produce  pleurisy. 

Symptoms.  The  respiration  is  quick,  short  and 
painful;  pressure  between  the  ribs  produces  much 
pain ;  and  a  low,  short,  painful  cough  is  present ;  the 
respiratory  murmur  is  much  diminished, — in  fact,  it  is 
scarcely  audible.  This  condition  is  rapidly  followed 
by  effusion,  which  may  be  detected  from  the  dullness 
of  the  sounds,  on  applying  the  ear  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  lungs.  The  febrile  symptoms  disappear ;  the  ani- 
mal for  a  few  days  appears  to  improve,  but  soon  be- 


234 


CATTLE. 


comes  weak,  languid,  and  often  exhausted  from  the 
slightest  exertion. 

Treatment.  The  same  treatment  in  the  early  stage 
is  enjoined  as  in  inflammatory  Pneumonia,  which  the 
reader  will  consult,  counter-irritation  and  purgatives. 
Bleeding  should  never  be  resorted  to.  When  effusion 
takes  place,  it  is  necessary  to  puncture  the 
sides  with  a  trocar,  and  draw  away  the  fluid, 
giving  internally  one  of  the  following  purges  three 
times  a  day  :  rosin,  8  ounces,  saltpeter  2  ounces ;  mix 
and  divide  into  eight  jwwders.  Half-drachm  doses 
of  the  iodide  of  ix)tash,  dissolved  in  water  and  given 
three  times  a  day,  are  good. 

Pleuro-Pneumoni  A.  This  disease,  which  has  lately 
excited  so  much  attention  in  the  Unitsd  States  from 
its  violent  outbreaks  in  the  Atlantic  States,  and  the 
well  grounded  fear  that  for  the  lack  of  national  legis- 
lation it  might  overrun  the  whole  country,  is  the  most 
malignant  with  which  the  farmers  of  the  country  have 
had  to  deal.  Once  fairly  established  in  the  West,  there 
will  be  no  possible  means  of  eradicating  it.  It  will 
remain  a  fixture  forever. 

Unfortunately  veterinary  science  has  never  yet  dis- 
covered a  remedy.  Its  attack  is  so  insidious,  and 
often  occupies  so  long  a  time  in  the  stage  of  incuba- 
tion, that  a  whole  herd  may  be  infected  almost  be- 
fore it  is  known.  As  in  the  case  of  all  German 
plagues,  nothing  is  known  of  its  origin ;  but  just  as 
soon  as  it  is  apparent  that  a  case  is  being  well  devel- 
oped, the  only  safe  plan  is  prompt  killing,  deep  bury- 
ing of  the  carcass,  skin  and  all,  and  the  free  use  of 
quick-lime  (a  barrel  to  the  carcass)  before  being  cover- 
ed up. 

Definition.  The  definition  of  this  disease  is  given  as 
follows :  It  is  a  specific  contagion  peculiar  to  cattle,  and 
manifested  by  a  long  period  of  incubation  (ten  days  to 
three  months),  by  a  slow,  insidious  onset,  a  low  type  of 
fever,  and  by  the  occurrence  of  inflammation  in  the 
air-passages,  lungs  and  their  coverings,  with  an  extens- 
ive exudation  into  the  lungs  and  pleurae. 

That  the  infection  is  carried  by  the  animals  wher- 
ever they  go  is  certain.  That  it  is  carried  in  the  air 
to  a  very  considerable  extent  seems  altogether  proba- 
ble. That  it  is  carried  by  inoculation  is  well  demon- 
strated ;  and  also  by  contact  of  diseased  portions  of 
an  animal  with  the  membranes  of  a  well  one,  is  as  cer- 
tain as  that  the  contagion  is  carried  by  attendants  on 
sick  animals,  and  is  proved  almost  beyond  controversy. 
That  the  contagion  will  hold  in  stables  for  months, 
even  after  being  thoroughly  cleaned  and  washed  with 
disinfectant  liquids,  is  proved  just  as  clearly  as  that  it 
may  be  carried  by  the  many.  That  it  may  be  taken 
in  pastures  and  with  fodder  is  too  well  authenticated 
to  leave  room  for  doubt. 

Vitality  of  the  Virus.  There  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  ix)wer  of  the  virus  to  resist 
ordinary  destructive  influences.  In  many  cases  the 
free  exposure  of  an  infected  place  for  three  or  four 
months  to  the  action  of  the  air  has  purified  it  so  that 
fresh  stock  have  been  introduced  with  impunity.  On 
the  other  hand,  instances  can  be  adduced  in  which 


cattle  have  been  infected  by  being  placed  in  stables  in 
which  cattle  had  not  been  kept  at  least  four  months 
previously.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  will  be  pre- 
served longest  where  it  has  been  dried  up  and  covered 
from  the  free  access  of  the  air.  Thus  in  very  dry  and 
close  buildings,  in  those  having  rotten  wood-work,  or 
deep  dust-filled  cracks  in  the  masonry,  and  in  those 
with  a  closed  space  beneath  a  wooden  floor,  it  clings 
with  the  greatest  tenacity.  Again,  when  the  buildings 
contain  piles  of  lumber,  litter,  hay,  fodder,  or  clothing, 
the  virus  is  covered  up,  secreted  and  preserved  for  a 
much  longer  time  than  if  left  quite  empty.  In  these 
last  it  is  preserved  just  as  it  is  in  woolen  or  other 
textile  fabrics,  and  carried  from  jilace  to  place  by 
human  beings. 

As  carried  through  the  air,  the  distance  at  which 
the  virus  retains  its  infecting  proi)erties  varies  much 
with  varying  conditions.  When  a  sick  herd  was  sep- 
arated from  a  healthy  one  by  not  more  than  15  yards 
and  a  moderately  close  Ixsard  fence  of  seven  feet  high, 
and  in  the  absence  of  all  inter-communication  of  at- 
tendants, the  exposed  herd  kept  perfectly  sound  for 
six  months  in  succession.  On  the  other  hand,  infec- 
tion will  sometimes  take  place  at  a  much  greater  dis- 
tance without  any  known  means  of  conveyance  on  solid 
objects.  Roll  quotes  50  to  100  feet,  while  others  claim 
to  have  seen  infection  at  a  distance  of  200  and  300 
feet.  But  it  may  be  well  (juestioned  whether  in  such 
cases  the  virus  had  not  been  dried  upon  light  objects, 
like  feathers,  paper,  straw  or  hay,  which  could  be 
borne  on  the  wind.  This,  from  being  in  thicker  layers, 
would  escape  the  destruction  that  would  have  befallen 
it  had  it  been  carried  in  the  air  only  as  invisible 
particles. 

HoTV  long  a  Diseased  Animal  is  Infectious.  Proof 
is  wanting  as  to  the  infectious  nature  of  the  disease 
during  the  incubative  stage.  If  negative  evidence 
were  of  any  value  in  a  case  like  this,  it  would  be  easy 
to  adduce  cases  in  which  the  removal  of  an  animal  as 
soon  as  it  showed  symptoms  of  the  plague  had  appar- 
ently saved  the  rest  of  the  herd.  In  other  cases  the 
malady  has  been  eradicated  from  a  herd  by  careful 
watching  and  the  prompt  removal  of  every  animal  as 
soon  as  sickness  appeared.  The  period  of  greatest 
virulence  is  that  at  which  the  fever  runs  highest,  and 
when  the  lung  is  being  loaded  with  the  morbid  exu- 
dation. The  following  rules  should  be  observed  when 
the  disease  is  suspected: 

1.  Remove  all  litter,  manure,  feed  and  fodder  from 
the  stables  ;  scrape  the  walls  and  floor ;  remove  all 
rotten  wood. 

2.  Take  chloride  of  lime,  ^  ix)und;  crude  car- 
bolic acid,  4  ounces,  and  water  i  gallon ;  add  freshly- 
burned  quick-lime  till  thick  enough  to  make  a  good 
whitewash ;  whitewash  with  this  the  walls,  roof,  floors, 
posts,  mangers,  drains  and  other  fixtures  in  the  cow 
stables. 

3.  Wash  so  as  to  thoroughly  cleanse  all  pails,  buck- 
ets, stools,  forks,  shovels,  brooms  and  other  movable 
articles  used  i»  the  buildings;  then  wet  them  all  over 
with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  J^  pound,  water  i  gallon. 


I 


.^SS^^L 


W^^^ 


236 


CATTLE. 


4.  When  the  empty  building  has  been  cleansed  and 
disinfected  as  above,  close  the  doors  and  windows, 
place  in  the  center  of  the  building  a  metallic  dish 
holding  I  pound  flowers  of  sulphur;  set  fire  to  this  and 
let  the  cow  shed  stand  closed  until  filled  with  fumes 
for  at  least  two  hours.  The  alx)ve  should  suffice  for 
a  close  stable  capable  of  holding  1 2  cows.  For  larger 
or  very  open  buildings,  more  will  be  required. 

5 .  The  manure  from  a  stable  where  sick  cattle  have 
been  kept,  must  be  turned  over  and  mixed  with  quick- 
lime, two  bushels  to  every  load,  then  hauled  by  horses 
to  fields  to  which  no  cattle  have  access,  and  at  once 
plowed  under  by  horses. 

6.  The  pits,  where  the  manure  has  been,  must  be 
cleansed  and  washed  with  disinfectant  fluid  ordered 
for  the  building. 

7.  The  surviving  herd  should  be  shut  up  in  a  close 
building  for  half  an  hour,  once  or  twice  a  day,  and 
made  to  breathe  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  Close 
the  doors  and  windows,  place  a  piece  of  paper  on  a 
clean  shovel,  lay  a  few  pinches  of  flowers  of  sulphur 
upon  it,  and  set  it  on  fire,  adding  more  sulphur,  pinch 
by  pinch,  as  long  as  the  cattle  can  stand  it  virithout 
coughing.  G>ntinue  for  a  month. 

8.  Give  2  drachms  powdered  copperas  daily  to  each 
cow  in  meal  or  grains,  or,  divide  i  pound  copperas 
into  50  powders,  and  give  one  daily  to  each  adult 
animal. 

9.  Do  not  use  for  the  surviving  cattle  any  feed,  fodder 
or  litter  thJI  has  been  in  the  same  stables  wath  the 
sick.  They  may  safely  be  used  for  horses  and  sheep. 
Symptoms.  The  symptom  most  easily  known  in  the 
early  stage  is  an  increased  temperature  of  the  body. 
If  a  clinical  thermometer  be  introduced  into  the  rec- 
tum of  a  beast  in  an  infected  district,  and  an  abnormal 
heat  is  ascertained,  it  is  safe  to  suspect  the  disease  ; 
therefore  send  for  a  veterinarian  at  once.  Next,  a 
slight  cough  will  show  itself;  the  hair  will  be  erected 
along  the  back ;  there  may  be  shivering  and  always 
tenderness  of  the  back  when  pinched ;  the  breathing 
and  pulse  is  accelerated;  the  bowels  are  costive;  rum- 
ination is  irregular ;  the  urine  is  scanty  and  high-col- 
ored, the  appetite  fails,  the  milk-flow  is  diminished,  the 
nose  will  be  alternately  moist  and  dry.  The  horns  and 
other  extremities  will  be  alternately  hot  and  cold.  In 
the  field,  the  sick  animals  will  separate  from  the  herd, 
AH  the  symptoms  become  more  and  more  apparent 
until  the  animal  remains  in  a  fixed  posture,  the  head 
rigidly  extended,  the  mouth  open,  at  every  inspiration  a 
moan,  until  at  length  the  animal  succumbs,  a  loath- 
some and  noxious  mass  of  cantagion. 

Treatment.  A  resort  to  remedies  should  not  be  had 
unless  the  animals  are  taken  early  in  hand,  and  can 
be  isolated  in  a  building  far  from  any  herd.  It  will 
not  pay  except  in  the  case  of  thorough-bred  or  other- 
wise valuable  stock.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the 
West,  if  that  section  should  be  unfortunate  enough  to 
import  the  disease.  Prof  Gamgee,  who  made  an 
elaborate  reiwrt  for  the  Government  in  187 1,  strongly 
and  wisely  condemns  purgatives  and  bleeding,  but  be- 
lieves the  disease  may  be  checked,  if  taken  in  time. 


by  isolating  the  whole  herd,  and  depending  on  active 
internal  astringents.  He  advises  daily  doses  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  \^  to  i  drachm  to  the  bullock,  mixed 
with  an  equal  weight  of  linseed  and  coriander  seeds, 
given  in  bran  to  disguise  it ;  this  he  has  found  to  miti- 
gate the  cough,  followed  by  the  disappearance  of  the 
disease. 

In  the  second  stage  of  the  disease,  he  advises  light 
but  nutritious  food,  copious  warm-water  injections, 
and  the  following  stimulant :  ]4  ounce  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  i  quart  linseed  oil ;  mix  and  give  this  dose 
2  or  3  times  a  day.  When  only  one  lung  is  involved, 
recovery  occasionally  takes  place ;  when  both  are  in- 
volved, there  is  little  or  no  hope.  For  cough  and  de- 
bility during  convalescence,  he  advises  the  following 
tonic;  ]^  ounce  oxide  of  magnesia,  %  ounce  iron 
filings,  fine,  lyi  ounce  tincture  gentian,  i  pint  water; 
to  be  given  daily.  Another  prescription  is  recom- 
mended: I  drachm  carbolic  acid,  i  pint  water;  to  be 
given  as  a  dose  three  times  a  day.  The  reader  will 
see  \i\x>n  a  careful  study  of  the  foregoing,  that  but  one 
prescription,  killing,  is  the  only  safe  plan. 

Pneumonia.  There  are  two  conditions  of  the  lungs 
known  as  pneumonia :  one  the  inflammatory,  and  the 
other  the  congestive  stage.  The  former  may  follow 
an  attack  of  bronchitis,  or  it  may  have  a  spontaneous 
origin.  The  congestive  is  generally  the  result  of  cold 
suddenly  applied  to  an  overheated  animal,  causing  a 
determination  of  blood  to  the  lungs,  which  sometimes 
causes  death  by  suffocation. 

Symptoms.  The  disease  is  preceded  by  a  shiverinj 
fit;  dry  skin;  staring  coat;  clammy  mouth;  short 
cough  ;  Schneiderian  membrane  of  the  nose  very  much 
reddened ;  respiration  hurried  or  laborious.  In  the 
congestive  stage,  ujwn  applying  the  ear  to  the 
sides  no  sounds  will  be  detected,  while  in  the  inflam- 
matory stage  a  crackling  or  crepitating  sound  will  be 
distinctly  heard. 

Treatment.  In  the  congestive  stage,  plenty  of  pure 
air  will  be  necessary.  Bleed  freely,  and  give  in  drench 
I  pound  of  Glauber  salts,  with  2  drachms  Jamaica 
ginger.  Nothing  more  will  be  required  by  way  of  treat- 
ment. In  the  inflammatory  stage,  bleeding  should  sel- 
dom be  resorted  to,  except  where  the  animal  is  in  fine 
condition.  Apply  the  following  blister  to  the  sides, 
well  ribbed  in  :  oil  of  turpentine,  i  ounce;  Croton-oil, 
12  drops;  aqua  ammonia,  i^  an  ounce;  linseed  oil,  4 
ounces:  mix  all  together.  Give  internally  i  pound  of 
salts  in  drench,  and  follow  with  one  of  the  following 
powders  every  4  hours :  nitrate  of  potash,  i  ounce ;  tar- 
trate of  antimony  and  pulverized  digitalis  leaves,  of  each 
I  drachm;  mix  all  together  and  divide  into  8  powders. 
Or  the  following  may  be  given,  with  equal  advantage : 
nitrate  of  potash,  i  Y2  ounces ;  nitrate  of  soda,  6 
ounces ;  mix  and  divide  into  6  powders,  i  to  be  given 
in  wash  or  gruel  every  6  hours. 

Rabies,  or  Hydrophobia,  in  cattle,  is  the  result  of 
the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog,  from  which  bite  no  animal  es- 
caj^es.  The  effects  produced  by  the  wound  made  by 
the  teeth  of  such  an  animal,  after  the  virus  is  once 
absorbed   into  the   circulation   of  the  blood,  are  so 


838 


CATTLE. 


poisonous   that   all   treatment   is   absolutely  useless. 

Symptoms.  The  animal  separates  itself  from  the 
rest  of  the  herd,  standing  in  a  kind  of  stupor,  with 
the  eyes  half  closed  ;  respiration  natural;  the  slightest 
noise  agitates,  causing  the  eyes  to  glare  and  exciting 
bellowing ;  the  bark  of  a  dog  produces  the  most  vio- 
lent effects ;  the  animal  foams  at  the  mouth  and  stag- 
gers as  it  walks ;  if  water  is  oiTered,  the  muzzle  is 
plunged  into  it,  but  the  victim  cannot  drink  ;  in  mak- 
ing the  effort,  the  most  fearful  consequences  are  pro- 
duced. The  animal  now  seeks  to  do  mischief,  and 
the  quicker  it  is  then  destroyed  the  better. 

Treatment.  This  must  be  applied  quickly,  or  not 
at  all.  The  moment  an  animal  is  bitten,  that  moment 
the  wound  should  be  searched  for,  and  when  found, 
should  be  freely  opened  with  a  knife,  lunar  caustic, 
caustic  potash,  or  the  permanganate  of  potash  at  once 
applied  to  all  parts  of  the  wound,  care  being  taken 
not  to  suffer  a  single  scratch  to  escape.  This,  if  at- 
tended to  in  time,  will  save  the  animal. 

Red  or  Black  Water,  as  it  is  called,  is  not  a  dis- 
ease, but  a  symptom  of  other  disease.  The  color  of 
the  urine  varies  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  the  particular  organ  affected ;  hence  should 
not  be  treated  as  a  disease,  but  the  cause  carefully 
sought  out  and  treated. 

Simple  Fever.  This  is  increased  arterial  action  with 
or  without  any  local  affection ;  it  may  also  arise  from 
sympathy  of  the  system  with  the  diseased  condition  of 
some  particular  part.  The  former  is  pure  or  idio- 
pathic fever ;  the  latter  is  symptomatic.  Pure  fever  often 
occurs  in  cattle. 

Symptoms.  Dry  muzzle ;  slow  rumination ;  quick- 
ened respiration;  the  horn  hot  at  the  root,  and 
frequently  cold  at  the  other  extremity;  constipation; 
coat  bristling,  and  the  cow  usually  seen  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  herd.  Where  the  attack  is  slight, 
a  purge  of  salts,  sulphur  and  ginger  will  be  sufficient. 
If  neglected  or  improperly  treated,  it  may  turn  into 
pleurisy  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs  or  bowels.  In  the 
latter  case,  an  experienced  veterinary  surgeon  should 
be  called.  Symptomatic  fever  is  generally  the  result 
of  an  injury,  the  neighboring  parts  sympathizing  with 
the  injured  part.  The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those 
given  above.  Unless  promptly  relieved,  the  animal 
dies.  The  treatment  must  begin  with  purging.  Salts 
are  the  surest  and  safest  remedy.  A  pound  to  a 
pound  and  a  half  with  ginger  and  sulphur  is  a  dose, 
dissolved  in  thin  gruel.  If  this  does  not  operate  in 
twelve  hours,  give  half  the  dose,  and  repeat  once  in 
twelve  hours  until  the  bowels  are  freed.  The  animal 
is  relieved  after  the  operation.  Then  sedatives,  such 
as  bloodroot,  i  drachm ;  ix)wdered  nitre,  2 
drachms:  this  should  be  given  two  or  three  times 
in  thin  gruel. 

Splenic  Fever  :   see  Texas  Fever. 

Strangulation  of  thk  Intestines.  This  disease 
in  cattle,  popularly  styled  Knot,  or  Gut-Tie,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  abdominal 
viscera,  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  When,  however, 
it  does  occur,  the  symptoms  accompanying  are  those 


ofinflammation  of  the  intestines.  No  kind  of  treatment 
will  be  successful,  and  the  poor  brute  must  suffer  un- 
til death  comes  to  its  relief. 

Texas  Fever.  This  disease,  now  called  Splenic 
Fever,  resembles  in  some  of  its  phases  the  rinderpest 
of  Asiatic  Russia,  but  it  is  far  less  malignant  and  less 
contagious.  It  also  disappears  with  the  frost,  being 
effectually  stamped  out  during  the  winter,  not  to  be 
again  seen  until  re -introduced  by  the  passage  of  Texas 
cattle.  So,  again, it  is  not  given  by  our  Northern  cattle 
to  other  beasts.  The  disease  has  its  home  on  the 
coast  of  Texas,  but  how  it  originated  is  not  clearly 
known.  After  death  the  spleen  is  found  greatly  en- 
larged and  softened,  the  kidneys  broken,  dung  and 
blood  fluid. 

Symptoms.  The  period  of  incubation  extends  over 
four  or  five  weeks  after  the  poison  has  been  introduc- 
ed. The  fever  will  at  first  be  moderate,  the  tempera- 
ture, as  shown  by  a  clinical  thermometer  introduced 
into  the  rectum,  will  be  103°  to  107°.  Then  follows 
dullness,  cough,  trembling,  jerking  of  the  muscles, 
dropping  of  the  head,  arching  of  the  back.  The 
horns  are  hot,  rumination  ceases,  and  the  appetite  not 
good.  The  eyes  become  glassy  and  watery,  the  urine 
deep  red  or  black  from  the  blood  contained,  the  dung 
is  hard  and  coated  with  blood ;  the  mouth  and  rectum 
will  be  a  dark  red  or  copper  color ;  and  the  animal 
dies  in  a  stupor  or  convulsions. 

Treatment.  Put  the  animal  in  a  roomy  stable  with 
good  ventilation,  and  give  soft  food.  As  an  internal 
remedy  give  Y^  ounce  chlorate  of  potash,  i  ounce 
tincture  of  chloride  of  iron,  i  quart  water.  Mix  and 
give  as  a  dose,  to  be  followed  two  or  three  times  a 
day.  The  most  dangerous  symptoms  being  passed, 
give  plentiful  food  and  the  following  tonic  :  J^  ounce 
sulphate  of  iron,  i  ounce  tincture  of  gir>ger,  i  quart 
water.  This  amount  twice  daily.  Professor  Gamgee 
does  not  regard  medical  treatment  as  being  hopeful. 
In  addition  he  advises  that  the  limbs  be  well  rubbed, 
and  the  bowels  moved  by  injections.  During  the  first 
two  or  three  days  he  recommends  ounce  doses  of 
laudanum,  and  later  as  a  sdmulant  the  following: 
Yz  ounce  sulphuric  ether,  4  ounces  of  acetate  of 
ammonia.  Give  in  a  quart  of  linseed  tea  three  times 
a  day. 

Thrush  in  the  Mouth.  Aphthae,  or  thrush  in  the 
mouth,  is  a  vesicular  disease  of  the  mouth,  sometimes 
occurring  as  an  epizootic.  It  is  often  mistaken  for 
blain,  inflammation  of  the  tongue,  or  black  tongue, 
and  usually  occurs  in  the  mnter,or  early  in  the  spring. 
It  appears  in  the  form  of  vesicles  or  pustules  all  over 
the  mouth,  occasionally  extending  to  the  outside  of  the 
lips.  These  pustules  break,  discharging  a  thin  sani- 
ous  fluid,  leaving  minute  ulcers  in  their  places.  This 
disease  yields  readily  to  treatment.  3  ounces  Epsom 
salts,  once  a  day  for  three  or  four  days,  should  be 
given  in  drench ;  wash  the  mouth  well  wth  a  solu- 
tion of  alum,  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  vinegar  and  honey, 
and  it  will  disappear  in  a  few  days. 

Trembles,  or  Milk  Sickness.  Dreadful  disease, 
prevalent  in  uncleared,  heavily  timbered  Western  re- 


CATTLE. 


239 


gions,  caused  by  eating  the  white  snakeroot  (Eupa- 
torium  ageratoides),  a  plant  of  the  boneset  genus. 
This  pecuHar  disease  disappears  from  the  region  as 
it  becomes  cleared,  cultivated  and  seeded  down  with 
the  natural  grasses.  Where  it  exists  the  cattle  should 
be  sheltered  at  night.  Their  food  should  not  be  left 
exposed  on  the  ground,  as  the  action  of  the  dew  ren- 
ders it  deadly  to  young  cattle  if  fed  to  them  in  the 
morning.  Symptoms,  spasms,  trembUng,  convulsions, 
(juick  pulse,  coated  and  swollen  tongue,  high-colored 
urine,  fetid  breath  and  constipation.  In  the  last  case, 
I  drachm  each  powdered  ginger  and  golden  seal  to  10 
ounces  of  Glauber  salts,  in  i  quart  of  warm  water, 
may  be  given.  If  the  breath  be  fetid,  give,  three  or 
four  times  a  day,  a  wineglassful  of  a  mixture  compos- 
ed of  4  ounces  glycerine,  2  ounces  of  pyroligneous 
acid  and  i  quart  of  water.  The  trembling,  where 
curable,  may  be  relieved  by  administering  2  drachms 
of  tincture  of  Indian  hemp  in  a  little  water,  twice 
daily,  or  i  ounce  of  laudanum  and  4  drachms  of  tinc- 
ture of  assafoetida. 

Typhoid  Fever  is  generally  considered  the  sec- 
ond stage  of  intense  inflammatory  action.  Diarrhoea 
usually  accompanies  this  kind  of  fever.  The  cause 
is  not  determined.  Abundance  of  oatmeal  gruel  with 
tincture  of  cayenne,  J^  ounce  golden  seal,  bran  diet, 
warmth  to  the  body  and  pure  air  are  essential  in  the 
treatment  of  this  disease.  Nature  should  be  helped 
to  regulate  the  animal  system  by  rousing  the  digestive 
organs  to  their  natural  action,  by  light  food,  or,  if 
necessary,  a  mild  purgative  followed  by  light  stimu- 
lants. Epsom  salts,  linseed  oil  and  sulphur  are  the 
chief  purgatives. 

Bull,  Cow,  Ox  and  Calves  are  treated  under '  their 
respective  heads. 

Cattle,  The  Law  as  to  Sales  of.  If  a  seller  makes 
a  willful  mis-statement  as  to  the  condition  of  the  prop- 
erty, or  sells  it  as  other  than  he  knows  it  to  be,  or  con- 
ceals a  defect  which  the  buyercould  not  by  examination 
ascertain,  it  becomes  a  case  of  fraud,  and  the  seller  is 
liable  to  an  action  for  damages.  Concealment  of  the 
fact  that  a  bull  sold  was  imjxjtent,  or  that  a  cow 
had  ceased  to  breed,  would  be  a  fraud  unless  they 
were  sold  to  a  butcher,  as  every  animal  of  that  char-, 
acter  is  assumed  to  be  fit  for  the  ordinary  ])ur[X)se  of 
of  its  existence.  An  affirmation  in  the  bill  of  sale  that 
a  bull  was  a  good  and  sure  breeder  would  be  a  com- 
plete express  warrant  that  he  was  such ;  and  if  the 
seller  at  the  time  he  sells  makes  such  a  statement 
verbally,  it  is  a  warranty ;  and  if  the  hull  proves  on 
trial  to  be  imiMtent,  the  purchaser  can  in  either  case 
recover  back  the  jjrice  paid  for  him,  and  any  damages 
he  has  sustained.  A  statement  made  by  a  seller  of  a 
cow  "  that  she  was  all  right,"  was  decided  to  be  enough 
to  let  the  case  go  to  the  jury  for  them  to  say  whether 
it  amounted  to  a  warranty  or  not,  and  they  said  it  did ; 
and  the  cow  being  proved  to  be  unsound,  damages 
were  awarded  against  the  seller.  An  animal  is  sound 
which  is  free  from  hereditary  disease,  is  in  [Xjssession 
of  its  natural  and  constitutional  heaUh,  and  has  such 


bodily  perfection  as  is  consistent  with  its  natural  form- 
ation. It  is  free  from  vice  when  it  has  no  bad  habits 
that  make  it  dangerous,  or  that  are  injurious  to  its 
health,  or  that  in  any  way  diminish  its  natural  use- 
fulness. A  cow  under  this  definition  could  not  be  con- 
sidered sound  which  had  aborted  more  than  once,  or 
had  failed  to  be  with  calf  after  several  services,  or 
milked  from  only  three  teats ;  nor  a  bull  which  had  be- 
come imjxjtent,  or,  from  too  free  use  when  young,  failed 
to  serve  in  two  cases  out  of  three.  A  kicking  cow  is 
vicious,  as  well  as  one  that  runs  at  and  attempts  to 
hook  any  one  with  her  horns. 

Cattle,  happily,  are  not  subject  to  the  many  diseases 
which  render  horses  unsound,  but  such  complaints  as 
chronic*  asthma,  cough  which  may  degenerate  into 
bronchitis,  catarrhal  fever,  thick  wind  and  broken  wind, 
they  are  likely  to  have  occasionally ;  and  these  are 
breaches  of  warranty  of  soundness.  Lameness, 
whether  temporary  or  permanent,  is  an  unsoundness  in 
a  horse  and  would  be  in  cattle.  So  is  diseased  liver, 
as  well  as  all  diseases  of  the  lungs.  A  mangy  ani- 
mal is  unsound,  or  one  liable  to  paralysis  or  rheuma- 
tism. And  any  complaint  or  accident  which  has  in 
any  way  impaired,  or  is  likely  to  impair,  the  quality  or 
usefulness  of  the  bull,  cow,  ox  or  calf,  is  an  unsound- 
ness. A  description,  in  a  bill  of  sale  of  an  animal,  of 
its  pedigree  would  constitute  a  warranty  that  it  was  oC 
the  breeding  so  represented. 

When  sales  are  made  at  public  auction  or  privately 
by  printed  terms  of  sale  and  catalogues,  these  fonn 
part  of  the  contract  and  will  be  binding  ujwn  the 
parties.  If  between  the  publication  of  these  terms 
and  the  sale  any  accident  occurs  to  the  animal,  or  if 
a  cow  aborts  or  calves,  notice  should  be  given  of  the 
fact,  or  the  purchaser  may,  on  discovering  the  change, 
repudiate  the  bargain  and  recover  the  price  he  paid  or 
damages,  and  in  certain  cases  both.  In  taking  a  war- 
ranty it  is  safer  to  have  everything  expressed,  such  as 
the  pedigree,  age,  freedom  from  vice,  and  soundness, 
which  the  buyer  desires  to  be  assured  of;  and  let  the 
affirmations  be  positive.  A  bill  of  sale  of  "  a  horse 
four  years  old,  constantly  driven  and  used  in  a  plow ; 
warranted,"  was  held  to  be  a  warranty  of  soundness 
only,  and  a  bill  of  sale  of  a  horse  in  which  he  was 
stated  as  "  considered  sound  "  was  held  not  to  be  a 
warranty  of  soundness.  As  soon  as  the  purchaser  dis- 
covers that  there  has  been  a  breach  of  warranty  he 
should  give  notice,  offer  to  return  the  animal,  and  de- 
mand his  money  back,  if  he  desires  to  be  reinstated  in 
the  jxjsition  he  occupied  before  the  sale. 

In  sales  at  auction  the  secret  employment  of  "  puff- 
ers," or  fictitious  bidders  to  enhance  the  price  unduly, 
is  a  fraud  on  the  purchaser,  who  would  avoid  such  a 
sale.  The  owner  of  an  animal  sold  at  auction  has  no 
right  under  the  usual  conditions  of  a  sale — that  the 
highest  bidder  shall  be  the  purchaser — to  employ  any 
person  to  bid  on  him  for  the  purpose  of  enhancing 
the  price.  It  is  just  as  true  in  horse  and  cattle  deal- 
ing as  in  other  business,  that  constant  and  permanent 
success  depends  on  character  as  well  for  honesty  as 
for  judgment.     A  man  sells  a  bad  animal  for  advan- 


CAUL— CELERY. 


24T 


tage ;  but  he  knows  that  if  chargeable  with  an  intention 
to  deceive  he  is  at  once  classed  with  the  knave  in  the 
business. 

The  best  way  to  sell  a  horse,  bull  or  cow  which  you 
want  to  get  rid  of  is  to  tell  the  truth  about  it.  A  frank 
acknowledgment  of  faults  will  often  obtain  credit  for 
a  counter  statement  of  good  qualities  Let  the  fault  of 
an  animal  be  what  it  may,it  will  suit  some  purpose,  and 
will  find  a  purchaser  at  its  fair  value.  Many  persons 
will  buy  an  imperfect  animal  at  a  reasonable  price, 
taking  the  risk  of  curing  and  getting  a  good  bargain. 

Caul,  or  Omentum,  the  membrane  covering  the  lower 
intestine.  "  Caul  fat  "  is  that  which  grows  uixjn  this 
membrane. 

Cauliflower,  a  garden  vegetable  of  the  cabbage 
family.  In  cultivation  pursue  the  same  course  as  with 
cabbage ;  manuring  rather  heavier  and  hoeing  oftener. 
It  wants  the  cool,  moist  weather  of  the  fall  months  to 
l)erfect  itself      It  is  prepared  and  eaten  as  cabbage. 

Varieties.     Early  Paris.     A  standard. 

Extra  Early  Dwarf  Erfurt.  One  of  the  best 
cauliflowers. 

Fitch's  Early  London.  The  best  strain  of  this  stand- 
ard English  sort. 

Nonpareil.  One  of  the  earliest  varieties  ;  resembles 
Early  Paris. 

Lenormand's  Short-Stenwied  Mammoth.  Dwarf, 
large  and  fine ;  one  of  the  largest  and  most  reliable 
for  general  cultivation. 

Italian  Early  Giant.  Fine,  large,  white-headed 
and  early. 

Carter's  Dwarf  Mammoth.  A  premium  English 
variety ;  very  early,  with  heads  remarkably  large  for 
such  a  dwarf. 

Large  White  Freruh,  Dwarf  Early  JLe  Maitre  and 
Stadtlwlder  are  other  good  varieties ;  and  Gerry  Island, 
Berlin  D^varf,  Late  Algerian  and  Hendersons  Early 
Sno^nhall  are  new  varieties  which  promise  to  sujiersede 
some  of  the  old. 

Cauliflower,  To  Cook.  Cut  the  stalk  close  and 
trim  the  leaves  from  a  nice  white  cauliflower.  Lay  it 
in  cold  salt  water  for  one  hour,  then  tie  in  a  piece  of 
thin  muslin  and  put  it,  flower  downward,  into  equal 
parts  of  milk  and  water,  with  a  litde  salt.  Cook  only 
until  tender,  which  will  be  in  about  20  minutes,  more 
or  less,  according  to  size.  When  done,  place  on  a  hot 
dish,  flower  side  up,  and  pour  over  it  sauce. 

Caustic,  burning ;  said  of  a  drug  which  bums  or  cor- 
rodes flesh  or  vegetable  tissue.  Potash  and  silver  ni- 
trate are  the  most  prominent  examples.  "  Lunar 
caustic"  is  silver  nitrate  in  sticks,  convenient  for  cer- 
tain puqxjses.  For  ordinary  cases,  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate,  ten  grains  to  an  ounce  of  water,  is  the  most  in 
vogue. 

Cauterize,  to  burn  or  sear  with  a  hot  iron  or  caus- 
tic drug,  as  morbid  flesh. 

Cautery,  a  burning  or  searing,  as  of  morbid  flesh, 
by  a  hot  iron,  or  by  caustic  drugs  which  burn,  corrode, 
16 


or  destroy  any  solid  part  of  an  animal  body.  Burning 
by  a  hot  iron  is  called  "  actual "  cautery,  and  that  by 
a  drug,  "  potential  "  cautery. 

Cavity,  of  an  apple,  is  the  hollow  around  the  inser- 
tion of  the  stem. 

Cayuga,  a  breed  of  ducks  :  see  Ducks. 

Cedar:  see  Forestry,  Landscape   Gardening,   eta 

Celery.  This  is  a  garden  salad  of  the  parsnip 
order,  but  the  stems  only  are  eaten,  they  being 
blanched  (whitened)  by  covering  with  earth  during 
cultivation.     There  are  two  methods  of  culture. 

I .  Sow  the  seed  early  in  a  hot-bed.  When  three 
inches  high,  transplant  to  a  bed  in  the  garden,  about 
four  inches  apart,  and  cover  them  frosty  nights.  When 
about  eight  inches  high,  remove  the  suckers,  strip  the 
leaves  and  transplant  to  a  previously  prepared  trench, 
18  inches  deep,  three-fourths  filled  with  well  rotted 
manure  and  muck,  thoroughly  mixed.  The  trenches 
should  be  five  or  six  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  should 
be  set  about  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row,  with  the  earth 
carefully  packed  about  the  roots.  In- 
stead of  the  first  transplanting,  many 
transfer  them  at  that  age  directly  from 
the  hot-bed  to  the  open  trench.  The 
object  of  the  trench  is  to  allow  hilling 
up  (Fig.  i)  toward  fall  for  the  purpose 
of  blanching.  In  that  situation  the 
plants  also  have  a  more  even  tem- 
perature. A  three-inch  tile  running 
along  under  the  plants  affords  a  good 
method  of  applying  salt  water  and  liquid  manure. 
The  tile  and  trench  should  pitch  a  little,  so  as  not  to 
hold  standing  water ;  for  while  the  celery  should  be 
kept  moist,  it  should  also  be  kept  drained.  This  tile 
supply  is  easily  controlled,  as  there  is  a  hopper  tube 
at  the  upper  end  and  a  gate  at  the  lower. 

To  blanch  celery  (that  is,  whiten  the  leaf-stems), 
draw  the  earth  up  around  it  from  time  to  time,  taking 
care  not  to  cover  the  center  shoots.  This  process  is 
continued  until  in  October,  by  which  time  the  plants 
are  covered  to  their  tips,  and  just  before  the  ground 
freezes  they  are  ready  to  be  covered  with  dry  leaves 
and  evergreen  boughs  (Fig.  2)  for  wintering.  But  an- 
other process  of  wintering  is 
to  take  them  up  with  as 
much  earth  as  possible  at- 
tached to  their  roots,  and  set 
them  in  rows  close  together, 
leaving  only  space  enough  to 
prevent  the  plants  from 
touching,  and  packing  the 
earth  firmly  around  them, 
leaving  only  an  inch  or  two 
ofthetops'stickingout;  then 
covering  either  with  boards, 
placed  so  that  the  water  can- 
not penetrate,  or  with  corn- 
FiG.  a.  stalks  thickly  bent  over  and 

fastened.     Drains  should  be  dug  around  the  celery  to 


Fig. 


i4i 


CELEU  Y— CEMENT. 


carry  off  the  water.  It  may  be  kept  in  this  way  until 
May  and  well  blanched.  It  is  well  known  that  stalks 
of  celer)'  stood  in  spring  water  under  a  shed,  where  it 
is  not  likely  to  be  frozen,  will  become  white  and  ten- 
der. But  it  is  only  a  few  persons  who  can  have  the 
spring  water  at  hand  for  this  use.  Celery  can  be  per- 
fectly blanched  and  preserved  by  packing  the  roots  in 
wet  earth  and  keeping  them  in  a  cellar.  Large  boxes 
are  obtained  and  a  few  inches  thick  of  earth  placed 
on  the  bottom  and  made  as  wet  as  possible.  The 
plants  are  then  packed  upright,  side  by  side  as  close 
as  they  can  stand,  until  the  boxes  are  full.  The 
upper  leaves  are  of  course  exposed,  and  attempt  to 
gnaw  a  little  by  the  encouragement  given  to  the  roots 
by  the  wet  earth  causing  growth  enough  to  blanch 
the  whole. 

2.  The  other  method  of  raising  celery  differs  from 
the  foregoing  only 
in  transplanting  to 
level  ground  in- 
stead of  trenches. 
It  requires  less  la- 
bor, but  also  cor- 
respondingly less 
good  celery. 

If  planted  in  July, 
nothing  is  to  be 
done  but  to  keep 
the  ground  clear  of 
weeds  until  Sep- 
tember; by  that 
time  the   handling 

is     to    be     beg  U  n,  Fig.  i.— Boston  Market  Celery. 

which  consists  in  drawing  the  earth  to  each  side  of 
the  celery,  and  pressing  it  tightly  to  it,  so  as  to  give 
the  leaves  an  upward  growth  preparatory  to  blanch- 
ing for  use. 

Varieties.      White  Soli  it     A  standard  sort. 

Cartel's  Crimson.  Dwarf,  solid  and  crisp ;  a  first- 
class  variety. 

Sandringham  Dwarf  White.     Most  dwarf  of 
very  solid;  white. 

Turnip-Rooted.     The  root  of  this   is   eaten ; 
called  celeriac ;  does  not  need  to  be  earthed  up. 

Turner s  Imomparable  Dwarf.    White,  solid, 
dwarf  habit  next  to  the  Sandringham. 

Boston  Market.      Short,  compact  and   solid; 
popular. 

Crawford's  Half  Dwarf.  A  new  variety  with  a 
rich,  nutty  flavor  and  great  vigor  of  growth. 

To  Prepare  Celery  for  the  Table,  cut  off  all 
the  little  roots,  and  shave  off  all  the  external  dark  cov- 
ering of  the  bulb  of  the  root;  slice  the  root  trans- 
versely in  sections  of  one-fourth  or  one-eighth  inch 
thick ;  remove  the  outer  stalks ;  cut  another  section 
from  the  root  close  up  to  the  attachment  of  the  next 
row  of  stalks;  remove  the  stalks  by  pulling  gently 
sideways,  and  it  will  separate  at  the  joint ;  cut  the 
center  piece  into  two  or  three  pieces,  or  not,  as  you 
choose ;  put  all  in  a  pail  of  cold  water ;  use  a  brush  to 
clean  each  piece,  using  plenty  of  water ;    cut  off  the 


all; 


also 


In 


very 


largest  stalks  just  above  the  two  lower  leaves  ;  place 
the  long  stalks  outside  in  the  celery  dish,  the  center 
piece  in  the  middle,  and  finish  out  with  sections  of 
roots,  etc ;  then  fill  the  dish  with  water  and  send  to  the 
table. 

Another  method:  Wash  the  roots  free  from  dirt,  and 
cut  off  all  the  decayed  leaves ;  preserve  as  much  of 
the  stalk  as  you  can,  removing  any  specks  or  discol- 
ored parts.  Divide  it  lengthwise  into  quarters,  curl 
the  top  leaves,  and  place  it  with  the  roots  downward 
in  the  celery  glass  nearly  filled  with  cold  water. 

Cellar :  see  Residence  and  Hygiene. 

Cement.  No  cement  is  of  any  value  unless,  in  its 
preparation,  all  dirt  is  excluded.  The  receipts  given 
below  will  be  found  to  answer  every  reasonable  de- 
mand, if  properly  prepared. 

For  Cisterns.  Take  equal  parts  of  quick-lime, 
pulverized  baked  brick  and  wood  ashes.  Thoroughly 
mix  the  above  substances  and  dilute  with  sufficient 
olive  oil  to  form  a  manageable  paste.  It  immediately 
hardens  in  the  air  and  never  cracks  beneath  the  water. 

Atiother:  Take  i  part  ordinary  brick  dust,  made 
from  hard-burned  and  finely  pulverized  bricks ;  i  part 
of  lime  and  2  parts  of  sand ;  mix  together,  dry,  and 
temper  with  water  in  the  usual  way. 

For  Glass  and  China  Ware.  Take  white  (fish) 
glue,  I  pound  10  ounces;  dry  white  lead,  6  ounces; 
soft  water,  3  pints ;  alcohol,  i  pint.  Dissolve  the  glue 
by  putting  it  into  a  tin  kettle,  or  dish,  containing  the 
water,  and  set  this  dish  into  a  kettle  of  water  to  pre- 
vent the  glue  from  being  burned ;  when  the  glue  is  all 
dissolved,  put  in  the  lead  and  stir  and  boil  until 
all  is  thoroughly  mixed ;  remove  from  the  fire,  and 
when  cool  enough  to  bottle,  add  the  alcohol,  and  bot- 
tle while  it  is  yet  warm,  keeping  it  corked. 

Another:  Two  measures  of  litharge,  and  i  each  of 
unslacked  lime  and  flint  glass;  each  to  be  pulverized 
separately  before  mixing;  then  to  use  it,  wet  it  up 
with  old  drying-oil.  Water  hardens  it  instead  of  soft- 
ening. 

Another:  Sifted  air-slacked  lime,  mixed  with  white 
of  an  egg.  Or  boil  i  ounce  of  glue  with  i  gill  of  milk, 
or  in  that  proportion,  and  it  will  resist  the  action  of 
water  when  used. 

For  Furniture  and  Wooden  Ware.  To  mend 
marble,  wood,  glass,  china  and  ornamental  ware,  take 
water,  i  gallon ;  nice  glue,  3  jxjunds  ;  white  lead,  4 
ounces;  whisky,  3  quarts.  Mix  by  dissolving  the  glue 
in  the  water;  remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  the  white 
lead,  then  add  the  whisky,  which  keeps  it  fluid,  except 
in  the  coldest  weather.  Warm  and  stir  up  when  ap- 
plied.    Or,  powdered  chalk  and  common  glue. 

For  Iron  and  Stone.  Glycerine  and  litharge, 
mixed  into  a  paste,  furnish  an  extremely  firm  cement 
for  iron  and  stone.  The  material  hardens  very  quickly 
and  must  therefore  be  used  at  once.  It  is  insoluble 
in  water,  and  attacked  only  by  concentrated  acids. 
Articles  joined  with  it  can  be  used  in  a  very  few  hours 
afterwards.  Sandstone  blocks  joined  by  this  cement, 
have  broken  a  fresh  fracture,  rather  than  at  the  point 


CENTER  OE  GRA  VITV— CHAPPING. 


Hi 


of  the  union  of  the  original  surfaces.  Very  dry  lith- 
arge does  not  form  so  good  a  cement  as  that  which 
has  absorbed  a  considerable  amount  of  water.  Only 
the  purest  material  is  to  be  used. 

For  Steam  and  Hot-Water  Pipes.  White  lead 
paint,  with  over  half  as  much  iron  borings. 

For  Stoves,  Flues,  etc.  Common  wood  ashes 
and  salt,  made  into  a  paste,  with  a  little  water.  With 
this  mixture,  an  aperture  through  which  the  fire  or 
smoke  penetrates  may  be  closed  in  a  moment.  Its 
effect  is  eciually  certain,  whether  the  stove  is  hot  or 
cold.  Or,  iron  borings  or  filings,  with  salt  water  and 
a  very  little  sal  ammoniac. 

For  Chimneys,  outside.  3  parts  ashes,  3  parts  clay, 
and  I  of  sand  :  said  to  make  a  cement  as  hard  as  mar- 
ble, and  imi)ervious  to  water. 

For  Mending  Rubber.  Cut  virgin  or  native  India 
rubber  ^vith  a  wet  knife  into  the  thinnest  possible  slices, 
and  with  the  shears  divide  these  into  threads  as  fine 
as  fine  yarn.  Put  a  small  quantity  of  the  shreds  (say 
one-tenth  or  less  of  the  capacity  of  the  bottle)  into  a 
wide-mouthed  l)ottle,  and  fill  it  three-quarters  full  of 
benzine  of  good  cjuality,  perfectly  free  from  oil.  The 
rubber  will  swell  \\\>  almost  immediately,  and  in  a  few 
days,  especially  if  often  shaken,  assumes  the  consist- 
ency of  honey.  If  it  inclines  to  remain  in  undissolved 
masses  more  benzine  must  be  added ;  but  if  too  thin 
and  water)',  it  needs  more  rubber.  A  piece  of  solid 
rubber  the  size  of  a  walnut  will  make  a  pint  of  the 
cement.     This  cement  dries  in  a  few  minutes. 

For  Canning  Fruits.  Resin,  i  [xsund ;  lard,  tal- 
low and  beeswax,  of  each  i  ounce.  Melt  and  stir 
together ;  and  have  it  hot,  ready  to  dip  into  when  can- 
ning. 

Center  of  Gravity,  that  point  in  a  body  or 
mass  of  matter  around  which  all  parts  exactly  balance 
each  other. 

Cereal,  grain  from  which  breadstuff  is  made; 
also,  of  or  pertaining  to  such  grain.  For  a  few  years 
past  there  has  been  great  rivalry  in  the  preparation  of 
wheat,  oats,  barley  and  corn  in  various  forms  for  i)ud- 
dings,  mushes,  cakes,  gruels,  blanc  mange,  bread,  etc., 
each  party  branding  his  article  with  some  fancy  name, 
as  "Snowflake  Corn,"  "Prepared  Wheat,"  "Cereal 
White,"  "  Pearl  Hominy,"  etc.,  all  of  which  ardcles  are 
good  enough  when  fresh.  Steam-cooked  oats  are  the 
most  convenient  for  a  hasty  dish,  as  it  will  sufficiently 
swell  up,  in  toiling  water,  in  five  to  ten  minutes. 

Cerebro-Spinal  Meningitis  (ser'-e-bro  spi'-nal 
men-in-ji'-tis),  sjxDtted  Fever;  which  see. 

Cess- Pool.  Any  pool  or  mud-hole  which  becomes 
foul  by  the  reception  of  the  sediment  of  drains,  etc. 
Such  a  thing  is  unsightly  and  unhealthful,  and  no 
fajmer  should  permit  such  a  thing  upon  his  premises. 

Chaff,  the  seed  husks  of  the  smaller  grains  and 
of  grasses.  Valuable  for  mulching,  covering  vegeta- 
bles and  fruits  to  keep  over  winter,  conservatories,  etc. 

Chafing,  irritation  of  the  skin.     It  generally   af- 


fects stout  and  fleshy  persons,  especially  in  warm 
weather.  Alum  dissolved  in  water  and  applied  with 
a  clean  linen  rag,  is  an  excellent  remedy.  Flour  or 
corn-starch  is  also  very  good. 

Chafing  Dish.  A  dish  or  vessel  to  hold  coals  for 
heating  anything  set  on  it ;    a  portable  grate  for  coals. 

Chairs,  like  shoes,  are  nearly  all  made  wrong, 
for  either  comfort  or  health.  They  are  so  made  as  to 
force  an  inconvenient  and  unphysiological  curving  of 
the  spine ;  and  rockers  and  "  easy  chairs  "  have  their 
backs  at  the  top  turning  from  the  head,  instead  of 
projecting  fonvard  a  little,  to  support  the  head.  Solid- 
wood-bottom  chairs,  or  "  Windsor  "  chairs,  as  they  are 
sometimes  called,  in  the  winter  time  are  often  too  cold 
for  use.  Sitting  in  them  tends  to  bring  on  pains  in 
the  back  and  loins,  neuralgia,  and  various  other  ail- 
ments in  the  region  of  the  hips. 

Challenge,  in  hunting,  is  the  opening  and  crying  of 
hounds  at  first  finding  the  scent  of  their  game. 

Chamomile,  or  camomile  (cam'  o-mile),  a  pleasant- 
ly scented  fennel,  used  in  sweating  medicines.  The 
herb  is  easily  raised  in  the  gardens  of  this  country. 

Champagne,  (sham-pane'),  a  kind  of  brisk,  spark- 
ling wine.  The  name  is  also  given  to  many  imitations 
of  that  jxDpular  beverage.  One  imitation  is  made  by 
mi.xing  tartaric  acid  i  ounce,  i  good-sized  lemon,  gin- 
ger root  I  ounce,  sugar  i  Y-^  pounds,  water  2  }^  gal- 
lons, and  yeast  i  gill. 

Another :  Raisins  7  pounds ;  loaf  sugar  2 1  pounds ; 
water  9  gallons;  tartaric  acid  i  ounce;  honey  % 
jxjund ;  ferment  with  sweet  yeast  i  pound  or  less ; 
skim  frequently,  and  after  fermentation  is  nearly  over, 
add  coarse  jxawdered  orris  root,  i  drachm,  and  orange- 
flower  water,  3  ounces ;  lemon  juice  J^  pint.  Rack  it, 
and  in  three  months  fine  it  down  with  isinglass  ^ 
ounce;  in  two  weeks  bottle  it,  putting  into  each  bottle 
a  piece  of  double-refined  sugar  the  size  of  a  pea. 

Champagne,  Summer.  To  4  parts  of  Seltzer  water 
add  I  of  Moselle  wine  (or  hock),  and  put  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  powdered  sugar  into  a  wineglassful  of  this 
mixture ;  an  ebullition  takes  place,  and  you  have  a 
sort  of  champagne  which  is  more  wholesome  in  hot 
weather  than  the  genuine  wine  known  by  that    name. 

Chapping,  cracking  of  the  skin,  by  exposure  to  dry 
or  cold  winds.  To  keep  the  hands  from  chapping,  see 
that  they  are  perfectly  dry  before  they  are  exposed  to 
cold  air.  Taking  off  the  mittens  or  gloves  out-doors 
on  a  cold  day  exixsses  the  hands  to  chapping;  then  aj)- 
ply  a  little  honey,  glycerine  or  raw  linseed  oil ;  rub  it 
well  into  the  cuticle. 

If  nothing  is  done  to  prevent,  and  the  person  is 
obliged  to  have  his  hands  frequently  wet  and  dried, 
the  cracks  will  often  get  deep  and  be  painful.  Corn- 
husking,  ])articularly,  is  the  cause  of  sore  hands  in 
this  way. 

As  both  a  precaution  and  a  cure  for  chapped  hands, 
wash  the  hands  (and  the  face  also,  if  it  is  inclined  to 
chap),  with  borax  water,  and  afterward  rub  with  an 


244 


CHARBON—CHECK-RO  WER. 


ointment  made  by  melting  mutton  tallow  (or  suet), 
and  then  gradually  adding  an  equal  quantity  of  glyc- 
erine, stirring  the  two  together  until  cool.  For  the 
hands,  this  mixture  can  be  best  applied  at  night,  us- 
ing it  freely  and  warming  it  in  by  the  fire,  after  which 
an  old  pairof  gloves  can  be  put  on  to  keep  the  bed  clothes 
from  being  soiled,  and  also  make  the  skin  of  the  hands 
softer.  An  excellent  glycerine  ointment  for  chapped 
hands  is  made  by  melting,  with  a  gentle  heat,  2  ounces 
of  sweet  oil  of  almonds,  ^  an  ounce  of  spermaceti, 
and  I  drachm  of  white  wax.  When  melted,  remove 
from  the  stove  and  add  gradually  i  ounce  of  glycerine, 
and  stir  until  the  mixture  is  cold.  The  ointment  may 
be  scented  with  any  perfume  to  suit  the  fancy.  Keep 
in  wide-necked  bottles.  To  keep  the  hands  from  get- 
ting sore  during  harvest,  use  camphor  dissolved  in 
alcohol.  Rub  it  on  the  hands,  morning,  noon  and 
night,  directly  after  washing. 

For  chapped  lips,  some  one  of  the  preceding ;  or 
honey,  cream  and  rose  of  lavender. 

Charbon  (shar  bon),  in  farriery,  is  a  small,  black 
spot  or  mark  remaining  in  the  cavity  of  the  comer 
tooth  of  a  horse  after  the  large  spot  or  mark  has  become 
obliterated.  The  word  is  also  a  name  of  a  disease  of 
cattle  and  horses,  known  further  by  the  names,  "  an- 
thrax," "  bloody  murrain,"  "black  quarter,"  "  spotted 
fever,"  etc.     See  Bloody  Murrain,  page  223. 

Charcoal,  such  portion  of  the  woody  fiber  as  has 
escaped  complete  combustion  in  burning  vegetable 
matter.  To  make  it  in  large  quantities,  cut  the  tim- 
ber (oak,  beech  and  maple  are  best)  in  the  winter 
and  let  it  stand  until  summer;  then,  if  sufficiently  dry, 
cut  it  into  small  billets ;  throw  up  the  ground  a  Uttle 
higher  than  the  surrounding  surface  ;  beat  it  so  as  to 
form  a  hard,  dry,  solid  floor  ;  in  the  center  of  this  area, 
place  a  circle  of  sticks,  adjoining  each  other,  and  com- 
posing a  vertical,  hollow  cylinder  from  three  to  four 
inches  in  diameter  and  about  six  feet  high ;  around  the 
cylinder  are  ranged  successive  circles  formed  by 
pieces  from  one  to  ten  inches  in  diameter;  several 
flues  must  be  formed  through  the  pile  so  that  it  will 
kindle  in  a  short  time  and  burn  equally.  The  outer- 
most circle  is  composed  of  brush-wood  and  chips.  A 
coat  of  turf  must  now  be  laid  on,  the  grass  side  to  the 
wood ;  heap  dry  earth  around  the  bottom  of  the  pile  and 
well  ram  it  to  prevent  admission  of  air.  Now  kindle  by 
dropping  lighted  chips  down  the  hollow  cylinder  in 
the  center,  then  close  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and 
pierce  a  tow  of  holes  at  the  base  about  two  inches  in 
diameter,  by  which  the  requisite  quantity  of  air  is  sup- 
plied and  a  passage  afforded  for  the  smoke  and  vapor. 
When  the  white  smoke  is  succeeded  by  thin  blue  and 
transparent  smoke,  the  holes  are  all  closed  up  and 
the  pile  is  covered  over  with  earth  till  the  fire  is  com- 
pletely extinguished.  The  fire  is  now  allowed  to  cool, 
which  requires  many  days.  It  remains  long  red-hot  in 
the  center,  and  if  opened  before  perfectly  cool,  it  will 
bum  with  fury.  Charcoal  burns  away  very  quickly, 
requiring  constant  renewal,  and  is  expensive ;  but  it 
is  the  best  fuel  where  a  regular  heat  is  required. 


Animal  Charcoal  is  made  from  the  bones  of  ani- 
mals, and  is  used  to  decolorize  vinegar  and  other  veg- 
etable liquids,  etc.  To  make  it  for  this  purpose,  fill  a 
crucible  with  the  most  compact  parts  of  ox  and  sheep 
bones ;  lute  the  cover,  leaving  only  a  small  opening  at 
the  top ;  place  the  cmcible  on  a  forge  fire,  and  heat  it 
gradually  until  red ;  when  the  flame  from  the  oily  and 
gelatinous  parts  has  ceased,  diminish  the  opening  and 
suddenly  raise  the  fire;  when  the  charcoal  has  become 
cold,  reduce  it  to  fine  powder. 

As  AN  Antiseptic,  wood  charcoal  possesses  extra- 
ordinary ]x>wers,  in  checking  decomposition,  as  well  as 
in  deodorizing  animal  substances  which  have  begun  to 
decay.  Meat,  before  or  after  it  is  cooked,  may  be 
preserved  a  considerable  time,  even  in  warm  weather, 
by  being  placed  in  a  clean  vessel  and  surrounded  with 
charcoal.  Water  is  immediately  deprived  of  its  bad 
smell  by  charcoal. 

ANTISEPTIC  Poultice  of  charcoal  is  made  by  tak- 
ing linseed  meal,  Y^  jxiund,  charcoal  [xjwder,  2  ounces, 
and  hot  water  sufficient  to  give  it  the  necessary  con- 
sistency. Besides  purifying  and  healing,  it  counter- 
acts the  offensive  smell  arising  from  putrid  sores. 

Warning:  Remember  that  in  order  to  exercise  its 
powers  as  a  disinfectarit,  deodorizer  and  bleacher,  it 
should  be  fresh  burned  and  carefully  preserved,  out  of 
contact  with  the  air.  Again,  although  it  gives  no 
smoke,  its  combustion  can  not  go  on  without  the  fomi- 
ation  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which,  being  heavier  than 
the  atmosphere,  generally  occupies  the  lowest  place  in 
the  apartment ;  yet  a  certain  }X>rtion  can  not  fail  to 
mingle  with  the  air  and  render  it  unwholesome  to 
breathe.  The  air  arising  from  the  burning  being  clear 
and  transparent  we  have  no  warning,  as  in  coal.  The 
first  sensation,  when  it  has  become  dangerous,  is  a 
slight  sense  of  weakness,  next,  slight  giddiness,  then 
drowsiness;  the  subject  falls  on  the  floor  insensible, 
and  breathes  strong  as  in  aixiplexy.  Remedy:  Cold 
water  to  the  head  and  mustard  or  hartshorn  to  the 
soles  of  the  feet.  Give  out-door  air  constantly  and 
thoroughly,  at  any  expense. 

Charge,  in  farriery,  is  a  sort  of  plaster  or  oint- 
ment. 

Cheat,  the  name  of  a  grass :  see  Chess. 

Check,  in  commerce,  is  an  order  upon  a  bank  to 
pay  on  demand  to  the  person  named  in  the  check,  or 
to  his  order,  the  sum  of  money  specified  in  the  body 
of  the  check,  in  writing.  All  such  checks  require  a 
two-cent  revenue  stamp  to  be  placed  ujwn  them. 

Check  Ease,  same  as  Check  Rein  of  the  next  para- 
graph. 

Check  Rein,  the  rein  by  which  the  horse's  mouth 
is  drawn  back  toward  his  throat,  with  the  object  of 
raising  his  head,  and  giving  a  graceful  curve  to  the 
neck.     See  Bridle. 

Check-Rower,  a  corn-planter  which  plantsthe  com 
in  check-rows  without  a  previous  marking  or  furro\ving 
of  the  field.  The  wire  check-rower  operates  by  a  wire 
which  is  stretched  across  the  field.    See  Corn-Planter. 


i 


CHEESE. 


*4S 


Cheese.  All  the  chief  dairies  in  this  country 
now  make  good,  honest  cheese,  having  waked  up 
to  the  fact  that  they  are  in  competition  with  Eng- 
land and  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  even  with 
the  independence  of  the  public  in  the  United 
States,  who  are  ready  to  do  without  cheese  alto- 
gether rather  than  use  a  poor  article.  The 
instructions  here  given  are  therefore  not  designed 
for  extensive  cheese-makers,  but  for  farmers  gen- 
erally, and  for  beginners  in  the  art.  Where  large 
quantities  are  to  be  made,  it  is  generally  advisable 
to  take  advantage  of  the  facilities  for  production 
afforded  by  the  factory,  for  the  following  reasons: 
Unless  sufficient  male  help  is  at  hand,  the  labor  of 
cheese-making  on  a  large  scale  is  much  too  severe 
for  the  women  of  the  household.  The  cheese  made 
at  the  factory  is  more  uniform  in  flavor  and  com- 
mands a  betterprice  than  the  home-made  article.  A 
larger  amount  of  cheese  can  usually  be  made  froin  a 
given  quantity  of  milk  at  the  factory  than  else- 
where. But  to  those  who  have  either  no  desire  or 
no  opportunity  to  avail  themselves  of  the  services 
of  the  f;ictory,  the  following  observations  and 
directions  will  be  found  valuable. 

The  various  kinds  of  cheese  are  made  in  three 
ways:  1st.  From  the  entire  milk.  2d.  From  a 
mixture,  one-half  of  which  is  new,  the  other  half 
having  stood  from  10  to  12  hours,  and  from  which 
the  cream  rising  in  that  time  has  been  removed. 
3d.  From  milk  which  has  parted  with  nearly  all 
its  cream.  Of  this  last  kind  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  speak:  it  is  as  unprofitable  as  it  is  unwhole- 
some. The  second  kind  is  of  tolerable  flavor  and 
moderately  healthful.  The  first  kind,  when  prop- 
erly and  carefully  made,  is  rich  and  of  fine  flavor. 
For  the  making  of  cheese  on  a  small  scale,  a 
cheese  hoop  about  ten  inches  in  diameter  with  a 
follower,  a  new  wash-tub  and  a  press  are  required. 
These  articles  are  to  be  had  cheap.  A  good  press, 
however,  can  be  made  in  a  few  hours  from  a 
12-inch  plank  and  a  few  pieces  of  scantling.  One 
foot  from  either  end  of  the  plank  set  up  two  short 
pieces  of  scantling  4^  inches  apart.  Fasten  them 
firmly  to  a  plank  with  bolts  or  pins.  The  lever 
may  be  a  joist  4x4x6,  and  14  feet  long.  One  end 
is  secured  by  uprights  at  one  end  of  the  plank.  A 
weight  hung  at  one  end  of  the  lever  completes  the 
press.  The  cheese  is  pressed  by  putting  the  hoop 
containing  the  curd  near  the  end  of  the  preSs- 
beam,  which  is  fast,  placing  blocks  on  the  follower 
and  letting  down  the  beam.  The  curd  may  be 
cut  with  a  large  bread  knife  or  a  long,  thin, 
wooden  one. 

The  milk  having  been  taken  to  the  house  in  a 
sweet  and  pure  condition,  perfectly  free  from  dust 
and  foul  odors,  it  should  be  strained  in  the  usual 
manner  through  a  cloth  into  a  cheese  tub.  One 
gallon  of  milk  should  yield  one  pound  of  cheese. 
The  precise  quantity   used   at  a   time   should    bp 


noted.  Part  of  the  milk  should  be  placed  in 
kettles  or  larger  pans  containing  a  little  water  to 
enable  the  dairyman  to  increase  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  without  scorching  it.  Enough  must 
be  warmed  to  bring  the  whole,  when  in  the  tub, 
up  to  a  temperature  of  83°.  The  next  operation 
is  the  curdling  of  the  milk.  This  is  done  by  add- 
ing rennet.  It  is  procured  from  the  fourth  stomach 
of  the  calf,  which  should  not  be  washed,  but 
turned,  carefully  wiped  with  a  cloth,  sprinkled 
with  pure  salt,  and  dried  at  a  moderate  tempera- 
ture in  the  open  air.  The  Scotch  put  about  two 
handfuls  of  salt  into  and  outside  the  maw,  or  bag, 
roll  it  up  and  hang  it  near  a  fire  to  dry.  It  is  said 
to  improve  by  hanging  a  year  or  longer  before 
being  infused.  When  prepared  for  use  it  is  steeped 
in  eithei'  whey  or  brine.  Whey  is  preferred  by 
some;  but  it  should  be  first  boiled  and  strained. 
Some  steep  the  rennets  a  week,  during  which  time 
they  should  be  squeezed  and  rubbed  so  as  to  extract 
the  active  principle.  The  Scotch  method,  which 
is  highly  spoken  of,  is  to  cut  the  rennet  up  into 
small  pieces  and  put  into  a  jar  with  a  handful  or 
two  of  salt.  Soft  water  boiled  and  cooled  to  65° 
is  added.  If  the  rennet  is  that  of  a  new-dropped 
calf,  three  pints  will  suffice;  if  the  calf  has  been 
fed  four  or  five  weeks,  two  quarts  may  be  used. 
When  the  infusion  has  remained  in  the  jar  about 
three  days,  the  liquid  is  strained  and  may  be  bottled 
for  use.  If  a  dram  glass  of  any  ardent  spirit  is 
put  into  each  bottle,  the  infusion  may  be  used  im- 
mediately, or  kept  as  long  as  convenient. 

Fig.  I  repre- 
sents a  spout  made 
for  the  purpose  of 
conduct  i  n  g  the 
milk  from  the 
weigh-can  to  the 
vats.  The  tube  on  the  end  can  be  extended  any 
length,  but  if  over  two  feet  long  should  be  an  open 
trough. 

Another  method  is  to  put  ten  rennets,  properly 
prepared,  into  ten  gallons  of  blood-warm  water; 
churn  or  rub  them  often  during  24  hours;  then  rub 
and  press  them  to  get  the  strength;  stretch,  salt 
and  dry  them  as  before.  They  will  gain  strength 
for  a  second  use.  Make  the  liquor  as  salt  as  it  can  be 
made,  strain  and  settle  it,  separate  it  from  the  sed- 
iment, if  there  is  an^-,  and  it  is  fit  for  use.  Some- 
times two  oimces  of  common  sage,  two  ounces  of 
cinnamon,  two  ounces  of  cloves  and  six  lemons 
are  added  to  the  liquor,  to  quicken  its  action  and 
preserve  its  flavor.  It  should  be  kept  cool  in  a 
stone  jar,  and  it  will  keep  sweet  and  of  uniform 
strength.  Stir  before  dipping  off.  The  English 
method  is  to  steep  the  rennets  in  brine  strong 
enough  to  bear  an  egg.  Six  rennets,  i  sliced  lemon, 
I  ounce  of  saltpeter  to  2  gallons  of  brine.  The  brine 
liguor  is  usually  prepared  one  or  two  months  before 


Fig.  I. 


246 


CHEESE. 


being  used.  It  is  believed  that  this  age  improves  its 
coagulating  qualities.  Poor  milk  requires  more 
rennet  than  rich.  Too  much  injures  the  cheese; 
too  little  retards  the  work  and  makes  the  cheese 
sour  and  hard.  It  should  be  constantly  borne  in 
mind  that  milk  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive  of  all 
fluids  to  noxious  influences.  Therefore,  the  most 
scrupulous  and  constant  cleanliness  should  be  main- 
tained in  every  step  in  cheese-making.  All  ves- 
sels used  should  be  scalded  with  boiling  water,  not 
simply  ■with  hot  water,  as  soon  as  they  have  been 
emptied  of  their  contents.  The  pastures  of  the 
cattle,  their  food  and  drink,  should  be  kept  free 
from  all  putrefactions  and  from  fermentations  of 
whatever  kind.  Consequently,  stagnant  water 
and  sour  land,  as  well  as  moldy  food,  should  be 
carefully  avoided.  In  parts  of  England  the  con- 
tents of  the  calPs  stomach  are  sometimes  salted  by 
themselves,  and,  after  a  short  exposure  to  the  air, 
are  fit  for  use.  In  parts  of  Scotland  the  curds  are 
left  in  the  stomach,  and  both  are  dried  together. 
It  is  generally  held  that  rennet,  as  usually  prepared, 
is  not  fit  for  use  until  about  a  year  old.  The  fol- 
lowing method  of  curing  rennets,  although  it  dif- 
fers in  some  important  particulars  from  what  has 
just  been  said,  is  given,  both  on  account  of  the  ex- 
treme importance  of  the  subject  of  rennet  in  cheese- 
making,  and  of  the  authority  of  the  gentleman  from 
whom  it  comes,  who  is  employed  by  the  Eastern 
Ontario  Dairyman's  Association  in  the  making  and 
curing  of  cheese: 

First.  A  rennet  that  is  taken  from  a  calf 
that  has  never  been  suckled  or  fed  is  rank 
poison,  and  should  never  be  saved.  The  calf  should 
be  at  least  three  days  old  before  killing.  (  3. )  They 
are  usually  in  their  best  condition  when  the  calves 
are  from  five  to  ten  days  old,  but  they  do  not  vary 
much  in  strength  so  long  as  the  calves  live  entirely 
on  milk.  As  soon  as  they  begin  to  live  upon  solid 
food,  the  strength  of  their  stomachs,  as  rennets, 
begin  to  abate.  The  stomachs  of  calves  five  daj's 
old  are  generally  preferred  by  cheese-makers  to 
those  of  older  or  younger. 

To  obtain  the  best  rennets,  the  calf  should  be 
allowed  to  suck  or  to  be  fed  a  moderate  meal 
twelve  hours  before  killing.  It  is  a  good  way  to 
give  the  last  meal  at  night,  and  kill  the  next  morn- 
ing. Fifteen  hours  is  not  too  long,  but  in  going 
too  long  without  being  fed  the  stomach  becomes  in- 
flamed and  congested  with  blood,  giving  it  a 
dark  reddish  appearance,  and  the  disturbed  condi- 
tion thus  occasioned  is  carried  with  the  steepings 
of  the  rennet  into  the  cheese,  and  affects  it  very 
unfavorably.  The  calves  should  live  till  the  curd 
from  their  last  meal  is  nearly  dissolved,  and  no 
longer.  As  the  curd  disappears  the  coagulating 
agent  accuinulates,  not  in  the  juices  of  the  stom- 
ach, as  might  be  supposed,  but  is  deposited  on  the 
inside  of  the  stomach,  forming  a  delicate  coating, 


faintly  flesh  color  and   very  tender,  which  breaks 
oft"  in  thin  flocculent  scales  upon  slight  friction. 

As  this  coating  contains  the  concentrated  strength 
of  the  rennet,  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  as  much  of 
it  as  possible.  To  this  end,  the  sack,  when  taken 
from  the  calf,  should  be  handled  with  great  care. 
The  contents  should  be  emptied  out  carefully,  sack 
turned  inside  out,  and  any  specks  of  dirt  or  hairs 
that  may  appear  on  it,  picked  off.  If  further  clean- 
ing is  necessary,  it  may  be  carefully  wiped  with  a 
moist  cloth;  zvater  should  never  be  used  in  clean- 
ing. When  sufficiently  dried  and  lightly  salted,  it 
is  ready  for  drying,  which  may  be  done  in  any  con- 
venient way,  so  that  it  shall  not  waste  by  dripping 
or  injure  by  tainting.  It  may  be  stretched  on  a 
crutched  limb,  its  ends  may  be  tied  and  inflated,  or 
it  may  be  cut  open  and  laid  on  a  dried  board, 
which  will  aid  in  drying  by  absorbing  its  moisture. 
These  modes  of  preserving  are  very  much  better 
than  salting  in  pickle  or  filling  with  salt. 

If  exposed  to  too  much  heat,  rennets  lose  strength 
quickly;  120°  F.  heat  will  kill  the  strength  en- 
tirely ;  therefore  they  should  never  be  dried  on 
plates  or  tins  round  the  stove. 

When  annatto  is  used  for  coloring  purposes,  it 
is  used  at  this  stage  of  the  operation.  It  is  com- 
monly dissolved  in  hot  milk,  the  quantity  used 
rarely  being  more  than  one  ounce  of  annatto  to  one 
hundred  pounds  of  the  curd.  It  is  a  commodity  large- 
ly adulterated,  sometimes  with  lead  or  mercury, 
and  its  use  might  be  advantageously  discontinued. 
The  milk  having  been  brought  to  a  temperature 
of  from  80°  to  83°,  enough  rennet  is  stirred  into 
it  to  produce  coagulation  (curding)  in  about  40 
minutes.  As  soon  as  the  curd  is  firm  enough, 
which  may  be  known  by  its  breaking  smoothly 
when  the  finger  is  passed  through  it,  it  is  cut  with 
curd  knives  into  squares  about  }^  to  j/^  inch  in 
diameter.  Some  break  the  curd  gently  with  the 
hands.  It  is  then  allowed  to  stand  from  }^  to  ^ 
an  hour,  when  the  whey  is  expelled  and  the  curd 
becomes  quite  firm.  Part  of  the  whe}'  is  then 
dipped  off  and  heated.  The  mass  of  curds  is  then 
gently  lifted  and  broken  into  minute  pieces;  warm 
whey  is  added  until  the  temperature  is  raised  to 
98°, the  contents  of  the  vat  being  gently  stirred  to 
prevent  the  packing  of  curds  on  the 
bottom.  It  is  then  allowed  to  stand 
about  half  an  hour,  and  the  opera- 
tion is  repeated  until  the  curd  is 
firm  and  easily  falls  to  pieces  when 
pressed  in  the  hand. 

The  whey  is  then  either  dipped 
off,  or  drained  away  by  a  spout  in 
the  vat,  down  to  the  curd.  One 
end  of  the  vat  is  raised  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  drainage.  Or,  use  a 
whey  strainer  and  siphon.  Fig.  2, 
V'^rf'i.^iiffB^'""  which  is  a  great  convenience. 


CHEESE. 


247 


Fig.  3.     I  :.il  St.l,-  Cur  J  Pail. 

except  the  handles 


The  curd  is  then  put  into 
the  strainer  on  a  hasket  or 
hopper,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  made  of  slats. 
By  some  it  is  at  once 
placcil  in  the  cooler,  brok- 
en into  ilakcs  or  cut  up 
r-vi'  j        with    curd    knives.       The 

F  /         metallic-head  ctnd   knives, 

perpendicular  and  horizon- 
tal, of  tinned  stcel,Fij;'.  4, 
have  no  wood  about  them 
hence  tiiereisno  danger  of  the 
lilades  becoming  loose  from 
the  shrinkage  and  swelling 
of  the  wood  between  the 
blades  as  in  the  old  styles, 
nor  can  filth  accumulate  in 
the  joints,  as  where  wood 
is  used.  The  blades  of 
these  knives  are  of  steel, 
ground  to  a  keen  edge,  and 
the  metal  is  nicely  tinned 
over  to  prevent  rusting. 
They  are  the  finest  knives 
for  the  purpose. 

It  is  then  spread  out  un- 
til the  temperature  falls  to 
70°.  In  about  20  minutes 
it  is  turned  over  and  left 
until  it  assumes  the  flaky 
and  mellow  condition  well  known  to  the  experi- 
enced eye.  When  nearly  dry,  salt  may  be  added, 
in  the  proportion  of  4  or  43/^  ounces  to  10  pounds 
of  curd. 


Fig.  4. 


-Metallic-Head   Curd 
Knives. 


KiG.  ^.—  Patent  Knife  Curd  Mitt. 

The  whole  is  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  curd 
mill.  The  use  of  curd  mills  has  become  quite 
general  among  the  best  cheese-makers  of  the 
country,  as  it  is  found  that  by  the  little  additional 
labor  involved  in  grinding  the  curd  before  press- 
ing, a  much  better  product  can  be  obtained.  Let 
the  whey  run  off  while  it  is  sweet,  then  pack  the 
curd  in  the  vat,  cover  it  up  and  let  it  remain  until 
the  heat  and  action  of  the  rennet  expel  most  of 
the  moisture,  and  also  until  the  curd  itself  becomes 
slightly  acid,  then  cut  or  break  it  up  into  pieces, 
and  run  it  through  a  curd  mill  preparatory  to  salt- 
ing. Much  better  cheese  with  less  skill  can  be 
made  by  the  use  of  them.  ' 


The  seamless  bandage  (Fig.  6)  saves  the  time 
and  labor  of  cutting  and  making  bandages;  i^ 
saves  cloth  taken  up  in  the  old  way  by  seam;   it 

saves  expense  for 
thread;  it  saves 
cloth  taken  up  in 
the  old  way  by 
variation  in  the 
depth  of  cheese; 
it  secures  perfect 
iniiformity  in  the 
size  of  cheese;  it 
secures  perfect  uni- 
formity in  the  size 
of  box  required. 
Every  box  can  fit 

Fig.  6.  -  Sraiiiless  Bandage.  pCrfectl}'  ;    C  O  U  S  e- 

quentlv  there  is  no  trouble  in  removing  it  at  any 
time  desired;  no  trouble,  perplexity,  or  loss  caused 
by  seam,  as  there  is  no  seam  to  rip;  no  chance  of 
~  skipper  fly  depositing  eggs  in  seam, 

as  is  not  infrequent  in  the  old  way 
of  bandaging;  it  is  a  better  and 
stronger  bandage  every  way,  at  no 
greater  expense.  The  bandage  is 
made  to  perfectly  fit  cheese  pressed 

'»  13)  13^1  H.  HJ^)  i5>  15^  and 
16  inch  hoops. 

The  boxes  are  then  placed  in  the 
press,  and  the  pressure  applied  by 
lever  and  screw. 

VV^ith  such  material  as  represent- 
ed by  Figs.  8  and  9,  furnished,  for 
example,  by    Chas.  P.   Willard   & 
Co.,  of  Chicago,  every  dairyman  can  make  his  own 
cheese  boxes.     This  material  is  furnished  of 


YlG.^J. —Cheese  Press 

Screw. 


all  sizes  and  dimensions  desired. 


Fig.  8. — Galvanixed  Iron  Cheese  Hoops. 

The  rings  are  now  indispensable  articles  with 
all  good  cheese-makers.  They  keep  the  curd 
from  pressing  up  around  the  follower  of  a  cheese 
hoop,  take  the  place  of  press  cloths,  and  prevent 
the  bursting  of  the  bandage  at  the  edge  in  the  sec- 
ond pressing,  an  experience  that  has  always  here- 
tofore troubled  cheese-makers. 

The  cut  (Fig.  9)  represents  a  cheese  hoop  cut 
perpendicularly.  A  represents  the  cheese  hoop: 
B,  the  follower;  C,  the  cheese;  E  and  F,  the  rub- 


i 


348 


CHEESE. 


ber  rings.  One  of  these  rubber  rings  is  placed  on 
the  inside  of  the  cheese  hoop,. resting  on  the  press 
board,  below  the  curd   or  cheese.     The  other  is 


Via.  ^.—Patent  Rubber  Press  Rings. 

placed  above  the  cheese,  directly  under  the  follow- 
er. As  soon  as  the  pressure  is  applied  it  causes  the 
rubber  rings  to  expand  and  fit  tight  to  the  hoops, 
preventing  the  curd  from  press- 
ing either  up  around  the  fol- 
V  lower,  or  out  underneath  the 
/bottom  of  the  hoops. 

By  using  these  rubber  rings, 
the  followers  may  fit  the  hoops 
very  loosely.  They  are  more 
convenient  than  press  cloths, 
are  more  readily  cleaned,  and 
will  last  much  longer.  They 
are  made  beveling,  so  as  to 
leave  a  nice  edge  on  the  cheese 
and  save  all  trimming.  These 
rings  have  been  much  improved 
in  quality,  and  they  now  answer 
their  purpose  perfectly.  A  trial 
will  remove  all  doubt  as  to  their 
effectiveness. 

Fig.  10  is  a  cut  of  a  utensil 
for  trying  or  testing  butter  and 
cheese,  to  ascertain  the  internal 
composition — whether  it  com- 
prises lard,  tallow,  etc. 

After  the  curd  has  remained 
in  the  press  from  two  to  four 
hours  it  should  be  turned  and 
again  put  into  the  press.  The 
next  morning  the  cheese  may 
be  taken  out  and  rubbed  with 
a  little  melted  butter,  which 
should  be  fresh  and  used  while 
warm.  The  cheese  should  be 
rubbed  thoroughly  and  turned 
Trier.  every  day  until  cured.     Should 

the  rind  get  dry,  butter  should  be  applied  as  just 
explained.  In  the  case  of  large  cheeses,  a  tight 
cloth  bandage  should  be  put  around  the  edges,  but 
for  small  cheeses  this  is  unnecessary.  Should  the 
farmer's  daily  milk  supply  be  insufficient  to  make 
a  good-sized  cheese,  he  may  use  the  milk  obtained 
in  two  or  three  days;  that  got  each  day  may  be 


Fig.  10.  "Butter  and  Cheese 


treated  as  though  it  were  enough  for  the  purpose, 
until  the  curd  is  ready  for  the  press,  except  that 
but  little  salt  should  be  used.  The  curd  made  each 
day  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  in  the 
cellar.  When  enough  has  been  secured, 
the  curds  previously  made  may  be  treated 
with  warm  whey,  broken  up,  drained, 
mixed  with  that  just  made,  and  all  salted 
together  and  pressed.  The  mixing  should 
be  thorough.  Thus  good  cheese  may  be 
made  by  farmers  who  keep  only  one  or 
two  cows.  Great  care  should  be  taken  or 
even  after  all  this  work  the  cheese  will 
spoil.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  light 
room,  on  clean  shelves,  and  should  often 
be  carefully  examined.  All  cracks  that  may  ap- 
pear should  be  filled  up  with  cheese  crushed  so  that 
it  will  spread  like  butter.  Thin,  strong,  well-oiled 
paper  should  be  placed  over  these  cracks.  The 
shelves  should  be  washed  occasionally  with  hot 
whey  and  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  whole  surface 
of  the  cheese  should  be  thoroughly  well  rubbed 
every  time  it  is  turned.  By  this  means  flies  are 
prevented  from  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  sur- 
face, and  what  is  more  important,  in  the  cracks 
which  may  appear.  These  eggs  soon  hatch  into 
"  skippers  " — maggots^^which  ruin  the  cheese.  If 
any  mischief  has  already  been  done  by  them,  the 
parts  attacked  should  be  cut  out  and  destroyed. 
If  detected  early,  they  may  be  forced  to  the  sur- 
face by  a  piece  of  well-oiled  paper  plastered  over 
the  part  of  the  cheese  in  which  they  have  settled ; 
they  can  then  be  easily  taken  and  destroyed.  This 
paper  should  be  used  two  or  three  times.  The 
introduction  of  skippers  may  be  prevented  by  the 
following  process :  After  the  curd  has  been  pressed 
six  or  eight  hours,  take  the  cheese  from  the  hoop. 
From  the  bandage  cloth  cut  an  exact  cover  for  the 
top  and  bottom.  Cut  the  bandage  for  the  outside 
wide  enough  to  lap  over  the  two  circular  pieces 
.about  two  inches.  With  a  strong  thread  baste  the 
edges  on  both  sides.  The  cheese  then  will  be 
wholly  covered.  Place  it  again  in  the  hoop  and 
press  it  until  the  next  morning.  The  second  press- 
ing forces  the  cloth  into  the  cheese  so  that  the 
spaces  between  the  threads  are  filled  with  cheese. 
Apply  the  common  dressing  at  once.  In  this  way 
there  is  no  chance  for  the  flies  to  deposit  their  eggs. 
They  cannot  get  inside  of  the  cloth. 

Good  cheese,  if  properly  made,  is  generally  fit 
for  the  table  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  aft:er  it  has 
been  pressed.  It  will,  however,  gradually  improve 
in  quality  for  several  months. 

The  curing  of  cheese  is  quite  as  important  as 
any  other  process  in  its  manufacture.  The  perfect 
curing  of  cheese  involves  the  action  of  the  atmos- 
phere, inasmuch  as  it  has  been  proved  beyond 
question,  that  cheese,  while  curing,  is  constantly 
absorbing  oxygen  and  giving  off  carbonic  aci,d  gas. 


CHEESE—  CHERR  T. 


249 


The  curing  progresses  according  to  the  quantity  of 
rennet  used.  When  it  is  desired  to  make  a  cheese 
fit  for  use  in  30  to  40  days,  and  have  keeping 
quality  to  last  from  four  to  six  months,  rennet 
enough  should  be  used  to  cause  coagulation  or 
curding  to  begin,  in  night's  or  morning's  milk 
mixed,  in  15  minutes,  at  90°,  provided  it  is  to  be 
cured  at  70°  in  air  of  average  moisture.  Tlie 
amount  of  moisture  in  curd  affects  the  time  for 
curing  cheese,  since  whey  contains  four  or  five  per 
cent,  of  milk  sugar,  which  is  liable  to  be  turned  into 
acid  and  retard  the  curing.  If  there  be  too  little 
moisture  in  the  curd,  the  action  of  the  rennet  will 
be  retarded,  and  the  curing  also.  The  drier  the 
curd,  all  other  conditions  being  the  same,  the 
slower  the  curing  and  the  longer  the  lifetime  of  the 
cheese.  The  life  of  a  cheese  may  be  prolonged 
to  almost  any  extent  by  simply  reducing  its  moist- 
ure, with  but  little  variation  in  other  respects.  A 
cheese  which  is  a  very  long  time  in  curing  seldom 
cures  as  evenly  and  perfectly  as  when  cured  more 
rapidly.  Another  important  point  in  cheese-curing 
is  the  temperature.  There  is  always  some  partic- 
ular temperature  at  which  a  cheese,  according  to 
its  make,  cures  best.  A  cheese  with  a  tight,  rub- 
ber-like rind  must  be  cured  slowly,  or  more  gas 
will  be  forced  into  it  than  can  escape  through  its 
rind,  and  it  will  puff.  A  cheese  full  of  fat  must 
also  cure  more  slowly  to  prevent  over-heating. 
The  inside  of  a  cheese  cures  faster  than  the  outside. 
Skim  cheese  requires  a  little  warmer  room  than 
one  made  from  whole  milk.  A  perfect  curing 
room  puts  all  the  other  curing  agencies  under 
the  control  of  the  maker.  The  supply  of  air  and 
the  amount  of  its  moisture  inust  be  controlled.  The 
best  curing  for  cheese  is  a  basement  half  above  and 
half  below  the  ground,  with  walls  and  floor  of 
concrete.  Such  a  room,  with  close-jointed  double 
doors  and  windows,  would  give  the  maker  the 
greatest  control  over  the  temperature,  air  and  moist- 
ure within  it.  Concrete  walls  exclude  heat  and 
dampness,  and  are  impervious  to  air.  The  worst 
curing  rooms  are  those  covered  with  a  single  thick- 
ness of  rough  boards  with  the  cracks  covered  with 
narrow  battens.  This  leaves  the  cheese  at  the 
mercy  of  the  wind  and  sun.  The  loss  from  this 
cause  alone  is  enormous.  Upper  stories  are  not 
good  places  for  cheese-curing,  especially  if  they 
are  at  all  open.  The  abundance  of  air  in  such 
rooms  develops  flavor  in  advance  of  quality.  A 
maker  who  wishes  to  produce  a  mild-flavored 
cheese  with  plenty  of  quality — suited  to  the  gen- 
eral taste  of  the  consuming  public — after  using 
proper  skill  in  the  make-room,  will  put  his  cheese 
to  cure  in  a  room  with  walls  tight  enough  to  allow 
of  his  controlling  the  ventilation,  temperature  and 
moisture.  He  will  keep  the  temperature  at  70°, 
so  as  to  develop  the  quality  and  check  the  admis- 
sion of  fresh  air  with  a  view  of  retarding  the  devel- 


opment of  flavor.  The  cheese  will  thus  become 
ripe  and  rich  without  getting  too  strong  flavored. 
If  such  a  curing  cannot  be  obtained,  it  will  pay  the 
cheese-maker  handsomely  to  use  sheathing  paper 
or  boards  on  the  walls — or  even  both — to  make 
them  double  and  even  triple,  if  necessary,  imtil  the 
temperature  can  be  kept  within  a  range  of  20°, 
and  as  ner.r  70°  as  possible. 

Adulteration  of  Cheese.  No  artificially 
prepared  food  escapes  adulteration;  and  as  cheese 
affords  a  good  opportunity  for  disguising  foreign 
substances,  we  may  look  for  adulterated  cheese  the 
world  over.  The  means  are  numerous.  Bad 
milk,  doctored  milk,  lard,  tallow,  etc.,  for  the  body,  ' 
and  annatto,  red  lead,  ochre,  burnt  sugar,  turmeric, 
for  the  coloring,  besides  the  cheap  and  poor  pro- 
cesses of  manufacture  employed,  and  the  various 
drugs  mixed  in  to  preserve  the  flavor  or  disguise 
the  other  ingredients,  not  to  sa}-  anything  of  the 
foul  decay  which  perverted  tastes  enjoy  and  manv 
encourage,  all  go  to  make  up  a  disgusting  mass  of 
unhealthful  matter. 

Cheese,  Toasted.  Take  a  good  quantity  of 
cheese,  and  having  pared  it  into  extremely  sinall 
pieces,  place  it  in  a  pan  with  a  little  milk,  and  a 
small  slice  of  butter.  Stir  it  over  a  slow  fire  until 
melted  and  quite  smooth.  Take  it  ofTthe  fire  quick- 
ly, mix  the  yolk  of  an  egg  with  it,  and  brown  it  in  a 
toaster  before  the  file. 

Cheese,  Head.  Boil  a  hog's  head  thoroughly 
done,  take  off  all  the  meat  with  the  skin,  mince  it 
and  season  it  with  salt  and  pepper.  It  will  keep 
good  and  sweet  for  several  weeks,  or,  in  cold 
weather,  even  months. 

Cheese,  Ox  Cheek.  Time^four  hours.  Split 
an  ox-head  in  two,  take  out  the  eyes,  crack  the  side 
bones,  and  lay  it  in  water  for  one  whole  night. 
Then  put  it  in  a  saucepan  with  sufficient  water  to 
cover  it.  Let  it  boil  very  gently,  skimining  it 
carefully.  When  the  meat  loosens  from  the  bones, 
take  it  from  the  water  with  a  skimmer,  and  put  it 
into  a  bowl.  Take  out  every  particle  of  bone, 
chop  the  meat  very  fine,  and  Sanson  it  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of  pepper; 
add  a  tablespoonful  of  powdered  thyme.  Tie  it  in 
a  cloth  and  press  it  with  a  weight.  When  cold  it 
may  be  cut  in  slices  for  dinner  or  supper.  The 
gravj'  remaining  will  make  a  rich  broth  if  a  few 
vegetables  be  stewed  in  it. 

Cherry.  The  cherry  is  one  of  our  most  valua- 
ble fruits,  being  the  best  tonic  and  anti-bilious  arti- 
cle of  diet  in  existence.  The  gum  of  the  tree  is 
almost  identical  with  gum  arable,  and  marvelous 
stories  are  told  of  its  nutritive  properties.  The 
wild  cherry-tree,  also,  affords  the  most  valuable 
wood  for  cabinet  work.  The  cultivated  varieties 
are  too  short-lived  in  the  Northwestern  States  to 
furnish  good  lumber  for  cabinet-ware.  The  gen- 
eral   characteristics    of  the    cherry   are    too    well- 


250 


CHERRY. 


known  for  us  to  describe  here,  and  we  will  proceed 
immediately  to  consider  the  cultivation  and  the  vari- 
eties of  orchard  cherries. 

Cultivation.  The  very  best  soil  is  one  which  is 
dry,  somewhat  sandy  or  gravelly,  and  mellow.  Such 
a  soil  will  of  necessity  have  good  under  drainage,  that 
is,  there  will  generally  be  a  gravelly  sub-soil.  Wet 
or  heavy  clay  land  produces  a  rank  growth  of  the  tree, 
and  it  soon  decays  at  the  heart ;  and  being  thus  render- 
ed weak,  it  is  easily  blown  down  by  the  wind.  Deep, 
warm  valleys  are  liable  to  spring  frosts,  and  in  such 
places  it  is  safer  to  plant  the  cherry  on  the  north  side 
of  the  hills. 

The  cherry  is  generally  propagated  by  budding  and 
grafting,  the  former  method  generally  being  consider- 
ed better.  The  choice  of  stocks  on  which  the  bud- 
ding or  grafting  should  be  done  are  in  the  following 
order:  the  Mahaleb,  the  Morello  and  the  common 
black  Mazzard.  The  latter  used  to  be  the  only  stock 
selected,  but  in  the  West  it  seems  to  be  the  jxiorest 
of  all,  except  when  the  roots  are  planted  deep  beyond 
the  reach  of  frosts.  Grafts  on  Morello  stocks  bear 
earlier,  and  sometimes  they  do  better  than  those  on 
Mahaleb,  which  latter  are  tender  and  somewhat  short- 
lived. To  prevent  excessive  sprouting  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  budding  or  grafting  be  done  on  seed- 
ling stocks  and  not  on  suckers.  To  raise  these  stocks 
the  cherries  should  be  gathered  when  fully  ripe  and 
allowed  to  lie  two  or  three  days  together,  so  that  they 
may  be  partially  or  wholly  free  from  the  pulp  by  wash- 
ing them  in  water.  They  should  then  be  immediately 
planted  in  drills,  being  covered  about  an  inch  deep. 
They  will  vegetate  the  following  spring,  and  in  good 
soil  will  be  fit  for  planting  out  in  the  nursery  rows  in 
the  autumn  or  following  spring,  at  a  distance  of  10  to 
12  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  practice  of  leaving 
the  cherry-pits  boxed  in  sand  until  spring  is  too  pre- 
carious, as  their  vitality  is  so  delicate  that  if  left  only 
a  day  or  two  too  long  they  will  die.  After  planting  in 
the  nursery  rows  the  seedlings  are  generally  fit  for 
budding  in  the  month  of  August  following;  and  in 
order  not  to  have  the  weaker  stocks  overixswered  by 
the  more  vigorous,  they  should  be  assorted  before 
planting,  placing  those  of  the  same  size  in  rows  to- 
gether. Under  good  conditions  the  buds  will  make 
shoots  six  or  eight  feet  high  the  first  season  after  the 
stock  is  headed  back.  Grafting  the  cherry  should  be 
done  early  in  the  spring  before  the  frost  is  thoroughly 
out  of  the  ground.  Although  the  dwarfing  of  cherry- 
trees  is  not  practiced  much  in  the  West,  we  would 
mention  that  Mr.  Downing  recommends  for  this  pro- 
cess the  selection  of  Mahaleb  stock,  and  that  the  trees 
should  be  headed  back  the  second  year  in  order  to 
form  lateral  shoots  near  the  ground. 

The  cherry  as  a  standard  tree  requires  but  little 
cultivation  further  than  to  supply  old  trees  occasionally 
with  a  little  manure  to  keep  up  their  vigor,  pruning 
out  the  dead  or  crossing  branches,  and  washing  the 
trunk  with  soft  soap  when  it  becomes  hard  and  bark- 
bound.  It  is  not  well  to  prune  the  cherry  very  much, 
as  the  practice  causes  the  tree  to  throw  out  gum, 


which  produces  decay.  Pruning  is  best  done  in  mid- 
summer, as  then  the  least  gum  will  issue.  Above  all 
trees  in  the  orchard,  the  cherry  should  not  be  barked 
or  bruised,  as  the  gum  it  throws  out  becomes  filled 
with  microscopic  organisms,  which  prevent  healing. 
It  is  best,  also,  not  to  spend  much  time  with  old  trees 
which  show  signs  of  decay ;  supplant  them  at  once 
with  new  trees.  The  cherry  is  a  rapid  grower,  and  in 
the  stormy  West  generally  run  their  course  in  10  to  12 
years.  In  the  East  there  are  remarkable  examples  of 
size  and  longevity,  as  well  as  of  productiveness.  A 
few  trees  have  attained  the  full  forest  height,  measur- 
ing 10  to  15  feet  in  circumference  and  yielding  20  to  40 
bushels  of  fruit  in  a  single  season. 

"Training"  the  cherry  is  but  Httle  practiced  or 
esteemed  as  yet  in  utilitarian  America,  and  therefore 
the  subject  requires  no  treatment  here. 

In  gathering  cherries  for  market,  they  should  always 
be  picked  with  the  stems  attached  and  when  perfectly 
dry.  For  the  table  it  is  well  to  place  the  fruit  in  a 
refrigerator  for  an  hour  or  two,  so  that  it  can  be  brought 
to  the  table  cool  and  with  dewdrops  standing  upon  it. 
For  every  one  who  has  five  or  more  good  bearing  trees 
it  will  pay  to  buy  a  "  cherry  pitter,"  which  costs 
but  a  dollar  or  two. 

The  heart  or  sweet  cherries  rarely  succeed  in  the 
West.  A  crop  is  scarcely  ever  realized,  and  when 
there  is  a  crop  the  fruit  is  wormy  or  defective. 

The  obstacles  to  cherry-raising  in  the  West  are,  in 
the  order  of  their  extent:  i.  Wet,  cold,  prairie  soil;  2. 
Birds;  3.  Winds;  4.  Curculio;  5.  Leaf-blight.  As  to 
the  first  trouble  it  is  advisable  not  to  plant  at  all  un- 
less a  slope  or  well-drained  piece  of  ground  can  be 
found  upon  the  premises.  As  to  birds,  chase  them 
away  Ijy  scarecrows  or  otherwise.  It  seems  still  to  be 
a  debatable  jwint  whether  we  should  let  certain  birds 
of  the  thrush  and  woodpecker  family  live  or  not. 
These  are  the  birds  which  do  the  most  mischief  to  our 
orchards.  Some  persons  plant  the  trees  near  the 
house,  dwarf  them  or  keep  the  tops  low,  with  the 
branches  near  the  ground,  and  then  depend  ujxjn  good 
cats  to  scare  the  birds  away.  This  is  indeed  an  effect- 
ual method.  As  to  high  winds,  of  course  we  can  do 
nothing  more  than  to  set  the  trees  in  sheltered  situa- 
tions ;  that  is,  on  the  south  or  east  side  of  dense 
groves,  large  buildings  or  steep  hills.  In  exposed 
places  it  might  pay  to  stay  the  top  with  strings  woven 
through  them  and  attached  to  stakes  around.  The 
curculio  is  worse  on  the  plum  than  on  the  cherry,  and 
we  treat  more  fully  of  this  dreadful  pest  under  the 
head  of  that  fruit.  The  leaf-blight  is  caused  by  a 
microscopic  fungus  which  might  be  termed  the  "white 
mildew  of  the  cherry."  Almost  everybody  has  noticed 
a  white  powder  covering  cherry-leaves,  especially  those 
in  the  shade  and  on  young  shoots;  but  scarcely  has 
suspected  that  that  had  anything  to  do  with  the  leaf- 
blight  ;  yet  such  is  ascertained  by  botanists  to  be  the 
fact.  That  white  substance  is  a  real  fungus  (a  plant 
of  the  toadstool  kind),  and  first  makes  its  appearance 
in  mid-summer  in  the  form  of  gossamer.  These  fine 
threads  break  up  and  contract  into  small  granules,  at 


252 


CHERRY. 


which  time  the  surface  of  the  leaf  presents  a  mealy 
appearance.  This  mealiness  is  increased  by  the  raids 
of  a  small  maggot  working  through  it,  the  fungus  being 
food  for  a  surface-feeding  parasite,  which  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  dusting  the  leaves  with  air-slacked  lime  and 
flowers  of  sulphur,  or  smoking  with  burning  coal  tar 
and  cigar  stumps. 

The  accompanying  cut  illustrates  an  insect  friendly 
to  the  cherry-tree,  as  it  devours  only  certain  plant  lice 
which  infest  the  tree.  The  engraving  gives  the  nat- 
ural size  of  the  most  common  species,  or  variety. 


Golden  Eye,  (Chrysopa.) 
a.  The  eggs,  mounted  on  their  slender  thread-like  stems,  b^  The 
larva,  with  its  long,  sharp,  sword-like  jaws,  c,  Th':  singular,  small  co- 
coons in  which  the  pupa  resides;  one  showing  the  opening  and  lid 
through  which  the  insect  has  escaped.  </,  The  perfect  insect,  showing 
the  wings  on  the  right  side  only. 

The  black  knot  sometimes  infests  the  cherry,  espe- 
cially the  Morello,  a/S  well  as  the  plum,  and  the  only 
remedy  lies  in  cutting  off  the  affected  twigs  and  burn- 
ing them. 

Warm,  wet  weather  in  fall,  of  course,  affects  the 
cherry  tree  deleteriously,  as  it  does  all  other  fruit  trees. 
It  causes  the  fruit-buds  to  swell  and  grow,  and  then 
the  succeeding  cold  snap  kills  the  germ.  Cold,  wet 
weather  in  the  spring,  also,  at  the  time  of  blossoming, 
will  kill  the  fruit,  or  wash  away  the  pollen  before  its 
proper  function  is  performed. 

Varieties.  Belle  de  Choisy.  Best,  middle  of  June, 
or  directly  after  the  May  Duke.  Fruit  round  or  slight- 
ly depressed ;  skin  very  thin  and  translucent,  "showing 
the  net-like  texture  of  the  flesh  beneath  ;  pale  amber 
in  the  shade,  but  in  the  sun  finely  mottled  with  yellow- 
ish red,  the  fruit  fully  ex[X)sed  becoming  a  bright  car- 
nelian  red ;  flesh  amber-colored,  very  tender  and  melt- 
ing, of  a  delicate  sweet  flavor ;  stem  rather  short  and 
swollen  at  the  upper  end.  Tree  hardy,  head  upright, 
and  a  moderate  bearer ;  leaves  dark. 

Black,  Large  or  English  Morello.  Best,  last  half 
of  July.  Twice  the  size  of  the  common  cherry,  round 
or  obtusely  heart-shaped,  dark  red,  becoming  nearly 
black  when  fully  ripe ;  flesh  dark,  purplish  red,  tender, 
juicy  and  of  a  pleasant  subacid  flavor  when  quite 
mature.  This  is  a  standard  cherry  for  the  Northwest- 
ern States.  It  is  second  in  hardiness,  a  splendid 
fruiter,  and  does  rather  better  on  "  ixwr  "  land. 

Black  Tartarian,  Eraser's  Black-Heart,  Ronald's 
Heart,  etc.  Best;  middle  of  June.  Large,  heart- 
shaped,  irregular  and  uneven  on  the  surface,  glossy, 
bright,  purplish  black ;  flesh  purphsh,  thick,  half  ten- 
der, juicy,  very  rich  and  delicious ;  stone  very  small. 
Tree  the  hardiest  of  all  the  heart  cherries;  leaves 
large ;  head  upright. 

Early  Richmond,  Early  May.  Good ;  rather  small, 
round,  slightly  flattened,  lively  red,  tender,  very  juicy, 
acid,  tree  of  rather  dwarf  habit,  and  two  or  three  years 


later  coming  into  bearing.  This  has  been  the  most 
popular  cherry  in  the  Northwest  for  many  years,  more 
on  account  of  hardiness,  productiveness,  etc.,  than  in- 
trinsic quahties  of  the  fruit.  Downing  thinks  that  the 
two  names  at  the  head  of  this  paragraph  are  of  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  cherry.  Some  think  this  variety  does 
better  grown  on  its  own  roots,  living  longer  and  bear- 
ing better  crops.  This  cherry  may  also  be  propagated 
by  layering.  The  Early  Richmond  is  a  little  more 
juicy  than  the  Kentish,  not  as  acid,  is  more  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  ripens  two  or  three  weeks  earlier,  and  on 
the  whole  a  better  fruit;  it  has  also  a  smaller  stone. 

Governor  Shannon  is  a  fair  variety  for  Western  cul- 
tivation. 

Go'oernor  Wood.  Very  good  to  best,  middle  of  June. 
Large,  roundish,  heart-shaped,  light  yellow,  shaded 
and  marbled  with  bright  red;  suture  half  round;  flesh, 
nearly  tender,  juicy,  sweet,  rich  and  delicious ;  stem  an 
inch  an  a  half  long  and  inserted  in  a  broad  cavity. 
Tree  vigorous,  fonning  a  round,  regular  head,  and  very 
productive. 

Hipp  is  the  local  name  of  a  variety  of  cherry  which 
does  well  in  some  localities. 

Kentish,  Early  Richmond.     See  Early  Richmond. 

Late  Kentish,  Common  Red.  Good,  especially  for 
pies,  and  the  most  common  sort,  ripening  about  the 
middle  of  July.  Medium  size,  round,  flattened,  deep, 
lively  red,  tender  and  very  sour. 

Lieb,  or  Leib,  is  a  variety  favorably  spoken  of  in  the 
West. 

May  Duke.  Very  good,  first  part  of  June.  Fruit 
roundish,  or  obtuse  heart-shaped,  growing  in  clusters, 
lively  red,  then  a  rich,  dark  red,  tender,  melting,  juicy, 
and  of  excellent  flavor.  It  is  generally  picked  before 
it  is  fully  matured,  as  it  begins  to  color  long  before 
it  is  perfectly  ripe.  The  head  of  the  tree  is  upright 
from  its  youth  up.  Some  of  the  branches  produce 
fruit  which  ripens  much  later  than  that  of  most  of  the 
branches. 

Northwest.  A  seedling  originated  by  Mr.  D.  B. 
Weir,  of  Marshall  county.  111.  Hardy,  more  symmet- 
rical than  the  Early  May,  and  is  a  regular  and  abund- 
ant bearer.  Fruit  the  size  of  the  Early  May,  but  in 
shape  it  resembles  the  May  Duke.  The  flesh  is  firmer 
and  richer  than  the  Early  May. 

Phimstone,  Flumstone  Morello.  Good,  last  of  July 
and  first  of  August.  Large,  roundish,  inclining  to 
heart-shape,  deep  red,  tender,  juicy,  and  when  well 
matured,  is  of  a  sprightly  and  agreeable  flavor ;  stone 
long  and  ix)inted.  Tree  of  slow  growth,  productive 
and  hardy ;  makes  a  fine  pyramid. 

Reine  Hortense.  Good,  last  part  of  July.  Very 
large,  roundish,  elongated,  bright,  lively  red,  somewhat 
marbled  and  mottled ;  suture  distinctly  marked  by  a 
line  without  any  depression;  tender,  juicy,  very  slight- 
ly subacid,  and  delicious.  Tree  a  handsome  grower 
and  productive. 

To  Can  or  Dry  cherries,  see  Canning  and  Drying. 

To  Bottle  cherries,  have  ready  some  wide- 
mouthed  bottles  quite  clean  and  dry ;  cut  each  cherry 
from  the  stalk  into  the  bottle;  be  sure  not  to  pull  them 


CHERR  V  BRAND  Y— CHICKEN-POX. 


253 


off.  To  every  bottle  of  cherries  put  three  ounces  of 
IXiwdered  sugar,  then  tie  them  tightly  over  with  blad- 
der. About  nine  o'clock  at  night  put  the  bottles 
into  a  lukewarm  oven  and  close  the  door.  Take  them 
out  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  and  put  them  in 
a  dry  place  for  use. 

Cherry  Brandy :  see  Brandy. 

Chess  or  Cheat.  This  foreigner  is  a  well-known 
pest  among  crops  of  wheat  and  rye, — and  occasional- 
ly appears  in  the  same  fields  for  a  year  or  two  after 
the  grain  crop ;  but  being  an  annual,  it  is  soon  choked 
out  by  the  perennial  grasses,  and  the  fallen  seeds 
remain,  like  myriads  of  others,  until  the  ground  is 
again  broken  up,  or  put  in  a  favorable  state  for  their 
development.  The  best  preventive  of  this  and  all 
similar  evils,  in  the  grain-field,  is  to  sow  none  but 
good,  clean  seed.  Among  the  curious,  vulgar  errors 
which  yet  infest  the  minds  of  credulous  and  careless 
observers  of  natural  phenomena,  may  be  mentioned 
the  firm  belief  of  many  of  the  farmers  (some  of  them, 
too,  good,  practical  farmers)  that  this  troublesome  grass 
is  nothing  more  than  an  accidental  variety,  or  casual 
form,  of  degenerate  wheat,  produced  by  some  un- 
toward condition  of  the  soil,  or  unpropitious  season,  or 
some  organic  injury,  though  it  must  be  admitted,  by 
the  most  inveteratedefenderof  that  faith,  thatinunder- 
going  the  metamorphosis,  the  plant  is  surprisingly  uni- 
form in  its  vagaries,  in  always  assuming  the  exact 
structure  and  character  of  Bromus.  It  is  needless  to 
say  it  is  a  botanical  impossibility,  as  much  so  as  that 
wheat  could  turn  to  Indian  corn. 

This  grass  has  been  cultivated  within  a  few  years 
as  Willard's  Bromus,  and  the  seed  sold  at  a  high  price. 
The  farmers  found  that  they  not  only  did  not  get  a 
valuable  grass,  but  were  really  propagating  a  worth- 
less and  pernicious  weed,  being  thus  doubly  cheated. 
The  principal  varieties  are  as  follows :  B.  secalinus : 
panicle  speading,  even  in  fruit ;  spikelets  ovate-ob- 
long, eight  and  ten  flowered  ;  florets  pubescent ;  awix 
short,  sometimes  very  short  or  none;  known  as  Cheat, 
Chess,  Brome-grass.  B.  racemosus  :  panicle  erect, 
contracted  in  fruit ;  lower  palea  decidedly  exceeding 
the  u])per,  bearing  an  awn  of  its  own  length ;  known 
as  Upright  Chess,  Smooth  Brome-grass.  It  is  a  worth- 
less species  found  in  grain-fields,  as  is  B.  mollis,  which 
resembles  the  preceeding,  but  has  long-awned  flowers 
which,  as  also  the  leaves,  are  downy,  and  the  spikelets 
are  closely  imbricated.  By  some,  the  two  are  con- 
sidered as  forms  of  the  same  species.  There  are  two 
native  species  of  the  genus,  of  no  agricultural  value. 
All_  the  varieties  of  chess  are  of  but  little  value  in 
agriculture,  and  should  be  treated  as  weeds,  and,  in 
fact,  are  so  treated  by  intelligent  farmers  in  all  sections. 

Chestnut,  a  tree  of  the  oak  family  valuable  for  its 
timber  and  for  nuts.  When  full-grown  it  is  one  of 
the  loftiest  trees  of  the  forest.  It  is  common  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  does 
best  on  high,  dry  ground,  and  is  therefore  more  per- 
fect in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States  than  when 
grown  in  the  Western.     The  crops  even  in  the  East 


are  sometimes  lamentably  short.  The  timber  is  al- 
most as  good  as  catalpa  for  posts,  rails,  etc.  The  chest- 
nut is  propagated  by  grafting  or  by  planting  the  nuts. 
Several  English  varieties  have  been  grown  in  this 
country,  of  which  the  Downton  is  considered  the  best. 

Chewing  the  Cud:  see  pages  209  and  226 

Chewing  Gum  is  made  by  taking  paraffine  or 
spermaceti  and  dissolving  either  of  them  in  olive  oil 
and  glycerine  by  means  of  gently  heating  them.  It 
is  stirred  on  cooling  and  gently  compressed.  The 
sweetening  and  flavoring  is  of  course  according  to 
taste. 

Chiecory.  This  plant,  also  called  succory  and 
wild  endive,  is  a  naturalized  foreigner,  and,  being 
hardy  where  it  gets  hold,  is  a  very  troublesome  weed. 
Endive,  in  Europe,  is  esteemed  and  used  as  a  salad 
plant,  when  about  a  foot  high,  the  tops  being  tied  to- 
gether, over  the  heart,  and  the  sides  earthed  up,  in 
order  to  blanch  them.  The  seed  should  be  sown 
early  in  the  spring  in  drills,  i6  inches  apart,  covered 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and  thinned,  when 
large  enough,  to  six  or  eight  inches  in  the  row.  The 
cultivation  and  blanching  of  Endive  is  precisely  sim- 
ilar and  the  plant  is  a  much  nicer  bitter  salad  than 
chiecory.  The  principal  use  of  chiecory  is  in  the 
roots,  which  when  sliced  and  kiln-dried,  are  used  in 
adulteration  of  ground  coffee.  It  is  raised  by  sowing 
the  seeds  upon  very  rich,  deeply-trenched  ground,  in 
drills  18  to  20  inches  apart,  keeping  the  rows  clear  of 
weeds,  and  thinning  to  about  six  inches  in  the  row. 
In  the  autumn  the  tops  are  cut  and  the  roots  raised  by 
a  peculiar  plan,  which  cuts  the  tap-root  some  18  inches 
below  the  surface,  slightly  lifting  the  roots ;  or  by  a 
plan  which  turns  the  roots  out  of  the  soil,  at  the  same 
time  covering  the  cut  tops,  the  plan  being  to  go  around 
the  field,  one  row  being  removed  before  the  next  is 
worked.  With  the  sub-soil  lifter,  however,  the  earth 
is  not  turned,  and  this  plan  is  preferable.  The  culti- 
vation of  chiecory  has  been  introduced  into  the 
United  States  several  times,  and  abandoned.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  it  never  will  prove  remunerative,  since  its 
cultivation  is  simply  for  use  as  an  adulterant  of  coffee. 
While  its  use  can  not  be  distinctly  stated  as  injurious, 
it  is  nevertheless  a  fraud  upon  the  buyer  of  coffee 
when  mixed  therewith.  If  the  good  wife  chooses  to 
furnish  chiecory  as  a  family  beverage,  well  and  ^ood. 
The  pure  chiecory  can  be  bought  or  raised,  since  its 
cultivation  is  as  easy  as  that  of  the  parsnip  or  carrot. 

Chick,  or  Chicken,  the  young  of  birds,  especially 
of  the  domestic  fowl.     See  Fowl,  Domestic. 

Chicken  Pox  is  a  mild  eruptive  disease,  and  sel- 
dom occurs  more  than  once  in  a  person's  lifetime. 
There  is  but  little  indisposition ;  slight  chill,  cough, 
fever  and  bad  appetite.  It  comes  on  in  four  or  five 
days  after  exposure  to  the  contagion.  The  eruption 
differs  from  small-pox  by  coming  out  in  successive 
crops,  by  not  suppurating  or  being  depressed  in  the 
middle,  and  by  not  going  deep  into  the  true  skin. 

Treatment:  Cooling  drinks,  often  administered,  to- 


254 


CHIFFONJERES— CHILDREN. 


gether  with  some  good  aperient  to  keep  the  bowels 
regular  and  open,  are  all  that  is  necessary. 

Chiflfonieres(shif-on-eerz'),ix)rtable  closets.  These 
are  boxes  or  little  bureaus,  with  ornamental  finish, 
and  are  a  great  convenience  about  any  house.  Many 
styles  can  be  found,  under  various  names,  in  good 
turniture  stores,  and  simpler  ones  can  be  readily  de- 
vised and  made  at  home,  with  a  little  ingenuity. 

Chilblains,  an  inflammatory  swelling,  of  a  purple 
or  lead  color,  particularly  on  the  feet  or  hands,  produced 
by  the  action  of  cold.  Children  and  elderly  persons 
are  generally  most  liable.  Holding  the  hands  and 
feet  to  the  fire  after  exposure  is  a  common  cause. 

Treatment:  On  its  first  appearance,  bathe  the  part 
affected  in  the  water  in  which  potatoes  have  been  l)oiled, 
as  hot  as  can  be  borne.  On  the  first  attack,  this 
bath  affords  immediate  relief.  Common  copal  varn- 
ish has  been  found  most  efficacious,  by  applying  it  to 
the  part  affected.  If  this  fail,  make  use  of  pig's-foot 
oil.  Or,  apply  with  a  small  brush,  or  feather,  three  or 
four  times  a  day  all  over  the  affected  parts,  liquor 
perchloride  of  iron:  a  dime's  worth  (2  ounces)  will  be 
amply  sufficient  to  cure  a  score  of  cases.  It  acts  like 
a  charm.  Hundreds  of  other  remedies  have  been 
published. 

Children.  We  first  wish  to  say  a  few  words  to 
parents  and  guardians  in  reference  to  the  right 
treatment  and  moral  culture  of  their  children — 
their  duty  toward  them  and  the  most  efficient 
and  pleasant  way  of  performing  it.  Then  we 
wish  to  address  ourselves  to  the  children,  not  only  to 
the  very  young,  but  also  the  boys  and  girls  as  well, — 
those  about  to  enter  upon  the  stage  of  active  life.  We 
know  it  is  easy  to  preach ;  it  is  a  pleasure  to  preach ; 
therefore  more  time  and  space  are  taken  upwith  preach- 
ing than  with  rendering  scientific  reasons.  We  will 
try  and  avoid  this  common  rut  and  not  occupy  space 
with  moral  lecturing,  but  merely  compile,  in  a  con- 
densed form,  the  substance  of  what  the  philosophers  of 
the  day  wish  most  to  emphasize  for  this  age. 

1.  We  all  act  out  our  natures  despite  preaching  and 
our  creeds  a  great  deal  more  than  we  think  we  do, — 
more  than  most  persons  imagine,  and  we  assimilate  to 
our  moral  selves  only  that  moral  food  which  we  natur- 
ally like.  A  work,  for  example,  like  Watts  on  the  Im- 
provement of  the  Mind,  is  appreciated  most  by  those 
who  need  it  least,  and  appreciated  least  by  those  who 
need  it  most.  An  individual  in  whose  nature  it  is  to 
discipline  himself,  will  do  so,  while  a  person  wanting 
such  a  disix)sition,  cannot  be  made  to  train  himself,  or 
be  trained  by  others  to  a  great  extent. 

2.  To  lay  the  foundation  for  a  good  character  as 
deep  and  thorough  as  jx)ssible,  hereditary  laws  must 
be  regarded:  the  sounder  the  parents,  the  sounder  the 
offspring,  physically,  mentally  and  morally. 

3.  In  infancy  children  should  never  be  teased, 
tickled,  either  on  the  feet,  ribs, or  elsewhere,  tossed  up 
and  down,  rockedorswimg,  dosed  with  medicines  except 
when  a  good  jshysician  sees  it  is  necessary,  or  fed  up- 
on bad   food.     On   hot,  sultrj-  days  they  should  be 


thinly  dressed,  and  in  cooler  weather  more  heavily 
clothed,  and  uniformly.  The  feet,  legs  and  arms  need 
particular  attention,  as  fashon  is  such  that  they  are  par- 
ticularly exjxised.  A  cross  child  in  hot  weather  can 
generally  be  pacified  by  taking  off  some  of  the  cloth- 
ing and  bathing  its  head  with  cold  water. 

4.  As  children  grow  up,  no  precept,  especially  a 
maxim,  should  be  rejjeated  to  them  in  a  rasping  man- 
ner, nor  even  often  repeated  in  any  style.  Repetition 
of  precepts  and  principles  of  duty  sours  most  children, 
and  engenders  a  disjxssition  in  them  to  do  the  opjx)- 
site.  They  do  not  like  to  be  "  sawed  "  any  more  than 
grown-up  people. 

5.  Be  patient  in  complying  with  the  demands  of  the 
child's  inquisitiveness,  but  discourage  all  that  may  take 
a  foolish  direction.  So  far  as  practicable,  tell  all  that 
may  be  of  benefit  to  the  child  in  any  way,  and  trj'  to  sat- 
isfy scientific  curiosity ;  also,  encourage  him  to  think 
for  himself.  A  parent  should  try  to  sympathize 
with  the  various  irregular  growths  of  a  child's  nature. 
Sensitivenesss  as  to  peculiarities  of  dress  is  a  very  strong 
element,  and  it  cannot  be  laughed  down.  The  late 
admirable  Lydia  Maria  Child  said  that  she  believed 
her  character  had  been  permanently  injured  by  the 
laughter  of  her  schoolmates  at  a  peculiar  short-waist- 
ed  gown  which  her  mother  made  her  wear  to  school. 
And  a  very  sensible  mother  who  would  not  allow  her 
little  daughter  to  wear  hoops  at  dancing  school  when 
hoops  were  the  fashion,  said  that  she  was  certain  that 
by  the  mortification  she  had  caused  her,  and  the  un- 
due attention  which  had  been  given  to  the  subject,  she 
had  made  love  of  dress  a  passion  with  the  child.  On 
all  these  questions  a  certain  wholesome  inattention  is 
perhaps  the  best  treatment.  Try  to  allow  your  child 
to  be  as  much  like  his  fellows  as  you  can ;  and,  above 
all  things,  do  not  make  him  too  splendid,  for  that  hurts 
his  feelings  more  than  anything,  and  makes  the  other 
boys  laugh  at  him.  The  ragged  jacket,  the  jxwr  shoes, 
the  forlorn  cap,  the  deciduous  pantaloon  which   has 

•<Bhed  the  leaves  of  freshness — these  are  not  laughed 
at ;  they  do  not  move  the  youthful  soul  to  ridicule.  It 
is  a  lovely  trait  in  the  character  of  toyhood  that  pov- 
erty is  no  disgrace.  But  a  velvet  jacket,  a  peculiar 
collar,  hair  cut  in  a  singular  fashion,  long  hair  espe- 
cially— these  are  cruel  guide-posts  to  the  young  bully. 
He  makes  the  picturesque  wearer  whose  prettiness  de- 
lights his  mother  suffer  for  this  peculiar  grace  most 
fearfully. 

■  6.  As  they  grow  older,  let  them  have  a  little  prop- 
erty and  a  purse  of  their  own,  to  keei),  take  care  of, 
increase  and  spend  ujxjn  their  own  resixjnsibility,  with 
the  aid  of  your  advice,  however,  if  very  gently  given. 
7.  Nearly  all  mental  and  moral  discipline  should  be 
brought  about  in  some  ingenious  and  indirect  manner. 
Youth,  like  older  people,  must  be  taught,  as  Alexan- 
der Pope  says ,  "As  though  you  taught  them  not,  and 
new  things  proposed  to  them  as  things  forgot."  We 
cannot  "  make  "  a  child  love  a  thing  any  more  than  we 
can  "  make  "  a  horse  drink  water.  In  the  manage- 
ment and  discipline  of  children  there  must  be  an 
even,   steady,  finn  and  temperate  treatment,  accom- 


CHILDREN. 


255 


panied  by  a  disposition  of  mind  so  much  master  of 
itself  as  never  to  yield  to  passion,  but  always  to  be  gov- 
erned by  calm  judgment.  Perservering,  yet  gentle 
firmness,  begun  in  infancy  and  practiced  daily,  estab- 
lishes discipline,  insures  obedience,  and  almost  en- 
tirely prevents  the  necessity  of  punishment  of  any 
kind.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gratification  of  the 
child's  every  whim,  encouraged  by  frequent  indul- 
gences of  improper  desires,  associates  the  idea  of  hap- 
piness with  such  gratification,  and  of  misery  with 
disapix)intments.  Self-will  grows  rapidly ;  a  caprici- 
ous humor  is  the  natural  consequence,  and  the  product 
is  that  pest  of  pests,  a  "  sjxsiled  "  child.  However,  to 
avoid  improper  indulgences  the  parent  should  en- 
deavor to  avoid  undue  severity. 

8.  The  parent  should  have  the  respect  of  the  child 
due  to  his  superior  wisdom.  This  is  a  widely  different 
feeling  from  the  fear  of  punishment.  When  the  fear 
of  punishment  predominates  the  child  almost  invari- 
ably becomes  artful.  He  seeks  more  to  escape  de- 
tection of  a  wrong  act  than  to  avoid  the  doing  of  it. 
Indeed,  timid  children,  if  treated  with  severity,  can 
scarcely  resist  the  temptation  to  hide  offenses  when  pos- 
sible. Severity  may  extort  confession  and  promise  to 
do  better,  but  it  cannot  in  itself  enkindle  better 
thoughts  or  implant  correct  principles  in  the  heart  of 
the  child.  A  spirit  of  revenge  is  often  generated  by 
such  a  course.  Correction,  as  a  general  rule,  in  order 
to  prove  salutary  and  beneficial  must  be  applied  to 
the  mind  and  not  to  the  body.  Children  must  be 
taught  that  parents  are  afflicted  rather  than  exasper- 
ated bj  their  misconduct.  In  this  way  their  better 
feelings  and  their  reason  are  brought  to  bear  upon. 
This  will  be  far  more  efficient  than  repeated  recourse 
to  the  rod,  or  harsh  rebuke,  which  only  irritates  the 
disposition. 

9.  Over-burdening  a  child  or  youth  with  a  task  fur- 
ther than  he  can  see  any  reason  for,  causes  him  to  hate 
the  one  who  imposes  the  task.  Of  course,  in  this 
work-a-day  world,  not  everything  can  be  made  per- 
fectly smooth  for  a  child  ;  to  undertake  it  would  effem- 
inate him ;  all  that  is  necessary  is  not  to  over-burden 
him  further  than  there  is  necessity,  which  may  be 
plain  to  him  at  the  time  or  soon  afterward.  By  this 
rule  alone,  a  parent  or  employer  will  retain  the  love 
of  those  under  his  care.  By  the  way,  employers  and 
superintendents  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  lighten 
the  heaviest  and  most  exhausting  work  by  giving  the 
laborer  something  lighter  to  do  for  a  while ;  as  when 
digging  jx)st-holes,  take  a  rest  at  pruning  vines  or 
fruit-trees,  or  using  the  team  with  something — almost 
anything  else  which  will  bring  into  play  a  different  set 
of  muscles,  to  rest  those  which  have  been  overworked 
in  digging.  In  company  with  a  large  number  of  la- 
borers work  is  always  more  pleasant,  and  four  men 
working  together  will  do  five  times  as  much  work  as 
one  man  alone.  Thus  we  see  the  reason  why  harvest 
time  is  proverbially  a  jolly  time. 

10.  Most  children  exhibit  special  talent,  as  well  as 
a  few  idiosyncrasies,  that  is,  disagreeable  peculiarities 
of  character.     The  idiosyncrasies  of  childhood  are 


generally  transient,  and  need  no  special  checking 
indeed,  a  special,  direct  effort  to  check  transitory 
phases  of  development  is  apt  to  confirm  some  disa- 
greeable trait.  But  idiosyncrasies  setting  in  after  the 
age  of  puberty  are  apt  to  become  permanent,  despite 
all  effort  to  eradicate  them.  The  best  thing  to  do  in  this 
regard  is  to  encourage  high  ambitions,  so  that  the 
youth  will  see  the  necessity  of  eliminating  all  his  pe- 
culiarities, in  order  to  rise  in  the  world. 

1 1.  Should  a  son  or  daughter  cause  you  anxiety  and 
trouble  through  their  indiscretion  or  thoughtlessness, 
gently  and  affectionately  reprove  them.  Harshness 
and  anger  will  almost  invariably  cause  greater  per- 
verseness. 

12.  And  last,  but  not  least,  every  physiologist  at 
the  present  day  earnestly  exhorts  all  parents,  guard- 
ians, etc.,  to  instruct  those  under  their  charge  in  certain 
sexological  truths  before  it  is  too  late. 

In  concluding  this  advice  to  parents  we  want  to 
make  a  few  remarks  of  special  character  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  young  ladies  and  gentlemen — child- 
ren of  a  larger  growth.  The  young  lady  as  she 
emerges  into  womanhood  naturally  regards  the  sub- 
ject of  marriage  of  very  great  importance.  They  often 
have  erroneous  ideas  of  what  is  true  happiness,  or 
their  judgment  may  lead  them  in  the  wrong  direction 
in  seeking  this  goal.  They  should  be  guided  aright 
by  those  who  have  buffeted  life's  waves  these  many 
years.  They  must  be  taught  to  respect  farming  as  an 
occupation,  and  be  required  to  help  their  mothers  in 
the  work  of  the  house  and  the  dairy.  When  farmers 
educate  their  girls  in  a  manner  which  will  fit  them  to 
become  farmers'  wives,  and  teach  them  that  farming 
is  one  of  the  most  honorable  of  all  occupations,  and 
that  the  girl  who  marries  a  fanner  does  fully  as  well 
as  one  who  marries  a  merchant  or  a  lawyer,  they  will 
thereby  do  a  great  deal  toward  keeping  their  boys  on 
the  fami.  The  idea  that  because  a  young  lady  has 
married  a  farmer  she  has  "  thrown  herself  away  "  is 
one  of  the  most  preposterous  ones  which  ever  found 
expression  in  civihzed  society.  The  girl  who  will 
reject  a  man  simply  because  he  is  a  farmer  shows  that 
she  has  a  very  shallow  or  else  a  sadly  uncultivated 
mind  and  a  heart  which  is  incapable  of  deep  affec- 
tion. And  the  farmer  who  will  advise  his  daughters 
to  reject  honest  and  intelligent  farmers  in  the  hope  of 
securing  clerks,  business  or  professional  men,  thereby 
shows  his  own  lack  of  good  judgment  as  well  as 
proves  that  he  has  no  genuine  respect  for  the  calling 
by  means  of  which  he  obtains  his  bread.  The  mother 
who  advises  her  daughters  to  "  look  higher  "  than  the 
young  men  who  are  farmers  is  thereby  doing  a  great 
wrong.  There  may  be  reasons  why  certain  fanners' 
boys  are  not  suitable  companions  for  certain  farmers' 
girls,  but  the  mere  fact  that  the  men  are  farmers 
should  weigh  in  their  favor  rather  than  against  them. 

How  to  manage  the  young  men  is  a  question  of 
deepest  interest  to  the  farmers.  How  to  keep  them  on 
the  farm  and  induce  them  to  cheerfully  choose  farm- 
ing as  their  life  vocation  is  a  question  hard  to  solve. 

One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  boys  can  be  strongly 


25  6 


CHILDREN. 


influenced  to  choose  farming  as  an  occupation  is  by 
giving  them  the  use  of  a  small  piece  of  land  each 
season.  Let  each  boy  who  is  old  enough  take  a  plot 
of  land  each  spring,  and  plant  it  with  such  seeds  as 
he  chooses.  Give  him  time  to  cultivate  the  crop,  and 
allow  him  to  use  the  team  when  he  needs  it.  The 
money  obtained  from  the  sale  of  the  products  of  this 
piece  of  ground  should  be  his  own  to  use  as  he  desires. 
Such  a  course  will  prove  beneficial  in  several  ways. 
It  will  lead  the  boy  to  take  a  deep  interest  in  thorough 
farming,  and  induce  him  to  study  the  best  methods  of 
cultivation  in  order  that  he  may  obtain  as  large  a  sum 
of  money  as  possible.  It  will  show  him  the  real 
worth  of  a  dollar,  and  lead  him  to  spend  his  money 
wisely. 

Many  a  boy  has  soon  "  run  out  "  a  fine  property 
left  him  by  his  father,  because  he  had  no  clear  com- 
prehension of  the  difiSculty  of  obtaining  money.  The 
father  who  gives  his  boy  spending  money  does  a  great 
deal  better  than  the  one  who  never  allows  him  to  have 
any,  but  it  is  by  far  the  best  plan  to  have  the  boy  earn 
the  money  which  he  spends.  The  boy  who  earns  a 
dollar  by  growing  fruit  or  grain,  understands  that  the 
dollar  represents  a  certain  amount  of  labor.  He  ap- 
preciates the  money,  and  knows  its  actual  worth  far 
better  than  the  boy  whose  father  gives  him  some  out- 
right. Such  a  plan  will  enable  the  boy  to  buy  books, 
or  take  papers,  with  his  own  money.  It  will  tend  to 
make  him  industrious  and  frugal,  and  may  be  made 
the  means  of  great  good  to  the  boy,  and,  indirectly, 
prove  an  almost  equal  benefit  to  the  father.  If  it  is 
not  convenient  to  allow  the  use  of  land,  the  farmer 
may  give  his  boys  the  entire  care  of  the  poultry,  re- 
quiring them  to  pay  for  the  food  which  is  consumed, 
and  allowing  them  to  retain  the  money  received  from 
the  sale  of  chickens  and  eggs.  Or  two  or  three  sheep 
may  be  given  to  a  boy  to  care  for,  he  paying  the  cost 
of  keeping,  and  having  the  money  obtained  from  lambs 
and  wool  for  his  own.  In  some  such  a  way  the  boy 
may  be  inspired  with  a  love  for  the  farm,  and  induced 
to  lay  a  good  foundation  for  a  successful  business' 
career  thereon. 

To  THE  Young.  If  you  are  living  with  your  pa- 
rents, remember  that  amid  all  their  scoldings  and  cold- 
nesses, amid  all  their  faults  and  shortcomings,  at  heart 
they  love  you  more  than  all  other  persons  in  existence. 
If  they  should  see  you  abused  by  strangers,  they  would 
defend  you  with  a  greater  zest  than  any  one  or  any- 
thing else  in  this  world ;  they  will  fight  for  you  as  a 
tiger  fights  for  her  young,  or  "  rush  into  the  jaws  of 
death,'  if  need  be;  and  do  all  this,  too,  with  a  greater 
pleasure  than  they  could  otherwise  experience.  This 
parental  sense  we  can  scarcely  call  love;  it  is  some- 
thing far  beyond  or  above  it :  indeed,  there  does  not 
exist  anything  in  human  nature  more  perfect  than  the 
affection  which  parents  bear  for  their  children.  The 
slender  cord  of  friendship  which  binds  one  person  to 
another  is  often  broken  without  a  struggle;  a  word,  a 
look  may  snap  its  threads,  never  to  be  re-united.  It 
often  proves  false  in  the  hour  of  need,  or  grows  cold 
by  the  lapse  of  time;  but  it  is  seldom,  though  amid 


greatest   tribulations,    that  the  parental  heart,  espe- 
cially that  of  the  mother,  turns  from  its  offspring. 

Never  be  treacherous;  that  is,  whenever  you  are 
trusted  with  anything,  be  faithful  to  that  trust.  The 
reward  of  such  fidelity  is  sure  to  come  even  in  this 
world.  If  you  live  even  but  a  few  years  longer,  it  will 
come  in  the  shape  of  high  positions  in  society,  and 
probably  high  offices  in  the  gift  of  the  State.  Daniel 
Webster  said  there  was  plenty  of  room  for  lawyers,  in 
the  upper  story  of  the  legal  profession ;  we  can  say 
with  much  more  emphasis,  there  is  plenty  of  room  for 
honest  men  and  women,  in  the  upper  story  of  society 
and  of  jxilitical  preferment.  One  reason  why  many 
persons  do  not  get  along  in  the  world,  is  because  they 
cannot  be  depended  uf^n.  They  do  not  keep  their 
agreements.  When  they  are  weighed  in  the  balance 
of  actual  affairs,  they  are  often  found  wanting.  They 
are  seldom  on  time.  The  workman  who  is  always  on 
time  and  does  his  work  according  to  agreement,  is  sure 
to  get  along.  To  a  young  mechanic  starting  in  life, 
the  habit  of  promptness  and  punctuality  is  worth  more 
than  $i,ooo  cash  capital — although  $r,ooo  is  not 
to  be  despised.  The  trustworthiness  of  the  faithful 
workman  produces  money,  but  the  untrustworthiness 
of  the  unfaithful  one  causes  him  to  lose  money.  This 
is  an  everlasting  principle.  He  who  would  be  perma- 
nently prosperous  must  keep  his  engagements. 

Another  chief  requisite  to  a  successful  life  is  honesty. 
We  might  couple  with  it  as  a  twin  sister,  strict  integrity. 
Let  honesty  and  strict  integrity  in  every  transaction  of 
life  be  your  characteristic.  Let  a  man  have  the  rej)- 
utation  of  being  fair  and  upright  in  his  dealings,  and 
he  will  possess  the  confidence  of  all  who  know  him. 
Honesty  is  not  only  right  but  it  is  the  best  policy. 
Remember  this,  young  man ;  do  not  believe  it  is  a  false 
statement.  It  has  been  proven  true  to  the  satisfaction 
of  millions  of  wise  men  in  all  ages  of  the  world. 
Think  not  that  with  you  it  will  be  different. 

Be  cautious.  Weigh  things  well  before  you  endorse 
or  accept  them.  Slowness  of  belief  and  a  proper  dis- 
trust are  essential  to  success.  The  credulous  and 
confiding  are  ever  the  dupes  of  swindlers  and  im[X)s- 
tors.  The  majority  of  men  who  have  lost  their  proi>- 
erty  will  invariably  tell  you  it  was  through  misplaced 
confidence.  One  lost  by  endorsing  for  a  friend  or 
neighbor;  another  by  fraud  or  by  false  represent- 
ation ;  another  by  crediting  one  whom  he  believed 
honest  and  able  to  pay.  Judge  of  men  by  their 
actions  and  not  by  their  cunningly  devised  statements. 
Observe  their  every  movement ;  learn  their  motives 
and  their  ends.  Notice  what  they  do  and  say  in  their 
unguarded  moments.  It  is  your  duty  before  trusting 
a  man,  or  putting  in  his  jxjwer  the  means  of  causing 
you  to  lose,  to  know  as  much  about  him  as  jxissible. 
Learn  his  history,  his  habits,  inclinations  and  propens- 
ities ;  his  reputation  for  honesty,  industry,  frugality 
and  punctuality ;  his  prospects,  resources,  supjxjrts, 
advantages,  and  his  disadvantages;  his  intentions  and 
motives  of  action;  who  are  his  friends  and  enemies: 
and  what  are  his  good  or  bad  qualities.  You  may 
learn  a  man's  good  (jualities  and  advantages  from  his 


CHILDREN. 


257 


friends ;  his  bad  qualities  and  disadvantages  from  his 
enemies.  Make  a  due  allowance  for  exaggeration  in 
both.  Finally,  examine  carefully  before  engaging  in 
anything,  but  when  you  have  decided,  act  with  energy. 

To  a  young  man  or  woman  just  emerging  into  active 
life,  order  and  system  in  the  management  of  their  af- 
fairs should  receive  due  attention.  Nothing  contrib- 
utes more  to  economy  of  time  and  rapidity  with  which 
work  may  be  accomplished.  Have  a  place  for  every- 
thing, and  everything  in  its  place ;  a  time  for  every- 
thing, and  everything  in  its  time.  Do  first  what 
presses  most,  and  having  determined  what  is  to  be 
done  and  how  it  is  to  be  done,  lose  no  time  in  doing 
it.     Without  this  method  all  is  hurry  and  confusion. 

Another  important  feature  to  be  observed  by  the 
young  beginning  active  life  is  politeness.  Agreeable 
manners  contribute  largely  to  a  man's  success.  Take 
two  men  having  equal  advantages  in  every  respect, 
but  let  one  be  gentlemanly,  kind,  obliging  and  concil- 
iating in  his  manners ;  the  other  harsh,  rude,  and  dis- 
obliging, and  the  one  will  become  rich  while  the  other 
starves.  For  further  advice  on  this  topic  see  Eti- 
quette. 

To  be  prosperous  in  the  way  of  money-getting,  one 
must  observe  another  very  important  principle ;  that 
is,  industry.  Oanstant,  regular,  habitual  and  system- 
atic application  to  business  will  in  time,  if  properly 
directed,  produce  great  results,  whether  on  the  farm, 
at  the  bench,  or  in  the  counting-room.  It  will  lead  to 
wealth,  just  so  surely  as  idleness,  inattention,  vice  and 
drinking  leads  to  jxiverty. 

The  art  of  money-saving  is  no  unimixirtant  feature 
of  a  successful  life.  Without  frugality  none  can  be- 
come rich.  This  should  be  taught  the  young.  Chil- 
dren may  be  educated  to  save  even  when  quite  young. 
Remember  there  is  a  difference  from  legitimate  econ- 
omy and  being  mean  and  miserly.  Who  ever  knew  a 
prudent,  economical,  saving  man  to  come  to  want .' 
but  we  see  hundreds  born  to  wealth,  who,  by  extrava- 
gance, have  died  in  want  and  misery. 

Let  it  be  deeply  impressed  ufxsn  the  minds  of  the 
young  the  terribleness  of  falsehood.  When  once  con- 
cealment or  deceit  has  been  practiced  where  all  should 
have  been  fair  and  open  as  day,  confidence  can  never 
be  fully  restored.  Distrust  will  ever  hover  over  such 
an  one.  How  many  otherwise  happy  lives  have  been 
made  miserable  because  prevarication  and  deceit  were 
the  controlling  habits  of  their  lives.  How  many  young 
men's  hopes  have  been  blasted  by  one   false   step. 

While  most  earnestlydesiring  to  instill  into  the  minds 
and  hearts  of  the  young  a  hatred  of  falsehood,  with 
equal  emphasis  we  urge  them  to  cling  to  truth  and  de- 
spise not  religion.  The  teachings  of  the  humble  Jesus, 
if  only  observed,  will  make  you  a  better  man, 
a  more  honorable  citizen,  a  kinder  father,  and  a 
more  dutiful  husband.  Religion  is  the  most  im- 
portant subject  that  can  interest  the  attention  of  man, 
for  the  effects  of  rehgion  are  felt  amid  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune  in  this  life.  Indeed,  that  which  in- 
terests the  immortal  spirit,  which  will  decide  its  des- 
tiny during  eternity,  is  so  far  above  the  petty  consid- 

17 


erations  which  agitate  the  world,  that  no  comparison 
can  be  drawn  between  them.  Christianity  enters  the 
hut  of  the  poor  man  and  sits  down  with  him  and  his 
children.  It  makes  them  contented  in  the  midst  of 
their  privations,  and  leaves  behind  an  everlasting 
blessing.  It  walks  amid  all  the  jxamp  and  splendor 
of  wealth  as  a  purifying,  ennobling  and  redeeming  an- 
gel. It  is  alike  the  beautiful  companion  of  childhood, 
and  the  comforring  assurance  of  age.  It  adds  dignity 
to  the  noble,  gives  wisdom  to  the  wise,  and  new  grace 
to  the  lovely.  Young  man,  young  woman,  you  can- 
not afford  to  ignore  the  religion  that  the  Son  of  God 
established  in  the  world.  Without  it  the  highest  suc- 
cess and  enjoyments  of  life  never  can  be  attained. 

The  young  are  ever  impatient.  Especially  does  it 
seem  so  of  the  young  men  of  the  country.  They 
easily  become  dissatisfied  with  their  mode  of  life,  and 
seek  to  better  it  by  changing.  This  change  almost 
invariably  points  to  the  city.  Their  young  minds  have 
been  dazzled  and  blinded  by  the  exaggerated  stories  of 
stupendous  fortunes  made  in  a  day  in  the  great  cides ;  of 
the  pleasure,  high  life  and  excitement  these  great  cen- 
ters afford.  Young  man,  be  not  deceived,  for  not  one 
in  a  thousand  who  go  to  the  city  ever  realize  their  fond 
hope's  expectation.  The  great  majority  who  flock 
there  settle  down  to  a  life  of  drudgery  and  disappoint- 
ment. Stick  to  the  farm,  is  our  often  and  repeated 
advice.  Realizing  how  prone  the  young  are  to  desire 
to  go  to  the  city,  and  knowing  the  unhappy  results,  we 
most  earnestly  desire  to  impress  upon  their  minds  as 
indelibly  as  possible  this  advice.  Farming  is  an  hon- 
orable, lucrative  and  pleasant  business ;  and  if  nine- 
tenths  of  the  young  men  who  leave  the  farms  and  go 
to  the  cities  would  work  as  hard  upon  them,  live  as 
cheaply  as  they  often  have  to,  they  would  become 
wealthy  and  influential,  whereas  they  neither  have 
wealth,  influence  nor  happiness. 

We  further  give  the  following  advice  to  be  observed 
both  by  the  child  and  youth. 

Be  not  contentious  for  your  rights ;  if  you  cannot 
obtain  them  peaceably,  let  them  go.  Nations  fight  one 
another  because  there  is  ^o  higher  court  to  adjust 
claims  between  them. 

Be  you  ever  so  mad,  or  disturbed  in  your  feelings, 
do  not  exhibit  that  you  are  throWn  off  your  balance 
and  unable  to  reason  coolly.  Worded  shortly :  Do  not 
show  bad  temper. 

Do  not  protract  controversies. 

Be  kind  and  obliging  in  little  things  ;  let  no  oppor 
tunity  escape. 

Treat  your  school-teacher  on  the  same  general  prin- 
ciples of  politeness  that  you  would  any  one  else. 

Be  punctual.  This  is  the  surest  way  to  advance- 
ment in  position  in  after  life. 

Gossip  is  such  talk  about  your  neighbors  as  has  a 
bad  influence. 

Those  who  are  too  talkative  do  not  know  it.  "  A 
fool  is  known  by  his  multitude  of  words." 

In  conversation,  refer  to  yourself  just  as  little  as 
possible,  and  then  in  such  an  indifferent  manner  that 
it  will  not  call  attention  to  yourself. 


'5» 


CHILDREN. 


Pure  language  is  the  surest  ladder  to  high  position 
in  society,  irrespective  of  other  merits. 

While  punning  and  playing  with  words  is  admissi- 
ble as  far  as  it  is  sure  to  create  no  ill  feeling,  be  care- 
ful not  to  prevaricate,  or  get  in  the  habit  of  saying  one 
thing  in  earnest  while  you  mean  another. 

Never  play  "  practical  "  jokes ;  they  are  always  dan- 
gerous. 

Avoid  affectation,  which  is  the  vice  of  taking  on  an 
air  of  superiority. 

Do  not  be  conceited,  pretending  to  know  more  than 
you  do. 

Be  affable,  ready  to  listen  and  to  respond  with  as 
much  endorsement  of  your  friend's  sentiments  as  you 
can  conscientiously  give. 

We  have  an  especial  word  to  the  farmers  boy,  who 
is  busily  engaged  upon  his  father's  farm.  Your  pres- 
ent duties  are  here :  perform  them  to  the  uttermost. 
Observe  the  advice  given  above,  heed  what  we  now 
give,  and  your  life,  we  doubt  not,  will  be  honorable, 
prosperous  and  happy. 

To  the  farmer  boy  at  work:  You  have  al- 
most a  constant  fear  lest  your  father  (or  employer,  as 
the  case  may  be)  will  not  think  you  have  done  work 
enough  for  the  day,  or  the  half-day, — a  fear  lest  he 
will  not  see  what  invisible  difficulties  you  had  to  over- 
come. Your  work,  too,  on  some  days  will  not  show 
off  to  as  great  advantage  as  that  done  on  other  days, 
and  your  employer,  not  being  by  your  side  through 
it  all,  like  almost  ever)'body  else,  will  be  governed 
more  by  appearances  than  by  the  hireling's  account 
of  the  matter.  Sometimes  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
accomplishing  the  usual  amount  of  work  lie  in  the 
nature  of  the  ground,  sometimes  in  that  of  the  crop 
growing  uix)n  it,  sometimes  in  the  team  with  which  you 
work,  and  sometimes  in  the  plow,  harrow,  machine, 
harness,  or  other  "rigging  "you  have  touse;butoftener 
than  in  any  other  way,  perhaps,  theyoccurin  the  condi- 
tions of  your  body  and  of  the  atmosphere.  Some  days 
the  air  is  full  of  heated,  noxious  vajxjrs,  and  is  so  oppres- 
sive and  enervating  that  one  cannot  jxjssibly  do  as 
much  as  he  can  on  other  days.  Sometimes  one  can  do 
twice  as  much  as  at  other  times,  and  not  feel  so  ex- 
hausted ;  yet  how  few  men  who  conduct  a  farm  seem 
to  recognize  this  fact !  and  how  many  scoldings  the 
boy  receives  for  not  doing  as  much  one  day  as  he  did 
some  other  given  day. 

Many  employers  have  a  very  awkward  way  of  telling 
what  they  want  done,  and  of  making  themselves  un- 
derstood. They  are  sometimes  coarsely  organized,  ig- 
norant, and  consequently  very  conceited,  and  imagine 
they  tell  everything  plainly  enough,  and  that  they  are 
more  reasonable  and  honest  than  any  of  their  neigh- 
bors in  all  respects. 

You  receive  orders  from  such  a  one,  go  out  into 
the  field  to  execute  them,  and  behold !  his  orders  do 
not  apply  to  the  work  at  all  You  are  in  a  quandary. 
"  What  shall  I  do  ?"  you  inwardly  exclaim.  Al- 
though ashamed  to  go  all  the  way  back  to  the  house 
to  have  the  orders  repeated  more  clearly,  or  to  get 
further  information  about  something  (and  it  is  often  a 


half-mile  or  a  mile  to  the  house)  you  have  to  go.  On 
reaching  the  house,  lo!  the  man  has  gone  to  town  or 
off  hunting  cattle.     The  half-day  is  almost  wasted. 

Often  there  are  not  sufficient  pains  taken  that  a 
full  understanding  be  had  as  to  all  the  particulars,  and 
a  disagreeable  quarrel  follows,  with  this  language : 

Man. — "  You  did'  not  harrow  that  low  piece  of 
ground  beyond  the  oats  the  other  day." 

Bciy. — "  You  didn't  tell  me  to.  " 

Man. — "  I  did.  I  told  you  to  harrow  it  if  you  got 
the  other  piece  done  before — " 

Boy. — "  You  didn't  say  any  such  thing.  You  said 
that,"  etc. 

The  toy  should  have  modestly  replied,  "  I  did  not 
understand  (or  notice)  that  you  told  me  to  harrow  it," 
and  said  nothing  more ;  and  the  father  or  employer 
should  with  equal  modesty  acknowledge  that  he  may 
have  not  distinctly  enough  expressed  himself,  and  say 
no  more.  We  cannot  expect  all  men  to  be  philoso- 
phers, much  more  than  boys  nearly  grown.  The 
judgment  of  the  man  is  generally  the  best ;  but  if  he 
were  a  philosopher  he  will  not  act  as  if  he  were  jjerfect 
and  the  boy  wrong  in  every  matter  of  difference.  In 
case  of  hiring  out  the  boy  should  speak  beforehand  for 
these  little  but  serious  points  of  justice  and  reason,  as 
well  as  for  all  the  pleasures  and  liberties  he  may  wish 
to  enjoy,  arranging  for  a  large  margin,  and  then  ever 
afterward  be  a  little  more  steady  and  faithful  to  work 
than  he  had  led  his  employer  to  expect.  This  will 
keep  up  pleasant  relations. 

We  close  by  reference  to  some  of  the  pleasant  pict- 
ures of  a  young  farm  laborer's  life  : 

In  solitude,  while  laboring,  perhaps,  at  the  farthest 
corner  of  the  farm,  plowing  coni,  how  the  mind  will 
run  w\yox\.  various  subjects,  taking  imaginary  excur- 
sions, devising  great  schemes,  making  up  eloquent 
speeches,  and  anticipating  the  scenes  of  harvest,  of 
autumn,  and  of  winter!  But  how  often,  too,  the  fore- 
noon seems  so  long, — -so  much  longer  than  usual,  and 
the  eyes  cast  up  toward  the  house  to  see  the  dinner 
flag  hung  out!  But  this  longing  is  as  often  for  rest  as 
for  dinner. 

One  morning  will  be  fresh  and  the  air  bracing,  the 
birds  are  singing  and  everything  seems  to  be  looking 
up,  and  your  task  light  and  pleasant.  Just  for  the 
rime  the  feeling  is  that  nearly  all  work  might  be  made 
as  pleasant ;  but  the  very  next  morning  is  hot  and  sul- 
try, and  the  horizon  shows  signs  of  a  thunder-shower. 
"  How  I  wish  that  cloud  would  hurry  up  here  and 
cool  us  off  a  little,  give  us  some  rain,  and  me  a  little 
rest!"  In  a  dry  season  that  cloud  generally  disap- 
pears without  giving  you  any  rain;  but  a  wet  season 
is  "  a  great  time  for  hired  men  and  young  ducks." 

There  is  a  strange  and  irresistible  influx  of  youth  of 
the  country  to  the  towns  and  cities.  They  are  allured 
somewhat  by  the  imagined  "  honor  "  of  being  a  city 
resident,  somewhat  by  the  sights  and  vivacity  of  the 
thronged  thoroughfare,  but  more  than  all,  perhaps,  by 
the  lottery  chance  of  making  a  sudden  fortune,  or  of 
having  at  least  an  easy  and  honored  i»sition,  where 
the  labor  is  light  and  the  pay  is  heavy.     Their  sober 


CHILL— CHLORINE. 


259 


judgment  teaches  them  that  such  jxjsitions  are  as 
scarce  as  lottery  prizes, — one  prize  to  a  thousand 
blanks;  but  such  is  human  passion,  each  one  thinks 
he  has  got  a  "  sure  thing,"  until  he  has  acquired  some 
experience,  while  the  other  "  feller  "  has  "  acquired  " 
the  money.  Were  it  not  for  legislative  prohibition,  the 
peo])le  would  "  lottery  "  themselves  to  death — to  a 
complete  pecuniary  death.  City  life  with  the  masses 
is  one  of  the  greatest  drudgery  and  ]X)verty.  Those 
that  are  not  overworked  and  die  prematurely  are  rushed 
on  to  premature  graves  by  dissipation  and  debauchery. 
Real  happiness  and  the  charms  of  life  are  seldom 
found  in  the  city.  Indeed,  city  life  is  purely  an  abnor- 
mal state.  The  highest  enjoyment  is  experienced  in 
the  rural  districts.  Thelegitimatecharmsof  life  and  all 
poetry  are  in  the  countrj'.  The  highest  poetry  is  in  the 
wilds  of  nature.  Not  one  true  poet  in  a  hundred  has 
been  born  and  bred  in  the  city.  Let  any  thinking 
genius,  whose  infant  eyes  were  first  taught  to  see  by 
the  trees  and  plants,  birds  and  insects,  hills  and 
streams  of  the  vast  wilderness,  and  all  whose  senses 
were  trained  by  the  experiences  of  farm  life,  go  to 
the  city  and  confine  himself  to  office  life  there  for  a 
few  months  or  years,  and  he  will  long  to  return  and 
dwell  upon  the  farm;  he  sees  poetry  only  there;  but 
let  one  who  is  born  and  brought  up  in  the  city — well, 
as  a  general  rule,  he  has  neither  body  nor  soul,  for 
either  city  or  country  life.  Therefore  we  conclude : 
Go  to  the  city  on  business;  go  visiting;  go  often  ;  stay 
long  enough  to  see  everything  new ;  but  live  upon  the 
farm. 

For  full  information  in  reference  to  seeing  the  sights 
of  a  city  and  advice  to  the  farmer  visiting  the  city, 
see  Traveling. 

Chill,  in  casting  iron,  is  to  pour  the  melted  metal 
against  cold  metal  in  the  mold,  to  render  certain  parts 
harder,  which  are  more  exposed  to  wear. 

Chills  and  Fever,  intermittent  fever;  ague.  See 
Ague  and  Fever. 

Chimney.  In  constructing  a  brick  chimney,  the 
thickness  of  five  bricks,  with  the  intervening  mortar, 
makes  a  foot  in  height;  to  leave  a  flue  (passage  for 
smoke)  four  by  eight  inches,  requires  five  bricks  to  the 
round,  or  25  to  the  foot  in  height,  and  each  brick  add- 
ed to  the  round  increases  the  dimension  of  the  flue  on 
one  side  or  end  by  four  inches ;  thus,  to  leave  a  flue 
eight  by  eight  inches,  requires  six  bricks  to  the  round, 
or  30  to  the  foot  in  height;  a  flue  8  by  12  inches,  35 
brick  to  the  perpendicular  foot;  a  foot  square,  40 brick 
to  the  foot,  etc.  By  these  data  any  one  can  readily 
calculate  the  number  of  brick  required  for  any  regular 
chimney.  As  chimneys  are  generally  not  uniform  in 
their  size  from  bottom  to  top,  of  course  each  section 
must  be  calculated  separately  and  the  results  added 
together  to  obtain  the  total.  A  large  chimney,  say 
with  an  aperture  a  foot  square,  or  12  by  16  inches,  is 
far  better  than  a  smaller  one,  even  for  a  stove;  and  a 
flue  should  never  be  diminished  at  any  point  above 
the  smoke  entrance.      Masons  and  builders  generally 


insist  on  putting  up  a  house  or  a  chimney  in  a  certain 
way,  which  is  the  fashion  at  the  time  and  which  they 
are  most  familiar  with,  and  often  succeed  in  persuad- 
ing the  proprietor  to  adopt  plans  which  are  not  the 
best  for  comfort,  if  they  are  for  looks ;  but  the  proprie- 
tor should  have  his  own  way,  where  he  wants  comfort 
and  convenience,  even  though  he  has  to  discharge  the 
obstreperous  mason  or  builder. 

In  the  measurement  of  a  chimney,  however,  to  cal- 
culate the  mason  work,  it  is  counted  as  solid,  outside 
measurement,  to  allow  him  for  the  trouble  of  forming 
and  plastering  the  flue.  Thus,  a  chimney  16  by  24 
inches,  or  two  bricks  by  six,  outside  measure,  would 
count  60  to  the  foot ;  and  the  thousand  brick  he  con- 
tracted to  lay  would  run  the  chimney  up  only  16^ 
feet.  In  chimney  breasts,  take  the  width  of  the  face 
on  each  floor,  and  multiply  by  the  height  and  by  the 
thickness  projecting  into  the  room  ;  the  fire-place  not 
deducted.  When  projections  on  the  top  exceed  two 
courses  of  brick,  two  courses  to  be  added  to  the  height. 

To  examine  a  chimney,  after  it  has  been  used,  hold 
a  piece  of  looking-glass,  inclined  at  an  angle  of  40"  in 
the  hole  in  the  chimney  where  the  pipe  enters,  and  if 
you  can  see  the  light  of  the  sky,  you  can  see  the  whole 
of  the  interior  of  the  chimney  and  any  obstruction 
therein. 

To  put  out  the  fire  of  a  burning  chimney,  shut  all 
the  doors  and  throw  into  the  stove  or  fire-place,  as  the 
case  may  be,   a  handful  of  salt. 

Chinch  Bug:     see  Wheat. 

Chine,  the  ends  of  the  staves  of  a  barrel,  outside 
the  heads. 

Chisley  (chiz'ly),  having  a  large  admixture  of  small 
pebbles  or  gravel :  said  of  a  soil  between  gravel  and 
clay. 

Chives:     see  Gives. 

Chlorine,  a  greenish-yellow,  irrespirable,  poisonous 
gas.  It  is  pungent,  fuming,  and  of  great  chemical 
activity.  When  chlorine  is  combined  with  metals 
the  substances  are  called  chlorides,  as  chloride  of  so- 
dium (common  salt),  chloride  of  hydrogen  (muriatic 
acid).  Ghlorine  also  unites  with  lime  and  soda, 
forming  feeble  comjxmnds,  the  chlorides  of  lime 
and  soda.  Chlorides  are  erroneously  called  muriates, 
and  muriatic  acid  should  be  called  hydrochloric  acid. 
Ghlorine  gas  is  prepared  by  jwuring  hydrochloric 
acid  on  the  black  oxide  of  manganese  ;  also  by  heating 
sulphuric  acid  with  common  salt  and  the  manganese. 
This  gas  is  a  disinfectant,  and  for  this  purjxise  is  made 
and  used  as  follows :  Take  an  ounce  or  so,  depend- 
ing on  the  size  of  the  place  to  be  disinfected,  of  black 
oxide  of  manganese,  and  hydrochloric  acid  of  suffici- 
ent quantity,  carry  them  to  the  place  where  they  are 
to  be  used,  ixiur  the  one  into  the  other,  and  close  the 
doors,  having  first  removed  all  the  animals  out  of  the 
place.  A  spirit  lamp  placed  under  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  holding  the  materials,  will  insure  a  greater  vol- 
ume of  gas.  Chlorine  when  sufficiently  and  properly 
used  is  considered  to  be,  of  great  advantage  in  arrest- 


26o 


CHLOROFORM— CHOLERA  INFANTUM. 


ing  the  ravages  of  glanders,  farcy  and  other  distem- 
pers in  the  horse,  of  pleuro-pneumonia  and  contagious 
typhus  in  cattle,  and  small-pox  in  sheep.  It  will  cost  no 
more  than  $3,  and  consists  of  a  small  lamp  with  a 
stand,  so  formed  that  a  small  glass  bottle  can  sit  right 
above  the  blaze  of  the  lamp,  while  from  its  wide  and 
open  mouth  issues  the  disease-healing  and  health-re- 
storing gas. 

Chloroform,  a  chemical,  volatile  compound,  the 
the  vapor  of  which  when  taken  into  the  lungs  renders 
one  in  part  insensible  to  pain  and  in  part  heroic, 
through  a  peculiar  blinding  of  the  sensations.  It  has 
been  the  chief  anaesthetic  for  many  years,  but,  on 
account  of  its  danger,  ether  and  other  agencies  are  tak- 
ing its  place.  No  one  but  a  responsible  physician 
should  undertake  to  administer  it.  Chloroform  is  an 
excellent  stimulant,  when  given  to  horses  having  a 
chill,  or  shivering  fit,  from  congestion  or  from  cold, 
and  is  equal  to  turpentine  for  the  cure  of  colic.  An 
excellent  liniment  is  made  by  adding  one  ounce  of 
chloroform  to  two  of  olive  oil. 

Dose.  Chloroform  is  given  to  the  horse  and  cow,  in 
doses  from  one  to  two  drachms,  mixed  in  weak  whisky, 
and  repeat  every  two  or  three  hours,  or  till  the  colic  is 
relieved. 

Inhalation.  The  inhalation  of  chlorofonn,  by  either 
horse  or  ox,  is  attended  with  risk,  provided  the  animal 
be  not  secured  or  tied,  so  that  it  cannot  get  loose  ;  be- 
cause some  horses  and  cattle  become  completely  wild 
when  the  effect  of  the  inhalation  commences  to  act 
upon  the  brain.  On  the  other  hand,  some  horses  will 
quietly  stand  up,  others  will  quietly  lie  down  under  it. 
Two  to  four  ounces  are  sufficient  to  produce  an- 
aesthesia, or  loss  of  sensibility. 

The  usual  way  of  givingchloroform  by  inhalation  is  by 
pouring  about  two  ounces  of  chloroform  on  a  soft  and 
moist  sjxsnge,  whilst  the  animal  is  tied  down,  and  hold- 
ing the  sjionge  to  one  nostril  only,  covering  the  nose 
loosely  with  a  large  towel  to  save  the  fumes  of  the 
chloroform,  using  great  care  not  to  exclude  the  admis- 
sion of  pure  air  with  the  fumes  of  the  chloroform.  In 
all  operations  lasringany  length  of  time,  humanity  and 
fine  feeling  demand  the  outlay  for  a  little  chloroform. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  destroy  completely  all  feeling, 
just  sufficient  to  blunt  the  sensibility  of  the  nerve 
centers. 

Chocolate  (chock' o-let),  a  paste  composed  of  the 
roasted  kernel  of  a  tropical  tree,  ground  and  mixed 
with  other  ingredients,  usually  a  little  sugar,  cinnamon 
or  vanilla ;  also  the  beverage  made  from  this  paste. 
Chocolate  is  generally  adulterated  with  flour,  jMtato 
starch,  sugar,  cocoa-nut  oil,  lard,  tallow,  red  ochre, 
yellow  ochre,  red  lead,  vermilion,  sulphate  of  lime,  or 
chalk,  etc.  People  can  enjoy  just  as  much  of  life  with- 
out using  it  as  by  adding  it  to  the  numerous  more 
healthful  beverages  at  hand.  To  prepare  the  bever- 
age, scrape  up  about  1^  of  a  jwund  of  the  chocolate 
cake  into  a  saucepan  with  2  gills  of  water ;  set  it  on 
the  fire ;  stir  it  constantly  with  a  wooden  spoon  until 
it  is  rather  thick,  then  work  it  very  quickly  with    the 


sixxjn.     Stir  in  a  pint  of  boiling  milk  by  degrees  and 
serve  it. 

Choke-Damp,  carbonic  acid  gas,  generally  as  it  is 
found  at  the  bottom  of  some  wells.  No  well  should 
ever  be  entered  without  first  letting  down  a  lighted 
candle  or  torch  of  some  kind,  to  ascertain  whether  that 
gas  is  present.  If  it  is  there,  the  blaze  will  be  extin- 
guished. By  throwing  down  a  quantity  of  water  or 
cloths,  good  air  can  be  forced  down  to  take  the  place 
of  the  "  damp ;"  but  a  thorough  pumping  would  do  bet- 
ter work.  This  gas  sometimes  collects  in  cellars,  old 
(  cisterns,  etc.  In  case  of  suffocation  from  this  heavy 
gas,  remove  the  patient  to  fresh  air,  dash  cold  water 
over  the  head,  neck  and  chest,  carefully  apply  smell- 
ing salts  to  the  nostrils,  and  keep  up  the  warmth  of 
the  body.  When  breathing  has  ceased,  treat  as  for 
Drowning. 

Choking.  When  a  person  has  a  fish-bone  in  the 
throat,  insert  the  forefinger,  press  upon  the  root  of  the 
tongue,  so  as  to  induce  vomiting ;  if  this  does  not  do, 
let  him  swallow  a  large  piece  of  potato  or  soft  bread  ; 
and  if  these  fail  give  a  mustard  emetic,  or  one  of  salt 
and  water. 

Cholera,  Asiatic,  violent  purging,  vomiting  and 
prostration ;  caused  by  anxiety  and  fear,  in  connection 
with  bad  diet,  and  possibly  a  weak  state  of  the  bowels 
and  certain  germs  in  the  atmosphere.  "  Cramps  "  gen- 
erally set  in  just  before  death,  and  continue  a  while 
after  the  patient  has  breathed  his  last.  Medical  treat- 
ment usually  consists  of  hot  applications,  both  exter- 
nally and  internally,  special  attention  being  required  to 
keep  the  extremities  warm.  The  odor  of  drugs  in  the 
room  aggravates  the  disease.  Keep  the  head  cool  with 
a  wet  cloth;  warm  up  and  cleanse  the  bowels  with  in- 
jections of  warm,  pure  water;  and  no  food  should  be 
taken  until  the  violence  of  the  attack  has  abated,  and 
then  it  should  consist  of  farinaceous  gruels,  the  soft  part 
of  fresh,  warm  graham  gems,  or  graham  crackers  with  a 
little  cream.  These  things  do  until  the  physician 
arrives,  who  should  be  sent  for  as  soon  as  ix)ssible 
after  the  attack  is  suspected.     Don't  do  any  drugging. 

Cholera  Infantum  is  very  fatal  among  children, 
and  may  be  known  from  the  following  symptoms: 
Diarrhoea,  vomiting,  want  of  appetite,  languor,  head  hot, 
abdomen  swollen, — in  some  cases  constant  diarrhoea 
and  vomiting  until  death.  It  often  comes  during  teeth- 
ing and  previous  to  the  fourth  year.  The  blood  is 
impure  and  the  disease  seems  to  affect  the  whole  di- 
gestive apparatus.  After  the  stomach  and  bowels 
have  been  evacuated,  give  charcoal  and  magnesia, 
or  the  latter  alone.  When  there  is  much  irritability, 
clysters  of  flaxseed  tea,  mutton  broth,  and  starch,  \vith 
a  little  laudanum  in  them,  will  give  ease.  Fomenta- 
tions of  the  bowels  and  abdomen  are  useful.  After  the 
violence  of  the  symptoms  is  over,  give  the  Peruvian 
bark  in  jxjwder  or  decoction,  adding  a  little  nutmeg. 
Or  use  a  tea  of  avens,  or  bayberry  root,  or  the  leaves 
of  red  raspberry.  The  removal  of  children  to  the  coun- 
try, abstaining  from  fruit,   the  use  of  flannel  and  the 


CHLORIDE  OF  LIME— CHURCH. 


261 


cold  bath,  are  the  means  prescribed  for  prevention. 
Chloride  of  Lime,  also  called  lime  chloride  and 
bleaching  powder.  It  is  a  chemical  combination  of 
chlorine  and  lime.  Chlorine  is  a  greenish-yellow  gas, 
irrespirable  and  poisonous ;  but  its  combination  wth 
lime  constitutes  a  very  different  substance.  It  is  a 
good  disinfectant,  and  is  an  excellent  stimulant  to  un- 
healthy ulcers.  Chloride  of  lime  has  been  highly  rec- 
ommended in  tympanitis  in  the  horse,  and  hoven  in 
cattle,  arising  from  eating  wet  clover.  The  dose,  as 
given,  is  from  two  to  four  drachms,  mixed  with 
cold  water.  As  a  disinfectant  it  may  be  sprink- 
led on  the  stable  or  barn  floor  every  morning;  but  a 
good  way  would  be  to  suspend  it  in  a  box  having  many 
small  holes  in  it  and  hung  from  the  roof  of  the  house. 
If  the  house  be  large,  two  or  more  boxes  may  be  used. 

Cholera  Morbus  arises  from  a  diseased  condition 
■of  the  bile,  often  brought  on  by  the  use  of  too  much  un- 
ripe fruit  and  vegetables,  usually  commencing  with 
sickness  and  pain  at  the  stomach,  followed  by  the 
most  severe  pain  and  griping  of  the  bowels,  vomit- 
ing and  purging,  which  soon  prostrate  the  patient. 
The  thirst  is  very  great,  evacuations  tinged  with  bile, 
and  often  progressing  some  time,  nearly  all  bilious. 

Treatment.  Apply  flannel  cloths,  wrung  out  in  hot 
water  or  spirits,  over  the  whole  surfiiceof  the  stomach, 
immerse  the  feet  in  warm  water,  or,  if  the  patient  be 
in  bed,  bottles  filled  with  hot  water  and  kept  to  the 
feet  will  answer.  Drink  freely  of  warm  pennyroyal 
tea  and  comjwsition  [xswders.  If  these  means  fail, 
give  60  drops  of  paregoric,  and  put  a  strong  ix)ultice 
of  mustard  upon  the  stomach.  When  the  pain  sub- 
sides, give  a  dose  of  castor  oil,  to  carry  off  the  remain- 
ing bile.  Those  subject  to  this  disease  should  always 
wear  a  flannel  next  to  their  body,  be  cautious  of  their 
diet,  and  avoid  exposure  to  the  damp,  cold  air. 

Many  prescriptions  for  this  complaint  are  made  of 
astringents,  as,  ginger,  rhubarij,  pepper,  laudanum, 
paregoric,  lye,  pei^permint,  wormwood,  etc.,  etc. — all 
on  the  principle  that  the  only  thing  needed  is  to 
"  lock  up  "  the  bowels,  or  stop  the  diarrhoea.  The 
diarrhoea  is  evidently  nature's  method  of  throwing  out 
matter  which  ought  not  to  be  in  the  body,  and  locking 
the  bowels  is  therefore  just  the  thing  7iot\.o  do.  Ene- 
mas of  water,  of  the  most  comfortable  temperature, 
generally  tepid,  will  best  aid  nature  in  this  work,  and 
the  diarrhoea  will  then  naturally  stop,  for  want  of  work 
to  do. 

Chowchow,  a  kind  of  mixed  pickles  ;  also  mixed, 
as  chowchow  sweetmeats,  etc.  To  make  chowchow,  take 
two  ((uarts  of  small  onions,  four  of  small  cucumbers, 
and  three  cauliflowers ;  cut  the  cauliflowers  and  cu- 
cumbers into  small  pieces,  and  soak  in  strong  salt  wa- 
ter over  night;  then  rinse  well,  and  boil  in  vinegar 
until  (juite  tender;  mix  one  [xjund  of  the  best  ground 
mustard  and  two  ounces  of  the  best  salad  oil  with 
enough  vinegar  to  mix  it  well ;  then  stir  in  while  boil- 
ing; just  before  taking  from  the  fire  add  three  ounces 
-of  fine  red  pepper ;  it  is  then  ready  to  bottle. 


Chowder,  a  dish  made  of  fresh  fish,  ix)rk,  biscuit, 
onions,  etc.,  stewed  together.  To  make  it,  take  a 
pound  of  salt  pork,  cut  into  strips,  and  soak  in  hot 
water  five  minutes;  cover  the  bottom  of  a  pot 
with  a  layer  of  this  ;  cut  four  ix)unds  of  cod  or  clam 
into  pieces  two  inches  square,  and  lay  enough  of  these 
on  the  ix)rk  to  cover  it;  follow  with  a  layer  of  chopped 
onions,  a  little  parsley,  summer  savory,  and  pepper, 
either  black  or  cayenne;  then  a  layer  of  split  Boston, 
or  butter,  or  whole  cream  crackers,  which  have  been 
soaked  in  warm  water  until  moist  through,  but  not 
ready  to  break ;  above  this  lay  a  stratum  of  jxark,  and 
repeat  the  order  given  above — onions,  seasoning  (not 
too  much),  crackers  and  (xsrk,  until  your  materials  are 
exhausted ;  let  the  topmost  layer  be  buttered  crackers, 
well  soaked;  \X)\.\x  in  enough  water  to  barely  cover  all ; 
cover  the  jxjt,  stew  gently  for  an  hour,  watching  that 
the  water  does  not  sink  too  low  ;  should  it  leave  the 
upper  layer  exjxised,  replenish  cautiously  from  the 
boiling  tea-kettle;  when  the  chowder  is  thoroughly 
done,  take  out  with  a  perforated  skimmer  and  put  in- 
to a  tureen ;  thicken  the  gravy  with  a  tablespoonful  of 
flour  and  about  the  same  quantity  of  butter;  boil  up 
and  ix)ur  over  the  chowder;  send  sliced  lemon,  pickles, 
and  stewed  tomatoes  to  the  table  with  it,  that  the 
guests  may  add,  if  they  like.  Before  putting  in  clams, 
the  heads  and  hard,  leathery  parts  should  be  cut  off. 

Chrysalid  (cris'a-lid),  or  Chrysalis,  the  form  which 

caterpillars  and  the  larves  of  some  other  insects  as- 
sume, in  which  to  develop  into  the  winged  or  perfect 
state.  In  this  condition  the  insect  has  a  kind  of  shell 
or  a  silken  cocoon  around  it.  "  Pupa  "  is  another 
term  for  chrysalis,  and  to  "  pupate  "  is  to  pass  into  and 
through  the  chrysalis  form. 

Chufa,  or  Earth  Almond,  is  a  sedge  bearing  sweet 
and  nutritions  tubers  ujwn  its  roots,  which  taste  some- 
what like  almonds.  The  plant  will  yield  200  to  500 
bushels  of  tubers  to  the  acre,  and  is  said  to  be  a  profit- 
able crop  in  the  South,  where  it  is  extensively  raised 
for  hogs  and  other  farm  animals.  The  crop  is  propa- 
gated by  i)lanUng  the  tubers,  or  "  nuts,"  as  they  are 
often  called,  in  drills  three  feet  apart,  and  six  inches 
apart  in  the  drill. 

Church,  a  building  dedicated  to  Christian  worship. 
The  word  is  also  used  to  designate  a  body  of  Christian 
believers,  observing  the  same  rites,  and  acknowledg- 
ing the  same  ecclesiasdcal  authority.  There  are  few 
farmers  but  are  more  or  less  interested  in  their  neigh- 
borhood churches.  They  may  not  be  prominent  or 
active  members  of  any  congregation,  or  even  connect- 
ed with  it  in  any  way,  yet  there  are  but  few  intelligent 
farmers  who  do  not  recognize,  to  some  extent,  at  least, 
the  importance  of  a  good,  live  religious  congregation 
in  their  neighborhood.  There  are  none  so  indifferent 
but  that  they  take  more  or  less  pride  in  having  a  neat, 
tasty  and  well-kept  church  edifice  in  their  community. 
The  character  of  the  church  and  school  buildings  of 
any  neighborhood  is  a  good  index  to  the  character  of 
the  people  living  there. 


262 


CHURCH. 


In  erecting  a  church  building,  the  first  step,  after 
having  selected  a  building  committee,  which  should 
be  composed  of  the  best  business  men  accessible,  is  to 
select  the  location.  A  somewhat  elevated  site  affords 
a  more  beautiful  .  .^^ 

aspect.  The  con- 
venience of  the 
majority  of  the 
members  should 
be  borne  in  mind, 
and  the  location 
be  as  central  as 
possible.  Of 
course  this 
should  not  pre- 
vent varying  one 
way  or  the  other 
a  short  distance, 
in  order  to  get  a 
beautiful  site. 

The  location 
once  selected, 
the  plan  of  the 
building  must  be 
adopted  and 
well  understood. 
It  must  be  adapt- 
ed to  the  site 
chosen.  A  plan  may  be  admirable  in  itself,  and  yet 
unsuited  to  any  particular  sjxjt.  Adopt  no  plan  hastily. 
It  should  be  carefully  studied,  examined  in  every 
light,  looked  at  from  every  jxjint  of  view.  There  are 
many  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  site 
chosen,  the  plan  adopted,  the  building  should  be  so 

placed  as  to  pre- 
sent an  agreeable 
appearance,  w  i  t  h 
reference  to  the 
main  points  from 
which  it  is  seen. 

The  architectural 
beauty  of  the  ex- 
terior should  not  be 
overlooked,  but  it 
must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  in  erect- 
ing a  building  of 
any  kind  the  first 
thing  to  be  consid- 
ered and  the  last 
thing  to  be  lost 
sight  of,  is  the  use 
to  which  it  is  ap- 
propriated. A  coun- 
try church  should 
be  as  pleasant  in 
finish  and  as  tasteful  in 
furniture  as  the  residence  of  the  most  cultured. 

The  materials  to  be  used  in  construction  will  neces- 
sarily have  an  influence   in  choice  of  style.      Wood 


is  the  material  most  generally  used  in  the  country. 
This  arises  chiefly  from  its  abundance  and  cheapness. 
A  greater  variety  of  form  and  more  elaborate  embel- 
lishment may  be  secured  at  a  given  expense   in    the 


Fig.  2. — Ground'Floor  Plan, 

api^earance,  as  beautiful  in 


-A   Model  Country  Church. 

use  of  wood  rather  than  stone  or  brick.  Where  stone 
can  be  procured  it  is  the  best  of  all  materials  for  a 
church  edifice.  Brick  may  be  substituted  in  designs 
where  stone  cannot  be  had  without  too  great  expense. 
Ventilation  is  an  important  feature  to  be  observed 
in  building  a  church.  In  many  of  the  country  churches 
the  windows  and  doors  are  kept  closed,  and  the  oxy- 
gen of  the  air,  being  rapidly  consumed  by  the  burn- 
ing of  the  lamps  and  fires,  and  by  the  inspiration  of 
the  congregation,  it  is  impossible  for  one  to  remain 
long  in  such  places  without  feeling  the  evil  effects  of 
the  bad  air.  Poor  ventilation  often  accounts  for  the 
dullness  of  sermons  and  the  drowsiness  of  congrega- 
tions. See  to  it,  that  proper  ventilation  has  been 
provided. 

We  give  an  excellent  design  for  a  country  church, 
the  elevation  of  which  is  represented  by  Fig.  i ,  and 
the  ground  plan  by  Fig.  2.     It  will  not  suit  every  one, 

or  every  location,  but 
it  will  furnish  ideas  for 
all.  It  may  be  modi- 
fied and  changed  to 
be  adapted  to  location 
and  outlay  desired  to 
be  made  in  the  erec- 
I  tion  of  a  church. 
Fig.  ■i.-CaiUry.FtcorPian.  The   height  of  this 

church  from  the  floor  to  the  eaves  is  17  feet,  and  the 
whole  height  of  the  ceiling  about  22  feet.  It  is  planned 
for  a  gallery  across  the  front  only.  It  will  seat  400 
people.  The  same  ground  plan  may  of  course  be  so 
executed  as  to  give  much  greater  accommodations. 


CHURN. 


263 


Fig.    j. — Rectangular 
Churn. 


Churn,  a  vessel  in  which  butter  is  produced 
from  cream  by  agitation.  The  various  kinds  of 
churns  are  very  numerous,  and  for  each  some 
special  advantages  are  claimed  by  its  advocates. 
It  is  not  proposed  to  discuss  here  -the  relative 
merits  of  different  churns,  but  to  point  out,  if  pos- 
sible, the  l)est  principle  on  which  churning  can  be 
done,  and  leave  the  choice  of  the  churn  itself  to 
the  reader.  It  is  no  great  merit  in  a  churn  to 
produce  butter  very  rapidly,  for  this  is  done  at  the 
expense  of  the  quality  and  grain.  The  main 
things  to  be  looked  for  are  complete  absence  of 
buttermilk  in  the  butter  and  ease  in  working  the 
churn.  As  the  butter  is  produced  rather  by  im- 
pact (striking  or  dashing)  than  by  mere  agitation, 
the  churn  which  will  give  the  most  effective  im- 
pact, without  injuring  the  grain  of  the  butter,  must 
be  considered  the  best.  It  seems  that  these  conditions 
are  perfectly  secured  in  a  right-angled  box  churn, 
as  Fig.  I.  All  the  agitation 
which  can  be  got  in  any  other 
form  of  the  churn  is  secured  in 
this,  while  the  concussion  or 
impact  on  the  right-angled  sides 
or  corners  is  greater  and  more 
direct  than  any  other.  The 
butter,  too,  comes  as  rapidly  as 
it  is  advisable  to  have  it.  The 
form  of  churn  most  commonly  used  in  small 
dairies  is  the  upright  or  dash  churn.  Another 
variety  is  the  cylinder  churn,  which  is  siinply  con- 
structed and  can  be  easily  cleaned. 

The  Davis 
swing  churn  is 
very  easy  to 
work, and  very 
simple  in  its 
construction. 
The  opening 
into  the  box  is 
always  right 
side  up,  the  lid 
is  ventilated, 
and  there  is  no 
slopping  or 
dripping  of 
cream.      Each 

Fig,  2. — Davis  Swinsr  Churn,  q  \-^  jj  j-  j-j    J^  ^  S    1 

glass  indicator  in  the  cover,  thus  enabling  a  person 
to  tell  Avhen  the  butter  comes  without  raising  the 
lid.  The  butter  comes  in  beautiful  granules  in  the 
most  desirable  form  for  washing  with  cold  w^ater 
or  brine. 

The  "  Boss  "  Churn.  These  churns  have  be- 
come very  popular  among  the  dairymen  and 
creameries  of  the  West,  They  are  simple, 
strongl}'  made^  and  the  opening  at  the  top  is  so 
large  that  every  part  of  them  can  be  examined 
and  thoroughly  cleaned.     Butter  churned  in  a  box 


Churn. 


churn  or  barrel  churn  without  inside  breaks  comes 
in  much  better   condition   than   in   any  churn  with 

inside  dash, 
and  this  class 
of  churn  is 
rapidly  sup- 
planting many 
others  among 
dairymen. 

The  i  m  - 
proved  Union 
Churn  is  rep- 
resented by 
Fig.  4.  It  is 
made  with  a 
lieavy  stave 
bottom  sup- 
]i  o  r  t  e  d  by 
strong  hoops, 
with  patent 
adjustable 
fastenings,  ventilating  cover,  thermometer  for  test- 
ing the  temperature  of  cream,  gear-wheels  to  in- 
crease  the    motion    of  the   double-acting   dasher, 

which  creates  four  dis- 
tinct counter  currents  of 
cream  at  every  revolu- 
tion. The  inside  irons 
are  all  tinned  to  pre- 
vent rusting,  and  the 
churn  has  no  projections 
inside,  being  easy  to 
clean.  For  strength, 
durability',  neatness,  ad- 
justability, ease  of  op- 
erating and  rapid  and 
thorough  work, it  ranks 
high. 

The  churn  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  5  is  the 
I.  X.  L.  Churn,  which  is 
an  improvement  on  the 
old    barrel   or   cylinder 

Fig.  ^.—rmprmed  Union  Churn.      cllum.       It    has    a    four- 

winged  dasher,  which  folds  together  to  be  taken 
out.     It  is  convenient  to  manage,  and  very  durable. 

Red  Jacket  Churn,  which  is  nothing  more  than 
the  old  dasher  churn,  with  a  frame  and  gear  to 
run  it  with,  is  represented  by  Fig.  6.  This  is  per- 
haps the  most  successful  attempt  yet  made  to  run 
the  old  dasher  churn  with  machinery. 

A  good  home-made  churn  can  easily  be  made 
from  a  good,  water-tight  cask  or  barrel.  Nail 
some  cleats  and  lateral  braces  on  the  inside.  The 
cover  is  held  in  place  by  a  bar  screwed  loosely  at 
one  end  to  the  head  of  the  churn,  the  other  end 
falling  into  a  hook,  after  the  cover  is  adjusted. 
This  churn  is  then  hung  in  a  frame,  a  crank  at- 
tached  to   it,  and    it    is  then  ready   for   business. 


264 


CHURN—  CIDER. 


Or,  a  ^ood  cask  can  have  a  cover  fitted  in  the  top 
and  thus  converted  into  a  common  dasher  churn. 
As  one  can  brinsr  butter  with  a  common  dasher 


Fig.  i;.— /.  X.  L.  Churn. 

ofiurn  in  less   lime  than  is  necessarv  tor  the  best 
quality  of  butter,  there  is  really  no  great  need  of 

complicated  apparatus 
where  only  small  quan- 
tities of  butter  are  re- 
quired to  be  made,  as 
with  most  families. 

Very  neat,  easy-run- 
ning dog-powers  (Fig. 
7)  are  in  the  market,  for 
running  an}' light  churn. 
Although  intended  for 
dairy  purposes,  they  can 
t)e  made  use  of  wher- 
ever a  light  and  port- 
able power  is  desired. 
They  are  adapted  for 
dash  churns,  and  are 
also  arranged  with  pul- 
leys, or  tumbling-rod 
and  connections,  for 
running  crank  or  larger 
churns  intended  for 
power  only.  This  pow- 
er is  supplied  bv  Chas. 
P.  Willard  &  Co.,  Chi- 
cago. 

To    keep    a   churn 
Fig. 6.-R.d yukci  cknru.        fiom  frothing,  take  the 


body  of  the  churn  and  cut  a  groove  around  the 
inside  of  the  mouth,  about  three  inches  from  the 
top  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  deep,  and  then 
remove  half  the  thickness  of  the  wood,  making  a 
shoulder  all  around:  then  take  the  cover  and  cut 
it  to  fit  accurately  inside.  Cloths,  tubs,  pans,  etc., 
previously  necessary  to  prevent  the  cream  from 
flowing  over,  may  now  be  dispensed  witli. 


i'lG.  -j.^ i-'o^-iozver. 

Churning:  see  under  head  of  Butter. 

Cider.  "A  drink  made  from  the  juice  of  ap» 
pies."  "  The  word  is  now  appropriated  to  the 
juice  of  apples,  before  and  after  fermentation." — 
Webster.  "A  fermented  liquor  made  from  the 
juice  of  apples." — Worcester.  It  might  prevent 
controversy  among  temperance  people  if  they 
would  abandon  this  ambiguous  term,  and  substi- 
tute in  their  total  abstinence  pledges  the  phrase, 
"the  fermented  juice  of  fruits,"  or  "  any  liquor  con- 
taining alcohol." 

For  good  cider,  the  apples  should  be  allowed  to 
hang  on  the  trees  as  long  as  the  wind  and  frost 
will  permit  them,  and  then  picked  by  hand.  The 
riper  the  apples  the  better  the  cider.  They  are 
then  picked  up  and  placed  in  large  heaps,  either  in 
the  orchard  or  at  the  cider  mill,  and  are  allowed 
to  lie  a  few  days  to  complete  the  ripening  process, 
in  which  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar.  Any 
that  are  bruised  or  rotten  should  be  put  in  a  heap 
by  themselves,  for  an  inferior  cider  with  which  to 
make  vinegar.  The  apples  are  then  rasped  or 
ground  into  pulp.  If  the  weather  is  cool  or  the 
apples  not  fully  ripe,  it  is  better  to  let  the  pulp  re- 
main in  the  vat  a  few  days  before  pressing  out  the 
juice.  This  gives  the  cider  a  higher  color,  makes 
it  sweeter  and  of  better  flavor.  The  process  of 
pressing  the  apples  is  simple,  but  requires  some 
skill.  Four  boards  about  six  inches  wide  are  nailed 
together  in  a  square,  the  size  it  is  desired  to  make 
the  cheese,  say  from  four  to  five  feet  each  way. 
This  is  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  press,  and  a  little 
clean  rye  or  wheat  straw  is  placed  around  the 
inside,  with  the  ends  extending  some  distance  out- 


CIDER. 


265 


side  of  the  frame.  A  layer  of  pulp,  say  six  inches 
deep,  is  then  placed  on  the  straw ;  the  straw  is  then 
turned  over  on  it,  and  a  little  pulp  placed  on  the 
straw  to  keep  it  do\vn.  The  rim  is  then  lifted  and 
a  stick  is  placed  on  each  corner  of  the  layer  of  pulp 
added,  and  the  straw  turned  over  it  as  before. 
This  process  is  repeated  until  the  cheese  is  as  large 
as  desired,  using  say  from  y5  to  100  bushels  of  ap- 
ples. When  they  can  be  obtained,  use  hair  cloths 
instead  of  straw,  to  place  between  the  layers  of 
pomace.  The  straw,  w^hen  heated,  gives  a  disa- 
greeable taste  to  the  cider. 

The  pressing  of  the  pulp,  which  is  the  next  step 
in  making  cider,  should  be  very  gradual  at  first, 
else  the  pulp  will  burst  out  at  the  sides.  But 
almost  every  one  who  undertakes  to  make  cider  at 
all  is  able  to  have  a  regular  press  or  mill,  manu- 
factured on  scientific  principles,  such,  for  example, 
as  those  illustrated  in  the  annexed  cuts. 


—Cider  Mil  It  the  "Americus.*'' 


In  the  Americus  the  lower  rollers  run  at  the 
same  speed  as  the  upper,  mashing  perfectly.  All 
mills  should  V)e  left  clean  after  using.  The  hopper 
of  this  mill  can  be  removed  in  an  instant  for  clean- 
ing the  mill  after  grinding.  The  lower  rollers 
being  adjustable,  the  mill  can  be  set  to  mash  grapes 
for  wine  without  breaking  the  seeds. 

Ragan's  cider  press  is  very  compact,  of  immense 
power,  weighs  only  950  pounds,  is  portable,  and 
can  be  removed  from  orchard  to  orchard  in  a  reg- 
ular two-horse  wagon.  It  is  6^  feet  high,  4^ 
feet  wide,  and  the  platform  is  6j^  feet  long.  It 
can  also  be  operated  by  horse  or  steam  power,  in 
which  case  a  tight  and  loose  pulley  is  placed  where 
the  crank'  Is  now  seen  at  the  left  side  of  press. 
The  ground  apples  are  formed  into  cheeses  by 
means  of  cloths  made  of  coffee  sacks  or  other  suit- 


able material,  and  said  cheeses  are  formed  by  the 
open-ended  square  shapers,  of  which  there  are  five. 
By  raising  loose  pinion,  which  meshes  with  large 
wheel,  you  have  a  quick  return  motion.  Parties 
owning  portable  engines  can  use  them  to  great 
advantage  after  harvest  by  engaging  in  the  cider- 
making  business;  it  will  pay  large  profit.  Far- 
mers may  bring  their  apples  eight  to  ten  miles 
to  make  cider  of  them,  as  they  thus  get  at  least 
25  per  cent,  more  cider  than  they  would  by  using 
the  small  hand  mills. 


i 


Fig.  2.— Ragan's  Cider  Prets. 

As  the  "  sweet  cider  "  runs  from  the  press,  let  it 
pass  through  a  hair  sieve  into  a  large  open  vessel, 
that  will  hold  as  much  juice  as  can  be  expressed  in 
one  day.  The  cheese  is  generally  allowed  to  re- 
main under  the  press  all  night,  and  before  leaving 
it  in  the  evening  the  screw  is  turned  as  tight  a.s 
possible.  In  the  morning  additional  pressure  is 
again  applied.  When  the  juice  ceases  to  flow  the 
screw  is  turned  back,  the  boards  taken  off,  and  the 
corners  of  the  cheese  are  cut  off  with  a  hay-knife 
and  the  pomace  laid  on  the  top.  The  pressure  is 
now  renewed,  and  the  cider  flows  again  for  a  time. 
Then  remove  the  pressure,  cut  off  and  place  on  top 
as  before  four  or  five  inches  from  the  sides  of  the 
cheese,  and  the  cider  will  flow  once  more.  Eight 
bushels  of  good  apples,  in  this  manner,  will  make 
one  barrel  of  cider.  When  little  white  bubbles 
break  through  the  pomace,  which  will  soon  rise  to 
the  top,  draw  off  the  liquor  by  a  spigot  placed 
about  three  inches  from  the  bottom,  so  that  the 
lees  may  be  left  quietly  behind.  In  this  form  of 
sweet  cider  it  is  a  mild  and  pleasant  beverage, 
which  is  not  intoxicating.  By  another  method  the 
juice  is  placed  in  large,  open  tubs,  and  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  about  60".  Aft:er  two  or  three 
days  for  weak  cider,  and  eight  or  ten  days  for 
strong  cider,  or  as  soon  as  the  sediment  has  sub- 


266 


CIDER. 


sided,  the  liquor  is  racked  off  into  clean  casks. 
The  casks  are  then  stored  in  a  cellar,  shaded  barn, 
or  other  cool  place,  where  a  low  and  regular  tem- 
perature can  be  insured,  and  are  left  to  mature  and 
ripen  until  the  following  spring,  when  it  may  be 
re-racked  for  use.  The  refuse  pulp  is  an  accept- 
able food  for  pigs  and  neat  cattle. 

If  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  cider  sweet  for  a  long 
time,  any  one  of  several  methods  may  be  adopted. 
First,  let  it  stand  in  open  casks  or  barrels,  and  put 
into  each  barrel  about  one  pint  each  of  hickory  (if 
you  have  them;  if  not,  other  hard-wood)  ashes 
and  fresh  slaked  lime;  stir  the  ashes  and  lime  first 
into  one  quart  of  new  milk;  then  stir  into  the  cider. 
It  will  cause  all  the 
pomace  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  from  which 
you  can  skim  it  as  it 
rises;  or  you  can  let 
it  remain  about  ten 
hours,  then  draw  off 
by  a  faucet  near  the 
bottom,  through  a 
strainer,  to  avoid  the 
hardened  pomace. 
Then  a  handful  of 
powdered  clay  may 
be  put  into  the  bar- 
rel, or  two  or  three 
pounds  of  well  burnt 
charcoal.  Others 
add  a  little  mustard 
seed,  from  one  to 
two  gills  for  each 
barrel.  Sometimes 
a  few  gallons  of  ci- 
der are  placed  in  the 
barrel,  and  a  rag 
saturated  with  brim- 
stone is  attached  to 
the  inner  end  of  a 
long  tapering  bung; 
^his  is  ignited  and  the 
bung  loosely  insert- 
ed. After  the  brim- 
stone is  consumed,  the  barrel  is  rolled  until  the 
cider  has  absorbed  the  sulphurous  acid  gas.  The 
barrel  is  then  filled  up  with  cider.  The  sulphur- 
ous acid  arrests  fermentation.  The  objection  to 
this  method  is  that  if  too  much  gas  is  absorbed,  it 
may  prove  unpleasant,  and  it  may  prove  injurious 
in  any  case.  To  obviate  this  objection  sulphite  of 
lime  is  now  used,  which  has  the  property  of  ar- 
resting fermentation,  making  the  cider  perfectly 
clear,  and  imparting  an  agreeable  taste.  One- 
fourth  of  an  ovmce  of  sulphite  is  added  for  each 
gallon  of  cider.  The  sulphite  should  first  be  dis- 
solved in  a  quart  or  so  of  cider  before  introducing 
it  into  the  barrel.     Agitate   briskly  for  a  few  mo- 


FlG.  y.—  The  American  Cider  Mill. 


ments,  and  then  let  the  cider  settle.  The  fermen- 
tation will  cease  at  once.  If  loosely  corked,  or 
kept  in  a  barrel  on  draught,  it  will  retain  its  taste 
as  a  still  cider.  If  preserved  in  bottles  carefully 
corked  it  will  become  a  sparkling  cider,  and  may 
be  kept  indefinitely  long. 

Whatever  method  may  be  adopted,  the  cider 
must  be  drawn  off  into  very  clean,  sweet  casks, 
and  closely  watched.  The  moment  white  bubbles 
are  perceived  rising  at  the  bung-hole,  rack  it  again. 
When  the  fermentation  is  completely  at  an  end, 
fill  up  the  cask  with  cider  in  all  respects  like  that 
already  contained  in  it,  and  bung  it  up  tight.  The 
most  perfect  plan   for  excluding   all   action  of  the 

air  from  the  surface 
of  the  cider,  and  pre- 
serving it  sweet,  is 
the  ad<lition  of  a  tum- 
bler of  sweet  oil  be- 
fore finally  closing  up 
the  bung-hole.  It  is 
not  an  easy  matter  to 
keep  cider  sweet  and 
pure  for  any  length 
of  time,  especially  if 
the  weather  is  warm. 
If  the  cider  is  not 
made  until  just  before 
winter  sets  in,  and 
can  afterwards  be 
kept  at  or  near  the 
freezing  point,  it  will 
remain  sweet  and  ex- 
cellent. 

The  mill,  Fig.  3,  is 
constructed  on  an  en- 
tirely different  prin- 
ciple from  other  cider 
mills,  which  either 
grate  or  cut  the  ap- 
ples, leaving  the  lar- 
ger portion  of  the 
pomace  in  lumps, 
from  \viiich  the  juice 
cannot  be  extracted 
mill  the   two   lower   rollers 


by  the  press,  in  this 
are  cast  with  alternate  ribs  and  grooves,  interlock- 
ing to  draw  in  the  apples,  and  the  fruit  is  mashed 
between  the  smooth  segments,  breaking  thoroughly 
all  the  cells,  so  that  the  cider  is  thoroughly  ex- 
tracted in  the  press. 

To  make  good  fermented  cider,  that  will  keep  a 
year  or  more  without  turning  too  sour  to  be  used 
for  anything  but  vinegar,  is  not  a  difficult  matter. 
The  first  thing  is  to  exclude  all  decayed  fruit,  but 
it  should  be  quite  ripe.  The  sweeter  the  juice,  the 
stronger  the  cider,  and  the  better  it- will  keep. 
Put  the  barrel  immediately  in  a  cool  cellar,  the 
cooler  the  better.     The   fermentation  may  go  on 


CIDER. 


267 


slowly  or  rapidly,  practice  cliiFering  in  this  respect. 
In  the  former  case  the  liquid  is  treated  the  same  as 
wine.  In  the  bung  there  is  fixed,  air  tight,  a  metal 
tube  bent  at  right  angles,  or  a  piece  of  india  rub- 
ber tube.  In  either  case  the  free  end  of  the  tube 
dips  into  a  vessel  of  water. 

This  arrangement  allows  the  gases  liberated  in 
fermentation  to  pass  out,  and  the  end  of  the  tube 
being  covercil  with  w^ater,  air  cannot  pass  in.  The 
bubbling  of  the  gas  through  the  water  shows  how 
the  fermentation  is  progressing.  When  this  has 
ceased  the  cider  is  racked  off  into  clean  casks, 
which  are  to  be  full  and  bunged  tightly.  The 
importance  of  keeping  the  cider  in  a  cool  place  is 
too  often  overlooked.  The  temperature  should 
not  exceed  50°.  When  exposed  to  the  full  heat  of 
autumn,  much  of  the  alcohol  is  converted  into  vin- 
egar, by  the  absorption  of  atmospheric  oxygen. 

Another  process  is  as  follows:  After  obtainfhg 
the  juice  as  already  directed,  strain  it  through  a 
coarse  hair  sieve  into  open  vats  or  close  casks. 
When  the  liquor  has  undergone  the  proper  fer- 
mentation in  these  close  vessels,  which  may  be  best 
effected  in  a  temperature  of  from  40°  to  55°  F., 
and  which  may  be  known  by  its  appearing  toler- 
ably clear,  and  having  a  vinous  sharpness  upon  the 
tongue,  any  further  fermentation  must  be  stopped 
by  racking  off  the  pure  part  into  open  vessels,  ex- 
posed for  a  day  or  two  in  a  cool  situation.  After 
this  the  liquor  must  again  be  put  into  casks  and 
left  in  a  cool  place  during  winter.  The  proper 
time  for  racking  may  always  be  known  by  the 
brightness  of  the  liquor,  the  discharge  of  the  fixed 
air,  and  the  appearance  of  a  thick  crust  formed  of 
fragments  of  the  I'educed  pulp.  The  liquor  should 
always  be  racked  off  anew  as  often  as  a  hissing 
noise  is  heard,  or  as  it  extinguishes  a  lighted  match 
held  to  the  bung-hole.  When  a  favorable  vinous 
fermentation  has  been  obtained,  nothing  more  is 
required  than  to  fill  up  the  vessels  every  two  or 
three  weeks,  to  supply  the  waste  by  fermentation. 
By  the  beginning  of  March  the  liquor  will  be 
bright  and  pure,  and  fit  for  final  racking,  which 
should  be  done  in  fair  weather.  When  the  bottles 
are  filled  they  should  be  set  by,  uncorked,  till 
morning,  when  the  corks  must  be  driven  in  tightly, 
secured  by  wire  or  twine  and  melted  resin,  or  any 
similar  substance. 

Cider  should  never  be  put  into  new  casks  with- 
out previously  scalding  with  salt  water,  or  with 
water  in  which  pomace  has  been  boiled.  Beer 
casks  should  never  be  used  for  cider.  Wine  and 
brandy  casks  will  keep  cider  well,  if  the  tartar  ad- 
hering to  their  sides  is  first  carefully  scraped  off 
and  the  casks  are  well  scalded.  Burning  a  little 
sulphur  in  a  cask  will  effectually'  remove  must. 
Cider  may  be  preserved  for  years  by  canning  it 
air-tight,  as  fruit  is  canned.  To  cleanse  old  casks, 
take  lime  water  and  a  trace  chain  and  put  them  in 


the  barrel  through  the  bung-hole,  first  fastening  a 
strong  twine  to  the  chain  to  draw  it  out  with. 
Then  shake  the  barrel  about  until  the  chain  wears 
or  scours  off  all  mold  or  pomace  remaining  in  the 
barrel.  Then  rinse  well  with  water;  after  throw- 
ing out  the  rinsing  water  jiul  in  a  little  whisky, 
turning  the  barrel  to  bring  it  in  contact  with  every 
part,  and  pour  out  all  that  will  runout.  To  clarify 
cider,  to  one  hogshead  add  one  and  a  half  gallons 
of  brandy  or  rum,  two  ounces  powdered  catechu 
(dissolved  in  water),  seven  pounds  moist  sugar  or 
honey,  four  ounces  mustard  seed,  one-half  ounce 
bitter  almonds,  and  one-half  ounce  cloves.  These 
must  be  well  stirred  in,  and  occasionally  stirred  up 
for  a  fortnight,  after  which  it  must  be  allowed  to 
repose  for  three  or  four  months,  when  it  will  usu- 
ally be  found  as  bright  as  wine.  Should  this  not 
be  the  case,  it  must  be  fined  with  a  pint  of  isinglass 
finings  or  a  dozen  eggs,  and  in  two  weeks  more  it 
will  be  fit  for  use.  If  the  cider  be  preferred  pale, 
omit  the  catechu,  and  instead  of  the  isinglass,  fine 
with  one  quart  of  skimmed  milk.  If  wanted  of  a 
light  reddish  or  rose  tint,  use  one-half  ounce  cochi- 
neal and  omit  the  catechu. 

Preparatory  to  bottling  cider,  it  should  be  clari- 
fied until  it  is  clear  and  sparkling.  The  bung 
should  be  left  out  of  the  cask  the  night  before  the 
cider  is  bottled.  The  bottles  themselves  should  be 
left  unclosed  the  next  night,  else  some  will  burst. 
The  corks  should  be  of  good  quality,  and  be  cov- 
ered with  tin  foil,  as  with  champagne.  When  the 
cider  is  wanted  for  immediate  use,  or  for  consump- 
tion during  the  cooler  season  of  the  year,  a  small 
piece  of  lump  sugar  may  be  put  into  each  bottle 
before  corking  it.  When  intended  for  keeping,  it 
should  be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,  when  the  quality 
will  be  greatly  improved  by  age. 

Champagne  Cider  is  made  by  mixing  in  one 
hogshead  cider  3  gallons  spirit  and  20  pounds  sugar 
or  honey.  Let  it  rest  for  two  weeks,  then  fine  with 
two  quarts  skimmed  milk.  This  is  very  pale,  and 
a  similar  article,  bottled  in  champagne  bottles,  and 
silvered  and  labeled,  has  often  been  sold  to  the 
ignorant  for  champagne.  It  opens  very  brisk  if 
managed  properly. 

Imitation  Champagne  is  made  by  putting  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  carbonate  of  soda,  two  teaspoonfuls  fine 
sugar,  and  a  tablespoonful  brandy  in  a  tumbler 
and  filling  up  with  sharp  cider. 

Imitation  Cider  is  made  by  the  use  of  the  fol- 
lowing recipe:  25  gallons  soft  water;  2  pounds 
tartaric  acid;  25  pounds  New  Orleans  sugar;  i 
pint  yeast.  Put  all  the  ingredients  into  a  clean 
cask  and  stir  them  up  well  after  standing  24  hours 
with  the  bung  out.  Then  bung  the  cask  up  tight, 
adding  3  gallons  spirit,  and  let  it  stand  48  hours, 
when  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

Sweet  Cider  may  be  imitated  as  follows:  Take 
100   gallons    water;   5    gallons    honey;    3  ounces 


268 


CINCHONA— CITRON. 


powdered  catechu ;  five  ounces  alum ;  one  quart  yeast. 
Ferment  for  15  days  in  a  warm  place  in  the  sun,  if 
possible;  then  add  bitter  almonds,  half  jwund;  cloves, 
half  ix)und  ;  burnt  sugar,  one  quart ;  whisky,  three  gal- 
lons. If  acid  be  in  excess,  correct  with  honey  or 
sugar.  If  too  sweet,  add  cider  vinegar  to  suit  the  taste. 
A  cheap  imitation  is  made  by  the  usual  ingredients, 
and  sulphuric  acid  to  give  it  "body."  This  is  not 
near  so  good  as  to  ferment. 

Cinchona  (sin-ko'na),  Peruvian  or  Jesuit  bark. 
There  are  several  barks  of  cinchona,  used  in  medicine, 
and  from  which  "quinine," or  the  sulphate  of  quinia, 
is  made.  Cinchona,  or  its  barks,  are  not  used  in 
horse  and  cattle  diseases.  Quinine  is  the  only  prep- 
aration used ;  but  its  high  price  is  against  its  use  in 
veterinary  practice.  Among  valuable  horses,  it  is 
frequently  used  to  hasten  recovery  from  influenza, 
lung  fever,  etc. 

Dose.     Twenty  to  40  grains,  repeated  from  three 
,   to  four  times  a  day.     Quinine  is  apt  to  be  adulterated 
with  arsenic,  as  proved  to  be  the  case  with  many  sam- 
ples used  in  the  late  war. 

Cinnamon.  Ground  cinnamon  is  frequently  adul- 
terated with  cassia  bark,  which  may  be  distinguished, 
before  being  ground,  by  its  greater  thickness,  its  break- 
ing without  splintering,  and  its  redder  color  and 
bitter  taste.  Sometimes,  indeed,  the  ground  article  is 
all  cassia,  and  sometimes  it  consists  in  great  part  of 
other  ingredients,  as  starch  or  saw-dust. 

Circular  "Work,  to  Measure:  see  Measure- 
ments. 

Cistern.  Every  firmer  should  have  a  cistern.  .Soft 
water  is  needed  by  the  wife  not  only  in  washing,  but 
for  a  hundred  different  purix)ses.  The  quantity  of 
rain-water  falling  on  roofs  in  a  year  is  commonly 
much  under-esrimated.  Three  feet  of  rain  per  annum, 
the  average  quantity,  gives  72  barrels  for  each  space 
•of  10  feet  square;  a  barn  30  by  60  feet  yields  from  its 
roof  each  year  650  hogsheads  of  rain-water,  most  of 
which  is  wasted.  In  building  the  cistern,  have  the 
walls  below  the  reach  of  the  frost.  To  supply  an  or- 
dinary family,  it  should  be  at  least  ten  feet  deep  and 
four  in  diameter.  Of  course,  in  very  wet  ground,  or 
where  hard  rock  is  in  the  way,  the  cistern  has  to  be 
broader  and  shallower.  It  should  be  walled  up  with 
brick  or  stone  (brick  is  the  best),  and  well  cemented 
with  the  following:  Take  equal  parts  of  quicklime, 
pulverized  baked  bricks  and  wood  ashes,  thoroughly 
mixed  and  diluted  with  sufficient  linseed  oil  to  make  a 
paste.  It  immediately  hardens  and  never  cracks  be- 
neath the  water.  A  cheaper  cement,  however,  and 
about  as  good,  is  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  Louisville 
or  Rosendale  cement  with  one  part  of  sand. 

To  smooth  the  surface,  brush  it  over  with  a  white- 
wash brush  dipped  in  clear  water,  thus  closing  up  all 
the  openings  that  may  have  been  left  by  the  trowel; 
when  sufficiently  hardened,  white-wash  it  with  clear 
cement  and  water.  This  forms  a  glazed  surface  like 
earthenware. 


For  filtering,  build  a  partition  wall,  curving  to  the 
side  where  the  water  runs  in,  curve  to  be  one  inch  to 
the  foot ;  make  the  dividing  wall  double,  two  feet  high 
and  one  foot  wide ;  this  space  fill  with  finely  pulver- 
ized charcoal  and  sand,  two  parts  charcoal  one  part 
sand.  Of  course  the  partition  wall  does  not  need  ce- 
menting. Another  plan  is  to  dig  two  cisterns  and  filter 
the  water  from  one  to  the  other  by  means  of  a  pipe  filled 
with  charcoal  and  sand.  To  rectify  impure  water  in 
the  cistern,  put  in  two  ounces  of  permanganate  of  f)Ot- 
ash  to  each  25  barrels  of  water. 

To  calculate  exactly  the  capacity  of  a  jug-shaped 
cistern  requires  more  nice  figuring  than  most  persons 
care  to  undertake.  The  contents  of  any  cistern  can 
be  easily  approximated  by  the  use  of  the  following 
table,  calculated  for  a  cistern  of  uniform  diameter 
from  top  to  bottom,  for  each  ten  inches  of  depth  : 

DIAMETER  IN  FEET.  NO.  OF  GALLONS.  NO.  OF  BAKKELS. 

'•    2      rg y-i 

25^ 3° I 

3      44 i^ 

3^ 60 .  2 

4      .• 78 2^ 

4^ 97 35^ 

5      122 3^ 

5^/4 148 aVi 

6     176 5  3-5 

6^4 207 6^ 

7      240 iVi 

8     7>'^7> 10 

9      396 I2l^ 

10   489 15^ 

11    592 i83^ 

12    7°S 223^ 

15    iioi iiVi 

20   1958 62 

Thus,  a  cistern  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  ten  feet 
deep,  would  contain  7^  x  12,  or  91  }^  barrels.  (Ten 
feet  is  12  times  ten  inches).  A  cistern  gradually  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  in  diameter  can  be  estimated 
by  sections,  taking,  for  example,  every  ten  inches, 
which  will  render  it  easy  to  work  by  the  above  table. 

Citric  Acid,  the  acid  of  lemons  and  limes,  which 
are  fruits  of  the  citron  family.  The  acid,  as  concen- 
trated, is  a  crude  poison,  but  diluted,  it  has  of  course 
tlie  same  properties  as  lemon  juice.  To  be  of  the 
average  strength  of  lemon  juice,  the  acid  is  dissolved 
in  the  proportion  of  18  drachms  to  the  pint  of  water. 

Citron,  the  fruit  of  the  citron  tree,  which  is  of  the 
same  family  with  lemons,  limes  and  oranges,  and  grows 
in  warm  countries;  also  the  name  of  a  species  of  wa- 
termelon, globular  in  form  and  symmetrically  striped 
and  used  only  in  preserves ;  also,  of  late,  a  name  of 
the  cantaloupe  or  nutmeg  muskmelon.  In  both  the 
latter  senses  the  word  is  unauthorized  according  to 
Webster's  dictionary.  The  cultivation  of  the  citron 
watermelon  is  the  same  as  that  of  any  other  species  of 
watermelon. 

Candied  citron,  such  as  is  used  for  fruit  cake,  can 


CITY—CLIMA  TE. 


269 


be  prepared  from  the  above  at  far  less  cost  than  to 
buy  the  imported.  If  the  citrons  are  small,  divide 
them  lengthwise  into  eighths ;  if  large  ones,  divide 
again  ;  pare  off  the  rind  and  pick  out  the  seeds  care- 
fully, then  drop  the  slices  into  boiling  syruj)— maple 
syrup  is  best,  but  syrup  mad'e  from  clarified  sugar  will 
do  ;  use  syrup  enough  to  cover  the  pieces,  cook  slow- 
ly until  the  syrup  is  nearly  boiled  down,  then  place 
the  pieces  on  plates  to  dry;  dip  the  thickened  syrup 
over  the  pieces,  and  then  dry  them  in  the  stove  oven, 
being  careful  to  watch  them  closely  so  they  will  not 
scorch.  After  all  the  syrup  has  been  dried  in  and  the 
citron  candied  down,  place  it  in  glass  jars  for  future 
use.     Use,  the  same  as  imix)rted  citron. 

City.  For  information  in  reference  to  seeing  the 
sights  of  a  city,  the  things  and  persons  to  be  avoided, 
caution,  advice,  and  the  general  rules  to  be  observed 
by  the  person  in  visiting  the  city,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  the  article  on  Traveling. 

Gives  or  Chives,  a  hardy  species  of  onion,  of 
easy  culture.  It  is  propagated  by  tearing  to  pieces  the 
old  clumps  and  setting  the  divisions  in  rows  a  foot 
apart.     Not  cultivated  as  much  as  formerly. 

Clabber,  bonnyclabber,  or  loppered  milk;  milk 
which  has  soured  and  become  coagulated,  or  thickened. 

Clay,  a  soft  earth,  which  is  plastic,  or  may  be 
molded  with  the  hands,  and  consists  of  alumina,  silica 
and  water.  It  originates  from  several  species  of  rock, 
worn  down  very  fine.  Lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron 
and  other  ingredients  are  generally  present.  One  of 
the  purest  kinds  of  clay  is  decomposed  from  granite; 
and  that  which  comes  from  feldspar,  one  element  of 
granite,  is  the  "  jxjrcelain  "  clay.  "  Potter's  "  clay  is  a 
tolerably  pure  kind,  free  from  iron.  "  Brick  "  clay  con- 
tains some  iron,  on  which  account  it  turns  red  when 
burned.  Clay  for  fire-brick  is  entirely  free  from  lime, 
iron  or  any  alkali,  and  will  not  therefore  glaze  in  burn- 
ing. "  Fatty  "  clays  are  those  which  feel  greasy.  "Clay 
loam  "  contains  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  sand,  while 
"loamy"  clay  contains  30  to  60  per  cent.  Pure  clay 
is  infertile,  but  it  forms  the  body  of  all  fertile  soils.  In 
the  West  the  clay  underneath  the  black  humus  or  soil 
is  yellow,  and  averages  about  20  feet  in  depth;  un- 
derneath this  is  another  black  soil,  which  was  once  the 
surface  of  the  earth;  and  underneath  the  latter  again 
is  a  lx)dy  of  "  blue  clay,"  very  compact  and  sticky,  re- 
quiring picks  in  digging  it. 

Clay,  being  gradually  heated,  parts  with  its  water 
and  diminishes  in  bulk  without  cracking.  Heated  to 
redness,  it  forms  a  solid  msss,  which  retains  its  form 
even  if  placed,  when  cool,  in  water  and  allowed  to  ab- 
sorb this  into  its  jxsres.  Free  from  foreign  substances, 
it  bears  the  most  intense  furnace-heat  without  melting 
and  is  hence  well  suited  for  the  manufacture  of  cruci- 
bles and  fire-brick. 

Cleaning :  see  article  to  be  cleaned. 

Clevis,  a  U-shaped  piece  of  iron  for  hitching  a 
whifFle-tree  to  a  plow,  harrow  or  cultivator.    A  "  dial  " 


clevis  is  one  on  the  forward  end  of  the  beam  of  a  break- 
ing plow,  arranged  on  a  dial-plate  piece  of  iron  for 
gauging  the  plow  to  the  land.     The  three-horse  clevis 

is  illustrated  in 
the  annexed  en- 
graving, also  one 
style  of  three- 
horse  whiffle- 
trees.  See  Whif- 
fletree.  It  will 
be  noticed  in  the 
cut  that  the  prin- 
ciple is  to  give  the  middle  horse  twice  as  much  lever- 
age in  the  clevis  as  is  given  the  other  two  horses  com- 
bined, so  that  the  draft  may  come  equally  upon  the 
three. 

Climate.  Climate  affects  the  agriculturist  so  far  as 
the  product  of  the  soil  is  concerned,  in  an  imixjrtant 
degree  ;  heat,  rainfall,  humidity,  air  currents,  all  oper- 
ating for  or  against  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  .  The  prin- 
cipal points  collected  from  a  variety  of  sources,  as 
relating  to  the  United  States  generally,  are  summed 
up  as  follows  :  The  climate  of  the  United  States  is  a 
peculiar  one.  Most  of  it  lies  within  the  dry  belt  of 
the  trade-winds,  which,  in  our  summers,  make  the 
dryness  of  the  California  climate  and  of  New  Mexico, 
where  the  corn  crop  is  dependent  on  irrigation.  There 
are  two  of  these  dry  belts,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
equator,  and  their  dry  winds  blow  diagonally  into  each 
other,  producing  by  their  mutual  action  a  belt  of  rain 
about  500  miles  in  width  under  the  equator,  and  di- 
rectly under  the  sun.  These  winds  are  concentrated 
by  the  lofty  range  of  mountains  in  South  America  and 
Mexico,  and  turned  northwards,  carrying  with  them 
this  belt  of  rains.  In  our  summer  they  extend  west 
as  far  as  the  middle  of  Texas ;  thence  north,  through 
the  middle  of  Kansas  ;  they  curve  gradually  east- 
ward and  pass  to  the  Atlantic  by  the  line  of  the  great 
northern  lakes,  covering  all  the  old  States  with  the 
rains  from  this  equatorial  belt ;  extending  no  further 
west  than  the  middle  of  Texas  and  Kansas,  they  leave 
the  western  jxirtions  of  them  to  the  dry  California 
climate.  These  rains,  from  causes  not  yet  fully  ascer- 
tained by  science,  are  irregular  as  to  time,  quantity 
and  duration.  In  the  spring  they  are  more  concen- 
trated, giving  us  the  heavy,  beating  rains  of  March 
and  April,  and  in  July  and  August  they  cease  almost 
entirely.  We  have  no  rains  from  the  evaixirations  of 
our  country;  these  we  see  in  the  form  of  dew  only,  or, 
at  most,  they  but  slightly  increase  the  amount  of  our 
equatorial  rains.  From  this  source  of  our  rains  results 
the  extremes  so  peculiar  to  the  American  climate.  At 
one  time  our  plowed  lands  are  saturated  with  water, 
our  clay  soils  are  melted,  and,  in  drying  out,  are  com- 
pacted, so  as  to  be  much  harder  than  the  frosts  left 
them  in  spring,  before  they  were  broken  up.  Then 
quickly  follow  droughts,  parching  and  baking  the  soil, 
making  it  unfit,  if  worn,  for  profitable  production. 
These  influences  of  the  climate  so  act  upon  the  soil 
that  the  standing  topics  of  our  agricultural  writers  are 


270 


CLIMATE. 


drainage,  thorough  plowing  and  constant  stirring  of 
the  soil. 

Nearly  all  the  rain  of  California  falls  between  No- 
vember and  June.  The  annual  fall  of  rain  in  that 
State  is  about  2  2  inches,  decreasing  southward  to  the 
Colorado  desert,  where  it  is  almost  nothing.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  State,  and  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  range  is  stated  at  35  inches  per 
annum.  The  general  average  is  about  that  of  half  the 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi.  This  average  increases 
northward.  At  Humboldt  it  is  about  45  inches,  and 
at  Vancouver's  Island  about  65  inches  per  annum.  At 
Port  Townshend,  on  Puget  Sound,  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  wet  and  the  dry  season  is  practically  oblit- 
erated, the  fall  of  rain  being  distributed  throughout  the 
year.  On  Sitka  Island  it  becomes  excessive,  the  mean 
annual  deixssit  being  89.90  inches.  Coming  now  to 
the  climate  of  the  West  and  Northwest,  east  of  the 
meridian  near  which  Omaha  is  situated,  we  find  a 
chmate  often  intensely  cold  or  at  least  variable  in  win- 
ter, but  with  plenty  of  rainfall,  equably  distributed, 
and  with  summers  of  strong  heat  so  the  grape  may  be 
ripened  well  up  to  and  even  in  Minnesota.  So  the 
more  prolific  varieties  of  Uent  corn  thrive  as  nowhere 
else  in  the  world ;  also  all  cereal  grains,  sweet  ix)ta- 
toes,  tomatoes,  egg  plant,  pepper,  melons,  and  many 
other  tropical  and  sub-tropical  annuals.  As  a  fruit- 
growing region  the  prairie  districts  are  not  especially 
adapted  thereto,  yet  with  a  little  care  many  varieties 
adapted  to  the  climate  may  be  raised,  and  the  timber 
districts  are  unsurpassed  in  the  production  of  fruit, 
the  peach  and  sweet  cherries  flourishing  on  the  east 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  nearly  to  45°  north  latitude. 
West  of  Omaha  the  climate  becomes  dryer  and  dryer 
until  passing  the  hundredth  meridian,  or  the  central 
part  of  Kansas,  the  climate  becomes  too  dry  in  sum- 
mer for  general  agriculture,  or  the  successful  cultiva- 
tion of  fruit  and  the  cereal  crops  without  irrigation,  but 
is  eminently  adapted  to  pasturage.  Further  north 
there  is  more  rain,  so  that,  in  the  latitude  of  Minne- 
sota, cereal  crops  may  be  raised  in  the  valleys  through 
to  the  Pacific  coast. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation  covering  the  earth 
varies,  as  we  have  remarked,  according  to  the  climate 
and  locality;  and  plants  are  fitted  for  different  kinds 
of  soils,  as  well  as  for  different  amounts  of  temperature, 
light  and  moisture.  From  the  jxjles  to  the  equator 
this  constant  variation  in  the  nature  of  the  flora  is  a 
shifting  scene,  passing  from  the  lichens  and  mosses 
(the  lowest  vegetable  forms  in  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions)  to  the  noble  palms,  bananas,  and  orchids  of 
the  tropics  by  a  series  of  regulated  changes  through 
all  the  multiform  aspects  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  same  progress  and  graduated  fitness  is  observed 
in  the  vegetation  of  lofty  mountains  under  the  equa- 
tor, when  descending  from  the  summit  to  the  base. 
From  the  scanty  vegetation  of  Greenland,  where  the 
only  woody  plants  are  the  arctic  willows,  trees  scarcely 
a  finger-length  in  height,  we  may  trace  the  expansion 
of  vegetation  as  we  move  southward  over  the  lichens 
and  mosses  to  the  saxifrages  and  cruciferous  plants. 


those  resembling  the  cabbage  and  turnip  in  their  mode 
of  flowering;  then  to  grassy  pastures,  and  by  conifer- 
ous or  fir-like  trees,  and  amentaceous  or  birch  and 
alder-like  trees,  to  the  northern  borders  of  the  United 
States.  Extending  our  glance  further  southward  we 
shall  perceive  that  we  enter  the  region  of  oaks,  hick- 
ory and  ash,  of  tuhp  (Liriodendron),  Cottonwood,  but- 
tonwood,  walnut,  red  and  white  cedars,  sugar  and 
other  maples,  sassafras,  sumac,  laurel,  and  many 
other  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  temperate  regions  of 
North  America.  In  the  districts  further  south  we  find 
an  increase  both  of  species  and  of  genera,  and  more 
tropical  forms  show  themselves,  such  as  magnolia, 
Osage  orange,  honey  locust,  cypress,  holly,  bay,  wax 
myrtle,  the  cotton  plant,  rice,  the  live  oak,  and  enter 
the  borders  of  the  regions  of  the  palmetto  and  the 
orange ;  thence  to  those  of  the  sugar-cane  and  pine- 
apple, the  coffee  plant  and  the  cocoanut,  and  the  lux- 
uriant vegetation  of  the  equator  and  torrid  heats.  In 
this  progress,  as  Humboldt,  the  father  of  geographical 
botany,  remarks,  we  find  organic  life  and  vigor  gradu- 
ally augmenting  with  the  increase  of  temperature. 
The  number  of  species  continues  to  increase  as  we 
approach  the  equator,  and  each  zone  presents  its  own 
peculiar  features  :  the  tropics  their  variety  and  grand- 
eur of  vegetable  forms ;  the  north  its  meadows  and 
green  pastures,  its  evergreen  firs  and  pines,  and  the 
periodical  awakening  of  nature  in  the  spring-time  of 
the  year.  Many  causes  intimately  connected  with 
the  aspects  of  our  globe  have  an  influence  in  modify- 
ing the  conditions  of  climate,  and  thus  affecting  the 
distribution  of  animals  and  plants  on  its  surface. 
The  geographical  forms  of  contour,  the  relief  or  eleva- 
tion and  depression  of  the  terrestrial  surface,  the  re- 
lations of  size,  extent,  and  position,  each  exert  a  very 
marked  effect  uixsn  the  climatic  peculiarities  of  a  dis- 
trict. The  bearing  or  direction  of  the  shores  of  a  con- 
tinent, the  elevation  of  a  mountain  in  one  place  rather 
than  in  another,  the  subdivision  of  a  continent  into 
islands  or  peninsulas,  and  other  minor  differences, 
have  very  important  bearings  ujxjn  the  climate  of  a 
district.  The  depression  of  a  few  hundred  feet  over 
some  wide  areas  would  reduce  some  regions  to  the 
level  of  the  sea,  or  sink  them  beneath  its  waves,  or  so 
modify  the  climate  of  the  higher  portions  left  above 
the  waters  as  to  render  them  no  longer  tenable  by  the 
life  that  once  enjoyed  a  congenial  clime.  This  is 
shown  by  the  observation  that  some  low  islands  scat- 
tered in  clusters  are  covered  with  a  vegetation  en- 
tirely different  from  that  of  extensive  plains,  though 
lying  in  the  same  latitude.  A  change  in  the  bearing 
of  the  shores  would  modify  the  currents  of  the  ocean, 
which  would  react  \\\yox\  vegetation.  Mountain-chains 
have  oftentimes  an  influence  ujxju  the  prevailing 
winds,  and  their  height,  or  the  plateaus  from  which 
they  arise,  modify  the  climate,  and  render  it  temper- 
ate or  arctic  under  the  fervent  heats  of  the  torrid  zone. 
A  mountain-chain  extending  from  east  to  west  may 
form  a  barrier  between  the  colder  regions  on  the  north 
and  the  warmer  on  the  south,  and  thus  protect  the 
northern  plains  from  the  warmer  winds  of  more  tern- 


CLINGSTONE— CLO  TH. 


271 


perate  regions,  and  increase  the  heat  on  the  southern 
slope.  This  is  exemplified  by  the  Alps  of  Switzerland, 
which  reduce  the  temperature  of  (lemiany  below  the 
mean  that  would  otherwise  prevail  but  for  their  cool- 
ing influence.  Under  some  of  the  high  towers  of  this 
mountain-barrier  against  the  assaults  o£  winter,  the 
palm,  the  ix)megranate,  the  orange  and  the  olive  grow, 
in  the  open  air,  while  a  few  miles  to  the  eastward,  in 
valleys  open  to  the  north,  through  which  the  hurricane- 
blasts  of  the  Borra  rush  with  terrific  force  and  severity 
of  cold,  often  sweeping  vessels  from  anchorage,  these 
more  tender  plants  cannot  exist.  A  few  thousand 
feet  in  elevation,  which  is  insignificant  compared  with 
the  mass  of  the  earth,  changes  entirely  the  aspect  and 
the  character  of  a  country.  For  evidence  of  this 
assertion  we  may  compare  the  burning  region  of  Vera 
Cruz — its  tropical  productions  and  its  fatal  fevers — 
with  the  lofty  plains  of  Mexico,  their  temperate 
growths  and  perennial  spring,  or  the  immense  forests 
of  the  Amazon,  where  vegetation  puts  forth  all  its 
splendors,  and  where  animal  life  is  abundantly  pro- 
lific, with  the  desolate  paramos  or  Alpine  regions  of 
the  summits  of  the  Andes,  rude,  ungenial  and  misty. 

The  climate  that  would  result  from  latitude  alone 
is  greatly  modified  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  ex- 
tended sheets  of  water;  and  the  distribution  of  heat 
through  the  year,  for  any  place  whatever,  depends 
essentially  on  its  proximity  to,  or  its  distance  from,  the 
ocean  or  large  lakes,  and  the  relative  frequency  of  the 
winds  that  blow  over  them.  The  equalizing  influence 
of  large  bodies  of  water,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
less  liable  to  sudden  changes  than  the  atmospheric 
air,  is  quite  apparent. 

Knowing  as  we  do  how  much  local  influences,  as 
supply  of  moisture,  currents  of  air,  elevation,  capacity 
of  soil  for  absorbing  and  holding  heat  and  moisture, 
and  the  various  other  conditions  that  may  be  seen  by 
every  observing  person,  alter  the  range  of  production 
in  localities,  we  have  the  key  to  many  of  the  difficul- 
ties in  the  cultivation  of  crops,  and  thus  may  easily 
see  why  certain  plants  may  be  hardy  and  prolific  in 
one  locality  and  yet  impossible  to  be  successfully  culti- 
vated in  another,  not  far  distant.  For  instance,  the 
peach  is  at  home  in  Western  Michigan,  near  the  lake 
shore,  while  in  Illinois,  not  more  than  40  miles  west, 
it  can  not  be  raised  at  all.  The  climate  of  that  State, 
modified  by  the  unfathomable  depths  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan, is  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter,  and 
they  escape  spring  frosts,  prevalent  in  Illinois  in  the 
same  latitude. 

Clingstone,  a  peach  the  flesh  of  which  clings  to 
the  stone. 

Clipping  of  Horses.  The  clipping  or  shortening  of 
the  hair  of  the  horse,  in  winter,  is  as  vicious  as  it  is  dis- 
tressing to  the  animal,  unless  in  the  case  of  horses 
used  for  fast  driving,  and  which,  both  in  and  out  of 
the  stable,  receive  the  very  best  of  attention  and 
clothing.  So  the  clipping  of  the  long  hair  about  the 
lower  limbs  and  fetlock  should  never  be  allowed  ex- 
cept the  horse  be  kept  out  of  cold  drafts,  when  stand- 


ing, and  also  is  thoroughly  washed  and  dried,  by  rub- 
bing, when  brought  into  the  stable.  See  article  on 
Horse  for  directions  as  to  how  clipping  should  be  done. 

Clocks  are  indispensable  at  the  farm-house ;  meals 
must  be  ready  on  time ;  farm  hands  must  be  wakened 
early  in  the  morning;  and  a  thousand  things  require 
its  presence.  The  best  kind  for  a  farmer  is  an  eight- 
day  alarm.  A  pendulum  clock  run  with  weights,  al- 
though not  so  portable,  keeps  time  more  evenly  than 
spring  clocks,  which  run  a  little  too  fast  when  wound 
up  and  too  slow  when  nearly  run  down.  In  setting 
up  a  clock  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  pendu- 
lum rod  swings  easy,  that  is,  that  the  thin  portion 
works  squarely  back  and  fortli  and  not  with  a  warping 
jerk.  In  setting  the  time,  it  is  customary  in  the 
country  to  call  it  12  o'clock  when  the  sun  is  on  the 
meridian  as  shown  by  the  noon  mark ;  but  the  sun 
generally  varies  from  true  clock  time,  sometimes  as 
much  as  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  A  good  almanac  in- 
dicates the  variation  for  each  day  in  the  year.  Those 
living  near  railroads  generally  keep  "  railroad  "  time, 
which  is  of  course  more  satisfactory.  In  winding  up 
a  clock,  be  careful  not  to  shake  it  much,  and  always 
keep  the  clock  door  closed  when  not  winding  or  re- 
pairing, in  order  to  keep  out  all  dust. 

Closet  (cloz'et),  literally,  a  closed  place ;  in  general, 
a  small  room  for  private  retirement ;  also,  a  case  for 
containing  clotlies,  articles  of  furniture,  curiosities,  etc. 
The  various  closets  are  named  with  reference  to  the  use 
made  of  them,  as  "  clothes  "  closet,  "  water  "  closet, 
etc.  These  "  closed  "  places  are,  of  all  places  in  the 
house,  the  best  calculated  to  hold  confined  air,  and  are 
therefore  universal  sources  of  malaria.  It  requires 
some  trouble  to  ventilate  them  frequently  as  they 
should  be,  at  some  seasons  of  the  year  almost  or  quite 
every  day.  But  all  closets  should  be  made  self-ven- 
tilating in  their  original  manufacture.  Every  domicile 
should  also  have  a  batti-room.  Families  of  very  lim- 
ited means  can  cheaply  construct  a  small  room  ad- 
joining the  back  side  of  the  cook  stove,  in  siich  a  way 
that  the  stove  will  not  only  keep  the  room  warm  but 
furnish  hot  water,  so  that  it  may  be  ever  convenient  to 
take  a  comfortable  bath.  What  is  inconvenient  to  be 
done  is  generally  neglected.  See  Residence  and 
Privy. 

Cloth,  any  woven  fabric,  of  fibrous  material,  used 
for  garments  or  other  purposes.  "  Broadcloth  "  is  a 
fine  kind  of  woolen  for  men's  garments,  exceeding  29 
inches  in  width,  all  woolens  of  less  width  being  known 
as  "  narrow  "  cloths. 

To  revive  the  color  of  black  cloth,  first  clean  it  well 
(see  Laundry);  boil  two,  three  or  four  ounces  of 
logwood  half  an  hour;  then  dip  the  coat  in 
warm  water,  wring  it  well,  and  boil  it  half  an  hour  in 
the  logwood  water ;  take  it  out,  dissolve  in  the  logwood 
water  a  piece  of  copperas  about  the  size  of  a  small 
thimble,  and  in  this  solution  boil  the  cloth  another  half 
hour  ;  then  draw  it,  hang  it  in  the  air  an  hour  or  two, 
rinse  it  in  two  or  three  cold  waters,  dry  it,  and  brush 
it  thoroughly  with  a  soft  brush  over  which  a  drop  or 


272 


CLOTHES-LINE— CLO  VER. 


two  of  olive  oil  has  been  rubbed,  and  finally  stroke 
the  cloth  regularly  all  over.  A  cloth  coat  may  be  treat- 
ed by  this  method. 

To  raise  the  nap  on  cloth,  soak  it  in  cold  water  half 
an  hour,  then  put  it  on  a  board  and  rub  the  thread- 
bare parts  with  a  half-worn  hatter's  card  filled  with 
flocks,  or  with  a  prickly  thistle,  until  a  nap  is  raised. 
Hang  up  to  dry,  and  with  a  hard  brush  lay  the  nap 
the  right  way.  For  other  treatment  of  cloth,  see 
Bleaching,  Dyeing,  Cement,  Laundry  and  Waterproof- 
ing. 

Clothes   Line,   Pins,   Rack   and   Wringer:  see 

Laundry. 

Clothing:  see  Hygiene. 

Cloud :  see  Weather. 

Clover.  The  several  clovers  afford  valuable  prov- 
ender for  live  stock.  The  most  popular,in  their  order, 
are,  the  white,  the  red,  lucern,  Alsike,  sainfoin,  Bok- 
hara, Southern,  spurry,  yellow,  etc.  The  white  so  uni- 
versally propagates  itself  that  it  is  seldom  cultivated. 
Along  with  blue-grass  it  is  the  most  efficient  herb  in 
forming  a  dense  mat  under  the  feet  of  horses  and  cat- 
tle. The  several  varieties  of  white  clover  are  peculi- 
arly partial  to  clay  lands  having  a  rich  vegetable  mold 
upon  the  surface ;  and  the  addition  of  gypsum  or  salt 
-will  at  all  times  give  them  great  luxuriance.  They 
are  all  too  low  for  harvesting. 

Fig.  I  represents  the  white  clover.  This  is  a  val- 
uable honey  plant,  especially  in  June.  Its  chaste 
and  modest  bloom  betokens  the  beautiful,  luscious  and 
unrivaled  sweets  which  are  hidden  in  its  corolla  tube 
as  a  storehouse  for  the  little  bee  to  feast  upon. 

The  common  red  or 
Northern  clover,  a  bien- 
nial, is  the  best  kind  for 
cultivation  and  cutting. 
Ilf  Wisconsin  the  smaller 
variety  is  the  best.  It  is 
very  easy  of  cultivation, 
especially  on  hmy  soils, 
where  sometimes  it  is  in- 
deed a  triennial  (lasting 
for  three  years).  The 
seed  may  be  sown  broad- 
cast either  in  August  or 
Septemljer,  but  much 
better  and  surer  in  early 
spring,  with  most  of  the 
grains  or  the  cultivated  grasses ;  or  it  may  profitably 
constitute  a  crop  by  itself  On  well  prepared  loams, 
10  to  12  pounds  of  good  seed  will  frequently  give  a 
full  covering  to  the  land,  while  on  clay  12  to  16  [xjunds 
are  necessary  to  the  acre.  When  sown  with  the 
grasses,  four  to  six  jxjunds  on  the  first  kind  of  soil  are 
sufficient,  and  8  to  12  pounds  on  the  last.  The  more 
thickly  sown,  however,  the  finer  the  stems  will  be,  and 
on  that  account  a  little  better  as  provender.  If  sown 
on  well  pulverized  ground,  esi^ecially  before  a  rain, 
it  will  germinate  freely   enough  without   being   har- 


FlG.  \.— White    Clover. 


rowed  in.  After  the  leaves  are  out  in  the  spring, 
gypsum  may  be  sown  broadcast,  at  the  rate  of  three 
to  four  bushels  to  the  acre,  where  the  land  is  at  all 
favorable  to  its  action.  The  effect  is  extraordinary. 
Bones  are  good  manure  for  clover. 

Fig.  2  shows 
how  the  roots 
go  down  deep 
into  the  earth, 
which  they 
loosen,  and 
whence  they 
bring  up,  like 
gold  miners, 
the  treasures 
of  the  deep 
and  deix)sit 
them  near  the 
surface  of  the 
ground  for  the 
use  of  other 
crops.  Poor 
sandy  soils  may 
be  made  to  sus- 
tain clover  with 
manure,  ashes 
and  gypsum, 
combined  with 
the  free  use  of 
the  roller.  This 
object  is  much 
facilitated  by 
scattering  dry  straw  over  the  surface,  which  affords 
shade,  increases  the  deposit  of  dew  and  prolongs  its 
effects. 

The  value  of  clover  for  enriching  and  renewing 
land  is  almost  incalculable.  It  is  a  common  obser- 
vation of  intelligent  farmers,  that  they  are  never  at  a 
loss  to  renovate  such  lands  as  will  produce  even  a 
moderate  crop  of  clover.  Poor  clay  lands  not  capa- 
ble of  bearing  this  plant,  have  been  made  so  capable 
by  sowing  an  early  and  a  late  crop  of  oats  in  the  same 
season  and  feeding  them  off  on  the  ground. 

Clover  should  be  cut  after  having  fully  blossomed 
and  assumed  a  brownish  hue.  By  close  cutting,  more 
forage  is  secured,  and  the  clover  afterward  springs  up 
more  rapidly  and  evenly.  The  swath,  unless  very 
heavy,  ought  never  to  be  stirred  open,  but  allowed  to 
wilt  on  the  top.  It  may  then  be  carefully  turned 
over,  and  when  thus  partially  cured,  placed  in  high, 
slender  cocks  and  remain  till  sufficiently  dry  to  stow 
away  in  the  barn.  Storage  can  be  done  while  the 
clover  is  comparatively  green  if  10  to  20  quarts  of 
salt  per  ton  is  evenly  scattered  over  it  in  the  mow. 
It  is  somewhat  better,  however,  to  place  in  alternate 
layers  of  dry  grass,  hay  or  straw,  which  will  absorb 
much  of  the  nutritious  gases. 

The  second  crop  of  clover  may  be  .either  saved 
for  seed,  mown,  pastured,  or  turned  under  for  manure. 
The  greatest  benefit  to  the  soil  can  be  secured  the 
second  year,  when  the  dried  roots  are  in   the   propor- 


K.G. 


-Clover  Roots. 


I 


CLO  VER. 


273 


tion  of  56  for  every  100  jMunds  of  clover  hay  pro- 
duced from  them  in  two  years.  This  then  is  the 
proper  time  for  plovk^ing  up  the  field  and  renewing 
again  its  accustomed  round  of  crops.  If  desirable, 
clover  may  l)e  imperfectly  sustained  on  some  soils  for 
a  few  years  by  the  use  of  gypsum,  bone-dust,  ashes, 
and  other  manures.  In  rare  cases  of  upland  meadow, 
clover  has  been  known  to  keep  well  up  for  quite  a 
number  of  years,  but  in  such  cases  no  seed  crops 
must  be  taken  from  it.  In  wet  lands  the  roots  are 
often  thrown  out  by  ''  heaving  "  by  frost  of  wnter,  in 
which  case  a  tolerable  crop  may  be  secured  by 
heavy  rolling.  Wet  lands,  for  clover,  should  be  un- 
der-drained. 

Harvesting  clover-seed  may  be  done  generally  after 
taking  off  one  crop,  or  pasturing  the  field  till  June, 
or  at  such  time  as  e.xperience  shows  to  be  the  proper 
one  for  leaving  it  to  mature  a  full  crop  of  seed.  Early 
mowing  removes  the  first  weeds,  and  the  second 
growth  of  the  clover  is  so  rapid  as  to  smother  them. 
It  is  then  mown  and  raked  into  very  small  cocks,  and 
when  dried  at  the  top  they  are  turned  completely  over 
without  breaking.  As  soon  as  thoroughly  dried  they 
may  be  carried  to  the  threshing-floor  and  the  seeds 
beaten  out  with  sticks,  light  flails  or  a  "clover-huller." 

A  kind  of  horse-rake  with  closely  set  teeth  can  be 
used  to  advantage  in  collecting  clover-heads  from  the 
standing  stalks.  For  cropping  at  home,  these  heads 
can  be  sown  without  threshing.  It  is  difficult  to 
thresh  clover  until  after  it  has  fermented  in  heaps,  to 
divide  the  little  seed-jxids. 

Southern  clover  is  smaller,  does  better  on  a  light, 
thin  soil,  and  matures  10  to  14  days  earlier  than  the 
Northern  red.  Yellow  clover,  like  the  white,  is  sjx)n- 
taneous,  prolific  and  hardy.  Bokhara  or  sweet-scent- 
ed clover  is  a  tall,  shrub-like  plant,  four  to  six  feet 
high,  with  branches  whose  extremities  bear  numerous 
small  flowers  of  great  fragrance.  When  full  grown  it 
is  too  coarse  for  fodder,  but  if  thick  and  cut  young  it 
yields  a  profusion  of  green  or  winter  forage.  It 
should  be  sown  in  the  spring  with  about  two  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre,  in  drills  16  to  20  inches  apart;  and 
must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds.  It  requires  a  rich,  mel- 
low, loamy  soil.  But  the  extreme  northern  jMrtion  of 
the  United  Slates  is  rather  too  cold  for  it,  as  it  is  also 
for  crimson  clover  and  sainfoin. 

Lucern  is  one  of  the  most  productive  plants  for  for- 
age ever  cultivated.  Compared  with  red  clover  it  is 
inferior  in  quaHty,  but  considering  its  productiveness, 
it  is  in  many  places  more  valuable.  It  bears  three  to 
five  crops  a  season,  yielding  three  to  eight  tons  of  hay 
to  each  crop.  It  is  hardy  in  the  South;  the  Northern 
States  are  rather  too  cold  for  it.  It  requires  a  deep, 
dry,  loamy  soil,  free  from  weeds  and  well  filled  with 
manure.  A  suitable  crop  to  precede  it  is  corn  or  jx)- 
tatoes,  heavily  manured  and  kept  clean.  Plow  in  the 
fall  and  add  40  bushels  of  crushed  bones  to  the  acre. 
Early  in  April,  harrow  thoroughly  and  sow  in  drills 
from  one  to  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  at  the  rate  of 
eight  or  ten  ]X)unds  of  seed  per  acre.  Stir  the  ground 
and  extiipate  the  weeds  with  the  cultivator  or  horse 

1? 


and  hand  hoe.  It  may  be  lightly  cropped  the  first 
year,  and  more  freely  the  second,  but  it  does  not  at- 
tain full  maturity  till  the 
third.  Being  aperennial, 
it  requires  no  renewal.  It 
should  be  cut  before 
getting  too  heavy,  and 
cured  like  clover.  Liquid 
manure,  gypsum  and 
ashes  are  good  for  this 
plant.  Barnyard  manure, 
freed  from  weed-seeds,  is 
occasionally  needful.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
ble  plants  for  soiling. 
Alsike  (al-see'  ka),  or 
Swedish  clover  (Fig  3.), 
seems  to  be  very  capri- 
cious in  its  productive- 
ness in  this  country, 
succeeding  well  in  some 
places  and  not  at  all  in 
others.  In  moist  ground, 
Fig.  3.— .-lAiXc  ciovtr.  however,  it  succeeds  bet- 

ter than  red  clover,  growing  to  the  average  height 
of  this  plant  and  bearing  white  blossoms,  and  is  prob- 
ably not  so  liable  to  winter-kill  or  to  be  drowned  out 
by  wet  weather.  This  is  a  most  excellent  honey  plant, 
and  should  be  sown  by  apiarists.  It  forms  fine  pas- 
ture and  makes  good  hay  for  cattle  and  sheep.  It  is 
best  for  provender  when  mowed  at  the  full  maturity  of 
the  blossoms.  The  aftermath  is  both  dense  and  heavv . 
and  endures  until  late  in  the  autumn. 

Melilot  or  sweet  clovcx-. 
Fig.  4,  both  white  and  yel- 
low, blooms  from  the  mid- 
dle of  June  till  the  first  of 
October.  It  is  a  most  excel- 
lent bee  plant.  Its  per- 
fume scents  the  air  for  a 
long  distance.  These  clo- 
vers are  biennial,  not 
blooming  the  first  season, 
and  dying  after  they  bloom 
the  second  season.  They 
have  no  value  except  for 
honey,  and  are  said  to  be- 
come pernicious  weeds  if 

Fig.  ^.—Melilot  Clover.  allowed  tO  Spread. 

Spurrey  is  a  hardy  plant  which  grows  six)ntaneously 
in  the  "Middle  States."  Its  chief  merit  consists  in  its 
growing  on  soils  too  thin  to  bear  clover.  Poor  soils 
with  it  can  readily  be  brought  up  to  the  clover-bear- 
ing point.  It  is  excellent  for  cows  giving  milk.  If 
the  land  is  to  lie  several  years  in  pasture,  white  clover 
should  be  sown  with  it.  When  sown  in  the  middle  of 
April,  in  the  latitude  of  40°  or  41°,  it  is  ripe  for  pc  jt- 
ure  by  the  end  of  May.  When  eaten  off  in  June,  the 
land  is  turned  flat  and  another  crop  is  sown,  which 


274 


CLO  VES—COAL. 


affords  fine  pasture  in  August  and  September.  This 
operation  is  equivalent  to  a  dressing  of  ten  loads  of 
manure  per  acre. 

Three  crops 
can  be  grown 
upon  land  in 
one  season, 
which,  if  turn- 
ed in  or  fed  on 
.  the  ground  can 
'be  made  a 
means  of  rapid 


Clojtr  Sefiar  itor 


I    u    4  — btr  li  U  : 

miprovement.     see  Alfalfa  or  Lucern. 

Cloves,  a  valuable  aromatic.  The  oil  of  cloves 
applied  with  raw  cotton,  is  said  to  be  very  effectual  in 
relieving  toothache. 

Clyster,  an  injection  of  water  or  medicated  fluid 
into  the  bowels  by  means  of  a  syringe ;  an  enema. 
We  give  the  following  forms  of  clyster  used  for  cattle 
and  horses  : 

Laxative  Clysters,  useful  in  obstinate  consti- 
pation, "  stoppage,"  or  whenever  the  excrement  is  hard 
and  dark  colored : 


Another : 


3  or  4  Quarts  warm  water, 
8  Ounces  linseed  oil, 

I  Tablespoonful  common  salt  (fine). 

4  Quarts  warm  water, 
1  Gill  soft  soap, 

Yt  Tablespoonful  fine  salt. 


Emollient  Clyster,  to  be  used  in  all  cases  of  ir- 
ritation and  inflammation  of  the  intestines  and  blad- 
der: 

2  Ounces  slippery  elm  bark, 

2  Quarts  boiling  water. 

Simmer  over  the  fire  a  few  minutes,  strain  through 
a  fine  sieve,  and  inject,  when  nearly  cool.  The  fol- 
lowing articles  may  be  substituted  for  elm :  flaxseed, 
lily  roots,  gum  Arabic,  ix)plar  bark,  Iceland  moss. 

Stimulating  Clyster,  to  be  used  in  all  cases 
when  the  rectum  and  small  intestines  are  inactive  and 
loaded  with  excrement,  or  gas  : 

3  Quarts  of  thin  mucilage  of  slippery  elm  or  linseed  tea, 
I  Teaspoonful  African  cayenne,  pure. 

Another : 

Vt  Tablespoonful  powdered  ginger, 
3  Quarts  boiling  water. 

When  cool,  inject. 

Anodyne  Clyster,  used  to  relieve  pain  and  relax 
spasms : 

I  Ounce  lady's  slipper  (Cypripedium), 
I  Ounce  camomile  flowers, 
3  Quarts  boiling  water. 

Let  the  mixture  stand  a  short  tinie,  then  strain 
through  a  fine  sieve,  when  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 

Diuretic  Clyster  :  This  form  of  clyster  may  be 
used  with  decided  advantage  in  all  acute  diseases  of 
the  urinary  organs.  This  injection  is  useful  in  cases 
of  red  water,  both  in  cattle  and  sheep ;  and  when  the 
malady  is  supposed  to  result  from  general  or  local  de- 
bility, the  addition  of  tonics  (golden  seal  or  gentian) 
will  be  indicated.  Their  active  properties  may  be  ex- 
tracted by  infusion. 

3  Quarts  linseed  tea, 

I  Tablespoonful  oil  of  juniper 


Or,  substitute  for  the  latter,  cream  of  tartar,  half  an 
ounce. 

Astringent  Clyster  :  Take  an  infusion  of  hard- 
hack,  strain,  and  add  a  tablesjMonful  of  finely-pulver- 
ized charcoal  to  every  three  quarts  of  fluid. 

Another  is  an  infusion  of  witch  hazel. 

Another : 

I  Tablespoonful  powdered  baybcrry  bark, 
3  Quarts  boiling  water. 

When  cool,  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Astringent  injections  are  used  in  all  cases  where  it 
is  desired  to  contract  the  living  fiber,  as  in  scouring, 
dysentery,  scouring  rot,  diarrhoea,  bloody  flux,  falling 
of  the  womb,  fundament,  etc. 

Nourishing  Clysters:  These  are  composed  of 
thin  gruel  made  from  flour,  etc. 

Injection  for  Worms:  Make  an  infusion  of 
pomegranate  (rind  of  the  fruit),  and  inject  every  night 
for  a  few  days.  This  will  rid  the  animal  of  worms 
that  infest  the  rectum ;  but  if  the  animal  is  infested 
with  the  long,  round  worm  (teres),  then  half  a  pint  of 
the  above  infusion  must  be  given  for  a  few  mornings, 
before  feeding. 

Another  for  worms : 

1  Ounce  powdered  lobelia, 
I  Handful  wood  ashes, 
3  Quarts  boiling  water. 

When  cool,  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Coach,  a  large,  close,  four-wheeled  carriage,  having 
at  least  two  seats  within  and  capable  of  holding  four 
persons.     See  Carriage. 

CoagTilation,  to  gather  into  masses,  as  butter  in 
churning,  or  curd ;  to  thicken,  as  loppered  milk. 

Coal.  Stone  coal  is  the  hardened  remains  of  veg- 
etable matter,  being  chemically  a  condensation  of 
gases,  which  with  a  common  fire  are  easily  decom- 
posed. Anthracite  is  the  hardest  species,  having  but 
little  or  no  sulphur,  is  nearly  pure  carbon,  is  difficult 
of  combustion  and  burns  with  but  little  flame.  This 
kind  of  coal  is  most  abundant  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Wales.  Bituminous  coal,  such  as  that  of  Virginia, 
Ohio  and  the  Western  States,  is  softer,  more  sulphur- 
ous and  combustible,and  produces  considerable  flame. 
Wood  coal  resembles  charred  wood,  and  in  burning 
gives  considerable  light.  Cannel  coal  is  similar,  but 
is  very  homogeneous  in  its  texture,  being  easily  carved 
into  statuesque  forms.  It  gives  a  steady  flame  when 
burned.  Hard  coal  (anthracite)  is  the  best  for  heat- 
ing sitting-rooms,  if  burned  in  a  "base  burner;"  but 
in  the  distant  West  is  too  expensive. 

The  breathing  of  the  gases  from  burning  coal  is 
disagreeable  and  unhealthful,  and  smoky  stoves  and 
fire-places  are  to  be  dreaded.  Many  persons  imagine 
that  what  they  take  into  their  lungs  from  burning  coal 
cannot  be  very  unhealthful,  as  it  does  not  signally  and 
immediately  bring  ujx)n  them  serious  sickness ;  but 
the  foundations  of  future  incurable  diseases  should 
be  avoided,  at  almost  any  expense.  As  the  country 
becomes  more  wealthy,  the  citizens  manage  to  obtain 
more  efficient  heaters,  furnaces,  etc.,  and  learn  to  avoid 
the  effluvia  of  burning  coal.     In  throwing  "  fine  "  or 


COAL  TAR— COD-LIVER  OIL. 


275 


pulverized  coal  upon  a  fire  (unless  to  keep  it  over 
night  or  for  several  hours  without  burning),  but  little 
should  be  thrown  on  at  a  time,  to  prevent  puffs  of 
smoke  into  the  room.  Throwing  water  upon  coal  is 
no  advantage  in  small  fires,  such  as  we  have  in  com- 
mon stoves. 

Coal  Tar,  a  tarry  fluid  of  a  complicated  nature, 
produced  during  the  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  for 
gas.  It  is  a  cheap  and  excellent  paint  for  ironware, 
railings,  rough  wood-work  in  some  situations,  and  is 
much  used  for  saturaring  ropes,  and  such  coarse  paper 
as  is  employed  in  rendering  buildings  warm  and  com- 
fortable. 

Coal  tar  in  almost  any  form  in  which  it  can  be  used 
is  a  powerful  disinfectant.  When  it  is  distilled,  it 
furnishes,  first,  a  light  oil  which  is  a  naphtha ;  and  next 
a  heavy  oil.  This  last  is,  in  great  part,  composed  of 
creasote,  and  contains  also  an  acid  known  as  carbolic 
acid,  both  of  which  are  among  the  most  powerful  of 
all  known  antiseptics,  disinfectants  and  deodorizers. 
Meat  steeped  for  about  24  hours  in  a  solution  of  i 
part  of  creosote  to  100  of  water,  is  rendered  incapable 
of  putrefaction,  and  acquires  a  delicate  flavor  of  smoke. 
It  is  the  presence  of  this  principle  in  wood  smoke 
that  gives  it  its  characteristic  smell  and  its  power  of 
curing  meats. 

Cobbler,  in  cookery,  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
a  kind  of  large  fruit  pie  or  dumpling.  The  fruit  is 
prepared  as  for  pie,  enveloped  in  a  sheet  of  dough  or 
paste  like  a  dumpUng,  and  steamed  or  baked.  It  is  a 
fine  and  economical  dish. 

Cochineal  (coch'i-neal),  a  dye-stuff  consisting  of 
the  dried  bodies  of  a  Mexican  insect  (the  female 
only),  flourishing  uix)n  cactus.  This  material  yields 
several  shades  of  red,  and  is  used  as  a  dye  for  color- 
ing tinctures  and  other  medicines  for  the  purpose  of 
deception.  Druggists  color  water  with  it,  for  filling 
their  show  bottles  usually  found  in  their  store  windows. 

CoeMn,  a  breed  of  fowls,  of  which  there  are 
several  varieties.     See  Fowls,  Domestic. 

Cockerel,  a  young  cock  or  rooster. 

Cocklebur,  a  foul  weed,  bearing  elliptical,  thorny 
burs:  has  been  called  ''smaller  burdock."  It  is  a 
great  pest  in  some  fields. 

Cockroach.  Borax  is  one  of  the  best  of  roach  ex- 
terminators. There  is  something  peculiar,  either  in  the 
smell  or  touch  of  borax,  which  is  certain  death 
to  them.  They  will  flee  in  terror  from  it,  and 
never  appear  again  where  it  has  once  been  placed. 
It  has  also  the  great  advantage  of  being  perfectly 
harmless  to  human  beings ;  hence  there  is  no  danger 
from  poisoning.  The  borax  should  be  pulverized 
and  sprinkled  around  the  infested  places.  Another 
infallible  means  of  destroying  black  beetles  and  cock- 
roaches is  to  strew  the  roots  of  black  hellebore  on  the 
floor  at  night.  Next  morning  the  whole  family  of 
these  insects  will  be  found  either  dead  or  dying,  for 
such  is  their  avidity  for  the  poisonous  plant  that  they 


never  fail  to  eat  it  when  they  can  get  it.  Black  helle- 
bore grows  in  marshy  grounds  and  may  be  1iad  at  all 
herb  shops.  Cockroaches  and  water-bugs  may  also 
be  destroyed  by  placing  vessels  containing  molasses 
where  they  abound.  A  small  stick  should  be  laid 
from  the  edge  of  the  vessel  to  the  floor.  They  will 
not  return  ujxsn  it.  A  decoction  of  poke-root,  spread 
on  plates  with  molasses,  oil  of  cedar,  pulverized  pep- 
per and  insect  powder  are  also  highly  recommended. 

Cocoa,  a  preparation  of  the  ground  bean  of  the  choco- 
late tree,  to  be  used  in  making  a  beverage.  To  pre- 
pare the  latter,  boil  two  large  spoonfuls  of  ground 
cocoa  in  a  quart  of  water  half  an  hour ;  skim  off  the 
oil,  ]X3ur  in  three  gills  of  milk,  and  boil  it  up  again.  It 
is  the  best  way  to  make  it  the  day  before  it  is  used,  as 
the  oily  substance  can  be  more  perfectly  removed 
when  the  cocoa  is  cold. 

Cocoanut,  the  fruit  of  the  cocoanut  palm,  well 
known  throughout  the  world.  The  nut  ground  and 
dried,  known  as  "  desiccated  cocoanut,"  can  be  ob- 
tained at  the  groceries,  and  is  used  in  various  culi- 
nary preparations.     See  also  Cake  and  Pie. 

Cocoon,  the  envelope  of  silk  or  other  substance 
growing  around  a  caterpillar  or  other  larva  when  it  is 
undergoing  its  transformation  to  the  winged  or  perfect 
state.  The  insect  and  its  envelope  are  together  called 
a  "  chrysalis,"  or  "pupa." 

C.  O.  D.  Collect  On  Delivery:  a  term  used  in 
connection  with  goods  sent  by  express,  when  the  ex- 
press company  is  authorized  to  collect  for  the  value 
of  the  goods  as  named  by  the  consignor.  In  this  way, 
goods  may  be  ordered  from  the  city  and  paid  for  on 
receipt.  Somedmes  the  privilege  to  examine  the 
goods  before  receiving  is  granted  by  the  party  sending, 
but  generally  payment  is  required  before  examination. 
In  sending  a  package  C.  O.  D.,  make  out  a  receipt  bill 
for  the  amount  you  desire  the  express  company  to  col- 
lect, and  deliver  to  the  company.  The  company  is 
then  responsible  for  the  return  of  the  money  or  the 
goods.  It  is  a  very  safe  and  satisfactory  way  of  send- 
ing goods  to  strangers,  although  the  additional  expense 
of  returning  the  money  is  incurred  by  the  party  receiv- 
ing them. 

Cod-Liver  Oil.  This  is  extracted  from  the  fresh 
liver  of  the  cod  by  a  heat  not  exceeding  180°.  There 
are  three  varieties  in  market — the  white,  or  pale  yel- 
low, the  brownish  yellow  and  the  dark  brown,  but 
they  are  of  equal  value.  The  odor  is  similar  to  that 
of  shoe  leather,  and  the  taste  disagreeable.  In  all 
animals,  cod-liver  oil  increases  fat  and  flesh.  It  is 
now  considered  a  very  valuable  remedy.  There  has 
been  so  great  a  demand  for  it  that  the  oil  of  every  fish 
caught  has  been  sold  for  it.  It  is  employed  where  an 
exalted  temperature  is  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
the  tissues.  In  such  cases  it  saves  the  tissues,  and 
the  burning  of  flesh-forming  food.  The  principal  dis- 
eases for  which  this  is  prescribed  and  taken  are  con- 
sumption and  scrofula.  In  cases  of  emaciation  it  is 
used  with  good  results.    In  children,  evidently,  where 


276 


COFFEE— COKE. 


the  mesentery  glands  are  diseased  or  defective,  cod- 
liver  oil  has  been  found  one  of  the  most  beneficial 
remedies.  The  dose  for  infants  and  small  children  is 
from  y^  to  one  teaspoonful  three  or  four  times  a  day, 
in  a  little  breast  or  other  milk ;  for  youths  and  ad- 
ults a  tablespoonful  three  or  four  times  a  day.  The 
taste  of  cod-hver  oil  is  completely  disguised  by  masti- 
cating a  morsel  of  dried  orange  peel  before  and  after 
swallowing  the  dose,  or  by  the  use  of  a  lump  of  brown 
sugar. 

In  diseases  affecting  digestion  and  assimilation  cod- 
liver  oil  can  be  of  no  use.  It  materially  relieves 
broken  wind,  or  heaves  in  horses.  For  hastening  or 
forcing  animals  intended  for  shows,  cod-liver  oil  is  just 
what  is  wanted,  as  it  not  only  hastens  the  fattening 
process,  but  increases  the  quality  and  appearance  of 
the  meat. 

CoflFee.  There  will  be  coffee-drinkers  as  long  as 
the  "  world  stands."  While  parched  grains,  roots,  etc., 
satisfy  some  people  as  a  basis  of  a  mild  beverage,  most 
people  in  this  country  will  have  genuine  coffee.  This 
grain  should  never  be  purchased  from  the  store  already 
ground,  as  such  is  generally  adulterated  with  chiccory, 
Hver  of  animals,  burnt  sugar,  Venetian  red,  okra,  po- 
tato, etc.  As  long  ago  as  1850,  a  patent  was  taken 
out  for  a  process  for  molding  chiccory  paste  into  the 
form  of  coffee  grains.  But  even  pure  coffee,  if  ground, 
gradually  loses  its  aroma.  In  browning  coffee,  it 
should  not  be  burned,  or  even  scorched,  but  parched 
to  a  light  brown. 

To  roast  coffee,  dry  it  in  the  oven  an  hour  or  two 
before  roasting,  then  put  it  on  the  stove  in  a  round- 
bottomed  kettle,  and  stir  constantly  until  it  becomes 
brown.  Two  ixjunds  of  coffee  roasted  at  one  time  is 
sufficient  for  a  small  family.  Add  a  piece  of  butter 
the  size  of  a  walnut  just  before  taking  up.  Put  it 
while  st  e  a  m  i  n  g 
hot  into  a  box  with 
aclose  cover. 
It  should  be 
ground  as  it  is 
wanted. 

For  grinding  cof- 
fee, L.J.  Miller  of 
Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
furnishes  a  hand 
and  ixjwer  mill, 
which  is  not  only 
good  for  this  pur- 
pose, but  also  for 
grinding  grain  for 
mushes  and  bread. 
(See  also  Grist- 
mill.) 
To  Make  Coffee. 


Coffee  Mill. 


Put  a  coffee-cupful  into  a  pot 
that  will  hold  three  pints  or  two  quarts ;  break  an  egg 
into  it,  or  some  egg-shells,  or  a  bit  of  fish-skin  an  inch 
square ;  pour  on  a  quart  of  boiling  water.  Boil  it  ten 
minutes,  take  it  off,  turn  a  cupful  out  at  the  spout  and 
back  again  into  the  pot ;  pour  in  half  a  cupful  of  cold 


water,  and  let  it  stand  ten  minutes  to  settle.  Turn  it 
off  into  another  pot  to  send  to  table.  Boiling  cream  or 
milk  should  always  be  served  with  coffee. 

To  make  coffee  in  a  biggin  put  the  ground  coffee  in- 
to a  filter,  wet  it  with  cold  water,  and  let  it  stand  five 
minutes  to  swell.  Put  the  filter  into  the  pot  where  it 
belongs;  fill  it  up  with  boiling  water,  and  set  where 
it  will  keep  hot  and  not  boil.  When  this  has  run 
through,  add  water  until  you  have  made  a  quart  of 
coffee.  It  does  not  require  more  than  ten  minutes  to 
make  good  coffee.  The  best  kinds  of  coffee  are  the 
Mocha  and  the  Java,  audit  is  considered  an  improve- 
ment to  mix  the  two.  West  India  coffee,  though  of 
a  different  flavor,  is  often  very  good. 

Never  let  coffee,  once  made,  stand  in  tin. 

Effects  of  Coffee  on  the  Constitution.  Cof- 
fee exerts  a  very  powerful  influence  on  the  sympathetic 
nerves  and  brain;  and  for  this. reason,  after  taking  it, 
all  feelings  of  drowsiness  are  dispelled  while  the  sys- 
tem continues  under  its  influence.  Coffee  possesses  this 
property,  chiefly  owing  to  the  empyieumaticoil  it  con- 
tains. It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  beverage  should 
always  be  prepared  from  the  freshly-roasted  berry, 
ground  immediately  before  use.  Coffee  contains  a 
considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen,  which  tends  to 
render  it  more  nutritious.  Coffee  as  a  beverage  is 
most  suitable  for  elderly  or  thin  individuals.  It  is  not 
so  well  adapted  for  persons  of  an  excitable  temper- 
ment,  or  for  plethoric  individuals.  It  is  liable  to  pro- 
duce, if  taken  to  excess,  haemorrhages  from  the  bowels, 
and  congestion  of  the  hver.  It  is  thought  that  coffee 
promotes  digestion  when  taken  after  a  meal,  and  that 
it  also  removes  the  symptoms  caused  by  too  great  an 
indulgence  in  wine;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  taken 
immediately  after  a  meal,  it  impairs  the  action  of  the 
stomach  and  injures  the  digestion.  These  affections 
are,  however,  thought  to  disappear  more  readily  on 
persons  leaving  off"  its  use,  than  those  complaints  which 
are  produced  by  the  excessive  use  of  strong  tea. 

Coflfee  Milk.  Put  a  dessert  spoonful  of  ground 
coffee  into  a  pint  of  milk  ;  boil  it  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
with  a  shaving  or  two  of  isinglass ;  then  let  it  stand 
ten  minutes,  and  pour  it  off". 

CoflEin,  in  farriery,  is  the  hollow  part  of  a  horse's  hoof, 
or  the  whole  hoof  below  the  coronet,  including  the 
"coffin  "  bone,  which  is  a  small,  spongy  bone  in  the 
midst  of  the  hoof. 

Coins,  Old,  To  Clean  :  Rub  them  with  a  nail  brush 
dipped  in  strong  lye  made  of  wood  ashes. 

Coke,  the  cinder  of  mineral  coal  after  being  heat- 
ed for  gas.  It  is  light  and  inflammable,  but  lacks 
strength  as  compared  with  its  former  condition.  There 
is  a  heavy  coke,  however,  made  for  manufacturing 
purjx)ses.  Only  the  sulphur  and  other  injurious  ele- 
ments are  driven  out.  Coke,  in  combustion,  gives  an 
intense  heat,  vidthout  smoke,  but  leaves  a  great  deal  of 
ashes.  In  using  it  for  an  open  fire  it  should  be  broken 
into  lumps  about  the  size  of  a  goose-egg,  and  laid  on 
top  of  the  fire,  but  not  in  front. 


COLANDER— CO  LU-FRAME. 


277 


Colander  (cul'en-der),  a  perforated  vessel  for 
straining  liquors,  or  separating  the  finer  elements  of 
a  mixture  from  the  coarser.  A  slight  hygienic  objec- 
tion to  the  use  of  tin  colanders  consists  in  the  fact 
that  it  is  difficult  to  keep  the  perforations  perfectly  drj- 
and  clean,  and  the  rust  and  filth  that  accumulates  in 
them  are  unfit  to  go  into  our  food. 

Colcliicum,  meadow  saffron.  This  is  not  the  com- 
mon yellow  or  garden  saffron,  but  a  native  of  Europe, 
which  in  September  bears  two  to  six  lilac  or  pale  pur- 
ple flowers.  Not  raised  in  this  country.  The  seeds 
and  root  are  the  parts  usually  employed  in  medicine, 
sometimes  in  jwwder;  but  the  best  is  in  the  fomi  of 
a  tincture.  In  veterinary  practice  it  is  given  in  all 
rheumatic  affections  of  the  joints,  and  in  lumbago, 
and  also  in  diseases  of  the  eye  of  the  horse,  depending 
on  rheumatism  of  that  organ. 

Dose.  Of  the  corm  or  seeds  in  powder  for  horses 
and  cattle,  the  dose  is  from  one  to  two  drachms,  given 
in  the  animal's  feed  twice  in  the  day,  for  a  week  or 
two.  The  wine  of  colchicum  will  answer  for  the  dog, 
in  from  5  to  15  drop  doses,  twice  a  day  in  a  little 
water. 

Cold,  a  fever  caused  by  a  stoppage  of  the  jxjres 
of  the  skin.  The  cause  and  symptoms  of  this  disease 
are  so  well  understood  that  little  need  be  said  in  re- 
gard to  these.  Oppression  of  the  breast,  stoppage  of 
the  nose,  sneezing,  weariness,  chills,  pain  in  the  head, 
and  cough  are  the  usual  attendants.  But  few  dis- 
eases require  more  attention  than  this,  and  but  few 
are  more  neglected.  Remember  that  neglected  colds 
are  frequently  dangerous,  and  often  result  in  incur- 
able diseases.  A  cold  produces  cough,  then  certain 
pains  in  the  side,  fever,  difficulty  in  breathing,  and 
finally  ends  in  consumption. 

The  thing  to  do,  of  course,  is  to  open  the  jMres  of 
the  skin,  and  this  is  generally  accomplished,  or  at- 
tempted to  be  accomplished,  by  a  course  of  sweating. 
If  fasting  and  hand-rubbing  of  the  skin  are  also  per- 
sisted in  for  a  day  or  so,  the  cure  will  generally  be 
successful.  Sweating  indeed  opens  the  pores  of  the 
skin,  but  the  patient  generally  comes  out  of  the  pro- 
cess in  such  a  way  as  to  reproduce  the  disease.  On 
coming  out,  vigorous  hand-rubbing  should  be  given 
until  the  skin  is  perfectly  dry  and  somewhat  pinkish, 
and  then  the  patient  should  immediately  cover  up 
wann  in  bed  again,  and  remain  there  until  he  feels 
like  arising  and  taking  exercise.  For  persons  not  sub- 
ject to  any  lung  or  heart  disease,  the  Turkish  bath 
(see  Hygiene)  is  recommended,  as  one  such  bath,  if 
properly  terminated,  is  sufficient  to  cure  almost  any 
cold  instantaneously.  In  taking  a  sweat  by  a  pack, 
voluntary  breathing  greatly  aids  the  process.  In  fact, 
heavy,  voluntary  breathing  in  a  dry  pack,  in  a  room 
well  ventilated,  is  often  the  best  method  of  curing  a 
cold.  Drinking  herb  teas,  especially  those  made  hot 
by  pepper  and  other  spices,  is  preferred  by  many,  but 
effects  no  better  cure  than  so  much  hot  water.  They 
are  all  merely  different  methods  of  making  hot  water 
palatable,  so  as  to  prevent  nausea.     One  day's  treat- 


ment, properly  administered,  is  sufficient  to  cure  almost 
any  cold ;  sometimes  the  process  should  be  repeated 
the  next  day,  in  which  case  the  patient  should  eat  but 
little,  and  the  treatment  given  as  far  from  the  meals 
as  possible,  as  there  should  be  no  food  in  the  stomach 
at  the  time. 

Cold  Chisel,  a  chisel  of  peculiar  strength  and  hard- 
ness, for  cutting  cold  metal. 

Cold  Frame,  a  framed  bed,  of  the  nature  of  a  hot- 
bed, for  the  early  propagation  of  plants.  The  cover  is 
removed  during  the  day,  unless  the  weather  is  too 
cold,  that  the  plants  may  not  become  too  tender. 

Cold  frames  are  extensively  used  by  market  gar- 
deners to  carry  lettuce  and  cabbage  plants  through  the 
winter.  Select  the  locality  in  the  fall,  choosing  a 
warm  location  on  a  southern  slope,  protected  by  a 
fence  or  building  on  the  north  and  northwest.  Set 
jx)sts  in  the  ground,  nail  two  boards  to  these  parallel 
to  each  other,  one  about  a  foot  in  height  and  the 
other  toward  the  south  about  four  inches  narrower; 
this  will  give  the  sashes  resting  on  them  the  right 
slope  to  shed  the  rain  and  receive  as  much  heat  as 
jxjssible  from  the  sun.  Have  these  boards  at  a  dis- 
tance apart  equal  to  the  length  of  the  sash,  which  may 
be  any  common  window-sash  for  a  small  bed,  or  the 
length  of  a  usual  gardener's  sash.  If  common  window- 
sash  is  used,  cut  channels  in  the  cross-bars  to  let  the 
water  run  off.  Dig  the  ground  thoroughly  (it  is  best 
to  cover  it  in  the  fall  with  litter  to  keep  the  frost  out), 
and  rake  out  all  stones  or  clods;  then  slide  in  the 
sash  and  let  it  remain  closed  three  or  four  days  that 
the  soil  may  be  warmed  by  the  sun's  rays.  The  two 
end  boards  should  rise  as  high  as  the  sash  to  prevent 
the  heat  escaping,  and  the  bottom  board  of  a  small 
frame  should  have  a  strip  nailed  inside  to  rest  the  sash 
on.  Next  rake  thoroughly  in  guano  or  phosphate  or 
finely-pulverized  hen  manure,  and  plant  in  rows  three 
to  six  inches  apart,  depending  on  whether  the  plants 
are  to  be  allowed  to  remain  or  are  to  be  transplanted; 
if  the  latter,  then  three  inches  will  be  sufficient  dis- 
tance. Thin  out  the  tomato  plants  when  quite  small, 
but  allow  peppers  to  remain  rather  thick  at  first  l)y 
reason  of  danger  from  depredations  of  the  cut-worm. 
As  the  season  advances,  raise  the  sashes  an  inch  or 
two  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  water  freely  at 
evening  with  water  that  is  nearly  of  the  temperature 
of  the  earth  in  the  frame.  As  the  heat  of  the  season 
increases  whitewash  the  glass,  and  keep  them  more 
and  more  open  until  about  the  close  of  May,  just 
before  the  more  tender  varieties  are  set  in  open  ground, 
you  allow  the  glass  to  remain  entirely  off  both  day  and 
night,  unless  there  should  be  a  cold  rain.  This  will 
harden  them  so  that  they  will  not  be  apt  to  be  injured 
by  the  cabbage  beetle,  as  well  as  chilled  and  put  back 
by  the  change.  If  the  tomato  plants  have  been  well 
hardened,  the  stalks  will  be  of  a  red  color.  Should 
the  plants  be  getting  too  large  before  the  season  for 
transplanting,  they  should  be  checked  by  drawing  a 
sharp  knife  within  a  couple  of  inches  of  the  stalk.  If 
it  is  desirable  to  dwarf  the  tomatoes  and  thus  force 


278 


COLEWORT—COMPOST. 


them  into  a  compact  growlh,  transplant  into  another 
cold  frame,  allowing  each  plant  double  the  distance  it 
before  occupied.  Early  tomato  plants  in  a  small  way 
may  be  raised  in  flower  jMts  or  boxes  in  a  warm 
kitchen  window;  so  also  may  egg  plants  and  peppers. 
When  raising  them  in  the  house,  the  pot  or  box  con- 
taining the  seed  should  be  placed  cjuite  near  the  stove 
for  a  few  days,  and  the  soil  be  kej)!  well  moistened 
until  the  plants  begin  to  break  ground,  when  they  may 
be  removed  to  a  w^irm  window.  It  is  best,  if  practic- 
able, to  have  but  one  plant  in  each  ]X)t,  that  they  may 
grow  short  and  stocky.  If  the  seed  are  not  planted 
earlier  than  the  first  of  April  for  out-of-door  cultiva- 
tion, a  cold  frame  will  answer. 

Colewort :  see  Rape ;  also  a  name  given  to  non- 
heading  early  cabbages,  and  is  corrupted  to  "collards." 

Colic,  a  spasmodic  pain  in  the  stomach  or  bowels, 
which  is  relieved  by  pressure  upon  the  abdomen  as 
the  patient  is  inclined  forward,  or  lies  face  downward 
with  the  abdomen  uixin  a  supixaft.  It  prevails  mostly 
among  infants,  and  is  tem[X)rary,  but  severe.  In 
children  it  is  generally  ijrod.iced  by  too  much  food,  or 
some  improper  diet  of  the  mother,  and  sometimes  from 
exix)sure  to  cold  or  changeof  clothing,  and  often  from 
bad  quality  of  the  milk.  It  makes  its  attacks  sud- 
denly, by  violent  screaming,  kicking,  drawing  up  of 
the  legs,  and  frequently  a  stoppage  of  the  urine  or 
water.  This  complaint  attacks  those  children  who  arc 
subject  to  it,  so  suddenly,  and  often  with  such  vio- 
lence, that  we  should  always  be  careful  to  attend  to  it 
at  once,  or  it  may  produce  convulsions.  Nursing 
children  are  very  subject  to  the  colic,  which  is  often 
so  severe  as  to  produce  a  cold  sweat. 

Treatment.  Paregoric  seldom  fails  to  procure  re- 
lief. Children  can  take  frcm  ten  drops  to  a  tea- 
spoonful.  Ha'-f  a  teasiX)onful  is  a  medium  dose  for 
a  child  a  year  old.  In  children,  where  the  distress  is 
great,  an  injection,  made  of  a  small  quantity  cf  com- 
mon salt  dissolved  in  warm  water,  will  often  procure 
the  most  instant  relief.  H-alf  a  teaspoonful  of  castor 
oil  and  h.ilf  a  teasjxDonful  of  paregoric,  mixed,  will 
effect  a  cure.  In  some  cases,  a  little  peppermint,  or 
pennyroyal,  or  ginger  tea,  given  warm,  will  remove  the 
colic.  I3r)f,  hot  flannel  cloths  should  be  put  to  the 
stomach,  a;.d  a  bottle  of  hot  water  or  a  hot  brick  to 
the  feet,  or  warm  bathing  and  rubbing,  or  friction,  over 
the  stomach  and  belly,  with  some  liniment,  will  give 
great  relief.  When  the  child  is  costive,  or  bound  in 
Its  bowels,  a  gentle  purgative  of  manna  or  castor  oil 
will  be  required  to  relieve  the  flatulence  and  constipa- 
tion, or  costiveness. 

Colic,  Bilious  and  Cramp,  is  characterized  by  ex- 
cruciating pain  in  the  region  of  the  navel,  thirst,  fever- 
ish symptoms,  vomiting  of  bilious  matter,  and  costive- 
ness. The  attack  generally  commences  with  a  bitter 
taste  in  the  mouth,  followed  by  vomiting  of  a  yellow- 
greenish  matter.  The  bowels  are  constipated ;  little 
or  no  discharge  of  urine;  the  pain  about  the  navel 
will  sometimes  shift  from  place  to  place;  a  sort  of 
hoarseness  usually  attends  the  patient  throughout  the 


disease,  and  more  or  less  fever.     Sometimes  there  are 
cramps  in  the  stomach  and  limbs. 

lyeatment :  Mrst  evacuate  the  stomach  by  an 
emetic  of  warm  water  and  salt;  drink  copiously. 
Move  the  bowels  with  a  mild  cathartic.  Apply  a  large 
mustard -plaster  wet  with  vinegar  over  the  stomach 
and  bowels.  After  the  mustard  has  been  borne  as  long 
as  it  can  be,  remove  it  and  api-ly  constantly  to  the 
abdomen  flannel  or  other  cloths  dipped  in  hot  water. 
This  will  have  a  soothing  and  relaxing  effect. 

Collar,  in  mechanics,  a  metal  ring  around  the  end 
of  a  cylinder  of  wood  to  prevent  splitting,  or  a  ring 
around  a  piston  or  a  journal,  for  securing  tightness  or 
steadiness.  In  botany,  the  "  collar  "  of  a  plant  is  the 
junction  of  the  roots  with  the  stem  or  trunk  of  the 
plant,  at  the  ground.       For  horse-collar,  see  Harness. 

Collateral,  stock,  bond,  mortgage,  or  other  com- 
mercial "  paper  "  used  as  security  lor  a  loan. 

Colley,  the  Scotch  shepherd  dog:  see  Dog. 

Collodion,  a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  ether.  Gun- 
cotton  is  a  highly  explosive  substance  obtained  by 
soaking  common  cotton,  or  indeed  any  other  vegeta- 
ble fiber,  in  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  leaving 
it  to  dry.  It  is  occasionally  used  as  a  substitute  for 
gunpowder.  Collodion  is  used  for  dressing  wounds 
and  cuts,  instead  of  sticking-plaster.  In  veterinary 
surgery  it  is  applied  in  the  following  manner:  clip  the 
hair  from  the  edges  of  the  wound,  take  a  camel's-hair 
pencil,  or  a  soft  brush,  and  paint  the  surface  and  edges 
of  the  wound  well,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  ether, 
which  holds  the  gun-cotton  in  solution,  evajwrates, 
leaving  over  the  sore  a  complete  covering,  resembling 
the  gold-beater's  skin,  thus  completely  shielding  the 
sore  from  the  action  of  the  air;  hence  its  value. 

Cologne  Water.  Mix  alcohol,  i  gallon ;  oil  of  lav- 
ender, 1 2  drachms ;  oil  of  rosemary,  4  drachms ;  es- 
sence of  lemon,  12  drachms;  oil  of  bergamot,  12 
drachms ;  oil  of  cinnamon,  1 2  drops. 

Colter,  Coulter  or  Cutter,  the  cutting  iron  (or 
steel  blade)  of  a  plow;  either  "  upright  "  or  "  rolling." 

Coloring:  see  Dyeing,  Painting  and  Staining. 

Commode  (com-mode'),  a  chest  of  drawers,  often 
with  shelves  added ;  also,  a  dry-earth  closet ;  see 
Privy. 

Common  Carrier,  a  party  who  makes  periodical 
trips  for  the  purjx)se  of  carrying  goods  or  letters,  as 
the  express  companies,  jxistal  agents,  etc. 

Communism  (coin'-u-nizm),  "  having  all  things 
common  ;  "  that  is,  having  all  jjroperty  in  the  hands  of 
the  community  at  large,  and  none  of  it  in  the  possess- 
ion of  any  individual. 

Complexion:  see  Toilet. 

Compost,  a  rotted  mass  of  mixed  manures.  It  is 
called  Ash,  Guano,  Lime,  etc.,  according  to  the  pre- 
vailing fertihzer  or  other  ingredient  employed.  Ordi- 
nary compost  for  garden  use  may  be  made  by  mixing 


COMPO  UNDING—CONSER  VA  TOR  Y. 


279 


the  manure  of  spent  hot-beds  with  equal  quantities  of 
fresh  barn-yard  manure  and  swamp-muck,  or  sods 
pared  from  alongside  fences,  or  from  any  six)t  where 
water  often  settles.  To  these  add  air-slacked  lime 
Cvjual  to  one-twentieth  of  the  whole  bulk,  and  an  equal 
quantitj'  of  unleached  ashes,  or  double  this  quantity  of 
leached,  and  throw  in  and  cover  any  decaying  animal 
matter,  or  drainage  from  the  slaughter-house.  Watch 
the  heap,  keeping  a  stick  thrust  into  its  center,  to  serve 
as  a  thermometer.  Whenever,  on  withdrawing  the 
stick,  you  find  it  getting  hot,  turn  the  heap  over  and  ia- 
sideout;  re-insert  the  stick,  watch  it  and  repeat  theoper- 
ation  several  times  until  it  is  made  quite  homogeneous, 
say  several  weeks.  In  turning  over  the  mass  it  is  well 
to  sow  in  a  little  plaster  (gypsum).  The  lime  should 
be  mixed  with  stable  manure  when  it  is  cool,  else  it 
will  drive  off  the  ammonia  instead  of  retaining  it.  Ash 
compost  is  com[X)sed  of  equal  ciuantities  of  ashes  and 
gypsum,  carefully  mi.xed  or  sifted  together.  Keep  it 
dry  and  apply  it  to  the  ground  by  sowing  just  before  a 
rain.  Guano  comixDst  may  be  made  of  guano,  or  hen 
manure,  mixed  with  one-half  the  bulk  of  ground  gyp- 
sum, and  four  or  five  times  the  bulk  of  rich  loam,  and 
allowing  the  mass  to  remain  in  a  dry  place  for  several 
weeks  and  turning  it  once  or  twice  during  the  time.  In 
applying  this  compost  to  planted  ground,  it  should  be 
covered  with  soil,  that  there  be  no  loss  of  ammonia,  etc. 
For  flowers,  the  best  compost  is  made  of  good  loam, 
leaf-mold,  peat,  road-wash,  sand  and  rotted  manures. 
Good  loam  is  rather  dull  yellow,  not  reddish,  and  when 
moderately  dry  it  has  a  kind  of  cheesy  softness  on 
cutting,  is  friable  when  thrown  up  with  a  spade,  break- 
into  rather  coarse  granules,  a  lump  when  broken  show- 
ing the  same  structure ;  yet  it  is  not  clayey  or  liable 
to  break  hard  after  a  rain.  All  manures  should  be 
one  or  two  years  old  and  thoroughly  reduced  by  turn- 
ing, chopping  and  mixing.  The  manure  of  spent  hot- 
beds is  generally  used  for  flower  composts,  but  for 
certain  kinds  of  flowers  sheep  manure  and  blood,  or 
other  animal  matter,  are  said  to  be  most  valuable. 

Compounding  or  Composition,  in  commerce,  an 
agreement  between  a  debtor  and  his  creditors  whereby 
they  accept  only  a  jwrtion  of  their  claims  in  final 
settlement.  To  "  compound  a  felony  "  is  to  accept  of 
a  consideration  for  forebearing  to  prosecute. 

Compromise  (com'pro-mize),  in  business  or  legal 
transactions,  a  settlement  made  by  mutual  concession. 

Concrete,  a  mixture  of  lime,  sand  and  gravel, 
used  as  a  substitute  for  stone  in  building.  The  pro- 
portions are :  60  parts  of  coarse  pebbles,  25  of  rough 
sand,  and  15  of  lime.  .Sometimes  other  proportions 
are  used.  A  well-built  concrete  wall  is  unaffected  by 
frost.  Sand,  gravel  and  asphaltum,  or  coal-tar,  mixed 
together,  is  also  called  "  concrete,"  and  are  used  in 
laying  walks.  The  essential  quality  of  concrete 
seems  to  be  that  the  materials  used  should  be  of  small 
dimensions,  so  that  the  cementing  medium  may  act 
in  every  direction  around  them,  and  that  the  latter 
on  no  account  be  more  in  quantity  than  is  necessary 
for  that  purpose. 


Concussion,  striking  against,  as  one  body  against 
another.  Sometimes,  by  a  fall,  a  person  has  his  "breath 
knocked  out  of  him,"  and  in  such  a  case  he  should  be 
kept  quiet  and  wann,  in  a  room  of  fresh  air,  until  he 
revives.  Do  not  raise  the  head  too  high,  or  keep  him 
on  his  back.  An  old  custom  is  to  give  the  patient  a 
httle  water  and  brandy,  but  the  majority  of  physicians 
at  the  present  day  do  not  recommend  it. 

Condiments,  substances  used  to  season  food.  The 
following  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  more  common 
ones,  most  of  which  are  treated  in  their  respective 
places  in  this  volume :  Bay  Leaves,  Butter,  Cheese, 
Cinnamon,  Gives,  Cloves,  the  Essences  and  Extracts, 
Cream,  Garlic,  Ginger,  the  Liquors,  Mace,  the  Mints, 
Mustard,  Nutmeg,  Onion,  Parsley,  Pepper,  Pepper- 
grass,  Salt,  Summer  Savory,  Sugar,  Thyme,  Vanilla  and 
Vinegar.  The  flavor  from  scorching  a  part  of  the  food, 
as  of  corn  bread  and  parsnips,  is  really  of  the  nature 
of  a  condiment. 

Condition  Powders.  For  a  horse  suspected  of 
indigestion,  the  following  will  be  useful :  C3ne  ounce 
powdered  assaRstida,  2  ounces  powdered  ginger,  5 
drachms  jwwdered  sulphate  of  iron,  i  ounce  powdered 
golden  seal,  2  ounces  [X)wdered  ixsplar  bark,  i  drachm 
ix)wdered  capsicum,  1  jx)und  oat  meal.  Divide  the 
mass  into  16  doses,  one  to  be  given  in  the  food  every 
night.  For  hidebound,  when  there  seems  to  be  no 
particular  disease,  give  nutritious  food,  and  the  fol- 
lowing :  3  ounces  each  of  powdered  sassafras  bark,  of 
powdered  sulphur,  and  salt ;  2  ounces  each  of  pow- 
dered bloodroot  and  balmony,  and  1  pound  of  oat 
meal.  Mix  and  divide  into  12  parts,  and  give  one 
daily  in  the  morning  feed.  Unless  there  is  a  pleth- 
oric habit  (too  much  blood)  from  standing  still  and 
want  of  exercise,  reduce  the  food,  give  proper  ex- 
ercise, and,  if  the  dung  be  hard,  give  2  to  4  ounces 
of  aloes  twice  a  week,  and  also  an  ounce  of  saltpeter 
in  the  water  as  often.  If  this  does  not  bring  the  ani- 
mal around,  give  twice  a  week  of  the  following:  y^ 
ounce  each  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  and  iodide 
of  ixitash,  mixed  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  give  with 
water  or  gruel.  Avoid  arsenic,  however,  on  general 
principles,  to  get  up  a  sleek  coat.  It  is  valuable  when 
properly  used,  but  you  must  know  what  you  are  using 
it  for. 

Confectionery,  Confections,  candies  and  sweet- 
meats :  see  Candy. 

Congestion,  a  determination  of  the  blood  to  any 
part,  as  the  lungs,  liver,  brain,  bowels,  etc.  Generally 
relieved  or  cured  by  producing  an  excitement  in  some 
other  part  of  the  system,  what  particular  part  being  in- 
dicated by  the  nature  of  each  case.  A  physician 
should  be  called,  but  fomentation  near  the  parts  is 
safe  and  efficient. 

Conservatory,  a  building  with  a  glazed  roof,  in 
which  plants  are  grown  in  a  bed  or  border  of  soil  pre- 
cisely as  in  open  air ;  also  an  out-house,  built  upon 
the  ice-house  plan,  for  the  preservation  of  fruits  and 
vegetables  for  table  use.    See  Ice-House. 


38o 


CONSIGNMENT— CONSUMPTION. 


Consignment,  the  merchandise  shipped  to  a 
consignee. 

Consignor,  the  sender  of  goods,  by  a  public  convey- 
ance; "consignee,"  the  party  to  whom  such  goods 
are  sent. 

Constipation  or  Costiveness,  a  hardening  of  the 
contents  of  the  bowels.  Sometimes  even  a  sort  of 
diarrhoea  may  attend  this  condition,  that  is,  fluid  and 
strained  discharges  may  take  place  while  the  hardened 
faeces  are  still  retained  in  tlie  intestines.  Neariy  all 
constipation  is  caused  by  eating  too  much  concentrated 
food,  or  white  bread  and  butter,  sugar,  starch  and  the 
like,  sometimes  by  the  eating  of  raspberries,  blackber- 
ries and  other  astringent  fruits,  and  very  often  by  the  use 
of  astringent  medicines.  Coffee  and  tea  produce  some 
of  its  worst  forms.  The  cure,  therefore,  consists  in  re- 
moving the  cause,  that  is,  by  abstinence  from  the  use 
of  the  foregoing  substances,  and  the  substitution  of 
graham  and  corn  bread — indeed,  any  of  the  numer- 
ous preparations  from  the  grains  instead  of  the  com- 
mon white  flour.  Juicy  fruits  which  are  not  astringent, 
and  "  vegetables  "  should  also  be  eaten. 

Where  there  is  defective  secretion  from  the  bowels, 
it  is  usual  to  resort  to  that  class  of  remedies  called 
cathartics,  and  with  many  the  more  active  remedies 
are  employed.  It  has  been  noticed  by  almost  every 
one  that  an  inaction  always  follows,  and  is  usually  in 
proportion  to  the  increased  activity  produced  by  the 
cathartic;  so  that  it  is  said  by  some  that  the  most 
pressing  want  in  therapeutics  is  a  remedy  which  will 
act  thoroughly  on  the  bowels,  and  yet  leave  them  in  a 
soluble  (active)  condition.  To  overcome  habitual  con- 
stipation there  are  no  remedies  of  this  class  that  can 
be  employed  with  any  certainty,  and  one  should  de- 
pend principally  ujxjn  hygienic  measures,  which  are 
really  the  most  natural  as  well  as  the  best.  Such  a 
person  should  drink  a  tumbler  of  water  on  rising  in 
the  morning,  rub  the  bowels  thoroughly  with  the  hand, 
and  after  breakfast  solicit  a  stool.  If  this  is  persevered 
in,  a  habit  will  be  established  which  will  give  a  healthy 
activity  of  this  function,  and  remove  all  the  derange- 
ments that  have  been  produced  by  the  constipation. 

Consumption,  Pulmonary.  This  disease,  which 
is  very  prevalent  in  this  country,  has  its  seat  in  the 
lungs.  The  structure  of  the  lungs  consisting  of  what 
we  may  term  an  interwoven  mass  of  extremely  deli- 
cate and  fragile  vessels,  its  tender  membranes  are  con- 
sequently very  susceptible  to  injur)'.  Tuberculous 
consumption  is  a  disease  which  for  insidiousness  and 
fatality  has  no  prototype.  It  is  due  to  the  formation 
of  tubercles,  resembling  small  boils,  in  the  lungs,  which 
make  their  first  appearance  in  a  grey,  semi-transpar- 
ent, granular  form,  gradually  enlarging  and  ulcerating 
until  they  finally  destroy  the  lung.  The  first  stage  of 
this  disease  frequently  commences  with  drowsiness 
and  a  headache.  These  are  followed  by  a  cough, 
which  is  very  slight  at  first,  and  only  heard  in  the 
morning.  It  next  occurs  during  the  day,  and  is  ac- 
companied by  the  expectoration  of  a  transparent  fluid 
resembling  saliva.     When  taking  exercise  or  ascend- 


ing stairs  the  breathing  becomes  oppressive,  and  occa- 
sional darting  pains  are  felt  in  the  chest.  The  pulse 
soon  begins  to  beat  more  rapidly,  the  body  becomes 
heated  and  chilled  at  short  intervals,  a  burning  sensa- 
tion is  experienced  in  the  soles  of  the  feet  and  palms 
of  the  hands.  At  night  the  victim  is  slightly  feverish, 
and  in  the  morning  perspires  slightly.  The  counte- 
nance assumes  an  expression  of  languor,  and  grows 
pale.  The  flesh  wastes  away,  and  strength  decays. 
At  this  stage  of  the  disease  a  change  of  weather  or 
removal  to  a  warmer  or  less  fickle  climate  will  for  a 
time  at  least  dissipate  such  symptoms ;  and  now,  if 
ever,  the  progress  of  the  disease  must  be  earnestly 
and  carefully  striven  against.  In  the  next  stage  of 
this  disease  the  fluid  expectorated  undergoes  a  striking 
change,  specks  of  opaque  matter  of  a  yellowish  color, 
due  to  the  rupture  of  an  abscess,  with  sometimes 
streaks  of  blood,  appear  in  it,  and  at  tlie  same  time 
the  other  symptoms  above  mentioned  become  aggra- 
vated. The  cough,  the  alternate  heats  and  chills,  and 
the  morning  perspirations,  increase  in  severity  and  in 
frequency.  Hectic  fever  is  established,  the  pulse  and 
breathing  become  more  hurried,  the  flesh  grows  flabby, 
and  the  body  becomes  more  wasted.  The  delicate 
flush,  which  is  so  well  known  as  the  most  fatal  symp- 
tom of  this  disease,  appears  in  the  cheeks,  and 
blood  appears  with  greater  frequency  in  the  expecto- 
rations. The  third  and  final  stage  of  this  disease  fol- 
lows closely  ujxin  the  second.  Diarrhoea  comes  on, 
the  perspirations  and  expectorations  become  more  co- 
pious, and  the  coughing  incessant.  The  feet  and 
ankles  swell,  the  breathing  is  oppressive,  the  chest 
sinks  in,  and  a  gurgling  sound  marks  every  expiration 
of  the  breath.  The  patient  grows  rapidly  weaker,  and 
soon  after  dies.  Consumption  varies  in  its  nature  to 
some  extent  in  different  cases,  but  the  above  are  the 
ordinary  symptoms.  Amongst  other  symptoms  more 
or  less  common  is  a  certain  form  of  indigestion  known 
as  "  strumous  dyspepsia,"  which  creates  a  strong  dis- 
taste of  all  food  of  a  fatty  nature  by  heartburn  and 
acidity  of  the  stomach.  The  appetite  usually  remains 
unimpaired. 

Acute  Consumption  is  so  called  from  the  rapidity 
with  which  it  runs  its  course. 

Latent.  Consu.mption  is  so  gradual  in  its  progress, 
that  up  to  the  period  of  dying  scarcely  any  of  the 
usual  symptoms  are  discoverable,  and  very  often  only 
dissection  makes  the  cause  of  death  (juite  clear. 

Febrile  Consumption  is  that  which  is  brought  on 
by  a  cold. 

Chronic  Consumption  is  the  most  common  form 
of  this  disease,  and  the  least  understood.  Patients 
suffering  from  it  often  linger  on  from  year  to  year,  and 
enjoy  at  intervals  more  or  less  long,  all  the  character- 
istics of  perfect  health.  It  is,  however,  nearly  always 
fatal. 

.Causes  of  Consumption.  These  are  classified  as 
exciting  and  remote.  Under  the  last  of  these  heads 
is  included  hereditary  predisposition.  Whatever  oc- 
casions a  determination  of  blood  to  the  lungs,  or  irri- 
tates them,  will  in  case  of  scrofulous  individuals  pro- 


CONS  UMF  TION—CONTA  GION. 


28l 


duce  partial  effusions  of  scrofulous  lymph  in  the 
cellular  substance  of  the  lungs — in  a  word,  tubercles. 
These  prevent  the  due  expansion  of  the  lungs,  and, of 
course,  that  free  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
pulmonary  organs  which  is  of  vital  importance.  It 
was  fonnerly  held  that  the  tubercles  had  their  origin 
in  inflammation  of  the  lung.s,  but  this  idea  has,  we  be- 
lieve, been  entirely  abandoned  by  all  our  best  authori- 
ties. Improper  diet,  impure  air,  deficient  exercise, 
injudicious  clothing,  a  want  of  cleanliness,  drunken- 
ness, or  anything  which  tends  to  deprive  the  body  of 
its  due  nutrition,  is  an  active  agent  in  producing  scrof- 
ula or  king's  evil,  which  is  now  identified  with  con- 
sumption. Amongst  other  causes  are  mental  anxiety, 
exjxjsure  to  cold  and  wet,  over-exciting  aliment  which 
gives  the  digestive  organs  an  undue  proix)rtion  of  work, 
excessive  sedentary  labor,  light  lacing,  breathing  an 
atmosphere  impregnated  with  dust,  etc. 

Trr.'M'Ment  of  Cqnsumi'tion.  ConsumiJtion  is  so 
insidious  in  its  first  approaches,  and  so  rapid  and 
strong  in  its  after  progress,  that  too  much  care  cannot 
be  exercised  in  watching  for  premonitory  symptoms 
in  those  who  are  predisjMsed  for  its  reception.  At 
first  the  disease  produces  so  little  inconvenience  to  the 
patient  that  he  is  not  alive  to  the  imiwrtance  of  at 
once  checking  it,  and  instead  of  having  immediate 
recourse  to  medical  advice,  he  jxxjh-ixjohs  the  words 
of  those  who  bid  him  do  so,  and  foolishly  allows  the 
disease  to  work  its  fatal  way  in  secret,  undisturbed. 
The  treatment  usually  adopted  is  that  which  strength- 
ens the  system  to  resist  its  approach,  and  acts  upon 
the  seat  of  its  development.  In  the  first  case,  nutri- 
tious diet  of  a  wholesome,  non-stimulant  kind,  and 
frequent  gentle  exercise  in  fresh,  mild,  pure  air,  gen- 
erally that  of  the  sea-side,  are  recommended,  with 
regular  and  particularly  cleanly  habits.  Cod-liver  oil 
is  a  very  valuable  remedy,  which  has  been  adopted 
with  the  most  beneficial  results  in  numerous  cases. 
Tonic  medicines,  such  as  bark,  sarsaparilla,  iron,  and 
iodine,  are  also  very  beneficial  where  the  symptoms 
of  febrile  conditions  do  not  exist.  Counter-irritants 
applied  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  chest  are  used  where 
inflammation  is  apparent,  and  in  some  cases  warm 
baths  are  found  to  do  good  service  by  promotir.g 
more  vigorous  circulation  in  the  extremities  and  in  the 
surface  of  the  body  generally.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  check  the  perspirations,  either  by  diminishing 
the  ([uantity  of  bedclothes  at  night  or  l)y  throwing 
them  off  in  the  morning.  When  the  purging  occurs 
care  m\4st  be  exercised  in  not  checking  it  too  sud- 
denly. Carefully  selected  diet  '  will  serve  best  to 
moderate  it.  From  the  foregoing  direttions  it  must 
appear  evident  that  a  low  diet  should  be  adopted,  and 
everything  avoided  that  has  a  tendency  to  inflame  the 
constitution.  The  jellies  of  arrow-root,  sago,  tapioca, 
oat  meal,  and  light  bread  pudding  may  be  occasion- 
ally varied,  as  agreeable  to  the  inclination  of  the 
patient.  The  animal  jellies  of  calves'  feet,  hartshorn 
.shavings,  and  isinglass  ;  a  little  boiled  fowl,  shell-fish, 
flounders,  and  soles  (without  sauce)  may  be  allowed 
when  febrile  symptoms  are  not  high,  or  when  the  sys- 


tem is  not  irritable ;  but  animal  food  in  substance,  as 
beef,  mutton,  lamb,  and  jwrk,  and  wine  and  spirits  of 
all  sorts,  must  be  scrupulously  avoided.  The  bever- 
age should  be  very  simple,  such  as  the  almond  emul- 
sion, whey,  distilled  water,  linseed-tea,  weak  lemonade, 
buttermilk,  and  barley-water.  Flannel  should  be 
worn  next  the  skin;  and  any  sudden  transitions  from 
heat  to  cold,  and  vice  versa,  must  be  carefully  guarded 
against;  and  as  a  light  atmosphere  is  more  easy  of 
respiration  than  a  heavy  one,  the  patient  should  sleep 
and  live  as  much  as  ix)ssible  in  the  uppermost  rcKjm 
of  the  house.  By  a  strict  observance  of  these  instruc- 
tions the  progress  of  the  disease  may  be  si)eedily  and 
effectually  suspended,  the  effect  of  the  diseased  action 
removed,  the  lungs  rendered  adequate  to  their  im- 
[jortant  functions,  and  the  patient,  of  course,  gradually 
restored  to  his  usual  strength  and  health.  Some 
writers  disapprove  of  a  milk  diet  in  this  disease.  The 
experience  of  many  ages  and  the  arguments  which 
may  be  adduced  from  analogy  have,  however,  proved, 
to  the  conviction  of  every  candid  inquirer,  that  it 
affords  a  nutriment  admirably  adapted  to  support  the 
debilitated  frame  of  a  consumptive  patient.  When  it 
is  found  to  be  too  heavy  for  the  stomach  it  may  be 
diluted  with  bariey-water  or  distilled  water,  which  will 
often  reconcile  it  to  the  stomach.  Ass's  milk,  being 
thinner  than  that  of  the  cow,  often  agrees  better  with 
the  patient.  Some,  however,  have  so  great  an  aver- 
sion to  the  milk  of  this  animal  that  they  cannot  be 
prevailed  on  to  take  it.  In  such  case  some  substitute 
of  a  kindred  nature  should  be  adopted. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  there  is  no  cure  for 
genuine  consumption  after  it  is  well  established,  but 
that  the  ordinary  laws  of  health  constitute  the  only 
hojje  of  the  patient  for  a  mitigation  of  his  sufferings. 
Sometimes  a  faithful  observance  of  these  laws,  espe- 
cially those  relating  to  the  use  of  pure  air,  have  arrested 
the  progress  of  consumption.  An  out-door  life  is  the 
most  imix)rtant  thing,  especially  in  a  climate  where 
the  air  is  pure  and  bracing.  A  predisiX)sition  to  this 
dreaded  malady  may  be  prevented  from  developing 
into  the  real  pulmonary  phthisis,  by  special  exercise  of 
the  lungs  in  pure  air  from  infancy  up,  conjoined  with 
a  general  observance  of  the  laws  of  health.  See  Hy- 
giene. Above  all  do  not  dose  yourself  with  any  of  the 
numerous  advertised  "  sure  cures  for  consumption." 

Contagion.  This  term  is  applied  to  something  (as 
the  virus  of  glanders)  coming  in  contact  with  the  body 
of  an  animal  in  health,  producing  a  similar  disease  to 
that  existing  in  the  animal  from  which  it  came.  In  a 
word,  it  is  a  specific  jxjison,  like  that  of  small-pox, 
syphilis,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  etc.  Diseases  may  be 
epidemic  and  not  strictly  contagious.  (See  Epidemic). 
Few  diseases  of  animals  are  considered  contagious. 
The  following  diseases,  however,  are  considered  of 
that  character :  Aphthous  fever,  malignant  anthrax, 
canine  madness,  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  cow- 
pox,  distemper  or  strangles,  cholera  (hog  and  Asiatic), 
glanders,  rinderpest,  typhoid  and  bilious  fever,  scab, 
itch,  etc.     In  malignant  anthrax,  malignant  hog  chol- 


282 


CONTA  GION— CONTRA  CT. 


era  (intestinal  fever),  glanders,  canine  madness  and 
contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  the  disease  being  well 
defined,  it  is  cheaper  to  kill  and  bury  deeply  than  to 
attempt  a  cure.  Rinderpest  we  have  never  had  on  this 
continent.  Contagious  diseases  incident  to  this  coun- 
try will  be  treated  under  their  appropriate  names. 

Although  many  animals  may  be  taken  sick  one  after 
another,  this  is  no  proof  that  the  disease  is  contagi- 
ous ;  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  number  of 
animals,  all  situated  and  cared  for  in  the  same  way, 
are  certainly  subjected  to  the  same  exciting  causes 
that  produced  the  disease  in  the  first  animal  affected. 
Those  that  escape  the  disease  were  not  predisix)sed  to 
take  it;  hence  their  exemption. 

Prevention.  If  the  following  excellent  advice  is 
followed  contagious  diseases  may  be  prevented  from 
spreading  :  Avoid  contagium  or  special  cause  of  the 
disease.  Do  not  take  the  breath  of  one  sick.  Unless 
you  are  needed  to  care  for  the  sick,  or  are  protected 
by  having  had  the  disease,  or  in  case  of  small-pox  by 
thorough  vaccination,  do  not  go  near  the  sick  person. 
Do  not  allow  your  lips  to  touch  any' food,  cup,  sixx)n, 
or  anything  else  that  the  sick  person  has  touched  or 
that  has  been  in  the  sick-room.  Do  not  wipe  your 
face  or  hands  with  any  cloth  that  has  been  near  the 
sick  person.  Do  not  wear  any  clothing  that  the  sick 
person  has  worn  during,  just  before  or  just  after  his 
sickness.  Keep  your  hands  free  from  discharges  from 
the  body  or  skin  of  the  sick  person.  Do  not  touch 
him  with  sore  or  scratched  hands.  Particularly  avoid 
inhaling  or  in  any  way  receiving  into  the  mouth  or  nose 
the  branny  scales  that  fall  off  or  peal  off  from  one  re- 
covering from  or  apparently  wholly  recovered  from 
scarlet  fever. 

Restrict  the  contagium  or  special  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease. Isolate  the  sick.  Separate  those  sick  with  any 
of  these  diseases,  even  if  they  are  but  mildly  sick,  from 
all  persons  except  necessary  attendants.  A  person 
sick  with  any  of  these  diseases  should  not  be  permit- 
ted to  suffer  for  want  of  care,  food  or  comfort;  but  all 
his  wants  should  be  attended  to  by  adults,  or  by  those 
who  are  protected  by  proper  vaccination  or  by  having 
had  the  disease.  Children  and  those  who  are  not 
thus  protected  should  be  kept  away  from  these  dis- 
eases. Do  not  go  from  the  sick-room  to  a  child  or 
other  unprotected  persons  until  after  change  of  cloth- 
ing, and  thorough  washing  of  hands,  face,  hair  and 
beard.  Always  wash  tlie  hands  thoroughly  after  any 
necessary  handling  of  the  sick  person,  or  anything  that 
has  been  in  contact  with  the  sick  person.  Keep  those 
who  have  been  exiwsed  to  any  of  these  diseases  away 
from  schools,  churches  and  other  assemblies,  and  from 
all  children  until  it  is  known  whether  they  are  infected 
—and  if  they  are  found  to  be  infected,  isolate  them 
till  after  complete  recovery  and  thorough  disinfection. 

Destroy  the  contagium  or  special  cause  of  the  dis- 
ease: 

I.  By  thoroughly  disinfecting  or  destroying  what- 
ever is  removed  from  the  person  sick  or  from  the 
sick-room.  All  discharges  from  the  patient  should  be 
received  into  vessels  containing  a  strong  solution  of 


sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  and  then,  in  cities,  thrown 
into  the  water-closet ;  elsewhere  they  should  be  buried 
at  least  loo  feet  from  any  well ;  or  where  this  is  im- 
practible  they  should  be  received  on  old  cloths  which 
should  be  immediately  burned,  disinfected  or  buried. 

2.  By  thoroughly  disinfecting  the  sick-room,  and  its 
contents,  after  removal  of  the  sick  person,  whether  by 
death  or  recovery.  Disinfect  as  follows  :  Burn  what- 
ever has  been  in  contact  with  the  sick  person  and  is 
not  too  valuable  to  burn.  Garments,  sheets,  blankets, 
etc.,  that  will  not  be  injured  by  bleaching,  should  be 
boiled  for  half  an  hour  in  a  zinc  solution  made  by  dis- 
solving zinc  s'ulphate  and  common  salt  in  water,  in  the 
proixjrtion  of  4  ounces  of  zinc  sulphate  and  2  ounces 
of  common  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water.  Hang  up  and 
loosely  spread  out  clothing,  bedding,  etc.,  that  cannot 
be  boiled  in  the  zinc  solution,  or  spread  it  loosely  over 
chairs  in  the  sick-room,  leaving  the  bedstead  and  other 
furniture  in  the  room.  Close  all  openings  to  the  room 
very  tight.  For  a  room  ten  feet  square  place  2  jxjunds 
of  sulphur  in  an  iion  jxst  or  pan  supixirtcd  on  bricks. 
Set  the  sulphur  on  fire  with  live  coals  or  with  a  sixjon- 
ful  of  alcohol  lighted  by  a  match.  Be  careful  not  to 
breathe  the  sulphurous  fumes.  Leave  the  room  tightly 
closed  for  several  hours,  then  air  it  thoroughly.  For 
a  large  room  use  a  proixsrtionally  larger  quantity  of 
sulphur,  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  for  each  1,000  cubic 
feet  of  air  space,  and  try  to  burn  as  much  as  possi- 
ble of  the  sulphur  used. 

Keep  your  house  and  premises,  and  everything  con- 
nected therewith,  clean  ;  but  remember  that  the  conta- 
gium of  these  diseases  may  attach  to  the  cleanest  article 
of  clothing,  food,  drink,  book  or  pa])er  if  it  is  exix)sed 
thereto.  For  further  advice  see  Disinfectants,  and  the 
respective  diseases  of  man,  cattle,  horse,  etc. 

Contract,  an  agreement  ujx)n  sufficient  consid- 
eration to  do  or  not  to  do  a  certain  thing.  There 
are  three  kinds :  Parole,  or  written ;  by  specialty,  or 
under  seal,  as  bonds,  deeds,  etc.;  and  of  record,  made 
by  a  person  or  his  attorney  in  open  court. 

A  parole  contract  is  a  verbal  bargain.  All  contracts 
to  be  complete  must  bind  both  parties;  must  be 
based  ujxjn  good  consideration,  motive,  or  inducement 
to  make  the  promise,  and  not  contrary  to  law  or  pub- 
lic morals.  It  is  not  complete  until  the  pro[X)sition 
has  been  distinctly  made  on  one  side  and  distinctly 
accepted  by  the  other,  and  by  persons  who  are  in  turn 
capable  of  contracting.  Persons  under  age,  idiots 
and  insane  persons  are  incapable  of  coijtracting. 
Married  women,  in  most  States,  over  2 1  years  of  age, 
make  contracts  in  relation  to  their  sole  and  separate 
property,  not  otherwise.  Contracts  must  be  made  by 
the  persons  interested  or  by  their  authorized  agent, 
acring  within  the  scope  of  his  authority.  They  may 
be  made  by  letter  or  telegraph,  and  are  completed 
when  the  offer  is  received  and  the  letter  accepting 
same  is  mailed,  property  addressed  to  the  person 
making  the  offer. 

Implied  contracts  are  such  as  reason  and  justice 
dictate,  and  which,  therefore,  the  law  presumes  every 


CONVALESCENCE— COOKER  Y. 


283 


man  undertakes  to.  perform ;  as,  if  a  man  employs 
another  to  do  any  business  for  him,  or  perform  any 
work,  the  hiw  impUes  that  the  former  contracted  or 
undertook  to  pay  the  latter  as  much  as  his  labor  is 
really  worth. 

Contracts  for  goods  exceeding  in  value  $50  require 
a  partial  delivery  of  the  property  or  part  payment  of 
the  purchase  money. 

Contracts  for  sale  of  land,  or  any  interest  in  land, 
cannot  be  enforced  unless  in  writing  and  signed  by 
the  person  making  the  sale,  or  unless  ixjssession  is 
given  to  the  purchaser  and  valuable  improvements 
made. 

Contracts  made  payable  at  a  particular  place  must 
be  complied  with  at  the  place  mentioned.  If  no 
place  is  mentioned  in  the  contract  the  place  of  busi-* 
ness  of  the  person  who  is  to  receive  the  money — or,  if 
he  has  no  place  of  business — then  at  his  residence, 
is  the  place  understood. 

Contracts  obtained  by  fraud  are  destroyed  by  such 
fraud,  if  practiced  by  a  party  thereto  or  his  agent. 

Contracting  for  Real  Estate.  This  is  done 
usually  by  some  offers  i)assing  back  and  forth  until  a 
price  is  mutually  agreed  upon;  but  it  is  not  a  legal 
contract  which  can  be  enforced  unless  there  is  an 
agreement  in  writing  to  sell,  giving  date,  amount  to 
be  paid,  a  sufficient  description  to  identify  the  land,  a 
time  fi.xed  for  compliance,  and  signed  by  the  person 
who  is  selling  or  some  one  for  him  who  is  authorized 
in  writing  so  to  do. 

The  usual  and  better  way  is  for  the  purchaser  to 
make  an  offer  in  writing,  stating  terms  and  descrip- 
tion of  land.  This  is  then  accepted  in  writing  ujxin 
the  same  or  a  separate  piece  of  paper.  This  may  be, 
and  often  is,  done  by  letter,  and  if  sufficiently  explicit, 
will  be  binding.  If  an  offer  is  made  by  letter  or  in 
writing  and  withdrawn  before  acceptance,  it  is  not 
binding  uixjn  either  party.  But  if  the  offer  is  made 
by  letter  through  the  mail  and  accepted,  and  letter 
of  acceptance  mailed  before  notice  of  offer  is  with- 
drawn, the  sale  is  complete. 

When  the  deed  is  not  to  be  made  at  once,  a  bond 
for  a  deed  is  usually  drawn  up  and  signed  by  the 
seller.  Never  buy  a  piece  of  land  unless  the  seller 
furnishes  you  a  good  abstract  of  title,  showing  a  con- 
nected chain  of  title,  free  of  judgments,  mortgages, 
niechanics'  liens,  and  taxes.  A  little  care  of  this 
kind  may  save  you  from  troublesome  litigation  and 
loss.  If  all  the  deeds  necessary  to  complete  the  title 
have  not  been  recorded,  see  to  it  that  they  are  properly 
filed  for  record  before  paying  your  money. 

Convalesence,  a  term  applied  to  the  time  which 
elapses  between  the  controlling  of  acute  disease  and 
the  restoration  of  the  patient  to  perfect  health.  This 
period  of  recovery  is  a  most  irajwrtant  time  and  often 
requires  as  much  care  as  the  disease  itself;  the  body 
is  weak,  susceptible  of  impression,  disj^sed  to  take 
on  niorbid  actions,  and,  in  some  instances,  a  relapse 
into  its  previous  state  may  occur  from  causes  which  in 
its  healthy  condition  would  not  at  all  affect  the  body. 


Convertible  Husbandry,  a  term  implying  fre- 
quent change  in  the  same  field  from  tillage  crops  to 
grass,  then  back  to  tillage  crops ;  an  alternation  of  wheat, 
rye,  etc.,  with  fallow  and  grass  crops.  In  all  new 
countries  mixed  husbandry  only  comes  to  be  care- 
fully practiced  as  settlement  increases,  and  markets 
are  jjrovided  for  various  products.  Mixed  husbandry 
and  manure  are  the  best  means  of  bringing  exhausted 
land  back  to  a  state  of  fertility. 

Convulsions.  In  children  they  originate  in  some 
derangement  or  irritation  of  the  bowels,  stomach,  brain, 
or  from  teething.  Give  an  aperient,  as  magnesia  and 
rhubarb,  and  a  warm  bath  at  about  100°,  and  apply 
to  the  head  linen  dipped  in  cold  water.  The  follow- 
ing jxjwder  is  useful  in  altering  the  condition  which 
brings  them  on :  Rhubarb  in  ixjwder,  8  grs.;  super- 
sulphate  of  jwtash,  12  grs.  Mix.  Give  also  a  little 
syrup  of  ix>ppies.  If  aperients  cannot  be  taken  give 
a  mild  injection,  as  a  little  Epsom  salts  in  barley 
gruel,  with  a  little  butter;  or  a  weak  solution  of  salt 
and  water,  with  a  few  drops  of  oil  or  butter.  Con- 
vulsions often  arise  from  over-feeding ;  this  must  be 
avoided.  If  indigestible  food  has  been  taken  give  an 
emetic,  the  wine  of  ipecacuanha;  or,  if  the  patient 
cannot  be  sufficiently  roused  from  sleep  so  as  to  take 
the  emetic,  tickle  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  with  a 
feather  to  produce  the  effect.  If  the  convulsions  are 
obstinate,  apply  friction  along  the  spine,  when  in  the 
bath ;  or  out  of  it,  rub  the  spine  with  an  anodyne  com- 
jxjsed  of  10  drops  of  laudanum,  10  drops  of  oil,  and  6 
drops  of  tincture  of  cayenne.  Mustard  plasters  may 
be  aiJplied  a  minute  or  two  to  the  legs  and  feet.  If 
convulsions  are  caused  by  teething,  the  gums  must  be 
lanced  a  little.  If  one  falls  in  a  fit  let  him  remain  on 
the  ground,  provided  his  face  be  pale;  for  should  it  be 
fainting  or  temixjrary  suspension  of  the  heart's  action, 
you  may  cause  death  by  raising  him  upright,  or  by 
bleeding;  but  if  the  face  be  red  or  dark-colored,  raise 
him  on  his  seat,  throw  cold  water  on  his  head  im- 
mediately, and  send  for  a  surgeon,  and  get  a  vein 
opened,  or  fatal  pressure  on  the  brain  may  ensue. 
Give  him  all  the  fresh  air  ixjssible  and  loosen  all  the 
tight  places  about  his  clothing.  Put  the  feet  and 
legs  in  warm  water,  apply  spirits  of  hartshorn  to  the 
nose,  and  give  a  few  drops  in  a  glass  of  water,  or  hot 
brandy  and  water.  If  of  a  hysterical  character,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  foregoing  treatment,  bathe  the  temples 
with  cologne  water,  and  avoid  bustle  and  excessive 
sympathy. 

Cookery,  the  art  of  preparing  food  for  the  table. 
For  some  mysterious  reason  there  is  a  popular  belief 
in  the  absolute  potentiality  of  all  women,  with  or  with- 
out instruction,  to  cook  food  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
render  it  acceptable  to  the  taste,  and  supply  the 
proper  nourishment.  This  belief  is  wholly  unfounded. 
The  art  of  cookery  is  as  high  and  complicated  as  land- 
scape and  ix)rtrait  painting,  or  sculpture  ;  and  probably 
these  three  arts  require  more  skill  than  any  other  with- 
in th^  whole  domain  of  human  power.  To  be  good  in 
any  siiecialty,  in  any  department  of  human    life,  one 


284 


COOKER  Y. 


must    have   both    natural    endowment   and  practice. 

It  is  true  that  the  average  woman  does  [)ossess 
the  elements  essential  to  culinary  excellence — 
patience,  nice  sense  of  taste  and  smell,  and  that 
sui)erior  intuitive  judgment  which  enables  her  to  un- 
ravel such  mysteries  as  "  seasoning  to  taste  "  and 
"adding  enough  flour  to  make  a  good  dough,"  but  un- 
less these  elements  are  brought  into  homogeneous 
accord  by  actual  experimentation,  they  are  neither  more 
nor  less  than  theoretical  nonentities.  With  earnestness 
of  pur|X)se  and  absolute  concentration  of  mind  uix)n 
her  task,  the  woman  who  would  cook  must  give  her- 
self up  to  serious  study  under  competent  Instructors ; 
and  it  is  safe  to  say,  that  while  by  this  nieans  only 
the  exceptional  woman  will  rise  to  greatness,  the  aver- 
age woman  will  achieve  a  measure  of  success  which 
will  fit  her  to  shine  as  the  care-taker  of  a  household. 
The  daughters  should  early  be  taught  the  art  of  i)rop- 
erly  preparing  dishes.  Many  of  the  girls,  even  of  the 
farm,  grow  up  with  their  latent   talent   undeveloped. 

(Cookery  is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  refined,  or  com- 
ixjund.  The  object  of  the  first  is  either  to  destroy 
some  deleterious  property  or  to  render  food  jjalatable 
and  nutritious.  That  of  the  second  is  to  stimulate 
api)etite  and  please' the  palate,  an  end  sometimes  at- 
tained by  fantastic  and  unwholesome  comix)sitions. 
Tlie  general  modes  of  cooking  are  as  follows: — i, 
roasting;  2,  boiling;  3,  stewing;  4,  broiling;  5, frying; 
and  6,  baking.  By  roasting  a  greater  quantity  of  nu- 
tritious matter  is  retained  in  meat  than  by  any  other 
process  of  cookery  except  that  of  boiling.  The  per- 
fection of  this  process  consists  in  doing  the  meat 
neither  too  rajjidly  nor  too  slowly.  By  the  last  method 
it  is  withered,  l)y  the  other  burned  or  scorched,  and 
by  either  rendered  unnutritive  and  indigestible.  Meat 
to  be  wholesome  should  neither  be  over  or  under-done. 
By  over-dressing  meat,  as  its  fluids  are  expelled  by  the 
heat  and  the  fibres  compelled  to  approach  closer  to 
each  other,  it  is  rendered  indigestible ;  by  its  being 
under-dressed  it  rims  quickly  into  putrefaction.  The 
perfection  of  roasting  consists  in  the  medium  between 
over-dressing  and  under-dressing,  namely,  in  the  meat 
being  well  done,  when  it  will  eat  short  and  agreeable 
and  be  in  its  most  nutritive  state.  The  flesh  of  old 
and  full-grown  animals  is  not  unwholesome  if  eaten 
rather  under-done ;  but  young  and  viscid  "food,  as 
veal,  lamb,  pig,  chicken,  etc.,  should  be  thoroughly 
cooked,  or  it  will  disagree  with  the  stomach  and  jjrob- 
ably  occasion  sickness.  Such  food  is  also  more  whole- 
some and  nutritious  and  more  ea  ,ily  digested  when 
roasted  than  when  boiled.  Boiling  renders  meat  more 
tender  than  roasting  it,  but  it  deprives  it  of  more  of 
its  nutritive  ([ualities.  Boiled  too  long  or  too  fast 
meat  becomes  hard  and  indigestible  ;  besides,  all  its 
nutritive  qualities  are  lost  or  dissipated  in  the  water. 
Meat  boiled  in  hard  water  is  more  tender  and  juicy 
than  when  soft  water  is  used  ;  while  vegetables,  on  the 
contrary,  are  rendered  harder  and  less  digestible  when 
lioiled  in  hard  water.  Boiling  is  the  best  process  for 
dressing  vegetables,  as  they  are  thereby  rendered  more 
soluble  in  the  stomach,  and  are  deprived  of  a  consid- 


erable quantity  of  fixed  air.  By  stewing,  meat  is 
rendered  more  tender  than  any  other  process  of  cook- 
ing; but  as  more  of  its  soluble  parts  are  extracted 
than  is  the  case  with  the  other  processes,  the  only 
good  aliment  that  it  affords  is  the  soup,  for  though  the 
meat  is  rendered  sapid,  it  is  hard  and  less  nutritious. 
By  broiling  meat  more  of  its  nutritive  tpialities  are  re- 
tained than  by  most  other  processes,  for  the  evajxjra- 
tion  or  exhalation  of  the  juices  of  the  meat  is  prevent- 
ed by  the  sudden  hardening  or  browning  of  the  sur- 
face. For  imparting  strength  it  is  therefore  the  best 
mode  of  dressing  animal  food,  as  it  is  thereby  render- 
ed more  nutritious  and  easier  of  digestion  than  by 
any  other  preparation.  Frying  is  the  most  objection- 
able mode  of  dressing  any  species  of  food,  as  it  is  ren- 
dered highly  emj^yreumatic  by  the  heat  being  applied 
through  the  medium  of  burning  oil  or  fat.  Baked 
meats  are  not  unwholesome  for  occasional  use ;  but 
from  the  retention  of  their  oils,  occasioned  by  the  con- 
fined space  in  which  they  are  dressed,  they  are  not  so 
digestible  and  nutritious  as  roasted  food  is.  On  this 
account  those  who  are  subject  to  dysjjepsia  or  bilious- 
ness when  they  partake  of  this  species  of  food,  should 
assist  the  jxjwers  of  the  stomach  by  the  additional 
stimulus  of  spices  and  aromatics,  and  they  should  ali- 
stain  from  its  gravy,  as  it  is  highly  empyreumatic.  1  f 
by  this  restraint  the  meat  should  not  be  sufficiently 
savory,  by  jxDuring  boiling  water  over  it  on  the  plate 
a  wholesome  and  sapid  gravy  may  be  obtained. 

We  very  fully  treat  of  the  cooking  of  all  the  various 
articles  of  food  under  their  respective  heads,  but  we 
wish  to  give  the  following  general  principles  of  cook- 
ing in  this  connection  : 

1.  Plain  cooking  is  more  jxjpular  and  satisfactory 
than  fancy. 

2.  It  is  always  better  to  under-season  than  over- 
season. 

3.  There  is  generally  too  much  grease  cooked  into 
the  victuals. 

4.  When  anything  is  accidentally  made  too  salt,  the 
evil  can  be  greatly  counteracted  by  adding  a  teasjxxjn- 
ful  each  of  vinegar  and  sugar ;  but  a  dish  doctored  in 
this  way  creates  a  great  deal  of  thirst  in  one  who 
eats  of  it. 

5.  The  more  uniform  the  heat  the  better  the  cook- 
ing. 

6.  Baking  should  be  done  with  as  great  a  heat  as 
IX)ssible  not  to  burn  the  article. 

7.  Boiling  of  meats  should  be  done  slowly,  a  steady 
simmer  being  the  best. 

8.  It  is  not  good  to  be  frequently  opening  the  oven 
doors  during  the  process  of  baking,  unless  want  of 
skill,  especially  with  that  particular  stove,  necessi- 
tates it. 

9.  The  softer  the  water  the  more  tender  can  the 
meats  and  vegetables  be  boiled. 

10.  Meats  should  not  be  washed,  but  wiped  with  a 
towel.  • 

11.  Vegetables  should  always  be  as  fresh  from  the 
garden  as  ]X)ssible. 

12.  All  vegetables  are  rendered  more  bland  by  par- 


COOKER  Y~CORDIAL. 


285 


boiling,  but  this  process  takes  away  some  of  the  nu- 
tritive elements. 

13.  To  retain  the  color  of  any  vegetable,  plunge  it 
into  cold  water  immediately  after  boiling. 

14.  In  boiling  cabbage  and  turnips,  a  lump  of  char- 
coal in  the  pot  will  counteract  the  l)ad  odor  coming 
out  into  the  room  ;  and  in  boiling  greens,  a  little  piece 
of  bread  tied  up  in  a  clean  cloth,  and  put  into  the 
kettle,  will  absorb  most  of  the  odor. 

15.  Study  the  various  recipes  given  in  this  volume, 
and  endeavor  to  concjuer  all  difficulties  in  the  man- 
agement of  each  dish. 

French  cookery  is  characterized  by  cooking  into  the 
victuals  the  flavor  of  the  spices  and  condiments  with- 
out the  crude  matter  of  the  spice*  itself  This  is 
effected  by  placing  the  spice  or  condiment  under  or 
near  the  article  of  food,  in  the  same  vessel.  Skill  in 
this  'art  produces  very  fancy  and  palataljle  flavors,  lie- 
sides  retaining  the  hygienic  <iuality  of  the  food. 

To  arrange  dishes  for  the  most  economical  distribu- 
tion of  them  for  several  meals  in  advance,  working 
over  scraps,  remnants,  etc.,  requires  constant  thought. 
Printed  suggestions  and  programmes  are  of  l)ut  little 
use  with  most  people. 

Many  housekeepers  arc  not  aware  of  the  rapidity 
and  constancy  of  the  oxidization  of  iron,  copper,  brass 
and  tin  (soldered)  vessels  when  in  contact  with  moist- 
ure, or  the  amount  of  such  poisonous  oxides  that  enters 
the  food  that  is  eaten,  or,  further,  of  the  extent  of  the 
mischief  which  such  jwisons  effect  in  the  system.  Im- 
purity of  the  "  blood,"  jxjverty  of  the  blood,  paleness  and 
emaciation  or  floridity  and  corpulency,  and  a  general 
liability  to  any  and  all  diseases,  are  the  natural  re- 
sults of  consuming  articles  of  food  in  which  these  o.x- 
ides  and  salts  are  found.  Hence  the  imiwrtance  of 
keeping  all  these  wares  clean  ;  and  in  order  to  keep 
them  clean,  they  should  not  only  be  washed  and 
scoured  immediately  after  they  are  taken  from  the 
fire,  but  should  also  be  thoroughly  rubbed,  while  hot, 
with  a  clotji  dipped  in  fresh  grease  oroil  of  some  kind, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  moisture  of  the  air  from  rusting 
them.  Even  then  they  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place. 
Pure  tin  does  not  rust ;  but  the  soldered  seams  of  all 
tinware  are  coated  with  a  jxjisonous  comjxjundof  lead, 
which  is  very  deleterious  to  the  human  body.  It  is 
better  to  use  granite-ware  altogether,  or  boiling  and 
stewing  should  be  generally  superseded  by  baking  and 
steaming. 

Tlie  articles  of  equipment  in  the  kitchen  and  din- 
ing-room will  lie  found  enumerated  under  the  head  of 
Kitclien,  and  in  this  work  each  article  of  cooker)'  is 
placed  in  its  alphabetical  order,  thus  :  Biscuit,  Bread, 
Buns,  Cake,  C'hjese,  Chowder,  Cobbler,  Cracker, 
Creams,  Custard,  Dessert,  Doughnut,  Dum[)ling,  Eggs, 
Float,  F'ritter,  Camishing,  Cravy,  Cireens,  Gruel,  Hash, 
Hominy,  Hulled  Corn,  Iceland  Moss,  Jam,  Jelly, 
Marmalade,  Muflin,  Mush,  Pancakes,  Pickle,  Pie, 
Porridge,  Preserves,  Pudding,  Roll,  Roulette,  Rusk, 
Salad,  Sausage,  Sou]),  Succotash,  Tart,  Toast,  Waffle, 
and  the  various  meats,  fruits,  vegetables  and  bev- 
erages. , 


Cooking  Food  for  Stock  :  see  Feed,  Steaming 
and  Cooking. 

Co-operation,  working  together.  In  farming,  this 
is  necessary  for  the  following  purjxjses,  in  the  order  of 
their  imixjrtance :  i.  Destroying  insects  and  weeds; 
2,  Preventing  contagious  diseases ;  3,  Draining,  fenc- 
ing and  roads;  4,  Use  of  large  machinery,  too  expens- 
ive for  every  farmer  to  buy;  5,  Competition  against 
high  freights;  and  6.  Mutual  instruction  and  lecture 
courses. 

Coping  (co'  ping),  the  highest  or  covering  course  of 
masonry  in  a  wall,  often  with  sloping  edges  to  carry  off 
the  water :  sometimes  called  "  capping^'  Stone  coping 
upon  brick  work  is  highly  ornamental,  and  is  in  almost 
universal  use. 

Copper  Vessels,  to  keep  from  rust :  Dip  them  in 
very  dilute  nitric  acid,  and  then  immerse  them  in  lin- 
seed oil ;  let  the  excess  of  oil  drain  off.  To  clean 
copper  vessels,  first  wash  them  with  hot  water,  to  re- 
move all  grease,  then  rub  them  with  a  mixture  of  pul- 
verized rotten  stone,  soft  soap  and  oil  of  turpentine; 
make  this  mixture  stiff  as  putty.  Hard  solder  for  cop- 
per: melt  together  copper,  zinc  and  tin. 

As  antidotes  for  ^wisoning  by  copper  oxide,  verdi- 
gris, etc.,  administer  iron  filings;  also  white  of  an  egg 
(albumen),  which  forms  with  copper  a  comixjund  insolu- 
ble in  water.  Apply  the  stomach-pump. 

Cordial,  in  medicine,  that  which  stimulates  the 
nervous  system  and  cheers  up  the  spirits.  To  form 
the  basis  of  cordials  the  following  materials  are  em- 
ployed: Rain  or  distilled  water,  white  sugar,  and 
clean,  perfectly  flavorless  spirits.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  substances  from  which  the  flavor  or  aroma 
is  extracted,  which  distinguish  and  give  character 
to  the  particular  cordial  to  be  made,  and  also  the  arti- 
cle employed  as  "  finings,"  when  artificial  clarifications 
are  resorted  to.  In  the  preparation  or  compounding 
of  cordials,  one  of  the  first  things  is  to  produce  an 
alcoholic  solution  of  the  aromatic  principles  which  are 
to  give  them  their  peculiar  aroma  and  flavor.  This  is 
done  by  simple  infusion  or  maceration,  or  by  macera- 
tion and  subsequent  distillation,  or  by  flavoring  the 
spirit  with  essenrial  oils.  In  the  preparation  of  liq- 
uors, glycerine  is  admirably  adapted  for  preserving  the 
characteristic  flavors  of  those  compounds. 

Blackberrv  Cordial.  One  quart  of  blackberry 
juice,  I  jx)und  of  white  sugar,  J^  ounce  of  grated  nut- 
meg, J^  ounce  [xjwdered  cinnamon,  ^  ounce  allspice, 
y^  ounce  of  cloves,  and  i  pint  best  brandy.  Tie  the 
spices  i.i  muslin  bags;  boil  the  juice  and  spices  to- 
gether fifteen  minutes,  skinnning  well ;  add  the  brandy; 
set  aside  in  a  closely  vessel  covered  to  cool.  When  jjer- 
fectly  cold,  strain  out  the  spices,  and  bottle,  sealing 
the  corks. 

Black-Curr.\nt  Cordial.  To  every  four  quarts 
of  black  currants,  picked  from  the  stems  and  lightly 
bruised,  add  i  gallon  of  the  best  whisky;  let  it  re- 
main four  months,  shaking  the  jar  occasionally  ;  then 
drain  off  the  li(iuor  and  strain.     Add  3  jwundsof  loaf 


286 


CORIANDER— CORN. 


sugar    and    i^  of  a  ixjuiid  of  the  best  cloves,  slightly 
bruised  ;  lx)ttle  well,  and  seal. 

Coriander  (co-ri-an'der),  an  aromatic  plant  of  the 
parsley  family,  growing  alx)ut  two  feet  high,  and  bear- 
ing fragrant  seeds  which  are  often  used  in  flavoring 
confectioneries  and  in  medicines.  In  the  latter  capac- 
ity it  is  a  stomachic— expelling  gases  from  it,  easing 
it  from  distention,  and  settling  the  nerves  in  connec- 
tion with  that  organ.  It  is  an  excellent  medicine  for 
young  calves  having  weak  stomachs.  The  brijised 
seeds  should  be  given  in  2-dram  doses,  in  milk.  The 
seeds  are  globular,  brown,  and  alx)ut  a  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  i)lant  is  easily  raised  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  is  found  in  some  old- 
fashioned  gardens. 

Cork.  To  get  a  cork  out  of  a  bottle  when  it  is  en- 
tirely inside,  drop  a  string  into  the  bottle,  holding  Ixjth 
ends  on  the  outside ;  turn  the  bottle  top  down  and 
move  it  alxjut  until  the  loop  of  the  string  surrounds  the 
cork,  when  tlie  latter  can  be  drawn  out  by  force 

Corking.  Procure  good,  soft,  velvety  corks,  free 
from  large  pores,  and  large  enough  to  be  extracted 
without  the  use  of  the  corkscrew.  In  effervescent 
wines,  such  as  champagne,  gooseberry,  etc.,  use  the 
very  best  corks;  and  after  placing  them  securely  in 
the  neck  or  mouth  of  the  bottle,  tie  with  a  good  strong 
string  or  wire. 

Cork-Sorew.  This  is  a  little  convenience  which 
should  be  in  every  household.  A  substitute  may  be 
improvised  by  taking  a  common  screw  with  a  string 
attached  to  it  to  pull  the  cork;  or,  two  forks  stuck 
into  the  cork  vertically  and  a  knife  inserted  between 
the  two.     Give  a  twist,  and  out  jxjps  the  cork. 

Corn.  In  the  United  States  this  name  is  applied 
only  to  Indian  corn,  or  maize.  In  Europe  the  word 
"com  "  is  understood  to  mean  the  various  cereals,  or 
grain  in  general.  It  is  a  member  of  the  grass  family, 
botanically,  and  with  reference  to  its  value  as  an  arti- 
cle of  food  it  rivals  rice  and  sugar-cane  with  the  human 
family  at  large ;  and  in  our 
own  country  it  exceeds  wheat 
in  money  value,  and  in  num- 
ber of  bushels  is  four  times  as 
great.  It  is  a  most  important 
article  of  food,  both  to  man 
and  beast,  and  to  the  iX)or  of 
the  South  is  verily  the  staff  of 
life,  where  it  is  used  more  ex- 
tensively as  human  food  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 
The  origin  of  Indian  corn  has 
been  a  source  of  much  controversy ;  and  although 
there  has  been  much  written  on  the  Eastern  origin  of 
it,  yet  it  is  certain  it  did  not  grow  in  that  part  of  Asia 
watered  by  the  Indus  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
(ireat's  expedition,  as  it  is  not  among  the  jjroductions 
of  that  country  mentioned  by  Nearchus,  the  com- 
mander of  the  fleet.  Neither  is  it  noticed  by  Arrian, 
Diodorus,  Columella,   or   any  other   ancient  author. 


KiG. 


-Derby  ShetUr. 


And  even  as  late  as  1491,  the  year  before  Galumbus 
discovered  America,  Joan  di  Cuba,  in  his  "  Ortus 
Sanitatis,"  makes  no  mention  of  it.  It  has  never  been 
found  in  any  ancient  tumulus,  sarcophagus  or  pyra- 
mid, nor  has  it  ever  been  represented  in  any  ancient 
painting,  sculpture,  or  work  of  art,  except  in  America. 
But  in  this  country,  according  to  Garalaso  de  la  Vega, 
one  of  the  earliest  Peruvian  historians,  the  palace  gar- 
dens of  the  Incas  were  ornamented  with  maize  in 
gold  and  silver,  with  all  the  grains,  spikes,  stalks,  and 
leaves ;  and  in  one  instance,  in  the  "  Garden  of  Gold 
and  Silver,"  there  was  an  entire  corn-field  of  consid- 
erable size,  representing  the  maize  in  its  exact  and 
natural  shape,  a  proof  no  less  of  the  wealth  of  the 
Incas  than  of  their  veneration  for  this  imix)rtant  grain. 
In  further  proof  of  the  American  origin  of  this  plant, 
it  may  be  stated  that  it  is  still  found  growing  in  a  wild 
state,  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  North  America  to 
the  humid  forests  of  Paraguay,  wliere,  instead  of  each 
grain  being  naked,  as  is  always  the  case  after  long 
cultivation,  it  is  completely  covered  with  glumes  or 
husks.  It  is  moreover  a  well  authenticated  fact  that 
maize  was  found  in  a  state  of  cultivation  by  the 
aborigines  on  the  Island  of  Cuba  at  the  time  of  the 
discovery  by  Columbus,  as  well  as  in  most  other 
places  in  America  first  explored  by  tlie  Europeans. 

The  first  successful  attempt  of  the  English  in  North 
America  to  cultivate  this  grain  was  made  on  James 
river,  in  Virginia,  in  1608.  The  colonists  sent  over  by 
the  "  London  Company "  adopted  the  mode  then 
practiced  l)y  the  Indians,  which  with  some  modifica- 
tions has  been  pursued  ever  since. 

Cultivation.  The  soil  for  corn  should  be  rich, 
mellow,  and  well-drained.  Land  can  scarcely  be  too 
rich  for  it;  and  the  fresher  and  less  femiented  the 
manure  is  which  is  applied  to  it  the  better,  unless  on 
light,  sandy  soils.  A  clover  lay  or  rich  grass  sod  is  an 
excellent  preparation  for  corn.  ■  The  manuring  should 
be  broadcast,  for  if  it  is  confined  to  the  hills  the  corn 
will  come  forward  early  and  throw  out  an  abundance 
of  roots,  which  will  not  find  sup]X)rt  at  a  little  distance 
from  the  stalk,  and  thus  become  imix)verished  later  in 
the  season.  Plow  in  the  fall,  as  you  have  more  time 
then.  Gypsum  is  the  best  fertilizer.  The  selection 
of  seed  should  be  made  with  the  utmost  care,  not 
only  from  the  best  varieties,  but  also  the  best  seed  of 
the  particular  kinds  desired.  Some  of  the  choicest 
varieties  have  been  brought  to  their  present  perfection 
by  selecting  only  the  earliest  and  largest  ears  from  the 
most  ])rolific  stalks.  This  ought  always  to  be  done 
before  the  corn  is  gathered  in  the  field  where  there  is 
an  opportunity  for  comparison.  In  small  fields,  where 
there  is  a  dense  ]X)pulation,  and  where  ],lanting  is 
done  by  hand,  it  will  prove  remunerative  to  steep  the 
corn  in  a  solution  of  saltpeter  or  copperas  (^^  lb.  to 
water  enough  to  cover  a  bushel  of  corn)  for  one  or  two 
days  before  planting.  This  accelerates  the  growth  of 
the  plant  and  is  a  protection  against  birds,  scjuirrels, 
and  mice,  and  for  a  while  it  will  keej)  off  worms.  To 
keep  off  the  depredators,  it  has  1)een  advised  to  coat 
the  seed  corn  with  boiling  tar  (half  a  pint  of  tar  to  a 


CORN. 


287 


[jeck  of  corn).  The  use  of  excellent  corn-planting 
machines  at  the  present  day  is  a  great  improvement 
on  the  old  methods,  considering  the  time  required  to 
put  in  a  crop  and  the  quality  of  the  work;  and  their 
use  has  also  superseded  many  of  the  old-fashioned 
modes  which  still  might  be  preferable  in  the  small 
acres  of  the  densely-iwpulated  East.  Check-row 
l)lanting  enables  one  to  give  cleaner  cultivation,  and 
tliis  s)stem  is  generally  advised.  See  article  Corn- 
Planler.  By  this  ]}lan  the  hills  are  three  to  four  feet 
apart,  and  three  to  five  stalks  are  allowed  to  the  hill. 
The  fewer  the  stalks,  to  a  certain  limit,  the  larger 
the  ears.  In  drill  jilanting  the  grains  are  dropped 
18  inches  apart,  in  rows  three  to  four  feet  apart. 
The  amount  of  seed  per  acre  will  be  in  pro^Mrtion 
to  the  richness  and  dryness  of  the  soil.  Thick 
planting,  other  things  being  equal,  gives  fewci 
and  smaller  ears.  A  good  old  rule  as  to  the 
time  of  planting  is  when  oak-leaves  have  at- 
tained the  size  of  a  squirrel's  foot.  The  average 
depth  of  planting  should  be  about  two  inches, 
but  the  earlier  the  time,  or  the  wetter  the  soil, 
the  more  shallow.  Late  in  the  season,  or  when 
the  soil  is  very  dry,  the  corn  may  be  covered 
three  inches  deep  or  more.  The  rolling  of  the 
ground  can  be  done  before  planting  or  immedi- 
ately after.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  up  the  ground 
should  be  stirred  by  a  cultivator  (see  Cultivator), 
and  this  process  repeated  every  week  or  two  until 
the  ground  is  well  shaded  by  the  corn,  even 
during  the  driest  seasons,  by  which  time  the  corn 
will  be  three  or  four  feet  high.  Of  course,  the 
ground  should  never  be  touched  when  in  a 
pasty  condition,  but  only  when  it  is  pulverizable. 
The  Western  method  of  cultivation  generally 
supersedes  the  use  of  the  hoe.  Wet  weather  de- 
lays cultivation  and  gives  the  weeds  and  grass 
the  advantage,  especially  on  flat  land.  Very  flat 
ground  sliould  not  be  planted  to  corn,  but  rather  '  ^^,^- 
seeded  in  grass  and  clover.  Heaping  the  earth  .-:^tS 
around  the  hills  should  be  avoided,  except  with  ^  "' 
very  heavy  or  wet  soil,  and,  except  so  far  as  nec- 
essary, to  smotlier  small  weeds  in  the  hill— tha  V 
plan  generally  followed  in  the  West  to  supersede 
hoeing. 

A  man  in  Central  Illinois  re]xjrts  that  he  raised 
ten  bushels  per  acre  more  than  his  neighbors 
with  less  than  the  usual  amount  of  cultivation, 
by  the  following  method :  He  did  not  touch 
the  ground  until  the  first  growtli  of  weeds  appeared. 
The  ground  was  then  plowed  to  the  dei)th  of  three 
inches,  and  left  in  this  condition  until  the  second 
crop  of  weeds  appeared,  when  it  was  again  plowed 
a  few  inches  deeper.  It  remained  thus  until  the 
last  of  May,  at  which  time  it  was  plowed  as  deep 
as  his  teams  could  plow  it,  and  immediately 
planted.  The  season  being  favorable  for  the  pul- 
verization of  the  soil,  the  ground  was  in  excellent 
condition  at  the  time  of  planting.  Nothing  further 
was  done  in  the  way  of  cultivation.  The  shallow 
plowings,   instead   of    deep,   saved    his    team.     But 


deep  culture,  late  in  the  season,  on  the  other  hand, 
tears  up  the  roots  and  injures  the  com.  The  pre- 
vailing sentiment  is  to  plow  deep  early  in  the  season, 
and  shallower  toward  the  time  of  laying  by.  On 
grass  or  sod  land,  manure  the  land  in  August  before 
the  sod  is  turned;  the  following  spring,  very  soon 
after  the  usual  corn-planting  time,  turn  the  sod  flat, 
with  a  depth  of  seven  inches,  following  with  a  sub- 
soiler  as  deep  as  ]X)ssible ;  heavily  roll  the  land,  and, 
if  the  greatest  ixjssible  yield  is  desired,  manure  heavily 
\vith  guano   or    hen    manure,  say  200    jxjunds  to   the 


,  a. — Prince  Corn-Shelter. 

acre,  or  300  jxjunds  of  cotton-seed  meal,  or  some 
equivalent;  then  harrow  longitudinally  with  the  fur- 
rows until  there  are  at  least  two  inches  of  pulverized 
soil  upon  the  surface ;  then  j  lant. 

Replanting  seldom  pays,  except  for  fodder ;  but  a 
new  hill  planted  to  every  loih  or  15  th  row  each 
way  serves  to  fill  out  many  ears  which  otherwise  come 
a  little  too  late  for  perfect  fertilization  during  the 
regular  tasseling  time. 

Harvesting.  If  there  be  no  danger  of  early  frosts, 
the  corn  may  be  permitted  to  stand  until  fully  ripe. 
If  the  stalks  are  desired  for  fodder,  they  are   better  to 


288 


CORN. 


be  cut  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  well  glazed,  and  this 
should  be  done  in  all  cases  when  frost  is  exix:cted. 
If  the  corn  be  shocked  or  stocked,  scarcely  any  in- 
jury will  occur  either  to  the  leaf  or  grain.  Very  few 
cultivators  now-a-days  advise  "topping"  the  corn; 
that  is,  cutting  off  the  stalks  alx)ve  the  ear;  and  strip- 
ping the  blades  is  too  tedious  a  process  of  making 
fodder.  Corn  should  be  permitted  to  stand  in  the 
field  until  perfectly  dry  before  stowing  away  in  the 
crib.  The  last  days  of  September  and  the  beautiful 
"Indian  summer"  of  October  is  the  regular  harvest 
time  for  corn,  but  often  a  farmer  is  so  situated  that 
he  can  best  afford  to  let  the  corn  stand  on  the  stalks 
until  it  is  fed  out,  which  saves  once  handling.  "  High" 
farming  and  the  best-paying  farming  are  often  two 
different  things.  But  jjicking  corn  in  the  winter  is  so 
painfully  disagreeable  that  most  people  would  prefer 
to  "  handle  the  corn  twice." 

Considering  that  hills  of  corn  in  the  right  place  are 
often  insufficient  for  holding  up  a  shock,  a  "corn- 
horse"  (Fig.  3)  caLi  be  easily  made,  by  which  one  can 
locate  the  shock  just  where  he  wants  it  without 
anxious  thought  or  care.     The  figure  represents  the 

"  horse"  set  for 
a  shock;  the  corn 
isput  around  the 
intersection  of 
the  pin  as  a 
center,  and  when 
done,  the  pin, 
and    the    main 


Fig.  3. — Corn-Horse. 

(which  fits  loosely)  is  drawn 
pole  drawn  out  at  right-angles 
horse  carried  to  the  next 
locality  for  a  shock.  In 
husking  the. corn  at  a 
subsequent  time,  andin 
removing  the  fodder 
from  the  ground,  (he 
farmer  is  thus  relieved 
of  the  torments  of  tug- 
ging at  uncut  stalks  and 
of  then  cutting  them 
with  his  ixjcket-knife. 
In  every  way  the  "com 
horse"  method  is  the 
neatest  and  best. 

"Hogging  down" 
corn  is  the  practice  of 
turning  hogs  into  the 
corn-field  to  fatten 
themselves.  This  is 
not  advisable,  as  sys- 
tematic experiments 
show  that  under  such  a 
regimethe  land  actually 
decreases  in  product- 
iveness, breaks  up 
clixldy  in  the  spring, 
and  becomes  difficult  to 
cultivate  neatly 


out, 


to   that,  and    the 


ter,  on  an  average,  to  sell  shelled  com  early  in  the 
winter  at  40  cents  than  the  following  summer  at  50 
cents.     The  degree  of   shrinkage  varies,  of  course, 


Fig  4. — Eagle  Corn-Shelter. 

with  the  kind  of  weather,  the  kind  of  corn,  the  degree 
of  ripeness  at  the  time  of  harvesting,  etc.  Ears  from 
even  the  same  hill  will  vary  to  some  extent. 


Fig.  5. — Warehouse  ShetUr  in  Position/or  Work. 


As  to  the  amount  of  shrinkage  of  corn,  systematic 
experiments  have  been  made,  showing  that  it  is  bet- 


Tlie   relative  cost  of  com  and   jxjrk  is  indicnted  in 
ilie  following  table  of  equivalents,  the  corn  at  a  given 


CORN. 


289 


price  per  bushel  being  equivalent  to  pork  at  a  given 
rate  per  pound : 


CORN. 

12^. 
17... 

25... 


PORK. 

...1/8 
.  ..2 

•3 


CORN. 

33- • 

45- • 
60.. 


PORK. 
•  -4 

•■5 


From  this  schedule  any  farmer  can  readily  calculate 
whether  to  sell  his  corn  or  first  turn  it  into  [xsrk,  as 
nearly  as  he  can  forecast  the  markets. 

Sometime;  a  piece  of  ground  is  sown  thickly  with 
corn  for  fodder  or  soiling.  For  this  purixjse  the  soil 
should  he  iii  a  lugh  condition  and  well  pulverized. 
Prepare  the  seed  iii  a  pickle  of  saltpeter,  like  that  in- 
tended for  ripe  corn;  sow  it  broadcast  at  the  rate  of 
three  or  four  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  harrow  it  in.  A 
better  method  is  to  sow  thickly  in  drills  and  stir  the 
ground  with  a  light  plow  or  cultivator.  .Some  prefer 
even  the  hill  metliod — twice  as  many  hills  to  the  acre 
,'is  for  grain.  The  sowing  may  be  either  early  or  late, 
but  early  is  better.  Cut  before  frost,  dry  thoroughly 
and  then  house  it. 

Seed  Corn.  The  best  method  of  saving  seed  in 
ordinary  cultivation,  and  that  is  convenient  for  every 
farmer,  is  to  select  the  ears  while  cutting  the  com. 


selves ;  husk  this  corn  early,  throwing  aside  any  that 
does  not  come  up  to  the  standard.  Leave  two  or 
three  husks  on  the  ear,  then  braid  together  1 2   or  r5 


Fig.  t.— Veteran  Hand-SheUer 

Lay  the  stalk  and  the  ear  one  side,  and  these  can 
be  easily  gathered  and  placed  in  a  shock  by  them- 


FiG,  7. — May  Beetle  (Phyllophaga  fiisca). 
I,  pupa;  2,  larva ;  3,  beetle,  side  view  ;  4,  beetle,  back  view. 

ears  and  hang  in  any  convenient  place  under  cover 
where  the  air  freely  circulates.  It  will  be  well  dried 
before  cold  weather,  and 
should  be  put  where  it  does 
not  freeze  hard.  Such  corn 
will  not  fail  to  grow ;  and  not 
only  that,  it  will  give  a  strong 
plant,  and  the  selection  of 
choice  ears  will  constantly 
increase  the  crop,  provided 
the  soil  and  cultivation  is  at- 
tended to.  These  remarks 
will  apply  equally  to  other 
grains,  although  the  trouble 
is  not  as  great  with  the  small 
grains  as  with  corn.  In  the 
West,  however,  where  all  the 
com  is  picked  from  the  stalk, 
it  is  more  convenient  to  select 
the  best  earswhile  harvesting 
the  corn  in  October. 

Diseases.  Indian  com  is 
not  subject  to  any  disease, 
strictly  speaking,  except  the 
"  smut,"  a  fungoid  growth  fa- 
miliar to  every  farmer. 
The  only  remedy  consists  in 
cutting  off  and  burning  all 
infested  parts  as  soon  as  they 
appear.  Thorough  co-oper- 
ation of  famiers  would  render 
this  process  more  effectual, 
as  the  spores  of  the  fungus 
are  readily  transmissible  by 
the  winds.  Such  tedious 
work,  however,  is  seldom 
remunerative,  except  in  very  extraordinary  cases. 
Inseci  s.     The  chinch-bug  and  army-womi  do  corn 


^ 


290 


CORN. 


Fic.  i.—  U'ire-lVorm  (Elater). 


a  great  deal  of  damage,  but  as  they  injure  wheat  rath- 
er more,  we  take  them  into  consideration  under  the 
head  of  Wheat.  The  cut-worm,  or  white  grub,  which 
is  the  larva  of  the  May  beetle.  Fig.  7,  works  on  the 
corn  as  it  is  sprouting  and  appearing  above  the  ground. 

The  wire-worm.  Fig.  8, 
is  the  larva  of  the  spring 
beetle  (Fig.  9),  called 
also  "clickbeetle,"  "  skip 
jack,"  "  snapping  bug,"  etc.  It  eats  the  roots,  the  stem 
and  finally  the  car.  It  works  also  \\\xin  wheat  and 
some  of  tlie  grasses.  As  remedies  for  the  cut-worm 
and  wire-worm,  all  sorts  of  dragging  of  the  soil  have 
been  recommended,  from  salt  to  lime 
and  ashes,  but  with  doubtful  results. 
"Fire  and  flood "  are  sure  remedies, 
when  they  can  be  applied,  which  is  sel- 
dom— namely,  burning  up  all  rubbish 
and  remainijig  stalks  in  the  field,  as  well 
firing  the  neighlxDring  forests,  with  co- 
operation of  neighbors,  and  irrigation, 
,  g,—s/ir,-a^  where  practicable.  But  the  most  relia- 
Bee/u.  ijig  method  of  all  is  to  starve  them  out 
by  omitting  to  plant  for  one  season,  frequently  stirring 
tire  ground.  Previously  soaking  the  seed  in  drugged 
solutions,  or  tarring  it,  or  both,  probably  aid  in  guard- 
ing the  grain  in  the  ground,  but  is  no  protection  to  the 
stalk  or  ear.  The  birds  and  domestic  fowls  do  not 
reach  these  worms  to  any  appreciable  extent.  It  is 
very  hazardous  to  re-sow  where  these  worms  have  de- 
stroyed a  crop  unless  the  soil  be  plowed  repeatedly. 
They  are  most  to  be  dreaded  in  dry  seasons,  yet  they 

ft  >a  I  I  !   I  .;J! 


separate  the  stalk.  Gardenssufferexceedingly ;  lettuces 
often  fall  a  sacrifice  to  them.     On  light  lands  ihcy  do 


Fig.  10. — i^arehouse  Sheiler, 

cannot  exist  without  some  moisture.  Affected  plants 
are  known  by  the  dying  off  of  the  outer  leaves.  They 
cut  into   the   stem   above   the   roots  and   sometimes 


most  mischief  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  June. 
Lower  parts  of  the  fields  joining  on 
marshes  are  much  infested.  Rye- 
grass is  most  dangerous  with  clover  for 
encouraging  wire -worms.  Gravelly 
and  sandy  soils  .  are  most  infested ; 
strong  loam  and  clay  most  free  from 
them.  Wheat  sown  in  dry  weather  is 
most  likely  to  suffer.  By  constantly 
disturbing  the  insects  it  is  probable 
they  may  be  driven  from  a  locality. 
A  summer  fallow  and  burning  the 
rubbish  are  recommended  after  clo- 
ver and  grasses ;  it  kills  the  eggs  and 
starves  the  worms;  but  fallows  must 
be  kept  very  clear  from  grasses  and 
weeds.  Nothing  more  dangerous  than 
to  leave  strijjs  and  patches  of  grass 
or  lays  in  plowed  fields.  Feeding 
land  close  with  sheep  will  prevent 
the  eggs  from  being  laid.  Folding 
oxen  and  sheep  in  the  spring  may 
also  keep  the  beetles  from  coming  out 
of  the  earth.  Harrowing  and  hard 
rolling  in  March  and  April  are 
strongly  recommended.  Top  dress- 
ings of  lime  are  useful  before  rolling. 
A  great  many  other  insects  are  found  infesting  com, 
as  the  Kocky  Mountain  locusts  (see  Locust),  the  rus- 
tics, plant  lice,  etc.,  for  which  the  remedies  are  in  gen- 


CORN. 


291 


era!  the  same  as  already  designated  for  the  cut-worm 
and  wire-worm. 

Many  birds,  squirrels,  gophers  and  mice  also  "  go- 


Fig.  12. — Geared  Mounted  Sheller. 

for  "  corn,  all  of  which  have  to  be  warred  against  in 
all  imaginable  ways,  as  there  is  no  single  remedy 
known  that  is  thoroughly  effectual  in  their  destruction 
or  in  driving  them  off.  A  small  mirror  or  piece  of 
bright  tin  suspended  on  a  jwle  so  as  to  swing  around 
in  the  wind,  is  said  to  be  an  efficient  scare-crow. 

Varieties.  In  reality  there  is  but  little  pure-bred 
corn  in  this  country,  for  crossing  is  so  easy  that  nearly 
all  our  so  called  "  varieties  "  are  sub-varieties,  mostly 
with  local  names.  Com  readily  adapts  itself  to  the 
latitude  in  which  it  grows,  changing  its  characteristics 
with  change  of  locality.  Varieties  considered  early 
and  small  in  Maine,  planted  a  few  years  in 'i'ennessee, 
become  late  and  large,  thus  completely  adapting 
themselves  to  the  warmer  climate.  Indian  corn  may 
properiy  be  divided  into  four  distinct  groups:  The 
Flint  corn  of  the  sea-coast  Slates,  the  Dent  corn  of  the 
West  and  South,  the  sugar  varieties,  containing  gum, 
sugar,  oil  and  but  little  starch, 
and  the  Squaw  or  flour  corn. 
The  latter  are  marked 
l)y  their  tenderness,  the  skin 
I  leing  filled  with  starch  gran- 
ules, which  readily  break  in- 
^  to  ixjwder.  The  flint  varieties 
<;ontain  largely  of  gum  and  oil, 
and  the  Dent  varieties  as 
'  1  irgely  of  starch  and  oil. 
The  small  flint,  or  hard, 
8  to  12  rowvarieties  are 
grown  principally  along  the  north  Ixjrder  States,  from 
Maine  to  Oregon.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
as  best  the  Early  Yellow  Canada  (small  eight-row), 
Holden  (same,  but  more  ])roductive),  andKingsl)ury's 


Fig.    \^.~Doul,l,-Cyliiulcr 
S/u-lUr. 


Excelsior,   an    early    1 2-row,  yellow  variety,  growing 


larger  every  way  than  the  others.  These  may  be  des- 
ignated as  ty|)es  of  the  Northern  varieties,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  large  Western  and  Southern  Dent 

varieties.  Among  the 
latter  are  the  Early 
Galena  (one  of  the  best 
for  late  planting), 
Early  Minnesota, 
White  Gourd  Seed, 
Southern  Big  Yellow, 
Illinois  Yellow,  Long 
John,  Evans,  Proctor 
Bread,  Chester  County 
Mammoth,  Chester 
County  Gourd-Seed, 
Brunt's  ProHfic,  Long- 
fellow, etc.  We  notice 
in  the  State  agricultur- 
al reix)rts  many  other 
names  of  varieties,  but 
they  are  either  local  or 
synonymous  with  the 
names  above  given. 
The  same  variety 
appears  different  as 
grown  in  different  situations.  We  need  a  thorough 
overhauling  and  systematizing  of  com  nomenclature. 

The  stalks  of 
all  the  varieties  are 
rich  in  sugar 
when  the  grain  is 
in  the    milk,     so 

Fic.  \i,.— Chester  County  Gourd-Seed  Corn.  mUch  SO  that  Su- 
gar ill  notable  quantities  has  been  produced  therefrom, 
not  however  in  Cjuantides  to  warrant  working  it,  since, 
in  the  South,  the  true  sugar-cane  and  in  the  North  the 
varieties  of  sorghum  are  more  profitably  worked. 

In  planting  Sweet  Corn,  for  table  use,  the  smaller 
varieties  may  be  sown  in  drills  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  the  stalks  thinned  to  ten  inches  apart;  the 
largest  sort  should  have  the  drills  three  to  four  feet 
apart,  the  stalks  a  foot  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  very 
largest  varieties  eighteen  inches  apart.  Use  some  rich 
manure  in  the  drills,  frecjuently  srir  the  earth  around 
the  roots  by  hoe  or  cultivator,  but  do  not  draw  it  up 
about  the  stalks.  For  a  succession  of  corn  for  family 
use  to  be])lanted  at  the  same  time,  the  best  varieties 
probably  are  Marblehead  Early,  Extra  Eariy  Adams, 
Pratt's,  Crosby's,  Moore's,  Stowells,  and  Egyptian  Sweet. 

Varieties.      The   sweet  vaiieUes    for   family    use 

and    markering  in    a 


green   state    are   the 
following : 

Marblehead  Early. 

Fu,.  .-..-Extra  Early  .-idams.  Thc  CarlieSt  of    all. 

Extra  Early   Adams.     A  new  variety. 
Pratt's  Early.     Best  early  variety  for  market. 
Crosbys  New  Early.     First-rate  every  way. 
Moore  s  Early  Concord  Sweet.     A  new  early  com, 


292 


CORN. 


with  12  to  16  rows;  remarkably  handsome  and  quite 
popular. 

Campbell's  Early.     Popular  in  Ohio. 

StMoeWs  Evergreen.     Keeps  green  till  cold  weather ; 
ears  large ;  a  standard  late  variety. 

Marhkhcad  Matntnoth.     The  largest  variety  grown  ; 
early  and  sweet. 

Early  Narra- 
ganseii.  Kernels 
very  large  and 
ears  large  and 
short. 

Mexican  Stveel. 
The  sweetest  and 
tenderest  of  all         __ 
varieties  for  fami-  /^J 
ly  use.  -^^ 

Golden.  Pe- 
culiarly rich  flavor; 

forty  days ;  a  good       n   '  ■     :^®;s-^vi; 
flint  variety  for  an 
early    crop    in 
Northern    lati- 
tudes. ''  Fir, 

Early    Boynton   and  Egyptian    are    new   varieties 
promising  to  supersede  some  of  the  old. 

Gen.  Grant.     The  sweetest  of  all  and  best  for  fod- 
der ;  latest  of  all. 

Sweet  Fodder  Corn.     Preferred  for  fodder  to  the 
yellow  kinds. 

Egyptian  Sweet.     Medium  season. 

Corn-Crib.  Fig.  16  represents  the  plan  of  acorn- 
crib,  well  calculated  for  ventilation,  convenience  and 
durability.  The  i»sts  are  set  in  grout ;  on  the  top  of 
these  are  old  tin  pans  inverted  or  sheet  iron  (not 
shown  in  the  cut),  to  render  the  crib  mouse  and  rat 
proof;  the  passage-way  is  wide  and  high  enough  for  a 
man  to  carry  a  bushel  basket  of  corn  on  his  shoulder ; 
the  slats  in  the  passage-way 
are  left  open  at  the  top  to 
within  three  feet  six  inches 
of  the  floor,  between  the 
second  and  third  beams 
from  each  end,  the  crib  be- 
ing 32  feet  long.  Tem])or- 
ary  slats,  with  a  small  cleat 
three-quarters  of  an  inch 
wide  at  each  end,  are  let 
into  the  grooves  formed  by 
the  ends  of  tlie  ]5ermanent 
P  upper  slats,  and  a  cleat  is 
nailed  on  the  inside  part, 
so  that  the  crib  can  be  filled 
Fig.  i6.-Cor»  Crib.  fyi]  from  end  to  end.  The 
floor  is  of  hemlock  plank,  two  inches  thick,  and  the 
longitudinal  joints  are  left  half  an  inch  apart.  The 
timber  in  the  crib  is  as  follows  :  Sills  of  hard  maple, 
6  feet  6  inches  long,  4  by  4  inches;  plates  of  same,  7 
feet  6  inches  long,  4  by  4  inches;  outside  jxjsts  of  hem- 
lock  (flaring  6  inches),  4  by  4   inches  ;  inside  posts, 


hemlock,  upright,  7  feet  2  inches  high  between  shoul- 
ders, and  4  by  4  ;  inside,  2  feet  4  inches  apart  for 
passage-way ;  slats,  1 6  feet  long,  5  by  1  inch,  and  5^ 
of  an  inch  apart,  put  on  horizontally  ;  foundation  posts 
of  cedar,  6  inches  in  diameter,  3  feet  in  the  ground,  2 
feet  6  inches  out.  Grout  holes,  3  feet  deep  and  2  feet 
square,  filled  within  4  inches  of  the  top  of  the  ground. 


17. —  Tke  Fartner*s  SkeHer. 

The  ix)sts  and  bents  are  5  feet  4  inches  apart  from 
center  to  center.  Length  of  crib,  32  feet,  or  48  feet 
if  wished  for.     Projection  of  eaves  of  roof,  1 2  inches. 

Corn-cribs  are  often  made  double,  that  is,  two  long 
cribs  are  built  parallel  to  each  other  about  nine  feet 
apart  and  the  interveningspace  roofed  over.  This  forms 
a  sheltered  passage  way  into  which  the  loaded  wagon 
is  driven,  and  may  be  left  standing  secure  from  rain  or 
snow  Cribs  are  also  often  made  as  a  part  of  the 
bam,  with  great  convenience ;  also  with  pig-]3ens  at- 
tached, and  with  contrivances  for  letting  out  the  com 
for  feeding,  etc. 

CoRN-HusKER.  Machines  for  husking  com  have 
been  invented  which  operate  very  well,  except  that 
they  leave  the  stalks  in  irregular  heaps.  As  most 
farmers  in  the  corn-growing  sections  of  the  Union 
husk  their  corn  from  the  standing  stalks  in  the  field, 
they  have  little  use  for  husking  machines. 

Corn-Sheller.  The  corn-sheller  best  adapted  to 
the  farmer's  use,  depends  on  the  ([uantity  of  corn  he 
has  to  shell.  There  are  many  good  shellers  in  the 
market,  among  which  we  give  illustrations  of  several. 

Fig.  I  represents  the  Derby  sheller.  Thi*  is  a 
two-hole  sheller  and  discharges  the  cobs  at  the 
end.  The  shafts  are  of  wrought  iron  with  Babbitted 
bits.     It  is  an  excellent  small  sheller. 

Fig.  2.  The  Prince,  a  one-hole,  feed-table,  hand 
sheller,  is  well  made,  easily  run  and  well  adapted  to 
the  use  of  those  having  small  quantities  of  com  to 
shell. 

The  Eagle  Sheller,  Fig.  4,  has  wrought  shafts  and 
Babbitted  boxes.  The  frame  is  well  made,  bolted 
together  and  nicely  finished.  It  shells  clean,  separ- 
ates the  cob  from  the  com  and  does  not  choke.  It 
will  shell  any  kind  of  com,  from  pop-corn  to  ears  three 
inches  in  diameter. 


CORN. 


293 


Fig  6,  the  "  Veteran,"  has  the  revolving,  wire  cob- 
rack,  for  separating  the  cobs  from  the  corn,  and  a  fan 
for  cleaning  the  corn. 

The  "  Monitor,"  Fig.  1 1,  is  a  hand  sheller,  simple  in 
construction  and  quickly  adapted  to  a  box  or  bin,  and 
shells  seed-corn  without  injury  to  the  kernel. 

The  double-cylinder  sheller,.  Fig.  13,  is  a  "jKiwer" 
sheller.  It  has  a  second  small  cylinder  which  revolves 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  large  one,  and  between 
these  cylinders  the  corn  is  shelled  without  breaking 
the  coIjs  or  grain.  Should  a  stone  or  any  hard  sub- 
stance get  into  the  sheller  the  small  cylinder  will  pre- 
vent any  damage  being  dcJne  to  the  teeth  or  tlie 
machine.  It  will  shell  all  corn  from  the  cob,  no  mat- 
ter how  wet  or  tough  it  may  be,  and  is  geared  to  at- 
tach to  any  jxjwer,  running  at  75  revolutions  of  timi- 
bling  rods  to  one  of  the  horses. 

Fig.  17  represents  a  sheller  worked  by  horse  jxjwer. 
It  requires  no  extra  help.  It  can  be  used  also  as  a 
hand  sheller.  It  is  compactly  built,  and  when  not  in 
use,  occupies  but  little  storage  room. 

Fig.  1 2  represents  a  large  jxawer  sheller  and  Fig.  5 
shows  how  it  works. 

The  ear-corn  is  fed  into  the  feed-hopper  A,  thence 
it  is  carried  by  cliain  conveyors,  the  ears  being 
straightened  by  beveled  partitions  arranged  for  that 
purjwse,  and  are  presented  endwise  to  the  machine. 
Entering  the  machine  at  the  jwint  1!,  they  are  rapidly 
and  unerringly  pressed  between  the  shelling-wheels  by 
the  action  of  the  "  force  feed."  In  passing  between 
the  shelling-wheels  the  corn  is  completely  removed 
from  the  cob.  The  cobs,  following  the  course  of  the 
fluted  underplate,  are  deix)sited  ujwn  the  revolving 
wire  cob-rake  and  from  the  jwint  C  are  discharged 
into  the  hoi)per  of  the  cob-stacker  D. 

The  shelled  corn  falls  ujxjn  the  screen  of  the  shak- 
ing shoe  F,  and  is  at  the  same  time  exixjsed  to  the 
blast  from  the  fan  E,  and  is  thoroughly  purged  of  all 
dirt,  silk,  tips  of  cobs  and  other  impurities,  and  is  then 
discharged  from  the  under  plate  of  the  shoein  asjwut 
which  conducts  it  to  the  bin. 

Fig.  10  is  a  large  power  sheller  for  warehouse  men. 
It  is  self-feeding  and  made  in  three  different  sizes. 
The  two-hole  has  a  capacity  of  600  to  800  bushels 
per  day;  the  four-hole  from  1,500  to  2,000  bushels 
per  day,  and  the  six-hole  from  2,500  to  3,000  bushels 
per  day. 

For  farther  information  in  reference  to  mills,  see  also 
Grist  Mill  and  Hominy  Mills. 

Corn  Planter.  While  a  hand-planter  is  all  that  is 
required  for  small  fields  or  rough  ground,  a  regular 
two-horse  jjlanter  does  more  and  better  work,  where 
the  ground  will  admit  of  its  operation  at  all.  There 
are  many  kinds  in  market,  the  patents  on  most  of 
which  have  run  out.  We  call  attention  to  a  few  mod- 
ern features.  Fig  i  is  a  cut  of  a  rotary  drop  planter 
on  which  a  check-rower  (Fig.  2)  can  be  successfully 
used.  It  cannot  be  locked,  and  thus  is  prevented  a 
great  deal  of  trouble  and  loss. 

Barnes'  Wire  Check-Rower,  Fig.  3,  is  an  arrange- 


ment for  doing  perfect  work.     The  wire  is  of  annealed 
steel,  made  especially  for  the   purpose,  and  does  not 


Flli.  i.—  Corn   Planter, 


cross  the  machine.  There  is  no  stretching  and  draw- 
ing up  of  the  wire,  as  in  the  use  of  rope.  Unneces- 
sary friction  on  the  pulleys  and  heavy  side  draft  are 
avoided.     A  check  rower  saves  the  trouble  of  previ- 


1' K..  2.  —  Clicck-Roitji'r. 

ously  marking  off  the  ground,  and  will  work  on  any 
land  where  any  other  style  of  horse  planter  can 
work. 

Corn,  To  Can  :  see  page  184. 

Corn,  Green,  To  Cook.  Husk  the  corn ;  pick  ofT 
all  the  silk;  cut  off  the  rough  ends;  put  it  into  boiling 
water  and  let  it  boil  half  an  hour. 

Another :  Prepare  and  boil  as  above,  cut  the 
kernels  from  the  cob,  stir  in  a  little  butter  and  salt  and 
send  to  table  in  a  covered  dish. 

To  Stew  Corn.  Choose  well-filled  but  tender  ears ; 
cut  it  from  the  cob  with  two  cuts  to  the  grain;  also 
make  an  incision  lengthwise  of  the  ear.  It  can  then 
be  cut  off  the  cob  without  the  skin.  Then  put  the 
cobs  on  to  bojl  in  a  stew-pan,  covering  them  with 
water.  When  well  cooked,  having  boiled  say,  20  min- 
ute,?, take  them  out  and  put  the  corn  into  the  water  in 
which  they  were  boiled.  When  sufficiently  done — only 
a  few  minutes  are  required — season  with  [lepper,  salt, 
cream  and  butter,  adding  a  little  sugar  if  preferred 
very  sweet.  This  receijjt  may  be  relied  on  as  being  a 
peculiarly  excellent  one,  the  sweetness  of  the  corn 
being  unsurpassed  when  the  directions  are  exactly 
observed. 

To  Prepare  Canned  Corn.  Take  the  com  from 
the  can;  put  into  a  saucepan  with  a  little  salt,  a  cu|) 
of  cream  or  milk,  and  the  same  of  water,  or  all  milk  if 
preferred.  Let  it  come  to  a  boil,  and  just  before  you 
take  it  off,  add  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg. 

Corn,  To  Dry.  Put  the  ears  of  sweet  com  (none 
other  so  good)  into  a  moderately  hot  oven,  and  let  it 


294 


CORN. 


dry  sufficiently  to  shell  easily,  taking  care  not  to 
scorch  it.  When  shelled,  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  oven 
until  perfectly  dry.  This  way  of  drying  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  retaining  all  the  sweetness  of  the  corn,  and 
also  of  being  much  less  trouble  than  the  usual  ways. 
Of  course,  dried  this  way  it  will  require  longer  cook- 
ing when  used.  Another  method  is  to  cut  from  the 
cob  raw,  heat  thoroughly  in  the  oven,  then  dry  in 
the  sun.  The  Shakers  steam  the  corn  for  about  five 
minutes,  to  "  set  the  milk,"  then  shave  it  off  by  running 
the  ears  ovefti  bit  like  an  inverted  jack-plane,  with  a 
trough  surface  nearly  fitting;  and  then  kiln-dry  it 
on  perforated  tin  or  zinc,  where  they  constantly  stir  it. 
Finally  they  pack  it  in  three-bushel  barrels  for  ship- 
ment. 

Corn,  To  Measure  in  the  Crib.  Two  cubic  or 
solid  feet  of  good,  sound,  dry  corn  in  the  ear  will  make 
a  bushel  of  shelled  corn.  To  ascertain  the  number  of 
bushels  of  shelled  com  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the  ear, 
then,  measure  the  length,  breadth  and  height  of  the 
crib  inside  the  bin.  By  height  is  meant,  of  course,  the 
height  of  the  corn  in  the  bin.  Multiply  the  length  by 
the  breadth  in  feet,  and  the  product  by  the  height, 
and  divide  by  two.  Corn  in  the  crib  shrinks  and  set- 
tles during  the  winter,  so  there  will  be  some  difference 
between  measurements  taken  in  fall,  and  spring  or 
summer. 

Example.  Required  the  number  of  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  in  a  crib  20  feel  long,  10  feet  wide  and  6 
feet  high:  20  x  10  x  6,  divided  by  2,  equals  600 
bushels,  the  answer. 

When  the  Crib  is  Flared  at  the  Sides.  Multi- 
ply the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom  widths  in  inches  by 
the  perpendicular  height  in  inches,  and  the  product 
by  the  length  in  inches  and  divide  the  amount  by 
2,748,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  heaped 
bushels  of  ears.  Take  two-thirds  of  the  quotient  for 
the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

Example.  Required  the  number  of  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  contained  in  a  crib  of  ears  4  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  8  feet  at  the  top,  10  feet  in  perpendicular 
height,  and  15  feet  long? 

Solution.  48  inches,  bottom  width,  plus  96  inches, 
top  width,  equal  144;  divided  by  2  ecjual  72,  x  120 
inches,  perpendicular  height,  x  180  inches,  length, 
equal  1,555,200;  divided  by  2748,  equal  565.9  bushels 
ears,  y-i  of  which  is  377.28  bushels  shelled  corn, 
the  answer. 

The  above  rule  assumes  that  three  heapir.g  half- 
bushels  of  ears  make  one  struck  bushel  of  shelled 
corn.  This  pro^wrtion  has  been  adopted  uix)n  the 
authority  of  the  major  part  of  our  best  agricultural 
journals.  Nevertheless,  some  journals  claim  that  two 
heaping  bushels  of  ears  to  one  of  shelled  corn  is  a  more 
correct  projxjrtion,  and  it  is  the  custom  in  many  parts 
of  the  country  to  buy  and  sell  at  that  rate.  Of  course 
much  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  corn,  the  shape  of 
the  ear,  the  size  of  the  cob,  etc.  Every  farmer  must 
judge  for  himself,  from  the  sample  on  hand,  whether 
to  allow  one  and  one-half  or  two  bushels  of  ears  to  one 
of  shelled  corn.     In  either  case  it  is  only  an  approxi- 


mate measurement,  but  sufficient  for  all  ordinary 
purjx)ses  of  estimation.  The  only  true  way  of  measur- 
ing all  such  products  is  by  weight. 

A  barrel  of  corn  is  five  bushels  shelled.  By  this 
latter  measure  corn  is  estimated,  and  corn  lx)ught  and 
sold  throughout  most  of  the  Western  and  Southern 
States.  At  New  Orleans  a  barrel  of  corn  is  a  flour- 
barrel  full  of  ears.  In  some  parts  of  the  West  it  is 
common  to  count  100  ears  to  the  bushel. 

Corn,  Value  as  Food  for  Stock.  According  to 
the  Patent  Office  rejxarts,  and  the  results  of  numerous 
experiments,  i  bushel  of  corn  weighing  56  ix>unds  will 
produce  10}^  [xsunds  of  jwrk.  Throwing  off  1-5  to 
come  at  the  net  weight  gives  8  2-5  jx)unds  of  ix)rk  as 
the  product  of  i  bushel  of  corn;  or,  i  ]X)und  of  pork 
as  the  product  of  65^  pounds  of  corn;  3^  jjounds  of 
cooked  corn  meal  makes  one  jxiund  of  jwrk.  Assuming 
that  it  requires  6^  jxjunds  of  corn  to  make  i  jwund  of 
pork  (exclusive  of  the  lalx)r  of  feeding  and  taking  care 
of  hogs)  the  relation  which  the  jjrice  of  corn  bears  to 
that  of  jxjrk  is  exhibited  in  the  following: 

Corn  per  bush.  I  Fork  j)er  loolbs.  I        Corn  jier  l)nsh,    I  Hork  per  loolbs. 


*..2K 

$1   50 

%■?. 

$4  52 

•■5 

,   78 

.40 

4  76 

■'7 

2    00 

•42 

5  00 

.20 

2  38 

•45 

5  35 

.22 

2  62 

.50 

5  95 

•25 

2  q6 

•55 

6  54 

.30 

3  57 

.60 

7  14 

•33 

3  V 

•''5 

7  74 

•35 

4  00 

.70 

8  57 

By  reversing  the  above  table  we  have  the  price  of 
corn  per  bushel  at  different  prices  per  i»und  for  jxjrk. 
The  use  of  the  above  table  is  obvious.  For  example, 
should  corn  be  selling  for  50  cents  per  bushel  and 
ix)rk  only  5  cents  per  pound,  it  would  be  more  profit- 
able to  sell  the  corn ;  but  should  corn  be  selling  for 
40  cents  per  bushel  and  [xsrk  for  6  cents  per  pound, 
it  would  be  most  profitable  to  reduce  the  corn  to 
jxirk,  and  sell  the  latter. 

To  Find  the  Price  of  Pork  per  Pound,  Taking 
the  Price  of  Corn  per  Bushel  as  the  Datum  : 
Divide  the  price  of  a  bushel  of  corn  by  8.4  (the 
number  of  jxjunds  of  jwrk  produced  by  a  bushel  of 
corn)  and  the  ciuotient  will  be  the  answer. 

Example.  VVhen  corn  is  20  cents  per  bushel,  what 
should  be  the  price  of  jwrk  per  jxjund.' 

Solution.  20  cents  divided  by  8.4  [xjunds  equals 
2.38  cents,  answer.  To  find  the  price  of  corn 
per  bushel  taking  the  price  of  jxiund  as  the  datum, 
multiply  the  price  of  a  jxiund  of  jwrk  by  8.4  (the 
number  of  |K)unds  of  pork  produced  by  a  bushel  of 
com)  and  the  product  will  be  the  answer. 

Example.  What  would  be  the  price  of  com  per 
bushel  when  pork  is  selling  at  45^  cents  per  ix)und? 

Solution.  4.5  cents  multiplied  by  8.4  equals 
37.8  cents,  answer.  The  foregoing  table  and  rules 
must  not  be  taken  as  invariably  correct.  The  pro- 
portions and  results  will  be  influenced  by  many  con- 
ditions and  causes,  such  as  the  sample  of  corn  used, 
the  constitution  and  breed,  as  well  as  the  age  of  the 
animal,  its  condition,  powers  of  digestion,  habits, 
health,  etc.     The  very  nature  of  the  subject  precludes 


CORN  SALAD— COTTON. 


295 


the  iwssibility  of  exactly  defining  the  results  and  pro- 
IHjrtions.  At  best  we  can  only  have  some  general 
average  results  and  rules.  The  foregoing  are  deemed 
safe  general  averages. 

Corn  Salad,  Lamb's  Lettuce,  Fetticua.     This 

is  a  soft,  mild  salad  plant,  of  no  great  account  except 
that  it  can  be  used  for  greens  in  early  spring  before 
anything  else  is  ready.  Plant  early  in  September  in 
shallow  drills;  cover  lightly  with  straw  or  leaves  for 
protection  through  the  winter;  treated  precisely  as 
spinach,  except  that  thinning  the  plant  is  not  essential. 


Corn-Stalk   Cutter. 

Corn-stalk  Cutter.  One  of  the  most  useful  and 
lalx)r-saving  machines  ujxjn  the  farm  is  a  good  corn- 
stalk cutter,  to  enable  the  agriculnirist  to  save  the 
stalks  as  manure  to  the  ground  and  plow  them  under 
as  readily  as  so  many  corn-cobs.  See  also  Feed 
Mills. 

Cornet,  or  Coronet,  of  a  horse,  is  the  lowest  part 
of  his  pastern,  that  runs  round  the  coffin,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished by  the  hair  that  joins  and  covers  the  upper 
part  of  the  hoof 

Corns.  Those  who  have  been  unfortunate  and  un- 
wise enough  to  wear  boots  and  shoes  that  were  too 
tight  have  a  ])ainful  appreciation  of  the  sort  of  a  thing 
a  corn  is.  The  remedies  and  "  corn  cures  "  that  have 
been  on  the  market  and  recommended  by  friends  are 
as  numberless  as  the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  almost. 
The  best  cure  is  a  preventive  in  the  way  of  large, 
heavy-soled  boots  and  shoes.  For  treatment  of  corns 
we  recommend  the  following: 

l-loll  a  lemon  until  it  is  soft;  cut  a  thick  slice  and 
bind  it  on  the  corn  on  retiring  at  night.  Several  ap- 
plications may  be  necessary.  When  the  corn  becomes 
white  and  disintegrate,  pull  it  out  with  the  fingernails, 
never  using  a  knife.  Raw  cotton  saturated  with  tur- 
])entine  may  be  used  the  same  way. 

Another:  Place  the  feet  for  half  an  hour,  two  or 
three  nights  successively,  into  a  pretty  strong  solution 
of  common  soda.  The  alkali  dissolves  the  indurated 
cuticle  and  the  corn  comes  away,  leaving  a  little  cavity, 
which,  however,  soon  fills  up. 


Another:  Soak  ivy-leaves  in  vinegar  during  the  space 
of  15  days ;  then  place  a  leaf  or  part  of  a  leaf  over  the 
corn ;  renew  it  every  morning  and  scrape  off  with 
pumice  stone,  dipped  in  vinegar,  each  time  the  hard 
portion  of  skin  is  detached.  The  vinegar  acts  by 
stimulating  the  absorbents;  and  the  friction  hastens 
their  action.  The  pumice  stone  and  vinegar  will 
answer  the  purix3se,  if  used  every  morning. 

Corral,  a  Spanish  word  in  common  use  in  the 
West,  signifying  a  yard  or  enclosure,  especially  for 
cattle,  near  a  house.     Used  also  as  a  verb. 

Corridor  (cor'ri-dor),  a  gallery  or  passage-way  lead- 
ing to  apartments  independent  of  each  other. 

Corrosive  Sublimate  is  a  subtle  mercurial  jxiison. 
When  swallowed  in  improper  quantities,  the  patient 
should  swallow  the  whites  of  several  eggs ;  albumen 
gives  a  white  precipitate  with  salts  of  mercury,  which 
is  insoluble  in  the  juices  of  the  stomach.  Or,  take 
milk  and  cream ;  or  a  decoction  of  cinchona ;  or  an  in- 
fusion of  galls.  This  dangerous  poison  should  never 
be  given  to  any  animal  as  medicine.  It  is,  however, 
used  in  solution  in  some  skin  diseases  of  animals, 
such  as  ring-worm  and  mange.  When  so  used  only  a 
small  jxjrtion  of  the  body  should  be  washed  with  it  in 
one  day.  For  this  purixsse  take  4  grains  of  the  subli- 
mate to  2  ounces  of  rain-water.  For  a  dog  2  grains 
to  the  ounce,  in  water,  will  be  strong  enough.  In  solu- 
tion it  is  eflicient  to  kill  bed-bugs.  It  will  be  a  long 
time  before  any  return  where  this  wash  has  been  put. 

Corrugated,  wrinkled  or  folded,  like  the  zinc  of  a 
wasli-board. 

Cosmetics,  external  applications  to  beautify  the 
complexion.     See  Toilet. 

CoBtiveness,  same  as  Constipation,  which  see. 

Cotswold,  a  breed  of  sheep:  see  Sheep. 

Cottage,  a  cot  or  hut.  This  term  was  formerly 
limited  to  a  poor  or  shabby  habitation,  but  is  now  ap- 
plied also  to  any  small,  neat  and  tasteful  dwelling. 
See  Residence. 

Cotton.  The  cotton  plant  does  well  as  far  north 
as  the  Ohio  river  valley,  but  the  cultivation  of  it  is  far 
more  remunerative  in  the  Gulf  States.  The  most ' 
common  kind  is  the  "  upland,"  so  ca'led  in  contradis- 
tinction to  "  Sea  Island "  cotton,  the  latter  having 
longer  fiber  and  of  superior  quality.  American  cotton 
of  Ixjth  kinds  commands  a  higher  price  in  England  and 
the  continent  of  Europe  than  that  which  comes  from 
the  East  Indies;  and  as  it  is  found  by  repeated  trials 
that  American  seed,  introduced  into  India,  even  under 
the  management  of  American  planters,  deteriorates  so 
much  as  to  fail  even  to  compete  with  the  native 
variety,  the  citizens  of  this  country  can  feel  safe  with 
reference  to  the  production  of  this  most  important 
commodity.  The  area  of  cotton  planting  has,  since 
the  civil  war,  greatly  increased.  With  improved 
methods  of  cultivation  and  careful  rotation,  there  is  no 
reason  why  this  crop  should  exhaust  the  soil.  The 
greatest  draw-back  to  the  profitable  cultivation  of  the 


296 


COTTONSEED  MEAL— COTTONWOOD. 


plant  exists  in  a  few  injurious  insects,  the  "boll  worm  " 
being  one  of  the  most  prominent.  All  sorts  of  manure 
and  fertilizers  are  applicable,  and  many  of  them 
abundant,  as  marl,  gypsum,  lime,  rotten  limestone, 
fish  remains,  sea-weed,  oyster-shell  lime,  besides  all 
the  waste  products  and  manures  about  the  house  and 
stable  yards. 

(3f  late  years  cotton-seed  oil  has  become  a  mer- 
chantable article,  and  large  quantities  of  it  are  be- 
ginning to  be  manufactured  throughout  the  South. 

Cultivation,  etc.  Clay  loam  and  siliclous  soil 
and  a  clay  sub-soil  are  best  for  upland  cotton.  Sandy 
soils  over  sandstone  or  limestone  and  rich  bottom 
lands  are  productive.  Other  soils,  properly  treated, 
may  be  made  available.  The  presence  of  mineral 
elements  is  indispensable.  The  Sea  Island  cotton 
grows  only  on  low,  wet  land.  Deep  plowing  is  essen- 
tial, as  the  plant  has  a  long  tap-root.  Under  draining 
is  important — often  absolutely  necessary.  Plowing  is 
done  in  January,  February  or  March,  after  which  the 
land  is  allowed  to  settle  until  about  three  weeks  before 
planting.  Bedding  up  is  the  ne-xt  step.  A  "  scooter," 
or  narrow-bladed  plow,  is  run  through  the  field  where 
the  rows  are  to  be  planted,  from  three  to  seven  feet 
apart,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  this 
furrow  the  fertilizer  used  is  placed.  With  a  turning- 
plow,  one  furrow  on  each  side,  a  ridge  is  made  cover- 
ing the  fertilizer,  and  forming  a  bed  for  the  plant. 
Run  the  "  scooter "  along  the  center  of  the  ridge, 
drop  the  seed  after  they  shall  have  been  rolled  in  wet 
ashes.  The  covering  is  done  with  a  board  the 
width  of  the  furrow,  with  scoop  or  groove  cut  in 
the  center  of  it,  and  screwed  to  the  scooter.  The 
seeds  should  be  in  hills  from  8  to  20  inches  apart, 
six  to  eight  seeds  to  the  hill.  When  about  two  inches 
high,  the  plants  are  thinned  to  two  or  three  stalks  in 
a  hill.  Ten  days  afterward  the  crop  is  hoed,  or  has  a 
little  dirt  thrown  around  the  plants  with  a  plow.  Two 
weeks  later  it  is  again  hoed  and  plowed,  all  grass 
and  weeds  being  removed.  In  two  or  three  weeks 
more,  it  is  again  hoed  and  plowed,  after  which 
there  is  nothing  more  to  do.  The  planting  is  done 
immediately  after  the  last  frost  in  the  spring.  Two 
to  five  bushels  of  seed  will  plant  an  acre.  Picking  is 
,  generally  done  by  hand,  as  soon  as  the  ix)d  is  well 
open,  in  July  or  August.  There  is  a  machine  for 
picking,  but  the  old  hand  method  is  considered  the 
best.  After  picking  it  is  spread  out  to  dry  on  scaf- 
folds. When  a  seed  pressed  between  the  teeth  will 
crack  with  some  noise  it  is  sufficiently  dry.  It  has  to 
be  turned  and  stirred  frequently.  It  is  then  ginned 
and  baled. 

Cotton-Seed  Meal.  How  to  use  cotton-seed  meal 
in  feeding  it  to  stock  is  a  matter  of  no  little  imjwrt- 
ance.  When  fed  too  freely  it  may  do  much  harm,  and 
therefore  should  be  used  intelligently.  It  is  worth 
now  about  $30  per  ton,  and  is  considered  at  that  price 
one  of  the  most  useful  foods  when  used  with  judg- 
ment. Analyses  show  that  a  ton  of  cotton-seed  meal 
contains  38  pounds  of  jxjtash  and  56  jxjunds  of  phos- 


phoric acid  with  78  ixjunds  of  nitrogen.  Being  so 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  oil  it  should  be  used  with  food 
rich  in  starch,  such  as  potatoes  and  roots.  One  jxjund 
of  cotton-seed  meal  is  considered  by  some  e([ual  to 
two  [xjunds  of  corn  meal.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  it  is  so 
rich  that  it  must  be  fed  only  in  small  quantities.  A 
Southern  writer  says  two  jxjunds  a  day  are  quite 
enough  for  a  cow  that  is  milking;  a  calf  should  not 
have  more  than  two  to  four  ounces ;  pigs  will  not  thrive 
on  it  at  all,  as  it  is  too  rich  for  them,  except  when  given 
in  small  ciuantities  mixed  with  bran  slops,  or  cut  roots. 
Horses  do  well  on  it,  if  given  two  pounds  daily  with 
corn  meal;  two  ixjunds  of  it  equal  ten  pounds  of  oats. 
But,  if  fed  too  abundantly,  the  bowels  are  made  very 
costive  and  the  kidneys  are  affected.  This  is  doubt- 
less on  account  of  its  highly  nitrogenous  nature,  as 
the  waste  nitrogen  is  eliminated  from  the  system 
through  the  kidneys,  and  they  are  too  actively  excited 
by  very  rich  food.  The  next  ill  effect  is  an  inflamma- 
tory condition  of  the  system,  and  in  cows  there  is 
a  danger  of  garget,  and  horses  suffer  from  irritation  of 
the  skin,  sore  mouth,  and  hide-bound.  It  is  as  though 
a  man  were  fed  on  extract  of  beef,  rich  pastry,  and 
such  food  only.  One  jxjund  of  cotton-seed  meal 
mixed  with  half  a  peck  of  boiled  [xatatoes  mashed  to- 
gether would  make  good  feed  for  a  fattening  pig,  or 
a  milking  cow,  but  the  pig  should  have  corn  or  bran 
for  the  second  daily  feed.  These  facts  should  be  kept 
in  mind,  as  there  is  little  doubt  that  more  of  this  food 
will  henceforth  be  used  in  this  country  than  has  been 
heretofore. 

Cottonwood,  a  familiar  tree,  of  the  class  of  pop- 
lars, growing  in  wet  lands,  to  an  enormous  size.  Being 
a  very  rapid  grower,  it  has  been  introduced  to  some 


Coltonmood  CallFly.     (PempluKUS  populi-monilis.) 

a,   fly  (iiatur.il  size  indicated  just  above) ;    b,  c,  d,  f,  antennse  (different 
stages,  magnified) ;    c,  female. 

extent  uix)n  the  high,  flat  prairies  of  the  West, 
but  as  the  wood  is  not  valuable  and  the  tree  not  orna- 
mental as  a  shade  tree,  its  further  propagation  was 
many  years  ago  abandoned.  At  the  present  day  botan- 
ists are  inclined  to  believe  that  there  is  but  one  species. 
The  engraving  illustrates  the  figure  and  work  of  an 


COUGHS— cow. 


897 


insect  which  flourishes  in  central  Colorado  and  south- 
ern Kansas,  operating  only  upon  cottonwood.  Sev- 
eral species  of  the  same  genus  are  common  pests  in 
the  garden  and  orchard.     See  Insects. 

Coughs  are  brought  on  in  many  different  ways, 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  mention  here.  We  give 
some  of  the  more  efficient  remedies. 

Dry  Cough.  Take  lemonade,  made  into  a  syrup 
by  the  addition  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  white 
sugar,  and  sip  from  a  spoon  and  slowly  swallow  it. 
The  acid  of  the  lemon  thins  the  secretion  from  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  the  sugar  has  a  sheathing  and 
soothing  action,  allaying  irritation  and  promoting  ex- 
pectoration, which  are  the  two  great  ends  to  be  accom- 
plished in  all  inflammations  of  the  throat,  nose  and 
bronchial  tubes.  The  use  of  opiates  may  allay  irrita- 
tion and  smother  up  the  cough,  but  they  check  the 
secretion,  which  is  the  natural  mode  of  relief;  and 
thus,  instead  of  curing,  they  often  aggravate  the  in- 
flammation to  such  an  extent  that  fatal  disease  is  the 
consequence. 

Cough  fro.m  Cold.  Take  J^  pound  of  coltsfoot ; 
i^  pound  of  hoarhound ;  Y^  pound  white  sugar ;  make 
into  a  syrup  by  boihng  with  i  pint  of  water.  Take 
occasionally  during  the  day  in  doses  of  a  tablespoon- 
ful.  Or,  Yt.  pound  elecampane  root ;  Y-i,  pound  spike- 
nard root ;  Yi  pound  comfrey  root ;  Y2.  IX)und  blood 
root ;  Yi  l^ound  hoarhound  leaves ;  put  all  together  in 
I  gallon  of  water  and  boil  down  to  2  quarts;  then 
strain  and  add  i  Y2  ix)unds  white  loaf  sugar,  and  boil 
again  until  reduced  to  i  Yi  pints ;  for  adults,  i  table- 
spoonful  3  times  a  day,  doubled  at  night ;  children,  i 
teaspoonful.  Or,  make  a  very  strong  tea  or  syrup  of 
the  following  roots  and  herbs :  equal  parts  of  the 
spikenard,  elecampane,  comfrey,  bloodroot  and  hoar- 
hound herb  ;  sweeten  with  honey  or  granulated  sugar. 
Dose,  a  tablesixwnful  3  times  a  day. 

TicicuN'G  Cough.  Take  6  tablesixxins  of  molasses, 
and  juice  of  ^  a  lemon ;  simmer  over  the  fire  till  well 
incorporated ;  take  off  and  add  i  tablesiXKan  of  pare- 
goric, and  about  the  size  of  a  horse-bean  of  refined 
nitre.     Take  2  teasixx)ns  when  the  cough  troubles. 

Consumptive  Cough.  Take  sanctuary,  hoarhound, 
bayberry  bark,  2  pennyworth  of  each;  and  of  agri- 
mony, raspberry  leaves,  cleavers  and  ground  ivy,  i 
pennyworth ;  extract  of  licorice,  4  ounces ;  and  ^  a 
teaspoon  of  cayenne  pepper ;  gently  simmer  in  2  gal- 
lons of  water  for  an  hour. 

Another  :  Take  i  pint  of  milk,  warm  it,  and  when 
it  comes  to  the  boiling  {x>mt,  add  as  much  mustard  as 
will  turn  it  to  a  posset ;  take  away  the  curd,  and  into 
^  pint  of  the  [Xjsset  put  i  ounce  of  brown  sugar 
candy,  to  dissolve.  Take  the  posset  as  hot  as  you 
can  at  night,  when  in  bed,  and  renew  it  for  3  or  4 
times.     This  has  given  relief  in  asthma. 

Hacking  Cough.  Wring  a  towel  from  cool  water, 
and  put  around  the  neck  on  going  to  bed,  putting  a 
dry  one  over  the  first.  Continue  this  treatment  for 
some  time,  and  you  will  be  relieved. 

Chronic  Cough.      Take  equal  parts  chlorate  of 


potash  and  burnt  alum ;  pulverize  and  mix.  Take  1^ 
teasjxjonful  of  the  mixture  stirred  into  a  teaspoon  of 
molasses  or  honey  from  3  to  5  times  each  day. 

Asthmatic  Cough.  Take  2  good  handfuls  of 
colt's-foot  leaves,  i  ounce  of  garlic,  and  2  quarts  of 
water;  boil  down  to  3  pints,  strain,  and  to  the  liquor 
add  8  ounces  of  sugar;  boil  gently  for  10  minutes. 
Take  half  a  cup  occasionally.     See  Asthma. 

Coulter  :    see  Colter. 

Counter,  in  farriery,  the  breast,  or  that  part  of  a 
horse  between  the  shoulders  and  under  the  neck. 

Counterfeit  Money,  to  detect :  see  Money. 

Coupling-Pole,  of  a  wagon,  sometimes  called 
"  reach,"  is  the  piece  joining  the  two  axletrees. 

Coupon  (coo'  jxjn),  a  small  slip  of  paper  attached 
to  a  bond  or  other  security,  and  containing  an  order 
for  the  payment  of  a  stated  jxjrtion  of  the  interest  or 
dividend  accruing  on  the  bond  as  it  matures.  It  is 
detached  when  redeemed.  Secondarily,  the  term 
"  coupon  "  is  often  used  to  denote  any  kind  of  certifi- 
cate, note  or  order  attached  temporarily  to  a  ticket  or 
other  obligation. 

Court  Plaster,  a  kind  of  varnished  silk,  used  to 
cover  recent  cuts,  to  keep  the  edges  in  contact  and 
defend  them  from  the  action  of  the  air.  Its  manu- 
facture is  simple  and  easy.  Bruise  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  isinglass  and  let  it  soak  in  a  little  warm  water 
for  24  hours,  exjxjse  it  to  heat  over  the  fire  till  the 
greater  part  of  the  water  is  dissipated,  then  supply  its 
place  with  proof  spirits  of  wine,  which  will  combine 
with  the  isinglass.  Strain  the  whole  through  a  piece 
of  open  linen,  taking  care  that  the  consistence  of  the 
mixture  shall  be  such  that  when  cool  it  will  fonn  a 
trembling  jelly.  Extend  a  piece  of  black  or  flesh- 
colored  silk  on  a  frame,  and  fix  it  in  that  position, 
then  apply  the  isinglass  (after  it  has  been  rendered 
liquid  by  a  gentle  heat)  to  the  silk  with  a  brush  of  fine 
hair.  As  soon  as  the  first  coating  is  dry,  apply  a 
second.  If  a  very  superior  article  is  desired,  supply  a 
third  coat.  When  the  whole  is  dry,  cover  with  two 
or  three  coatings  of  balsam  of  Peru.  As  every  farmer 
and  his  family  ought  to  have  a  good  supply  of  this 
very  convenient  necessity,  the  above  process  will  af- 
ford it  cheaper  and  less  injurious  than  that  which  is 
kept  at  the  drug  stores.  Every  laborer  ought  to  carry  a 
slip  of  it  with  him  in  his  ]X)cket.     See  Collodion. 

Cover  or  Covert,  in  hunting,  denotes  the  woods, 
underbrush,  etc.,  which  shelter  and  conceal  game;  as, 
to  " beat  a  cover," to  "ride  to  cover."  The  feathers 
covering  the  bases  of  the  quills  of  the  wing  or  tail  of 
birds  are  also  technically  called  the  "  covert." 

Cow,  the  female  of  the  ox  genus.  Perhaps  no  do- 
mestic animal  is  so  highly  prized  as  the  cow.  She 
furnishes  food,  not  only  for  her  own  off'spring,  but  for 
other  animals,  in  its  most  easily  taken  and  assimilable 
form ;  and  the  cow  has  become  the  sign  and  express- 
ion of  all  comfort  and  good  living.  She  is  the  most 
profitable  property  kept  upon  the  farm. 


298 


CO  w. 


Most  of  our  domestic  brutes  have  been  so  long  and 
so  entirely  subject  to  the  control  of  man  that  their 
original  type  is  unknown ;  but  it  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  the  cattle  on  the  boundless  pampas  of 
South  America,  Mexico  and  elsewhere,  which  have 
been  allowed  entire  freedom  from  all  human  direction 
or  restraint  for  hundreds  of  years,  do  not  differ  mate- 
rially from  the  domestic  herds — that  our  present  races 
do  not  differ  in  any  essential  features  and  character- 
istics from  the  original  stock.  The  milking  qualities 
of  our  domestic  cows  are,  to  some  extent,  artificial, 
the  result  of  care  and  breeding.  In  the  natural  or  wild 
state,  the  cow  yields  only  enough  to  nourish  her  off- 
spring for  a  few  weeks,  and  then  goes  dry  for  several 
months,  or  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

There  is,  therefore,  a  constant  tendency  to  revert  to 
that  condition,  which  is  prevented  only  by  judicious 
treatment,  designed  to  develop  and  increase  the  milk- 
ing qualities  so  valuble  to  the  human  race.  If  this 
judicious  treatment  is  continued  through  several  gen- 
erations of  the  same  family  or  race  of  animals,  the 
qualities  which  it  is  calculated  to  develop  become 
more  or  less  fixed  and  capable  of  transmission.  In- 
stead of  being  exceptional,  or  peculiar  to  an  individual, 
they  become  the  permanent  characteristics  orf  a  breed. 
Hence  the  origin  of  a  great  variety  of  breeds  or  races, 
the  characteristics  of  each  being  due  to  local  circum- 
stances, such  as  climate,  soil,  and  the  special  object 
of  the  breeder,  which  may  be  the  production  of  milk, 
butter  and  cheese,  or  the  raising  of  beef  or  working 
cattle. 

All  of  the  various  breeds  of  cows  are  noticed  in  the 
article  Cattle ;  the  laws  and  practices  which  regulate 
the  improvement  or  deterioration  of  any  of  her  varie- 
ties are  dealt  with  in  the  article  on  Breeding,  and 
under  this  head  in  the  Cattle  article ;  the  criteria  of 
her  age  are  treated  under  head  of  Age  of  Cattle  in  the 
article  on  Cattle ;  the  diseases  to  which  she  is  subject 
are  fully  treated  under  head  of  Diseases  in  Cattle 
article ;  the  proper  treatment  of  her  offspring  is  noticed 
under  the  article  Calves,  and  the  proper  management 
of  her  products  are  very  fully  dealt  with  in  the  articles 
Dairy,  Milk,  Butter,  and  Cheese.  We,  therefore,  have 
only  to  treat  in  this  article  of  the  selection  of  cows  for 
dairy  use ;  the  points  of  good  milkers ;  training  the 
calf;  management,  parturition,  spaying,  etc. 

Signs  of  a  Good  Cow.  None  but  good  cows  should 
be  found  upon  the  farm  for  steady  keeping:  the  in- 
ferior ones  should  be  selected  out  for  beef.  A  good 
constitution  in  a  cow  is  indicated  by  large  lungs,  which 
are  denoted  by  a  deep,  broad,  and  prominent  chest, 
broad  and  well-spread  ribs,  a  respiration  somewhat 
slow  and  regular,  a  good  appetite,  and,  if  in  milk,  a 
a  strong  inclination  to  drink,  which  a  large  secretion 
of  milk  almost  invariably  stimulates.  In  such  a  cow 
the  digestive  organs  are  invariably  active,  and  they 
make  an  abundance  of  good  blood,  which  stimulates 
the  activity  of  the  nervous  system  and  furnishes  the 
milky  glands  with  an  abundance  of  milky  secretion. 
Such  a  cow,  when  dry,  takes  on  fat  readily.  In  order 
to  have  no  superfluous   flesh,  the   cow  should  have  a 


small,  clean,  and  rather  long  head,  tapering  toward  the 
muzzle.  A  cow  with  a  large,  coarse  head  will  seldom 
fatten  readily  or  give  a  large  quantity  of  milk.  A 
coarse  head  increases  the  proportion  of  weight  of  the 
least  valuable  parts,  which  is  a  sure  indication  that 
the  whole  bony  structure  is  too  heavy.  The  mouth 
should  be  large  and  broad,  the  eye  bnght  and  spark- 
ling, but  of  a  peculiar  placidness  of  expression,  with 
no  indication  of  wildness,  but  a  mild  and  feminine 
look.  These  points  will  indicate  gentleness  of  dis- 
position. Such  cows  seem  to  enjoy  being  milked,  are 
fond  of  caresses,  and  often  return  caresses.  The 
horns  should  be  small,  short,  tapering,  yellowish,  and 
glistening.  The  neck  should  be  small,  thin,  and 
tapering  toward  the  head,  but  thickening  when  it  ap- 
proaches the  shoulder ;  the  dewlaps  small.  The 
fore-quarters  should  be  rather  small  when  compared 
with  the  hind-quarters.  The  fomi  of  the  barrel 
should  be  large,  and  each  rib  project  further  than  the 
preceding  one,  up  to  the  loins.  She  should  be  well 
formed  across  the  hips  and  in  the  rump.  The  spine, 
or  back-bone,  should  be  straight  and  long,  rather 
loosely  hung,  or  open  along  the  middle  part.  The 
skin  over  the  rump  should  be  loose  and  flexible.  This 
lX)int  is  of  great  imjwrtance ;  and  as,  when  the  cow 
is  in  low  condition  or  very  jMor,  it  will  appear  some- 
what harder  and  closer  than  it  otherwise  would,  some 
practice  and  close  observation  are  required  to  judge 
well  of  this  mark.  The  udder  is  of  special  imjxirt- 
ance.  It  should  be  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  animal,  and  the  skin  thin,  wth  soft,  loose  folds, 
extending  well  back,  capable  of  great  distension  when 
filled,  but  shrinking  to  a  small  compass  when  entirely 
empty.  The  milk  veins  along  the  belly  should  be 
large  and  prominent,  and  extend  forward  to  the  navel, 
losing  themselves,  apparently,  in  the  best  milkers,  in 
a  cavity  deep  enough  to  thrust  in  the  end  of  a  finger. 
The  teats  should  be  widely  set,  of  moderate  size,  and 
not  too  fleshy,  the  apertures  permitting  the  milk  to 
escape  by  an  easy  pressure  of  the  hand.  In  the  fol- 
lowing paragraphs  we  give  in  detail  the  precise  points 
of  a  good  "  milker,"  under  the  head  of — 

MiLK-MiRROR,  a  peculiar  quality  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  hair  around  and  on  the  cow's  udder 
and  adjacent  parts,  affording  a  generally  true  index  of 
her  qualities  as  a  milker.  The  marks  called  the 
milk-mirror,  or  escutcheon,  consist  of  certain  per- 
ceptible spots  on  and  around  the  udder,  on  which  the 
hair,  instead  of  growing  downward,  grows  upward. 
It  seems  well  established  that  cows  with  the  most 
perfect  milk-mirrors,  or  escutcheons,  are,  with  few  ex-, 
ceptions,  the  best  milkers  of  their  breed.  The  milk- 
mirror  is  recognized  by  the  upward-growing  direction 
of  the  hair  which  forms  it.  As  a  matter  of  course,  it 
is  partly  hidden  by  the  thighs,  the  udder,  and  the 
folds  of  the  skin,  but  is  always  recognizable  if  the 
hand  be  drawn  downward.  The  direction  of  the 
hair  of  the  milk-mirror  being  opposite  to  that  sur- 
rounding it,  may  frequently  be  distinguished  by  the  dif- 
ferent shades  of  light  reflected  by  it.  The  eye,  however, 
must  not  be  exclusively  relied  upon.  According  to  their 


cow. 


299 


position  milk-mirrors  may  be  divided  into  upper  and 
lower  tufts,  or  escutcheons  and  milk-mirrors,  properly 
so  called.  The  former  are  comparatively  very  small, 
and  are  situated  very  near  the  vulva.  They  are  com- 
mon on  ix)or  milking  races,  but  rarely  occur  on  the 
best  milch  cow.  They  consist  of  one  or  two  bands 
of  up-growing  hair  and  indicate  the  duration  or  length 
of  the  milk-dow.  The  larger  the  tufts  the  shorter  the 
period  of  the  milk-flow.  That  portion  of  the  mirror 
which   occupies  the   space   immediately  around  the 


Fig.  3.  Fig  4. 

Miik  Mirrors  cf  Jersey  Cerws. 

udder  may  be  found  in  all  cows,  the  quantity  of  their 
yield  being  determined  by  its  size.  In  other  cases, 
the  udder,  the  perineum  (the  space  between  the  udder 
and  the  vulva),  the  thighs  and  the  inner  surface  of 
the  legs  are  covered  with  this  up-growing  hair  or  milk- 
mirror.  There  will,  naturally,  be  many  irregularities 
of  form  in  the  escutcheon,  but  the  principle  stated 
above  with  regard  to  its  extent  and  perfection  wU  be 
found  sufficient  to  cover  nearly  all  cases,  and,  in  con- 
nection with  other  characteristic  signs  and  configura- 
tions, which  we  have  given  for  judging  accurately 
what  should  constitute  a  good  dairy  cow,  few  mistakes 
need  be  made. 

That  it  is  correct  as  a  rule,  is  sufficient  to  cause  it 
to  be  given  careful  study  and  attention.     We  do  not 


hesitate  to  say  that  he  who  will  study  carefully  the 
illustrations  we  give,  and  the  statements  made,  while 
he  will  find  many  varying  signs,  will  not  only  be  con- 
vinced of  the  accuracy  of  the  system,  but  will  be  able, 
either  in  the  cow  or  calf,  to  select  with  judgment. 
The  milk  sign  also  follows  in  the  bulls.  There  is  no 
point  in  judging  a  cow  so  little  understood  as  the  escut- 
cheon. The  conclusion  of  almost  every'  one  is,  that 
her  escutcheon  is  good  if  her  band  of  up-running  hair 
from  the  udder  extends  to  the  vulva  and  around  it. 

These  cows  with  the  broad  vertical  escutcheons  are 
nearly  always  parallel  cows,  that  is,  with  bodies  long 
but  not  large  and  with  the  under  line  parallel  with 
the  back.  Their  thighs  are  thin,  and  the  thigh  es- 
cutcheon shows  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh  rather  than 
on  the  rear. 

Next  comes  the  wedged-shaped  cow,  with  the  body 
shorter  but  very  large,  deep  in  the  flank,  and  very 
capacious.  This  form  does  not  usually  exhibit  the 
vertical  escutcheon  running  up  to  the  vulva,  but  with 
a  broader  thigh  may  exhibit  a  thigh  escutcheon  which 
is  preferable  to  the  other:  seeFig.  2.  In  both  vertical 
and  thigh  mirrors,  where  the  hair  runs  down,  intrud- 
ing on  the  udder,  as  low  as  above  the  dotted  lines,  as, 
in  Figs.  3  and  4,  it  damages  the  escutcheon.  If  you 
find  a  cow  with  the  hair  all  running  down,  and  be- 
tween the  thighs,  that  is,  with  no  up-running  hair, 
stamp  her  as  a  cipher  for  yielding  milk.  There  are 
times  when  the  udder  of  a  cow  with  an  escutcheon 
like  Fig.  4  will  be  enlarged  by  non-milking,  for  the 
purixjseof  deception.  It  is  always  safer  to  judge  by 
the  escutcheon  rather  than  by  the  large  size  of  the 
udder.  The  escutcheon  of  the  best  cows,  those  yield- 
ing the  most  and  continuing  the  longest,  will  be  found 
to  be  those  which  conform  to  Fig.  2.  The  vertical  es- 
cutcheon of  Fig.  r  would  not  injure  it ;  but  if  that  or- 
namental feature  has  to  be  at  the  expense  of  the 
thigh  escutcheon.  Fig  2  is  the  best  as  it  is. 
•  Many  think  that  the  escutcheon  of  the  bull  is  of 
little  moment,  so  that  he  has  a  good  look.  So  far  is 
this  from  being  the  case,  that  a  bull  with  a  mirror  like 
Fig.  4,  or  worse,  will  stamp  his  escutcheon  on,  and  to 
that  extent  damage,  his  daughters  out  of  cows  with 
escutcheons  as  choice  as  Fig.  2.  In  this  way  the 
daughters  of  some  of  the  best  cows  come  very  ordin- 
ary, while,  if  you  use  a  bull  marked  like  Fig.  2,  he 
will  make  a  poor  escutcheon  better,  and  will  improve 
the  best.  His  injury  or  benefit  will  be  double  accord- 
ing to  the  escutcheon  markings  under  the  body  in  front 
of  his  scrotum.  Hence  the  importance  of  the  dam  of 
a  bull  being  unexceptionable  in  her  udder  and  escut- 
cheon. Her  qualities  inherited  by  her  son  will  be 
transmitted  to  his  daughters. 

While  careful  as  to  escutcheons,  we  must  not  neg- 
lect the  other  essential  features  of  a  good  cow — the 
back,  skin,  hide,  rich  colored  skin,  and  the  fine  bone. 
Let  the  hair  be  soft  and  thickly  set,  and  let  the  skin  be 
mellow.  This  latter  quality  is  easily  determined  by 
grasping  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  the  skin 
at  the  rear  of  the  ribs,  or  the  double  thickness  at  the 
base  of  the  flank  that  joins  the  stifle-joint  to  the  body,  or 


3°° 


COW. 


that  on  the  inside  of  the  rump-bone  at  the  setting  on  of 
the  tail.     Let  the  teats  be  well  apart ;  let  them  yield 


Pig.  5. — Great  Milk  Mirrors  on  Holstein  Cows. 

a  full  and  free  stream  and  be  large  enough  without 
the  necessity,  in  milking,  of  pulling  them  between  the 
thumb  and  fore-fingers.  And  let  it  ever  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  large  yielder  must  be  well  fed. 

Training  the  Calf.  This  is  a  very  important 
feature  in  producing  good  milkers.  If  the  calf  has 
been  raised  by  hand,  that  is,  fed  with  milk  from  the 
pail,  it  will,  or  should  have,  become  so  gentle  and 
familiar  as  to  allow  itself  to  be  approached  readily, 
and  to  respond  to  the  call  of  its  master.  Many  per- 
sons at  this  time  name  every  calf,  and  thus  they  soon 
come  to  know  their  names  when  called.  If  firmness 
and  at  the  same  time  gentleness  have  been  used,  so 
that  the  calf  will  understand  that  there  is  nothing  to 
fear;  if  no  struggle  is  made,  it  is  well  on  the  way  to 
understand  what  is  further  expected  of  it.  It  should 
be  rubbed  and  curried  occasionally,  especially  on  those 
parts  of  the  body  that  itself  cannot  reach,  as  the  head, 
neck  and  shoulders ;  or,  if  kept  in  the  stable  constantly, 
it  should  be  brushed  all  over  at  least  once  a  day.  Here 
is  one  of  the  first  and  most  important  lessons.  At 
first,  the  calf  does  not  know  what  is  intended.  If  the 
master  gets  angry  and  beats  it,  it  will  ever  after  asso- 
ciate currying  and  brushing  with  a  beating ;  and  when 
it  gets  older  and  stronger,  in  the  constant  successions 
of  struggles  to  escape  punishment,  it  will  at  length 
findit  is  the  stronger  animal  of  the  two.  Thereafter  itself 
and  not  the  man  is  master.  The  object  of  currying  is 
not  to  give  pain.  It  is  an  operation  of  cleaning  that 
the  animal  cannot  perform  for  itself,  because  confined 


in  a  stable.  If  the  animal  is  turned  out  during  the 
day,  and  confined  only  at  night,  or  if  it  have  the 
range  of  the  yard  and  sheds  day  and  night,  the  cleaning 
is  not  needed.  Animals  can  and  do  perform  these  of- 
fices for  themselves  and  for  each  other  by  licking,  so 
far  as  necessary.  The  accumulating  scurf"  in  an  out- 
door life  is  a  provision  of  nature  for  the  protection  of 
the  animal.  It  should  not  be  touched.  In  the  stable, 
however,  it  is  different.  The  lack  of  exercise  tends  to 
a  sluggish  movement  of  the  blood,  and  hence  a  clean 
skin  becomes  one  of  the  most  active  integers  in  pre- 
serving the  health  of  the  animal.  In  using  the  comb 
or  brush,  or,  in  the  case  of  cattle,  the  card  and  brush, 
a  light  hand  with  the  comb  'and  card  will  do  better 
work  than  a  heavy  hand.  It  should  be  unnecessary 
to  say  that  about  the  bony  parts  the  card  or  curry- 
comb should  never  be  used. 

Haltering.  The  first  thing  a  calf  should  be  taught 
is  to  stand  quietly  when  tied  and  under  all  circum- 
stances. If  it  is  taught  this  by  being  tied  up  imme- 
diately upon  being  taken  from  the  cow  to  be  fed  milk, 
or  at  from  three  days  to  a  week  old,  there  will  be  no 
difficulty. 

Training  to  Milk.  In  training  to  stand  quietly 
while  being  milked,  the  udder  should  be  often  handled 
while  the  heifer  is  growing  up;  the  bag  should  be  rub- 
bed ;  it  should  be  pressed  and  the  teats  gently  pulled. 
This  need  take  but  very  little  time.  The  real  work 
comes  when  the  animal  is  to  be  milked.  There  are 
many  things  to  be  taken  into  consideration  here.  The 
heifer  must  be  put  in  a  pen  where  she  cannot  hurt 
herself,  and  where  the  milker  can  operate  easily ;  a 
pen  just  large  enough  for  the  heifer  to  stand  in,  five 
feet  high  and  tight  enough  so  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  the  heifer  injuring  herself,  and  with  an  opening  for 
the  milker  to  operate  through,  will  thoroughly  subdue 
the  wildest.  Generally,  all  that  is  needed  will  be  to 
tie  the  heifer  by  the  head,  and  then  patiently  show  her 
that  she  will  not  be  hurt.  She  will  soon  come  to  as- 
sociate the  act  of  milking  as  easing  the  udder  and 
thenceforward  will  stand  quietly,  unless  the  bag  or 


Fig.  6. — Bad  Management. 

teats  hurt  her.     If  so,  seek  the  cause  of  the  difficulty 
and  cure  it. 

If  the  animal  has  never  been  tied  up,  but  has  been 
handled  in  the  yard,  one  person  may  take  the  heifer 
by  the  horns,  while  another  milks.  If  she  be  very  re- 
fractory she  may  have  to  be  "nosed."  Seize  the  oflf 
horn  firmly  with  the  right  hand,  and  thrust  the  two 
first  fingers  and  thumb  of  the  left  hand  into  the  nos- 
trils, clasping  the  membrane  tightly  if  she  struggles 


cow. 


301 


severely.  So  soon  as  the  struggles  cease,  ease  the 
pressure  of  the  fingers  in  the  nostrils.  If  she  again 
struggles,  again  tighten  the  grasp.  Let  the  milker  use 
gentleness.  It  does  no  good  to  kick  an  animal ;  it 
may  do  much  harm.  If  the  heifer  kick,  it  is  probably 
because  she  is  hurt.  A  person  of  ordinary  strength 
need  not  be  kicked  while  milking,  unless  in  the  case 
of  a  cow  of  extraordinary  strength  and  viciousness. 
The  wrist  of  the  left  hand  holding  the  teat,  if  kept 
well  against  the  stifle,  and  pressed  firmly  back  when 
the  foot  is  raised,  will  generally  cause  it  to  be  set  down 
in  place  again.  Use  soothing  words  when  the  animal 
is  quiet,  and  low  but  firm  words  of  command  when 
refractory.  If  the  udder  is  inflamed,  as  is  very  often 
the  case  soon  after  calving,  bathe  it  carefully  with  cold 
water,  so  as  not  to  shock  the  animal.  She  will  soon 
come  to  associate  a  feeling  of  relief  with  the  opera- 
tion and  like  it.  In  fact,  the  whole  art  of  training 
may  be  summed  up  in  the  sentence ;  Use  discretion 
and  judgment,  and  show  yourself  superior  to  the 
brute — in  truth,  its  friendly  master.  The  conquering 
of  brute  force  by  brute  force  is  a  relic  of  barbarism. 
There  are  vicious  animals  asthereare  vicious  men;  there 
are  dangerous  animals  as  there  are  dangerous  men.  Both 
may  have  been  bred  or  educated  thus.  Vicious  men 
are  placed  where  they  cannot  injure  their  fellows ; 
vicious  animals  had  better  go  to  the  butcher — they 
are  as  unprofitable  to  breed  from  as  they  are  useless 
for  what  may  be  got  out  of  them. 


Fig.  7. — Result  of  Good  Handling, 

As  showing  the  effects  of  bad  and  good  handling, 
we  give  the  picture  of  a  cow  made  wild  and  vicious 
by  bad  handling  (Fig.  6),  and  that  of  a  cow  used  to 
kind  treatment  and  gentle  but  firm  handling  (Fig.  7). 
The  reader  can  draw  his  own  conclusions  as  to  which 
is  the  better  system. 

Feeding.  iVIilch  cows  ought  always  to  be  maintained 
in  good  condition.  When  they  are  ill-fed  in  winter, 
they  not  only  cease  to  give  a  due  proportion,  or  even 
any  proportion  whatever,  of  milk,  but  they  become  so 
thin  in  their  ordinary  juices  and  so  reduced  in  their 
whole  substance  that  when  restored  in  spring  to  a  fair 
degree  of  feeding,  they  spend,  in  filling  up  the  waste  of 
their  system,  a  large  proiX)rtion  of  the  time  and  the 
food  which  would  otherwise  be  employed  in  the  secre- 
tion of  milk.  Also,  when  they  decline  into  poor  con- 
dition during  the  months,  or  even  weeks  preceding 
calving,  they  afterward  experience  so  severe  and  pro- 
longed struggle  between  the  process  of  secretion  for 


making  up  their  own  substance  and  the  process  of 
secretion  for  supplying  milk,  that  they  will  yield  a  de- 
cidedly scanty  supply  of  milk  throughout  the  better 
portion  of  the  following  season.  They  ought  during 
the  whole  winter  to  be  well  fed,  comfortably  housed, 
abundantly  littered,  regularly  supplied  with  clean 
water,  occasionally  combed,  and  in  general  treated 
with  considerate  and  kindly  regard  to  their  sympathies, 
susceptibilities  and  wants.  It  is  poor  economy  to 
attempt  to  keep  too  many  cows  for  the  amount  of  food 
the  owner  can  furnish.  One  good  cow,  well  bred  and 
well  fed,  is  worth  two,  and  often  three,  ordinary 
scrubs,  jxjorly  fed  and  treated.  The  ordinary  rules 
for  feeding  stock,  elsewhere  laid  down  under  the  head 
of  "  feeding,"  in  Cattle  article,  apply  to  cows  ;  yet  there 
are  special  rules  applicable  only  to  milk-producing 
cattle.  Feed  regularly,  and  do  not  let  cows  become 
hungry  and  restless  by  waiting.  If  one  goes  into  any 
well-regulated  dairy  establishment  an  hour  before 
feeding,  scarcely  an  animal  will  rise  to  its  feet,  but  at 
the  hour  of  feeding  the  whole  herd  will  be  likely  to  rise 
and  seize  their  food  with  an  avidity  and  relish  not  to 
be  mistaken. 

It  is  impossible  to  prescribe  the  exact  food  that 
should  be  given  to  cows  throughout  the  country;  in 
fact,  no  arbitrary  rule  is  necessary.  Locality  and 
adaptability  to  products  must  determine  this  to  a  large 
degree.  It  has  been  found,  however,  in  the  practice 
of  the  successful  dairymen,  that  in  order  to  encourage 
the  largest  secretions  of  milk  in  stalled  cows,  one  of 
the  best  courses  is  to  feed  in  the  morning  with  cut 
feed,  consisting  of  hay,  oats,  millet  or  cornstalks,  mixed 
with  shorts,  and  Indian,  linseed,  or  cotton-seed  meal, 
thoroughly  moistened  with  water.  If  in  winter,  hot  or 
warm  water  is  far  preferable  to  cold.  If  given  at 
milking  time  the  cows  will  give  down  their  milk  much 
more  readily.  The  stalls  and  mangers  should  first  be 
well  cleaned  Roots  and  long  hay  may  be  given 
through  the  day,  and  at  the  evening  milking,  or  directly 
after,  another  generous  meal  of  cut  feed,  well  moist- 
ened with  water,  and  mixed,  as  in  the  morning.  The 
process  of  digestion  in  a  cow,  or  other  bovine,  goes 
on  best  when  the  stomach  is  distended,  and  for  this 
purpose  bulky  food  is  almost  as  necessary  as  nutri- 
tious aliment.  The  flavor  of  some  roots  and  veget- 
ables, as  cabbages  and  turnips,  is  more  apt  to  be 
imparted  to  the  milk  when  fed  on  an  empty  stomach 
than  otherwise.  Dairymen  who  wish  to  excel  in  the 
care  of  their  cows  curry  them  each  day,  though  many 
do  not  practice  this  laborious  treatment.  An  excel- 
lent feed  for  cows  in  the  winter  is  the  hay  from  the 
second  crop  of  clover,  well  cured  to  prevent  heating, 
becoming  musty  or  rotting.  The  flow  of  milk  from 
this  kind  of  feed,  accompanied  by  carrots  or  sugar 
beets,  is  greatly  stimulated.  Milk  may  be  regarded  as 
a  material  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese ; 
and  according  to  the  purjwse  for  which  the  milk  is  in- 
tended to  be  employed  the  cow  should  be  differently 
fed.  Butter  contains  carbon,  oxygen  and  hydrogen, 
and  no  nitrogen.  Cheese,  on  the  contrary,  is  rich  in 
nitrogen.     Food  which  contains  much  fatty  matter,  or 


302 


cow. 


substances  which  in  the  animal  system  are  readily 
converted  into  fat,  will  tend  to  increase  the  proportion 
of  cream  and  milk.  On  the  other  hand,  the  propor- 
tion of  caseine  or  cheesy  matter  in  milk  is  increased 
by  the  use  of  highly  nitrogenized  food.  Those,  then, 
who  desire  much  cream,  or  who  produce  cream  for 
the  manufacture  of  butter,  select  food  likely  to  increase 
the  proixsrtion  of  butter  to  the  milk.  On  the  contrary, 
where  the  principal  object  is  the  production  of  milk 
rich  in  curd,  clover,  peas,  bran,  and  plants  which 
abound  in  the  desired  elements,  should  be  fed.  The 
practice  of  "  soiling,"  or  stall  feeding,  or  feeding  in  the 
yard  the  year  round — summer  as  well  as  winter — has 
been  on  the  increase  for  the  last  20  years.  This  sub- 
ject is  elsewhere  treated  under  its  appropriate  head. 
It  can  be  said  here,  however,  that  for  the  perfect  feed- 
ing of  cows  for  profit,  when  pastures  become  short  in 
the  summer  or  fall,  green  food,  grown  for  the  purpose, 
should  be  cut  and  fed  to  them,  so  that  they  may  not 
fall  off  in  flesh  or  milk  production.  Uniformity  of 
feeding  and  abundance  of  food  the  year  round  should 
be  constantly  held  in  view  by  the  keeper  of  cows. 
The  most  natural  and  healthful  food  for  cows  is,  of 
course,  green  grass ;  hence  succulent  vegetables  and 
roots  are  always  grateful  to  milk  cows,  and  plenty  of 
good,  pure  water  is  a  thing  indispensable. 

Shelter  and  Kindness.  No  animals  feel  the  in- 
fluence of  kindly  treatment  and  protection  more  than 
cows,  and  the  milk-pails  invariably  show  the  character 
of  their  treatment  in  these  respects.  The  less  cows 
are  exposed  to  the  cold  of  winter  the  better.  They 
eat  less,  thrive  better,  and  give  more  milk  when  housed 
all  the  time  than  when  exposed  to  the  cold.  During 
spring  and  fall,  and  even  summer,  there  often  occur 
violent  storms,  and  in  the  two  former  seasons  the  weather 
is  cold.  At  such  times,  though  the  herd  has  been 
turned  out  to  pasture,  the  cows  should  be  driven  to 
shelter.  Kindness  of  treatment  is  another  important 
requisite  in  the  management  of  cows.  They  should 
always  be  driven  slowly,  and  never  dogged  into  a  run 
to  and  from  the  pasture.  Quietness  in  the  stable  or 
yard  during  milking  time,  and  a  kindly  tone  of  voice, 
will  tell  on  the  disposition  of  the  cows.  All  whipping, 
pounding,  kicking,  or  other  maltreatment  of  cows 
should  never  be  indulged  in. 

Milking.  Frecjuent  milking  at  perfectly  regular 
intervals,  is  essential  to  the  maintaining  of  a  regular 
secretion  of  milk,  and  has  a  powerful  effect  in  increas- 
ing the  quantity  of  it.  Every  milking  ought  to  occur 
at  precisely  regular  intervals  from  the  preceding;  for 
if  later  than  that  interval,  it  will  allow  the  udder  to  be 
gorged,  and  to  throw  back  a  portion  of  its  contents 
into  the  cow's  system  by  absorption;,  and  if  earlier 
than  the  interval,  it  will  occasion  the  udder  to  have 
too  small  capacity  for  the  milk  which  would  naturally 
be  secreted  during  the  longer  interval  that  is  to  fol- 
low. Every  drop  of  milk,  also,  ought  to  be  drawn  off 
at  each  milking;  for  when  any  portion  is  allowed  to 
remain,  it  seems  to  be  absorbed  back  into  the  system, 
or  to  serve  as  an  indication  to  the  secretory  vessels 
to  secrete  a  proiX)rtionately  less  quantity  during  the 


Thus  we  see  how   easily  a  cow 


following  interval. 

can  be  "dried  up.' 

To  Prevent  a  Cow  Sucking  Herself.     A  very 

simple,  and  said  to  be 
effective  means,  is  to 
take  a  tough  hickory 
stick  14  inches  long, 
^  of  an  inch  thick  in 
the  center,  sharpened 
to  a  jx)int  at  each  end ; 
cut  a  groove  around  the 
center,  half  an  inch 
wide,  and  half  the 
depth  of  the  thickness 
of  the  wood.     Whittle 

Fig.  8 — Nozzle  Board,  in  Place.        each     end    niccly    tO    a 

point,  or  leave  it  somewhat  blunt,  and  insert  a  sharp- 
ened piece  of  wire  in  each  end.  Make  a  hole  in  the 
animal's  nose,  in  the  soft  portion,  but  close  up  to  the 
hard  membrane  of  the  nostrils,  as  you  would  for  ring- 
ing a  bull,  and  small  enough  so  it  will  require  consid- 
^^^  (— — .,„^^  erable  pressure  to  slip  the  bulge  of 
r  C  J  \  the  stick  until  it  reaches  the  middle 
V.  J  notch,  when  it   will   remain   fixed. 

^v -^   This  does  not  prevent  the  animal 

Fig.  c^.-Nozzie  Board,  from  feeding,  nor  being  fastened  in 
stanchions ;  and  it  must  be  an  inveterate  sucker  that 
will  draw  her  milk  with  this  jewel  in  her  nose. 

To  Prevent  Kicking.     Tie  the  cow  in  the  stable^ 

with  a  good' 
stro ng  chain, 
then  draw  a 
strong  cord  quite 
tightly  around 
the  girth,or  buck- 
le a  strap  around 
the  legs  and  fast- 
en it  to  a  ring  in 
the  wall  behind, 
so  the  cord  will 
be  loose  when  at 

Fig.  10.— Sel/-Adjusting  Cow-Halter.  reSt,    and    yet    SO 

tight  that  the  cow  cannot  get  her  leg  forward  to  do 
mischief. 

Tying  a  Cow.  A  most  excellent  manner  of  tying 
a  cow  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  10.  A  short  chain  is 
fastened  around  her  neck  and  to  a  ring  which  plays 
loosely  around  an  upright  ix)st.  This  prevents  her 
from  becoming  entangled  in  it  and  gives  her  power  to 
move  at  will. 

In  making  this  tether  use  a  piece  of  half-inch  rope, 
50  or  60  feet  in  length,  and  two  iron  stakes.  These 
stakes  should  be  of  three-quarter  inch  iron,  and  18 
inches  long,  and  pointed  at  the  lower  end,  so  as  to 
drive  into  the  ground  readily.  The  upper  ends  are 
turned  to  form  an  eye,  just  large  enough  to  admit  the 
rope,  each  end  of  the  rope  being  put  through  the 
eye  in  one  of  the  stakes,  and  knotted.  Tlie  rope  be- 
ing stretched  in  the  desired  portion  of  the  (lasture, 
the  cow  is  attached  to  this  by  a  rope  or  small  chain. 


cow. 


303 


10  or  12  feet  long,  or  of  such  length  as  the  abundance 
of  the  pasturage  may  make  desirable.  This,  which  is 
the  tether  proper,  has  at  one  end  an  iron  ring,  large 
enough  to  pass  over  the  eyes  at  the  ends  of  the  stakes, 
and  the  other  end  is  fastened  around  the  cow's  horns, 


FiG.  II. — A  DuubU'Siaked  Tether, 

observing  always  to  have  a  swivel  in  the  center  of  this 
chain  or  rope.     Use  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 1. 

This  will  be  found  an  excellent  method  of  staking 
out  cattle,  as  it  is  imjwssible  for  cows  to  snarl  them- 
selves up,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  with  a  long  rope 
fastened  at  one  end.  It  is  also  a  great  saving,  as  the 
rope  will  last  much  longer  than  when  a  great  length  is 
drawn  around  through  the  wet  grass.  Another  thing 
in  its  favor  is,  you  can  stake  the  cow  on  a  long  narrow 
strip,  as  on  the  border  of  a  piece  of  grain,  by  short- 
ening the  rope  or  chain  by  which  she  is  attached  to 
the  horizontal  rope. 

By  Fig.  12  we  il- 
lustrate an  excellent 
method  of  leading  a 
cow.  After  the  hal- 
ter has  been  attached 
to  the  cow's  horns 
,  take  a  half-hitch  in  it 
around  one  ear  in 
such  a  way  that  it 
will  not  slip  off.  The 
engraving  shows  how 
this  is  done  better 
than  words  can  de- 

FiG.  \i.~Manner  0/  Leading  a  Caiu.       Scribc. 

Parturition.  This  is  an  operation  of  nature  which 
most  farmers  are  familiar  with,  especially  with  cows. 
Before  speaking  of  the  delivery  of  the  calf  we  give 
such  infonnation  as  will  enable  the  farmer  to  tell 
whether  his  cow  is  pregnant  or  not. 

Pregnancy.  The  symptoms  of  pregnancy  in  its 
early  stage  were  formerly  deemed  unsatisfactory.  The 
period  of  being  in  season,  which  commonly  lasts  three 
or  four  days,  and  then  ceases  for  awhile  and  returns  in 
about  three  weeks,  might  entirely  pass  over:  and,  al- 
though it  was  then  probable  that  conception  had  taken 


place,  yet  in  a  great  many  instances  the  hopes  of  the 
breeder  were  disappointed.  It  was  not  until  between 
the  third  and  fourth  months,  when  the  belly  began  to 
enlarge,  or,  in  many  cases,  considerably  later,  and 
when  the  motions  of  the  foetus  might  be  seen,  or,  at 
all  events,  felt  by  pressing  on  the  right  flank,  that  the 
farmer  could  be  assured  his  cow  was  in  calf.  The 
greatest  of  improvements  in  veterinary  practice,  the 
application  of  the  ear  to  the  chest  and  belly  of  various 
animals,  in  order  to  detect  by  the  different  sounds, 
which  after  a  short  time  will  be  easily  recognized,  the 
state  of  the  circulation  through  most  of  the  organs, 
and,  consequently,  the  precise  seat  and  degree  of  in- 
flammation and  danger,  has  now  enabled  the  breeder 
to  ascertain  the  existence  of  pregnancy  at  as  early  a 
stage  as  six  or  eight  weeks.  The  beating  of  the  heart 
of  the  calf  may  then  be  distinctly  heard,  twice,  or 
more  than  twice  as  frequently  as  that  of  the  mother; 
and  each  pulsation  will  betray  the  singular  double 
beating  of  the  foetal  heart.  This  will  also  be  accom- 
panied by  audible  rushing  of  the  blood  through  the 
vessels  of  the  placenta.  The  ear  should  be  applied  to 
the  right  flank,  beginning  on  the  higher  part  of  it,  and 
gradually  shifting  downward  and  backward.  These 
sounds  will  thus  soon  be  heard,  and  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. 

Treatment  before  Calving.  Little  alteration  needs 
to  be  made  in  the  management  of  the  cow  for  the  first 
seven  months  of  pregnancy,  except  that,  as  she  has 
not  only  to  yield  milk  for  the  profit  of  the  fanner,  but 
to  nourish  the  growing  foetus  within,  she  should  be 
well,  yet  not  too  luxuriantly  fed.  The  half-starved 
cow  will  not  adequately  discharge  this  double  duty, 
nor  provide  sufficient  nutriment  for  the  calf  when  it  is 
dropped,  while  the  cow  in  high  condition  will  be  dan- 
gerously disposed  to  inflammation  and  fever,  when,  at 
the  time  of  parturition,  she  otherwise  would  be  sus- 
ceptible of  the  power  of  every  sUmulus.  If  the  season 
and  the  convenience  of  the  farmer  will  allow,  she  will 
be  better  at  pasture,  at  least  for  some  hours  each  day, 
than  when  confined  altogether  to  the  cow-house. 

The  reason  most  commonly  given  for  letting  the 
cow  run  dry  for  a  month  or  two  before  calving  is,  that 
after  a  long  period  of  milking,  her  system  requires 
rest,  that  she  will  give  more  milk  and  do  better  the 
coming  season  than  if  milked  up  to  the  time  of  calv- 
ing. This  is  all  true,  and  a  reason  sufficient  in  itself 
for  drying  off"  the  cow  some  weeks  before  parturition ; 
but  there  is  another  important  reason  for  the  practice, 
which  is,  that  the  mixture  of  the  old  milk  with  the 
new  secretion  is  liable  to  end  in  an  obstinate  case  of 
garget.  To  prevent  any  ill  effects  from  calving,  the 
cow  should  not  be  suffered  to  get  too  fat,  which  high 
feeding  after  drying  off  might  induce. 

Calving.  The  period  of  gestation  is  about  284  or 
285  days  ;  but  cows  sometimes  overrun  their  time,  and 
have  been  known  to  go  315  days,  and  even  more, 
while  they  now  and  then  fall  short  of  it  and  have  been 
known  to  calve  in  220  days.  If  they  go  much  over 
the  average  time  the  calf  will  generally  be  a  male. 


304 


CO  IV. 


Cows  are  sometimes  liable  to  slink  their  calves,  and 
this  usually  takes  place  about  the  middle  of  their 
pregnancy.  To  avoid  the  evil  consequence,  as  far  as 
ix)ssible,  they  should  be  watched,  and  if  a  cow  is 
found  to  be  uneasy  and  feverish,  or  wandering  about 
away  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  and  apparently  long- 
ing for  something  she  cannot  get,  she  ought  to  be  taken 
away  from  the  others.  If  a  cow  slinks  her  calf  while 
in  the  pasture  with  others,  they  will  be  liable  to  be 
affected  in  the  same  way.  In  many  cases  physicking 
will  quiet  the  cow's  excitement  in  the  condition  above 
described,  and  prove  of  essential  benefit.  A  dose  of 
I  pound  of  Epsom  or  Glauber  salts,  and  i  ounce  of 
ginger,  mixed  in  a  pint  of  thick  gruel,  should  be 
given.  First  give  the  ginger  and  immediately  follow 
with  the  salts  in  a  little  thinner  gruel.  When  the  cow 
once  slinks  her  calf,  there  is  great  risk  in  breeding 
from  her.  She  is  liable  to  do  the  same  again.  When 
the  slinking  is  caused  by  sudden  fright  or  over  exer- 
tion, or  any  offensive  matter,  such  as  blood  or  the  dead 
carcasses  of  animals,  this  result  is  not  so  much  to  be 
feared.  When  about  to  calve  the  cow  ought  not  to  be 
disturbed  by  too  constant  watching.  The  natural  pre- 
sentation of  the  foetus  is  with  the  head  lying  ujxjn  the 
the  fore  legs.  If  in  this  position,  nature  will  generally 
do  all.  If  the  presentation  is  unnatural  and  the  labor 
has  been  long  and  ineffectual,  some  assistance  is  re- 
quired. The  hand,  well  greased,  may  be  introduced 
and  the  position  of  the  calf  changed ;  and  when  in  a 
proper  position,  a  cord  should  be  tied  round  the  fore 
legs  above  the  hoofs ;  but  no  effort  should  be  made  to 
draw  out  the  calf  until  natural  throes  are  repeated. 
If  the  nostril  of  the  calf  has  protruded,  and  the  posi- 
tion is  then  found  to  be  unnatural,  the  head  cannot 
be  thriist  back  without  destroying  the  life  of  the  calf 
The  false  position  most  usually  presented  is  that  of 
the  head  first,  with  the  legs  doubled  under  the  belly. 
A  cord  is  then  fixed  around  the  lower  jaw,  when  it  is 
pushed  back,  to  give  an  opportunity  to  adjust  the  fore 
leg,  if  possible.  The  object  must  now  be  to  save  the 
life  of  the  cow. 

The  cases  of  false  presentation,  though  compara- 
tively rare,  are  so  varied  that  no  directions  could  be 
given  which  would  be  applicable  in  all  cases.  After 
calving  the  cow  will  require  but  little  care,  if  she  is 
in  the  bam  and  protected  from  changes  of  weather. 
A  warm  bran  wash  is  usually  given  and  the  state  of 
the  udder  examined.  Calving,  however,  is  often  at- 
tended with  feverish  excitement.  The  change  of  pow- 
erful action  of  the  womb  to  the  udder  causes  much 
constitutional  disturbance  and  local  inflammation, 
may  extend  to  the  whole  system  and  cause  milk  fever. 
For  description  and  treatment  of  this  disease,  refer  to 
it  under  head  of  Diseases,  in  Cattle  article. 

Retention  of  the  Placenta,  or  Afterbirth.  If  the 
cow  is  gone  her  full  time  with  calf,  and  is  in  a  healthy 
condition,  the  afterbirth  will  not  be  retained  long 
after  she  has  given  birth  to  her  calf  When  a  cow 
does  not  cleanse  properly  and  within  a  reasonable 
time,  there  is  then  something  otherwise  wrong  with 
her  health,  such  as   debility  or  want  of  vitality  in  the 


system.  It  is  this  that  must  be  looked  to,  and  not  the 
want  of  timely  cleansing  that  demands  attention,  as 
being  the  cause  of  the  cow  not  doing  well  after  calving. 
Remedy  these  existing  causes  and  the  cow  will  cleanse 
well  enough.  Contrary  to  the  generally  received 
opinion  of  the  farmers  and  others,  the  retention  of  the 
afterbirth  for  a  day  or  two  \vill  do  no  harm  provided 
that  decomposition  does  not  take  place  in  the  after- 
birth ;  for,  in  such  cases,  the  whole  system  of  the 
cow  is  apt  to  be  contaminated  and  poisoned. 

Treatment.  Cows  not  having  cleansed  properly 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  calving,  should  be 
given  the  following  mixture:  Epsom  salts,  i  jxiund; 
powdered  foenugreek,  i  ounce;  caraway  seeds,  ^ 
ounce  ;  mix,  and  give  in  three  or  four  bottles  of  warm 
ale,  porter,  or  warm  water,  sweetened  with  molasses. 
This  mixture  not  having  the  desired  effect  in  twelve 
hours,  the  hand,  well-greased,  should  be  introduced, 
and  the  afterbirth  at  the  attachments,  called  coty- 
ledons, gently  pressed.  This  must  not  be  accompanied 
with  much  pulling,  as  pressure  with  the  finger  and 
thumb  will  be  all  that  is  wanted.  This  operation 
may  be  followed  by  giving  the  cow  a  little  warm  ale 
or  molasses-water,  with  half  an  ounce  of  powdered 
ergot  of  rye ;  and,  in  half  an  hour,  an  additional  half 
ounce.  This  will  cause  contraction  of  the  womb  and 
expulsion  of  the  placenta.  When  decomposition  or 
putrefaction  of  the  afterbirth  has  taken  place,  which 
is  known  by  the  black  color,  the  womb  should  be  well 
washed  out  with  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 
Administer,  also,  by  the  mouth,  one  ounce,  three 
times  in  a  day,  of  sulphate  of  soda  for  a  week,  to 
neutralize  any  of  the  poison  of  putrefaction  that  may 
have  been  absorbed  into  the  blood.  Give  the  cow 
good  and  nutritious  feed  to  support  her  strength. 

Spaying.  This  is  the  name  given  to  an  operation 
for  the  removal  of  the  ovaries,  or  female  testicles,  from 
the  milch  cow  and  young  female  cattle.  The  object 
of  the  removal  of  the  ovaries  from  young  cows  that 
never  have  had  a  calf,  is  to  prevent  them  from  ever 
having  a  desire  for  the  male,  so  that  she  will  be  more 
easily  fattened  and  fitted  for  market.  Young  cows  so 
operated  upon  are  continued  to  be  called  heifers. 

The  Advantage  of  Spaying  Coivs.  The  following 
are  the  reasons  why  dair}'men  should  spay  their  cows, 
when  not  intended  for  breeding : 

1.  Spayed  cows  are  more  easily  kept  in  good  con- 
dition than  cows  not  spayed. 

2.  They  are  less  liable  to  sickness  of  an  epizootic 
kind,  and  when  sick,  more  certainly  and  easily  cured. 

3.  ^Vhen  epizootic  diseases  are  present  in  the 
vicinity,  or  even  in  the  herd,  spayed  cows  are  always 
in  condition  and  fit  for  the  butcher.  To  prevent  loss 
and  save  expense  in  the  treatment,  with  the  attendant 
risk  of  loss  of  some,  and  loss  of  condition  and  milk  of 
all  that  are  affected,  they  can  be  sold  without  loss — 
which  is  not  the  case  with  cows  not  spayed,  and  when 
pleuro-pneumonia  is  among  them. 

4.  Spayed  cows  give  the  same  quantity  and  quality 
of  milk  all  the  year  round  if  they  are  properly  fed  and 
cared  for. 


CO  WHAGE— CRACKER. 


305 


5.  Ten  spayed  cows  will  give  the  year  around  as 
much  milk  as  double  the  number  of  cows  not  spayed, 
thus  saving  an  interest  on  the  outlay  for  ten  cows,  to- 
gether with  absence  of  risk  from  loss'  of  some  of  the 
principal  by  death  of  one  or  more,  by  sickness  or 
accident,  not  to  speak  of  the  feed  of  ten  cows.  Be- 
tween the  feed  of  ten  cows  and  their  manure,  the 
farmer  can  best  estimate  the  difference  in  value. 

6.  With  spayed  cows  there  is  no  risk  to  run  from 
milk  fever,  nor  trouble  with  cows  called  bullers. 

7.  To  fatten  a  cow,  spay  her  instead  of  giving  her 
the  bull,  as  is  the  present  custom,  by  which  feed 
and  time  are  consumed,  and  the  animal  is  not  made 
very  fat  after  all ;  for  she  has  to  provide  the  fattening 
substance  to  the  calf  in  the  womb,  which,  if  she  had 
been  spayed,  would  have  been  appropriated  to  her- 
self; nor  is  this  all,  for  the  calf  in  the  belly  is  at  once 
discounted  by  the  butcher,  as  it  is  not  a  salable 
article  in  market. 

8.  Spayed  cows  have  no  calves  to  slink. 

Having  thus  had  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  advan- 
tages to  be  derived  from  spayed  cows,  let  us  look  in 
the  same  manner  at  the  disadvantages  of  spayed 
ones. 

1.  The  expense  of  the  operation  and  attendant 
risk  of  tbe  animal  dying — although  this  is  not  great — 
(about  one  in  a  hundred).  The  expense  of  the  opera- 
tion will  be  from  $3  to  $5,  which  will  depend  upon 
the  distance  the  operator  has  to  travel,  and  how  many 
animals  are  to  be  operated  upon. 

2.  Spayed  cows  are  apt  to  accumulate  fat  and  flesh, 
so  that  they  will  become  dry  much  sooner  than  cows 
not  spayed.  Still  there  can  be  little  loss,  for  a  fat  cow 
is  always  ready  for  sale.  These,  then,  are  the  ob- 
jections to  spaying  of  cows,  if  objections  they  may  be 
called. 

Diseases.  Notwithstanding  the  frequent  and 
sudden  changes  to  which  our  climate  is  subject,  the 
diseases  to  which  dairy-stock  are  liable  with  us  are  not 
numerous,  and  if  judiciously  treated  may,  in  most 
cases,  be  made  to  yield  to  ordinary  remedies.  Pure 
air,  pure  water,  good  pasture,  and  thoroughly  clean 
stalls,  with  a  frequent,  judicious,  and  gradual  change 
of  food,  keep  dairy-stock  in  a  condition  which  is  the 
best  preservative  against  disease.  Nature,  unassisted, 
is  then  able  to  fight  down  any  ordinary  ailment.  The 
barbarous  antiquated  methods  of  bleeding,  boring  the 
horns,  and  cutting  off  the  tail,  etc.,  should  never  be 
thought  of  by  enlightened  people  of  this  day.  For 
diseases  of  the  cow  and  treatment,  see  Diseases,  in 
Cattle  article. 

Cowhage  (cow'hage),  spelled  also  "  cowage,  " 
"cow-itch,"  etc-,  is  a  plant  whose  pods  have  small  bris- 
tles.    The  pods  can  be  obtained  at  drug  stores. 

Care  must  be  used  in  removing  the  bristles,  for  they 
are  like  nettles,  and  if  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
hands  or  face,  or  any  part  of  the  skin,  they  will  pro- 
duce a  most  distressing  itching.  The  bristles  or  down 
which  covers  the  ix)ds  is  used  as  a  never-failing  rem- 
edy for  worms,  acting  mechanically,  by  cutting  and 

20 


piercing  them  to  death,  when  they  are  expelled  by  a 
brisk  cathartic,  to  be  given  the  next  day.  The  man- 
ner of  using  it  is  to  carefully  scrape  it  from  the  jxid  in 
a  little  molasses,  until  you  have  got  about  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  tire  article  into  a  tablesiX)onful  or  two  of  molas- 
ses; it  is  then  to  be  put  carefully  into  the  mouth,  and 
swallowed  so  that  none  of  it  gets  upon  the  skin  out- 
side. Cowhage  does  not  seem  to  make  any  impression 
on  mucous  surfaces,  and  therefore  produces  no  injury 
to  the  patient  after  once  fairly  in  the  mouth  and  swal- 
lowed. With  proper  care,  therefore,  in  handling,  it 
may  be  regarded  as  a  safe  and  very  certain  remedy 
for  worms.  The  dose  is  from  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls, 
given  in  molasses,  to  be  followed  always,  in  about 
twelve  hours  afterward,  with  an  active  purgative. 
Should  any  of  it  get  on  the  hands,  or  other  parts,  and 
produce  itching,  apply  sweet  oil  or  lard. 

Cow  Pea,  the  Southern  bean;  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable forage  crops  of  the  South.  It  grows  luxuriantly, 
smothering  down  all  weeds;  valuable  even  to  plant 
between  rows  of  potatoes,  or  other  farm  plants,  to 
keep  down  weeds.  Late  in  the  season  it  is  mowed  off, 
and  is  easily  preserved  in  silos  for  winter  use.  Or  it 
can  be  pulled  up  and  ensilaged,  and  during  the  winter 
the  cattle  will  eat  it  roots  and  all.  Where  the  seed 
matures,  it  makes  a  highly  nutritious  soup.  There  are 
different  varieties — black,  white  and  black-eyed. 

Cow  Pox,  in  farriery,  a  disease  affecting  the  teats 
of  cows.  This  disease  appears  in  the  form  of  bluish 
vesicles  surrounded  by  inflammation,  elevated  at  the 
edge  and  depressed  in  the  center,  and  containing  lymph. 
By  the  use  of  the  virus  of  this  disease  has  originated 
the  present  system  of  vaccination  as  a  preventive  of 
the  dreaded  small-jMX. 

Crabapple :  see  Siberian  Apple,  page  46 

Cracker.  The  fundamental  idea  of  cracker,  as  an 
article  of  food,  is  a  small,  unleavened,  crisp  cake,  made 
from  flour,  and  so  dry  that  it  will  keep  for  a  long  time, 
deriving  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  "  cracks  "  be- 
tween the  teeth  when  one  is  eating  it.  This  definition 
suggests,  also,  the  main  principles  to  be  observed  in 
making  them.  Home-made  crackers  are  better  than 
those  sold  at  the  groceries. 

Common  Crackers.  Take  butter,  one  cup ;  salt,  one 
teasixion ;  flour,  two  quarts.  Rub  thoroughly  together 
with  the  hand,  and  wet  up  with  cold  water;  beat  well, 
and  beat  in  flour  to  make  quite  brittle  and  hard;  then 
pinch  off  pieces  and  roll  out  each  cracker  by  itself,  if 
you  wish  them  to  resemble  bakers'  crackers. 

Soda  Crackers.  Take  nine  cups  of  flour,  before 
sifting,  one  cup  of  lard,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one 
of  soda  (and  two  of  cream  tartar,  if  you  like) ;  rub  all 
thoroughly  in  the  flour,  then  add  two  cups  of  cold 
water,  mix  well  and  roll  thin,  prick  with  a  fork  and 
bake  quickly. 

Sugar  Crackers.  Flour,  4  pounds ;  loaf  sugar  and 
butter,  of  each,  y^  ix)und;  water,  i^  pints.  Make 
as  above. 

Oatmeal  Crackers.   Sift   three  cups  of  oatmeal 


3o6 


CRADLE— CRANBERR  V. 


and  mix  it  with  two  cups  of  rich  milk.  Set  in  a  cool 
place  for  six  hours.  Sift  a  cupful  of  Graham  flour 
with  a  teaspoon  of  salt  and  one  of  baking  powder. 
Work  this  into  the  oatmeal  to  make  a  dough.  Roll 
the  dough  to  the  thickness  of  a  quarter  of  ar>  inch, 
using  com  meal  to  dust  the  board.  Cut  into  squares, 
lay  on  a  greased  tin,  wash  the  surface  with  milk,  and 
bake  in  a  moderate  oven  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  let  them  bum. 

Bread  Crackers.  Take  i  pound  of  bread  dough 
after  it  has  risen ;  add  two  ounces  of  butter  or  lard ; 
work  well  in  dough ;  let  rise  again ;  roll  out  very  thin ; 
cut  in  cakes  and  bake  till  dry. 

Graham  Crackers.  Have  some  soft  water,  either 
cold  or  tepid,  in  a  mixing  dish,  and  sift  nice  Graham 
flour  slowly  through  the  fingers  into  the  water,  stirring 
it  in  until  too  sriff  to  manage  with  the  spoon ;  then 
mold  the  dough  on  a  board  with  the  hands  until  it  is 
about  as  stiff"  as  for  common  biscuit.  Roll  it  with  a 
rolling-pin  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  cut 
with  a  round  cookie  cutter,  and  lay  on  a  baking  tin, 
not  greased  but  dusted  with  flour,  so  the  cakes  will 
not  touch  each  other.  Bake  about  thirty  minutes  in  a 
pretty  hot  oven,  making  them  sharp  and  crusty  or 
tender  as  preferred.  Take  them  from  the  oven  into  a 
pan  or  bowl  and  lay  a  napkin  over  them  to  steam 
awhile,  then  lay  them  in  neat  little  piles  on  plates  for 
the  table.  The  "Graham  crackers'  sold  at  the  gro- 
ceries, either  sweetened  or  unsweetened,  are  no  more 
healthful  than  those  made  of  bolted  flour,  for  there 
is  in  reality  very  little  Graham  flour  in  them. 

To  freshen  old  crackers,  put  them  into  a  hot  oven 
for  about  three  minutes. 

The  adulteration  of  city-made  or  "store  "  crack- 
ers consists  mainly  in  using  poor  flour,  rotten  dough, 
sulphuric  acid,  ammonia,  etc.  All  cheap  crackers  are 
unfit  to  eat,  while  a  high  price  in  no  wise  insures  a 
good  article. 

Cradle,  for  cutring  grain,  a  scythe  furnished  with 
slender  wooden  fingers  to  gather  and  lay  the  grain 
evenly. 

Cramp  Colic :  see  Colic. 

Cramps  are  irregular  spasmodic  contractions  of  the 
muscles  of  the  whole  or  diff"erent  parts  of  the  body, 
causing  most  severe  pain  by  the  knotty  and  hardened 
state  into  which  their  fibres  are  contracted.  Though 
cramp  may  involve  the  greater  number  of  the  muscles 
at  once,  the  parts  most  generally  aff"ected  are  those  of 
the  feet,  legs,  thighs,  abdomen  and  arms.  The  cause 
sometimes  proceeds  from  the  sudden  application  of 
cold  to  the  heated  body,  damp  sheets,  wet  feet,  or  wet 
clothes ;  the  irritation  produced  on  the  nervous  system 
by  the  absorption  of  lead,  arsenic,  or  other  mineral 
poisons,  and  the  exhausUon  on  long-continued  evacu- 
ations, as  in  cholera ;  from  the  specific  action  of  some 
animal  virus,  as  in  the  bite  of  venomous  reptiles,  and 
in  bathing,  from  coming  in  contact  with  cold  springs, 
and  a  too  lengthened  stay  in  the  water. 

Treatment.  Friction  will  always  be  found  the  most 
valuable  means  for  subduing  cramps  whether  general 


or  local ;  and  if  nothing  else  can  be  obtained  the 
hand  alone,  or  a  piece  of  flannel,  if  properly  used, 
may  be  always  made  of  service.  When  a  hot  bath 
can  be  obtained,  it  should  always  be  employed  imme- 
diately, and  friction  used  while  in  the  water.  For 
the  more  local  kinds  of  cramp,  fomentation,  an  em- 
brocation of  camphorated  oil,  turpentine  and  spirits 
of  hartshorn  is  to  be  employed,  rubbed  in  with  the 
hand  in  the  direction  of  the  muscular  fibers.  The 
onlyintemal  remedy  demanded  is  an  occasional  draught, 
composed  of  i  ounce  of  brandy,  ^  drachm  of  sal-vol- 
atile, 25  drops  of  laudanum,  15  drops  of  ether,  and  2 
ounces  of  water.     See  Drowning. 

Cranberry.  The  cranberry  is  a  familiar  trailing 
shrub  growing  wild  in  swampy,  sandy  meadows  and 
mossy  bogs  in  the  northern  portions  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri  river,  and  producing  an 
eUiptical,  or  oval,  very  acid,  red  frait. 

Cultivation.  With  a  machine  or  otherwise  pare 
off  the  surface  of  a  swamp  or  meadow,  where  inun- 
dation is  practicable,  cover  the  surface  with  a  few 
inches  of  sand,  set  out  the  plants  12  to  18  inches 
apart,  either  with  or  without  their  roots,  keep  them 
clean  from  weeds  and  grass  two  or  three  years,  and 
they  will  cover  the  ground,  producing  the  first  year 
after  this  probably  50  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  next 
year  100,  and   after  that  possibly  200  to  even  400 


ViG,i.—BeU  Cranierry, 

bushels  per  acre ;  but  80  to  100  is  the  average.  Peaty 
soil  is  good  almost  anywhere  in  the  latitude  of  the 
Lake  region.  Flooding  is  not  necessary  until  the  third 
winter,  unless  destructive  insects  appear.  To  destroy 
insects  the  flooding  should  be  continued  to  the  first  of 
June.  It  is  well  to  have  ground  that  can  be  drained 
somewhat.  Cranberries  can  be  raised  upon  clayland 
by  covering  it  with  sand  and  irrigating,  but  this  process 
would  hardly  pay  while  the  fruit  grows  so  abundantly 
in  the  Northern  and  Eastern  portions  of  the  United 
States  with  scarcely  any  cultivation  at  all.  A  piece  of 
ground  20  feet  square  will  yield  three  to  four  bushels 
annually,  which  is  quite  enough  for  a  family.  The 
plants  are  easily  procured,  being  generally  taken  up 
in  square  sods  like  grass.  The  planting  can  be  done 
from  March  until  the  middle  of  May,  or  from  Septem- 
ber until  the  ground  freezes.  The  fruit  is  gathered 
either  by  hand  or  with  a  cranberry  rake,  one  man  be- 
ing able  generally  to  gather  about  30  bushels  a  day, 
and,  for  market,  it  is  put  in  slatted  bushel  boxes. 

Early  and  late  flooding  will  keep  off"  all  insect  pests, 
but  in  the  Lake  region  the  pale  laurel,  or  wild  sage,  is 


CRANE— CREAM. 


3°7 


a  most  formidable  enemy.  Better  gather  all  this  shrub, 
root  and  branch,  and  burn  it  up,  before  setting  out  the 
fruit  plants,  and  ever  afterward  treat  it  as  you  would 
Canada  thistle. 

Varieties.     The  Bell-shaped  Black  cranberry  is 

the  largest  and 
most  profitable. 
The  fruit  when 
ripe  is  a  bright  red 
color,  but  is  the 
darkest  red  of  all 
the  varieties. 
Next  are  the  Large 
and  Small  Cherry, 

Fig    :i— Cherry    Cranberry.  then  tWO    kinds  of 

Bugle,  Oval  or  Egg-shaped,  Large  and  Small,  and  the 
Small  Gray,  which  are  not  so  highly  colored. 

Crane,  in  mechanics,  swinging  bar  or  frame,  gen- 
erally with  pulleys,  for  raising  heavy  objects  and  swing- 
ing them  around  to  another  place,  as  in  loading  and 
unloading  stone. 

Crayon  (era'  on),  a  piece  of  chalk,  or  other  soft 
stone,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  or  a  compo- 
sition of  earths,  variously  colored,  stiffened  with  some 
tenacious  substance  and  made  into  sticks  or  cylinders, 
to  be  used  in  drawing.  The  best  kind  for  home  use 
is  made  of  charcoal,  thus :  Saw  the  finest-grained, 
softest  and  blackest  pieces  of  charcoal  (willow  is  best) 
into  slips  of  the  size  required,  put  them  into  a  small 
vessel  of  melted  wax,  and  let  them  macerate  over  a 
slow  fire  for  half  an  hour,  then  take  them  out  and  lay 
them  on  blotting  paper  to  dry.  The  same  process 
will  do  for  chalk  of  almost  any  color.  Drawings  made 
by  such  crayons  are  very  permanent ;  and  if  the  can- 
vass or  paper  is  warmed  a  little  on  the  opposite  side, 
the  picture  becomes  as  durable  as  ink. 

Crape,  Black,  How  To  Clean.  Take  skim  milk 
and  water  and  mix  a  little  glue  with  it,  and  make  it 
scalding  hot.  If  chapped  and  pulled  dry  it  will 
look  as  good  as  new. 

Crape  Scarf,  To  Wash.  Make  a  strong  lather  of 
boiling  water  and  permit  it  to  cool ;  then  wash  the 
scarf  as  quickly  as  jxissible,  dip  it  immediately  in 
hard  water  in  which  a  little  salt  has  been  thrown  (to 
preserve  the  colors),  rinse,  squeeze  and  hang  it  out  to 
dry. 

Cream,  the  fatty  constituent  of  milk,  composed  of 
buttery  globules  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  cheesy 
matter.  All  that  regards  the  treatment  of  cream  in 
butter  and  cheese-making  will  be  found  under  the 
heads  "Butter"  and  "Cheese."  When  it  is  intended 
to  send  the  cream  to  market,  the  same  observations 
will  apply  to  it  as  are  made  touching  the  keeping  of 
milk.  Cleanliness,  a  uniform,  low  temperature,  and 
the  least  ix)ssible  agitation  are  indispensable  to  the 
production  of  a  first-rate  article.  As  stated  elsewhere, 
the  greatest  amount  of  cream  is  secured  by  the  addition 
of  a  little  water  to  the  milk  when  it  is  set;  but  the 
milk    remaining    is    corresjX)ndingly    impoverished. 


Cream  rises  much  more  rapidly  and  in  somewhat 
greater  quantity  on  milk  placed  on  shelves  about  six 
feet  high  than  on  the  ground.  Cream  is  usually 
skimmed  from  the  milk  at  periods  of  12  and  24  hours. 
The  morning's  milk  is  skimmed  in  the  evening ;  the 
evening's  milk  in  the  morning. 

At  a  temperature  of  80'',  all  the  cream  will  rise  in 
10  hours;  at  77",  in  12  hours;  at  68°, in  18  hours;  at 
55",  in  24  hours;  at  50°, in  36  hours;  and  at  45°, in 
43  hours. 

Cream  is  raised  by  the  use  of  the  centrifugal 
machine,  the  principle  being  that  the  milk,  which  is 
heavier  than  the  cream,  will  be  thrown  farther  from 
the  centre  of  the  machine,  forming  an  outer  wall  of 
liquid  which  may  be  easily  drawn  away  from  the  inner 
wall  of  cream.  This  system  is  hardly  adapted  to 
dairies  of  less  than  200  cows.  The  milk  is  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  80°,  and  the  capacity  of  the  ma- 
chine about  500  ix)unds  of  milk  per  hour. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  Fairlamb  milk-can  (Fig.  i) 
is  a  great  advance  in  the  right 
direction,  as  far  as  cream-gather- 
,ing  is  concerned.  The  exact 
amount  of  cream  is  shown  in 
inches  and  eighths  of  an  inch  on 
a  glass  gage  in  the  side  of  the 
can.  Where  cream  is  bought 
by  the  inch,  as  is  the  case  with 
most  creameries,  the  conven- 
ience of  this  arrangement  to  the 
farmer  is  manifest.  The  can  is 
175^  inches  high,  12  inches  in 
diameter  at  the  top  and  i  o  J/^  at 
the  bottom,  provided  with  a 
K,G...^«;V/a;«*j/«Ca«.tube  in  the  center  for  cooling 
the  milk.  It  has  a  tin  cover  with  a  rubber  band 
around  the  rim,  which  renders  the  can,  when  covered, 
air-right.  It  holds  seven  and  a  half  gallons,  or  70 
pounds  of  milk.  The  inch  of  cream  is  held  to  be  one 
]X>und.  The  objections  urged  against  this  system  are  : 
That  in  no  can  is  an  inch  equal  to  a  pound  all  the 
year  round ;  that  a  can  which  will  hold  out  full  in 
June,  will  fall  short  from  September  till  May;  that 
whether  or  not  an  inch  in  any  can  will  hold  out  de- 
pends on  the  manner  of  setting,  the  temperature,  the 
time  and  frequency  of  skimming. 

^  TheCooleysystem(Figs.  2,  4, 

5)  consists  in  setting  the  cans  of 
milk  in  a  reservoir,  where  they 
are  submerged  in  water  of  the 
proper  temperature,  namely,  45  ° 
to  55°  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer, and  40"  to  50°  in  the  win- 
ter, by  which  process  the  cream 

Y^o...-Coole/sCrea.ner.'^^     all     forCCd    Up    lu      12      hoUrS. 

The  cans  have  tight-fitring  covers  (Fig.  5)  preventing 
the  ingress  of  water.  The  cream  is  sweet,  with  all 
the  natural  aroma  retained.  The  advocates  of  this 
system  claim  there  are  no  disagreeable  or  unhealthful 
animal  odors  to    be    dispelled,   and  that  only  one- 


3o8 


CREAM— CREASOTE. 


fourth  the  capacity  of  open  vessels  is  required.  The 
Cooley  cans  are  20  inches  deep  and  8^  inches  in 
diameter.  It  is  manufactured  by  John  Boyd,  Chica- 
go, 111.  A.  H.  Reid's  creamer  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  3. 
By  all  these  systems  the  house- 
wife is  relieved  of  much  of  the  drudg- 
I  ery  in  making  butter,  and  is  enabled 
to  make  it  more  uniform  and  of  a 
more  excellent  quantity.  Or,  by  the 
use  of  these  cans,  the  cream  can  be 
taken  to  a  factory  and  the  milk  kept 
at  home  to  be  fed  to  animals. 

Cream  as  a  food  is  exceedingly 
nourishing,  but  where  the  digestion  is  not  good  it 
should  be  avoided. 


Fig.  -i.-Reid's  Cream- 


'"SSSSSSSSSSS^SSSSSSSSSSS^^SSSSSSSS^SiX 


Cream,  as  a  special 
preparation  for  dessert, 
is  a  nice,  delicate  and 
popular  dish.  We  give 
the  best  recipes. 

Coffee  Cream.  Put 
three  quarters  of  a  pint 
of  boiled  milk  into  a 
stew-pan,  with  a  1  a  r  g  e 
cupful  of  made  coffee, 
and  add  the  yol  k  s  o  f 
eight  well  beaten  eggs 
and  four  ounces  of 
pounded  loaf  sugar.  Stir 
the  whole  briskly  over  a 
clear  fire  until  it  begins 
to  thicken,  take  it  off  the 
T^^., .-Cross Section 0/ Creamer,    fire,  Stir  it  for  a  minute 

or  two  longer,  and  strain  it  through    a   sieve   on   two 

ounces  of  gelatine.     Mix  it  thoroughly  together,  and 

when  the  gelatine  is  dissolved  pour  the  cream  into  a 

mold,  previously   dipped  into 

cold  water,  and  put  the  mold  on 

rough  ice  to  set. 

Lemon  Cream.      Pare  into  a 

pint  of  water  the  peels  of  three 

large  lemons ;  let  it  stand  four  or 

five  hours  ;  then  take  them  out 

and  put  in  the  water  the  juice  of 

four  lemons  and  six  ounces  of 

fine  loaf  sugar.     Beat  the  whites 

of  six  eggs  and  mix  it  all  togeth- 
er,  strain   it   through   a   lawn 

sieve,  set  it  over  a  slow  fire,  stir 

it  one  way  until  as  thick  as  good 

cream;  then  take  it  off  the  ^^tYxo.s-Miikc  an  Creamer. 

and  stir  it  until  cold,  and  put  it  into  a  glass  dish. 
Orange  Cream  may  be  made  in   the   same  vvay, 

adding  the  yolks  of  three  eggs. 

Tapioca  Cream.     Soak  a  teacup  of  tapioca  over 

night  in  milk.     The  next  day  stir  into  it  the  yolks  of 

three  eggs,  well  beaten,  and  a  cupful  of  sugar.     Place 

a  quart  of  milk  on  the  fire ;  let  it  come  to  a  boUing 

point  and  then  stir  in  the  tapioca  and  let  the  whole 


cook  until  it  has  thickened ;  then  take  it  off  the  fire  and 
stir  in  the  whites  of  the  eggs,  beaten  to  a  froth.  Flavor 
to  taste.  A  small  jxjrtionof  the  beaten  whites  of  the 
eggs  can  be  saved  to  decorate  the  top.  Stir  into  the 
latter  a  little  sugar,  put  it  into  a  paper  funnel,  press 
it  out  over  the  pudding  according  to  fancy  and  place 
it  in  the  oven  a  few  moments  to  color ;  or  the  whole 
top  of  the  pudding  may  be  covered  with  the  meringue, 
more  white  of  eggs  being  necessary  in  this  case.  This 
is  a  delicious  dessert. 

Velvet  Cream.'  Put  one  ounce  of  isinglass  into  a 
stewpan  with  a  large  cupful  of  white  wine,  the  juice  of 
a  large  lemon,  and  sufficient  sugar  to  sweeten  it  rubbed 
on  the  peel  to  extract  the  color  and  flavor.  Stir  it 
over  the  fire  until  the  isinglass  is  dissolved,  and  then 
strain  it  to  get  cold.  Then  mix  with  it  the  cream  and 
jxjur  into  a  mold. 

Cream  Cheese.  Take  strippings  (the  last  portion 
of  a  milking),  or  milk  and  cream,  turn  it  with  a  little 
rennet,  add  a  little  salt  and  sugar,  if  desired,  place  in 
a  small  square  vat,  and  press  out  the  whey  with  a 
weight  of  two  to  four  pounds;  after  about  12  hours, 
place  it  ujx)n  a  board  and  turn  it  every  day  until  dry. 
In  about  three  weeks  it  will  be  ripe. 

Creamery,  a  factory  where  butter  (and  also  cheese) 
is  made  under  systematic  management.     See  articles 
Cream,  Butter  and  Dairy. 

Cream  of  Tartar,  a  neutral  salt  deposited  by  wine 
upon  the  sides  of  the  cask,  and  afterward  jjurified  by 
boiling  and  crystallizing.  It  is  generally  boiled  a  sec- 
ond time,  decolorized  with  charcoal  and  clay,  allowed 
to  cool  slowly,  and  the  resulting  crystals  form  the 
"  cream  of  tartar  "  of  commerce.  Used  extensively 
in  medicine  and  in  cookery.  Its  medicinal  properties 
are  numerous.  It  is  a  cooling  laxative,  and  diuretic. 
Seldom  given  alone,  but  combined  with  antimonials, 
mercurials,  or  sulphur,  as  an  alterative  in  skin  diseases, 
and  used  as  an  adjunct  to  aloes  in  purging-balls.  Cattle 
require  2  or  3  ounces ;  when  given  in  larger  doses  it 
should  be  given  in  plenty  of  warm  water.  Sheep  re- 
quire Y-i  to  I  ounce ;  dogs,  5  to  20  grains. 

Creasote  (cre'-a-sote),  a  volatile  oil  distilled  from 
wood-tar,  is  of  a  peculiar  smoky  odor,  and  within  the 
vital  domain  is  irritant,  narcotic,  sty])tic  and  antiseptic. 
Often  used  ujxin  indolent  ulcers,  aching  teeth  and  in 
various  general  diseases.  Creasote  has  had  the  credit 
of  curing  glanders  in  man,  and  is  a  good  remedy  in 
pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle,  and  cases  of  farcy  and 
glanders  in  the  horse  are  greatly  benefited  by  its  use. 

Dose.  For  horses  and  cattle,  use  from  i  to  i  J^ 
drachms,  made  into  a  mass,  with  flour  and  molasses, 
and  the  whole  crumbled  down  into  some  gruel.  Make 
a  drench  to  be  poured  down  the  throat.  As  an  exter- 
nal remedy  it  is  of  great  advantage  in  mange,  sores, 
ulcers,  caries  of  the  bones,  canker,  thrush  in  the  horse's 
feet,  and  the  foot-rot,  so  troublesome  in  sheep.  Indeed, 
the  more  the  virtues  of  creasote  are  known  to  farmers, 
raisers  and  breeders  of  stock,  the  more  will  it  be  valued, 
and  the  greater  will  be  the  advantages  derived  from  it. 


CRESS— CRO  TON  OIL. 


3  •39 


Cress.  This  is  a  mustard-like  plant,  used  as  salad 
and  for  garnishing  before  the  flowers  appear.  Plant 
on  rich  soil,  finely  pulverized,  in  drills  six  or  eight 
inches  apart.  That  grown  in  the  cool  of  the  season 
is  of  the  best  quality.  The  curled  variety  is  the  best ; 
the  plain  or  common  is  next,  which  has  been  called 
pepper-grass,  probably  a  corruption  of  pepper  cress. 
The  famous  English  water-cress  has  to  be  planted 
in  the  margin  of  a  running  stream. 

Creve-CoBurs  (crave-curz'),  a  breed  of  domestic 
Fowls;  which  see. 

Crickets.  Crickets  belong  to  the  jumpers,  which 
include  crickets,  grasshoppers  and  locusts.  They 
are  by  far  the  most  prolific  and  most  destructive 
of  orthopterous  insects.  There  are  a  number  of  vari- 
eties, of  which  the  common  black  cricket  is  the  most 
abundant.  Like  the  locust,  scarcely  anything  in  the 
way  of  herbage  seems  to  come  amiss.  They  are  also 
destructive  to  many  dry  substances,  as  woolen  or  cot- 
ton cloths,  left  in  the  open  air  during  the  season  of 
their  feeding,  especially  in  the  fall.  Crickets  may  be 
poisoned  by  laying  in  their  way  grated  carrots  or  po- 
tatoes mi.xed  with  a  small  quantity  of  arsenic;  but  it 
is  not  feasible,  since  when  scarce  they  do  compara- 
tively little  harm,  and  when  they  swarm  in  countless 
numbers  this  means  is  not  practical.  Hogs  are  fond 
of  them,  and  hunt  them  assiduously.  Crickets  eat 
such  insects  as  they  can  master.  They  lay  numerous 
eggs,  which  they  deposit  in  the  ground  by  means  of 
their  oviixjsitor.  At  the  approach  of  cold  weather 
the  greater  part  of  them  die,  but  a  few  hybernate, 
sheltering  themselves  beneath  stones  or  other  places 
secure  from  water  and  the  inclemency  of  the  winter. 
The  American  crickets,  unlike  the  European  species, 
do  not  make  their  homes  in  houses.  Those  found  in 
living-rooms  are  chance  individuals  which  have  wan- 
dered there.  The  large  wingless  crickets,  or  grass- 
hoppers, generally  live  on  the  ground  or  on  low  grow- 
ing plants ;  some  are  found  in  caves  or  under  stones, 
while  others  are  found  on  wild  grass  and  herbage. 
Some  species  are  found  in  immense  numbers  on  the 
Western  plains,  where  they  feed  upon  weeds  or  any 
green  plant  that  may  occur  in  their  vicinity.  In  the 
Eastern  States  many  species  inhabit  the  woods  or  dark, 
damp  places,  and  if  disturbed,  hide  under  stones  or 
rubbish ;  they  are,  however,  at  present  not  known  to 
destroy  the  crops  to  any  considerable  extent ;  and  if 
they  do,  the  same  remedies  may  be  applied  as  above. 

The  cricket  in  this  country  injures  grass,  melons, 
squashes,  ]X)tatoes  and  other  roots  and  fruits.  The 
eggs  of  the  field  cricket  are  deix3sited  in  the  fall  or 
autumn  in  the  earth,  and  hatch  the  following  season, 
some  of  the  old  insects  surviving  throughout  the  win- 
ter under  stones,  dead  fallen  trunks  of  trees,  etc.  To 
destroy  house-crickets,  vials  half  filled  with  beer,  milk, 
or  any  liquid  will  attract  and  drown  them.  A  deep, 
glazed  earthenware  jar,  having  a  little  food,  such  as 
boiled  potato  or  sliced  cucumber  in  it,  will  serve  as  a 
trap  for  crickets,  for  when  once  in,  they  are  unable  to 
jump  out  again.     Pills  made  of  arsenic  or  Paris  green 


and  flour,  or  these  poisons  mixed  with  grated  carrots 
or  mashed  potatoes,  will  ix)ison  them;  but  if  such 
deadly  ix)isons  are  ever  used,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  dead  insects  do  not  fall  into  any  of  the 
domestic  kitchen  utensils,  nor  should  they  be  swept 
where  domestic  fowls  can  find  and  eat  them.  If  field 
crickets  are  very  numerous  and  annoying,  many  of  the 
remedies  recommended  for  grasshoppers,  such  as  plow- 
ing up  the  earth  and  exposing  it  to  the  winter's 
frost  or  rains,  or  rolling  the  ground  very  eariy  in  the 
morning,  will  be  of  utility;  but  fowls,  turkeys,  and  in- 
secUvorous  birds  are  of  inestimable  value  in  destroy- 
ing such  insects  as  are  found  around  the  gardens  and 
houses,  if  they  can  only  be  kept  out  of  the  gardens 
themselves. 

Crimp,  in  cookery,  to  cause  to  contract,  or  to  ren- 
der more  crisp,  as  the  flesh  of  a  fish,  by  gashing  it, 
when  living,  with  a  knife. 

Crimping-Iron,  an  iron  instrument  for  crimping 
and  curling  the  hair. 

Crockery,  To  Mend.  Use  white  of  an  egg  and 
lime.  Take  enough  of  the  egg  to  mend  one  article  at 
a  time,  shave  off  a  quantity  of  lime,  and  mix  thor- 
oughly. It  hardens  very  quickly,  and  only  a  small 
quantity  should  be  made  at  a  time. 

Crop,  the  season's  yield  of  any  given  product  of 
the  farm.  To  "  crop"  a  piece  of  ground  is  to  raise 
some  cultivated  product  upon  it.  See  Farming,  Rota- 
tion of  crops,  etc. 

Crops,  How  TO  Estimate.  Frame  together  four 
light  sticks  exactly  a  foot  square  inside,  and  with  this 
in  hand  walk  into  the  field  and  select  a  spot  of  fair 
average  yield,  and  lower  the  frame  square  over  as 
many  heads  as  it  will  enclose.  Shell  out  the  heads 
thus  enclosed  carefully,  and  weigh  the  grain.  It  is 
fair  to  presume  that  the  product  will  be  the  43,560th 
part  of  an  acre's  produce.  To  prove  it,  go  through 
the  field  and  make  ten  or  twenty  similar  calculations, 
and  estimate  by  the  mean  of  the  whole  number  of 
results.  It  will  certainly  enable  a  farmer  to  make  a 
closer  calculation  of  what  a  field  will  produce  than  he 
can  do  by  guessing. 

Crops,  Rotation  of  :     see  Rotation  of  Crops. 

Cross  and  Cross-Breeding:  see  Breeding  and 
Varieties. 

Cross-Cut  Saw,  a  large  saw  worked  by  a  man  at 
each  end,  for  cutting  logs. 

Cross  Tining,  a  harrowing  by  drawing  the  harrow 
back  and  forth  across  the  same  ground. 

Croton  Oil,  an  oil  obtained  from  an  East  Indian 
plant,  of  a  brownish  yellow  color,  and  hot,  biting  taste. 
This  is  the  most  powerful  purgative  kno\vn.  One 
drop  will  operate  upon  the  bowels  in  about  forty 
minutes.  A  drop  taken  on  the  tongue  will  often  move 
the  bowels.  It  is  so  powerful  that  it  should  be  very 
cautiously  used.  The  dose  is  from  one  to  three  drops 
on  a  little  sugar.     Used  externally  it  is  a  counter- 


3IO 


CROUP. 


irritant,  producing  redness  of  the  skin  and  inflam- 
mation. It  is  a  dangerous  medicine  when  improperly 
used,  but  a  useful  one,  nevertheless,  when  in  the  treat- 
ment of  animals  hasty  action  of  the  bowels  is  wanted, 
as  in  milk  fever  in  cows. 

Dose:  For  the  cow,  lo  to  15  drops,  given  along 
with  Epsom  or  Glauber  salts. 

Croup.  This  dangerous  and  distressing  disease, 
which  is  so  prevalent  among  children,  is  an  inflam- 
matory affection  of  the  windpipe.  If  the  application 
of  remedies  were  sooner  made  in  cases  of  croup,  the 
mortality  from  this  formidable  disease  would  be  very 
much  lessened.  Unfortunately  many  parents  are  not 
familiar  with  those  slight  yet  often  distinctive  symp- 
toms that  mark  its  early  stage.  In  some  few  cases 
the  attack  is  sudden,  but  generally  it  is  preceded  by 
the  symptoms  of  a  common  cold,  accompanied  with 
hoarseness  and  cough.  At  this  time  the  dangerous 
termination  cannot  always  be  perceived,  but  very  often, 
in  addition  to  the  quickened  breathing,  the  cough  is 
rough  and  has  a  peculiar,  shrill-like  sound,  something 
like  the  crowing  of  a  cock  or  the  barking  of  a  dog. 
When  the  child  draws  in  its  breath  there  is  a  rough- 
ness in  its  sound  which  may  be  distinctly  heard  by 
placing  the  ear  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  child.  Even 
in  this  stage  the  windpipe  is  often  painful.  The  child 
raises  its  hand  to  its  neck  as  if  to  invite  attention  to 
the  seat  of  the  uneasiness.  If  proper  measures  would 
be  taken  at  this  stage  most  children  would  recover, 
but  if  parents  wait  till  the  breathing  becomes  much 
quickened  and  hoarse  and  the  cough  hard  and  tight 
and  till  fever  has  set  in,  the  disase  \vill  be  found  diffi- 
cult to  control.  Parents  can  better  afford  to  be  deceived 
half  a  dozen  times  than  once  to  overlook  a  case  of 
croup.  We  therefore  earnestly  recommend  all  parents 
immediately  after  discovering  a  roughened  breathing 
and  a  resonant  cough,  and  particularly  if  there  have 
previously  been  symptoms  of  a  cold,  to  lose  no  time 
in  resorting  to  treatment.  As  the  disease  progresses 
the  fits  of  coughing  become  more  and  more  dis- 
tressing, the  child  makes  a  great  effort  to  breathe,  the 
face  is  flushed,  and  the  head  is  usually  thrown  back 
to  escape  suffocation. 

Before  giving  the  treatment  for  this  dreaded  disease 
we  wish  first  to  tell  how  it  may  be  prevented.  Croup 
seldom  occurs  during  the  first  year  of  infantile  life, 
most  frequently  in  the  second  year  and  upward. 
When  it  has  once  attacked  a  child  it  is  very  liable  to 
occur  at  any  period  before  the  thirteenth  year  of  age. 
It  is  then  very  proper  that  the  mother  should  be  made 
acquainted  with  the  means  of  prevention.  They  con- 
sist in  being  careful  in  the  protecting  of  the  child  from 
cold  or  damp  weather,  particularly  in  the  spring,  or 
after  heavy  rains,  or  in  cold,  damp  changes  in  the 
atmosphere ;  for  croup  is  then  more  prevalent.  The 
croup  is  often  produced  by  the  child  sitting  or  playing 
in  a  room,  newly  washed  out,  when  there  is  a  predis- 
position to  the  disease.  Then  the  child,  every  morn- 
ing upon  rising  from  bed,  should  be  sponged  all  over 
with  tepid  water  in  which  is  put  some  salt,  and  rubbed 


well  with  a  coarse  towel.  The  clothing  should  be 
warm,  the  neck  and  arms  well  covered,  flannel  worn 
next  to  the  skin  throughout  the  year,  and  the  bowels 
kept  regular.  ' 

Treatment.  In  the  treatment  of  croup  we  give 
a  number  of  prescriprions,  so  if  some  remedies  are 
not  at  hand  others,  which  are  about  as  efficient,  may 
likely  be.  The  best  remedy  which  can  be  given 
to  a  child  attacked  with  croup,  is  an  emetic.  A  wine- 
glassful  of  lard  oil  or  goose  oil  will  often  answer  this 
purpose  where  no  better  medicine  can  be  obtained. 
An  eff'ective  emetic  can  be  given  to  a  child  in  the 
croup,  in  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  powdered  alum, 
mixed  with  molasses  or  honey.  This  can  be  given 
every  ten  minutes  until  it  vomits  freely.  The  alum 
operates  on  the  salivary  glands,  and  makes  them  pour 
out  the  saliva  or  spittle  in  great  quantities.  In  many 
cases  this  has  acted  like  a  charm,  and  relieved  chil- 
dren supposed  to  be  in  the  last  stage  of  this  disease. 
The  tincture  of  lobelia  in  teaspoonful  doses  may  be 
given  every  six  or  eight  minutes  till  free  vomiting  takes 
place.  The  lobelia  can  hardly  be  given  too  freely  in 
croup ;  in  some  cases,  where  the  disease  has  been  very 
alarming,  as  much  as  a  tablespoonful  has  been  given 
at  a  time  with  success.  As  soon  as  the  emetic  begins 
to  operate,  it  should  be  promoted  with  a  strong  tea  of 
sumac  and  bayberry.  On  first  discovering  the  dis- 
ease, give  a  quick  tepid  or  warm  bath,  bathing  well  the 
head,  throat,  and  chest ;  then  give  the  emetic  last 
named,  and  apply  a  wet  bandage,  well  wrung  out, 
about  the  throat,  the  seat  of  the  disease,  and  warm 
applications  to  the  feet,  so  as  to  j^roduce  prespiration 
as  quickly  as  possible,  the  body  being  wrapped  in  a 
warm  blanket  immediately  after  bathing,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  slightest  exposure  to  taking  cold.  The  warm 
applications  to  the  throat  should  also  be  renewed  from 
time  to  time,  as  may  seem  necessary ;  and  the  bowels 
kept  freely  open,  perhaps,  with  castor  oil  and  molasses 
mixed.  A  plaster  of  snuff  and  hog's  lard,  laid  upon 
the  chest,  is  often  the  best  means  at  hand  for  relaxing 
the  system  and  subduing  the  inflammatory  action.  A 
teaspoonful,  mixed  with  a  little  lard  and  spread  upon 
a  rag,  composes  the  plaster.  It  will  sometimes  make 
the  child  very  sick  at  the  stomach  and  vomit  severely. 
When  this  is  the  case,  or  the  vomiting  continues 
long,  it  will  be  advisable  to  remove  it  until  the  sick- 
ness subsides.  The  drink  should  be  flax-seed  or  slip- 
pery-elm tea,  or  some  other  mucilage.  Equal  parts 
of  squills  and  castor  oil,  given  in  a  dose  of  a  tea- 
spoonful every  hour  until  it  operates  on  the  bowels, 
is  one  of  the  best  remedies  that  have  ever  been  ad- 
ministered. It  quickens  the  secretion  of  the  wind- 
pipe, at  the  same  time  producing  general  relaxation  of 
the  system  by  evacuating  the  bowels.  A  tea  made  of 
the  Seneca  root,  or  bloodroot,  is  a  good  solvent  of  the 
tough,  slimy  matter  which  clogs  up  the  trachea  or 
windpipe.  Great  care,  however,  should  be  taken  not  to 
administer  medicine  too  fast.  While  the  child  is  vomit- 
ing, nothing  else  should  be  given,  unless  it  be  a  little 
drink. 

It  is  always  better  to  raise  a  sweat  before  you  give 


CROW— CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS. 


3" 


any  medicine  to  purge  the  bowels,  as  the  two  opera- 
tions can  not  be  well  carried  on  at  the  same  time. 
The  purging  of  the  bowels  lessens  the  perspiration. 
Hive  syrup  should  always  be  kept  in  every  family, 
where  there  are  young  children;  it  will  be  found  in 
this  disease  a  most  valuable  remedy.  The  dose 
is  about  a  teaspoonful,  every  ten  minutes,  until  vomit- 
ing is  produced.  In  the  first  stage  of  this  complaint, 
a  portion  of  raw  cotton,  wet  with  camphor,  whisky,  or 
vinegar,  warm  and  applied  to  the  throat,  will  be  found 
useful.  When  the  disease  is  far  advanced,  and  not 
yielding  to  the  treatment,  a  poultice  should  be  applied 
to  the  throat,  of  red  pepper,  lobelia,  slippery  elm,  pul- 
verized, wet  with  hot  water,  and  renewed  when  it  be- 
comes cool.  After  the  removal  of  the  jwultice,  some 
stimulating  liniment  should  be  employed  to  anoint  the 
throat,  composed  of  spirits  of  hartshorn,  ^  ounce ; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  J^  ounce;  laudanum,  J^  ounce; 
sweet  or  olive  oil,  J^  ounce ;  mix  together ;  or  if  this 
liniment  cannot  be  conveniently  obtained,  make  ap- 
plications of  hot  water  or  simple  poultices  of  any 
kind,  to  the  throat,  as  warm  as  they  can  be  borne, 
changing  them  as  they  get  cool. 

An  application  of  coal  oil  to  the  throat  and  chest 
has  been  found  to  be  a  very  efficient  remedy.  Satu- 
rate a  flannel  cloth  with  the  oil  and  tie  around  the 
neck.  Some  give  it  internally.  Give  i  teaspoonful 
to  a  child  three  or  four  years  old. 

Powdered  alum  placed  down  the  throat  of  the  child 
will  operate  upon  the  salivary  glands  and  make  them 
pour  out  the  saliva  in  great  profusion.  Ipecac  is 
always  a  safe  remedy,  but  is  not  jxjwerful  enough. 
Place  the  feet  in  hot  water,  keeping  them  there  until 
vomiting  takes  place,  laying  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot 
water  upon  the  breast  and  throat,  changing  often 
enough  to  keep  them  hot.  But  the  non-medical 
method  is  to  seat  the  patient  in  a  warm  place,  or  in  a 
hot  sitz-bath,  where  fresh  air  is  constandy  passing  the 
face ;  put  his  feet  in  hot  water,  keep  cold  wet  cloths 
uix)n  the  throat  and  head,  and  give  a  gentle  emetic. 
If  the  attack  is  renewed  the  following  night,  do  the 
same  and  send  for  a  physician. 

To  control  the  fever  give  tincture  of  aconite  and 
belladonna  as  follows  :  Put  5  drops  of  each  in  a  half  a 
glass  of  water  and  give  the  child  i  teasixxsnful  every 
half  hour,  until  the  fever  subsides. 

Crow.  No  other  bird  has  been  so  strongly  con- 
demned by  the  farmers  of  this  country  as  the  crow. 
Indeed,  so  persistently  has  it  been  hunted  that  it  has 
become  the  most  wary  of  birds,  and  "  as  cunning  as 
a  crow  "  has  become  a  proverb.  There  are  few  wild 
birds  more  energetic  in  hunting  insects  and  verminous 
animals.  They  also  eat  such  substances  as  would 
otherwise  putrefy  and  taint  the  air.  They  are  there- 
fore always  worthy  of  preservation  and  should  be  har- 
bored rather  then  hunted  to  death.  Should  they  mo- 
lest the  grain  at  planting  time,  which  they  will  doubt- 
less do,  but  to  no  great  extent,  the  following  very 
amusing  and  efficient  remedy  may  be  resorted  to : 

Take  a  piece  of  foolscap,  or  any  other   stiff  paper; 


roll  it  into  a  funnel  shape,  and  fasten  with  mucilage 
or  needle  and  thread.  Drop  a  few  kernels  of  corn  into 
the  "  foolscap,"  smear  its  sides  with  bird-lime,  which 
may  be  obtained  at  the  drug  stores,  and  drop  in  the 
corn-field.  The  crow  will  reach  in  for  the  corn  and 
find  himself  caught.  There  is  considerable  amuse- 
ment in  this  sjwrt,  besides  saving  the  loss  of  corn  dug 
up  by  these  black  marauders.  Don't  kill  the  crows. 
They  destroy  myriads  of  insects  that  are  injurious  to 
vegetation. 

The  crow  is  easily  domesticated  and  without  great 
difficulty  may  by  instructed  to  do  many  tricks  and 
even  to  speak  some  words  with  amazing  distinctness, 
and  with  the  voice  of  a  human  being.  When  do- 
mesticated they  become  much  attached  to  those  who 
pet  them,  and  will  soon  learn  to  follow  them  about 
the  fields.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  they 
are  exceedingly  mischievous  and  are  apt  to  carry  away 
and  hide  small  articles  that  come  in  their  way. 

Crown  Scab,  a  cancerous  sore  formed  around  the 
corners  of  a  horse's  hoof. 

Cruelty  to  Animals.  Without  the  assistance  af- 
forded by  the  domestic  animals  mankind  would  be 
very  helpless.  The  horse,  the  sheep,  the  ox,  the  ass, 
the  camel,  the  elephant,  the  llama,  the  dog  and  the 
reindeer,  are  fitted  peculiarly  for  the  regions  in  which 
they  are  found,  and  each  is  indispensable  to  the  com- 
fort or  safety  of  man.  Some  of  these  are  no  longer 
found  in  their  wild  condition,  and  are  so  completely 
domesticated  as  to  have  lost  much  of  their  natural 
instinct  of  self-defense  and  preservation.  Many  of 
these  animals  possess  a  sagacity  that  is  wonderful. 
They  have  perception,  memory,  recollection,  and  often 
seem  endowed  with  jxjwers  of  reason  and  judgment. 
Some  possess  ardent  affection  for  their  masters,  and  a 
fidelity  that  nothing  can  disturb. 

That  man  should  treat  such  faithful  servants  with 
anything  save  the  greatest  kindness  seems  to  be  un- 
reasonable; and  yet,  alas  for  man's  weakness  and 
passion !  it  is  often  true.  It  would  seem  that  self- 
interest  alone,  without  any  higher  or' nobler  motive, 
would  prompt  every  man  to  take  great  care  of  the  jxxjr 
brutes,  upon  which  he  is  so  dependent;  but  even  his 
own  property  is  often  made  the  six)rt  qi  his  baser 
nature. 

Animals  that  afford  us  pleasure  or  profit  should  be 
treated  with  humanity,  and  every  attention  paid  to 
their  wants.  If  the  innocent  and  helpless  brutes,  that 
are  ill-fed,  overworked,  unsheltered,  and  injured  by 
all  manner  of  cruelty,  could  make  an  appeal  to  our 
sense  of  justice  and  humanity,  how  eloquent  and  how 
touching  it  would  be !  Neglect  and  abuse  not  only  in- 
jure the  pecuniary  value  of  the  animal,  but  what  is  of 
infinitely  more  imixjrtance,  the  moral  constitution  of 
the  man;  for  he  who  has  no  feelings  of  kindness  and 
consideration  for  the  poor  dumb  animal  that  labors  for 
him,  would  probably  have  as  little  feehng  for  one  of 
his  own  kind  in  circumstances  of  distress. 

Animals  tliat  furnish  us  food  should  not  be  over- 
driven and  abused  simply  because  they  are  destined 


312 


CRUELTY  TO  ANIMALS—CUCUMBER. 


soon  to  be  killed.  Men  are  accustomed  to  see  many 
forms  of  cruelty,  and  think  nothing  of  it,  because  it  is 
so  common.  It  seems  to  make  no  impression  that 
chickens  are  taken  to  market  tied  together  in  bunches 
and  suspended  by  the  legs  from  the  back  of  a  hard- 
trotting  horse.  Such  cruelty  is  indefensible.  If  it  is 
necessary  to  bring  them  alive,  they  should  be  taken 
in  coops.  Poor,  innocent  calves  and  pigs  are  often 
securely  tied  by  the  legs  in  such  a  way  as  to  destroy 
the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  cause  the  parts  to  be- 
come intensely  painful.  In  this  manner  they  are  often 
carried  long  distances  and  exposed  to  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold. 

If  any  one  has  a  doubt  as  to  the  humanity  of  this 
method  of  transportation,  let  him  tie  a  string  tightly 
around  the  base  of  his  forefinger  and  let  it  remain  half 
an  hour.  The  ligature  alone,  without  the  jolting  ride, 
will  soon  convince  him  that  there  might  be  more  gentle 
methods  of  treatment.  Such  usage  is  not  only  a 
cruelty,  but  a  serious  injury  to  the  flesh  of  the  animal 
when  prepared  for  market.  It  is  said  that  the  Hol- 
landers always  kill  their  fish  when  they  take  them  from 
the  water,  because,  when  left  to  die  by  degrees  in  the 
air,  the  flesh  is  injured.  Might  we  not  add  the  argu- 
ment of  humanity  as  an  additional  reason  why  they 
should  be  quickly  killed  when  taken  from  their  own 
element? 

When  animals  are  to  be  killed  for  food,  they  should 
not  be  tortured  or  hurt.  Not  one  pang  of  needless 
distress  should  be  inflicted,  but  they  should  be  dis- 
patched in  the  speediest  manner,  and  with  the  least 
pain.  There  is  an  element  of  barbarity  in  the  tortur- 
mg  of  any  living  thing,  that  is  abhorrent  to  every  kind 
and  noble  sentiment  in  our  nature.  Animals  that  are 
injurious  to  ourselves  or  our  property  may  be  destroyed, 
but  it  need  never  be  done  in  a  cruel  or  vindictive 
manner.  They  simply  act  in  accordance  with  their 
nature,  and  although  they  may  do  us  great  injury,  it  is 
not  because  they  have  any  sense  of  right  or  wrong;  it 
is  the  operation  of  their  instinct.  To  retaliate  on  a 
dumb  and  unreasoning  brute,  even  a  snake,  by  un- 
necessary cruelty  in  killing  it,  is  inhuman  and  savage. 

As  all  animals  were  made  for  the  benefit  of  man, 
directly  or  indirectly,  there  is  no  wrong  in  hunting  and 
killing  such  as  are  either  useful  for  food  or  clothing,  or 
are  injurious  to  the  crops  or  other  animals  in  his  em- 
ploy. While  it  is  entirely  proper  to  kill  those  that  are 
either  useful  for  food  or  injurious,  it  is  wrong  to  deprive 
any  of  life  merely  for  sport.  It  is  cruel  to  kill  anything 
that  breathes  merely  for  the  love  of  killing,  and  there 
can  be  no  e.xcuse  or  apology  for  it.  It  is  pitiable  to 
witness  the  spirit  of  wantonness  frequently  manifested 
by  men  and  boys  in  the  destruction  of  little  singing 
birds,  so  pretty,  so  innocent,  and,  at  the  same  time  so 
valuable  to  the  fanner  and  to  the  fruit-grower. 

If  such  birds  could  be  used  for  food,  or  if  their 
feathers  were  valuable,  or  if  any  purpose  were  served 
that  is  economical,  the  outrage  against  nature  would 
be  pardonable.  It  is  sometimes  urged  that  such  birds 
are  injurious  to  vegetation,  and  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
economy  to  destroy  them.     Were  it  not  for  the  birds 


that  frequent  the  gardens,  and  insects  which  prey  upon 
each  other,  the  number  of  destructive  insects  pro- 
duced would  be  such  as  soon  to  overpower  the  industry 
of  man,  and  put  an  end  to  his  miserable  existence. 

By  experiments  made  by  Charles  V.  Riley,  Ph.  D., 
Chief  of  the  United  States  Entomological  Commission, 
in  his  report  upon  the  usefulness  of  birds,  showed  that 
20  old  plovers  would  eat  3,000  insects  each  day,  or 
90,000  in  a  month.  If  these  plovers  had  ten  nests, 
which  averaged  four  j'oung  ones  each,  and  the  young 
ones  consumed  60  insects  each  per  day,  or  2,400  every 
24  hours,  or  72,000  per  month,  the  20  plovers  and 
their  progeny  would  consume  162,000  insects  each 
month.  At  this  same  rate  r,ooo  plovers  and  their 
young  would  consume,  in  one  month,  8,100,000  insects. 
That  many  locusts  removed  in  one  year  from  a  farm 
of  160  acres  would  probably  render  it  capable  of  pro- 
ducing crops  even  when  these  insects  are  doing  their 
worst. 

It  has  been  computed  that  a  pair  of  sparrows  car- 
ried to  their  young  in  one  week  not  less  than  three 
thousand  three  hundred  caterpillars.  Of  54  little  vic- 
tims whose  crops  were  examined  from  the  i8th 
of  April  to  the  24th  of  May,  47  had  eaten  insects 
alone,  and. seven  had  their  crops  filled  with  grain  and 
seeds.  Of  46  old  sparrows  that  were  dissected  at  the 
same  time,  only  three  proved  to  be  grain-eaters,  while 
all  the  rest  had  been  feasting  on  beetles  and  caterpil- 
lars. 

These  facts  are  not  only  m  favor  of  the  sparrows  and 
plovers,  but  as  much  may  be  said  for  all  kinds  of  these 
beautiful  creatures.  The  little  harm  they  do  in  taking 
fruit  and  grain  is  more  than  paid  for  by  their  incessant 
labor  in  ridding  the  fields  and  forests  of  injurious  in- 
sects. But  self-protection  is  not  the  motive  that 
prompts  their  destruction ;  it  is  simply  the  satisfaction 
of  trying  to  shoot  them.  If  skill  in  using  fire-arms  is 
only  achieved  at  such  a  sacrifice,  it  is  not  worth  what 
it  costs. 

In  this  connection  a  plea  may  also  be  urged  in 
behalf  of  the  little  birds'  nests.  As  no  profit  can 
be  derived  from  their  destruction,  it  is  a  cruel  invasion 
of  the  rights  of  the  birds  to  disturb  them.  Every  ar- 
gument is  in  favor  of  the  encouragement  and  protection 
of  the  birds';  they  are  pretty,  gentle,  innocent  and  val- 
uable. 

As  before  stated,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  the 
taking  of  wild  game  birds  by  the  gun;  but  when  poor, 
little  domestic  doves,  the  emblems  of  innocence  and 
love,  are  sprung  from  a  trap  into  the  air  in  order  to  be 
shot  for  sport,  there  can  be  no  excuse  or  palliation  for 
the  deed.  Such  sport  is  only  worthy  of  unrefined, 
uncultivated,  semi-civilized  men. 

Crupper,  (croop'er),  the  rump  of  a  horse;  also  the 
strap  which  extends  along  the  back  and  around  the 
base  of  the  tail,  in  order  to  keep  the  saddle  or  the  back- 
band  from  working  forward,  or  to  aid  the  check-rein  in 
holding  up  the  head.     See  Harness. 

Cucumber.  This  is  a  tender  annual  plant,  a  na- 
tive of  the  tropics,  and  very  generally  cultivated  in  the 


CUCUMBER— CULTIVA  TION. 


313 


gardens  of  the  United  States.  They  require  a  wami 
location.  For  early  cucumbers  the  seeds  should  be 
germinated  under  hand-glasses  or  gauze  protectors. 
Plant  after  the  ground  has  become  warm,  in  hills  four 
feet  apart  for  smaller  varieties,  and  five  feet  for  the 
larger  sorts.  Manure  with  ashes,  guano  or  well 
rotted  compost,  working  the  manure  just  under  the 
surface.  The  usual  stiff  clay  of  the  West  should 
have  a  liberal  pro[X)rtion  of  sand  worked  into  it.  The 
frame  cucumbers  can  be  successfully  raised  in  this 
country  by  giving  them  a  well-sheltered  location, 
plenty  of  manure,  and  hills  six  by  six.  As  vermin 
and  other  accidents  will  destroy  some  of  the  plants, 
set  out  about  twice  the  number  sufficient  to  cover  the 
ground,  then  thin  the  hills  that  may  remain  too  strong. 
For  pickling  cucumbers  the  seeds  are  planted  from 
June  15  to  July  i,  in  the  North.  The  vines  will 
come  in  full  bearing  about  the  middle  of  August,  and 
continue  until  frost. 


Probably  the 
greatest  insect 
pest  of  the  cu- 
cumber is  the 
familiar  striped 
beetle,    repre- 

FlG.  i-5<ri>-<i'C»fa>«i7r3^/i-(Galerucaviuata.)   SCnted    by    Fig. 

ft  The  insects  attack  both  roots  and  leaves.  (See  In- 
sects). Among  the  older  remedies  recommended  and 
either  thoroughly  or  partially  tried,  we  may  mention 
the  following :  Treating  the  vines  with  a  solution  of 
Glauber  salts,  tobacco  water,  infusion  of  elder,  walnut 
leaves,  etc.;  applications  of  ground  plaster  of  Paris, 
jxjwdered  soot,  sulphur,  snuff,  aloes,  etc.;  placing  burn- 
ing torches  among  the  vines  at  night,  etc.  But  at 
present  there  are  but  two  remedial  agencies  which 
are  considered  worthy  of  trial.  One  is  to  cover  the 
young  vines  with  boxes  open  at  the  bottom  and  cov- 
ered on  the  top  with  millinet  or  some  kind  of  open 
gauze.  The  other  is  sprinkling  the  vines  with  Paris 
green  and  flour,  or  the  Paris  green  solution  as  pre- 
scribed for  the  Colorado  potato  beetle.  White 
hellebore  is  considered  by  many  as  equal  to  Paris 
green.  Frequent  dusting  will  chase  and  keep  the 
bugs  away.  Or,  young  plants  can  be  protected  by 
a  thin  film  of  cotton  batting  fastened  down  with 
stones  or  earth,  and  when  the  plants  grow  too  large 
for  this,  use  Ix)ndon  purple  carefully. 

Varieties.  Early  Russian.  The  earliest  of  all 
varieties ;  grows  about  four  inches  long. 

Early  Green  Prolific.  The  most  productive ;  fine 
for  cutting  up  green  as  for  pickles. 

Early  Frame.     Short,  early,  prolific. 

Long  Green  and  Short  Green.     Old  standard  sorts. 

Russian  Netted.  Hardiest  of  all ;  flesh  white ;  skin 
covered  with  a  pretty,  brown  network  of  a  peculiar  ap- 
pearance. 


Norbitoti  Giant.  The  longest  and  one  of  the  most 
prolific. 

Carter's  Champion  and  Sion  House  yield  but  very 
few  seed. 

Mari/uis  of  Lome.  A  celebrated  Frame  variety, 
short  neck,  smooth  skin,  and  the  fruit  ver)'  straight  and 
prolific. 


Early  Praine,  or  Table  Cucumber. 

Boston  Fickling  and  Short Rickling  znd  West  India 
Gherkin  are  the  chief  varieties  for  pickling ;  the  latter 
is  difficult  to  germinate ;  the  Improved  Long  Green 
Prickly  makes  a  hard,  brittle  pickle. 

Many  other  varieties  are  advertised  by  seedmen, 
some  of  which  are  probably  as  good  as  those  above 
mentioned.  For  a  curiosity,  the  Snake  cucumber, 
which  grows  six  feet  long  and  coiled  like  a  snake,  is 
extraordinary.     See  also  Pickles. 

Cud,  that  portion  of  food  which  is  brought  up  into 
the  mouth  by  ruminating  animals  from  their  first 
stomach,  and  chewed  a  second  time,  passing  them 
into  the  third  stomach  to  be  fully  digested  into  the 
fourth  stomach;  also,  the  inside  of  the  mouth  or 
throat  of  a  beast  that  chews  the  cud. 

Cultivation.  Cultivation  is  that  branch  of  agricul- 
ture which  relates  to  causing  increased  growth,  by 
means  of  implements  for  loosening  the  soil,  thereby 
enabling  the  dew  and  rain  to  penetrate  easily ;  and 
also  in  the  destruction  of  weeds.  This  cultivation 
gives  the  soil  proper  aeration  and  enables  the  roots  to 
easily  penetrate  the  soil  and  readily  assimilate  proper 
nutriment.  The  motto,  "  plow  deep,"  should  not  be 
carried  out  indiscriminately  with  all  soils,  for  some, 
indeed,  it  may  injure,  by  simply  burying  what  little 
good  soil  there  is  on  the  surface.  If  the  sub-soil  is 
not  very  compact,  there  is  no  object  to  be  gained  by 
deep  plowing.  The  only  two  objects  in  surface  culti- 
vation are  the  destruction  of  weeds  and  the  pulveriza- 
tion of  the  ground,  the  latter  to  enable  the  soil  to 
gather  nutritious  gases  from  the  atmosphere.  Heavy 
rains  and  a  hot  sun  bake  the  surface,  and  at  the  first 
opportunity  after  every  rain  the  surface  should  be 
broken  up  finely;  and  for  this  purpose  a  plank  or 
roller,  besides  the  use  of  the  harrow  or  cultivator,  is 
very  imjxirtant.  The  ground  cannot  be  stirred  too 
much  when  it  is  dry  enough  to  pulverize  well ;  when 
wet  and  pasty  it  should  never  be  touched,  except  it 
may  be  necessary  to  go  through  and  pull  up  weeds  by 
hand.  Fall  plowing  supersedes  spring  plowing,  for 
most  purposes.  Whenever  the  ground  is  friable,  it 
cannot  be  stirred  too  frequently  during  the  early  pait 
of  the  season,  or  the  earlier  stage  of  the  growth  of  the 
plant.  Make  the  seed-bed  firm,  by  harrowing,  rolling, 
etc.  See  Farming,  Rotation,  Manure,  Fertilizers, 
Harrow,  Plow,  etc.,  and  the  various  plants. 


314 


CULTIVATORS. 


Cultivator,  as  a  farm  implement,  has  come  to 
mean,  in  the  progress  of  improvement,  an  appa- 
ratus with  a  number  of  blades  for  stirring  the  soil. 
They  are  now  supplied  to  the  market  in  all  imag- 
inable shapes  and  styles,  with  or  without  seed-sow- 
ing attachments,  handles,  levers,  riding-seats,  etc., 
the  simpler  forms,  on  the  one  hand,  approaching 
the  double  or  treble  shovel  plow,  and  the  larger, 
on  the  other,  the  harrow,  gradually  shading  off 
both  ways  until  they  become  one  or  the  other. 
They  are  a  great  improvement  over  the  old-time 
plow  for  superficial  stirring  of  the  soil.  In  no 
other  branch  of  agricultural  implements  have  there 
been  more  improvements  made  than  in  cultivators. 
The  variety  is  so  great  that  the  farmer  can  now 
find  a  cultivator  to  loosen  the  soil  around  any  prod- 
uct of  his  farm  that  needs  cultivation.  It  would 
be  impracticable,and  well-nighimpossible  tospeak 
of  all  the  diiferent  machines  made  to  cultivate  the 
soil.  We  do,  however,  give 
cuts  of  such  as  illustrate  the 
general  principles  upon  which 
all  are  based. 

The  principal  features  of 
the  cultivator  illustrated  by 
Fig.  I.  are  the  great  height 
of  the  axle,  and  strength  of 
the  double-arched  wrought- 
iron  frame,  cultivating  the 
tallest  corn  with  the  least  in- 
jury to  the  growing  plant;  ad- 
vantage evener  and  whiffle- 
trees  lowered  to  the  direct 
line  of  draft,  relieving  the 
horses'  necks  of  all  pressure; 
varied  adjustability  and  im- 
proved safety  pin;  steel  coup- 
lings, which  give  the  freest 
lateral  and  vertical  motion 
of  the  beams — more  durable 
break  than  any  other;  single 
greater  facility  in  turning.     Shields  are  furnished 


All  cultivators  are  made  either  with  or  without 
gauge  wheels  on  the  fore  end  of  the  beam,  and 
with  blades  of  all  styles. 


Fia.  2.—Fivt-Tooth  Cultivator. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  a  tongueless  cultivator,  for  which 
the  following  advantages  are  claimed: 

I.  Runners  do  not  conform  to  every  inequality  of 
the  ground,  and  therefore  are  steadier,  giving  no 


and   less  liable  to 
tongue,  affording 


Fig.  4. — AdJHStabte-Arch  Barshare  Citttivator. 

wabbling  motion  as  wheels  do,  which  is  a  serious 
objection  to  wheel  tongueless.  2.  It  has  no  jointed 
arch  nor  complicated  castor  wheels,  and  is  not  liable 


Fio.  \,—A  Walking  Cultivator. 

with  each  cultivator.  Its  single-trees  are  adjustable 
to  direct  line  of  draft.  It  is  essentially  a  wrought- 
iron  machine.  A  fifth  shovel  is  attachable  for  put- 
ting in  small  grain ;  it  is  made  with  wood  or  iron 
beams. 


Fig.  3. 


-  Tongueless  Cultivatot . 


to  become  tangled  in  turning  or  to  upset  on  hillsides. 
3.  When  the  shovel  rigs  are  suspended  by  the 
hooks  for  moving  about  from  field  to  field,  or  in 
turning,  they  are  nicely  balanced,  and  need  no  ad- 
ditional runners  for  such  transportation,  as  is  the 


CULTIVATORS. 


\ 


315 


case  with  wheeled  machines.  4.  In  moving  down 
a  shght  incline  or  hill,  when  so  suspended,  they  do 
not  slide  forward  on  the  horses'  heels,  as  is  the  case 
with  wheeled  tongueless  machines,  and  which 
sometimes  occasions  serious  trouble. 

The  three  cultivators  above  illustrated  are  made 
by  Deere  &  Co.,  of  Moline,  111. 

For  the  kind  illustrated  by  Fig.  4,  manufactured 
by  the  Long  &  Allstatter  Company,  Hamilton,  O., 
it  is  claimed  that  it  enables  the  farmer  to  plow  closer 
to  tlie  young  corn  than  with  ordinary  shovel,  or 
"bull-tongue"  plow;  to  get  into  his  corn  a  week 
or  ten  days  earlier  in  wet  seasons;  to  open  such 
furrows  as  will  permit  the  air  and  sunshine  to  enter 
and  warm  the  soil;  to  run  steady  and  do  good 
work  in  the  toughest  or  hardest  soil.  The  bar- 
shares,  moreover,  can  be  reversed,  to  "  lay  the  corn 
by,"  and  when  used  in  combination  with  shovels, 
either  level  cult- 
ure or  an  open 
furrow  can  be 
left  as  desired. 

The  "Deere 
Riding"  culti- 
vator, represent- 
ed by  Fig.  5,  is  a 
fine  sample  of  the 
riding  cultivat- 
or. The  spring 
which  connects 
the  shovel  rigs  is 
flexible  and  al- 
lows them  to  be 
spread  apart  by 
the  plowman, 
and  has  power  to 
draw  the  shovels 
back    into    posi- 


FiG.  6.—  Cultivator^  zuitk 


thorough  cultivation.  Seat  slides  back  or  for- 
ward to  accommodate  weight  of  driver.  Shovel 
rigs  are  held  upright  and  the  desired  distance 
apart  by  cross  bar  and  spring  attached  to  up- 
right standards.  Width  between  shovel  gangs 
is  readily  adjusted  by  cross  bar  and  spring,  with- 
out stopping  the  team.  By  means  of  levers 
working  in  ratchets  the  depth  of  shovels  can  be  in- 
stantly changed  while  the  team  is  in  motion,  and 
each  side  can  be  changed  independently.  By 
means  of  the  treadles  with  spring  attachment  the 
shovels  are  easily  raised  clear  of  the  ground,  for 
turning  at  the  ends,  or  for  clearing  the  shovels  of 
trash. 

Fig.  6  represents  the  "  New  Junior  "  cultivator, 
with  iron  or  wooden  beams,  four  shovels,  rotary 
shields  and  treadles,  as  manufactured  by  P.  P. 
Mast  &  Co.,  Springfield,  O.     It  has  a  force-feed 

seeding  attach- 
ment, which 
combines  all  the 
advantages  of  a 
corn  cultivator, 
a  fallow  or  field 
cultivator,  and  a 
broadcast  seeder. 
The  quantity 
sown  is  regulat- 
ed without  any 
change  of  gears, 
simply  by  mov- 
ing the  indicator 
on  the  dial  on 
the  rear  of  the 
hopper,  in  plain 
view  of  the  op- 
erator, and  can 
be    varied   as 


idles. 


tion,  when   dodging  crooked    hills,   relieving   the 
plowman  of  much  hard  work  and  insuring  more 


Fig.  5. — A  Riding  Cultivator. 


Rotary  Shields  and  Tr. 

much  or  little  as  the  size  or  condition  of  the  grain 
may  demand.  Cultivators  of  this  style  are  adapted 
to  either  walking  or  riding,  and  the  seed-sowing 
attachment  is  adapted  to  any  kind  of  grain,  includ- 
ing even  flax  seed. 

Fig.  7  is 
the  cut  of  a 
nice  cultiva- 
tor manu- 
factured bj 
the  Long  & 
Allstatter 
Co.,  which 
can  be  used 

Fig.  ^.—  Cultivator,  W  i  t  h       OX 

without  extra  blades,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  crop,  and  can  be  adjusted  for  either  shallow  or 
deep  plowing. 

At  this  day  of  progress  in  the  world  of  garden- 
ing, it  is  simply  foolish  for  one  to  scrape  over  rast 
surface  of  soil  with  the   tedious  hoe,  when  with 


3i6, 


CUPBOARD— CURRANT. 


Fig.  9. — Hand  Cultivator. 


a  cheap  "  cultivator,"  either  drawn  by  horse  or  run 
by  hand,  he  can  just  as  well  go  over  five  to  ten  times 
as  much  ground.  The  hoe  is  to  be  used  only  in  those 
close  quarters  which  cannot  be  reached  by  a  ma- 
chine. It  is  economical,  therefore,  to  plant  in  rows 
as  far  as  practicable,  with  the  view  of  using  the 
cultivator.     Fig.  9  is  an  engraving  of  one  of  the 

best,  the  Mat- 
thews. It  is  said 
that  with  one  of 
these  a  man  can 
do  about  six 
times  as  much  as 
he  could  with  a 
hoe.  A  drill  and 
cultivator  com- 
bined (Fig.  10) 
is  also  a  great 
convenience  for 
gardeners.  The  cut  shows  the  cultivator  attach- 
ment   removed.      The  machine    works    in   either 

capacity,  or  in 
both  at  once. 
The  seeding 
apparatus  is 
capable  of  sow- 
ing nearly  all 
kinds  of  seed. 
The  last  two 
implements  are 
manufactured 

V\G.  \Q.— Drill  and  Cultivator  Combined,  by     Everett     & 

Small,  Boston,  Mass. 

Cupboard.  The  most  important  thing  to  say 
concerning  this  essential  article  of  kitchen  furni- 
ture, is  that  extraordinary  pains  are  required  to 
keep  it  free  from  foul  odors.  Victuals  of  all  kinds, 
when  cold,  absorb  deleterious  gases  from  the  air. 
Butter  is  particularly  "  sensitive  "  to  such  exposure, 
and  when  kept  in  a  cupboard,  soon  begins  to  lose 
flavor,  and  the  family  suspects  that  it  is  the  nature 
of  the  butter  to  deteriorate  under  any  circum- 
stances, when,  if  kept  in  the  right  place — in  pure 
cold  air — it  would  keep  sweet  and  well  flavored  a 
long  time.  The  next  observation,  in  practical  im- 
portance, is  perhaps  the  situation  of  the  cupboard. 
While  the  victual  cupboard  should  be  in  a  cool, 
clean  place,  the  dish  cupboard,  containing  all  the 
conveniences  of  cooking,  should  be  near  the  range 
or  cooking  stove. 

Curculio:     see  Plum. 

Currant.  This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
all  small  fruits,  as  it  can  be  used  to  such  advantage 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  whether  in  a  green  or  ripe 
state,  and  is  so  easily  grown.  It  is  indispensable 
in  every  small  garden.  When  green  it  is  used  in 
pies,  tarts,  etc.,  stewed  like  gooseberries.  When 
ripe,  it  is  much  used  as  a  table  fruit,  with  plenty 


of  sugar;  but  it  is  almost  universally  used  in  a 
jelly  that  is  both  delicious  and  wholesome.  It  also 
makes  an  excellent  wine,  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than 
two  or  three  dimes  per  gallon.  The  black  currant 
is  chiefly  used  in  a  jam  or  jelly.  Currants  ripen  in 
midsummer,  and  if  protected  from  the  sun  will  re- 
main on  the  bushes  until  October.  A  free  use  of 
this  fruit  is  exceedingly  healthful.  Very  fine  sum- 
mer drinks  are  made  of  the  currant,  it  being  a  good 
substitute  for  the  lemon.  The  expressed  juice, 
diluted  with  water,  sweetened,  and  flavored  with 
vanilla,  makes  a  beverage  for  hot  weather  about 
equal  to  lemonade,  and  is^  even  preferred  to  the 
latter  by  some  people. 

Cultivation.  Nothing  is  easier  of  culture. 
Cuttings  about  a  foot  long,  of  well-ripened  wood 
of  the  month  of  October,  are  set  in  moist,  rich  soil, 
and  nothing  more  is  generally  required  except 
manuring  and  mulching;  indeed,  the  currant  can 
stand  more  of  this  than  an}'  other  plant  that  is  cul- 
tivated. Cut  square  across  just  below  a  bud,  if  to 
be  grown  in  standard  forin,  and  cut  out  all  the 
eyes  except  two  or  three  of  the  upper  ones;  if  in 
bush  form,  which  generally  is  preferable,  this 
may  be  omitted.  All  sorts  of  refuse  from  the 
kitchen,  cellar,  stables  and  privy  vaults  are  in  order 
in  the  currant  garden.  Better  fruit,  however,  can 
be  produced  by  preventing  the  growth  of  suckers, 
by  shortening  the  most  vigorous  branches,  and  by 
keeping  the  bushes  well  shaded.  Some  recom- 
mend keeping  the  bush  in  the  form  of  a  little  tree. 
Of  course  a  good  horticulturist  will  have  pride  in 
pruning  out  all  the  defective  canes  and  keeping  the 
bushes  neat  in  appearance.  The  old  bushes  in  six 
or  eight  years  begin  to  decline,  and  it  is  not  re- 
munerative to  expend  any  labor  upon  them.  They 
should  be  replaced  with  new  plants. 

While  the  currant  is  not  subject  to  any  disease, 
there  are  two  or  three  insects  which  do  it  some 
damage.  By  far  the  greatest  amount  of  mischief 
is  done  by  the  famous  currant  borer,  which  has  not 
yet  appeared  in  some  sections  of  the  West.  White 
hellebore,  in  the  form  of  powder,  is  an  effectual 
remedy,  but  as  some  persons  fear  that  it  is  too  poi- 
sonous to  be  used  in  such  close  connection  with  an 
article  of  diet,  the  next  best  thing  is  to  cut  off"  the 
infested  parts,  about  May  20,  and  burn  them ;  or 
sprinkle  powdered  carbolate  of  lime  over  the 
bushes  two  or  three  times;  or  dilute  carbolic  acid 
(one  per  cent.);  or  coal  oil  and  soap  suds.  If  this 
work  is  done  earlier  the  diseased  parts  cannot  be 
discriminated;  if  later,  some  of  the  worms  might 
escape.  Sometimes  the  currant  is  infested  with  a 
species  of  louse,  for  which  no  efficient  remedy  is 
oflfered. 

Varieties.  Black  English.  —  This  currant, 
which  is  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Black 
Naples,  is  by  some  considered  equal  to  it  in  value, 
and  by  some  quite   inferior;   probably   depending 


CURRANT  SHERBET— CUSTARD. 


317 


upon  differences  of  taste,  or  soil,  or  of  cultivation. 

Black  Naples.  This  is  a  beautiful  fruit,  and  is  the 
finest  and  largest  of  all  the  black  currants,  often 
measuring  nearly  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Its  leaves  and  blossoms  appear  earlier  than  those  of 
the  English,  but  the  fruit  is  later,  and  the  clusters  as 
well  as  the  berries  are  larger  and  more  numerous. 

The  two  foregoing  varieties  are  all  of  the  black  cur- 
rants recommended  for  Western  cultivation. 

Attractor.  Berry  large,  in  a  rather  short  bunch, 
sweet  and  good ;    leaf  peculiarly  narrow  and  toothed. 

Cherry.  This  is  the  largest  of  all  the  red  currants ; 
is  a  moderate  bearer,  but  strong  grower;  leaves  thick, 
dark  green ;  fruit  dark  red,  quite  acid ;  clusters  short. 
The  bushes  hold  their  foliage  well  and  this  is  one  of 
the  best  varieties  for  late  use.  • 

The  Long-Btinched  Hollancf,  or  Long-Bunched  Red, 
is  becoming  a  jxjpular  variety  in  the  West.  The  ber- 
ries are  large,  deep  red,  the  bunches  long,  the  clusters 
a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  Red  Dutch,  and  the 
plant  is  very  productive.  The  fruit  will  hold  on  until 
frost.  It  also  stands  the  heat  of  our  climate  better 
than  the  Red  Dutch ;  is  not  preyed  upon  by  insects, 
but  is  rather  difficult  to  propagate  by  cuttings ;  the 
best  way  is  to  make  stools  or  mound  up  among  the 
plants  so  they  will  take  root. 

Red  Dutch.  This  is  by  far  the  most  popular  cur- 
rant in  this  country,  and  everybody  is  acquainted  with 
it.  The'plant  is  hardy,  easy  of  cultivation,  and  the 
fruit  when  well  ripened  is  not  so  sour  as  some  other 
kinds. 

Versailles.,  Fertile  D' Angers.  This  currant  is  a 
very  vigorous  grower,  with  large,  coarse  foliage,  and 
productive.  Fruit  is  next  in  size  to  the  Cherry  cur- 
rant, is  very  beautiful  and  superior  to  it  in  agreeable 
flavor.  It  is  highly  recommended  by  Western  horti- 
culturists. 

Victoria,  Mays  Victoria,  Houghton  Castle,  etc.  A 
late  variety,  with  large  and  very  long  bunches  of  bright 
red,  acid  fruit.  The  plant  is  vigorous,  is  a  moderate 
bearer,  and  the  fruit  hangs  on  the  bushes  some  two 
weeks  longer  than  most  currants.  The  bunches  are 
rather  longer  than  those  of  the  Red  Dutch  and  the 
berries  a  brighter  red. 

White  Dutch.  This  variety  has  several  other  names 
in  other  parts  of  the  world,  but  is  known  only  by  this 
name  in  the  Western  States.  It  is  precisely  similar  to 
the  Red  Dutch  in  habit,  but  the  fruit  is  larger,  with 
rather  shorter  bunches,  of  a  fine  yellowish-white  color 
and  a  very  transparent  skin.  It  is  considerably  less 
acid  than  the  red  currants  and  therefore  preferred  to 
them  for  table  use ;  by  many  it  is  considered  the  best 
currant  for  home  consumption.  It  is  also  a  few  days 
earlier  than  the  Red  Dutch ;  plant  very  productive. 

White  Grape.  Berries  very  large,  whitish  yellow, 
sweet  and  good ;  bunches  moderately  long ;  branches 
more  horizontal  than  White  Dutch;  less  vigorous,  but 
very  productive. 

White  Provetice.  Good  habit  of  bush  ;  leaves  usu- 
ally, but  not  always,  edged  with  white  or  yellow;  fruit 
large  and  handsome. 


For  ornamental  varieties  of  the  currant,  see  Orna- 
mental Trees ;  to  can  currants,  see  Canning. 

Currants,  To  Dry  with  Sugar.  Take  fully  ripe 
currants,  stemmed,  5  pounds ;  sugar,  i  pound ;  put 
into  a  brass  kettle,  stirring  at  first;  then  as  the  currants 
boil  up  to  the  top,  skim  them  off;  boil  down  the  juicy 
syrup  until  quite  thick  and  pour  it  over  the  currants, 
mixing  well ;  then  place  on  suitable  dishes,  and  dry 
them  by  placing  in  a  low  box  over  which  you  can 
place  musqiiito-bars  to  keep  away  flies.  When  prop>- 
erly  dried,  put  in  jars,  and  the  paper  over  them.  To 
prepare  them  for  the  table,  put  cold  water  ujxsn  them 
and  stew  as  other  fruit  for  eating  or  pie-making,  add- 
ing more  sugar  if  desired. 

Currant  Sherbet.  Take  the  expressed  juice  of 
fresh,  ripe  currants,  dilute  in  four  times  its  quantity  of 
water,  and  flavor  with  vanilla.  An  excellent  summer 
drink,  equal  to  lemonade. 

Current,  now  passing  or  in  vogue.  "  Account  Cur- 
rent," or  "  Statement "  of  account,  is  an  account  of 
credits  and  debits  since  the  last  settlement.  "  Price 
Current,"  a  published  list  of  the  market  value  of  arti- 
cles in  a  given  line.  "Current  year,"  "  current  month," 
etc.,  the  present  passing  year,  month,  etc. 

Curtain :  see  Window.     To  renovate  lace  curtains, 

see  Laundry. 

Curry,  a  stew  of  fowl,  fish,  etc.,  cooked  with  curry 
sauce,  which  is  made  of  pepper  and  other  strong 
spices. 

Custard,  eggs  and  milk  cooked  together.  In 
making  custards  always  avoid  stale  eggs.  The  whites 
should  be  beaten  separately  and  put  in  the  last  thing. 
Never  put  eggs  in  very  hot  milk,  as  it  will  poach  them. 
Always  boil  custards  in  a  vessel  set  in  boiling  water. 

Apple  Custard.  Pare,  quarter,  and  core  6  mel- 
low, tart  apples  ;  set  them,  with  6  spoonfuls  of  water, 
in  a  pan,  on  a  few  coals;  and  as  they  soften,  turn 
them  into  a  pudding-dish,  and  sprinkle  on  sugar. 
Mix  8  eggs,  beaten  with  rolled  brown  sugar,  with  3 
pints  of  milk ;  grate  in  half  a  nutmeg,  and  turn  the 
whole  over  the  apples.  Bake  about  twenty-five 
minutes. 

Boiled  Custard.  Boil  a  quart  of  milk  with  a  little 
cinnamon  and  half  a  lemon-peel ;  sweeten  it  with  nice, 
white  sugar;  strain  it;  and  when  a  little  cooled,  mix  in 
gradually  7  well-beaten  eggs,  and  a  tablespoonful  of 
rosewater;  stir  all  together  over  a  slow  fire  till  it  is 
of  proper  thickness,  and  then  ix)ur  it  into  glasses. 
This  makes  a  good  boiled  custard. 

Common  Custard.  Bpil  a  pint  of  milk  with  a  bit 
of  cinnamon  and  lemon-peel ;  mix  i  tablespoonful  of 
potato  flour  with  2  of  cold  milk ;  put  in  a  sieve,  and 
pour  the  boiling  milk  u^xsn  it;  let  it  run  in  a  basin; 
mix  in  by  degrees  the  well-beaten  yelks  of  3  eggs. 
Sweeten  and  stir  it  over  the  fire  a  few  minutes  to 
thicken. 

Cream  Custard.     Beat   8   eggs   and  put   into    2  " 
quarts   of  cream ;  sweeten   to   the  taste ;  flavor  with 
nutmeg  and   cinnamon. 


3i8 


CUTICLE— CYPRESS. 


Custards  to  Turn  Out.  Mix  with  the  well-beaten 
yelks  of  4  eggs  a  pint  of  new  milk ;  half  an  ounce  of 
dissolved  isinglass ;  sweeten  with  loaf  sugar,  and  stir 
it  over  a  slow  fire  till  it  thickens ;  jwur  it  into  a  basin, 
and  stir  it  till  a  little  cool ;  then  pour  it  in  cups  to  turn 
out  when  cold.  Add  spice  as  you  like  to  the  beaten 
eggs. 

Ice-Cream,  or  Frozen  Custard.  Take  10  eggs, 
the  whites  for  the  cake  beaten  to  a  stiff  froth ;  i 
tumbler  of  sugar ;  i  tumbler  of  flour,  not  quite  as  full ; 

1  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar  or  baking-jxjwder  (no 
soda);  flavor,  stir  together  ca.refully,  and  bake.  Previ- 
ously have  a  pan  two-thirds  full  of  new  milk  over  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water  for  the  custard.  Put  into  the 
milk  2  cups  of  sugar,  beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  with 

2  tablespoonfuls  of  corn  starch,  and  stir  into  the  milk 
when  at  a  boiling-point  two  minutes ;  strain  through 
a  sieve ;  when  cool  flavor  and  freeze. 

Lemon  Custard.  Take  half  a  pound  of  loaf  sugar, 
the  juice  of  2  lemons,  the  peel  of  i  pared  very  thin, 
boiled  tender  and  rubbed  through  a  sieve,  and  a  pint 
of  white  wine.  Let  all  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
then  take  out  the  peel  and  a  little  of  the  liquor  and 
set  them  to  cool.  Pour  the  rest  into  the  dish  you  in- 
tend for  it.  Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  and  the  whites, 
and  mix  them  with  the  cool  liquor.  Strain  them  into 
a  dish,  stir  them  well  up  together,  and  set  them  on 
a  slow  fire  in  boiling  water.  When  done,  grate  the 
peel  of  a  lemon  on  the  top,  and  brown  it  over  with  a 
salamander.     The  custard  may  be  eaten  hot  or  cold. 

Rice  Custard.  Mix  a  pint  of  milk,  half  a  pint  of 
cream,  an  ounce  of  sifted  ground  rice,  2  tablespoon- 
fuls of  rose  water;  sweeten  with  loaf  sugar,  and  stir 
all  well  together  till  it  nearly  boils ;  add  the  well- 
beaten  yelks  of  3  eggs.  Stir  and  let  it  simmer  for 
about  a  minute ;  pour  it  into  a  dish,  or  serve  it  in 
cups,  with  sifted  loaf  sugar  and  a  little  nutmeg  over 
the  top. 


Cuticle  (cu'ri-cl),  the  external  or  scarf  skin,  which 
protects  the  more  vital,  true  skin.  It  gradually  scales 
and  wears  off"  and  is  constantly  renewed,  like  the  hair 
and  nails. 

Cutter-Bar,  the  cutting  apparatus  of  a  mowing  or 
reaping  machine ;  also  the  coulter  of  a  plow. 

Cuttings  of  cions  for  grafting,  as  well  as  for  simple 
insertion  in  the  ground,  are  best  made  during  the 
winter  season,  but  not  when  frozen,  or  in  the  late  fall 
or  very  early  spring,  when  the  vital  forces  are  most  at 
rest.  Until  they  are  used  they  can  be  preserved  in 
moist  sand  or  earth  in  the  cellar  at  a  temperature  next 
to  freezing.  The  grafts,  after  they  are  made,  may  be 
preserved  in  a  similar  manner.  A  good  way  of  pre- 
serving grape  cuttings,  and  also  some  other  kinds, 
is  to  pack  them  vertically  in  a  box  of  moist  sand  or 
earth,  let  the  surface  freeze,  and  then  put  them  away 
in  a  place  where  they  will  not  thaw  out  until  spring. 

Grape  cuttings  should  contain  two  or  three  buds, 
according  to  the  method  adopted  for  cultivation  or 
nature  of  the  variety,  and  gooseberry  and  currant  cut- 
tings should  be  about  eight  inches  in  length  and 
from  the  strongest  shoots  of  the  present  year's  growth. 
They  should  be  of  the  best  and  ripest  wood.  Many 
prefer,  with  most  plants,  what  is  called  "  mallet-cut- 
ting," which  is  the  taking  of  a  small  portion  of  the  old 
wood  in  addition,  forming  a  mallet-shaped  cion.  In 
this  case  a  greater  amount  of  stored-up  vitality  is  kept 
with  the  cion,  to  aid  in  giving  it  a  start.  See  also! 
Grafting,  and  the  various  fruits. 

Cut- Worm.  See  Insects,  and  respective  vege- 
tables, fruit-trees.  Corn,  etc. 

Cypress,  the  name  of  several  species  of  trees 
flourishing  in  the  Southern  States.  The  cypress  vine 
is  a  beautiful  climbing  plant  of  the  morning-glory 
family,  hardy  in  the  North. 


D 


?AIKY,  the  place,  room  or  house  where  milk 
is  kept  and  converted  into  butter  and  cheese. 
The  operations  of  the  dairy  have  been  ful- 
ly described  under  the  heads  of  "  Cream," 
"Cheese,"  "Butter"  and  "Milk."  Here  the 
dairy  will  be  treated  simply  as  the  place  where 
these  operations  are  performed.  Should  they  in 
any  case  not  be  extensive  enough  to  wawairt  the 
erection  of  separate  buildings,  the  principles  and  rules 
laid  down  here  will,  with  due  qualification,  be  perfect- 
ly applicable.  Where  they  are  prosecuted  in  anything 
approaching  a  large  scale,  a  separate  building  is  indis- 
pensable. The  dairy  requires,  proiX)rtionally,  just  as 
many  conveniences  as  any  other  manufactory. 

The  site  of  the  dairy-house  will  necessarily  depend 
both  on  the  nature  of  the  locality  and  the  convenience 
of  those  managing  it.  It  should  not  be  too  far  from 
the  house,  nor  too  near  the  cow-house.  If  jwssible,  it 
should  be  constructed  over  a  spring  of  running  water, 
which  is  the  great  essential  in  every  dairy,  or  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  a  well  or  spring  worked  by  a  wind- 
mill by  which  a  constant  flow  of  pure,  cold  water 
can  be  secured.  It  is  needless  to  state  that  the  build- 
ing should  be  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  niilk- 
ing-sheds  of  the  farm,  the  feeding-troughs  of  the  cows 
or  the  piggery,  and  equally  handy  for  feeding  the  whey 
to  the  cows  or  pigs  as  it  may  be  at  any  time  deter- 
mined upon,  and  to  which  it  may  be  run  by  spouts 
from  the  dairy  room.  The  building  should  be  so 
placed  as  to  be  screened  from  the  sun's  rays,  and  the 
building  so  constructed  as  to  prevent,  as  far  as  ix)ssi- 
ble,  the  external  temperature  from  affecting  that  of  the 
dairy-rooms.  The  ice-house  should  be  immediately 
contiguous  to  the  dairy-house,  for  obvious  reasons.  The 
house  should  have  a  cellar,  and  water  should  be  so 
convenient  as  to  be  easily  drawn  or  pumped  into  the 
vats  used  for  running  up  the  curd  or  for  washing  the 
dairy  utensils.  The  walls  may  be  of  any  convenient 
material.  Where  brick  is  cheap  and  easily  obtainable, 
the  walls  are  sometimes  built  double  or  hollow  in  the 
interior.  These  effectually  prevent  the  passage  of 
heat.  Such  construction  is,  however,  more  necessary 
for  the  milk-room  than  elsewhere.  In  case  the  building 
has  to  be  of  wood,  the  sides  may  be  made  dotible  and 
the  intervening  space  filled  with  sawdust  or  any  other 
non-conducting  substance.  Strong,  thick  slates,  with 
lath  and  plaster  below,  are  sometimes  used,  but  the 
expense  is  heavy.  Proper  drains  should  be  made  for 
carrying  off  the  water.  The  floors  of  ordinary  dairies 
are  usually  paved  with  brick  or  tile,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  recommend  either,  for  they  are  neither  level  nor 


closely  jointed  enough  to  prevent  the  spilled  milk 
from  lodging  in  them  and  creating  an  unpleasant  odor 
exceedingly  damaging  to  the  milk,  and,  consequently, 
to  the  butter  and  cheese.  Brick  and  tile  absorb  much 
wet,  too,  and  are  slow  in  drying,  producing  in  winter 
a  chill  which  gives  rise  to  dampness  and  mouldiness. 
Good-sized  paving  stones  are,  in  every  respect,  pref- 
erable ;  slate,  where  procurable,  may  be  advantageous- 
ly used  for  the  purpose.  The  best  form  is  three  feet 
square  by  one-half  inch  thick.  They  should  be  laid 
in  mortar,  or  which  is  much  better,  a  bed  of  concrete 
four  inches  thick  should  be  laid  under  the  mortar.  The 
floor  of  the  cellar  should  have  a  fall  to  a  trap  in  the 
corner  leading  into  the  drain.  Experiments  have 
shown  that  slate  absorbs  only  one  two-hundredth 
part  of  its  weight  in  water,  and  exposed  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  60°,  dries  in  about  one-fourth  of  an  hour; 
while  tile  absorbs  about  one-seventh  of  its  weight,  and 
under  similar  conditions,  does  not  dry  perfectly  in  less 
than  seven  days. 

Deep  excavations  in  the  earth  constitute  good  con- 
servatories, as  the  temperature  is  uniformly  right  and 
the  earth  walls  are  the  best  deodorizers.  .  (See  Ice- 
house). 

For  an  ornamented  dairy,  Minton  tiles  maybe  used. 
The  sides  of  the  interior  should  be  plastered  or  stuc- 
coed. The  windows  should  be  double,  but  made  to 
open  with  lattices  covered  with  wire-gauze,  to  keep  out 
the  flies,  with  double  wooden  shutters  to  guard  against 
severe  cold  in  winter.  The  shelves  may  be  made  of 
flag-stone,  marble,  or  wood  covered  with  lead  or  slate. 
The  latter  is  the  best  material.  A  large  table  in  the 
center  of  the  room  will  be  found  useful.  Ventilation 
will  be  best  obtained  by  a  funnel  running  through  an 
aperture  in  the  roof  A  complete  dairy  should  con- 
sist of  several  rooms,  according  as  butteronly,  or  both 
butter  and  cheese  are  to  be  made.  There  should  be 
a  separate  room  for  the  milk  while  it  is  throwing  up 
the  cream,  a  room  to  serve  as  a  dairy  scullery,  and  a 
third  for  churning.  Cheese  may  perhaps  be  made  in 
this  last ;  but,  if  there  is  much  of  it,  a  fourth  room 
should  be  devoted  to  this  purpose. 

Winter  dairying  will  become  a  very  important  in- 
dustry if  the  proposed  system  of  ensilage  should  prow 
to  be  a  success.     See  Ensilage. 

Dam,  a  wall  or  embankment  across  a  stream,  re- 
straining the  current ;  the  mother — said  of  domestic 
four-footed  animals. 

Damask,  a  kind  of  stuff  with  raised  figures  in  vari- 
ous patterns,  as  flowers,  etc.,  woven  in  the  loom.     It 


320 


DANDELION— DEAFNESS. 


is  made  of  silk  intermingled  with  flax,  cotton  or  wool. 
Imitation  damask  is  made  of  linen. 

Dandelion,  a  genus  of  hardy,  perennial-rooted 
herbaceous  plants.  It  is  a  very  common  and  exceed- 
ingly well  known  weed  of  meadows,  pastures  and  road 
sides.  It  is  diuretic,  tonic,  and  aperient,  and  has  a 
direct  action  in  removing  obstructions  of  the  liver, 
kidneys  and  other  viscera.  It  is  peculiarly  valuable  in 
all  liver  complaints,  derangement  of  the  digestive  or- 
gans, and  in  dropsical  affections.  Were  this  plant  not 
so  common  and  so  cheap,  it  would  be  prized  like  gold ! 
An  infusion  or  decoction  may  be  made  of  the  roots  or 
leaves.  But  the  extract  is  the  best,  thus  prepared : 
Take  up  the  roots  in  September,  clean  them,  bruise 
in  a  mortar,  and  press  out  the  juice ;  strain  and  put  it 
upon  a  plate  in  a  warm  room  to  evajxjrate,  and  render 
it  thick  and  solid.  Dose,  from  a  scruple  to  a  drachm 
three  times  a  day. 

Dandelion  Beer.  Dandelion  root,  Y^  pound  to 
I  gallon  of  water;  boil  well  and  when  cooled  add 
I  pound  sugar,  i  ounce  ginger,  a  lemon,  and  i 
ounce  cream  of  tartar.  Add  a  little  yeast.  It  is  very 
good  for  the  liver  and  digestion. 

Dandelion  Coffee.  Good  coffee,  3  parts ;  hard 
extract  of  dandelion,  i  part ;  chickory,  i  part.  Re- 
duce them  to  a  coarse  ix)wder,  and  mix  and  grind 
them  together.  Good  for  the  digestion  and  affections 
of  the  liver. 

The  young  leaves  of  the  plant  are  much  used  in 
early  spring  as  "  greens  "  or  a  salad,  when  other  fresh 
grown  herbs  are  exceedingly  scarce  and  greatly  want- 
ed. 

Dandruff,  branny  scales  from  a  morbid  skin,  espe- 
cially of  the  scalp.  To  free  the  head  from  dandruff  it 
should  be  well  stimulated  night  and  morning  by  means 
of  a  strong  hair-brush,  and  the  free  use  of  a  small- 
toothed  comb.  A  lotion  of  2  drachms  of  borax,  dis- 
solved in  a  pint  of  rosemary  water  may  be  applied 
three  times  a  week.  Glycerine  and  rose-water  are  also 
prescribed.  Should  this  fail  to  cure  the  evil,  an  oint- 
ment composed  of  i  ounce  of  white  cerate  mixed  with 
Yi  a  drachm  of  creasote,  is  to  be  rubbed  into  the  roots  of 
the  hair  every  night  for  a  week,  at  the  expiration  of 
which  time  the  person  should  have  the  head  thorough- 
ly washed  with  soap  and  water,  take  a  hot  bath, 
bathe  the  head  with  the  rosemary  and  borax,  and 
with  a  clean  brush  the  next  day  remove  any  ex- 
foliation which  may  have  been  thrown  out. 

Many  decoctions  of  herbs  and  roots  have  been  pre- 
scribed. A  solution  of  sulphur  with  the  sulphide  of 
potassium  is  also  recommended ;  but  no  violent  drug 
should  be  permitted  to  remain  on  the  skin  but  a  mo- 
ment. Probably  the  virtue  of  all  the  remedies  pre- 
scribed in  the  world  for  this  trouble  is  due  to  washing 
and  friction.  Try  soft  cold  water  and  rubbing  twice 
a  day,  and  keep  up  the  habit  several  times  a  week, 
all  your  life. 

Dashboard,  a  board  placed  on  the  fore  part  of  a 
carriage,  sleigh  or  other  vehicle,  to  ward  off  water,  mud 
and  snow.     See  Carriage. 


Date  Plum,  the  persimmon  ;  more  strictly,  the  fruit 
of  a  foreign  species  of  persimmon. 

Dates,  the  fruit  of  the  date-palm  tree,  sweet,  palat- 
able and  nutritious.  They  are  often  employed  in 
cookery,  as  raisins  are,  and  are  sometimes  stewed  sep- 
arately. The  cheapest  in  the  market  are  generally  too 
dirty  for  use.  The  best  are  large,  softish,  not  much 
wrinkled,  of  a  reddish-yellow  color  on  the  outside,  and 
with  a  whitish  membrane  between  the  flesh  arid  the 
stone. 

Day  Book,  a  book  in  which  are  recorded  the  pe- 
cuniary transactions  of  the  day,  in  the  order  of  their 
occurrence.     See  Book-keeping. 

Days  of  Grace,  the  three  days  allowed  by  law  to  a 
debtor  after  his  obligation  becomes  due,  in  which  to 
pay  the  debt. 

Dead*Center,  in  machinery,  either  one  of  the  two 
opposite  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  crank,  which  are  in 
line  with  the  piston  rod,  and  where  the  power  has  no 
bearing  in  propelling  the  machinery.  Those  in  charge 
of  a  heavy  engine  generally  avoid  stopping  the  ma- 
chinery with  the  connecting  rod  "on  the  dead  center," 
as  in  such  a  case  it  is  difficult  to  start  again.  Loco- 
motive engines  are  always  double,  one  working  at  right 
angles  with  the  other  and  thus  mutually  aiding  in 
passing  the  dead  center. 

Dead  Heat,  a  heat  or  course  between  two  or  more 
race  horses,  in  which  all  come  out  exactly  equal,  no 
one  winning. 

Dead  Set,  the  fixed  position  of  a  pointer  dog  in 
indicating  game. 

Dead  Shot,  an  unerring  marksman. 

Dead  Wall,  a  solid  wall  with  no  doors,  windows  or 
other  openings. 

Deafness.  This  troublesome  complaint  is  not  un- 
common. It  may  be  due  to  any  one  of  the  following 
causes:  i.  Too  much  wax  in  the  ear;  2.  a  common 
cold ;  3.  scariet  fever ;  4.  gout,  etc.  To  remove  the 
accumulation  of  wax  inject  warm  water  with  a  syringe. 
Avoid  picking  and  jwicing  at  the  ears.  A  little  oil 
dropped  into  the  ear  helps  to  dissolve  the  wax.  Deaf- 
ness arising  from  cold  will  be  removed  by  the  cure  of 
the  cold.  In  scarlet  fever,  deafness  arises  from  the 
connection  which  exists  between  the  throat  and  the 
ear.  For  ordinary  cases  of  deafness  either  of  the  fol- 
lowing remedies  may  be  resorted  to:  Drop  three  or 
four  drops  of  glycerine  in  the  ear  before  retiring  at 
night;  in  the  morning  syringe  the  ear  with  warm  water, 
and  continue  this  practice  faithfully  for  some  time;  or, 
take  pure  olive  oil,  say  i  ounce,  and  ^  ounce  each  of 
tincture  of  lobeUa  and  tincture  of  cayenne;  mix,  and, 
from  a  warm  teaspoon,  drop  into  the  ear  four  to  six 
drops  of  this  twice  a  day,  shaking  the  vial  well  before 
using  it.  This  is  relaxing,  softening  and  stimulating, 
and  in  all  ordinary  cases  will  answer  the  purpose. 
Turkey  oil  (or  grease)  is  said  to  be  still  better  than 
olive  oil,  and  may  be  used  instead  of  it  in  this  prepa- 


DEATH,  APPARENT— DEED. 


321 


ration;  or,  take  a  common  eel,  remove  the  skin  and  in- 
testines, hang  it  before  the  fire,  and  let  the  oil  drip  into 
a  pan  or  vessel ;  when  done  dripping  bottle  the  oil,  and 
of  this  drop  into  the  ear  once  or  twice  a  day  five  or 
six  drops  from  a  warm  teasjxjon. 

Death,  Apparent.  In  this  connection  we  treat  of 
apparent  death  from  hanging,  intoxication,  lightning, 
etc.,  while  under  the  head  of  Drowning  and  Freezing 
we  very  fully  treat  of  apparent  deafli  by  drowning  and 
freezing. 

From  Hanging.  In  addition  to  the  means  recom- 
mended for  the  apparently  drowned,bleeding,to  relieve 
the  pressure  of  blood  on  the  heart  and  lungs  should 
early  be  employed  by  a  medical  assistant. 

From  No.kious  Vapors,  Lightning,  etc.  Remove 
the  body  into  cold,  fresh  air.  Dash  cold  water  on  the 
neck,  face  and  breast  frequently.  If  the  body  be  cold 
apply  warmth,  as  recommended  for  the  apparently 
drowned.  Use  the  means  for  inflating  the  lungs  as 
directed  above.  Let  electricity  (particularly  in  acci- 
dents from  lightning)  be  early  employed  by  a  medical 
assistant. 

From  Intoxication.  Lay  the  body  on  a  bed,  with 
the  head  raised;  remove  the  neckcloth  and  loosen  the 
clothes.  Obtain,  instantly,  medical  assistance ;  in  the 
meantime  apply  cloths  soaked  in  cold  water  to  the  head, 
and  bottles  of  hot  water,  or  hot  bricks,  to  the  calves 
of  the  legs  and  to  the  feet. 

On  restoration  to  life,  a  tea-spoon  of  warm  water 
should  be  given,  and  then,  if  the  power  of  swallowing 
be  returned,  small  quantitiesof  weak  brandy  and  water, 
warm;  the  patient  should  be  kept  in  bed,  and  a  dispo- 
sition to  sleep  encouraged,  except  in  cases  of  ajwplexy 
and  intoxication.  Great  care  is  requisite  to  maintain 
the  restored  vital  actions,  and  to  prevent  undue  ex- 
citement. The  treatment  is  to  be  persevered  in  for 
three  or  four  hours. 

Death.  Watch,  a  small  beetle  sometimes  heard 
making  a  clicking  noise  in  the  wall  or  book-case  re- 
sembling the  ticking  of  a  watch;  supix)sed  by  some 
superstitious  jieople  to  forebode  death  in  the  family. 
See  page  112. 

Debit  (deb'it),  a  recorded  item  of  debt ;  to  charge 

with  debt. 

Decanter  (de-can' ter),  a  vessel  from  which  fluids 
are  poured  out  gently  to  leave  the  sediment  behind. 

Deciduous  (de-sid'u-us),  not  evergreen. 

Decoction,  a  tea;  the  virtues  of  any  vegetable 
matter  boiled  out  into  water.  An  "infusion  "  consists 
of  the  virtues  of  a  substance  soaked  out  in  cold  water; 
a  "tincture,"  the  virtues  drawn  by  and  into  alcohol  or 
whisky;  an  "extract,"  anything  drawn  out  by  heat, 
distillation,  spirits  or  other  chemical  process. 

Dedication  is  the  granting  to  the  public,  for  use, 
any  land  for  roads,  churches,  schools,  cemeteries,  etc., 
by  the  owner,  with  intent  that  it  shall  be  used  as  des- 
ignated.    It  must  be  accepted  by  the  public.     The 

31 


grant  may  be  direct  by  deed,  or  implied  from  acts. 
Acceptance  is  by  direct  acceptance  or  by  occupancy 
and  use.  A  constant  use  by  the  public  for  twenty 
years,  with  knowledge  of  the  owner,  will  be,  in  most 
States,  sufficient  to  presume  dedication.  Land  dedi- 
cated for  one  purpose  cannot  be  used  for  another,  ex- 
cept by  consent  of  the  original  owner. 

Deed,  a  sealed  instrument  in  writing,  duly  executed 
and  delivered,  containing  some  transfer,  bargain  or  con- 
tract. In  former  times  any  writing  signed  and  sealed 
was  termed  a  deed;  now  the  law  confines  the  meaning 
to  instruments  for  the  sale  of  land.  In  this  country 
no  land  can  be  transferred  excepting  by  a  deed,  which 
must  be  properly  signed,  sealed,  witnessed,  acknowl- 
edged, delivered,  and  recorded.  In  some  of  the  States, 
seals  are  not  necessary  to  the  validity  of  a  deed.  A 
deed  should  be  written  or  printed  on  parchment,  as 
paper  is  more  perishable  in  character.  The  person 
making  the  deed  is  called  the  grantor ;  the  person  in 
whose  favor  the  deed  is  made  is  called  the  grantee. 
The  deed  should  be  signed  by  the  grantor  with  his  full 
name,  written  clearly  in  ink  of  the  best  quality.  A 
person  accepting  a  deed  signed  mth  a  lead  pencil 
places  his  rights  in  jeopardy.  If  the  grantor  cannot 
write  his  name,  he  may  make  his  mark.  The  name  of 
the  grantee  should  be  written  clearly,  with  good  ink,  in 
the  proper  place  in  the  deed. 

In  the  States  which  require  a  seal  great  care  must 
be  given  to  see  that  only  those  recognized  in  law  are 
used.  Strictly  speaking,  a  seal  is  a  piece  of  paper 
wafered  on,  or  a  piece  of  sealing-wax  pressed  on  the 
paper.  In  the  New  England  States  and  in  New  York, 
the  law  does  not  acknowledge  any  other  kind.  In  the 
Southern  and  Western  States,  the  written  word  "  Seal," 
with  a  scrawl  around  it,  placed  after  the  signature, 
constitutes  a  legal  seal. 

A  deed  must  be  delivered  in  order  to  render  it  valid. 
There  is  no  special  form  necessary  to  constitute  a  prop- 
er delivery.  If  the  deed  comes  into  the  possession  of 
the  grantee  with  the  knowledge  and  consent  of  the 
grantor,  however  it  may  have  been  gotten  possession 
of,  it  is  a  valid  delivery.  If  a  man  makes  a  deed  and 
fails  to  deliver  it,  and  dies  with  it  in  his  possession,  the 
deed  is  of  no  effect  whatever.  A  deed  to  a  married 
woman  maybe  delivered  either  to  heror  her  husband. 

Some  of  the  States  require  that  deeds  shall  be  at- 
tested by  two  witnesses.  New  York  requires  but  one. 
Other  States  do  not  require  any  witnesses ;  but  in  all 
cases  a  deed  ought  to  be  witnessed  by  at  least  two 
persons,  whether  the  law  requires  it  or  not.  It  is  best  • 
to  have  adult  witnesses ;  but  minors  may  act  in  this 
capacity  if  they  be  of  sound  mind.  The  witness  must 
have  no  interest  in  the  deed.  For  this  reason  a  wife 
cannot  witness  her  husband's  signature. 

As  a  general  rule,  deeds  are  valid  between  parties 
even  when  not  acknowledged.  It  is  always  best  to 
have  them  acknowledged,  however,  as  an  unacknowl- 
edged deed  cannot  be  recorded.  The  acknowledg- 
ment must  be  made  before  a  person  authorized  by  the 
law  to  receive  it.  In  some  places  a  deed  may  be  ac- 
knowledged by  either  of  the  grantors,  but  the  old  cus- 


322 


DEEDS— DIABETES. 


torn  of  an  acknowledgment  by  all  the  grantors  is  the 
safest  as  well  as  the  most  general.  Where  a  wife  joins 
with  her  husband  in  conveying  away  their  land,  or  does 
it  separately,  a  particular  form  and  mode  of  acknowl- 
edgment is  generally  required  to  show  that  she  acted 
without  undue  influence  from  him,  and  of  her  own  free 
will.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  justice  taking  the  acknowl- 
edgment to  state  in  his  certificate  exactly  how  it  was 
made  before  him. 

A  deed  must  be  recorded  to  be  valid,  that  is,  the  gran- 
tee must  deliver  it  to  the  recorder  of  deeds,  or  other  offi- 
cials appointed  by  law  for  that  purpose,  who  must  cause 
it  to  be  copied  in  full  in  a  book  kept  in  his  office  for 
that  purpose.  A  deed  is  regarded  as  recorded  from 
the  moment  it  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  this  officer, 
and  he  generally  writes  upon  it  the  year,  month,  day, 
hour,  and  minute  when  he  received  it.  Deeds  should 
be  presented  for  record  at  the  earliest  jxassible  moment. 
Sometimes  the  ownership  to  land  conveyed  may  de- 
pend upon  the  exact  minute  at  which  the  deed  was 
delivered  for  record.  This  system  of  recording  deeds 
enables  a  person  tcJ  trace  the  title  to  property  wth  ab- 
solute certainty. 

When  a  deed  is  filed  for  record  it  is  notice  to  all  the 
world,  and  if  the  recorder  make  a  mistake  in  recording 
or  indexing,  it  will  not  affect  the  title  of  the  grantee. 
He  has  complied  with  the  law  in  filing  it  for  record, 
and  is  not  affected  by  subsequent  mistakes  of  officers. 

All  erasures  or  additions  to  a  deed  should  be  noted 
at  the  end  of  it,  and  properly  witnessed.  Any  such 
changes  without  being  thus  provided  for  renders  the 
deed  null  and  void. 

In  order  to  make  a  valid  deed,  the  grantor  must  be 
true  and  lawful  owner  of  the  property ;  must  be  of 
legal  age ;  and  must  be  of  sound  mind. 

A  deed  to  a  farm  includes,  in  addition  to  the  land 
and  growing  timber,  fences  and  rails  or  lumber  laid  out 
along  a  line  for  a  fence.  Boards  piled  up  on  the  farm 
all  in  bulk,  although  intended  for  fencing,  do  not  pass. 
Loose  boards  in  barns,  out-houses  etc.,  do  not  pass 
with  the  deed,  but  are  personal  property.  Growing 
crops  usually  pass  when  they  belong  to  the  owner,  un- 
less especially  reserved;  also,  all  buildings,  and  lum- 
ber which  has  been  in  a  building  or  crib,  even  if  torn 
down  and  laid  away  for  future  use.  A  furnace  set  in 
brick,  either  in  the  house  or  outside,  passes,  and  every- 
thing that  is  so  attached  to  the  buildings  as  to  mar  them 
by  removal.  Pumps,  water  pipes,  and  iron  kettles  set 
in  brick  work,  and  a  large  bell  attached  to  any  of  the 
'  buildings  or  on  a  post  set  in  the  ground  all  pass. 

When  a  deed  is  filed  for  record  it  is  notice  to  all 
the  world,  and  if  the  recorder  make  a  mistake  in  re- 
cording or  indexing,  it  will  not  affect  the  title  of  the 
grantee;  he  has  complied  with  the  law  in  filing  it  for 
record  and  is  not  affected  by  subsequent  mistakes  of 
officers. 

Deeds,  To  Make  Legible.  To  make  the 
writing  in  deeds  legible,  when  sunk  or  obliterated, 
take  five  or  six  galls,  bruise  them  and  put  them  into  a 
pint  of  strong  white  wine ;  let  it  stand  in  the  sun  two 
days ;  then  dip  a  brush  into  the  wine  and  wash  the 


part  of  the  writing  which  is  sunk  or  faded,  and  by  the 
color  you  will  see  whether  the  wine  has  enough  of  the 
galls.  The  writing  fades  because  the  gallic  and  tan- 
nic acids  contained  in  the  ink  perishes,  through  age, 
but  the  iron  still  remains.  When,  therefore,  the  fresh 
gallic  and  tannic  acids  are  re-supplied,  the  ink  again 
becomes  black. 

Delirium  Tremens  (de-lir  i-um  tre'  mens),  a  fit- 
ful brain  disease  of  drunkards,  victims  of  opium  and 
other  narcotics,  wherein  the  patient  imagines  that 
snakes,  demons,  etc.,  are  about  him.  The  principal 
reliance  in  the  treatment  of  this  terrible  and  peculiar 
disease  is  in  opium  and  brandy,  or  narcotics  with  al- 
coholic stimulants.  Induce  regular  sleep  by  first  tak- 
ing an  emetic  and  an  enema,  a  shower  bath,  and  then 
every  three  hours  15  to  18  grains  of  ipecacuanha. 
Nicely  made  broths  and  gruels  should  be  his  diet. 
Or  give  sulphate  of  quinine,  1 2  grains ;  sulphate  of 
morphine,  i  grain;  mix,  and  divide  into  6  powders. 
Dose,  T  powder  every  hour.  Also,  a  preparation  of 
cinchona  is  popular,  for  this  purpose,  at  the  present. 

Demijohn  (dem'  i-jon),  a  glass  vessel  or  bottle  with 
a  large  body  and  small  neck,  enclosed  in  wicker- 
work. 

Deodorizers:  see  Disinfectants. 

Demulcent,  a  bland  or  mucilaginous  medicine 
which  protects  raw  internal  surfaces  from  exposure. 

Depilatories  (de-pi'la-to-riz),  substances  used  for 
eradicating  the  hair.  The  safest  depilatory  is  a  strong 
solution  of  sulphuret  of  barium  made  into  a  paste  with 
powdered  starch;  apply  immediately  after  being  mixed 
and  allow  to  remain  from  five  to  ten  minutes. 

Brudet's  Depilatory  :  Mix  3  parts  hydro-sulph- 
uret  of  sodium,  10  parts  finely  powdered  quicklime, 
and  1 1  parts  starch.  Do  not  apply  longer  than  two 
to  four  minutes,  although  it  is  perfectly  safe. 

Chinese  Depilatory  :  Mix  8  ounces  of  quicklime, 
I  ounce  dry  pearlash  and  i  ounce  of  sulphuret  of 
potassium,  and  apply  as  in  the  last  recipe. 

Dessert  (dez-zert'),  a  service  of  pastry,  fruits  or 
sweetmeats  at  the  close  of  a  meal.  See  Pies,  Cakes, 
Custard,  Creams,  etc.,  and  the  respective  fruits. 

Devon  (dev'on),  a  breed  of  cattle.  See  Cattle, 
page  200. 

Dewberry,  a  low  trailing  blackberry,  growing 
sparingly  throughout  this  country. 

Dewlap,  the  flesh  that  hangs  from  the  throats  of 
cattle,  which  laps  or  licks  the  dew  in  grazing. 

Diabetes  (di-a-be'-teez),  a  disease  attended  with  a 
persistent,  excessive  discharge  of  urine.  Most  fre- 
quently the  urine  is  not  only  increased  in  quantity, 
but  contains  saccharine  matter,  in  which  case  the  dis- 
ease is  generally  fatal.  Proper  diet  is  an  important 
matter.  This  should  consist  principally  of  fresh  meats, 
beef  being  the  best.  Eat  little  or  no  vegetables. 
Avoid  everything  from  which  sugar  can  be  extracted, 
and  drink  as  little  as  possible. 


DIAL— DISEASE. 


323 


Dial,  an  instrument  for  showing  the  time  of  day  by 
a  shadow  in  the  sunhght.  The  dial-plate  is  the  face 
of  the  instrument,  as  also  the  face  of  a  clock  or  watch, 
on  which  the  hours  are  marked.  Those  who  have 
not  a  reliable  time-piece  at  hand,  have  sometimes  to 
observe  the  time  of  day  by  shadows  cast  by  objects 
standing  in  the  sunlight.  Mistakes  are  often  made  by 
supposing  the  shadow  to  move  at  a  uniform  rate,  both 
winter  and  summer;  whereas,  while  the  shadow  of  a 
perpendicular  object  at  mid-day  moves  over  15  de- 
grees of  an  arc  within  an  hour,  early  in  the  morning 
and  toward  evening  it  scarcely  moves  over  the  arc  at 
all,  but  merely  shortens  or  lengthens.  Therefore,  in 
the  construction  of  a  sun-dial,  one  must  mark  the 
hours  and  parts  of  hours  on  the  floor,  ground,  platform, 
or  plate  (as  the  case  may  be),  with  the  aid  of  a  time- 
piece. Then,  to  be  more  precise,  an  almanac  indi- 
cating the  daily  variation  of  the  sun  from  true  clock 
time  should  be  consulted,  for  the  sun  is  sometimes  as 
much  as  16  minutes  too  slow  or  too  fast. 

Diarrhcea,  looseness  of  the  bowels,  continuing  from 
day  to  day  and  accompanied  by  straining  when  at 
stool.  Sometimes  a  kind  of  constipation  may  co-exist. 
Brought  on  by  acrid  and  indigestible  articles  of  food, 
accompanied  with  cold  feet,  exhaustive  labors,  etc.; 
often  produced  or  aggravated  by  medicines.  This  is 
another  complaint  for  which  almost  everybody  has  one 
or  two  "  sure  and  safe  "  remedies.  Perhaps  the  most 
simple  and  safe  remedy  is  to  take  ^  teasjxwnful  of 
extract  of  Jamaica  ginger  in  a  lltttle  water.  Sugar  may 
be  added  to  make  it  more  pleasant.  Continue  this  for 
three  or  four  times  and  it  will  relieve  ordinary  attacks. 
Every  farmer  should  keep  an  ounce  bottle  of  this  gin- 
ger in  his  house. 

Another  remedy  :  Bruise  catnip  leaves,  press  out 
the  juice  and  mix  with  an  equal  quantity  of  sweet 
cream.  Take  a  teaspoonful  once  an  hour.  This 
simple  remedy  has  cured  cases  of  chronic  diarrhcea 
considered  hopeless. 

Another:  One  tablespoonful  of  double  burnt  coffee ; 

1  teasjxx)nful  of  ground  cloveS;  i  teaspoonful  of 
white-oak  bark;  i  teaspoonful  of  dried  blackberry 
root;  I  pint  water;  boil  hard  three  minutes.     Dose, 

2  or  3  tablespoonfuls  immediately  after  a  passage. 
Another:  Tincture  kino,  half  ounce;  Epsom  salts, 

half  ounce;  prepared  chalk,  half  ounce.  Mix  well 
in  half  pint  of  water.  Take  a  wineglassful  three  times 
a  day. 

The  non-medicinal  treatment  is:  Warm,  tepid  or 
cool  injections,  according  to  the  sensations;  bland 
diet ;  and  close  observance  of  all  the  laws  of  health 
as  given  in  this  work  under  the  head  of  Hygiene. 
Astringent  medicines  produce  costiveness,  which  is 
followed  by  aggravated  looseness  again,  by  way  of  re- 
action, and  so  on.  In  most  cases  drugs  cure  one  dis- 
ease by  producing  another,  the  other  disease  being 
generally  an  obscure  and  chronicmorbid  condition. 

Diaphoretic  (di-a-fo-ret'ic),  a  medicine  tending  to 
promote  insensible  perspiration.     Almost  any  diffusi- 


ble stimulant  or  aromatic,  in  certain  doses,  is  of  this 
character,  and  there  are  thousands  of  them. 

Dibble,  an  instrument  to  make  holes  in  the  soil, 
used  in  transplanting  plants  with  little  root.  Com- 
monly it  is  no  more  than  a  short  section  of  a  spade 
handle,  the  lower  part  shod  with  iron,  and  sharp. 
Steel  transplanting  trowels  are  used  for  larger  plants 
and  a  small  stick  for  very  small  plants  or  cuttings. 

Diet :  see  Food  and  Hygiene. 

Dill,  an  aromatic  plant,  the  seeds  of  which  are 
used  in  flavoring  fancy  articles  of  food. 

Diphtheria,  a  disease  of  the  throat,  accompanied 
with  general  fever,  in  which  a  false  membrane  is 
formed  in  the  throat,  partly  visible  to  one  who  looks 
into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  under  a  strong  light. 
One  or  more  whitish  patches  may  be  seen,  with  un- 
usual redness  in  the  surrounding  parts.  For  treat- 
ment, bind  a  piece  of  fat  bacon  or  salt  pork  to  the 
throat  externally,  and  give  gargles  of  sulphur  and 
water.  A  little  of  the  solution  may  be  swallowed; 
and  even  though  the  case  be  some  other  disease  than 
diphtheria,  no  harm  will  be  done.  Of  course,  all  the 
general  principles  of  treating  fever  must  also  be 
observed.     See  Fever. 

Discount,  what  is  counted  off;  also,  to  count  off. 
When  a  note,  for  example,  is  redeemed  at  15  percent, 
discount,  only  85  cents  on  the  dollar  is  paid  for  it. 

Disease,  a  deranged  condition  of  some  of  tlie 
organs  of  animals,  or  vitiated  conditions  of  their  blood, 
or  their  secretions.  The  nature  of  disease,  in  general, 
is  an  effort  of  nature  to  throw  off  foreign  or  effete  mat- 
ter,— sometimes  to  repair  a  wound  or  a  weak  place,  or 
general  debility.  Some  can  be  traced  to  very  obvious 
causes,  while  many  are  exceedingly  obscure  in  origin; 
yet  most  are  known  to  arise  either  wholly  or  chiefly 
from  the  effects  of  improper  food  and  bad  air.  If 
farmers  used  due  care  that  all  the  food  of  their 
animals  was  sound  and  seasonable,  that  their  barns 
and  cattle-houses  were  well  ventilated,  and  that  no 
pond  or  marsh  should  exist  to  create  miasmata,  they 
would  lose  comparatively  little  stock  except  from  ac- 
cident and  old  age.  In  this  volume  the  diseases  of 
mankind  are  briefly  treated  under  their  respective 
heads,  while  the  diseases  of  animals  are  treated  alpha- 
betically in  the  respective  articles  on  the  animals,  as 
Cattle,  Horse,  Sheep,  Swine,  Fowl,  etc. 

Hereditary  Diseases.  No  one,  of  any  observa- 
tion, can  deny  that  hereditary  influence  exists  in  the 
production  of  disease.  This  influence  must  not,  in  the 
production  of  disease,  be  considered  as  invariably  re- 
liable. The  fact  of  horses  or  mares  having  a  disease, 
is  no  reason  why  their  young  will  have  the  same  dis- 
ease also.  It  was  through  change  or  alteration  of 
structure,  action  or  function,  that  existed  in  either  of 
the  parents,  that  disease  fastened  upon  them  ;  and 
these  same  forms  which  existed  in  them  are  likely  to 
be  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  thus  carrying  the 
various  forms  of  structure  which  will  ultimately,  in  all 


i 


324 


DISINFECTANTS— DISLOC A  TION. 


probability,  produce  the  same  disease.  A  great  num- 
ber of  the  affections  which  are  usually  styled  heredit- 
ary do  not  make  their  appearance  until  years  after 
their  birth,  because  it  requires  time  and  work  to  de- 
velojj  them.  Few  persons  would  expect  a  horse  with 
■  cow  hock  to  become  curbed  without  work,  as  a  sec- 
ondary cause.  There  is  one  other  point  worthy  of  re- 
mark, in  speaking  of  hereditary  diseases,  which  is  that 
many  animals,  after  being  poorly  bred,  have  been 
badly  fed  and  cared  for;  whereas,  if  good  feeding  and 
care  had  been  bestowed  on  them,  it  would  have  gone 
a  long  way  in  lessening  the  certainty  of  developing 
hereditary  diseases  in  them  and  their  offspring.  This 
is  every  day  being  illustrated  in  the  family  of  man. 
There  are  several  rules  laid  down  to  be  observed  as 
measures  to  prevent  and  modify  conditions  which  re- 
sult in  producing  diseases  of  hereditary  predisix)sition. 
Although  these  rules  cannot,  in  all  cases,  be  applied 
to  animals,  nevertheless,  much  can  be  done.  The 
better  way  will  be  to  avoid  breeding  from  diseased 
animals.  So  long  as  like  begets  like,  there  will  be 
hereditary  diseases.  As  a  prevention  of  contagious 
diseases  see  Contagion  and  Disinfectants. 

Disinfectants,  substances  used  to  destroy  the 
germs  of  contagion.  Deodorizers  destroy  foul  smells, 
without  necessarily  destroying  also  the  contagion.  The 
principal  disinfectants  are  chlorine,  the  chlorides  of 
lime,  soda,  and  zinc,  charcoal,  carbolic  acid,  bromo- 
chloralum,  copperas,  the  fumes  of  nitric,  nitrous  and 
sulphurous  acids,  onions  and  ventilation.  Chloride  of 
lime  is  generally  the  most  available  for  the  disinfection 
of  privy  vaults,  while  copperas  water  is  the  best  de- 
odorizer of  the  same.  The  following  comix)und, 
although  a  little  more  costly,  is  much  better  for  both 
purposes  combined :  sesqui-chloride  of  iron,  chloride 
of  manganese,  chlorine  and  carbolic  acid.  The  sesqui- 
chloride  is  prepared  by  dissolving  the  hydrated  form 
in  chlorohydric  acid,  and  adding  ten  per  cent,  of  car- 
bolic acid.  The  other  drugs  are  then  added,, and  the 
whole  diluted  in  an  abundance  of  water  at  the  time 
of  using.  For  stables  and  slaughter-houses  one  of  the 
best  compounds  is  a  mixture  of  the  chloride  and  the 
hypochlorite  of  zinc.  In  a  sick-chamber,  sliced  onions, 
spread  out  in  dishes  and  set  in  various  places  about 
the  room,  constitute  the  most  innocent  and  safe  dis- 
infectant in  the  hands  of  the  unskillful ;  but  a  more 
effectual  agent  is  nitrous  acid  vajxir,  produced  as  fol- 
lows :  Warm  a  half  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid  in  a  glass 
or  earthen  cup  in  sand  over  a  lamp,  adding  a  little 
niter  occasionally.  Several  of  these  vessels  are  placed 
about  the  room  and  adjoining  passages,  20  feet  or 
more  apart.  Carbolic  acid,  diluted  and  evaporated,  is 
a  convenient  disinfectant.  For  washing  a  foul  surface 
in  or  about  the  body,  it  is  the  best  material  known. 
For  this  purpose  it  must  be  diluted  in  about  100  times 
its  volume  of  water.  Druggists  generally  have  it  in 
some  diluted  form  all  ready  for  use. 

We  cannot  here  refrain  from  repeating  the  general 
advice.  Avoid,  as  far  as  practicable,  all  occasion  for 
the  use  of  any  drug,  by  cleanliness  and  pure  air.  The 
pure  air  and   exercise  obtained  in   out-door  life  is 


more  than  equal  to  all  other  health  laws  together. 

The  chloride  of  manganese  is  as  economical  a  disin- 
fectant as  can  be  used  by  farmers.  It  is  cheap,  efficient 
and  not  dangerous  like  chloride  of  zinc.  For  stables 
and  houses  filled  with  animals  nothing  will  answer  as 
well  as  chloride  of  lime  applied  to  the  floor  once  a 
day.  For  empty  houses  chlorine  gas  will  be  found  as 
convenient  and  good  as  any.    For  its  use,  see  Chlorine. 

Heat  and  cold  are  two  agents  highly  useful  as  dis- 
infectants. Heat  prevents  fermentation  and  decay  by 
drying  and  changing  the  chemical  state  of  substances, 
as  it  were,  by  working,  whether  by  fire  or  the  sun. 
Cold,  again,  is  the  most  powerful  antiseptic  and  disin- 
fectant. Frosts  prevent  decay  and  disease,  and  at  the 
same  time  have  the  connection  existing  between  them. 

Creasote  is  a  most  jx)werful  antiseptic  and  disin- 
fectant when  applied  to  a  part,  but  it  is  not  easily 
managed.  See  Creasote,  Contagion,  Chlorine,  Chlo- 
ride of  Lime  and  Charcoal. 

Disinfectant  for  Rooms,  Meat  and  Fish.  Com- 
mon salt,  yi  a  tea-cup;  sulphuric  acid,  2  or  3  ounces; 
put  about  5^  ounce  of  the  acid  ujxjn  the  salt  at  a  time, 
every  15  minutes,  stirring,  until  all  is  put  in.  This 
will  purify  a  large  room ;  and  for  meat  or  fish,  hang 
them  up  in  a  box,  having  a  cover  to  it,  and  thus  con- 
fine the  gas,  and  tainted  articles  of  food  will  soon  be 
purified  by  the  same  operation. 

Coffee,  dried  and  pulverized,  then  a  little  of  it 
sprinkled  upon  a  hot  shovel,  will,  in  a  few  minutes, 
clear  a  room  of  all  impure  effluvia,  especially  of  an 
animal  character. 

To  Disinfect  Water.  Bits  of  iron  will  prevent 
water  from  becoming  putrid.  Sheet  iron  or  iron 
trimmings  are  the  best.  The  offensive  smell  of  water 
in  vases  of  flowers  would  be  avoided  by  putting  a  few 
small  nails  in  the  bottom  of  the  vases. 

Unpleasant  Odor  of  Perspiration.  This  is  fre- 
quently a  source  of  vexation  to  gentlemen  and  ladies, 
some  of  wlx)m  are  very  much  subject  to  unpleasant 
odors  arising  from  perspiration.  This  may  be  removed 
by  the  following  simple  process :  Mix  a  tablespoonful 
of  the  connx)und  spirits  of  ammonia  with  a  small 
basin  of  water.  By  washing  the  arms,  ami-pits,  and 
hands  with  the  solution,  the  skin  will  ,be  left  clean  and 
sweet.  The  wash  is  cheap  and  harmless,  and  is  much 
preferable  to  the  perfumes  and  unguents  which  dis- 
guise but  do  not  relieve  the  trouble. 

Dislocation,  a  displacing  of  the  articular  sur- 
face of  the  bones  of  living  animals  from  their  projjer 
situations.  The  reduction  of  dislocations  is  a  very 
important  part  of  human  surgery,  but  in  consequence 
of  the  very  jxDwerful  resistance  offered  to  it,  ard  of 
the  imperfect  state  of  mechanical  means  for  overcom- 
ing this,  the  reducing  of  locations  is  very  seldom 
attempted  in  veterinary  pracrice.  In  man  all  disloca- 
tions are  characterized  by  the  same  symptoms,  pain, 
shortening  of  the  limb,  a  depression  in  one  place,  near 
a  joint,  and  an  enlargement  or  swelling  opjxjsi  e. 
When  a  bone  of  the  arm  or  leg  is  dislocated,  place 
the  patient  on  the  floor  on  his  back  with  a  pillow  un- 


DISTILLING— DOCTORING. 


325 


der  his  head,  fold  a  damp  towel  around  the  arm  or 
leg  below  the  dislocation,  tie  a  handkerchief  around 
the  towel,  sit  down  on  the  floor  and  pull  with  a  slow, 
steady  strain  until  the  joint  is  set.  Sprains  should 
always  be  treated  by  perfect  rest  to  the  parts,  and  cold 
water  should  be  applied  constantly.  Take  a  lump  of 
ice,  wrap  it  in  a  woolen  cloth  and  keep  it  constantly 
applied  where  needed.  Never  permit  warm  applica- 
tions, jxjultices,  or  liniments  to  be  applied. 

Distilling.  Any  condensed  vapor  is  a  distilled 
product.  To  obtain  the  purest  water,  get  a  tin  or 
granite-lined  worm  (coiled  pipe),  fi.x  it  in  a  cask,  the 
lower  end  projecting  through  a  hole  near  the  bottom, 
the  cask  to  be  kept  filled  with  cold  water.  A  pipe 
leads  from  the  upper  end  of  the  worm  to  a  boiler  at  a 
little  distance.  Let  the  water  boil  for  a  few  minutes 
disconnected  from  the  worm  in  order  to  expel  the  vol- 
atile gases  or  organic  matter,  then  put  in  the  connect- 
ing pipe,  and  let  the  water  boil  rather  slowly  afterward 
or  simmer.  The  cold  worm  condenses  the  vapor  into 
water  and  deposits  it  into  a  clean  bottle  or  jug  set  for 
the  purpose.  If  such  stills  were  supplied  in  the  gen- 
eral market,  it  would  pay  any  family  to  purchase  one, 
in  order  to  have  such  pure  water  that  no  disease  of 
the  biliary  or  urinary  system  need  be  feared,  and  the 
general  health  be  better  every  way. 

Diuretic  (di-u-ret'-ic),  a  medicine  tending  to  pro- 
mote the  secretion  of  urine.  Diuretics  o[jerate  more 
easily  and  powerfully  upon  the  horse  than  upon  man, 
and  therefore  require  in  veterinary  practice  to  be  used 
with  much  judgment  and  considerable  caution. 

Dock,  to  amputate  the  tail  of  any  domestic  quad- 
ruped, especially  of  the  horse.  This  practice  has 
been  advocated  by  some  for  the  three  reasons  of 
throwing  into  the  rest  of  the  system  the  portion  of 
blood  which  would  otherwise  be  expended  upon  the 
amputated  tail ;  of  improving  the  appearance  of  the 
animal ;  and  of  promoting  the  convenience  and  com- 
fort of  the  riders  and  drivers  of  horses.  The  first  of 
these  reasons  is  imaginary  and  absurd ;  the  second  is 
a  matter  of  vitiated  taste,  and  the  third  is,  in  a  con- 
siderable degree,  a  misnomer  for  mere  fashion  and 
caprice.  All  right  feeling  and  all  good  taste  revolt 
from  the  cruelty  of  inflicting  upon  an  animal  the  vio- 
lent pain  of  amputation,  and  of,  at  the  same  time, 
depriving  him  of  means  of  defense  vnth  which  the 
beneficent  Creator  has  provided  him  against  thou- 
sands of  torturing  attacks  of  insects ;  yet  so  long  as 
blind  custom  (which  is  not  so  prevalent  as  some  years 
ago)  and  a  reckless  regard  to  a  little  convenience  in 
man,  insists  on  the  docking  of  the  horse,  let  the 
operation  be  performed  with  as  little  cruelty  to  its  vic- 
tim as  possible.  The  amputation  should  be  made  at 
one  stroke,  against  the  resistance  of  a  hard  board,  and 
without  any  subsequent  application  for  stopping  the 
hemorrhage,  or  at  the  worst,  with  the  use  of  a  very  mod- 
erate cautery,  so  applied  as  not  to  touch  the  bone. 
Every  precaution  should  be  taken  that  the  act  of  am- 
putation go  clear  through  a  joint  of  the  tail  without 
grazing,  far  less  splitting,  an  articulation  of  bone.   The 


precise  joint  of  the  tail  through  which  the  amputation 
is  made  is  a  matter  of  mere  caprice,  some  persons 
preferring  to  leave  a  considerable  [xirtion  of  the  tail, 
and  others  to  cut  almost  the  whole  away  so  as  to 
leave  nothing  but  a  hideous  stump. 

The  docking  of  lambs  is  quite  common  in  some 
sections.  It  is  claimed  this  promotes  cleanliness  and 
prevents  the  attraction  of  insects. 

Doctoring,  medical  practice.  Of  all  the  crudities  of 
past  ages,  there  was  none  transmitted  to  this  century 
so  gross  and  irrational  as  practical  medicine.  We 
would  wonder  why  men  noted  for  learning  and  intel- 
lectual power  received  it  as  something  approximating 
to  science,  and  to  be  treasured  as  among  the  most 
precious  gifts  to  humanity,  did  we  not  go  further  and 
trace  the  connection  between  it  and  the  natural  history 
of  man,  which  gave  it  its  greatest  if  not  its  only 
charm.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Ale.xandrian  school 
the  physician's  vocation  was  confined  to  the  observa- 
tion of  disease,  the  administration  of  simples,  and  the 
practice  of  such  arts  as  would  forcibly  impress  the 
minds  of  superstitious  persons  who  receive  their  min- 
istrations. At  this  time  the  study  of  anatomy  excited 
the  interest  of  some  of  the  best  minds  of  the  age,  and, 
associated  with  physiology  and  chemistry,  it  has  con- 
tinued to  engage  the  attention  of  those  who  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  attracted  by  it.  The  complex 
mechanism  of  the  human  body  could  not  but  attract 
the  attention  of  those  who  were  endeavoring  to  rend 
the  covering  of  the  dark  ages  and  come  out  into  a 
fairer  light.  And  thus,  we  will  find  that  in  the  fif- 
teenth, sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries  there 
were  many  physicians  who  became  noted,  not  so 
much  for  their  success  in  the  cure  of  disease  as  in 
unraveling  the  tangled  web  of  man's  structure  and 
relations  to  surrounding  objects.  As  regards  the 
practice,  it  was  so  gross  and  many  times  so  absurd 
as  to  excite  the  ridicule  of  the  non-professional. 

Such  was  practical  medicine  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  Disease  was  looked  upon  as 
some  fiend  to  be  driven  out  by  harsh  usage,  and 
medicine  was  looked  upon  as  the  only  weapon  which 
could  be  effectually  employed,  and  upon  which  the 
lives  of  the  sick  depended.  And  this  medical  weapon 
was  used  as  a  Celt  would  use  his  shillalah,  striking 
right  and  left,  and  satisfied  if  it  came  in  contact  with 
something. 

Those  were  the  days  of  copious  purgatives,  saliva- 
tion, continued  nausea  by  tartar  emetic,  copious  bleed- 
ings, large  and  painful  blisters,  shaved  heads, 
etc.  They  were  the  days  when  the  tortured  patients 
would  cry  for  water,  as  did  Dives  from  the  burning  of 
hell,  but  not  a  drop  could  they  have  to  cool  their 
parched  tongues.  They  were  the  days  when  the  sick 
so  lost  their  strength  that  they  would  have  to  be 
turned  and  lifted  on  a  sheet;  when  ghastly  bed- 
sores on  the  nates  and  back  added  to  the  tortures  of 
the  victim.  And,  lastly,  they  were  the  days  when  the 
sick  slowly  recovered  from  the  ill  effects  of  the  doc- 
toring, found  themselves  with  diseased  joints,  carious 
bones,  impaired  digestive   organs,  and   imixjverished 


326 


DOCTORING. 


blood,  so  that  at  times  it  seemed  almost  impossible 
for  them  to  regain  their  health. 

This  is  not  a  very  pleasant  picture,  but  it  is  faith- 
fully drawn ;  and  such  was  the  heritage  of  this  cen- 
tury as  regards  practical  medicine.  It  savored  too 
strongly  of  the  dark  ages  and  of  the  inquisition  for  a 
period  of  rapid  enlightenment,  and  there  was  a  popu- 
lar demand  for  its  reformation  that  could  not  but  be 
heeded.  The  most  rapid  progress  has  since  been 
made  by  all  the  schools  of  medicine.  Indeed,  not 
only  has  the  profession  advanced  in  the  science  and 
art  of  healing,  but  the  public  are  much  wser  and 
better  posted  in  the  treatment  of  diseases  than  for- 
merly. They  are  not  so  easily  duped  and  humbugged 
by  the  quacks,  apothecaries,  traveling  doctors,  sooth- 
sayers, fortune-tellers,  certain  clairvoyants  and  "  spir- 
itual mediums,"  and  the  like,  as  they  were  a  few 
years  ago.  People  are  beginning  to  realize  the  fact 
that  every  one  has  the  care  of  his  health  in  his  own 
haiids  so  long  as  he  is  mentally  and  physically  able 
to  attend  to  it,  and  not  until  he  is  helpless  or  has  an 
ailment  he  does  not  understand  or  cannot  treat,  should 
he  have  physicians  or  others  to  take  charge  of  him. 
Hence  we  have  what  is  called  "  domestic  medicine," 
or  "home  treatment."  In  every  case  of  emergency 
there  are  certain  things  which  the  patient  can  safely 
do,  and  should  do,  until  the  surgeon  or  doctor  arrives. 
What  is  mostly  deprecated  is  the  practice  of  "  going  it 
blind,"  administering  jxjwerful  medicines,  on  the 
theory  that  "  they  will  do  no  harm,  even  if  they  do  no 
good."  Most  of  unprofessional  treatment  is  under- 
taken on  the  strength  of  a  report  of  some  apparently 
similar  case  where  such  a  medicine  was  given  and 
the  patient  got  well.  Often  they  think  •  they  have 
seen  with  their  own  eyes  the  administration  of  the 
given  medicine  with  favorable  results,  but  "  somehow 
in  the  present  case  it  doesn't  work  just  right."  When 
the  physician  arrives  he  reproves  them  for  presuming 
so  much  and  "  handling  sharp-edged  tools  in  the 
dark,"  and  claims,  often  with  justice,  that  they  have 
made  the  case  much  worse.  Hence,  we  advise  to 
touch  not  the  powerful  drugs  until  a  doctor  is  called 
and  his  advice  is  obtained,  or  you  have  some  re- 
liable and  safe  instructions.  The  treatment  recom- 
mended in  this  work  for  the  various  diseases  are 
standard  and  popular  remedies,  and  such  as  any 
good  physician  might  prescribe,  should  the  symptoms 
be  properly  diagnosed  and  found  to  be  similar  to 
those  for  which  the  certain  treatment  is  advised.  At 
all  times  and  in  all  cases,  with  or  without  a  physi- 
cian, the  patient  should  have  hygienic  measures  faith- 
fully attended  to,  as,  keeping  the  head  cool,  feet 
warm,  breathing  pure  air,  abstaining  from  improper 
food,  etc.     See  Hygiene. 

Domestic  treatment  has  often  cured  cases  given  up 
by  the  family  physician,  and  the  question  has  actually 
been  seriously  raised  by  medical  professors  whether 
there  is  not  more  "  quackery  "  inside  the  regular  pro- 
fession than  out  of  it.  The  most  common  error  among 
all  classes  of  people  is  the  notion  that,  because  a  sick 
person  within  their  knowledge  took  a  certain  course  of 


treatment  and  got  well  afterward,  he  therefore  was 
cured  by  it;  for  nearly  all  acute  cases  will  recover  any- 
way, even  if  let  entirely  alone.  The  last  thing  taken 
in  a  course  of  medicine  generally  gets  the  credit  of  the 
cure. 

In  home  treatment  the  most  serious  difficulty  to 
overcome  is  to  obtain  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  nature 
of  the  disease.  For  example,  all  fevers  set  in  so  much 
alike  that  it  is  generally  impossible,  the  first  day  or 
tv/o,  even  for  a  skilled  physician,  to  tell  just  what  kind 
of  a  fever  will  be  developed.  In  his  haste  to  satisfy 
the  sufferer  and  his  friends  he  sometimes  names  the 
fever  too  soon,  and  when  he  subsequently  discovers 
his  error,  he  slyly  covers  it  up  by  remarking  that "  the 
fever  has  changed  type." 

Every  one  knows  that  almost  every  substance  and 
process  in  existence  is  recommended  for  almost  every 
disease,  and  this  fact  alone  shows  that  most  people  are 
too  forward  with  their  advice.  When  really  asked  for 
advice  one  is  inclined  to  do  a  little  more  careful  thinking 
before  giving  it.  Our  endeavor  in  this  volume  is  to  give 
merely  the  best  or  most  reliable  remedies  for  common 
cases.  Some  cases  require  a  radically  different  treat- 
ment ;  some  of  these  a  skilled  physician  can  discrim- 
inate, and  some  he  cannot. 

In  the  selection  of  a  family  physician  it  is  best  not 
to  take  one  simply  on  the  ground  that  he  appears  to 
have  performed  a  remarkable  cure  in  the  vicinity,  or 
because  he  is  a  friendly  neighbor,  but  choose  the  one 
who  does  not  pretend  to  know  everything,  or  to  be 
competent  for  every  case  that  may  be  presented,^one 
who  "thinks  twice  before  he  speaks  once,"  is  punctual 
in  making  his  calls,  is  careful  in  making  his  promises, 
and  seems  to  have  a  moral  principle  at  heart  in  every- 
thing he  undertakes.  A  doctor  who  is  rough  in  his 
manners,  extravagant  in  his  language,  or  is  given  to 
drinking  and  lounging,  should  be  passed  by  unnoticed. 
How  difficult  it  is  for  us  to  recognize  the  fact  that  a 
man  may  bring  about  a  remarkable  cure,  in  a  case  now 
and  then,  and  yet  be  a  very  incompetent  physician! 
Doctors  make  it  a  rule  to  appear  to  be  adequate  to  the 
case  in  hand  whether  they  are  in  reality  or  not;- and 
obscure  diseases  they  can  very  easily  name  at  random 
and  doctor,  without  being  suspected  of  error.  Any 
shrewd  man  can  learn  in  an  nour  or  two  a  sufficient 
number  of  "big  words,"  such  as  diaphoretic,  pneumo- 
gastric,  gastrocnemius,  zygomaticus,  etc.,  to  enable  him 
to  pass  for  a  learned  doctor  almost  anywhere.  We  see 
no  way  of  salvation  for  the  people  from  becoming  the 
victims  of  presumption  and  pedantry. 

Most  advertising  physicians  are  swindlers.  Nearly 
all  "specialists,"  advertising  that  they  cure  private  dis- 
eases, are  as  incompetent  as  those  who  do  not  so  ad- 
vertise. The  advice  of  solid  men  is.  Trust  no  stranger 
with  the  care  of  your  body,  any  more  than  you  would 
with  your  money-purse — and  for  about  the  same  rea- 
sons. No  matter  how  long  he  may  have  been  plying 
his  vocation  in  a  certain  city,  at  a  certain  number,  the 
"  specialist "  physician  is  no  more  competent  and  trust- 
worthy on  that  account.  Such  is  the  state  of  American 
society  that  fraud  and  humbug  can  flourish  along  side 


DOCTORING. 


327 


by  side  with  honesty  and  industry  for  many  long  years. 
It  seems  that  there  should  be  some  more  efficient  rem- 
edy adopted  against  incompetency  in  the  medical 
profession — both  by  law,  and  by  local  bureaus  fur- 
nishing evidences  pro  and  con.  as  to  the  reliability  of 
each  doctor  in  the  community.  On  the  other  hand, 
such  is  the  growth  of  science  and  useful  art  that  the 
principle  of  "  subdivision  of  labor "  must  be  carried 
into  medicine  as  elsewhere,  and  to  insure  the  greatest 
competence  each  physician  should  have  his  "spe- 
cialty." 

Medicines,  Patent  Medicines  and  "Quacks." 
There  is  no  better  man  in  the  world  than  the  true 
physician,  and  no  more  base  wretch  than  the  ordinary 
"  quack  "  or  medical  charlatan.  The  physician  enters 
the  home,  learns  its  secrets,  and  indeed  holds  in  his 
hands,  to  a  great  extent,  the  lives  of  its  inmates.  How 
careful  then  should  we  be  in  selecting  one  whom  we 
expect  so  to  trust!  It  is  because  of  the  vital  imjxsr- 
tance  of  this  question,  and  the  seeming  indifference 
manifested  in  the  matter  by  the  masses  that  we  treat 
this  question  of  doctoring  so  fully. 

To  be  able  to  detect  the  spurious  from  the  reliable 
in  medicine,  and  how  to  judge  between  the  preten- 
tious quack  and  the  true  physician,  is  our  motive  in 
writing  this  article.  We  hope  to  make  it  valuable,  in 
a  practical  sense,  to  those  who  are  exjxjsed  to  the  crafts 
and  villainies  of  apothecaries,  quacks  and  patent  med- 
icine men. 

Could  the  public  know  what  trash  in  the  matter  of 
drugs  it  pays  for — how  filthy,  vile  and  often  poisonous 
and  hurtful  materials  people  buy  for  medicine  at  ex- 
tortionate prices — they  would  be  dumbfounded— how, 
even  the  syrups  which  they  drink  in  soda  drawn  from 
costly  and  splendid  fountains,  are  often  made  from  the 
most  filthy  materials,  and  are  not  fit  for  the  lower  ani- 
mals, not  to  say  human  beings,  to  drink. 

While  there  have  been  great  changes  In  the  drug 
trade  during  the  past  fifty  years,  necessary  to  the  in- 
creasing demand  for  drugs,  the  establishment  of  whole- 
sale houses  and  some  specialties,  and,  in  cities,  the 
substitution  of  cigars,  soda  water,  patent  medicines, 
etc.,  for  groceries  and  provisions,  the  dispensing  apoth- 
ecary is  nearer  to  what  he  was  hundreds  of  years  ago 
than  any  other  professional  we  know  of  The  para- 
phernalia of  the  shop  is  nearly  the  same.  There  is  no 
improvement  in  pot,  in  jar,  in  tables,  in  spatula;  the 
old,  ungainly  mortar  is  not  substituted  by  a  mill ;  the 
signs  of  ounces  and  drachms  remain  the  same,  though 
so  near  alike  they  are  often  mistaken  one  for  the  other, 
and  the  prescription  before  the  dispenser  is  prefixed  by 
a  relic  of  the  astrological  symbol  of  Jupiter,  "  the  god 
of  medicine  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Egyptians,'  as 
a  species  of  superstitious  invocation.  In  the  largest 
cities,  even  in  the  shop  windows,  the  mammoth  flash- 
ing blue  bottles,  "a  relic  of  empiric  charlatanry,"  still 
brighten  the  street  corners  and  frighten  horses  at  night, 
as  in  the  days  of  our  forefathers.  Besides  these  bot- 
tles the  front  windows  contain  patent  medicines  and 
the  flashy  signs  that  announce  their  virtues.  Should 
you  have  a  prescription  filled  at  one  drug  store  and 


then  go  to  another  for  a  second  quantity  of  the  same, 
we  ask  the  patient,  no  matter  who  or  where  he  is,  Did 
you  ever  get  the  same  kind  of  medicine,  in  look,  color, 
quantity,  and  taste,  the  second  tfme,  from  the  same 
prescription.'  You  will  often  find  it  difficult  to  get  the 
same  put  up  at  the  very  store  you  got  the  original  pre- 
scription comjxjunded. 

One  of  the  greatest  cheats  with  druggists  is  the 
"substituting"  business.  Horse  aloes  may  be  bought 
for  ten  cents  a  pound.  Podophyllin  costs  seventy-five 
cents  an  ounce.  They  each  act  as  a  cathartic,  and 
often  the  fonner  is  used  in  place  of  the  latter.  How  is 
the  physician  to  know  the  cheat.'  How  is  the  patient 
to  detect  it.'  Perhaps  the  former  stuff,  aloes,  may 
have  given  the  victim  the  hemorrhoids.  One  dose 
may  be  quite  sufficient  to  produce  that  distressing  dis- 
ease. This  only  calls  for  another  prescription.  So  it 
looks  a  deal  like  a  "you  tickle  me  and  111  tickle  you" 
profession  at  the  least.  Thus  the  patient  becomes 
disgusted,  and  resorts  to  patent  medicines. 

Besides  the  mistakes  and  humbuggery  of  the  drug- 
gists, the  conflicting  "  isms  "  and  "  opathies  "  of  the 
medical  fraternity,  their  quarrels  and  depreciations 
of  one  another,  their  expositions  of  one  another's 
weaknesses,  frauds  and  duplicities,  so  disgusted  the 
common  people  that  they  resorted  to  the  irregulars,  to 
astrologers,  and  humbugs  of  various  pretentions. 

"  While  there  is  life  there  is  hope,"  and  invalids 
have  and  still  continue  to  seize  upon  almost  any  prom- 
ised relief  from  present  pain  and  anticipated  death. 
Speculative  and  unprincipled  men  have  seldom  been 
wanting,  at  any  period,  to  profit  by  this  misfortune  of 
their  fellow-creatures,  and  to  play  ujon  the  credulity 
of  the  afflicted,  by  offiiring  various  compounds  war- 
ranted to  restore  them  to  perfect  health.  At  first  such 
medicines  were  introduced  by  the  owner  going  about 
personally  and  introducing  them;  subsequently,  by 
employing  equally  unprincipled  parties,  of  either  sex, 
to  go  in  advance,  and  tell  of  the  wonderful  cures  that 
this  particular  nostrum  had  wrought  upon  them.  To 
listen  to  these  landers,  one  would  be  led  to  suppose  that 
they  had  been  afflicted  with  all  the  ills  namable. 
The  physician  created  the  apothecary,  the  two 
opened  the  way  for  the  less  principled  patent-medicine 
vender. 

Next  we  have  the  mountebanks.  These  were  at- 
tendant uix)n  country  fairs  and  in  the  market  places 
of  the  cities.  They  mounted  upon  a  bench  (hence 
the  name),  cried  the  marvelous  virtues  of  the  medi- 
cine, and,  by  the  assistance  of  a  decoy  in  the  crowd, 
often  drove  a  lucrative  business.  Finally,  upon  the 
general  introduction  of  printing,  physician,  apothe- 
cary, mountebank,  speculator,  all  seized  upon  the 
"  power  of  the  press  "  to  more  extensively  introduce  ' 
their  "  wonderful  discoveries."  This  has  proven  more 
lucrative  than  all  the  other  plans.  When  you  notice 
the  name — and  O,  ye  gods,  such  names  as  are  patched 
up  to  attract  attention ! — to  a  new  medicine,  systemati- 
cally and  extensively  advertised  in  every  paper  you 
chance  to  pick  up,  you  wonder  how  any  profit  can 
accrue  to  the  manufacturer  of  the  compound   after 


328 


DOCTORING. 


paying  such  enormous  prices  as  column  upon  column 
in  a  thousand  newspapers  must  necessarily  cost.  "If 
their  articles  cost  anything  at  the  outset,"  you  go  on  to 
philosophize,  "  how  can  the  manufacturers  or  proprie- 
tors make  enough  profit  to  pay  for  this  colossal  ad- 
vertising? The  solution  of  the  problem  is  embodied 
in  your  inquiry.  They  cost  nothing,  or  as  near  to 
nothing  as  possible  for  worthless  trash  to  cost.  This  is 
the  secret  of  fortunes  made  in  advertised  medicines. 
When  we  know  the  complete  worthlessness  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  articles  that  are  placedbefore  the  public, 
yea,  their  more  than  worthlessness,  for  they  are,  many 
of  them,  highly  injurious  to  the  user,  the  fact  of 
their  enormous  consumption  is  truly  astonishing.  The 
drug-swallowing  public  has  grown  lean  and  poor 
in  proportion  as  the  manufacturers  and  venders  of 
these  villainous  compounds  have  grown  fat  and 
wealthy. 

Said  the  proprietor  of  "  Coe's  Cough  Balsam  "  and 
"  Dyspepsia  Cure  "  to  a  friend,  "  If  you  have  got  a 
good  medicine,  one  of  value,  don't  put  it  before  the 
public.  I  can  advertise  dish-water  and  sell  it  just  as 
■well  as  an  article  of  merit.  It  is  all  in  the  adverUs- 
ing."  As  the  above  preparations  were  advertised  on 
every  board  fence,  and  in  every  newspaper  in  the 
country,  did  his  assertion  imply  that  those  articles 
were  mere  "dish-water?" 

Mr.  Johnston,  who  engineered  the  advertising  of 
"  Spaulding's  Glue,"  stated  "  it  cost  but  one  eighth  of 
a  cent  a  bottle."  Yet,  what  a  run  it  had  at  hundreds 
of  times  that  amount ! 

The  pain-killers  and  liniments  are  the  most  costly, 
on  account  of  the  alcohol  necessary  to  their  manu- 
facture ;  and  in  fact,  the  principal  item  of  expense  in 
all  liquid  medical  articles,  put  up  for  public  sale,  is  in 
the  alcohol  essential  to  their  preservation  against  the 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold  to  which  they  may  be  sub- 
jected. 

There  is  an  article  which  "  smells  to  heaven,"  the 
acidiferous  title  of  which  glares  in  mammoth  letters 
from  every  road-side,  wherein  the  audacious  proprie- 
tor obviates  the  necessity  of  alcohol  for  its  prepara- 
tion or  preservation.  It  is  merely  fermented  slops, 
"  dish-water  "  minus  the  alcohol.  Take  a  few  hand- 
fuls  of  any  bitter  herbs,  saturate  them  in  any  dirty 
pond  water,  say  a  barrel  full,  add  some  nitric  acid  and 
bottle  without  straining.  Here  you  have  "  Vinegar 
Bitters!"  The  cheeky  proprietor  informs  the  "ignorant 
public  "  if  the  medicine  becomes  sour  (ferments),  as  it 
sometimes  will,  '  being  its  nature  so  to  do,'  it  does  not 
detract  from  its  medical  virtues.  True,  true !  for  it 
never  possessed  "medical  virtues."  The  cost  of  this 
villainous  decoction  is  scarcely  half  a  cent  a  bottle. 
Soured  swill !  It  is  recommended  to  cure  fifty  differ- 
ent complaints!  It  sells  to  fools  for  "$i.oo  a  bottle," 
and  will  go  through  one  like  so  much  quicksilver.  "  Try 
a  bottle,"  if  you  doubt  it.  The  "  dodge  "  is  in  adver- 
tising it  as  a  temperance  bitters.  Having  no  alcoholic 
properties,  it  in  no  wise  endangers  the  user  in  becom- 
ing addicted  to  stimulants. 

Sarsaparilla  humbugs  are  second  only  to  the  above. 


But  a  few  years  since  an  immense  fortune  was  realized 
by  a  New  York  speculator  in  human  flesh  on  a  "  sar- 
saparilla "  which  contained  not  one  drop  of  that  all  but 
useless  medicine ;  nor  did  it  possess  any  real  medical 
properties  whatever. 

Pectorals,  wild  cherry  preparations,  etc.,  are  cheajj- 
ly  made. 

Oil  of  almonds  produces  the  cherry  flavor.  Prussia 
acid,  a  virulent  poison,  and  morphine  or  opium,  con- 
stitute the  medical  properties. 

The  bitter  and  cathartic  properties  of  nearly  every 
pill  in  the  market,  whether  "  mandrake,"  "  liver,"  "veg- 
etable "  or  what  else,  are  made  up  from  aloes,  the 
coarsest  and  cheapest  of  all  bitter  cathartics.  One  is 
as  good  as  another.  You  pay  your  money,  however; 
you  can  take  your  choice.  One  holds  the  ascendency 
in  proiX)rtion  to  the  money  or  cheek  invested  by  the 
owner  in  its  introduction.  A  great  Philadelphia  pill 
now  sold  in  all  the  drug  stores  of  America  was  intro- 
duced by  the  following  "dodge."  The  owner  began 
small.  He  took  his  pill  to  the  druggists,  and,  as  he 
could  not  sell  an  unknown  and  unadvertised  patent 
pill,  he  left  a  few  boxes  on  commission.  He  then 
sent  round  and  bought  them  up.  Their  ready  sale 
induced  the  druggists  to  purchase  again  for  cash. 
The  proprietor  invested  the  surplus  cash  in  advertis- 
ing their  "  rapid  sale,"  and  with  a  httle  more  buying 
up  he  got  them  started.  He  necessarily  must  keep 
them  advertised  or  they  would  become  a  "drug "in 
the  market. 

Soothing  syrups,  nervous  cordials,  etc.,  owe  their 
soothing  properties  to  opium,  or  its  salt,  morphine. 
From  "  Opium  and  the  Opium  Appetite,"  by  Alonzo 
Calkins,  M.  D.,  we  are  informed  that  an  article  sold 
as  "  Mrs.  Winslow's  Soothing  Syrup,"  for  children 
teething,  contains  nearly  one  grain  of  the  alkaloid 
(morphine)  to  each  ounce  of  the  syrup.  Taking  one 
teaspoonful  as  the  dose  (that  is,  one  drachm)  and 
there  being  eight  drachms  to  the  ounce,  consequently 
about  one-eighth  of  a  grain  of  morphine  is  given  to  an 
infant  at  a  dose.  Do  you  wonder  that  it  gives  the 
children  a  quietus  ?  Do  you  wonder  that  the  mortal- 
ity among  children  is  greatly  on  the  increase  ?  that  so 
many  of  the  darling,  helpless  little  innocents  die  from 
dropsy,  brain  fever,  epileptic  fits,  and  the  like  ? 

When  a  man  tells  you,  point  blank,  he  is  selling  an 
article  for  the  profit  of  it,  believe  him ;  but  when  he  as- 
serts that  he  is  advertising  and  offering  a  remedy  solely 
for  the  pubhc  good,  for  the  benefit  of  suffering  human- 
ity, he  is  a  liar.  Beware  of  such.  Furthermore,  when 
he  publishes  an  advertisement  in  every  paper  in  the 
land,  announcing  that  himself  having  been  miracu- 
lously or  "  providentially"  cured  of  a  variety  of  dis- 
eases by  a  certain  compound,  the  prescription  for 
which  he  will  send  free  to  any  address,  you  should 
hesitate  until  satisfied  of  the  disinterestedness  of  the 
party,  and,  in  the  meantime,  ask  yourself  the  follow- 
ing question :  Provided  this  be  true,  why  don't  the 
unparalleled  benevolent  gentleman  publish  the  recipe, 
which  would  cost  so  much  less  than  this  persistent 
advertising  that  he  will  send  it  to   any  requiring  it ; 


DOCUMENTS— DOG. 


329 


and  you  are   next  led  to  ask,    Where   is    the  dodge  ? 
for  money  is  what  he  is  after. 

Documents,  Legal,  When  Outlawed:  see  Lim- 
itations. 

Dodded,  hornless :  applied  to   cattle.      Generally 

known  in  this  coimtry  as  "  muleys." 

Dog.  To  no  animal  is  mankind  more  indebted  for 
faithful  and  unswerving  affection  than  to  the  dog. 
His  incorruptible  fidelity,  his  forbearing  and  enduring 
attachment,  his  inexhaustible  diligence,  ardor  and 
obedience  have  been  noticed  and  eulogized  from  the 
earliest  times.  This  valuable  quadruped  may  be  em- 
phatically termed  the  friend  of  man;  as,  unlike 
other  animals,  his  attachment  is  purely  personal, 
and  uninfluenced  by  the  changes  of  time  or 
place.  The  dog  seems  to  remember  only  the 
benefits  which  he  may  have  received,  and  in- 
stead of  showing  resentment  when  chastised,  ex- 
poses himself  to  torture,  and  even  licks  the  hand  from 
which  it  proceeds.  Without  the  aid  of  this  almost 
reasoning  animal,  how  could  man  have  resisted  the 
attacks  of  the  savage  and  ferocious  tenants  of  the 
forest,  or  have  procured  sustenance  in  the  ages  of  the 
world  when  agriculture  was  unknown  ?  Whoever 
would  write  the  history  of  dogs  must  write  the  history 
of  man,  for  in  periods  as  remote  as  history  reaches  we 
find  this  animal  associated  with  him  as  his  useful 
servant ;  and,  with  the  growth  of  agriculture  from  an 
almost  despised  pursuit  to  a  leading  place  among  the 
industrial  sciences,  the  development  of  the  dog  has  kept 
pace  until  he  has  become,  in  each  of  the  various  pur- 
suits for  which  his  particular  class  has  been  bred,  a 
specific  and  indispensable  aid  to  man.  Though  the 
origin  of  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  different  breeds,  is 
clouded  in  obscurity,  yet  the  peculiar  traits  which 
characterize  many  of  them  are  so  marked  as  to  adapt 
them  perfectly  to  their  own  peculiar  sphere  of  useful- 
ness, whether  for  the  farm,  the  field,  the  forest,  or  the 
pit  and  prize-ring. 

Classification.  Some  of  the  latest  and  best 
writers  have  divided  dogs  into  three  general  divisions, 
subdividing  these  again  into  a  variety  of  classes,  em- 
bracing the  peculiar  features  which  distinguish  the 
different  specimens  of  the  race : 

Division  I. — Dogs  Used  in  Field  Sport. 

Group  I.  Those  that  pursue  and  kill  their  game, 
depending  entirely  or  mainly  oS  sight  and  speed,  and 
little  or  not  at  all  on  their  scenting  jxiwers,  with 
varieties  bred  directly  from  them,  such  as  greyhounds, 
deerhounds,  whiffets,  lurkers,  etc. 

Group  2.  Those  hunting  their  game  by  scent  and 
killing  it ;  as  bloodhounds,  foxhounds,  beagles,  etc. 

Group  J.  Those  finding  the  game  by  scent,  but, 
instead  of  rushing  on  it  as  the  hound,  assuming  a 
staunch  position  called  a  "  point,"  in  which  they  indi- 
cate to  the  sportsman  by  the  direction  of  their  noses 
the  position  of  the  game. 

Group  4.  Other  varieties,  used  with  the  gun  in 
questing  and  retrieving. 


Division  II. — Dogs  Useful  to  Man. 

Group  f.  Those  specially  used  as  assistants  in 
man'swork ;  as  pastoral  dogs  and  dogs  used  for  draught, 
shepherds'  and  drovers'  dogs,  etc. 

Group  2.  Watchers,  and  defenders  of  life  and 
property,  life-savers,  companion  and  ornamental  dogs, 
etc. 

Group  J.     Vermin-destroyers,  such  as  terriers,  etc. 

Division  III. — House  Dogs  and  Toy  Dogs. 

Group  I.  Those  of  distinct  varieties  from  the 
foregoing ;    as  pugs,  poodles,  Blenheims,  etc. 

Group  2.  Those  that  are  merely  diminutives  of 
the  already  mentioned  species  ;  as  the  various  toy 
terriers,  etc. 

Division  I. — Group  i.  The  Greyhound.  The 
source  from  which  this  species  derives  its  name  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture,  and  will  probably  remain  so.  Its 
most  prominent  physical  features  are,  elongated  head, 
high,  proportionate  stature,  deep  chest,  arched  loins, 
tucked-up  flank,  and  long  tail.  Physically  the  grey- 
hound is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  dogs,  with  won- 
derful powers  of  speed  and  endurance  in  the  pursviit 
of  game,  and  courage  and  vital  force  in  the  killing. 

The  Greyhound,  as  a  distinct  class,  may  be  traced 
back  many  centuries.  He  is  found  in  greatest  numbers 
and  perfection  in  Great  Britain,  to  which  country  he 
peculiarly  belongs,  though  found  in  other  countries  of 
Europe  at  a  very  early  date.  His  color  varies,  as 
also  the  character  of  his  hair,  the  latter  being  smooth 
in  the  English,  and  rough  in  the  Scotch  and  other 
species  of  greyhounds. 

The  Scotch  Deerhound  is  in  form  similar  to  the 
common  Greyhound,  only  more  massive,  nearly  thirty 
inches  high,  strong  straight  limbs,  back  and  quarters, 
oblique  shoulders,  neck  muscular  and  of  moderate 
length,  long  head,  broad  between  the  ears,  which  are 
small  and  set  on  well  back  and  high  on  the  skull. 
The  hair  is  long  and  coarse.  This  breed  in  its  purity 
is  rapidly  becoming  extinct. 

The  Irish  Wolfhound,  in  all  its  original  purity,  is, 
at  the  present  day,  nearly  if  not  quite  exdnct.  His  origin 
is  of  very  early  date,  being  known  and  highly  prized  by 
the  Romans.  He  resembled  the  Greyhound  in  gen- 
eral conformation,  but  was  much  larger  and  more 
powerful  than  any  present  known  race  of  dogs,  being 
more  than  equal  to  the  capture  and  killing  of  a  wolf. 

The  Scotch  Rough-Haired  Greyhound  is  a  variety  of 
dog  now  rarely  met  with,  except  at  shows  and  sim- 
ilar places,  the  popularity  of  modern  coursing  having 
apparently  rung  his  death  knell ;  and  although  he  still  ex- 
ists in  an  out-of-the-way-place,  in  his  native  country  he 
is  becoming  absorbed  in  the  more  modern  smooth-skins. 
The  shape  of  this  species  corresponds  closely  with  that 
of  the  Deerhound,  but  he  is  not  so  large  and  powerful. 

The  Ltircher  proper  is  a  cross  between  the  Scotch 
Colley  and  Greyhound,  about  three-fourths  the  height 
of  the  latter,  or  from  20  to  22  inches,  more  strongly 
built,  and  heavier  boned,  yet  lithe  and  supple,  his 
whole  conformation  suggestive  of  speed,  just  as  his 


330 


DOG. 


blinking,  half-closed  eye,  as  he  lies  pretending  to  sleep, 
impresses  one  with  his  intelligence  and  cunning.  He 
is  bred  and  used  for  jwaching,  and  every  attribute  of 
his  nature  adapts  him  to  fill  his  sphere,  whether  de- 
fending his  master,  watching  at  gate  or  stile  to  ward 
off  danger  while  the  net  is  being  spread,  driving  the 
game  into  the  fatal  trap,  or  creeping  up  and  seizing  it 
while  in  cover,  hunting  by  sight  or  smell  as  necessity 
demands,  and  retrieving  the  game  on  the  one  hand  or 
stealing  on  the  other  as  opportunity  may  offer,  or  ne- 
cessity may  require. 

The  Whiffet.,  or  Snap-dog,  is  in  appearance  a  small 
Greyhound  with  a  dash  of  Terrier,  and  in  Durham, 
England,  his  peculiar  community,  he  is  used  for  rac- 
ing, and  for  rabbit  coursing,  for  which  he  is  superior. 

The  Siberian  Wolfhound  is  a  dog  of  the  Scotch 
Deerhound  type  and  much  the  same  in  size.  The 
most  striking  difference  is  in  the  color.  The  grizzle 
almost  universal  in  the  Deerhound  gives  place  here  to 
a  mixture  of  colors.  The  "  Barsee, "  as  this  doe;  is 
called — is  white,  with  a  mixture  of  dark  and  light  grey 
and  white.  In  general  form  and  appearance  it  re- 
sembles the  Deerhound,  and  is  strikingly  handsome 
and  majestic.  Mild  in  disposition  and  intelligent, 
faithful  and  courageous,  it  is  eminently  adapted 
for  a  companion  or  an  ornament. 

The  Persian  Greyhound  is  a  graceful,  delicate  and 
rather  rare  species,  being  found  at  English  bench 
shows  more  frequently  than  anywhere  else.  They  are 
similar  in  form  to  the  greyhound,  but  more  slimly 
built,  with  less  muscular  development,  appearing  to 
be  an  enlarged  type  of  the  Italian  Greyhound. 

Group  2.  Dogs  that  hunt  their  game  by 
scent,  and  kill. 

The  Bloodltound  stands  first  in  this  group  as  the 
Greyhound  in  Group  i.  He  derives  his  name  from 
his  peculiar  jwwer  of  scenting  a  wounded  animal,  so 
that  once  on  his  trail  he  will  single  him  out  from 
among  any  number  of  his  fellows,  and  stick  to  him 
through  any  foils  or  artifices  which  he  may  have  re- 
course to.  From  this  property  he  has  also  been  used 
to  trace  human  beings,  and  as  his  nose  is  remarkably 
delicate  in  hunting  even  without  blood,  he  has  always 
been  used  for  that  purpose,  whether  the  objects  of  pur- 
suit were  sheep,  thieves  in  England  or  slaves  in  Cuba. 
They  were  used  in  the  early  border  warfare.  In  ap- 
pearance they  are  from  24  to  26  inches  high;  ears  from 
8  to  10  inches  long;  lips  loose  and  hanging ;  throat  al- 
so loose  and  roomy  in  the  skin;  deep  in  the  frlsket; 
round  in  the  ribs;  broad  and  muscular  in  the  loin  and 
thighs;  legs  and  feet  straight  and  good;  of  a  black-tan, 
or  deep  and  reddish  color ;  bark,  loud,  long,  deep  and 
melodious ;  and  the  temper  courageous  and  irascible, 
but  remarkably  forgiving  and  susceptible  to  kindness. 
They  are  at  present  most  numerous  in  the  South  and 
in  the  West  India  Islands,  having  detriorated  in  num- 
bers and  quality  in  Britain. 

The  Foxhound  is  the  hunting  dog  ujx)n  which  the 
breeder  of  coursing  dogs  has  bestowed  the  greatest 
pains,  and  his  efforts  have  been  rewarded  by  the  at- 
tainment of  the  highest  degree  of  excellence,  in  the 


union  of  fine  scent,  fleetness,  strength,  perseverance 
and  temper.  He  stands  usually  from  20  to  22  inches 
high  at  the  shoulders,  and  is  of  a  white  color  marked 
with  large  sjxjts  of  black  or  tan.  He  has  been  known 
to  get  over  four  miles  in  seven  minutes,  and  his  jxjwers 
of  endurance  are  equal  to  his  speed.  Foxhounds  are 
hunted  in  packs, and  following  the  hounds  is  in  Eng- 
land the  most  jxipular  field  sport. 

The  Otterhound  is  supposed  by  some  authorities  to 
be  a  cross  between  the  Bloodhound  and  Terrier,  by 
others,  a  cross  between  the  Southern  Hound  and  Water 
Spaniel,  while  some  assert  that  his  hardiness,  courage 
and  tenacity  are  derived  from  a  cross  with  the  Bull- 
dog. In  general  appearance  (always  excepting  the 
coat)  he  resembles  the  bloodhound,  symmetrical,  strong- 
ly built,  hardy  and  enduring,  with  unfailing  powers  of 
scent,  and  a  natural  antipathy  to  the  game  he  is  bred 
to  pursue.     A  native  of  Britain. 

The  Harrier  is  so  called  from  being  bred  and  kept 
almost  exclusively  for  the  pursuit  of  the  hare.  He  is 
in  appearance  much  like  the  Foxhound,  with  head 
heavier  in  proportion,  skull  flat  and  broad,  the  ears  set 
on  low,  and  close  and  fine  in  texture.  The  coat  is 
short,  fine  and  dense,  while  the  color  is  a  variety  of 
combinations.  Delicacy  of  scent,  and  perseverance, 
are  the  essential  qualities  of  the  Harrier. 

The  Beagle  is  a  miniature  hound  that  resembles,  in 
appearance  and  form  and  trait  of  character,  the  Har- 
rier; is  old  as  a  class,  being  used  in  Elizabeth's  time 
and  earlier.  They  vary  in  size  and  appearance,  being 
made  to  suit  the  fancies  of  owners  and  breeders.  They 
might  not  improperly  be  called  a  fancy  hound. 

The  Basset  is  a  low  hound  of  French  and  Belgian 
nativity,  his  name  being  derived  from  the  French 
word  /^a^-,  meaning /(?7£'. 

The  Badger  Dog  is  a  short-coated,  long-backed  dog, 
on  very  short  legs,  weight  from  18  to  20  ix)unds,  the 
bitches  being  somewhat  lighter  than  the  dogs.  They 
are  self-colored ;  the  color  most  in  fashion  just  now  is 
fallow-red,  and  black  and  tan,  though  there  are  good 
specimens  of  various  shades  of  red,  more  or  less  smut- 
ty, as  well  as  brown  with  tawny  markings.  The  head 
resembles  that  of  the  Bloodhound,  and  the  ears  are 
long  and  pendulous,  eyes  lustrous  and  mild,  and  a 
general  conformation  which  admirably  adapts  them 
for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  used,  drawing  their 
game  from  the  burrow. 

The  Swiss  Hound  is  «.  German  hound  of  medium 
height  and  long,  strong  body,  medium-sized  head  and 
tolerably  long  ears,  broad  chest  and  sloping  shoulders ; 
hair  short  and  greyish  brown.     A  native  of  Gennany. 

Group  3.  Dogs  that  find  their  game  and 
index  it  for  the  gun. 

The  Setter,  as  a  hunting  dog,  has  been  developed 
by  the  most  careful  and  scientific  course  of  breeding 
until  he  has  reached  a  very  high  state  of  perfection, 
both  in  Britain  and  America.  There  are  several 
species  of  Setters,  the  principal  ones  being  the  English, 
Irish,  and  Gordon,  and  the  English  is  subdivided 
into  two  classes  known  as  the  Laveracks  and  Llewel- 
lyn, the  latter   designated  by  Mr.  Purcell  Llewellyn. 


332 


DOG. 


The  general  api^earance  of  a  well-l)red  Setter  is  very 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  He  is  so  nicely  put  together  as 
to  present  a  well-balanced  whole,  showing  capabilities 
of  speed  and  endurance,  and  his  expression  shows  a 
high  order  of  intelligence;  his  disposition  is  gentle,  and 
he  exhibits  a  strong  desire  to  please.  No  breed  excels 
him  in  elegance  of  form,  and  his  beauty  is  increased 
by  his  long,  silky  coat,  and  profuse  though  not  over- 
abundant feathering.  The  head  is  lean  and  long,  not 
so  thick  as  the  jxainter's,  and  with  a  high,  full  top  show- 
ing plenty  of  brain;  and  the  jaws  should  be  long  and 
level,  with  clean,  white,  strong  teeth  that  meet  together 
evenly  (a  feature  on  which  dog  fanciers  lay  great 
stress) ;  face  dipped  below  the  eyes ;  nose  wide  and 
black  or  liver-colored,  varying  with  the  color  of  the 
dog ;  lips  clean  cut,  and  loose  eyes,  set  straight,  bright. 


Fig.  2. — Irish  Wol/hound, 

clear  and  animated,  of  a  brown  color  and  shaded  ac- 
cording to  the  color  of  the  dog.  Tlie  ears  are  of  me- 
dium size,  set  low,  and  hang  straight,  and  are  thin, 
and  covered  with  fine,  silky  hair  that  hangs  down  two 
or  three  inches  below  the  leather.  The  body  is 
strongly  and  handsomely  formed,  the  legs  strong, 
straight  in  front,  bent  at  the  hock  behind,  and  well 
fringed ;  the  tail  is  of  medium  length,  slim  (an  im- 
portant feature)  and  well  fringed,  and  is  carried  at  a 
gentle  curve.  No  other  dog  is  more  intelligent  or 
tractable,  or  capable  of  a  finer  development  under 
skillful  training.  He  is  taught  to  work  a  field  in  quest 
of  game,  to  right  and  left  before  his  master,  to  stand 
and  point  when  he  winds  the  game,  and  hold  a  rigid 


fxjsition  till  the  hunter  arrives  and  bids  him  put  up 
the  bird,  to  drop  when  the  bird  takes  wing  and  lie  till 
the  gun  is  reloaded  and  he  is  bidden  to  advance, 
which  he  will  then  do  cautiously,  till  the  next  bird  is 
scented,  when  he  again  points,  repeating  the  perform- 
ance until  the  entire  covey  are  killed;  then  he  will 
carefully  hunt  up  and  retrieve  the  dead  and  wounded 
birds  without  injuring  the  appearance  of  a  feather, 
showi  ng  throughout  the  whole  a  desire  to  please  his 
master,  which  supersedes  every  other  instinct.  So 
highly  is  he  esteemed  by  all  classes  of  society,  both  in 
the  Old  and  New  World,  that  he  is  undoubtedly  the 
leading  dog  of  this  day. 

The  English  Setter  is  found  in  two  distinct  strains, 
the  Laverack  and  Llewellyn,  the  former  the  oldest, 
as  a  separate  family,  though  the  two  bear  close  re- 
semblance to  each  other. 
They  are  white  and 
black,  or  liver-colored, 
usually,  though  the  lem- 
on and  white  is  often 
found. 

The  Irish  Setter,  in 
general  features,  resem- 
bles the  English  Setter, 
being  generally  of  a 
lighter  and  more  wiry 
appearance ;  his  color  is 
deep  red  with  white  spots 
that  should  be  as  few 
and  small  as  possible. 
He  comes  originally 
from  Ireland,  and  can 
be  traced  back  as  far  as 
any  family  of  Setters. 
He  is  inclined  to  be 
headstrong,  susceptible 
of  fine  training,  and  is  an 
untiring  worker.  There 
is  no  class  of  Setters 
more  highly  valued 
among  sportsmen. 

The  Gordan  Setter 
is  supposed  by  some 
good  authorities  to  have 
sprung  from  a  cross  of 
the  English  and  Irish  dogs,  and  some  assert  that  they 
possess  a  mixture  of  Colley.  He  gets  his  name  from 
beingbred  bythe  Dukes  of  Gordon,  in  anearlyday.  He 
is  also  called  "Black  and  Tan,"  from  the  fact  that  he 
is  distinctly  marked  by  tan  spots  on  the  feet,  feathers 
of  the  leg,  under  the  stem,  on  the  vent,  cheeks,  lips, 
and  in  spots  over  the  eyes.  He  is  heavier  built  than 
the  English,  and  more  docile  than  the  Irish  Setter, 
and  is  capable  of  enduring  great  fatigue.  The  Setter 
is  supposed  either  to  have  descended  trom  the  Span- 
iel, or  else  both  are  off-shoots  of  the  same  stock. 

The  Pointer  was  introduced  mto  America  from 
England,  afid  is  supposed  to  have  been  taken  there 
from  Spain.     He  has  always  been  considered  iii  Eng- 


DOG. 


333 


land  a  distinct  species,  used  and  trained  only  for  the 
one  puriwse  of  hunting  and  ix)inting  birds;  he  possesses 
a  strong  innate  tendency  to  point,  and  a  keen  scent ; 
is  somewhat  taller  than  the  Setter,  though  not  so  large 
a  dog  as  formerly,  the  size  having  been  reduced  by 
breeders  with  the  object  of  increasing  their   speed. 
They  are  more  easily  trained  than  the  Setter,   though 
less   companionable.     They   are  rapid  workers,    and 
careful  retrievers  when  well  trained,     ^\'ell-bred  and 
developed  Pointers  jx)ssess   good  bottom,  fine  form, 
and  symmetrical  proportions.  The  color  is  varied,  and 
as  an  indication  of  value  in  breeding,  is  immaterial; 
superior  dogs  in  the 
field  being  found  in 
all  colors,  though  the 
most  prevailing  col- 
ors   are  white    and 
black,    white    and 
lemon,  white    and 
liver,  or  wholly  1  i  ver- 
colored ;    or   some- 
times,    but    more 
rarely,    black,    the 
favorite   colors, 
though,  being  white 
and  liver  or  lemon, 
or  liver-colored. 

The  Spanish 
Poiiiter  need  only 
be  referred  to  as 
the  source  from 
whence  the  Point- 
ers of  the  present 
day  are  derived ;  he 
is  a  dog  of  the  past. 

The  Dropper  is 
a  cross  between  the 
Setter  and  Pointer, 
and  often  as  good  a 
field  dog  as  either, 
but  of  no  value  for 
breeding. 

Group  4.  Dogs 
used  with  the 
gun  in  questing 
and  retrieving. 

The  Sp  ante  I, 
which  is  one  of  the 
ki  n  d  c  s  t,     most 

companionable  and  intelligent  of  dogs,  has  been 
bred  in  England  for  many  centuries,  and  used  for 
hunting  and  retrieving.  The  different  varieties  are  in 
many  cases  named  from  the  particular  game  which 
they  are  designed  to  hunt,  though  the  many  different 
varieties  of  the  present  day  are  to  a  certain  extent  the 
result  of  the  variety  of  efforts  and  tastes  of  many  dif- 
ferent breeders. 

The  Black  Spaniel  has  a  long  head,  long  muzzle, 
rather  deep  than  square  or  jxjinted,  ears  set  low,  long, . 
lobe-shaped,  and  well  feathered  with  long  silky  hair, 
dark,  full  eye,  long,  muscular  neck,  well  covered  with 


hair,  long  barrel  and  muscular  back,  heavy  muscular 
shoulders  and  deep  chest,  strong  short  limbs,  moder- 
ately round  feet  with  hard,  thick  soles  ;  tail  medium 
length,  well  feathered,  and  not  carried  higher  than  the 
back.  Coat  jet,  glossy  black,  free  from  rustiness,  soft 
and  silky  in  texture,  long  and  free  from  curl.  A  few 
white  hairs  on  the  chest  are  no  detriment. 

The  Cocker  Spaniel  resembles  the  Black  in  general 
conformation;  he  is  found  in  all  colors,  liver,  black, 
white  with  liver  or  black,  and  in  these  mottled  on  fore 
legs,  etc.  He  is  a  beautiful,  intelligent,  clever,  com- 
panionable dog,  though  at  the  present  time  yielding 

place  among  breed- 
ers to  the  larger 
varieties. 

Clumber  Spaniel 
is  an  English  varie- 
ty, highly  prized  in 
some  parts  of  Eng- 
land. He  is  heavier 
and  more  s  e  d  a  te 
than  those  just  de- 
scribed, an  untiring 
worker  and  a  good 
retriever,  with  a 
keen  nose,  and, 
though  grave,  a 
good  disposition. 
In  general  form  and 
physical  f e  a  t  u  r  e  s 
resembles  those  de- 
scribed ;  in  color,  he 
is  white  and  lemon. 
Sussex  Spaniel  is 
one  of  the  oldest 
known  breeds  o  f 
English  sporting 
(logs.  He  had  be- 
(  ome  nearly  extinct, 
when,  in  1870,  a 
number  of  promi- 
nent English  breed- 
ers set  to  work  to 
revive  the  breed, 
meeting  with  great 
success.  The 
Susex  Spaniel 
should  weigh  from 
Bloodhound.  thirty-three   to  for- 

ty pounds,  and  be  of  a  liver  or  golden  Hver  color. 
The  Norfolk  Spaniel  belongs  to  the  Springer  branch 
of  the  family.  The  Norfolk  Spaniel  weighs  about  40 
IX)unds,  and  generally  liver  and  white  in  color. 
The  Irish  Water  Spaniel  has  no  equal  as  a  re- 
triever from  the  water,  and  is  unexcelled  in  his  com- 
panionable (lualities.  His  prominent  features  are 
endurance,  pluck,  sagacity  and  intelligence.  His  coat 
is  a  succession  of  hard,  short  curls  of  a  dark  liver  color, 
his  face  is  smooth  and  sumiounted  by  a  triangular  top- 
knot of  hair,  which,  when  full  grown,  is  four  inches  in 
length,  the  apex  being  downward  and  terminating  be- 


FIG.    S-— SPANIEL  FAMILY. 


DOG. 


335 


tween  the  eyes.  The  ears  are  very  long  and  heavily 
fringed,  and  tail  is  thick  and  covered  with  curly  hair 
for  about  three  inches  from  the  body,  when  it  becomes 
smooth  and  runs  to  a  sharp  point.  The  fine  speci- 
men of  this  dog  illustrated  on  page  330  is  the  dog 
Sinbad,  owned  by  J.  H.  Whitman,  of  Chicago,  111. 

The  English  Water  Spaniel  is  a  somewhat  taller 
dog  than  those  already  described,  weighs  from  30  to  40 
jxiunds,  coat  thick  and  closely  curled,  usually  white 
and  liver  in  color,  the  whole  face  and  skull  covered 
with  smooth  short  hair,  and  heavily  feathered  on  the 
legs.     His  point  of  excellence  is  retrieving  water-fowL 

The  Retriever  is  a  dog  used  for  recovering  dead  or 
wounded  game.  The  term  "retriever,"  as  applied  to 
any  particular  race  of  dogs,  is  indefinite,  any  dog  that 
is  well  broken  to  recover  game  being  in  the  full  sense 


dog  from  12  to  14  inches  high,  and  is  regarded  as 
purer  bred  than  any  other  race  of  Shepherd  dogs. 
The  Southern  Sheep  dog  is  somewhat  larger  and 
smoother  haired,  and  the  Drovers'  dog  is  taller  than 
either,  of  a  black  and  white  color,  and  is  principally 
used  in  driving  droves  and  flocks.  Shepherds  train 
their  dogs  for  sheep  by  separating  them  from  the  litter 
and  suckling  them  on  the  sheep,  keeping  them  in  the 
pen  and  never  allowing  them  away  from  the  sheep  or 
with  other  dogs,  or  in  the  family  of  the  owner,  being 
even  regularly  fed  in  the  sheep-fold.  In  color  the  Col- 
ley  is  nearly  always  black  and  tan,  with  little  or  no 
white,  hair  thick  and  woolly,  nose  sharp  but  not  long,  ears 
short  and  sharp,  tail  long,  Ijushy  and  curved,  and  on 
the  hind  legs  can  always  be  found  one  or  two  dew 
claws  if  he  is  well  bred.     The  eye  and  face  are  unus- 


FiG.  4. — English  Setter. 


of  the  word  a  retriever,  though  several  classes  are  bred 
in  England,  at  the  present  time,  especially  for  retriev- 
ing; but  they  are  the  productions  of  other  breeds,  and 
are  too  indefinite  in  feature  to  make  a  minute  descrip- 
tion possible. 

Division  II. — Group  i. — Dogs  Useful  to  Man. 

The  Collcy  is,  to  the  rural  classes  of  this  country, 
unquestionably  the  one  of  the  most  interest  and 
value.  His  sagacity,  intelligence,  hardihood,  devotion 
and  affection  for  his  master  are  remarkable.  The 
name  "Colley"is  often  applied  to  any  shepherd's  or 
drover's  dog,  but  the  Colley  proper  is  the  Scotch  shep- 
herd dog.  There  are,  also,  the  Britain,  the  Southern 
shepherd  dog,  and  a  larger  species,  called  the  Drover's 
dog.  These  have  all  been  imported,  more  or  less,  to 
this  country,  and  form  a  valuable  addition  to  our 
dog  races.      The   Scotch   Colley  is  a   rough-haired 


ually  bright  and  keen,  and  indicate  the  high  order  of 
intelligence  which  he  ]X)ssesses.  There  is  no  limit  to 
the  amount  of  education,  in  his  own  field  of  usefulness, 
of  which  he  is  capable,  though  he  shows  httle  or  no 
tendency  to  learn  tricks  for  exhibition. 

The  German  Sheep  Dog  is  a  small,  wiry,  active, 
long-haired  dog,  of  a  dark  or  tawny  color,  bright,  ac- 
tive and  affectionate. 

The  Esquimaux  dogs  are  natives  of  the  northern 
part  of  America,  and  are  employed  to  carry  burdens, 
or  draw  the  sledge,  to  which  they  are  harnessed  in 
teams  of  from  seven  to  eleven  in  number.  Each  dog 
is  capable  of  drawing  too  jwunds.  In  summer  they 
are  turned  out  to  hunt  their  own  living,  and  they  fat- 
ten on  the  offal  of  the  walrus  and  seal.  The  Esqui- 
maux is  difficult  to  describe,  being  found  in  all  colors 
and  shades  from  black  to  white,  and  in  all  sizes  from 


FIG.  9.— ST.  BERNARD  DOGS. 


DOG. 


337 


22  to  30  inches  high,  and  induding  the  draught  dogs 
of  Siberia,  Greenland,  Kamtschatka  and  Labrador. 

Group  2.  Watchers  and  Defenders.  The 
JVewfouniilanii  is  undoubtedly  a  native  of  the  island 
from  which  it  takes  its  name  and  where  it  is  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.  In  its  native  isle  he  is  of  great 
size,  reaching  to  the  height  of  30  inches,  with  a  form 
proportionally  stout  and  strong,  but  loosely  put  togeth- 
er, smallish  head,  wde  between  the  eyes,  eye  and  ear 
both  small,  the  latter  drooping,  evenly  formed  body, 
strong,  though  not  long  legs,  broad  feet,  coat  long,  hair 
shaggy,  shining  and  black,  with  sometimes  a  mixture 
of  white  or  liver  color,  reddish  dim  or  dark  brindle, 
but  rarely.  His  principal  features  are  his  propensities 
to  "  carry  "  and  "  fetch,   to  bring  objects  from  the  water, 


greyish  or  liver  color,  pendulous  ears,  and  giant  frame. 
They  are  kept  by  the  monks  of  the  Hospice  of  St. 
Bernard,  for  the  purpose  of  rescuing  travelers  lost  in 
the  mountain  snow  storms.  They  are  sent  out  in 
pairs,  one  bearing  a  flask  of  spirits  the  other  a  cloak, 
and  conduct  the  traveler  when  found  to  a  place  of 
safety  if  he  is  conscious;  and  if  not  they  arouse  the 
monies  by  their  loud  bark,  while  they  dig  him  from  the 
snow  and  endeavor  to  drag  him  to  a  place  of  safety. 
Their  scent  is  keen,  and  their  sagacity  unsurpassed. 
The  Mastiff  equals  the  Bull-dog  in  courage  and  ex- 
cels him  in  strength,  intelligence  and  mildness  of  dis- 
position, not  attacking  without  considerable  provoca- 
tion, and  bearing  with  the  greatest  good  nature  the 
teasing  of  children;  sagacious  and  faithful  as  a  watch 


x-\ 


Fig.   6.— Irish  Seller. 


and  to   guard   property  and   persons  against  danger. 

The  Laiidseer  Ne7vfoundlamL  A  class  of  dogs 
which  is  claimed  by  its  admirers  to  be  pure-bred  New- 
foundland, is  the  large  black  and  white  dog  so  often 
seen  in  this  country.  Opinions  differ  very  consider- 
ably on  this  point.  The  best  informed  authorities  are 
unanimous  in  pronouncing  the  species  to  have  been 
originally  a  splendid  mongrel,  possessing  many  prom- 
inent Newfoundland  points,  but  deficient  in  some 
characteristics  of  the  pure  breed.  As  a  companion 
this  dog  is  highly  appreciated,  and  his  markings  cer- 
tainly render   him   handsomer  than  the   black   dog. 

The  St.  Bernard,  of  the  present  day,  is  a  jxiwerful 
animal,  with  close,  short  hair  of  a  sandy,  red,  tawny, 

sa 


dog ;  very  much  attached  to  its  master,  but  soured  in 
temper  by  confinement.  It  stands  30  inches  high, 
is  jxiwerfully  formed,  heavy  head,  pendulous  lips  and 
ears ;  long,  tail  and  short,  thick  hair  of  a  buff  color. 
The  Btill'dog  is  the  least  sagacious  and  most  fero- 
cious of  all  the  dog  fraternity.  He  is  smaller  than 
the  Mastiff,  strongly  built,  short  nose,  small  ears,  par- 
tially erect,  projecting  under  jaw,  strong  limbs  and  tail, 
and  brindled  or  black  and  white  color,  sometimes  a 
reddish  lemon.  His  chief  characteristic  trait  is  his 
tendency  and  ability  to  hold  his  grip.  He  is  essen- 
tially a  fighting  dog,  and  though  used  for  a  watcher, 
there  are  better  dogs  for  that  purpose.  He  usually 
bites  without  barking. 


338 


DOG. 


The  Dalmatian,  or  coach  dog,  is  a  beautiful  animal, 
of  a  white  color,  thickly  marked  with  even-sized, 
round,  black  spots. 
He  is  exceedingly 
fond  of  horses,  and 
his  home  is  in  the 
stables  or  carriage- 
house.  He  is  hand- 
some as  an  orna- 
ment, and  though 
sometimes  useful  as 
a  watcher,  there  are 
more  valuable  dogs. 

Group  3.  Terriers  ' 
are  of  many  varie- 
ties, and  are  a  small 
but  very  distinct 
breed,  being  probab- 
ly one  of  the  oldest 
known.  Three  dis- 
tinct varieties  exist 
in  this  country,— the 
English,  smooth  and 
graceful  in  form, 
sharp  muzzle,  erect 
ears,  compact  body, 
strong,  though  slen- 
der limbs,  and  tail 
curved  aloft.  His  col- 
or is  black,  with  legs 
sometimes  tan.  The 
Scotch  differs  from  the  English  in  being  of  a  shorter 
limb  and  muzzle,  and  a  rough,  wiry  coat  of  dirty, 
greyish  or  white  color.      The  Skye  is  distinguished  by 


as  an  exterminator  of  rats  and  other  vermin,  and  as  a 
watch  dog  he  is  exceedingly  wakeful,  acute,  and  noisy. 


Fig.  8. — Dandle  Dinmoni  Terriers. 

the  length  and  coarseness  of  its  hair,  the  shortness  of 
its  limbs,  and  the  length  of  its  body.  It  is  of  a  light 
drown  color.     The  Terrier  has  no  equal  in  usefulness 


IG.    7. — Gordon    Setter. 

Division  HI. — House  and  Lap  Dogs. 
The  Pomeranian,  or  Sj>itz,  is  a  naUve  of  Germany, 
and  of  little  use,  except  as  a  toy,  for  he  is  too  snap- 
pish in  disposition  to  make 
him  a  safe  companion  for 
children.  He  is  a  woolly 
dog,  with  an  ample  frill, 
which  effectually  protects 
him  against  wet  and  cold. 
His  inteUigence  is  not  of  a 
high  order. 

Pugs  axe.  beautiful  and 

bright  little   toy  dogs  from 

six  to   ten   pounds  weight, 

low    and    thick    set,   with 

short  legs  and  body  close 

to    the  ground,  possessing 

an    elegant    outline,    fine 

hair,  of  a  fawn  color  with 

black  shades.     The  nose  is 

y^g  short,  though  not  turned  up, 

Wand  a  bright,  sharp  coun- 

P'  tenance,  as  is  shown  by  the 

illustration.  Fig.  12. 

The  Blenheim,  the  King 
Charles,     and    other  toy 
spaniels  may  be  generally  described  as  resembling  in 
form  and  outline  the  English  Water  Spaniel  in  minia- 
ture, weighing  only  six  or  seven  pounds. 


DOG. 


339 


The  Maltese  is  a  Skye  Terrier  in  miniature,  with  a  far 
longer  and  more  silky  coat  and  a  shorter  back,  and 
weighs  six  or  seven  pounds. 

The  Lion  dog  appears  to  be  a  cross  between  Poodle 
and  Maltese. 

The  Shock  dog  is  a  cross  between  Poodle  and 
Spaniel. 

The  Italian  Greyhound  can  be  called  only  a  toy 
dog,  for  though  of  typical  conformation  as  a  grey- 
hound, its  size  is  only  that  of  a  toy  dog,  not  exceed- 
ing ten  pounds.     Its  color  is  fawn  in  various  shades, 


intellectual.  Accomplishments  the  most  difficult  are 
mastered  by  this  clever  animal,  which  displays  an 
ease  and  intelligence  in  its  performances  that  appear 
to  be  far  beyond  the  ordinary  canine  capabilities. 

A  barbarous  custom  is  prevalent  of  removing  the 
greater  portion  of  the  poodle's  coat,  leaving  him  but  a 
ruff  round  the  neck  and  legs,  and  a  puff  on  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  as  the  sole  relic  of  his  abundant  fur.  Such  a 
deprivation  is  directly  in  opposition  to  the  natural 
state  of  the  dog,  which  is  furnished  with  a  peculiar 
luxurant  fur,  hanging  in  long  ringlets  from  every  por- 


/^ 


and  its  hair  is  of  the  shortest.     Its  home  is  Spain  and 
Italy. 

As  a  dog  which  it  is  difficult  to  class  with  any  of 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  Afarylander,  bred  from  a 
pair  of  small  Newfoundlands  taken  to  that  State 
about  1807.  They  are  a  medium-sized,  hardy,  saga- 
cious and  useful  race  of  dogs,  both  as  watchers  and 
retrievers  from  water. 

The  Cur  was  formerly  defined  as  a  cross  between 
a  sheep  dog  and  a  hound;  but  the  accepted  meaning 
of  the  present  day  is  a  mongrel,  or  a  dog  of  no  par- 
ticular breed  or  cross. 

Of  all  domesticated  dogs  the  Foodie  seems  to  be, 
take  him  all  in  all,  the  most  obedient  and  the  most 


I'lG.  10. — Ln^lisk  turty  Coated  Retrlirvers. 

tion  of  the  head,  body  and  limbs. 

The  Skye  Terrier  has  obtained  considerable  jxjp- 
ularity  omong  dog-owners.  When  of  pure  breed  the 
legs  are  very  short,  and  the  body  extremely  long  in 
proportion  to  the  length  of  limb  ;  the  neck  is  power- 
fully made,  but  of  considerable  length. 

Tr.\ining.  The  value  of  a  dog  in  the  field  depends 
on  the  manner  in  which  he  has  been  trained,  and 
though  training  a  dog  is  a  science  which  can  only  be 
successfully  manipulated  in  all  its  details  by  a  profess- 
ional, yet  much  may  be  done  by  an  amateur  who  is 
willing  to  conbine  parience,  kindness  and  good  sense 
in  making  his  efforts.  The  first  step  in  making  a  good 
hunter  of  a  young  dog,  is  to  gain  his  confidence  and 


FIG.  13.— SCOTCH    DEERHOUNDS. 


DOG. 


341 


affection;  the  first  lessons  should  be  directed  to  secur- 
ing absolute  obedience.  When  he  is  taken  into  the 
field  and  when  first  scenting  a  bird,  great  pains  should 


Fig.  II. — Fox    Terrier. 

be  observed  to  teach  him  to  stand  and  await  the  ac- 
tion of  his  master.  Now  step  in  front  of  him  and 
raise  the  bird,  making  him  drop  as  it  takes  wing;  and  a 
shot  should  never  be  fired  over  him  until  he  will  do 
this  satisfactorily.  There  is  no  part 
of  his  training  with  which  it  is  more 
necessary  to  take  pains  than  this,  if 
you  would  have  a  good  dog.  Having 
well  taught  him  to  drop  to  wing  and 
remain,  until  started,  it  will  be  in  order 
to  commence  shooting,  never  firing  a 
shot,  however,  at  a  bird  which  he 
flushes,  or  upon  which  he  has  not  j 
worked  well.  Teach  him  to  work  the  || 
ground  for  any  live  birds  that  may  re- 
main, before  retrieving  dead  ones,  and  |i 
never  allow  him  to  retrieve  until  bid- 
den. Keep  him  close  at  first,  grad- 
ually giving  wider  range  and  teach  hiiu 
to  quarter  (work  to  right  and  to  left) 
the  field.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  use 
the  whistle  to  keep  him  under  com- 
mand, and  turn  him  to  right  or  to  left 
by  a  motion  of  the  hand.  A  dog 
should  never  be  shot  at,  to  enforce 
obedience,  but  chastised  with  the  whip; 
and  when  punishment  is  necessary,  do 
not  call  him  in,  but  go  to  him.  Be 
kind,  firm,  and  persevering.  If  he 
handles  dead  birds  so  roughly  as  to 
injure  them,  he  can  be  broken  by  put- 
ting sharpened  wires  through  a  dead 
bird  in  such  a  manner  that  they  will 
hurt  him  when  he  grips  the  bird 
too  tightly ;  but  this  should  not  be  done  until  he 
is  well  broken  to  retrieve;  then  unknown  to  him  sub- 
stitute the  prepared  bird  for  the  one  just  killed  and  let 


him  retrieve  it.  If  gun-shy,  he  can  be  broken  by 
coupling  him  to  a  good  hunter  with  couples  made  for 
the  purpose,  and  a  day  or  two  will  usually  suffice. 
Another  way  is  to  starve  the  dog  until  he  will  eat 
without  fear  while  a  gun  is  being  fired  over  him. 
A  rank  dog  may  be  taught  not  to  break  in,  by 
the  use  of  a  check  cord,  to  which  many  good 
sportsmen  add  a  spike  collar. 

The  training  of  a  farmer's  dog  for  the  pur- 
poses of  aiding  the  shepherd  or  the  drover,  is  a 
task  that  requires  patience  and  judgment.  A 
good  plan  of  training  a  sheep  dog  has  already 
been  suggested,  and  the  same  idea  may  be  prac- 
tically carried  out  with  the  cattle  dog.  Take 
him  from  the  litter  to  the  stock  yard,  keep  him 
with  you  amongst  the  stock,  be  kind  and  patient, 
use  him  as  much  as  you  can  to  aid  you  in  driv- 
ing, etc.  His  natural  instinct,  if  he  is  a  good 
pup,  will  aid  you,  and  by  degrees  you  will  work 
him  into  intelligent  and  useful  habits  that  vyrill 
render  him  valuable. 

In  many  most  important  respects  dogs  are 
just  hke  horses:  they  will  do  what  you  want 
of  them  if  they  only  understand  what  you  do  de- 
sire. Many  people  are  very  stupid  in  expressing 
themselves,  and  because  they  are  not  understood  they 
cruelly  treat  the  person  or  animal  they  spoke  to.     The 


dog  has  all  the  sensibilities  and  affections  of  mankind, 
and  if  he  is  only  treated  on  the  same  general  princi- 
ples of  kindness  and  clearness  of  expression,  he  is 


342 


DOG. 


susceptible  of  being  educated  to  a  wonderfully  high 
standard  as  a  companion  of  man.  Always  be  sure 
and  let  the  animal  know  what  you  want  of  him,  and 
you  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  punish  him. 

There  is  but  little  more  that  can  be  said  in  a  work 
of  this  kind  on  the  subject.  Dogs  differ  so  widely  in 
disposition  that  no  cast-iron  rules  can  be  laid  down 
for  training,  which  will  not  leave  a  great  deal  for  the 
judginent  of  the  trainer  to  suggest.  Kindness,  firm- 
ness, perseverance  and  common  sense  will  all  be  nec- 
essary for  success. 

Diseases.     It  is  important  to  know  at  the  outset 


has  internal  inflammation  or  a  fever.  As  the  attack 
becomes  more  violent  the  symptoms  increase  in  num- 
ber and  violence,  and  the  creature  will  have  reddened 
eyes,  hot  nose,  coated  tongue,  want  of  appetite,  hst- 
lessness,  indisposition  to  play  or  to  resix)nd  to  the 
sallies  of  friends.  In  simple  fever  the  tongue  loses 
its  rose  color  and  becomes  coated,  the  gums  and  throat 
will  also  show  corresponding  changes.  If  the  tongue 
be  much  furred,  with  red  edges,  and  there  is  a  con- 
stant thirst  for  water  in  small  but  frequent  quantities, 
inflammation  of  the  stomach  or  bowels  may  be  sus- 
pected.    If  the  tongue  remains  brown  and  streaked. 


Fig.  14. — Landieer 

that  the  normal  temperature  of  the  dog  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  man,  namely,  99°  Fahrenheit;  and 
that  the  pulse  of  a  dog  in  health  varies  from  100  to 
120  beats  to  the  minute,  according  to  variety,  the  smaller 
dogs  having  the  higher  rate.  The  pulse  is  easily  ex- 
amined by  laying  a  hand  over  the  region  of  the  heart 
or  by  a  little  pressure  upon  those  parts  of  the  legs 
where  arteries  come  near  the  surface,  say  just  above 
the  knees.  If  the  animal  in  a  perfect  state  of  repose 
has  a  higher  rate  of  pulsation  than  above  stated,  he 


Newfoundland. 

with  less  action  of  the  pulse,  variable  appetite  and 
decrease  of  pain,  derangement  of  the  liver  may  be 
apprehended.  If,  in  connection  with  some  or  all  of 
the  above  symptoms,  the  breathing  be  labored  and 
painful,  with  a  disposition  to  remain  in  the  erect  or 
sitting  position,  with  great  anxiety  and  general  distress, 
he  perhaps  has  an  affection  of  the  lungs.  Thus,  if 
the  cause  of  the  trouble  is  not  obvious,  like  a  wound, 
for  example,  we  must  look  carefully  into  the  case,  fer- 
ret out  the  cause  and  conditions  as  closely  as  possible, 


DOG. 


343 


so  that  we  will  not  be  groping  in  the  dark  in  our  treat- 
ment of  the  patient.  Symptoms  and  diseases  in  the 
lower  animals  are  scarcely  different  from  those  in  man, 
only  most  of  the  brute  animals  are  not  subject  to  so 
many  varieties  of  disease.  The  treatment  of  disease 
among  the  inferior  animals  is  also  the  same,  as  near- 
ly as  practicable. 

It  is  much  wiser,  of  course,  to  avoid  sickness  as  far 
as  ix)ssible  by  right  living.  A  dog  should  never  be 
starved;  he  should  not  be  compelled  to  live  too  much 
on  unnatural  food,  or  on  filthy  food,  which,  by  the  way, 
in  also  unnatural;  he  should  not  be  compelled  to  stay 
our  in  intense   cold   continuously  without  a  comfort- 


Fir,.  i^.—Thc  niastiff. 

able  place  for  retreat  and  rest  when  he  wishes  it;  and 
his  bed,  too,  should  be  frequently  renewed  with  fresh 
material.  Madness  is  by  some  thought  to  be  due  to  in- 
tense cold,  or  sleeping  in  a  filthy  place  or  eating  de- 
cayed flesh.  The  latter  material  is  very  apt  to  have 
poison  points  developed  in  it,  which  constitute  virulent 
sources  of  disease. 

Asthma.  Dogs,  especially  old  ones,  that  are  shut 
up  in  damp  cellars  and  deprived  of  pure  air  and  exer- 
cise, are  frequendy  attacked  with  asthma.  Endeavor 
to  ascertain  the  cause  and  remove  it.  Let  the  patient 
take  exercise  in  the  open  air.  Let  his  diet  consist  of 
cooked  vegetables,  with  perhaps  a  small  quantity  of 
boiled  meat.     Raw  meat  should  not  be  given. 

Treatment:  Take  i  teaspoonful  each  of  powdered 


bloodroot,  powdered  lobelia,  marsh  mallows,  and 
licorice  ;  mix  and  divide  into  twelve  parts,  and  give 
one  night  and  morning.  If  it  produces  retching,  re- 
duce the  quantity  of  lobelia,  as  the  object  is  not  vom- 
iting but  relaxation  of  the  muscular  system  of  the 
air  passages. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of  the.  Evinced  by  indis- 
position of  the  dog  to  move  about,  and  signs  of  acute 
pain  when  the  bowels  are  pressed  by  one's  hand; 
indeed,  he  always  gives  signs  of  suffering  when  he  is 
moved. 

Treatment:  For  allaying  the  irritation  of  the 
bowels  and  reducing   the   inflammation   there,  take 

pleurisy  root  i  tea- 
spoonful,  marsh  mallow 
root  I  tablesfxionful, 
mix  and  divide  into 
three  parts,  one  to  be 
given  every  four  hours. 
Should  vomiting  be  a 
predominating  symp- 
tom, give  a  small 
quantity  of  saleratus 
dissolved  in  spearmint 
tea.  If  this  fail,  make 
a  fomentation  of  hops 
and  apply  it  to  the  ab- 
domen, and  give  half 
an  ounce  of  manna. 
The  only  articles  of 
food  and  drink  should 
consist  of  barley  gruel 
and  mush ;  if,  however, 
the  dog  betrays  great 
heat,  thirst,  panting 
and  restlessness,  a  lit- 
tle cream  of  tartar  may 
be  added  to  the  gruel. 
The  bath  and  clysters 
(injections)  may  be  re- 
peated if  occasion  sug- 
gests. Or,  put  the  ani- 
mal into  a  warm  bath, 
and  rub  his  belly  gen- 
tly while  in  the  bath, 
and  foment  it  well ;  the  drink  should  consist  of  warm 
broth  or  warm  milk  and  water;  use  wami  water  in- 
jections for  hardened  fsces ;  the  presence  of  these  is 
ascertained  by  the  insertion  of  a  finger;  after  the 
symptoms  have  abated  somewhat,  give  castor  oil, 
syrup  of  buckthorn,  and  the  spirit  of  white  poppies,  etc. 
Or,  put  the  dog  into  a  warm  bath  for  five  minutes ; 
take  out  and  rub  the  surface  dry,  but  rub  gently,  as 
thepartis  very  painful;  then  inject  into  the  bowels 
4  ounces  of  linseed  oil  mixed  with  a  gallon  of  water. 
Distemper.  The  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  dull- 
ness, watery  discharge  from  the  eyes  and  nose, 
followed  by  general  debility,  especially  in  the  hinder 
extremities ;  the  excretions  from  the  bowels  are  mor- 
bid, sometimes  constipated ;  the  urine  maybe  high- 


H 
g 

O 

<: 

o 


DOG. 


345 


colored;  sometimes  there  is  diarrhoea,  accompanied 
by  scantiness  of  urine  and  vomiting;  sometimes  even 
fits  are  brought  on  by  the  progress  of  the  disease. 

Treatment :  First  give  an  emetic.  The  three  gen- 
eral methods  for  this  purpose  are,  according  to  the 
various  schools  of  practice,  calomel  and  tartar  emetic; 
I  teaspoonful  of  powdered  lobelia  in  a  gill  of  warm 
water,  administered  at  one  dose;  salt  and  warm 
water;  warm  water  alone.  The  last  is  preferable,  of 
course,  if  effectual,  and  it  is  safest  to  try  it  first,  as  no 
harm  is  admitted  to  be  done  by  any  school  of  practi- 
tioners. If  the  first  dose  is  not  effectual,  repeat  it, 
and  accompany  the  treatment  by  severely  pressing 
and  kneading  the  stomach  of  the  dog  externally. 
After  thorough  vomiting  is  induced,  the  animal  ought 


Dropsy.  This  is  generally  preceded  by  loss  of 
appetite,  cough,  diminution  of  urine,  and  costiveness  ; 
the  abdomen  shortly  afterward  begins  to  enlarge.  The 
disease  is  generally  fatal,  but  sometimes  relief  is  ob- 
tained by  puncturing  the  abdomen  and  pressure  upon 
it  to  force  out  the  superabundant  water.  The  general 
health  must  be  carefully  looked  after. 

Treatment :  A  course  of  iodine  or  potassium 
nitrate;  or,  mix  J^  ounce  of  jxjwdered  flag-root, 
powdered  male  fern,  the  same  quantity,  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  scraped  horse-radish  ;  divide  into  8  parts, 
and  give  i  night  and  morning.  Good,  nutritious  diet 
should  be  allowed. 

Ear,  Diseases  of  the.  The  afflicted  dog  will 
show  that  he  has  some  ailment  in  the  ear  by  holding 


Fig.   17.- 

to  recover  in  a  few  days;  but  if  he  does  not,  further 
treatment  consists  in  the  administration  of  antimonial 
jx)wder,  nitre,  and  digitalis,  in  proportion  of  half  a 
grain  to  a  whole  grain  of  digitalis,  2  to  5  grains  of  the 
lX)wder,  and  3  to  8  scruples  of  nitre,  to  be  adminis- 
tered twice  or  thrice  a  day;  or,  powdered  mandrake, 
I  tablespoonful ;  powdered  charcoal,  2  teaspoonfuls, 
mixed  with  r  tablespoonful  of  i»wdered  marsh  mal- 
lows, divided  into  6  parts  and  administered  1  part  for 
a  dose,  in  honey,  night  and  morning  for  the  first  day ; 
afterward  one  powder  daily  will  suffice;  the  diet  to 
consist  of  mush,  together  with  a  drink  of  thin  arrow- 
root. If  his  strength  fails,  give  beef-tea,  and  should 
diarrhoea  persist,   give   a    drink    of    hardhack    tea. 


Bull  Dog. 

his  head  to  one  side,  or  by  frequently  putting  his  paw 
up  to  it.  If  canker  or  polypus  is  discovered  and  can 
be  reached,  apply  nitrate  of  silver.  For  abscess,  in 
the  early  stages",  foment  the  part  twice  a  day  with  an 
infusion  of  marsh  mallows;  as  soon  as  the  abscess 
breaks,  wash  with  an  infusion  of  raspberry  leaves,  and 
if  a  watery  discharge  continues,  wash  with  an  in- 
fusion of  white  oak  bark.  For  ulceration  wash  twice 
a  day  with  2  ounces  of  pyroligneous  acid  mixed  with 
eight  ounces  of  water,  and  after  a  healthy  appearance 
of  the  part  is  assumed,  touch  with  a  tincture  of  gum 
catechu.  For  ordinary  soreness  of  the  ears,  apply 
marsh-mallow  ointment  or  slippery-elm  poultice,  or 
make  a  constant  application  of  wet  cloths. 


346 


DOG. 


Weak  Eyes.     It  often  happens  that,  after  an  acute 
attack,  the  eyes  are   left   in   a  weak   state,  and  water 


Fig.  ■&.— Irish  Water  Sfaniel. 

runs  from  them.  Wash  them  night  and  morning 
with  pure,  cold  water,  and  improve  the  general  health 
by  the  administration  of  the  following:  i  ounce  of 
manna;  i  teaspoonful 
of  powdered  gentian, 
and  }4  teaspoonful  of 
powdered  mandrake; 
rub  together  in  a  mor- 
tar, and  give  a  pill 
every  night  about  the 
size  of  a  hazelnut. 
When  the  manna  is 
dry  use  a  little  honey 
to  amalgamate  the 
mass. 

Sore  Eyes.  Take 
a  teaspoonful  of  fine- 
ly pulverized  marsh- 
mallow  root,  add  hot 
waterenough  to  make 
a  thin  mucilage,  and 
with  this  wash  the  eye 
frequently.  Keep  the 
patient  in  a  dark  place 
and  on  a  light  diet, 
and  if  the  eye  is  very 
red  and  tender,  give 
a  pill  composed  of  20 
grains  of  extract  of  but- 
ternut and  ten  grains  Fig 
of  cream  of  tartar.  He  should  be  kept  clean  with 
frequent  bathing  in  warm  water,  and  kept  in  a 
■dark  place  and  on  his  accustomed  diet.    For  purulent 


discharge  some  advise,  bathe  the  eye  with  infusion  of 
chamomile  or  red  rose  leaves,  and  give  the  following: 

Powdered  pleurisy 
root,  powdered  blood- 
root,  powdered  s  u  1- 
phur,  of  equal  parts ; . 
dose,  J^  tablespoon- 
ful  daily,  given  in  hon- 
ey. When  the  eyelids 
adhere  together  wash 
with  warm  milk. 

Sore  Feet.  The 
cause  and  character 
of  the  affection  will 
generally  indicate  the 
course  to  be  pursued. 
Where  pus  iscollected, 
apply  the  sharp  knife 
or  lancet  and  let  it 
out,  and  wash  the 
parts  thoroughly  with 
clean  water.  Do  not 
put  on  any  kind  of 
drugged  material,  as 
salt,  lye,  urine,  etc., 
but  only  softening 
poultices,  as  of  slip- 
pery elm,  etc.  Do  not 
cause  the  dog  to  be  on  his  feet  any  more  than  is  un- 
avoidable. For  a  sprain,  absolute  rest  with  frequent 
warm  baths  are  necessary.     For  sorenass  between  the 


IQ. — Dalmatian  or  Coach  Do^. 

claws,  apply  a  poultice  composed  of  equal  parts  of 
marsh  mallows  and  charcoal  for  a  few  days,  then  wash 
twice  a  day  with  pyroligneous  acid,   i  ounce  of  it  to  6 


DOG. 


347 


ounces  of  water;  or  with  carbolic  acid  solution. 
Fits.  These  in  the  dog  are  of  the  epileptic  char- 
acter, and  attack  the  animal  in  all  ages  and  appar- 
ently in  nearly  all  conditions,  sometimes  even  in  the 
chase.  As  the  specific  cause  is  obscure,  we  can  only 
treat  for  the  convulsion  itself,  thus :  Take  extracts  of 
gentian  and  quassia  equal  parts,  and  of  5  grains  of 
each  make  2  pills,  and  give  one  pill  in  the  morning 
and  one  in  the  evening;  or,  administered  in  the  same 
proportions  and  in  the  same  way,  powdered  columbo 
and  carbonate  of  iron.  A  seton  in  the  back  of  the 
head  will  aid  in  preventing  attacks ;  also  blisters  and 
friction  to  the  spine  are  serviceable.  Or,  every  4 
hours  give  a  wine-glassful  of  mullein  infusion,  and 
keep  the  animal  on  a  vegetable  diet;  for  constipation 
of  bowels,  give  30  grains  of  extract  of  butternut,  or  an 


in  a  majority  of  cases  it  is  the  best ;  but  for  sincere 
medical  treatment  the  following  seems  to  be  the  most 
effectual,  so  far  as  discovered :  Whenever  a  dog  is 
bitten  by  another  supjxjsed  to  be  mad,  he  should  be 
confined  until  certainties  are  developed,  so  that  no 
risk  shall  be  run  in  endangering  the  safety  of  persons 
and  other  animals.  The  first  symptoms  are,  a  slight 
failure  of  the  appetite  and  a  disposition  to  quarrel  with 
other  dogs ;  then  a  total  loss  of  appetite ;  he  will  not 
yelp  on  being  struck,  or  show  any  sign  of  fear  on  be- 
ing threatened ;  in  the  height  of  the  disorder  he  will 
bite  any  other  animal  or  a  person ;  when  not  provoked 
he  usually  attacks  only  such  as  come  in  his  way ;  eyes 
do  not  look  red  or  fierce,  but  dull,  and  have  a  peculiar 
appearance  not  easy  to  describe.  Mad  dogs  seldom 
bark,  but  occasionally  utter  a  most  dismal  and  plaint- 


FiG.  i\.— White 

infusion  of  senna  and  manna  with  a  few  caraways 
added.  Hygienic:  Plunge  the  patient  info  a  tub  of 
warm  water  and  give  an  injection  of  the  same,  to 
which  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  may  be  added.  Give  no 
medicine  during  the  fit,  but  afterward,  some  advise  to 
give  a  teaspoonful  of  manna  with  ^  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  with  water. 

Fleas  and  Ver.min.  Bathe  with  an  infusion  of 
lobelia  for  2  successive  mornings,  and  afterward  wash 
with  water  and  Castile  soap.  Or,  occasionally  wash 
with  carbolized  soap,  which  may  be  obtained  at  al- 
most any  drug  store.  Remove  and  burn  old  bedding, 
and  sprinkle  the  floor  of  the  sleeping  place  or  kennel 
with  a  solution  of  i  ounce  of  carbolic  acid  in  a  quart 
of  water. 

Madness,  Rabies  or  Hydrophobia.  The  usual 
remedy  is  powder  and  lead  from  a  gun,  and  probably 


Engiisk  Terriers. 

ivehowl.  They  do  not  froth  at  the  mouth,  but  their 
lips  and  tongue  are  dr>'  and  foul,  or  slimy.  They 
cannot  swallow  water,  but  the  idea  that  the  sight  of 
water  always  throws  them  into  convulsions  is  false. 
Now,  as  to  the  treatment:  Take  i  ounce  of  sulphur, 
2  ounces  of  lobelia  and  several  gallons  of  boiling  water 
in  a  wash-tub ;  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  cool,  plunge 
the  dog  into  it  and  let  him  remain  spveral  minutes ; 
then  give  an  infusion  of  either  yellow  broom,  plantain 
or  Greek  valerian, — i  ounce  of  herb  to  a  pint  of  water. 
An  occasional  teaspoonful  of  the  powdered  plantain 
may  be  allowed  with  the  food,  which  must  be  entirely 
vegetable.  Wash  the  wound  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
lobelia,  and  bind  some  of  the  herb  upon  the  part. 
Gsntinue  this  treatment  for  several  days,  or  until  the 
dog  recovers  and  all  danger  is  past. 

Mange.     This  is  a  scabby  disease  of  the  skin,  in 


348 


DOG. 


which  the  regular  itch  mite  is  often  found.  Sometimes 
the  large  blotches  appear,  from  which  the  hair  falls 
and  leaves  the  skin  bare  and  rough;  sometimes  the 
disease  appears  much  like  an  attack  of  erysipelas,  and 
sometimes  there  is  considerable  inflammation,  and 
even  ulceration.  Treatment:  Aperient  and  cooling 
medicines,  and  applications  of  subacetate  of  lead  or 
spermaceti  ointment.  When  other  things  fail,  a  weak 
infusion  of  tobacco  may  be  carefully  resorted  to. 
Mercurial  ointment  may  be  used,  taking  care  that  the 
dog  does  not  lick  it ;  also,  mild  purgatives,  especially 
Epsom  salts,  are  often  beneficial,  and  also  mercurial 
alteratives,  as  ^Ethiops  mineral  with  cream  of  tartar 
and  nitre.  Or,  apply  an  ointment  of  soft  soap  worked 
up  with  yi  a  table  spoonful  of  powdered  charcoal 
and  I  ounce  of  sulphur,  one-third  of  this  each   day 


Fig.  22. — English    Pointer. 

for  3  days,  and  then  wash  the  dog  thoroughly  with 
Castile  soap  and  warm  water,  and  wipe  dry.  Inter- 
nally, give  daily  3^  teaspoonful  of  equal  parts  of  sul- 
phur and  cream  of  tartar,  in  honey ;  when  the  disease 
becomes  obstinate,  and  large,  scabby  eruptions  appear 
on  various  parts  of  the  body,  take  pyroligneous  acid,  2 
ounces  to  i  pint  of  water,  and  wash  the  parts  daily. 
Keep  the   animal   on   a  light  diet. 

Piles.  These  are  generally  produced  by  confine- 
ment, over-feeding,  fine-flour  bread  and  sweet  cakes, 
etc.  They  are  shown  by  a  red,  sore  and  protruded 
rectum.  Treatment:  Give  a  half  teaspoonful  of  sul- 
phur for  2  or  3  mornings,  and  wash  the  parts  with  an 
infusion  of  white-oak  bark.  If  they  are  very  painful, 
wash  2  or  3  times  a  day  with  an  infusion  of  hops,  and 


keep  the  animal  on  a  light  diet,  or  plenty  of  that  food 
which  is  most  natural  to  dogs. 

Scalds.  When  a  dog  is  accidentally  scalded  by 
hot  water,  apply  lime-water  and  linseed  oil  as  soon  as 
possible.  Hygienic  :  Apply  cold  water,  and  in  severe 
cases,  when  a  mahgnant  sore  results,  apply  emoillent 
(softening)  poultices. 

Sore  Throat.  A  strong  decoction  of  mullein 
leaves  is  said  to  cure  almost  without  fail.  Hygienic : 
Fomentations  of  the  part,  and  in  severe  cases  no  food, 
but  plenty  of  drink  should  be  allowed,  for  a  day  or  two. 
WoR.MS.  These  proceed  from  debilitated  digestive 
organs ;  hence  tonics  are  indicated  as  preventives, 
which  consist,  according  to  ordinary  health  laws, 
of  the  strictest  fresh  food,  rather  scantily  given  for 
a  few  days,  then  with  an  increase  of  quantity  and 

variety,  but  always 
short  of  cloyingthe 
animal;  accord- 
ing to  most  other 
systems,  bark  bit- 
ters. For  immedi- 
ate expulsion  of 
the  worms,  take 
oil  of  wormseed  i 
teaspoonful  and 
powdered  asafoeti- 
da  30  grains,  and 
give  every  morn- 
mg  before  the 
patient  has  had 
his  breakfast ;  two 
doses  will  gener- 
ally suffice.  Or, 
take  of  jjowdered 
mandrake  }^  ta- 
blespoonful,  of 
Virginia  snake- 
root  I  teaspoonful, 
and  divide  into  4 
doses,  giving  i  ev- 
ery night  in  hon- 
ey; or  give  an 
occasional  drink, 
followed  by  an 
injection,  of  an  in- 
fusion of  sweet  fern ;  or,  J^  tablespoonful  of  powdered 
golden  seal  rubbed  up  with  an  ounce  of  common 
brown  soap,  and  made  into  pills  the  size  of  a  hazel- 
nut, I  to  be  given  every  night. 

Wounds.  When  fresh,  bind  up  with  adhesive 
plaster  and  watch  for  inflammation,  which  reduce  with 
warm  water.  In  old  wounds  the  decayed  flesh  should 
be  eaten  out  with  silver  nitrate,  and  if  the  place  is 
then  raw,  apply  a  jwultice  of  linseed  meal  or  Turling- 
ton's balsam.  When  a  dog  is  bitten  by  one  that  is 
mad,  give  him  a  teaspoonful  of  lobelia  in  warm  water, 
and  bind  some  of  the  same  upon  the  wound. 

How  TO  Give  Medicine.  The  administration  of 
medicine  is  often  a  troublesome  process  with  canine 
patients;    the    usually    affectionate,    obedient,    and 


DOG. 


349 


harmless  pet  becomes  (through  fear  and  mental  ex- 
citement) snappish  and  resistful,  and  a  general  com- 
plaint the  veterinary  attendant  hears  is,  "It's  no  use, 
sir;  we  can't  give  him  the  medicine;  the  more  we  try, 
the  more  he  struggles,  fights  and  bites."  This  in  the 
majority  of  cases  is  so,  the  reason  for  which  is  that, 
as  a  rule,  strength  versus  system  is  the  plan  adopted. 
As  with  ourselves,  so  with  the  dog :  there  is  a  right  and 
a  wrong  way  in  the  taking  or  administering  of  medi- 
cine. The  medicine  is  in  the  fomi  of  a  pill  or  draught. 
The  former  may  be  given  one  or  two  ways ;  first  by 
taking  the  animal  in  the  lap,orrearing  him  upbetween 
the  knees  ;  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth  is  then  grasped 
with  the  hand,  and 
the  lipson  either  side 
thrust  between  the 
teeth..  Security 
against  the  operator 
being  bitten  is  gained 
by  the  dog  bei  ng 
afraid  of  hiring  him- 
self. The  head  is 
then  elevated,  the 
pill  is  dropped  into 
the  posterior  part  of 
the  mouth,  and  the 
jaws  immediately 
closed  and  held  so; 
and  if  the  animal  re- 
fuse to  swallow  it, 
placing  the  fingers 
on  compressing  the 
nostrils  will  speedily 
compel  him  to  do  so. 
Pushing  the  pill 
down  with  the  finger 
is  injurious  and  un- 
necessary. The  other 
and  more  advisable 
way,  if  it  can  be  con- 
trived, is  by  decep- 
tion, that  is,  closing 
the  pill  in  a  little 
meat  and  throwing 
it  to  the   animal   to 

bolt.  With  regard  to  draughts,  they  should  be  ad- 
ministered as  follows :  The  animal  being  placed  in 
the  same  position  as  for  the  pill,  the  angle  of  the 
mouth  is  drawn  down  away  from  the  teeth,  and  into 
the  pouch  thus  formed  the  medicine  may  be  poured ; 
the  same  means  as  recommended  in  the  former  will, 
if  he  refuses,  compel  him  to  swallow  it.  Some  forms 
of  medicine,  more  or  less  tasteless  from  minuteness  of 
the  dose,  may  be  given  in  a  little  milk  or  broth  which 
the  animal  laps  voluntarily. 

Care  and  Management  of  Dogs.  Food.  How 
much  evil  accrues  from  the  want  of  a  proper  system 
and,  in  many  cases,  knowledge  of  administering  food 
and  of  the  kind  requisite,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  That 
many  of  the  diseases  to  which  the  canine  species  are 


subject,  and  especially  of  the  digestive  organs,  are  due 
to  ignorance  and  neglect  of  this  subject,  is  no  exag- 
geration. 

The  organizarion  of  the  dog  is  peculiar ;  his  digest- 
ive jxjwers  are  undoubtedly  great,  but  the  process  by 
which  digestion  is  accomplished  is  slow.  Hence,  he 
does  not  recjuire  more  than  one,  or,  if  in  full  exercise 
and  work,  not  more  than  two  meals  per  day.  The 
food  should  be  plain,  wholesome,  nutritious,  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  compatible  with  the  circumstances 
under  which  the  animal  exists. 

Sugar,  buttered  bread,  hot  toast,  muffin,  preserves, 
fancy    biscuits,  tea,  sweetmeats,  and    such    like,  are 


Fig.  23. — Rngiisk  Pointer, 

items  never  intended  to  enter  a  canine  bill  of  fare. 
The  animal,  contrary  to  nature's  laws,  has  been  edu- 
cated to  mimic  human  beings;  three  or  four  meals  a 
day,  exclusive  of  kitchen-scraps,  have  taken  the  place 
of  the  prescribed  one  or  two,  and  human  delicacies 
substituted  for  the  proper  requirements  of  a  carnivor- 
ous stomach. 

Can  it  be  wondered  at  if  the  whole  digestive 
machinery  is,  in  consequence,  put  out  of  gear ;  if  the 
once  glossy-coated  pet  of  cleanly  habits  becomes  the 
bloated,  waddling,  unsightly  animal  so  often  seen, 
with  teeth  loose,  discolored,  and  decayed,  breath  foul, 
and  excrements  foetid  ?  And  all  the  result  of  what? 
Ignorance  and  kindness. 

A  proper  system  of  feeding  is,  therefore,  one  of  the 


35° 


DOG. 


great   essentials   of  canine    care    and   management. 

Time  of  Feeding.  The  food  should  always  be 
given,  if  convenient,  at  a  stated  time  ;  where  only  one 
meal  is  allowed,  at  mid-day ;  in  case  of  two,  morning 
and  evening.  It  should  not  be  given  immediately 
before  exercise  or  work,  or  the  process  of  digestion 
will  be  interrupted  and  the  foundation  laid  for  ill 
health;  but  as  soon  as  the  animal  comes  home,  has 
had  sufficient  time  to  rest,  and  becomes  cool,  then 
food  may  be  proffered  and  will  be  relished  consider- 
ably more. 

Quantity.  This  should  be  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  appetite,  that  is,  until  the  animal  is  satisfied. 
Some  individuals  condemn  the  practice  of  permitting 


more  than  he  really  wants,  and  he  will  greedily  de- 
vour, on  the  approach  of  another  creature,  that  which 
a  few  moments  before  was  rejected.  This,  of  course, 
is  hurtful;  it  may  be  likened  unto  the  surplus  oil  on 
a  machine,  which  cannot  be  utilized,  and  is  therefore 
wasted,  and  does  injury  to  other  parts;  so  with  the 
dog;  the  surplus  food  may  pass  into  the  intestmal 
canal  undigested,  and  produce  diarrhoea  or  constipa- 
tion. 

Kind  of  Food.     Many  and  various  are  the  opinions 
on  this  point ;  horse-flesh,  mutton,  paunch,  entrails, 
liver,  greaves  and  oatmeal  are  among  the  list  of  those 
advocated.     Flesh  is,  undoubtedly,  the  dog's  natural  ■ 
food,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  we  must  look  to  the  cir- 


FlG.  3^.— Scotch  Calltys,  or  Shipkerd  Dofs. 


dogs  to  fill,  or,  as  they  call  it,  to  overgorge  themselves; 
and  w  here  the  dogs  have  been  previously  starved  or  have 
missed  a  meal  or  two,  they  are  right,  but  otherwise 
not  so.  The  cravings  of  the  carnivorous  stomach  are 
not  of  the  frequency  found  in  herbivorous  and  om- 
nivorous ones,  owing  to  the  slow  process  of  digestion ; 
and  this  being  so,  a  larger  stock  of  material  is  required 
to  work  on  than  when  the  intervals  between  the  meals 
are  shorter;  otherwise  long  fasts  would  result,  and 
eventually  act  prejudicially  to  the  animal's  health. 

When  the  dog,  after  eating  for  some  time,  pauses, 
looks  about,  leaves  the  dish,  returns  to  it  and  makes 
an  attempt,  as  it  were,  to  get  a  little  more  down,  then 
it  should  be  removed.  Company  will  frequently  in- 
duce the  animal,  from   motives  of   jealousy,  to  take 


cumstances  under  which  he  is  placed.  For  instance, 
toy  dogs  or  house  pets,  not  used  for  sport,  do  not  re- 
. quire  flesh  meat  beyond  an  occasional  bone  and  meat 
gravy;  bread,  or  plain  biscuit  with  milk,  oatmeal  por- 
ridge, plain  rice  pudding,  or  potatoes  and  gravy,  with 
green  vegetables  once  or  twice  a  week,  form  the  most 
suitable  diet  for  this  class  of  dogs. 

For  those  used  in  sjwrt  or  kept  on  the  chain,  espe- 
cially the  former,  flesh  meat,  used  with  discretion,  is 
suitable.  Paunches  or  mutton  are  best  adapted ;  the 
former  should  always  be  thoroughly  washed,  otherwise 
worms  or  their  larvte  are  likely  to  be  swallowed,  and 
develop  in  the  dog  into  large  tape -worms ;  horse-flesh 
is  heating,  causes  the  animal  to  smell  strong,  and  is  a 
great  producer  of  worms.     Liver  cooked  is  like  so 


ne.  aS.— POlIEkANIAN   OR   SPITZ  DOGS. 


35  2 


DOG. 


much  leather,  indigestible  and  innutritious,  and  from 
its  liability  to  flukes,  which  in  the  dog  develop  into 
taeniae  proper,  is  also  objectionable  raw.  Sheep-heads, 
trotters,  and  ox-noses  form  a  highly  nutritious  and  val- 
uable food,  especially  for  invalid  dogs  ;  boiled  down, 
they  form  a  glutinous  jelly,  of  which  dogs  are  partic- 
ularly fond.  Whatever  kind  of  flesh  meat  is  used, 
meal  should  form  the  basis,  and  none  is  better  than 
the  coarse  Scotch  oatmeal. 

Bones  are  of  great  value  to  the  dog.  The  dog  has 
a  natural  fondness  for  bones,  independently  of  which 
they  are  of  great  value  to  him.  One  should  always 
be  allowed  at  least  once  or  twice  a  week.  They  assist 
in  cleansing  the  teeth  and  aid  digestion.  The  ani- 
mal's  instinct  would   appear  to  teach  him   thiSj  for 


gard  to  the  feeding  of  puppies,  when  weaning,  milk  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  suitable  diet,  and  to  this,  as 
time  goes  on,  may  be  gradually  added  a  little  bread  or 
oatmeal  ixjrridge.  Animal  food  (except  in  an  occa- 
sional bone),  is  not  advisable  in  any  breed  of  young 
dogs,  until  four  or  five  months  old,  and  it  should  then 
be  gradually,  not  suddenly,  introduced  into  diet. 

Exercise  is  equally  beneficial  to  canine  as  it  is  to 
human  health.  The  mind  is  diverted  not  only  in  the 
perfomiance  of  the  act  but  also  in  the  novelty  of  fresh 
scenes,  new  faces  and  objects,  bright  weather  and  pure 
and  bracing  air.  To  the  young  dog  it  is  indispens- 
able. Compare  the  animal,  which  from  a  puppy  has  . 
had  full  freedom,  with  one  cooped  up  until  it  has  ar- 
rived at  maturity :  in  the  former  nature  has  asserted 


Fig.   26. —  Yorkshire     Terrig'^s. 


however  good  and  savory  the  meal  may  be,  if  there 
be  a  bone  in  it,  he  will  immediately  pick  it  out,  strip  it 
of  its  meat,  if  there  be  any,  and  store  it  away  for  after 
use.  It  is  best,  however,  to  give  bones  after  a  meal ; 
otherwise,  when  hungry,  they  are  apt  to  eat  as  much 
of  the  bone  as  ixissible,  to  their  own  injury,  as  portions 
may  get  lodged  in  the  oesophagus,  and  give  rise  to 
asphyxia,  or  from  being  to  hard  to  digest,  cause  gas- 
tric or  intestinal  irritation.  A  dog  should  never  be 
induced  to  eat  against  his  will  except  in  certain  dis- 
eases. Beer,  wine  and  spirits  should  never  be  allowed, 
except  medicinally.  Some  dogs  are  particularly  fond 
of  the  former. 

Water.  There  are  few  animals  to  which  the  denial 
of  water  is  felt  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  dog. 
Whether  in  health  or  disease,  water  is  requisite  in  as- 
sisting the  natural  functions  of  the  body.     With  te- 


ller right,  and,  unchecked,  given  symmetry,  full  devel- 
opment and  health;  in  the  latter,  crooked  legs,  de- 
formed body,  and  stunted  growth,  is  the  picture  she 
presents  of  an  interference  with  her  laws. 

Exercise  should  not  be  allowed  so  as  to  produce 
undue  fatigue,  as  in  carriage-followers  and  sporting 
dogs;  in  the  latter,  we  are  aware,  it  is  under  certain 
circumstances  unavoidable.  It  should  also,  if  possi- 
ble, take  place  before  feeding,  or  if  impracticable  not 
until  some  hours  afterwards.  Running  or  long  walks 
on  a  full  stomach,  is  liable  to  produce  fits  of  the  worst 
kind,  and  many  a  dog  have  we  seen  so  affected. 

Washing  in  moderation  adds  greatly  to  the  health 
and  comfort  of  the  dog.  Long-haired  dogs  require 
ablution  more  than  short  haired  ones,  and  usually  have 
a  natural  inclination  for  water.  The  frequency  of 
washing  will  depend  to  some  extent  on  the  manner  in 


DOG. 


353 


which  the  coat  is  kept;  if  regularly  brushed  and  combed, 
once  a  month  is  quite  sufficient;  under  any  circum- 
stances a  weekly  bath  is  more  than  ample.  The  water 
should  be  a  little  more  than  tepid,  and  soap  used 
merely  enough  to  create  a  lather,  as  its  alkaline  prop- 
erties, if  used  in  excess,  render  it  an  irritant  to  the 
skin  (where  careful  rinsing  is  adopted  the  caution  is 
almost  needless).  This,  however,  is  so  frequently  not 
carried  out  that  the  soap  in  the  process  of  wiping  is 
rubbed  in,  and  gives  rise  to  the  irritation  named. 
When,  then,  thoroughly  cleansed  the  animal  should  be 
finally  douched  with  cold  water,  rubbed  dry  before  the 
fire,  if  the  weather  is  raw,  and  immediately  after  aU 
lowed  some  brisk  exercise.     Out-door  dogs  will  dry 


Fig.  27. — Irish  Terriers. 

themselves  after  their  own  fashion,  and  a  good 
bed  of  straw  will  be  sufficient  to  complete  the  toilet. 
In  those  breeds  which  have  an  inclination  for  water, 
as  Newfoundlands,  retrievers  and  spaniels,  the  lake, 
river,  or  canal  will  afford  the  best  means  of  ablution. 

Grooming  is  especially  advisable  in  all  dogs  where 
fineness  of  coat,  kindness  of  skin,  cleanliness  and 
health  are  desirable.  Combing  and  brushing  in  long- 
haired dogs  is  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  the 
hair  matting,  and  to  preserve  its  character.  In  large 
breeds,  as  the  mastiff  tribe,  it  is  as  requisite  for  good 
appearance  as  in  the  horse. 

Cropping.  "  This  is  an  infliction  of  too  much  tor- 
ture for  the  gratification  of  a  nonsensical  fancy,"  ob- 


serves Youatt ;  "  and,  after  all,  in  the  opinion  of  many, 
and  of  those,  too,  who  are  fondest  of  dogs,  the  animal 
looks  far  better  in  his  natural  state  than  when  we  have 
exercised  all  our  cruel  art  ujx)n  him."  Fashion,  how- 
ever, unfortunately,  in  this  as  many  other  matters  re- 
lating to  the  lower  animals,  steps  in  and  countenances 
what  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  an  act  of  wanton 
cruelty.  One  of  the  great  functions  of  the  external 
ear  is  the  protection  of  the  more  delicately  arranged 
internal  structures.  Again,  the  ears  are  full  of  expres- 
sion. Alarm,  excitement,  joy,  watchfulness,  are  each 
denoted  by  their  different  attitudes. 

Rounding.  This  may  be  termed  cropping  in 
another  form,  and  unless  absolutely  necessary,  as  in 
^  the  extension  of  cartilag- 

inous disease  in  canker, 
it  is  equally  to  be  con- 
demned with  the  former. 
That  it  is  a  prevention  of 
canker  is  purely  imagin- 
ary. Such  an  idea  is  on 
a  par  with  cutting  off  a 
leg  to  prevent  its  being 
broken.  True,  the  part 
that  is  removed  cannot  be- 
come diseased;  but  what 
is  left  can,  and  is  very  apt 
to  after  such  unwise 
measures. 

Tailing.  This  also  is 
a  dictate  of  fashion;  short- 
ening this  appendage  is 
not  necessarily  a  cruel 
operation.  It  should 
always  be  performed,  when 
intended,  a  few  days 
after  birth,  while  the  parts 
are  tender  and  easily 
severed  without  haemor- 
rhage. For  dividing  the 
tail  and  then  drawing  it, 
a  pair  of  the  ordinary  flat- 
nosed,  sharp-edged  pin- 
cers are  best  adapted, 
and  avoids  thectherfilthy 
habit  of  biting  the  re- 
quired length  off  and  making  a  foul  sore. 

Worming  consists  in  removing  one  of  the  cords  or 
tendons  of  the  fraenum,  which,  when  removed  and  re- 
leased from  tension  is  in  its  movements  said  to  re- 
semble a  dying  worm.  Ignorant  people  are  thus  im- 
posed upon  by  pretenders  of  equal  ignorance,  with 
which  barbarity  is  mingled.  Two  prevalent  ideas  re- 
garding the  operation  are,  that  it  is  a  preventive  of 
rabies  and  mischievous  disposition,  both  of  which  are 
equally  absurd  and  erroneous. 

Castration.  This  operation  is  now  rarely  per- 
formed upon  the  dog  except  for  certain  conditions  of 
the  testicles  which  render  their  removal  necessary. 
Emasculated  dogs  have  a  great  tendency  to  become 


98 


354 


t>OG. 


obese,  idle,  and  so  far  as  sports  are  concerned,  com- 
paratively useless.  The  operation,  which  should  be 
performed  under  chloroform,  is  a  simple  one.  An  in- 
cision is  made  through  the  scrotum  on  either  side  of 
the  medium  line.  The  testicles  being  jjrotruded,  a 
thread  or  silk  ligature  is  placed  around  the  spermatic 
cord  about  an  inch  from  the  testicle,  and  the  latter  is 
then  removed  a  little  below  the  ligature  with  a  scalpel 
or  scissors.  An  aperient  and  warm  fomentations  are 
generally  all  that  is  necessary  in  after-treatment. 

In  all  animals  a  loss  of  energy,  physical  strength, 
and  acuteness  of  the  senses,  generally  result  from  cas- 
tration.   It  has  been  claimed  that  animals,  particularly 


neck,  the   inside    of   the   fore-arm,    and    the    ears. 

Spaying,  or  removal  of  the  ovaries  of  the  bitch,  is 
now  seldom  or  never  performed.  It  is  both  an  inhu- 
man and  useless  operation. 

Chloroform  is  of  especial  value  in  operations  on 
the  dog.  An  operation  of  any  consequence  on  the 
larger  breeds  and  those  of  a  savage  disposition  could 
not  be  performed  with  any  degree  of  safety  and  com- 
fort without  its  use  or  some  other  anaesthetic.  There 
are  certain  conditions  in  which  its  administration  would 
be  attended  with  risk,  as  in  diseases  of  the  heart  and 
lungs.  Chloroform  demands  the  attention  of  those  of 
a  humane  disposition,  for  with  the  knowledge  that  we 


Fig,     29. — Nev^oundLand    Doe 


dogs,  in  this  state,  are  more  affectionate  and  faithful. 
Disinclination  to  fraternize  with  their  own  species,  and 
more  especially  those  of  the  opposite  sex,  is  a  natural 
consequence  of  emasculation,  and  therefore  the  sup- 
posed home  affection  and  faithfulness  are  but  the  re- 
sult of  their  abnormal  state. 

Vaccination  is  very  largely  adopted  for  the  pre- 
vention of  distemper.  Whether  beneficial  or  not,  the 
operation  is  a  harmless  one;  and  as  small-iX)X  does 
occasionally  attack  the  dog,  it  may  sometimes  be 
attended  wi^h  good  results.  The  places  generally 
selected  for  vaccinatbn  of  the  dog  are  the  back  of  the 


are  not  inflicting  pain  is  gained  strength  of  nerve,  con- 
fidence in  ourselves,  and  a  more  successful  operation. 
Removal  of  the  Dew-Claws.  The  dew-claws  or 
supplementary  toes  grow  above  the  foot  on  the  inside 
of  the  leg,  and  are  apparently  of  but  litde  use.  Their 
presence,  however,  in  sporting  dogs  is  considered  an 
eye-sore  by  some,  and  they  are  therefore  often  removed. 
This  should  be  done  when  the  animal  is  quite  young. 
They  are  easily  cut  off  at  that  time  with  a  sharp  pair 
of  scissors,  first  dividing  the  skin,  and  the  dew-claw 
being  drawn  to  one  side  before  it  is  detached,  in  order 
that  the  skin  may  after  cover  the  wound. 


DOG  DA  YS— DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 


355 


The  Kennel.  With  the  exception  of  those  ■Nine- 
ties of  dogs  that  are  only  designed  for  pets,  no  dog 
should  be  allowed  in  the  house  or  around  the  stove 
if  a  due  regard  for  his  health  and  comfort  is  had; 
neither  should  he  be  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the 
weather,  any  more  than  the  more  valuable  domestic 
animals.  A  house  or  kennel  should  be  constructed 
for  his  especial  use  which  in  style  and  cost  may  de- 
pend on  the  owner's  fancy  and  pocket.  The  princi- 
pal features  of  a  good  kennel  are,  warmth,  airiness, 
cleanliness,  and  ample  protection  from  wind  and 
rain.  It  is  a  mistaken  kindness  to  admit  a  dog  to 
the  house  on  a  cold  day,  because  he  is  fine-haired  ;  the 
undue  warmth  of  the 
house  makes  him  tender, 
and  renders  him  far  more 
susceptible  to  injury  from 
the  cold  when  again  ex- 
]X3sed.  Make  his  kennel 
warm  and  give  him  a  good 
dry,  fresh  bed,  and  there  is 
nothing  to  fear  for  him. 
The  heat  of  a  stove  is  in- 
jurious to  the  health  of  a 
dog,  and  a  thin-haired 
ix)inter  may  be  raised  from 
puppyhood,  in  a  good  ken- 
nel, without  either  discom- 
fort or  injury  from  cold. 

Dog  Days.  This  name 
is  applied  to  the  period 
between  July  24  and  Au- 
gust 24,  because  the  dog- 
star  (Sinus)  during  this 
l^riod  rises  with  the  sun. 
The  heat  which  is  usually 
most  oppressive  at  this 
period  was  formerly  ascrib- 
ed to  the  conjunction  of 
this  star  with  the  sun. 

Domestic  Economy,  or 

household  science,  in- 
cludes all  the  arts  pertain- 
ing to  the  management  of 
home  affairs,  intellectual, 
moral  and  material ;  but  the 

tenns  are  often  restricted  to  kitchen,  laundry  and 
chamber  work.  A  large  portion  of  this  encyclopedia 
is  devoted  to  domestic  economy,  and  therefore,  to  con- 
sult it  concerning  any  point  within  the  domain  of  the 
household,  the  reader  should  look  for  the  particular 
topic  in  its  alphabetical  place.  There  are  a  few  gen- 
eral principles,  however,  which  come  more  appropri- 
ately under  this  head  than  elsewhere,  and  we  there- 
fore present  them  here. 

Preservation  of  Food.  Every  housekeeper  should 
know  how  to  best  preserve  food.  Not  only  should 
they  know  how  to  cure  meats  by  salting,  smoking,  etc., 
but  they  should  know  how  to  preserve  them  fresh  as 
long  as  possible.    The  temperature  and  dryness  of  the 


atmosphere  are  important  considerations,  and  their 
effects  should  be  understood  in  all  attempts  at  retard- 
ing decomposition.  A  certain  degree  of  heat  will 
hasten  decomposition,  while  a  higher  one  will  arrest  it. 
Cold,  according  to  its  degree,  must  retard  or  utterly 
prevent  decay.  The  good  housekeeper  never  throws 
away  even  crumbs  of  bread,  but  saves  them  for  pud- 
dings; she  bakes  all  the  dough  mixed,  leaving  none 
to  sour,  and  bakes  when  and  as  it  should  be,  thus  avoid- 
ing heavy  bread  and  funereal  pastiy ;  in  boiling  her 
meat,  she  skims  off  the  fat  for  cooking  purposes ;  she 
saves  every  scrap  of  cooked  meat  for  hash  or  soup; 
she  never  wastes  flour  in  sifting ;  she  uses  vegetables 


Fig.  ^o,—Ckesafeake  Bay  Dcg.  • 

while  they  are  fresh  instead  of  first  allowing  them  to 
wilt  or  spoil ;  she  saves  everything  that  can  be  warmed 
over  for  the  next  meal ;  she  has  appropriate  dish 
cloths,  and  washing  and  wiping  cloths  for  each  class 
of  articles ;  she  has  pot-scrapers,  metallic  and  wooden, 
and  griddle  and  pot  holders,  and  uses  them ;  she  re- 
moves the  bar  of  soap  from  the  water  after  using  it, 
and  puts  bits  of  soap  into  a  dish  to  be  changed  into 
soft  soap  by  a  little  boiling,  when  enough  has  ac- 
cumulated ;  she  washes  the  scrub-brush  after  using 
and  hangs  it  up;  she  seldom  spoils  the  stoves  or 
stoveware  by  too  hot  a  fire,  nor  allows  her  tinware, 
l»ts,  kettles,  knives,  forks,  etc.,  to  rust  by  leaving  them 
wet ;  she  never  uses  good  knives  in  cooking  or  scrap- 


35« 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY. 


ing  kettles,  or  good  forks  to  toast  bread  with,  but  takes 
the  old  ones  for  toasting  forks ;  she  has  a  place  for 
everything  and  everything  in  its  place,  hence  no  time 
is  lost  in  hunting  for  an  article;  she  knows  that  there 
is  no  use  in  saving  anything  for  future  use  unless  she 
saves  it  in  a  way  she  can  lay  her  hands  on  it  when 
she  wants  it;  she  is  prompt  to  clean  or  make  repairs 
before  it  is  so  late  as  to  become  a  difficult  or  an  im- 
possible task. 

"  A  wife  can  throw  out  with  a  spoon  faster  than  a 
husband  can  put  in  with  a  shovel,"  is  a  trite  old  max- 
im, too  often  demonstrated  to  be  doubted.  Here  is 
how  it  is  done :  Cream  and  milk  are  allowed  to  spoil 
the  pans ;  crocks  are  not  scalded  and  dried  and  milk 
sours ;  coffee  is  charred  instead  of  browned ;  tea  and 
spices  are  left  open  to  lose  their  strength ;  flies  get 
into  the  molasses,  and  wade  through  soft  butter  all 
day,  because  proper  care  is  not  taken ;  fruits  are  not 
sorted,  and  rot  and  spoil;  vinegar  stands  in  metallic 
vessels  until  both  are  spoiled,  and  sometimes  made 
lX)isonous ;  sugar  is  fed  to  flies  or  wasted ;  sauces  are 
made  too  sweet  or  too  sour,  and  are  thrown  away  or 
left  to  spoil ;  dried  fruit  gets  full  of  worms  or  musty; 
potatoes  sprout  and  grow  or  rot,  for  want  of  care, 
breeding  malarial  diseases  in  the  family;  meats  spoil 
for  want  of  salt  or  brine ;  hams  become  alive  with 
worms,  or  strong ;  dried  beef  gets  too  hard  or  wet,  and 
is  spoiled ;  cheese  gets  "  skippery,"  or  molds,  or  mice 
destroy  it;  lard  gets  strong;  butter  becomes  rancid, 
because  improperly  worked  and  not  covered  with 
brine;  fuelis  wasted  and  stoves  are  burnt  out  orcracked 
by  needless  fires;  lamps  are  burned  unnecessarily; 
clothing  mildews,  or  is  spoiled  in  washing,  or  is 
whipped  out  on  the  line  ;  costly  laces  are  ruined  in 
starching,  and  brooms  by  careless  use  and  not  hanging 
up;  carpets  are  scratched  threadbare  with  stubby 
brooms,  while  dirty  porches  and  brick  walks  are 
scrubbed  with  new  ones  ;  towels  are  burned  out  from 
being  used  as  holders;  good  sheets  are  used  to  iron 
upon,  and  burned ;  sad-irons  become  rusty,  and  spoil 
clothes ;  table  linen  is  eaten  by  mice,  or  put  away 
damp  to  mold ;  fruit  stains  ujxjn  linen  are  left  to  be- 
come fixed  colors,  instead  of  being  removed  at  once 
with  boiling  water ;  napkins  and  towels  are  used  for 
dish-cloths ;  water  is  allowed  to  spoil  the  varnish  on 
furniture,  or  the  children  to  mar  it ;  glassware  is  broken 
with  hot  water ;  tinware  is  spoiled  with  extreme  heat ; 
water  freezes  in  pitchers,  kettles,  tubs,  etc.,  rendering 
them  useless ;  slops  and  ashes  are  thrown  away  instead 
of  saving  for  pig-sty  or  for  fertilizing  the  garden  ;  eggs 
are  allowed  to  spoil,  instead  of  being  marketed,  used 
or  properly  packed ;  small  fruits  and  berries,  canned 
and  preserved  fruits  are  allowed  to  sour,  and  are 
thrown  away,  instead  of  being  converted  into  vinegar; 
stoves  are  cracked  by  water  or  covered  with  unclean 
grease  and  grow  rusty ;  bread  is  spoiled  by  a  dirty, 
smoky  stove,  which  a  little  exertion  would  make  good ; 
clothes  become  useless  for  want  of  a  stitch  or  the 
brush  ;  moths  destroy  furs,  carpets,  etc.  A  thousand 
and  one  other  leaks  occur  in  the  careless  household, 
representing   so  many  dollars  or  cents,  and  in  the 


Course  of  years  the  loss  is  frightful — enough  to  keep 
an  otherwise  prosperous  man  poor  for  life.  With  a 
knack  of  system  all  these  losses  may  be  averted.  But 
with  all  the  above  and  a  thousand  other  efforts  to  save 
useful  things,  one  should  have  the  good  judgment 
not  to  spend  more  time  on  a  thing  trying  to  save 
it  than  it  is  worth. 

While  the  farmer  may  produce  the  most  toothsome 
vegetables,  fruits  and  meats,  few  articles  are  eaten 
without  preparation,  and  an  army  of  errors  and  dangers 
intervene  between  their  production  and  the  stomach. 
The  indulgence  of  gross  passions  drag  men  down  to 
barbarism;  but  the  cook  is  accountable  for  many  of 
the  ills,  woes  and  tumults  which  are  devitalizing  human 
vigor  on  the  earth.  They  are  responsible  for  a  large 
per  cent,  of  the  sickly  lives  and  premature  deaths  in 
the  United  States.  In  far  too  many  instances  a  woman 
who  considers  herself  competent  to  manipulate  the 
frying-pan,  boil  tea  and  coffee,  make  dried-apple  pies 
with  raw-hide  covers,  and  wipe  dishes  with  a  greasy 
rag,  calls  herself  a  cook,  and  boldly  takes  into  her 
reckless,  ignorant  hands  the  welfare  of  innocent  peo- 
ple, who  never  tortured  her  in  their  lives.  Every 
housekeeper  should  realize  that  ignorant  or  careless 
cooking  may  result  in  the  loss  of  health,  or  life  itself, 
to  one  or  more  members  of  the  family  for  whom  she 
cooks,  herself  included.  This  is  no  "warmed-over" 
truth.  It  is  steaming  hot,  and  the  sooner  it  is  realized 
by  the  cooks  of  America  the  better  it  will  be  for  the 
nation.  The  wife  and  mother  who  will  not  learn  to 
perform  her  part  well  makes  her  family  unhappy,  and 
destroys  her  title  to  respect  and  love.  Her  husband 
and  children  notice  better  kept  houses,  better  cooking 
and  happier  faces  in  other  homes,  and  are  dissatisfied 
with  their  own.  Fault-finding  and  suppressed  con- 
demnation follow;  and  the  negligent  wife  and  mother 
loses  her  queenly  prestige. 

"What  for  Dinner.'"  "If  I  only  knew  what  to 
get  for  dinner!"  is  the  housekeeper's  troubled  cry.  If 
she  cannot  do  more,  she  can  at  least  vary  the  old 
varieties  by  bringing  them  to  the  table  in  a  different 
dress.  Even  this  is  more  of  an  art  than  may  be  sup- 
ix)sed.  A  reasonable  variety  of  food  is  indispensable 
to  bodily  health  and  comfort ;  not  necessarily  a  variety 
at  each  meal,  but  from  day  to  day  and  week  to  week. 
There  is  hardly  anything  more  delectable  than  broiled 
steak  and  mashed  potatoes,  if  you  are  only  hungry  and 
have  not  partaken  of  them  for  a  considerable  time; 
but  let  them  be  set  before  you  every  day  for  months, 
unvaried  in  their  manner  of  preparation,  and  you  get 
to  dislike  them.  Potatoes  boiled  with  skins  on  are  nice 
enough  for  anybody ;  but  let  jxstatoes  so  cooked  be  the 
order  of  every  meal,  and  everything  that  bears  resem- 
blance to  a  potato  peeling  will  soon  become  an  object 
of  disgust. 

Fretfulness,  scolding  and  anger  are  noxious  weeds, 
which  crowd  out  every  good  fruit  and  flower.  Do  not 
cultivate  the  weeds  in  the  kitchen  or  elsewhere,  but 
keep  them  down,  that  home  virtues  and  graces  may 
thrive  like  a  "tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water."  Do 
not  exhibit  the  weeds  to  those  who  call,  nor  burden 


DOMINIQ  UE— DRAIN  A  GE. 


357 


them,  unasked,  with  recitals  of  domestic  perplexities. 
Every  house  has  its  skeleton ;  but  every  well  regulated 
dwelling  has  a  closet  in  which  to  hang  it.  No  mortal 
lives  but  has  his  sorrows.  To  retail  them  about  a 
neighborhood  is  evidence  of  weakness,  from  which  one 
instinctively  recoils.  It  is  like  exhibiting  a  hole  in 
your  dress  or  a  sore  in  the  flesh.  Better  hide  them 
until  a  patch  or  cure  makes  your  appearance  better. 
Bad  temper  spoils  children  and  servants  as  well  as  the 
heads  of  families.  Cheerfulness  is  the  well  rigged  ship 
gliding  smoothly  over  a  rufiled  sea.  A  mind  made 
wretched  by  every  disappointment  and  rebuff  is  small 
indeed,  and  apt  to  be  wrecked  on  the  storm-tossed 
ocean  of  life.  Knowledge  averts  trouble  and  disarms 
disapjx)intment.  Learn  to  cook  well  and  you  will  not 
have  sjx)iled  bread,  cakes,  puddings  and  unsavory 
dishes  with  their  manifold  perplexities.  Ignorance 
makes  a  jwor  mechanic  or  wife,  and  saddens  life,  unless 
the  possessor  is  so  great  a  fool  as  to  be  unconscious  of 
the  torture  inflicted  ujwn  others,  and  of  his  own  little- 
ness. Culture  improves  the  apple,  peach,  horse  and 
ox.  The  analogy  extends  to  the  human  race.  The 
man  or  woman  who  does  not  strive  daily  for  per- 
sonal and  mental  improvement  is  on  the  road  toward 
barbarism.  Such  will  miss  the  happiness  of  a  pleas- 
ant home,  with  respectful  and  obedient  children. 
Spasmodic  efforts,  like  cleaning  a  house  but  once  a 
year,  are  of  no  avail.  The  moment  one  enters  a  house 
he  sees  an  index  to  the  character  of  the  woman  who 
keeps  it.  We  are  all  known  by  our  works.  A  fine 
painting  points  to  a  good  artist,  a  good  watch  to  a 
skilled  mechanic,  and  a  neat,  cozy  home  to  a  good  and 
cultivated  wife. 

Dominique  (dom-in-eek'), a  breed  of  fowls:  see 
Fowls. 

Door:  see  Residence. 

Dorking,  a  breed  of  fowls :  see  Fowls,  Domestic. 

Dormer,  or  Dormer  "Window,  a  perpendicular 
window  in  an  inclined  roof  Between  its  top  and  the 
roof  is  a  recess  roofed  over,  Gothic  fashion. 

Dorset,  a  breed  of  sheep.     See  Sheep. 

Double-Tree,  or  Evener,  the  central  whiffle-tree 
of  a  two-horse  set. 

Doughnuts,  or  Crullers :  Take  3  pounds  of  flour, 
I  pound  of  butter,  i  Y^  jxjunds  of  sugar;  cut  the  butter 
fine  into  the  flour;  beat  6  eggs  light,  and  put  them  in; 
add  2  wineglasses  of  yeast,  i  pint  of  milk,  some  cin- 
namon, mace  and  nutmeg;  make  it  up  into  a  light 
dough,  and  put  it  to  rise ;  when  it  is  light  enough  roll 
out  the  paste,  cut  it  in  small  pieces  and  boil  them  in 
lard. 

Anotlier:  Half  a  pint  of  sweet  milk,  half  a  cup  of 
butter  (scant),  one  cup  of  yeast;  salt;  flavor  with  nut- 
meg or  cinnamon.  Mix  them  at  night.  In  the  morn- 
ing roll  out  and  let  them  rise  until  very  light,  and 
drop  in  hot  fat.  They  are  very  nice,  after  they  are 
fried,  to  roll  them  in  pulverized  sugar. 

Another:     Three  cups  of  sugar;  3  eggs;  1  cup  of 


butter;  i  pint  of  buttermilk;  i  cup  of  cream;  i  nut- 
meg; saleratus  sufficient  for  the  buttermilk;  mold 
with  flour. 

Pan  Doddles.  Make  a  sponge  just  as  you  do  for 
bread  over  night.  In  the  morning  take  from  the  bread 
dough  small  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  shape 
them  rather  long  than  round;  fry  in  boihng  hot  lard  a 
light  brown;  serve  hot  in  a  covered  dish;  pull  them 
open  and  butter  them.  You  will  find  them  both  sim- 
ple and  delicious  for  breakfast. 

Dove-cote  (duv'cot),  a  small  building  or  box  raised 
to  a  considerable  height  above  the  ground,  in  which 
domestic  pigeons  breed ;  any  apartment  or  house  for 
doves. 

Dover's  Powders.  Ipecacuanha,  in  powder,  one 
drachm ;  powdered  opium,  one  drachm ;  jxswdered 
saltpetre,  one  ounce.  All  well  mixed.  Dose:  From 
8  to  20  grains.  The  chief  effect  is  to  promote  insen- 
sible perspiration. 

Dovetail,  to  unite  two  pieces  by  one  or  more 
tenons,  which  are  in  the  form  of  a  spread  dove's  tail. 

Dowel  (dow'el),  a  piece  of  wood  driven  into  a  wall 
so  that  other  pieces  may  be  nailed  to  it.  A  "dowel- 
pin"  is  a  pin  of  wood  or  metal  used  for  joining  two 
pieces  of  material  by  tightly  fitting  a  hole  in  each,  as 
in  a  barrel-head. 

Dower,  or  Dowry,  is  that  portion  of  the  real  estate 
of  a  man  which  his  widow  enjoys  during  her  life,  or  to 
which  a  woman  is  entitled  after  the  death  of  her  hus- 
band. In  most  of  the  States  the  widow  is  entitled  to 
dower  of  i)ersonal  as  as  well  as  real  property.  Estates 
of  deceased  persons  are  administered  in  courts  of 
probate.  Laws  upon  the  subject  of  dower  differ  in 
the  different  States. 

Draft,  an  order  given  by  one  bank  upon  another  for 
the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money.  This  is  the  best, 
and  generally  the  cheapest,  way  to  transmit  money  in 
any  large  amounts. 

Drainage,  the  withdrawal  of  suiierfluous  or  injurious 
moisture  from  land  by  means  of  artificial  conduits. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  it  required  a  good  deal  of  argu- 
ment to  convince  the  average  farmer  that  under-drain- 
ing was  in  many  cases  a  necessity.  All  readily 
admitted  the  practicability  of  removing  surface  water 
from  swamps,  bottom  lands  and  sloughs,  and  surface 
ditching,  where  a  fall  could  be  obtained,  was  an  easily 
understood  method.  But  the  plan  of  "  blind  ditches" 
and  under-drainage,  especially  with  tile,  was  long  looked 
upon  with  doubt.  Now,  however,  no  intelligent  famier 
is  so  silly  as  to  deny  the  utility  of  under-drainage  with 
tile.  The  fact  that  this  kind  of  farm  hnprovement  is 
being  largely  prosecuted  in  Illinois  and  others  of  the 
Northwestern  States,  shows  how  completely  the  doc- 
trine of  drainage  has  won  its  place  in  American  agri- 
culture. 

What  Lands  Require  Drainage.  .All  lands,  of 
whatever  kind,  in  which  the  spaces  between  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  are  filled  with  water,  within  four  feet  of 


3S8 


DRAINAGE. 


the  ground's  surface,  need  drainage.  It  is  not  meant 
by  this  that  the  particles  of  the  soil  should  be  dry,  for 
that  would  destroy  their  fertility.  But  water  should 
not  fill  the  spaces  between  the  particles,  or  surround 
them,  because  that  prevents  the  ingress  of  air,  so  nec- 
essary to  the  germination  and  growth  of  plants.  The 
soil  has  been  compared  to  a  barrel  of  chips;  it  may 
be  filled  with  water,  when  the  chips  will  absorb  a  jwr- 
tion,  but  still  the  water  will  fill  the  spaces  between 
the  chips.  But  puncture  the  bottom  of  the  barrel, 
and  the  water  will  drain  off,  leaving  the  chips,  and 
admitting  air  to  fill  the  space  between  them.  A  soil 
over-burdened  with  water  is  like  a  barrel  of  dirt  on 
which  water  is  poured.  The  dirt  will  continue  to  ab- 
sorb the  water  till  the  particles  are  full.  If  water  is 
continuously  poured  upon  the  dirt  it  will  become  sod- 
den, the  spaces  between  the  particles  becoming  full. 
If  the  pouring  is  continued  the  water  will  at  length 
run  off  the  surface,  the  mass  of  dirt  being  no  longer 
able  to  take  up  the  moisture ;  this  may  be  compared 
to  surface  water  in  swamps.  If  holes  were  bored  in 
the  barrel's  bottom,  the  surplus  water  would  run  out, 
while  the  particles  of  soil  inside  the  barrel  would 
absorb  the  water  in  its  passage  through,  and  retain  it 
for  a  long  time.  This  exhibits  the  nature  and  princi- 
ple of  drainage.  If  we  bore  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the 
barrel  at  a  certain  distance  above  the  bottom,  the 
surplus  water  as  poured  in  will  run  out.  This  repre- 
sents a  drain,  and  also  the  "  water  level  "  that  exists 
in  all  soils. 

Horace  Greeley  said  that  probably  one-third  of 
New  England,  one-half  the  Middle  States  and  three- 
fourths  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  may  ultimately  be 
drained  with  profit. 

.\  careless  surveyof  a  field  is  sufficient  to  determine 
whether  or  not  it  needs  drainage.  If  a  plowed  field, 
wholly  or  in  part,  shows  constant  dampness  on  the 
surface,  indicating  that  as  fast  as  water  is  dried  out 
of  the  top  soil  it  oozes  up  from  the  subsoil,  and  after 
rains  it  is  much  longer  than  other  lands  in  becoming 
dry,  that  land  needs  drainage.  This  saturated  con- 
dition of  the  soil  can  be  tested  by  digging  a  hole,  four 
feet  deep,  which,  if  the  conditions  just  indicated  exist, 
will  partially  fill  with  water,  especially  in  a  wet  season, 
or  after  a  rain.  If  water  stands  on  the  surface  some 
time  after  a  rain  the  land  should  be  drained.  If  the 
soil  is  clayey,  and  after  a  rain  and  subsequent  sun  and 
drying  winds,  "  wind  cracks  "  come  in  the  surface,  it  is 
a  sign  that  the  land  needs  drainage.  Sometimes  corn 
is  observed  to  curl  after  a  brief  drought ;  this  gener- 
ally indicates  too  ntuch  water  in  the  soil  at  some 
depth  below  the  surface.  Spring  water,  ooze,  and  a 
general  "  squeechiness  "  of  the  soil  can  always  be 
remedied,  and  the  land  doubled  in  value  by  tile 
draining. 

Why  do  Lands  Need  Drainage.'  Too  much 
water  in  soils  excludes  air  from  the  germinating  seed 
and  plant  roots.  Both  should  be  filled  with  moisture, 
but  not  surrounded  by  water.  A  soil  in  a  proper  con- 
dition should  be  free  from  surplus  water,  so  as  to  ad- 
mit the  air  freely  among   the  particles  to  the  depth  of 


four  feet.  Such  will  be  the  case  if  it  is  thoroughly 
underdrained.  The  particles  of  soil  will  hold  moisture 
by  attraction  or  absorption.  Soils  which  require  drain- 
age are  not  in  this  condition.  When  they  are  not  sat- 
urated with  water  they  are  generally  dried  into  lumps 
and  clods,  that  are  almost  as  impenetrable  to  roots  as 
so  many  stones.  The  saturation  of  the  soil  renders 
it  unfit  for  a  growing  crop  either  in  a  wet  or  dry  sea- 
son. It  is  cold,  unfriendly,  and  the  harbor  of  noxious 
gases  inimical  to  plant  growth.  It  kills  the  vitality  of 
the  seed,  and  if  the  plant  struggles  out  of  its  comfort- 
less and  sickly  bed  to  the  light  of  day,  its  roots  take 
hold  on  infirmity  in  the  start,  and  its  growth  is  feeble 
and  its  end  unfruitful.  Manures  applied  to  such 
soils  are  nearly  thrown  away.  Now  and  then  a  sea- 
son neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry  comes,  and  a  tolerably 
good  crop  can  be  raised.  But  usually  both  labor 
and  fertilizer  are  expended  in  vain  on  such  soils. 
Lands  which  suffer  most  by  drought  are  benefited 
most  by  drainage.  When  air  is  allowed  to  circulate 
among  the  lower  and  cooler  (because  more  shaded) 
particles,  they  receive  moisture  by  the  process  of  con- 
densation. So  when  the  subsoil  becomes  loose  by 
drainage,  the  air  is  admitted,  condensation  takes 
place  and  the  resulting  moisture  is  absorbed  by 
the  particles.  The  subsoil  being  also  open  and 
accessible,  the  moisture  from  below  rises,  is  vital- 
ized by  the  air  and  absorbed  by  the  particles  and 
the  plants.  The  depth  to  which  the  soil  is  made 
friable  admits  the  deeper  influence  of  the  sun, 
and  also  permits  the  plants  to  strike  down  into  the 
subsoil,  drawing  therefrom  moisture  and  nutrition. 
The  chemical  processes  of  plant  growth  are  thus  pro- 
moted. Land  not  drained  is  of  necessity  cold ;  it 
warms  up  late  in  the  spring,  and  becomes  cold  early 
in  the  fall,  favoring  early  and  late  frosts.  For  this 
reason  undrained  land  cannot  be  cultivated  early  in 
the  spring,  which  is  a  serious  drawback.  Neither  will 
it  admit  of  deep  tillage,  which  is  indispensable  to 
good  farming.  A  writer  on  agriculture  sums  up  the 
benefits  of  drainage  in  the  following  comprehensive 
terms :  With  deep  culture  and  drainage  the  surplus 
water  is  rapidy  carried  away,  evaporation  is  moderate 
in  the  spring,  the  soil  warms  up,  and  vegetation  starts 
with  vigor.  But  the  constant  heats  of  summer  do 
not  exhaust  the  ground  of  all  moisture,  as  the  deeply 
worked  subsoil  can  hold  its  normal  supply  by  capillary 
and  adhesive  attraction — which  experiment  proves  to 
be  equal  to  nearly  one  half  the  measure  of  the  soil 
itself — and  a  moderate  evaporation  is  kept  up,  during 
the  entire  summer,  which  modifies  the  extreme  heat, 
and  supplies  necessary  moisture  to  plant  growth,  which 
goes  on  with  all  the  vigor  of  healthy  life.  The  great 
quantity  of  water  necessary  to  sustain  the  exhalation 
of  plants  when  in  growth,  has  been  ascertained  by  ex- 
periments in  the  case  of  many  plants,  as  of  wheat 
and  clover,  to  be  for  the  growing  season,  two  hundred 
times  the  dry  weight  of  the  plants  themselves.  This 
for  a  good  crop  of  clover  would  be  about  400  tons  to 
the  acre,  or  two  gallons  per  square  foot,  of  water  ex- 
haled from  the  leaves  while  in  growth.     How  appar- 


DRAINAGE. 


359 


ent,  then,  becomes  the  necessity  of  securing  that  con- 
dition of  the  soil  which  will  absorb  and  hold  a  gener- 
ous supply  of  water,  to  meet  these  immense  drafts 
during  the  dry  months  of  the  year.  We  think  we  shall 
find  in  this  system  a  remedy  in  great  part  for  our  leaf 
blights  and  mildews,  etc. 

Will  it  Pay.'  It  is  only  necessary  to  jxiint  to  the 
testimony  of  practical  men  who  have  tried  drainage— 
especially  underdrainage  with  tile — to  answer  this 
question  in  emphatic  affiniiation.  From  the  time  that 
John  Johnson,  in  New  York,  began  to  "  bury  crockery  " 
in  his  farm  till  this  latter  day,  when  Michigan  and 
Illinois  farmers  are  converting  swamps  and  sloughs 
into  grain-burdened,  arable  fields,  a  uniform  "Yes; 
drainage  pays, "  has  been  returned  to  every  doubting 
query.  By  over  a  thousand  circulars  mailed  by  one 
gentleman  to  fanners  all  over  the  country,  he  received 
the  common  statement  that  underdrainage  jjays  from 
25  to  100  per  cent.  The  common  farmer  will  not 
average  a  yield  of  over  13  bushels  of  wheat  and  35 
bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  on  land  that  needs  drain- 
age. The  cost  of  production,  interest  on  capital,  and 
capital  itself  will  yield  but  little  or  no  profit.  The 
same  land  thoroughly  drained,  will  average  25  of 
wheat  and  60  of  corn  to  the  acre,  a  difference  that 
will  cover  the  cost  of  draining  in  two  years.  Gentle- 
men have  informed  the  writer  that  their  underdrained 
lands  in  Illinois  would  yield  100  per  cent  more  crops 
than  they  did  j^revious  to  drainage.  It  has-been  esti- 
mated by  farmers  who  have  practiced  drainage  for  years 
that  the  increased  product  consequent  on  drainage,  on  a 
given  area  of  land,  would  defray  the  expense  of  drain- 
age an  equal  area.  The  foregoing  statements  being 
true,  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  profit  of  drain- 
age. 

SuRKACK  Drainagk.  This  method,  by  open  ditches, 
was  undoubtedly  the  first  for  freeing  land  from  surface 
water.  Where  the  overflow  is  large,  and  the  neces- 
sity, for  health  and  profit,  great  that  the  water  be 
drained  off,  ditclies  provide  the  readiest  and  cheapest 
means.  But  as  a  method  for  thorough  drainage  of 
large  areas,  they  are  objectionable;  for  they  occupy 
too  much  land;  they  are  a  great  inconvenience  in 
cultivating  adjoining  lands ;  cause  accident  to  stock, 
and  are  an  obstruction  to  teaming;  they  produce 
weeds,  which  foul  the  farm ;  they  cave  in  and  need 
continued  repair;  they  are  never  deep  enough  to 
properly  drain  surrounding  land :  they  carry  off  the 
very  richest  part  of  the  soil  and  manure,  which  is 
washed  into  them  by  the  surface  streams;  and  they 
induce  disease  by  holding  stagnant  water  in  times  of 
drouth.  Open  ditches  are  hence  defective  for 
thorough  drainage. 

The  cultivation  of  land  in  ridges  is  another  method 
by  which  a  moderate  degree  of  draining  is  practically 
effected.  By  plowing  into  narrow  lands  with  wide, 
open  furrows  between,  or  by  turning  two  furrows  to- 
gether from  opjxjsite  directions  and  leaving  a  large, 
open  s;)ace  or  water  furrow  between  each  two  ridges, 
and  planting  directly  upon  the  top  of  each  ridge,  some 
of  the  advantages  of  draining  can  be  secured.      But 


'Ion,-   Dr 


in  such  cases  they  must  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
extra  work  in  preparing  the  soil  and  cultivating 
the  crop. 

Under-drains.  The  primitive  method  of  under- 
draining  was  by  boards  and  stones,  so  placed  that  a 
conduit  for  the  passage  of  water  in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  would  be  formed.  There  were  various  plans 
for  making  under-drains  before  tile  came  into  general 
use,  but  the  latter  has  so  superseded  the  old  way 
that  it  is  useless  to  treat  any  other  at  length.  We  will 
briefly  illustrate  here  such  cheap 
drains,  as  they  are  still  needed  in 
pioneer  districts.  They  are  of  var- 
ious devices.  Figs,  i  to  4,  and  tliey 
serve  very  well  until  the  country 
becomes  more  densely  populated 
and  wealthy,  when  tiling  can  be  af- 
forded. Fig.  I  shows  the  ends  of 
the  [K)les  in  the  i)lan  of  the  ditch  or 
ilrain ;  Fig.  2  shows  the  stones,  in 
a  similar  situation  ;  Fig.  3  shows 
how  a  narrower  ditch,  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  main  one,  is  covered 
by  a  single  board,  and  the  earth 
filled  in  over  it,  as  in  the  preced- 
ing methods ;  and  Fig.  4  ix)ints 
out  how  three  boards  are  placed. 
The  last  is  the  best  plan  of  all 
four,  as  it  better  protects  the 
drain  from  filling  up  with  sedi- 
ment. 

In  putting  down  these  board 
drains,  which  in  clay  soils  will  last 
fo'  five  to  ten  years,  dig  the 
ditch  and  take  two  by  four-inch 
hard-wood  plank  (oak  and  cedar 
are  preferable)  for  side  pieces. 
They  may  be  of  any  length.  Leave 
undisturbed  elevated  spots  one 
Fig.  i.—iiox  />>■„,„.  foot  long,  three  feet  apart  in  the 
bottom  for  side  pieces  to  rest  upon.  Place  those 
down  and  cover  with  boards.  Should  the  drain  be 
narrow,  one-inch  boards  will  answer;  but  two-inch 
plank  cut  in  pieces  of  one  foot  in  length,  or  slabs  with 
sides  trimmed  to  fit  closely,  are  better.  Use  no  bottom 
board :  water  enters  there.  Fill  the  ditch  with  clay, 
placing  surface  soil  at  the  top. 

Tile  Drains.  These  are  the  best  and  cheapest  of 
all  drains  yet  devised.  Millions  of  dollars  are  now 
invested  in  their  manufacture.  Actual  and  universal 
good  results  have  followed  their  general  adoption. 
More  than  20,000  tests  in  this  country  have  demon- 
strated the  value  of  under-draining,  by  this  method, 
for  the  following  reasons  :  Good  rile  drains,  properly 
placed,  last  for  all  time,  and  do  not  fill  up  ;  it  is  the 
cheapest  way  known  to  accomplish  the  end ;  they  are 
out  of  the  reach  of  the  plow,  and  therefore  do  not  in- 
terfere with  cultivation. 

Tile  for  draining  purixises  are  molded  from  brick 
clay  by  a  machine  for  the  purjxjse.     They  are  8  to  24 


Fig. 


360 


DRAINAGE. 


inches  long,  and  in  diameter  from  two  to  nine  inches. 
Round  tile  with  collars  are  generally  preferred.  They 
sell  by  the  foot  at  about  one  cent  an  inch  of  diameter. 

Probably,  as  to  size,  the  following  is  as  good  a  rule  as 
can  be  had :  For  tiles  taking  only  the  rain  fall  on  the 
land  the  tile  should  be  two  inches  for  four  acres,  three 
inches  for  nine  acres,  four  inches  for  16  acres,  etc.  A 
one-inch  rain-fall  per  hour  gives  22,633  gallons  per 
hour  for  each  acre,  or  377  gallons  jier  minute.  These 
figures  may  assist  in  deciding  the  size  of  tile  needed. 

How  TO  Lay  Tile.  The  usual  distance  between 
drains  is  25  feet  for  three  feet  depth,  40  feet  for  four 
feet  depth,  and  80  feet  for  five  feet  depth.  If  the 
drains  are  20  feet  apart  about  2,000  tiles  to  the  acre 
will  be  required;  if  40  feet,  about  1,000,  and  if  80 
feet,  about  500.  Deep  digging  for  tiles  is  thought  to 
be  more  effective  and  saves  money. 

Tiles  are  planted  at  from  two  to  five  feet  below  the 
surface.  The  depth  must  depend  partly  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  land.  If  a  sufficient  outlet  five  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  land  can  be  obtained,  then  sink  your 
drain  to  that  depth.  In  any  case  it  must  be  deep 
enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  frost,  to  give  suffi- 
cient room  for  plants  to  grow  above  the  water-line.  It 
must  be  beyond  the  reach  of  roots,  and  deep  enough 
to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  water  rising  in  the  soil 
from  the  force  of  capillary  attraction. ;  30  inches  is  a 
common  depth,  but  is  not  as  effective  as  though  from 
6  to  30  inches  deeper.  A  tile  less  than  three  feet  in 
depth  is  liable  to  disap[X)int.  The  deep  drain  acts 
quicker  and  with  more  effect  than  the  shallow.  The 
tile  costs  the  same,  therefore  plant  deep,  and  your 
fann  will  repay  you  the  first  year. 

To  find  competent  outlet  for  drains  is  often  difficult, 
yet  it  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Make  it  as  low  as 
circumstances  will  allow,  in  order  to  get  as  great  a 
fall  as  [xjssible.  The  outlet  should  be  protected  by 
either  l)rick  or  stone  work,  and  a  grate  over  it  to  pre- 
vent obstructions  from  getting  into  the  pipe.  If  the 
opening  is  into  a  running  stream,  it  will  do  no  harm  if 
the  water  in  the  time  of  freshets  rises  and  enters  the 
mouth,  though  it  is  well  to  avoid  this  when  practica- 
ble. If  the  water  from  the  drain  is  to  be  conveyed 
away  by  an  open  ditch  the  channel  should  be  so  low 
as  to  prevent  mud  or  other  substances  from  clogging 
the  flow  of  the  pipe.  There  are  several  different  gates 
for  protecting  the  outlet  of  drains  from  vermin,  etc. 
Outlets  should,  of  course,  be  into  under-drains  as 
much  as  possible,  and  not  into  open  ditches. 

In  planning  a  system  of  tile  drainage  there  should 
be  a  main  drain  extending  under  the  lowest  portion  of 
the  land.  These  mains,  of  course,  will  have  to  be  of 
larger  tile  than  those  of  the  lateral  drains.  The  most 
important  part  of  tile  draining  is  fixing  the  grade  of 
the  system;  an  imperfect  grade  of  a  few  feet  may 
render  the  entire  system  worthless.  As  much  care 
must  be  used  in  grading  the  ditches  for  the  reception 
of  tile  as  in  building  sewers  under  cities.  There  must 
be  a  continuous  slope  or  fall  to  every  foot  of  the  pipe, 
from  the  utmost  end  of  the  laterals  to  the  outlet  of 
the   main.     Drains  must  not   be  laid  at  a  uniform 


depth  from  the  surface  unless  the  surface  is  a  perfect 
grade  line,  which  is  seldom  or  never  the  case. 

Figure  5  illus- 
trates the  princi- 
)le  on  which  a 
leveler  can  be 
made  that  will  en- 
able the  most  in- 
experienced to 
r,u.  5.-^,..,...  determine    accu- 

rately the  proper  grade  in  ditching.  The  upper  por- 
tion, or  body  of  the  instrument,  is  of  wood,  measuring 
exactly  six  feet  three  inches  from  the  inner  edge  of  the 
scale  to  the  jxjint  directly  above  the  hinge  of  the  point- 
er. The  scale,  attached  as  shown,  is  made  of  heavy 
sheet  iron,  graduated  to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  to 
the  foot.  The  zero  point  of  the  scale  is  at  a  distance 
from  the  upper  edge  of  the  instrument  exactly  equal 
to  that  of  the  center-point  of  the  ix)inter-hinge  from 
the  same  edge.  The  wood  pointer  has  a  spirit  level 
attached  to  its  side  in  the  end  near  the  scale.  The 
level  is  so  constructed  that  the  bubble  can  be  seen 
both  from  above  and  below.  The  pointer  should  be 
made  either  to  work  tightly,  or  should  be  furnished 
with  a  clamp.  The  machine  should  be  mounted  on 
four  legs  (fi.xed  as  shown  in  the  cut),  so  attached 
as  to  be  readily  folded  and  strapped  to  the  sides.  A 
little  ingenuity  must  be  exercised  in  adjusting  the  legs, 
or  the  instrument  will  "wabble."  The  handle  in  the 
middle  is  only  for  convenience  in  carrying. 

To  Use  the  Level.  Set  it  up  on  the  highest  point 
of  the  ground  to  be  drained.  At  the  point  whose  dif- 
ference of  level  is  to  be  ascertained,  fix  a  stake  at 
exactly  the  height  of  the  center  of  the  instrument 
when  set.  The  use  of  the  instrument  is  simplified  by 
making  this  distance  100  feet,  or  even  fractional  parts, 
as  50,  ziVi  O''  25  feet.  Now  let  the  ojierator  place 
himself  at  the  end  of  the  instrument  where  the  scale 
is  attached,  sight  along  the  top  of  it  and  bring  its  up- 
per edge  on  a  line  with  the  top  of  the  stake.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  move  the  body  of  the  level  after  it  is  adjusted. 
Now  raise  the  pointer  until  it  is  horizontal,  which  is 
shown  by  the  spirit  or  water  level  in  the  pointer.  The 
number  of  sixteenths  of  an  inch  which  the  pointer 
designates,  if  the  distance  between  the  stake  and  in- 
strument is  an  even  100  feet,  will  be  the  fall  in  feet 
to  the  one  hundred  feet.  If  the  distance  is  one- 
half  of  one  hundred  feet,  each  sixteenth  will  rep- 
resent six  inches,  or  one-half  of  one  foot,  and  the  same 
projxirtion  is  true  of  one-third,  one-fourth,  etc.  The 
result  may  be  verified  by  taking  a  back  sight — that  is, 
changing  places  of  the  stake  and  instrument,  and 
sighting  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  machine  back, 
or  up  hill.  The  readings  should  agree.  A  profile  of 
the  ground  can  be  made  by  taking  several  bearings. 
In  leveling  long  lines  several  stations  are  necessary. 
To  use  the  level  in  grading  the  Ixittom  of  the  ditch, 
bring  the  instrument  on  a  hne  with  the  stake,  as  in  the 
first  case.  Make  the  iX)intor  horizontal  and  clamp  it  to 
the  scale,  fold  the  legs,  reverse  the  ends  of  the  ma- 
chine, and,  grasping  it  by  the  handle,  lower  it  into  the 


DRAINAGE. 


361 


ditch.  If  when  the  level  is  placed  therein,  the  jwint- 
er  is  kept  horizontal,  as  will  be  shown  by  the  attached 
level,  the  upper  edge,  now  resting  on  the  ditch,  will 
be  parallel  to  its  former  jxisition,  and  make  an  angle 
with  the  pointer  equal  to  the  required  grade.  The 
ditch  being  parallel  of  course  to  the  edge,  will  have 
the  proper  slope. 

If  the  bottom  is  ordinarily  firm,  begin  laying  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  drain,  putting  in  and  covering  it  up 
as  fast  as  the  digging  proceeds.  This  is  different  from 
the  method  formerly  advocated  by  Waring  himself, 
and  formerly  universally  practiced— that  of  laying 
open  the  drain  the  entire  length  before  beginning  to 
lay  the  tile;  but  Mr.  Waring  now  advises  this  manner 
of  procedure.  In  beginning  to  dig,  strike  a  line  to 
mark  one  side  of  the  ditch;  remove  the  sod  to  a 
spade's  depth  (15  inches  wide)for  a  length  of  two  rods, 
and  a  ditch  can  then  be  dug  18  inches  deep,  with  nar- 
row bottom.  A  ditching  spade,  20  inches  long  in  the 
blade,  six  at  the  top  and  four  at  the  jxjint  is  then  to 
be  thrust  in,  whole  length,  and  the  dirt  thrown  out. 
The  loose  earth,  escaped  from  the  spade,  can  be 
thrown  out  with  a  scoop,  four  inches  wide,  the  work- 
man walking  backward  and  drawing  the  scoop  toward 
him.  In  this  way  he  gets  down  three  feet,  and  gets  a 
smooth  floor  on  which  to  stand.  Beginning  again  at 
the  end  next  the  main,  with  a  narrower,  sharper  spade 
of  the  same  length,  or  a  little  less,  he  digs  out  another 
foot  of  earth,  facing  the  main  and  working  back,  so 
that  he  always  stands  on  the  smooth  surface,  three 
feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  When  he  has 
dug  for  a  length  o^two  or  three  feet,  he  takes  a  snipe- 
bill  scoop,  and  removes  the  loose  earth.  The  round 
back  of  this  scoop,  which  is  always  working  a  foot  be- 
low the  level  on  which  the  operator  stands,  and  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  shovel,  smooths  and  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  trench,  making  a  much  better  bed  for 
the  tiles  than  it  is  possible  to  get  if  it  has  to  be  walked 
on,  as  is  the  case  when  the  trench  is  opened  from  end 
to  end.  When  the  trench  is  dug  and  graded  for  a 
short  distance  the  work  of  laying  the  tile  can  begin. 
First  uncover  the  branch  or  junction  piece  of  tile,  and 
make  the  connection  with  the  new  drain.  Then  pro- 
ceed, using  a  tile  layer,  the  operator  standing  astride 
the  ditch.  The  collar  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the 
branch,  on  the  upper  end  of  the  tile.  The  instru- 
ment lowers  the  tile  (with  its  collar  in  place),  and  the 
other  end  is  carefully  inserted  into  the  second  collar, 
and  so  on  till  the  drain  is  laid.  Then  throw  care- 
fully down  the  clayey  part  of  the  subsoil,  and  tramp  it 
into  place,  all  but  the  collar  end  of  the  tile  being  cov- 
ered, and  have  the  ditch  filled  at  least  half-full  and 
ix)unded  down,  or  well  tramped.  Another  rod  or  two 
of  the  ditch  can  then  be  opened  and  dug  out,  laid, 
and  filled  up,  as  described — the  amount  at  any  one 
time  not  being  enough  to  allow  of  a  dangerous  accum- 
ulation of  water.  At  night  the  tile  is  left  with  a  plug 
of  grass  or  straw  in  the  end  to  prevent  dirt  runningin, 
in  case  of  rain.  Where  a  gang  of  men  are  to  be  em- 
ployed in  laying  a  single  drain,  they  can  follow  each 
other  In  the  successive  gradations  of  the  work,  one 


opening  the  surface  of  the  drain,  another  taking  out 
the  second  spade-full  of  dirt,  another  the  third,  etc., 
and  a  man  following  with  the  tile-layer.  Of  course 
where  the  land  is  sandy,  gravelly,  or  loose,  the  walls 
of  the  ditch  may  have  to  be  kept  in  place  by  boards. 
Where  the  soil  is  full  of  large  stones  the  work  of 
opening  the  ditches  will  be  much  more  laborious  and 
difficult,  and  the  regular  order  of  the  operation,  as  laid 
down  above,  will  be  somewhat  broken.  In  laying,  if 
the  ends  of  the  tile  are  jagged,  trim  them  with  a 
hatchet,  so  that  they  shall  fit  together  perfectly,  as 
much  depends  on  this,  and  the  skill  with  which  the 
connecrions  are  made.  Often  in  new  drains  small 
pardcles  of  dirt  find  their  way  into  the  channel.  Some- 
times it  works  into  the  drain  while  it  is  being  laid. 
This  deposit  is  carried  along  by  the  stream  in  the  pipe, 
sometimes  causing  a  complete  obstruction.  To  remedy 
this,  a  "  silt  basin  "  is  placed  where  the  grade  is  slight- 
est, or  at  the  intersection  of  the  mains.  The  hand- 
iest basin  of  this  kind  is  made  by  sinking  a  tile  two 
thirds  its  length  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  mak- 
ing the  tile  above  and  below  empty  into  it;  or,  rather, 
the  drain  passes  through  it.  The  bottom  of  the  basin 
should  rest  on  a  flat  stone,  or  solid  piece  of  plank, 
and  the  top  also  be  securely  covered.  The  traveling 
particles  tumble  into  the  basin,  and  unless  there  are 
more  than  enough  to  fill  it,  can  do  no  more  harm.  In 
filling  the  ditch  it  is  well  to  have  the  basin  uncov- 
ered for  a  few  days,  until  the  drain  has  thoroughly 
washed  out,  then  fill.  This  will  be  a  good  point  at 
which  to  search  for  trouble  afterward  ;  and  its  location 
should  be  marked.  It  is  well  to  make  a  map,  show- 
ing the  exact  location  of  every  part  of  the  drain,  con- 
nections, silt  basins,  and  all.  This  can  be  done 
before  beginning  work,  while  it  is  in  progress,  or  when 
the  system  is  completed.  Mark  in  the  map  distances 
between  connections,  length  of  each  stretch  of  pipe, 
etc.,  so  that  any  trouble  in  the  future  can  be  sought 
out  and  remedied. 

Further  Suggestions.  A  very  handy  way  to  fix 
the  grade  of  a  ditch  is,  find  the  greatest  aggregate  fall 
to  be  obtained  in  the  whole  length  of  the  drain,  with- 
out placing  the  outlet  so  low  as  to  cause  its  obstruc- 
tion by  backwater.  Then  find  how  much  fall  there  is 
in  100  feet,  or  in  a  rod.  For  example,  if  the  fall  is 
found  to  be  one  inch  in  a  rod,  attach  by  screws  to  the 
lower  edge  of  an  ordinary  level  a  straight  piece  of 
pine  of  the  same  thickness,  eight  feet  three  inches 
long  (one-half  a  rod),  and,  say,  two  inches  wide  at 
one  end  and  two  and  a  half  inches  at  the  other,  plac- 
ing tlie  level  at  the  wider  end  for  the  convenience  of 
handling.  Then  begin  at  the  outlet,  finishing  the 
bottom  of  the  ditch  level,  as  indicated  by  this  instru- 
ment, always  keeping  the  wide  end  toward  the  outlet. 
When  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  is  made  soft  or  uneven 
by  running  water,  or  otherwise,  the  level  should  be 
tried  on  every  two  orthree  tiles  laid  to  insure  accuracy. 
When  the  bottom  of  the  trench  is  too  soft  to  supixsrt 
the  tile  in  line,  a  few  inches  of  gravel  or  hard  earth 
will  make  it  sufficiently  solid.  Plank  should  never  be 
used,  says  one  expert,  for  the  reason  that  they  will 


362 


DJRA  UGHT— DRESSMAKING. 


finally  decay,  and  allow  the  tile  to  settle  and  destroy 
the  drain.  The  joints  should  be  covered  with  gravel 
or  tame  grass  sod,  with  the  grass  side  next  the  pipe. 
Marsh  hay,  though  it  may  be  sometimes  used,  is  not 
desirable.  Marsh  sods  should  never  be  used,  for  they 
will  often  cause  the  pipes  to  be  filled  with  compact 
masses  of  fine  water-grass  many  feet  in  length. 

The  following  table  will  aid  in  calculating  the  size 
of  pipe  needed  for  any  given  tract  of  land,  for  a  fall 
of  six  inches  per  100  feet: 

Size  of  Pipe  Capacity  of  Pipf. 

IN  Inches.  per  Min.  in  Gal*s. 

4 75 

6 213 

9 576 

12 1,220 

15 2,108 

18 3.306 

20 4>32o 

22 5,498 

Draught,  Angle  of,  the  angle  made  by  the  line 
of  draught  with  the  general  direction  of  the  body 
drawn. 

Dredge,  or  Dredging-Machine,  a  machine  for 
scooping  up  mud  or  earth  from  under  water,  for  clear- 
ing the  channels  of  canals,  rivers  and  harbors.  To 
dredge  is  to  scoop  up  and  remove  mud  from  under 
water ;  also,  in  the  culinary  art,  to  sprinkle  flour  on,  as 
roasted  meat. 

Drench,  a  medical  drink  administered  to  animals, 
principally  to  the  horse.  It  is  often  preferred  to  a  ball 
in  flatulent  colic  and  other  cases  in  which  the  medi- 
cine requires  to  act  with  the  utmost  possible  rapidity. 
A  drench  ought  rarely,  if  ever,  exceed  a  quart,  and  in 
all  ordinary  cases  it  may  be  administered  by  an  ex- 
pert Ofjerator  with  a  strong,  smooth-necked,  wide- 
mouth  bottle,  or  perhaps  equally  as  well  with  a  cow's 
horn.  In  administering  a  drench  the  head  of  the 
animal  should  be  held  firmly.  A  drench  is  in  some 
degree  more  or  less  dangerous,  for  it  is  often  bung- 
lingly  done,  and  consequently  inefficient.  Every  such 
draught  is  in  particular  hazard  of  finding  its  way 
down  the  wind-pipe  and  exciting  inflammation  in  the 
lungs.  To  make  a  drench  to  be  used  in  case  of  colic 
take  sulphuric  ether,  J/^  ounce ;  laudanum  2  ounces ; 
flaxseed  oil,  i  pint;  mix.  Or,  take  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, 1  ounce ;  tincture  of  aconite  root,  25  drops ;  aloes, 
I  ounce  in  solution ;  mix.  Or,  take  warm  ale,  2 
pints;  ground  ginger,  i^  an  ounce;  tincture  of  aconite 
root,  20  drops;  mix.  Used  in  flatulent  colic,  accom- 
panied with  swelling  of  the  abdomen.  Or,  laudanum,  2 
ounces ;  aloes  in  solution,  i  ounce ;  chloride  of  lime, 
%  an  ounce;  mix.  Or,  take  tincture  of  aconite  root, 
20  drops ;  aloes  in  solution,  i  ounce  ;  sulphite  of  soda, 
I  ounce;  mix.  Or,  spirits  of  hartshorn,  3  drachms; 
aloes  in  solution,  i  ounce ;  water,  i  pint ;  mix. 

Dressmaking.  Notwithstanding  the  almost  in- 
cessant changes  of  fashion,  there  are  certain  general 
rules  in  the  art  of  dressmaking  that  never  vary, 
and  which  it   may  be  well  to  point    out    for    the  in- 


struction of  those  who  are  desirous  of  making  their 
own  dresses.  By  adhering  to  these  instructions 
the  ladies  of  the  country  may  be  as  capable  of 
making  their  own  dresses  fit  as  neatly  as  could  be 
furnished  by  the  most  accomplished  modiste  of 
the  city.  In  purchasing  a  dress,  always  buy  a 
httle  more  goods  than  is  required:  this  will  come 
in  usefully  for  repairing,  altering  and  renewing 
the  cuffs,  etc.,  or  perhaps  it  may  be  required  for  a 
new  body.  Also,  if  a  dress  is  too  scantily  made,  it 
will  never  look  well,  however  expensive  the  material. 
In  buying  silk  you  can  best  ascertain  its  thickness  by 
holding  a  part  of  it  between  your  eyes  and  the  light. 
If  very  stiff  it  is  highly  gummed,  and  therefore  can- 
not wear  well,  as  the  gum  will  cause  it  to  split  and 
crack  at  the  gathers.  Soft,  thick  silks,  with  both  sides 
alike,  cut  out  the  most  advantageously  and  wear  the 
best.  Figured  or  flowered  silks  look  beautiful  for  a 
short  time,  but  in  consequence  of  their  flossiness  the 
sprigs  soon  begin  to  wear  rough  and  the  spaces  be- 
tween them  seem  to  appear  shrivelled  and  contracted. 
This  is  the  case  with  most  silks  which  have  figures 
embossed  or  thrown  up  on  the  outside.  What  are 
called  watered  silks  look  after  a  while  as  if  they  had 
been  literally  watered  or  wetted  all  over. 

To  Cut  out  the  Body  of  a  Dress.  In  com- 
mencing a  dress  the  first  thing  is  to  cut  out  the  bodtee- 
lining,  which  should  be  always  made  of  good  linen,  as 
lining  that  is  thin  and  coarse  will  stretch  out  of  shape 
when  the  material  is  put  on  it,  and  shrink  very  much 
if  wanted  to  wash.  For  a  white  dress,  or  any  one 
that  is  to  be  washed,  the  lining  mi^t  be  of  linen  that 
is  perfectly  white,  otherwise  the  brownish  tint,  how- 
ever pale,  will  show  through.  For  a  dark  silk  or 
merino  dress  the  lining  may  be  of  brown  goods.  A 
yard  of  linen  will  make  a  bodice  for  a  person  of  mod- 
erate size,  and  it  must  be  quite  smooth  when  you  cut 
it.  The  person  to  be  fitted  should  wear  at  the  time 
one  of  her  best  fitting  dresses.  Over  the  fore-body  of 
this  let  the  linen  be  pinned,  placing  it  bias,  and  put- 
ting several  pins  at  the  shoulders,  waist  and  sides. 
Fold  over  at  the  bottom  of  the  waist  two  very  large 
pleats,  slanting  upward,  and  diminishing  gradually 
to  a  point  as  they  ascend  to  the  bosom.  If  these, 
pleats  are  small  and  narrow,  the  dress  will  be  inevit- 
ably too  tight  across  the  front,  compressing  the  bosom 
painfully,  and  making  it  look  flat  and  contracted. 
This  is  a  very  common  fault  with  dressmakers,  who 
depend  upon  giving  an  artificial  fullness  to  the  bosom 
by  means  of  wadding.  The  fore-body  leaves  off  at 
the  shoulder-seams,  and  after  it  is  fitted  the  back 
should  be  done.  The  lining  of  the  back  must  be  cut 
straight  way  of  the  linen  (not  bias),  and  it  must  be 
pinned  very  smoothly  on  the  back  of  the  dress  worn 
at  the  time  by  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended,  al- 
lowing sufficient  everywhere  for  hemming  in,  and  for 
outlet  if  the  dress  should  afterwards  be  found  too 
tight.  The  lining  must  be  allowed  longer  in  the 
waist  than  the  model  dress,  as  it  takes  up  greatly  in 
sewing  on  the  skirt.  For  a  person  of  hollow  back  and 
taper  form,  the  side-seams  should  have  a  considerable 


DRESSMAKING. 


363 


slope  inwards  from  the  arm-hole  to  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  waist,  otherwise  the  dress  will  not  set 
well  into  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  even  when  made 
very  tight.  Where  the  waist  is  thick,  the  slope  in- 
wards should  be  less ;  and  some  figures  require  little 
or  no  slope.  If  the  back  of  the  person  is  rather 
round,  or  the  shoulders  very  prominent  (as  tney  fre- 
tjuently  become  from  habitually  compressing  the 
waist  to  excessive  tightness)  the  body  should  be  cut 
considerably  longer  behind,  so  as  to  allow  sufficient 
space  for  the  projection  of  the  shoulders.  AVhen  the 
back  is  flat  and  straight  the  body  need  be  no  longer 
behind  than  at  the  sides.  Be  very  careful  not  to  cut 
the  body-lining  too  short  either  behind  or  before,  for 
to  all  figures  a  short  waist  is  the  most  unbecoming. 
In  cutting  out  the  sleeve-holes  notch  them  in  front  and 
allow  them  sufficiently  easy,  particularly  just  under 
the  arms.  Give  the  slioulders  a  considerable  slope 
inwards  towards  the  neck,  otherwise  the  dress  will  set 
too  loosely  about  the  upper  part.  Next,  with  a  piece 
of  tape  measure  the  length  of  skirt  from  the  waist  be- 
hind down  to  the  heels,  allowing  sufficient  for  the 
hem  and  facings.  After  the  lining  has  been  fitted 
and  cut  out  over  the  model  dress,  take  it  off  and  baste 
it  together;  also  basting  down  the  large  pleats.  Then 
let  it  be  tried  on  and  fitted  a  second  time  uix)n  the 
corsets  only.  This  is  the  time  to  remedy  any  faults 
in  the  cutting  out  or  basting  together.  If  it  is  found 
too  loose  about  the  upper  part  of  the  back,  slope  it  in 
a  little  more  toward  the  neck.  If  too  tight,  let  it  out 
sufficiently  by  opening  the  shoulder-seams.  Should 
the  lowest  part  of  the  back  be  too  loose,  take  it  in  a 
little  at  the  side-seams  under  the  arms.  If  the  waist 
is  too  tight,  let  it  out  at  the  side-seam  of  the  fore- 
body  ;  or  it  may  be  necessary  to  let  it  out  at  the  back 
and  the  fore-body. 

A  dress,  to  fit  well,  should  have  no  wrinkle  what- 
ever under  the  arms,  or,  indeed,  in  any  place  where  it 
ought  to  be  perfectly  smooth.  A  body  will  frequently 
set  badly  not  because  it  is  too  loose,  but  from  the 
sleeve-hole  being  so  small  that  the  dress  cannot  be 
got  on  sufficiently,  causing  it  to  hang  off  and  wrinkle 
down.  When  this  is  the  fault,  the  remedy,  of  course, 
is  to  enlarge  the  sleeve-holes.  When  sleeve-holes 
are  found  too  tight,  cut  them  away  just  in  front  and 
under  the  arms,  and  then  round  them  off  nicely  at 
the  back.  If  left  too  tight  when  the  lining  is  cut  out, 
they  will  not  be  any  looser  when  the  dress  is  finished, 
as  the  ridge  made  by  the  seam  in  putting  in  the 
sleeve  always  fills  up  whatever  space  is  allowed  for 
the  sewing.  When  the  fitting  of  the  lining  is  finished, 
do  not,  after  stitching  them  down  trim  off  the  inside 
folds  of  the  large  pleats,  but  allow  them  to  remain 
uncut,  in  case  it  should  at  any  time  be  found  neces- 
sary to  let  them  out  for  the  purixjse  of  enlarging  the 
lx)dy.  They  can  be  made  to  lie  perfectly  flat  by  fell- 
ing down  the  folded  edge  on  the  inside. 

In  making  the  fore-body  of  a  dress  the  silk  or  other 
material  that  constitutes  the  outside  should  always 
be  cut  precisely  bias;  otherwise  neither  the  pleats  nor 
gathers,  nor,  indeed,  any  part  of  the   front  can   set 


well.  To  do  this,  fold  one  corner  quite  sharp,  and 
make  the  middle  of  the  fold  lie  exactly  even.  If  the 
silk  is  not  wide  enough  for  a  perfect  bias,  join  it  at 
the  selvage  to  another  selvage  piece  running  just  the 
same  way.  An  imperfect  bias  causes  the  pleats  to 
twist  or  warp  and  the  whole  to  go  wrong  and  un- 
evenly. In  cutting  the  outside  of  the  fore-body,  see 
that  there  is  amply  sufficient,  both  in  length  and 
breadth,  for  all  the  pleats  or  gathers,  allowing  it  wider 
considerably  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom.  If  the 
dress  is  of  the  material  that  is  to  be  washed,  the  upper 
part  of  the  fullness  should  be  gathered;  as  loose  bias 
pleats  cannot  be  ironed  to  look  well,  or  even  tolerably, 
the  lower  part  of  a  gathered  front  may  be  stitched 
closely  down.  Wherever  there  are  gathers  in  a  dress, 
make  them  small,  and  stroke  them  neatly,  as  in  mak- 
ing up  linen.  The  pleats  should  be  laid  smooth  and 
even,  so  that  no  part  of  them  may  rise  or  stand  off 
even  in  the  smallest  degree.  Baste  or  run  them 
down  to  the  lining,  concealing  the  stitches  of  each 
pleat  under  the  pleat  that  falls  over  it.  If  there  is 
to  be  wadding  at  the  bosom,  jwu  may  insert  it  be- 
tween the  lining  and  the  outside  before  you  cord  the 
neck.  But  the  best  way  is  to  put  it  on  after  the  body 
is  finished.  To  do  this,  cut  out  two  circular  pieces 
of  wadding  of  sufficient  size,  lay  on  each  of  them  an- 
other round  piece  about  an  inch  smaller  in  circum- 
ference, uix)n  that  put  a  third,  and  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  round  pieces,  each  diminishing  in  size,  till  the 
last  is  not  larger  than  a  five-shilling  piece.  Baste 
each  of  these  piles  of  wadding  upon  a  circular  piece 
of  white  glazed  muslin,  notching  the  edges  of  the 
muslin  and  turning  them  in.  Then  sew  them  to  the 
lining  of  the  body  so  as  to  have  wadded  pieces  next 
the  corset,  and  not  between  the  lining  and  the  out- 
side. In  stitching  down  the  lower  part  of  the  pleats 
(where  they  diminish  in  width  towards  the  waist) 
make  a  second  row  of  stitching  on  the  extreme  edge 
of  each. 

A  fore-body,  to  set  off  the  figure,  should  fan  very- 
much,  the  pleats  or  gathers  spreading  full  above  so 
as  to  give  breadth  to  the  chest,  and  narrowing  into  a 
small  compass  at  the  bottom  of  the  waist,  where  they 
meet  in  the  centre.  The  space  on  each  side  of  the 
pleats  should  sit  quite  smooth  to  the  waist  and  be 
perfectly  free  from  wrinkles.  The  outside  of  the  stuff 
must  be  cut  straightway  of  the  stuff,  like  the  lining. 
For  a  full  back  (they  are  sometimes  in  the  fashion) 
the  lining  must  be  tight,  but  the  outside  must  be  cut 
large  enough  to  allow  of  gathers  at  the  lower  part  and 
shoulders.  A  full  back  gathered  into  the  middle  of 
the  neck  rarely  sets  well ;  the  gathers  should  fan  from 
the  shoulders  down  to  the  waist.  Great  care  must  be 
taken  in  making  a  full  back  not  to  let  it  puff  out  in 
the  middle — a  most  disfiguring  fault,  and  one  to  which 
full-backed  dresses  are  very  liable.  The  gathers 
should  be  small  and  nicely  stroked.  If  the  back  is 
gathered,  the  sleeves  and  skirt  should  be  gathered 
also.  It  is  now  usual  to  have  no  seams  in  the  backs 
of  dresses,  except  under  the  arms  ;  but  some  persons 
Still  prefer  having  the  form  or  shape  designated  by 


3^4 


DRESSMAKING. 


narrow  bias  folds,  beginning  just  below  the  middle  of 
the  back  part  of  the  sleeve-hole,  and  descending  to 
the  waist,  where  at  their  termination  the  space  be- 
tween diminishes  to  about  half  a  finger  in  width. 
These  narrow  bias  folds  are  furnished  with  a  cording. 
To  put  them  on,  baste  them  down  on  the  back  of  the 
dress  after  it  has  been  lined,  giving  them  a  slight 
curve,  and  then  sew  them  on  with  the  lining  next  to 
you,  keeping  the  needle  and  thread  on  the 
lining  side,  and  catching  the  under  part  of 
the  bias  fold  as  you  take  the  stitches  through. 
A  cording  must  be  let  in  at  the  shoulder  where 
the  fore-body  is  joined  to  the  back.  In  putting  whale- 
bones into  the  body  of  a  dress,  use  none  that  are  not 
perfectly  straight  and  even;  if  in  the  least  crooked 
they  will  cause  a  drawing  or  puckering  of  the  outside. 
It  is  usual  to  have  whalebone  up  the  middle  of  the 
front ;  one,  or  perhaps  two,  at  each  side  of  the  fore- 
body,  running  in  the  same  direction  as  the  large  pleats 
in  the  lining  and  extending  up  as  far  as  the  bosom, 
but  not  over  it.  Also  a  whalebone  at  each  of  the  side 
seams  and  under  the  arms.  It  is  not  a  good  way  to 
run  in  the  whalebones  between  the  lining  and  the  out- 
side of  the  dress,  as  their  ends  very  soon  wear  through 
the  outside.  Make  a  case  for  each  whalebone,  by 
sewing  a  piece  of  strong  twilled  tape  upon  the  body- 
lining,  then  slip  in  the  whalebones,  and  secure  them 
well  at  the  ends.  Finish  the  lower  part  of  the  body 
with  a  cording  felled  down  on  the  inside,  and  finish 
the  neck  in  the  same  manner.  The  covering  for  cord 
should  be  cut  into  long  slips,  all  of  them  exactly  cross- 
ways,  otherwise  they  will  pucker  and  not  set  smoothly 
when  sewn  on.  In  sewing  on  cording,  hold  the  dress 
next  to  you,  take  the  stitches  very  short  and  close, 
and  quite  through.  In  plaid  dresses  or  dresses 
with  patterns  on  them  the  checks  must  be  correctly 
matched  in  the  seams  of  the  skirt  and  bodice. 
Wherever  there  is  a  joint  it  is  better  to  cut  off  a  por- 
tion from  one  piece  or  the  other  than  to  allow  the 
checks  to  come  wrong.  A  perpendicular  stripe  of  a 
check  should  always  go  directly  up  the  middle  of  the 
back,  and  the  cross  stripes  should  be  made  to  match 
precisely.  The  same  accuracy  is  to  be  observed  in 
making  a  dress  of  a  striped  material.  In  sewingon  hooks 
and  eyes  use  very  strong  silk,  and  put  the  hooks  on 
the  right  side  and  the  eyes  on  the  left.  For  the  sleeves 
they  should  be  of  a  smaller  size.  If  instead  of  eyes 
you  work  loops  in  button-hole  stitch,  make  them  very 
strong,  or  they  will  soon  wear  out  and  break. 

To  Cut  Out  a  Plain  Skirt.  A  dress  skirt  will 
not  look  well  unless  it  is  very  full  and  wide;  it  should 
be  long  enough  just  to  touch  the  ground.  For  a  per- 
son of  moderate  size,  a  yard  and  a  quarter  in  length 
will  allow  something  to  turn  up  for  the  hem.  A  tall 
person  may  require  a  yard  and  a  quarter  and  a 
half-quarter  for  a  hem.  A  dress  made  of  narrow  silk, 
that  measures  but  half  a  yard  in  width,  will  require 
eight  in  the  skirt,  but  if  the  material  is  less  than  half 
a  yard  wide,  the  skirt  should  be  nine  breadths.  Any 
material  of  three-quarters  of  a  yard  wide  will  take  six 
breadths;  if  but   half  a  yard  and  half  a  quarter  in 


width,  there  must  be  seven.  A  tall  person  should 
wear  a  full  skirt,  measuring  at  least  five  yards  round, 
if  without  flounces.  A  dress,  if  lined  through,  will 
look  much  fresher  when  turned  than  one  that  has  not 
been  lined.  The  lining  should  be  very  thin.  After 
breadths  of  the  outside  are  all  run  up,  measure  those 
of  the  lining  so  as  to  fit  exactly,  and  run  them  up  also. 
Put  the  lining  inside,  whip  the  two  raw  edges  together 
at  the  top,  and  baste  the  lining  and  outside  together 
at  the  bottom.  For  the  slit  behind  at  the  top  of  the 
skirt,  hem  down  the  outside  u[X)n  the  lining,  securing 
it  well  at  the  termination,  and  taking  care  to  turn  in 
the  selvage  edge.  Be  also  very  particular  in  running 
up  the  breadths,  or  forming  the  sleeves,  to  take  suf- 
ficient hold,  so  as  to  prevent  even  a  thread  of  the  sel- 
vage edge  from  appearing  on  the  outside  of  the  dress, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  when  seams  are  put  together 
carelessly.  It  is  well  to  notch  with  your  scissors-  the 
selvage  all  along ;  otherwise  the  tightness  of  the  ex- 
treme edge  will  draw  up  the  breadths,  and  cause  them 
to  pucker  at  the  seams.  In  sewing  together  the  pieces 
for  a  frill,  or  a  flounce  to  a  silk  dress,  cut  off  the  sel- 
vage entirely,  and  whip  over  the  seams ;  for  if  the 
white  edge  is  left  on  it  will  show  at  every  joint. 

If  the  skirt  is  pleated  at  the  top,  turn  down  an  inch 
or  two  all  along,  and  fix  all  the  pleats  exactly  even, 
securing  them  for  the  present  with  pins,  and  after- 
wards basting  them;  leave  a  space  directly  in  front  of 
the  fore-breadths.  Take  care  not  to  have  a  seam  on 
any  of  the  top  pleats,  but  fold  all  the  seams  under- 
neath. The  middle  of  the  fore-breadth  must  come  ex- 
actly to  the  middle  of  the  fore-body,  and  the  central 
gathers  of  the  back-breadth  must  go  precisely  to  the 
back-body.  As  the  gathers  are  to  be  caught  up  and 
not  whipped  with  a  drawing  thread,  they  can  not  be 
made  till  after  the  body  is  sewn  fast  to  the  skirt,  but 
enough  must  be  left  to  make  them  very  full.  Having 
basted  the  body  to  the  skirt,  stitch  or  sew  them  very 
closely  with  a  strong  silk  thread.  In  doing  so  stitch 
the  body  very  tightly  and  hold  the  skirt  rather  easy. 
Then  put  on  the  gathers  at  the  back  of  the  skirt,  catch- 
ing them  to  the  body  as  you  go  along,  and  securing 
each  in  its  place  with  a  seamed  stitch  taken  over  the 
first.  When  they  are  all  in,  take  a  large  needle  and  a 
strong  thread,  with  a  large  knot  on  its  end,  and  run  it 
through  the  hole  of  the  gathers  as  they  stand  in  a  row 
on  the  inside,  and  draw  the  thread  tightly.  This  will 
keep  them  compact,  and  make  them  set  out  well.  If 
the  skirt  is  not  Hned  all  through,  put  a  stiff"ener  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  two  back-breadths,  and  sew  it  on 
with  the  gathers  when  you  are  making  them,  whipping 
it  first  to  the  raw  edge  of  the  outside.  This  stiffener 
may  be  of  a  double  piece  of  glazed  muslin  about  a 
quarter  and  a  half  quarter  in  length  when  doubled, 
and  in  width  the  same  as  the  two  back-breadths. 
Unless  they  are  extremely  wide  do  not  double  it  ex- 
actly in  half,  but  leave  one  of  the  lower  edges  a  little 
longer  than  the  other.  Scollop  it  all  round  with  your 
scissors. 

The  Sleeve  of  the  Dress.    After  you  have  fitted 
the  body-lining,  take  the  measurement  for  the  sleeves 


DJiESS-MAK/NG—DJilLl. 


3<^5 


by  means  of  a  piece  of  tape  from  the  armpit  to  the 
wrist,  allowing  a  little  extra  length,  as  it  will  take  up  in 
sewing.  If  the  sleeve  is  too  short  in  the  inside  of  the 
arm  it  will  give  a  very  awkward  appearance  to  the  wrist, 
exposing  it  bare  whenever  the  arm  is  in  the  least  ex- 
tended, besides  feeling  most  uncomfortable.  We  have 
seen  sleeves  in  which  this  defect  (shortness  of  the 
under  side)  was  so  great,  that  after  the  dress  was  on, 
it  was  impossible  to  raise  the  hand  higher  than  the 
waist,  the  anns  appearing  as  if  skewered  down  to  the 
sides.  The  remedy  when  the  sleeve  is  too  short  is  to 
put  an  addition  to  the  cuff  at  the  wrist,  or  else  to  take 
out  the  sleeve  at  the  shoulder,  rip  it  down  the  seams 
for  about  a  half  a  yard,  and  then  cut  a  piece  from  each 
side,  which  (though  making  the  upper  part  of  the 
sleeve  narrower)  will  add  something  to  its  length  un- 
der the  arm  when  it  is  set  in  again.  If  the  design  of 
the  sleeve  will  permit,  it  is  perhaps  better  to  increase 
its  length  by  adding  a  cuff  at  the  bottom,  concealing 
the  joint  under  a  band.  If  you  wish  the  sleeve  to  set 
off  very  much  from  the  elbow,  cut  it  very  long  on  the 
top  at  the  shoulder,  and  give  it  a  great  curve  along 
the  inside  of  the  arm.  On  the  contrary,  if  you  desire 
that  it  should  hang  straight,  give  the  inside  but  very 
little  slope. 

In  cutting  out  the  sleeves  fold  over  the  material  into 
an  exact  bias ;  and  if  not  wide  enough  at  the  top,  cut  a 
piece  to  join  on,  making  both  selvages  to  come  to- 
gether. This  seam  or  joint  had  best  go  at  the  back 
of  the  sleeve.  When  the  material  is  very  narrow,  it  is 
necessary  to  join  the  upper  part  of  the  sleeves  both  at 
the  back  and  front.  That  side  of  a  bias  sleeve  where 
the  threads  run  straightways  must  be  put  front  ornext 
the  fore-body;  the  crossway  side  must  go  next  the 
back— this  is  very  important  to  the  set  of  the  sleeve. 
The  top  or  shoulder  part  must  be  rounded  at  the  back, 
and  hollowed  a  little  at  the  front,  where  it  is  seamed 
in  at  the  sleeve-hole.  The  linings  should  be  cut  out 
with  the  sleeves,  and  exactly  of  the  same  form  and 
size.  Colored  linings  (unless  of  silk)  are  apt  to  rub 
off  on  the  arm.  White  glaze  linings  are  the  best  for  the 
sleeves,  if  not  for  a  washing  dress;  for  a  dress  that 
may  be  washed,  it  is  better  that  the  linings  should  be 
separate  from  the  sleeves,  making  them  of  cheap  white 
cambricrauslin,oranyothercheapfabric.  Gather  these 
extra  linings  at  the  top  into  a  band,  and  at  the  bottom 
into  a  wrist-band.  They  must  not  be  so  long  as  to  ap- 
pear at  the  outer  lower  slit  of  the  outer  sleeve.  In  set- 
ting on  the  sleeve,  baste  a  cord  all  round  the  arm-hole, 
beginning  and  finishing  at  the  side  seam  under  the 
arm  ;  then  close-stitch  the  sleeve  all  round,  leaving 
the  cord  to  appear  as  a  finish  on  the  outside.  Bands 
and  their  lining  must  be  made  crossway  of  the  stuff. 
If  intended  to  wash,  it  is  best  not  to  cord  them  at  the 
edges,  but  to  fell  down  the  outside  over  a  lining. 
Between  the  outside  and  the  lining  there  should  be  a 
very  stout  stiffening  of  buckram.  Cut  all  three  per- 
fectly even  and  baste  them  together  till  after  the  belt 
is  finished.  Line  the  flap  or  end  that  hooks  over  with 
a  piece  of  the  same  material  as  the  dress.  If  you 
cannot  get  a  waist-band  to  match  the  dress  exactly. 


get  one  that  is  rather  of  a  lighter  than  a  darker  shade. 

For  particulars  as  to  the  styles  of  dress  suited  to 
persons  and  occasions  and  for  harmony  of  color,  see 
Etiquette. 

Harmony  of  Dress.  In  this  connection,  regarding 
the  proper  development  of  that  taste  which  per- 
tains to  the  person  and  clothing,  a  few  hints  will  not 
be  out  of  place.  Outline,  symmetry,  contrast,  color  and 
harmony  are  the  principal  elements  in  the  problem,  after 
considering  the  cost  and  durability  of  the  materials. 
It  would  seem  of  primary  importance  to  have  a  well- 
developed  and  well-formed  body,  first,  to  clothe. 
Woman's  dress  should  make  her  shoulders  appear 
narrow  and  sloping.  Long  dresses  make  short  people 
appear  tall,  and  short  garments  make  long  ones  short. 
Horizontal  stripes  shorten,  while  perpendicular  ones 
lengthen.  Loose  clothing  makes  thin  people  appear 
larger,  and  large  people  smaller,  while  close  fitting 
garme'nts  have  the  opposite  effect.  Black,  while  it 
has  many  objections,  is  generally  more  universally 
worn  than  any  one  color.  A  lady's  dress  admits  of 
greater  ornamentation  than  a  gentleman's.  Contrasts 
of  color  are  as  necessary  as  harmony.  Some  bright 
colors  give  life  to  black  or  somber  shades.  The  proper 
harmony  of  colors  requires  artistic  taste. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  complexion,  the 
blonde  and  the  brunette.  There  are  intermediate 
shades  of  hair,  eyes  and  complexion,  belonging  to  each, 
and  requiring  a  peculiar  character  of  dress.  A  blonde 
may  wear  violet,  lilac,  and  blue  or  green.  If  very 
ruddy  the  blue  and  green  should  be  dark.  White,  of 
course,  may  be  worn  with  or  without  any  of  these 
colors.  The  ruddy  blonde  may  wear  russets,  slates, 
maroons,  browns,  grays,  drabs,  fawns  and  stones. 
Those  having  rich,  brown  hair  may  wear,  as  a  contrast, 
blue,  pale  yellow,  azure,  lilac  or  black,  trimmed  with 
rose  or  pink. 

A  brunette  may  wear  black,  scarlet,  orange,  yellow, 
plum  or  green.  If  the  complexion  is  sallow,  green 
and  yellow;  dark  green  and  red  or  yellow  are  appro- 
priate. A  red  or  yellow  face  is  benefited  by  blue  or 
orange.  Red  and  blue  are  relieved  by  purple  and 
blue  and  yellow  by  green.  White  and  black  are  ap- 
propriate to  pale  faces,  but  blue  and  red  become  them 
Ijetter.  These  harmonies  are  parriculariy  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  selection  of  bonnets.  In  selecting  colors, 
do  so  with  reference  to  day  or  night  wear,  as  some  look 
better  by  artificial  light,  and  others  by  natural  light. 
White,  yellow,  crimson,  scarlet,  orange,  and  light  brown 
are  beautiful  at  night,  and  white,  purple,  orange,  rose, 
lilac,  dark  blue  and  green  suit  the  day.  The  com- 
plexion will  bear  stronger  colors  at  night  than  by  day. 
Large  people  look  best  in  black,  while  smaller  ones 
may  more  appropriately  wear  colors.  Black  or  dark 
clothing  will  wear  the  longest. 

Dried  Fruits  and  Vegetables :  see  Drying  and 
the  respective  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Drill,  a  furrow  for  the  reception  of  seed,  or  a  row 
of  growing  plants ;  also,  a  machine  for  sowing  seed  in 
rows. 


366 


DRILLS. 


Drills,  for  sowing  seed.  A  good  seed  drill  is  a 
remarkable  piece  of  labor-saving  machinery;  and 
not  the  least  advantage  in  its  use  is  the  compara- 
tive perfection  with  which  it  does  its  work.  The 
seed  is  all  put  into  the  ground,  and  evenly.  Be- 
sides, plants  in  drills  can  be  cultivated;  from 
broadcast  sowing  they  cannot  be.  By  the  study 
of  the  features  of  the  drills  here  represented,  the 
reader  will  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  good  points 
of  seed  drills  when  he  desires  to  purchase.  It  is, 
however,  a  hard  matter  to  tell  just  which  drill  is 
« the  best."  As  with  other  leading  farm  machines, 
mowers,  reapers,  etc.,  there  are  so  many  that  seem 
to  be  just  what  a  grain  drill  should  be,  that  to 
choose  among  those  conceded  to  be  in  the  first  class, 


Fig.  I. ^Force-Feed  Grain  Drill. 


is  a  very  difficult  matter.    The  best  are  all  so  good 


Fio.  ». 
that  one  can  hardly  go 
amiss,  and  it  makes  little 
difference  if  taste,  or  an 
acquaintance  with  a  par- 
ticular style,  influences  the 
_  selection.     In  making  the 

purchase,  how^ever,  other  things  being  the  same,  it 


is  best  to  select  the  drill  that  has  its  factory  near- 
est at  hand,  or  is  rep- 
resented by  an  agent 
close  by.  The  best 
of  machines  will  need 
repairs,  and  most  fre- 
quently at  just  that 
lime  when  a  day 
makes  a  great  differ- 
ence; so  the  quicker 
the  new  part  can  be 
obtained  the  better. 
We  wish  to  state  in 

this    connection     that  v^,,.  ^.-indicator. 

it  is  true  economy  to  sow  grain  with  a  drill,  except 

in  those  stony,  or 
stumpy,  newly- 
cleared  fields,  in 
which  a  drill 
would  neither  do 
its  work  well  nor 
with  safety. 

The  engraving 
(Fig.    i)    repre- 
sents thenew 
"Buckeye"  force- 
feed    grain    drill, 
manufactured   by 
P,  P.  Mast  &  Co'., 
Springfielh,Ohio. 
It  has  India-rub- 
ber  spring    hoes 
(Fig,  2),  with  at- 
tachments for  all 
the    purposes    of 
sowing  and  culti- 
vating.    It  is  also 
furnished  with  an 
entirely  new   ar- 
rangement   for 
raising  the  hoes  out  of  the   ground.     Instead  of 
lifting    up,  a    lever   is   arranged    which    pulls 
thein  from  a  perpendicular  position  downward. 
By  this   means  the   hoes  are  raised  very  much 
more  easily  and  quickly  than  heretofore.     A 
quadrant  with  notches  is  provided,  so  that  the 
hoes  may  be  raised  only  partway  if  so  desired. 
The    scale    for    the    quantity    sown,    with 
the  indicator  (Fig,  3)  which  operates  the  feed 
gauges,   and  shows   how  much  seed  has  been 
sown,  is   placed   on  the  rear  of  the  grain  hopper, 
near  the  right  hand-end,  thus  enabling  the  opera- 
tor to  quickly  change  the  quantity  if  he  so  desire. 
It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  change  the  quantity  for 
different  parts  of  the  same  field,  owing  to  differ- 
ences in  the  soil.     The  indicator  is  so  arranged 
that  such  changes  can  be  quickly  and  easily  made. 


DRILLS. 


367 


One  of  the  great  improvements  that  has  been 
made  durhig  the  last  few  years  is  in  the  accuracy 
and  uniformity  of  the  sowing.     Instead  of  the  old 

mode  of  al- 
lowing the 
seed    to    pass 


point,  thereby  limiting  the  outward  flow  of  seed  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  as  occasion  may  require. 
All  these  feed-regulating  gates 
are  fastened  to  one  and  the 
same  shaft.  Obviously 
when   this    shaft  is   drawn 


I 


Fig.  4. 

through  the  machine  merely  by  its  weight,  the 
"  force-feed  "  (Figs.  4  and  5)  is  used,  which  carries 
it  through  with  precision.  The  force-feed  used  with 
this  drill  is  the  usual 
cup  or  case,  in  one 
side  of  which  is 
placed  what  is  called 
the  feed  wheel.  It 
is  a  disk  upon  w^hich 
is  a  ledge  or  rim, 
the  outer  edge  of 
the  disk  being  pro- 
vided with  teeth 
which  assist  in  car- 
rying the  grain  out. 
This  feed  wheel  is 
made  to  revolve  by 
a  shaft,  wiiich  shaft 
is  of  such  shape  as  % 
to  prevent  any  lost 
motion.   The  device  •■'"■  b.-One. 

for  varying  the  quantity  sown  without  change  of 
gears,  consists  of  a  feed-regulating   gate,   having 

one  end  in- 
serted and 
arranged  to 
slide  through 
a  slot  in  the 
side  of  the 
feed  cup  or 
case,the  gate 
being  made 
of  such  form 
and  so  a  r- 
ranged  as  to 
slide  into  and 
Fig.  5.  acrossthe 

grain  passage  or  channel  at  a  point  a  short  distance 
in  advance  of  its  mouth  or  delivery,  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  diminish  the  size  of  the  passage  at  that 


Fig.  1.— One-Horse  DrUl. 

endwise  by  the  indicator  all  the  gauges  are  drawn 
at  once,  so  that  all  feeders  sow  exactly  alike.  The 
quantity  sown  can  be  varied  as  little  or  as  much  as 

may  be  desired,  and 
when  set  to  sow  a 
certain  quantity  will 
always  sow  that 
quantity  accurately. 
A  reduced  size  of 
this  force-feed  is 
adapted  to  sowing 
grass  seed.  In  the 
end  of  the  hopper 
is  an  apparatus 
which  indicates  the 
amount  of  land 
which  the  machine 
has  sown  for  that 
setting.  The  hop- 
per is  so  arranged 
Horse  Drill.  tha  t  all  the  seed  will 

be  fed  out  clean;  and  there  is  also  a  hopper  for 
sowing  fertilizers. 

A  one-horse  drill  (Fig.  6),  made  by  Mast  &  Co., 
has  three  hoes,  for  drilling  among  standing  corn; 
has  also  the 
force-feed.  At 
least  one-fourth 
more  wheat  can 
be  grown  on 
corn  ground  by 
seeding  early 
with  the  drill, 
than  by  waiting 
until  the  corn 
is  cut  and  out 
of  the  way.  The  usual  rotation  system,  therefore, 
calls  for  a  drill  of  this  kind.  Ewald  Over,  Indian- 
apolis, Ind.,  also  makes  a  fine  drill  (Fig.  7)  for  this 
purpose,  with  either  three  or  five  hoes.     But  it  is 


Ha7td  Drill, 


368 


DRINKS— DRI VI NG. 


also  good  enough  for  sowing  any  kind  of  cereal  grain. 
For  garden  purposes  the  Matthews  hand  drill  (Fig. 
8)  is  as  good  as  any.  We  know  that  a  poor  drill  is  worse 
than  useless,  and  that  many  are  so  made  as  easily  to 
get  out  of  trim.  Some  men,  too,  are  rough  in  the 
handling  of  tools,  and  will  blame  the  manufacturer 
instead  of  himself;  but  alas!  he  scarcely  ever  knows 
that  by  so  doing  he  injures  himself  more  than  anyone 
else.  The  Matthews  hand  drill  is  supplied  to  the 
market  by  Messrs.  Everett  &  Small,  Boston,  Mass.  It 
opens  the  furrow,  drops  the  seed  evenly  at  the  requir- 
ed depth,  covers  and  rolls  the  soil ;  at  the  same  time 
marking  the  next  row  parallel  with  the  one  planted. 
Among  the  seeds  to  which  this  drill  is  fitted  are  beet, 
carrot,  pea,  bean,  corn,  sorghum,  onion,  parsnip, 
turnip,  etc.  An  indicator  has  the  names  of  these  dif- 
ferent seeds,  and  it  is  necessary  only  to  turn  the  hop- 
per to  the  name.  There  are  no  cams,  gears,  springs 
or  belts  to  get  out  of  order,  and  yet  the  quantity  of 
seed  is  accurately  gauged. 

Drinks.  See  the  respective  beverages.  A  list  is 
given  on  page  77  under  head  of  Beverages. 

Driving,  urging  forward  domestic  animals,  wheth- 
er in  travelling  or  working.  This  is  often  done  in  so 
bad  a  manner  as  to  involve  great  cruelty  to  the  ani- 
mals and  much  loss  to  the  owners.  Cattle  when 
brought  out  to  be  driven  any  considerable  distance  to 
market,  ought  to  have  very  little  undigested  food  ufxjn 
their  stomachs ;  and,  when  upon  the  road,  they  ought 
to  travel  leisurely,  and  never  be  driven  into  either 
fatigue  or  excitement,  never  seriously  heated,  never 
much  urged,  never  beaten,  never  allowed  to  make  any 
spontaneous  run  or  hasty  movement,  never  overgorged 
with  food,  and  always,  as  nearly  as  possible,  maintain- 
ed in  the  same  cool  and  easy  condition  as  if  they 
were  moving  about  in  their  summer  pastures. 

Sheep,  when  about  to  be  driven  to  market,  should  be 
selected,  turned  upon  a  piece  of  coarse  dry  pasture, 
examined  in  their  hoofs,  and  ochre-marked  on  the 
shoulder,  rump,  or  other  parts  of  the  body;  when  col- 
lected for  the  road,  they  should  be  in  a  medium  state 
between  repletion  and  hunger;  and,  when  on  their 
journey,  they  should  be  driven  slowly  and -coolly,  three 
or  four  miles  the  first  day,  and  should  be  restrained 
and  controlled  !  y  an  experienced  and  cautious  dog, 
and  should  e.;j  y,  during  the  long  travel,  a  daily  rest 
in  an  ample  and  quiet  piece  of  pasture. 

The  driving  of  pigs  is  difficult  and  very  tedious.  The 
utmost  patience  and  good  sense  are  required  to  drive 
them  vidthout  injury. 

How  TO  Drive  Horses.  The  art  of  driving 
horses  properly  is  not  thoroughly  understood,  even  by 
those  who  constantly  handle  this  noble  animal. 
Farmers  often  fail  to  realize  the  great  profit  and  pleas- 
ure from  their  horses  simply  on  account  of  bad  hand- 
ling in  the  harness.  The  art  of  driving,  whether  for 
pleasure  or  work,  demands  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  requirements  of  each  particular  case,  and  atten- 
tion to  every  motion  of  one's  horse.  Pleasure  horses 
are  required  to  travel  actively,  evenly,  safely,  and  with 


as  much  style  as  possible ;  while  work  horses  are  re- 
quired to  throw  their  weight  into  the  collar,  and  with 
a  steady,  even  pull,  without  swerving  to  the  right  or  to 
the  left,  and  without  fretting  or  noticing  what  is  going 
on  about  them,  to  keep  up  a  uniform  motion  of  their 
load,  at  no  time  losing  the  assistance  of  its  momen- 
tum, and  never  unnecessarily  wasting  their  strength 
by  a  sudden,  rapid  pull.  The  ability  of  the  horse  to 
assume  one  or  the  other  of  these  characters  depends 
even  less  upon  his  own  nature  than  on  the  manner  in 
which  he  is  driven. 

In  Pleasure  Driving  the  seat  should  be  rather 
high,  so  that  one  may  easily  see  over  the  dash-board 
of  the  carriage,  but  low  enough  for  a  direct  pull  on  the 
bit  when  it  is  necessary.  The  feet  should  be  firmly 
planted  (avoiding  an  ungraceful  or  studied  attitude), 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  strength  to  the  pull,  and 
security  to  the  position,  in  case  of  a  sudden  jolt  of  the 
carriage.  The  legs  and  hips  should  be  as  firm  and 
immovable,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  should  be 
as  free  and  flexible,  as  possible,  the  principle  being 
borne  in  mind,  as  in  the  case  of  riding  on  horseback, 
that  while  the  seat  should  be  perfectly  secure,  this  se- 
curity should  not  imply  the  least  support  from  the 
reins,  nor  the  least  inability  to  do  whatever  may  be 
necessary  with  the  head  or  arms. 

The  eyes  of  the  driver  should  be  always  on  his 
horses,  yet  always  about  him.  While  he  should  see 
every  strap  and  buckle  within  eye-shot,  every  move- 
ment of  the  horses'  ears,  every  toss  or  shake  of  their 
heads,  and  every  step  that  they  take,  he  should  also 
see  every  vehicle  coming  toward  him,  every  object  by 
the  roadside,  or  elsewhere,  which  can  possibly  frighten 
his  team,  and  every  stone  or  uneven  place  in  the  road 
on  which  they  are  likely  to  step,  or  which  may  come 
in  the  way  of  the  wheels.  To  sit  in  this  manner,  and 
to  be  thus  watchful  while  driving  a  pair  of  hvely 
horses,  and  at  the  same  time  to  appear  perfectly  at 
ease,  is  no  small  accomplishment;  still  it  may  be  at- 
tained by  practice,  and  is  essential  to  elegance  in 
driving. 

Holding  the  Reins.  The  manner  of  holding  the 
reins  should  depend  on  circumstances.  They  may  be 
both  held  in  the  left  hand  in  either  of  the  following 
ways,  the  hand  being  held  with  the  thumb  upward : 

First.  Let  the  off  rein  pass  over  the  fore-finger, 
and  the  near  rein  between  the  fore  and  middle  fin- 
gers, the  thumb  pressing  on  the  off  rein  to  keep  it  in 
place,  and  both  reins  passing  out  between  the  ring  and 
little  fingers.  In  this  way  they  can  be  held  very  se- 
curely. 

Second.  Let  the  near  rein  pass  under  the  little 
finger,  and  the  off  rein  between  the  ring-finger  and 
little  finger,  both  ends  being  brought  out  between  the 
thumb  and  fore  finger,  falling  over  the  knuckles,  and 
being  secured  by  the  pressure  of  the  thumb ;  this  is  a 
lighter  hold  than  the  former,  and  is  better  for  driving 
perfectly  trained  horses  which  require  only  the  least 
touch  to  bring  their  heads  into  the  proper  (perpendic- 
ular) position.  It  is  more  fatiguing  than  the  first  de- 
scribed, with  horses  which  are  at  all  hard  on  the  bit. 


DRIVING. 


3^9 


When  it  is  desirable  to  hold  the  reins  in  both  hands, 
the  off  rein  may  be  taken  in  the  right  hand,  by  pass- 
ing the  fore-finger  under  it,  and  allowing  it  to  fall 
down  through  the  hand,  and  out  between  the  ring  and 
little  fingers;  this  will  admit  of  the  hand  being  opened 
to  take  tiie  whip.  The  rein  in  the  left  hand  may  re- 
main in  the  same  iX)sition  as  before.  If  it  be  neces- 
sary to  strike  a  severe  blow  with  the  whip,  the  rein 
should  be  passed  into  the  left  hand,  and  quickly  re- 
gained after  the  blow  has  been  struck ;  this  manner 
of  holding  the  reins  will  give  the  greatest  possible 
power  over  the  team.  The  whip  should  be  taken 
from  the  socket  only  when  there  is  occasion  to  use  it, 
and  it  should  be  returned  as  soon  as  it  has  become 
unnecessary.  While  held  quietly  in  the  hand  it 
should  lie  horizontally  across  the  near  rein,  and  point- 
ing over  the  whiffle-tree  on  the  near  side. 

Driving  a  Single  Horse  is  not  at  all  difficult,  and 
it  requires  only  a  good  hand,  a  good  temper,  and  a 
watchful  eye.  The  horse's  mouth  should  be  lightly 
felt,  that  he  may  be  supported  if  he  trip;  and  especi- 
ally in  going  down  hill,  the  driver  should  sit  with  his 
feet  well  braced  and  his  hand  ready  to  support  the 
horse  in  a  false  step,  which,  if  at  all,  is  most  likely  to 
occur  at  this  time.  Driving  a  pair  of  horses  requires 
much  more  skill  and  care. 

In  Driving  a  Pair,  the  great  art  consists  in  put- 
ting them  together  so  as  to  draw  equally,  and  to  step 
together.  To  do  this  well,  the  horses  must  match  in 
action  and  temper,  two  slugs  being  much  better  than 
a  free-tempered  horse  with  a  slug;  because,  in  this 
case,  the  whip  applied  to  the  one  only  makes  the 
other  more  free,  and  as  a  consequence  it  is  imix)ssible 
to  make  them  draw  equally.  In  some  cases  where 
two  horses  are  exactly  equally  matched,  the  coupling- 
reins  must  both  be  of  equal  length;  but  this  is  seldom 
the  case ;  and  when  they  do  not  do  an  equal  amount 
of  work,  the  coupling-rein  of  the  free  one  must  be 
taken  up,  and  that  of  the  idle  horse  let  out.  In  watch- 
ing the  working  of  the  two  horses  the  pole-pieces 
should  always  be  the  guide;  and  if  both  are  slack, 
with  the  end  of  the  pole  steady,  and  neither  horse 
shouldering  it,  the  driver  may  rest  contented  that  his 
horses  are  each  doing  his  share ;  if,  however,  the 
pole  is  shouldered  by  either,  that  horse  is  a  rogue,  and 
is  making  the  other  do  more  than  his  share,  keeping 
the  pole  straight  by  the  pressure  of  his  shoulder,  in- 
stead of  pulling  at  the  traces.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
either  horse  is  pulling  away  from  the  pole,  and  strain- 
ing at  the  jxile-piece,  he  is  doing  more  than  his  share, 
and  his  coupling-rein  must  be  taken  in  accordingly. 
.Sometimes  both  shoulder  the  pole,  or  spread  from  it, 
which  are  equally  unsigh'ly  habits,  and  may  generally 
be  cured  by  an  alteration  of  the  coupling-reins  of  boih 
horses,  letting  them  out  for  shouldering,  and  taking 
them  in  for  its  opixDsite  bad  habit.  The  reins  are 
held  in  the  same  way  for  double-harness  as  for  single. 
In  driving  a  pair,  it  should  always  be  remembered 
that  there  are  two  methods  of  driving  round  a  curve, 
one  by  ])ulling  the  inside  rein,  and  the  other  by  hitting 
the  outside  horse,  and  these  two  should  generally  be 

24 


combined,  graduating  the  use  of  the  whip  by  the  thin- 
ness of  the  skin  of  the  horse.  In  all  cases  the  whip 
is  required  in  double  harness,  if  not  to  drive  horses 
when  thoroughly  put  together,  yet  to  make  them  pull 
equally ;  and  there  are  very  few  pairs  which  do  not 
occasionally  want  a  little  reminding  of  their  duties.  A 
constant  change  from  one  side  to  the  other  is  a  pre- 
vention of  those  tricks  and  bad  habits  which  horses 
get  into  if  they  are  kept  to  one  side  only.  The  driver 
should,  therefore,  change  them  every  now  and  then, 
and  back  again,  so  as  to  make  what  was  a  puller  from 
the  pole,  rather  bear  toward  it  than  othcnvise  when 
put  on  the  other  side. 

There  is  a  certain  animation  of  manner  on  the  part 
of  the  driver  which,  without  being  noisy  or  demon- 
strative, keeps  a  team  lively  and  cheerful  at  work, 
while  another  driver  would  not  be  able  to  get  them  to 
nearly  so  good  a  pace  with  even  more  labor  to  him- 
self, and  more  fatigue  to  them.  To  attain  this  cor- 
resjxindence  with  one's  horse  should  be  the  object  of 
every  person  who  attempts  to  become  a  fine  driver. 

Horses  with  hard,  dead  mouths  require  the  greatest 
skill  and  management  to  draw  tolerably,  and  should 
not  be  curbed  up  tightly,  as  that  will  tend  to  increase 
the  difficulty.  To  ride  or  drive  horses  with  pleasure 
and  advantage,  you  must  have  a  light  finger  and  play 
with  their  mouths  with  skill  and  humor.  Some  horses 
iiave  a  trick  of  getting  the  check  of  their  bit  into  their 
mouths ;  this  is  very  dangerous,  and  should  be  pre- 
vented by  a  washer  or  round  piece  of  leather. 

The  most  dangerous  horse  in  a  team  is  a  sdff-necked 
one,  which,  in  going  down  hill,  instead  of  inclining  his 
head  toward  his  partner,  and  throwing  out  his  quar- 
ters so  as  to  hold  back  the  coach,  twists  his  head  an- 
other way,  looking  over  one  shoulder,  and  with  the 
other  shouldering  the  pole  or  his  partner.  When  you 
have  one  of  this  sort  you  can  do  nothing  with  him  by 
puUing  up,  but  must  whip  his  mate  up  to  him,  and  if 
that  does  not  answer,  cross  the  road  quickly  with  the 
leaders,  to  prevent  running  off  to  the  side  to  which  he 
is  pushing. 

If  your  horses  are  nervous  and  fidgety,  they  will  not 
bear  being  confined  too  tightly  at  first  starting,  but 
must  be  humored  and  allowed  some  length  of  chain, 
particularly  if  the  road  be  rough  and  full  of  ruts. 
VVhen  there  are  no  breechings  the  horse  requires  to  be 
nearer  to  the  pole,  or  in  holding  back,  his  collar  will 
get  too  far  forward,  unless  restrained  by  a  false  mar- 
tingale. Some  object  to  breechings  as  being  trouble- 
some to  horses  in  hot  weather,  but  they  are  almost 
indispensable  in  hilly  countries,  as  they  enable  the 
horse  to  hold  back  with  less  strain  on  his  back  and 
legs,  and  add  greatly  to  the  security  of  both  team  and 
veliicle. 

The  draft  of  the  leaders  will  be  greatly  equalized  by 
crossing  the  inside  traces,  fastening  that  of  the  near 
horse  to  the  whiffle-tree  of  the  off  side,  and  that  of  the 
off  horse  to  the  near  whiffle-tree. 

The  great  art  in  driving  four-in-hand  is  to  favor  the 
peculiarities  of  the  different  horses  of  the  team.  It 
is  not  often  that  all  four  will  draw  equally  at  all  times, 


37° 


DRIVING. 


nor  is  it  desirable  that  they  should  do  so.  By  allow- 
ing first  one  and  then  another  to  slacken  his  pull, 
the  team  will  be  able  to  do  more  in  a  day  than  if  all 
were  always  pulling.  Some  horses  will  naturally  draw 
at  their  best  on  starting  off,  and  will  work  with  less 
energy  after  a  few  miles,  while  others  will  hang  back 
at  first,  and  come  in  to  their  work  as  they  get  warmed 
up.  By  consulting  their  inclinations,  the  driver  may 
economize  the  strength,  and  preserve  the  temper  of  his 
team,  so  as  to  secure  a  greater  amount  of  work  with 
less  effort  than  if  he  kept  the  sluggard  up  to  the  bit 
from  the  start,  and  restrained  the  early  ardor  of  the 
more  spirited  animal. 

In  turning  corners,  draw  the  leaders  around  first  and 
let  the  wheel  horses  follow  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
their  tracks — not  turn  at  the  same  time. 

On  ascending  ground,  the  leaders  should  do  more 
than  half  of  the  work,  to  compensate  the  wheel-horses 
for  their  extra  effort  in  holding  back  when  going  down 
hill. 

Driving  Working  Horses  differs  from  pleasure 
driving,  as  much  as  does  its  object.  One  of  the  prime 
objects  in  pleasure  driving  that  must  be  borne  in  mind 
is  a  regard  to  style  and  to  appearance,  while  teaming 
or  business  driving  has  for  its  main  object  the  best 
economy  of  the  strength  of  the  team,  and  its  appli- 
cation to  the  performance  of  labors.  It  is  true  that  a 
teamster  may  have  a  just  pride  in  the  appearance 
and  style  of  his  team,  but  this  should  always  be  sub- 
ordinate to  their  usefulness ;  and  the  main  problem 
which  he  has  to  solve  is,  how  to  turn  a  certain  amount 
of  invested  capital,  and  a  certain  amount  of  hay  and 
grain  to  the  best  account,  in  performing  the  work  in 
which  he  and  his  team  are  employed.  To  accomplish 
this,  having  the  horses  fed  in  a  manner  to  give  them 
the  greatest  possible  strength  and  health,  and  so 
groomed  that  their  systems  are  in  the  best  condition 
for  appropriating  the  nutriment  of  their  food,  he  should 
keep  the  following  rules  always  in  view : 

1.  The  load  should  be  just  what  the  horse  or  the 
team  can  move  steadily  alone,  neither  so  light  that 
they  are  occupying  their  time  in  going  over  the  road 
with  less  than  they  can  draw,  nor  so  heavy  that  they 
must  overtax  their  strength  to  draw  it,  or  stop  to  take 
breath  and  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  too  hard  a 
strain  ;  in  short,  they  should  do  all  that  they  can  do 
comfortably, — never  much  less,  and  never   any  more. 

2.  Horses  will  work  better  if  they  are  kept  well  up 
to  the  bit,  not  sufficiently  to  pull  on  it,  but  just  enough 
to  feel  its  effect  and  to  receive  its  support  in  case  of  a 
false  step,  than  when  allowed  to  become  negligent  and 
and  careless  in  their  gait. 

3.  When  there  are  two  or  more  horses  in  a  team  they 
should  be  so  harnessed  as  to  draw  exactly  alike.  This 
requires  them  to  be  of  uniform  dispositions,  and  in 
equally  good  training;  any  deviation  from  this  will 
cause  one  horse  to  do  more,  and  another  less,  than  his 
share  of  the  work. 

4.  Working  horses  should  never  be  whipped  while 
drawing,  except  it  is  absolutely  necessary ;  and  then 
they  should  not  be  simply  tapped,  but  smartly  pun- 


ished in  a  manner  that  will  cause  them  to  understand 
and  to  recollect  that  their  driver  really  means  that  they 
shall  work,  and  work  properly. 

5.  If  necessary  to  stop  to  rest  before  going  up  a  hill, 
let  the  halt  be  at  a  little  distance  from  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  that  they  may  not  get  in  the  habit  of  stopping 
just  at  the  foot  of  every  hill  which  they  encounter. 
When  they  are  fully  rested  and  prepared  to  go  on,  let 
them  move  vigorously,  but  do  not  allow  them  to  rush 
at  the  hill ;  they  would  in  such  a  case  lose  more  in  wind 
than  they  would  gain  in  impetus.  If  possible,  go 
moderately  up  every  hill  without  stopping,  recollecting 
that  it  is  much  harder  to  start  a  load  against  a  hill 
than  it  is  to  keep  it  in  motion  after  it  is  started.  At 
the  top  of  every  difficult  hill,  either  stop  the  team  or 
let  them  walk  slowly  for  a  few  rods,  until  they  have 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  extra  exertion. 

6.  At  all  times,  and  especially  in  difficult  places,  or 
when  first  starting  with  a  heavy  load,  the  driver  should 
carefully  avoid  exciting  his  team  by  crossness  or  im- 
patience, but  should  hold  them  steadily  by  the  bit, 
and  talk  to  them  in  a  quiet  and  determined  manner, 
endeavoring  to  keep  them  cool  and  resolute,  pulling 
evenly  and  steadily  until  they  start  their  load,  without 
making  a  sudden  jump  at  it,  as  many  nervous  horses 
are  inclined  to  do.  Such  a  movement  is  very  hkely 
to  disconcert  the  other  horses,  and  it  exhausts  the 
strength  more  than  ten  times  the  effort  properly  ex- 
pended. 

7.  In  descending  a  hill,  especially  if  there  be  no 
break  or  drag  on  the  wheels,  the  team  should  be  so 
held  back  that  the  wagon  never  gets  an  increasing 
speed,  and  the  pole  should  be  kept  in  an  exact  line 
with,  and  not  diagonally  across,  the  wagon. 

8.  The  team  should  never  be  so  hardly  driven  as  to 
become  blown  (where  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it),  nor 
should  they  ever  be  allowed  to  become  indolent,  or 
careless  in  their  gait.  They  should  always  be  active 
and  willing,  but  never  impatient  to  do  more  than  is 
clearly  within  their  ix)wers. 

A  road  team,  well  kept,  and  driven  according  to  the 
above  directions,  will  last  longer,  keep  in  better  condi- 
tion, and  do  more  work  than  horses  managed  by  the 
ordinary  system,  and  in  the  hands  of  persons  who  are 
either  not  able  or  not  willing  to  give  any  thought  to  the 
matter. 

Plowing.  Plowing  on  rough  ground,  with  horses 
which  are  fit  for  anything  else,  is,  at  best,  a  painful 
necessity.  There  is  occasionally  to  be  found  a  stylish 
carriage  team,  or  a  pair  of  fast  trotters,  which  will 
work  like  oxen  at  the  plow ;  but  generally  horses  of 
spirit  will  become  impatient  under  the  frequent  inter- 
ruption caused  by  stones,  or  by  the  frequent  turning 
necessary  in  small  fields,  while  the  harness  generally 
used  for  this  work  is  neither  comfortable  nor  complete. 
In  large  fields,  free  from  obstructions,  horses  may  very 
properly  be  used,  as  they  are  more  pleasant  to  work 
with  than  oxen ;  but  in  ro«gh  work  the  latter  are  pref- 
erable, being  by  temper  and  structure  much  better 
adapted  to  such  work  than  horses. 

Horses  are  frequently  driven  to  the  plow  with  a  sin- 


DRIVING-  WHEEL— DRO  WNWG. 


37 1 


gle  line,  or  with  a  pair  of  lines  fastened  to  the  outer 
rings  of  each  horse's  bit,  the  inside  rings  being  con- 
nected by  a  short  line  passing  from  one  to  the  other. 
This  will  do  very  well  for  quiet,  well-trained  animals, 
in  good  ground ;  but  with  horses  at  all  inclined  to  be 
unruly  or  impatient,  or  working  in  soft  or  stony  ground, 
we  should  use  the  same  sort  of  reins  as  in  driving  on 
the  road,  thus  giving  a  fair  hold  of  each  horse "s  head. 
Horses  used  for  this  work  should  be  taught  to  stop 
instantly  at  the  word,  to  start  promptly  and  together, 
and  to  pull  evenly.  The  team  should  be  brought 
.  quickly  around  at  the  turns  and  headlands,  and  made 
to  take  their  places  as  actively  as  possible  for  the  new 
furrow ;  but  they  should  not  be  started,  if  at  all  blown, 
until  they  are  fully  ready  to  go  to  the  end  of  it  with- 
out stopping,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  a  very  long,  or  a 
very  hard  one. 

^Ve  illustrate  by  the  annexed  engraving  a  good  form 
of  whiffle-tree  for  three  horses  plowing  abreast. 

It  is  the  opin- 
ion, apparently 
a  good  one,  of 
the  best  fanners 
of  the  present 
day,  that  no  two 
horses  are  strong 
enough   to  turn 

Whiffle-trte  for    Plowing  Thru  Abreast.       ^\xq^  a  furrOW  aS 

is  necessary  for  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
they  recommend  that  three  or  four  be  used.  Assum- 
ing this  to  be  the  case,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
three  horses  working  abreast  will  pull  nearly  as  much 
on  a  plow  as  will  four  geared  in  the  ordinary  way — 
that  is,  the  third  horse,  from  being  fastened  within  three 
or  four  feet  of  the  plow,  would  have  nearly  as  much 
power  to  draw  it  as  would  two  horses  drawing  it  from 
a  distance  of  from  15  to  20  feet.     See  Plowing. 

Driving-Wheel,  in  farm  machinery,  is  the  large 
wheel  which  runs  on  the  ground  and  propels  the  ma- 
chinery. 

DroiJ  to  Wing.  In  hunting  a  dog  is  said  to  "drop 
to  wing"  when  he  suddenly  crouches  as  the  bird  he 
points  at  takes  to  flight. 

Dropsy,  a  morbid  condition  of  the  Ixxiy  which  fills 
it  up  with  a  watery  fluid.  Diuretics,  described  under 
the  head  of  Urine,  are  valuable  in  this  disease.  Keep 
the  bowels  open  with  some  mild  physic;  give  the 
lobelia  emetic  three  times  a  week,  together  with  a  vapor 
or  a  Turkish  bath.  Place  the  patient  in  bed,  and  con- 
struct a  frame  so  as  to  keep  up  the  bed  clothes.  Pro- 
duce a  vapor  by  burning  spirits,  and  conduct  the 
vaixir,  by  means  of  a  tube,  under  the  clothes.  Let 
the  patient  remain  in  this  vapor  bath  an  hour;  between 
giving  the  vapor  and  emetic,  give  an  injection  of  pen- 
nyroyal tea:  put  in  a  teaspoonfut  of  lobelia  and  as 
much  cayenne.  Cream  of  tartar  dissolved  in  water, 
and  taken  every  day,  is  very  useful.  Exercise  is  of 
the  first  importance;  the  patient  should  sleep  on  a 
hard  bed  and  in  a  dry  room.  Let  the  body  be  rubbed 
morning  and  night  with  a  coarse  towel  or  flesh-brush ; 


wear  flannel  next  the  body  constantly;  abstain  as 
much  as  possible  from  drink,  and  let  the  food  be  light, 
and  rather  stimulating. 

Drowning.     Actual  death  by  drowning  is  often  pre- 
ceded by  apparent  death,  and  it  is  possible,  if  this 
state  has  not  coi^tinued  too  long,  to  resuscitate  a  per- 
son thus  apparently  drowned.     The  method  of  treat- 
ment for  the  recovery  of  a  person  in  such  a  state  is  as 
follows:     Avoid  all  rough  usage.     Do  not  hold  the 
body  up  by  the  feet,  nor  roll  it  on  a  barrel  or  log  to 
get  the  water  out  of  him.     There  is  no  water  there 
beyond  the  mouth.     The  life  has  been   rolled  out  of 
many  a  poor  victim  over  a  banel,  under  the  mis- 
guided delusion  of  "  getting  the  water  out  of  him." 
Do  not  get  a  bellows  and  blow  him  full  of  wind.     He 
does  not  need  inflation.     Begin  the  work  of  resuscita- 
tion by  attempts  to  arouse  the  patient,  who  must  not 
be  removed  unless  there  is  danger  of  his  freezing;  but 
his  face  should  be  exposed  to  the  fresh  air,  the  mouth 
and  nostrils  wiped  dry,  the  clothing  quickly   ripped 
open  so  as  to  expose  the  chest  and  waist,  and  two  or 
three   quick,  smart    slaps    giveit  upon  the    stomach 
and  chest  with  the  open  hand.     If  the  patient  should 
not  at  once  revive,  a  bit  of  wood  or  cork  is  placed  be- 
tween his  teeth  to  keep  the  mouth  open,  and  then 
turned  upon  his  face,  a  large  bundle  of  tightly  rolled 
clothing  placed  beneath  the  stomach,  and  the  operator 
should  press  heavily  ui»n  his  back  over  the  bundle 
for  half  "a  minute,  or  as  long  as  fluid  flows  freely  from 
his  mouth.     (See   Fig.    i.)     The    mouth    and  throat 
should  then  be  cleared  of  mucus  by  introducing  into 
the  throat  the  end  of  a  handkerchief  wrapped  closely 
around  the  forefinger;  the  patient  then  turned  uixin 
his  back,  under  which  the  roll  of  clothing  is  placed  so 
as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach  above  the  level  of 
any  other  part  of  the  body.     If  an  assistant  is  present, 
he  should  hold  the  tip  of  the  patient's  tongue,  with  a 
piece  of  3ry  cloth,  out  of  one  comer  of  the  mouth, 
thus  preventing  the  tongue  from  falling  back  and  chok- 
ing the  entrance  to  the  windpipe,  and  with  the  other 
hand  he  should  grasp  the  patient's  wrists  and  keep  the 
arms  stretched  back  over  the  head,  which  increases 
the  prominence  of  the  ribs  and  tends  to  enlarge  the 
chest.     The  operator  should  then  kneel  astride  the 
patient's  hips  and  press  both  hands  below  the  pit  of 
the  stomach,  with  the  balls  of  the  thumb  resting  on 
each  side  of  it,  and  the  fingers  between  the  short  ribs, 
so  as  to  get  a  good  grasp  of  the  waist.     (See  Fig.  2.) 
He  should  then  throw  his  weight  forward  on  his  hands, 
squeezing  the  waist  between  them  with  a  strong  press- 
ure, count  slowly  one,  two,  three,  and,  with  a  final 
push,  let  go,  which  springs  him  back  to  his  first  kneel- 
ing position.     This  operation,  which  converts  the  chest 
of  the  patient  into  a  bellows,  is  continued  at  a  rate 
gradually  increased  from  four  to  15  times  in  a  minute, 
and  with    the    regularity  observable  in   the   natural 
motion  of  breathing  which  are  thus  imitated.     If  nat- 
ural breathing  is  not  restored  in  two  or  three  minutes, 
the  patient  should  be  turned  a  second  time  upon  the 
stomach  in  an  opposite  direction  from  that   in  which 
he  was  first  turned,  the  object  being  to  free  the   air- 


37  2 


DROWNING. 


passages  from  any  remaining  water.  The  artificial  res- 
piration should  then  be  resumed  and  continued  if 
necessary  from  one  to  four  hours,  or  until  the  patient 
breathes ;  and  when  life  appears  the  first  short  gasps 
are  carefully  aided  by  the  same 
method.  From  the  first,  if  assist- 
ants are  present,  the  limbs  of  the 
patient  should  be  rubbed,  always 
in  an  upward  direction  toward  the 
body,  and  with  firmness  and  ener- 
gy, the  bare  hands  being  used,  or 
dry  flannels  or  handkerchiefs,  and 
the  friction  kept  under  dry  blank- 
ets, or  over  dry  clothing.  The 
warmth  of  the  body  should  be  also 
promoted,  whenever  possible,  by 
the  application  of  hot  flannels  to 
the  stomach  and  armpits,  and  bot- 
tles or  bladders  of  hot  water,  or 
heated  bricks,  to  the  limbs  cr  soles 
of  the  feet.  As  soon  as  breathing 
is  established  the  patient  should 
be  stripped  of  all  wet  clothing, 
wrapped  in  blankets  only,  put  to 
bed  comfortably  warm,  but  with  a 
free  circulation  of  fresh  air,  and 
left  to  perfect  rest.  For  the  first  hour  a  little  hot 
brandy-and-water,  or  other  stimulant,  is  given  every 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  as  often  afterwards  as  may 
be  expedient.  After  reaction  is  established  the  pa- 
tient is  in  great  danger  of  congestion  of  the  lungs;  and 
unless  perfect  rest  is  maintained  for  at  least  48  hours 
he  may  be  seized  ^ith  difficulty  of  breathing,  and 
death  ensue  if  immediate  relief  is  not  afforded.  In 
such  cases  a  large  mustard  plaster  is  placed  upon  his 
chest,  and,  if  he  gasps  for  breath  before  the  mustard 


air  into  the  lungs  ;  the  small  quantity  of  water  which 
gets  into  the  lungs  is  of  no  consequence,  and  still  less 
that  which  passes  into  the  stomach,  which  occurs  dur- 
ing life,  or  if  the  body  be  not  drowned  alive;  conse- 


FlG.    2. — The  Position  and  Action  of  the  Operator  in  Producing  A  rtijicial  Reapiraiion. 

takes  effect  his  breathing  is  assisted  by  the  careful 
repetition  of  the  artificial  respiration.  It  is  necessary 
that  everybody  should  know  that  death  occurs  in 
drowning  because  the  water  prevents  the  entrance  of 


The  First  Step  Taken,  l-y  which  the  Chest  is  Emptied  of  Air  and  the   Ejec- 
tion of  Fluids  is  Assisted. 

quently,  the  direction  sometimes  given  in  the  old  books, 
of  holding  the  head  down,  in  order  to  draw  off  the 
water,  is  not  only  useless,  but  positively  hurtful ;  but  if 
death  occurs  from  want  of  air,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
thing  needful  is  to  restore  air  to  the  lungs  as  fast  as 
possible ;  and  this  is  done  by  artificial  inflation. 

Another  mode  of  resuscitating  a  drowned  person 
is,  as  given  by  some,  as  follows :    If  the  person  has 
been  drowned  but  a  short  time,  or  there  is  the  least 
hope  of  restoring  him,  he  should  be  placed  immedi- 
ately in  such  a  position  as  will  best 
allow  the  water  to  pass  out,  or  will 
force  it  out  of  his   lungs  and  throat; 
then  wipe  the  body  dry,  wrap  in  warm 
blankets,  and  place  in  a  warm,  dry 
and  well  ventilated  room ;  or,  if  the 
weather  is  warm  and  the  sun  shining, 
place  the  body  in  the  sun,  with  his 
face   turned   toward   it.     The  whole 
surface  of  the  body   should  now  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  with  the  dry  hands, 
by  stout,  strong  persons,  persevering- 
ly  ;  if  the  patient  is  in  bed,  hot  bricks, 
stones,  or  bottles  of  hot  water  should 
be  applied  about  the  body,  legs  and 
feet,  and  every  means  possible  used 
to  restore  natural  warmth  to  the  body. 
At   the  same   time,  means   must  be 
used  to  inflate  the  lungs.     Hold  the 
nostrils  tight  and  let  some  one  blow 
strongly  in  the  mouth  of  the  patient, 
forcing  air  into  the  lungs ;  then  press  gently  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  breast,  stomach  and  region  of  the 
lungs,  to  force  out  the  air  again ;  continue  this  as  long 
as  there  is  any  hope  or  prospect  of  restoration. 


f^eZ^f 


DR  UM—DR  YING. 


373 


To  Save  a  Drowning  Person.  The  one  jx)int  to 
especially  guard  against  in  attempting  to  save  a  person 
from  a  watery  grave,  is  to  prevent  the  victim  from 
clutching  you  in  such  a  way  as  to  rob  you  of  your 
power  to  swim.  A  drowning  person  will  instinctively 
clutch  at  the  nearest  object  with  the  greatest  vigor, 
and  often  he  will  grasp  his  rescuer  in  such  a  way  that 
both  go  down.  So,  be  cautious  in  approaching  a  per- 
son to  save  him.  Seize  him  from  behind,  if  ix)ssible, 
and  push  him  in  front  of  you,  or  catch  him  in  such  a 
manner  that  you  will  be  able  to  hold  him  at  a  distance. 
If  the  distance  to  the  shore  is  great  one  should 
seize  him  by  the  foot  and  drag  him,  turning  him  on  his 
back.  Better  use  violence  in  making  him  defenseless, 
or  wait  until  he  becomes  exhausted,  rather  than  per- 
mit a  strong  man  to  grasp  you;  should  he,  however, 
succeed  in  fixing  his  grasp,  the  only  remedy  is  to  dive, 
when,  finding  himself  under  water,  he  will  loosen  his 
hold,  thus  permitting  his  rescuer  to  take  a  better  po- 
sition.    Keep  cool ;  act  with  finnness  and  decision. 

Should  a  person  accidentally  fall  into  the  water  and 
be  unable  to  swim,  he  should  retain  his  presence  of 
mind.  In  the  moment  of  terror,  a  person  thrown  into 
the  water  almost  instinctively  stretches  out  his  hands 
to  grasp  at  some  object.  Now,  the  fact  is  that  the 
human  body  is  very  little  heavier  than  the  volume  of 
water  it  displaces ;  therefore,  if  the  hands  are  kept 
under  water  and  in  slight  motion,  and  the  lungs  filled 
with  air,  one  may  float  securely  in  water  for  some  time. 
Yet  in  most  cases  people  who  are  not  swimmers  im- 
mediately raise  their  hands  above  their  head  and 
scream  the  moment  they  find  themselves  in  deep 
water.  The  folly  of  such  action  can  be  impressively 
illustrated  by  means  of  a  half  empty  bottle  and  a 
couple  of  nails,  and  the  experiment  should  be  re- 
peated in  every  household  until  all  the  members — 
particularly  the  women  and  children — realize  that  the 
only  safety  in  deep  water  lies  in  keeping  the  hands 
under  and  the  mouth  shut. 

Any  short-necked,  square-shouldered  bottle  will 
answer,  and  the  nails  can  be  easily  kept  in  place  by  a 
rubber  band  or  a  string.  First,  balance  the  bottle  with 
sand,  so  that  it  will  just  float  with  the  nails  pointing 
downward,  then  by  turning  the  nails  upward  the  bottle 
will  be  either  forced  under  water  at  once  or  will  be 
tipped  over  so  that  the  water  will  pour  into  the  open 
mouth,  and  down  it  will  go.  To  children  the  experi- 
ment is  a  very  impressive  one,  and  the  moral  of  it  is 
easily  understood.  The  value  of  this  precaution  was 
strikingly  illustrated  near  Accomac  C.  H.,  Virginia. 
A  little  girl,  while  bathing,  was  swept  off  into  the  ocean 
by  a  strong  current  and  soon  disappeared  in  the  high 
breakers.  As  she  could  not  swim  her  companions 
gave  her  up  for  lost.  Two  young  fishermen  who  were 
employed  some  distance  away  thoughtfully  set  out 
with  a  small  boat  in  search  of  her,  and  when  a  mile 
or  more  from  shore,  found  her  floating  on  the  water. 
She  had  been  drifting  nearly  an  hour  and  was  greatly 
exhausted,  but  soon  recovered.  Unable  to  swim  she 
had  pluckily  floated,  thereby  making  her  rescue  pos- 
sible. 


Cramps.  Perhaps  more  good  swimmers  have  lost 
their  lives  by  cramps  than  anything  else,  and  only 
those  who  have  suffered  from  it  can  conceive  its  fatal 
lX)wer.  The  usual  spot  where  the  cramp  is  felt  is  in 
the  calf  of  the  leg  just  below  the  knee,  and  it  some- 
times comes  with  such  violence  that  the  muscles  are 
gathered  up  in  knots.  There  is  only  one  method  of 
proceeding  under  such  circumstances:  Turn  on  the 
back  at  once,  kick  out  the  leg  in  the  air,  disregarding 
the  pain,  and  rub  the  sjxDt  smartly  with  one  hand 
while  the  other  is  employed  in  paddling  toward  the 
shore.  These  directions  are  easy  enough  to  give,  but 
difficult  to  be  obeyed.  Cramp  seems  to  deprive  the 
sufferer  of  all  reason  for  the  time  and  to  overpower 
him  with  mingled  pain  and  terror.  Still  there  is  no 
other  hope  of  reaching  shore  than  that  which  is  here 
given.  The  causes  for  cramp  are  generally  two-fold. 
The  principal  cause  lies  in  indigestion,  for  it  is  sel- 
dom that  a  person  in  really  good  health  is  attacked 
by  this  malady.  The  second  is  over-exertion  of  muscles 
that  have  been  little  used,  and  therefore  too  strong 
a  leg-stroke  should  always  be  avoided.  Should  you 
see  a  swimmer  struggling  in  the  water,  the  chances 
are  one  hundred  to  one  he  has  been  attacked  with 
cramp;  therefore,  go  to  his  rescue  without  a  moment's 
delay. 

Drum,  in  machinery,  a  revolving  cylinder  around 
which  belts  or  endless  straps  are  passed  to  com- 
municate motion. 

Drunkenness,  To  Cure.  A  mixture  made  up  as 
follows,  and  taken  in  quantities  equal  to  an  ordinary- 
dram,  as  often  as  the  desire  for  strong  drink  returns, 
is  said  to  cure  the  worst  case  of  drunkenness :  Sul- 
phate of  iron,  5  grains;  peppermint  water,  1 1  drachms ; 
spirits  of  nutmeg,  i  drachm.  Another  method 
is  to  let  the  patient  eat  or  drink  nothing  that  is  not 
saturated  somewhat  with  liquor  until  he  is  "  sick" 
of  all  such  victuals  and  drink.  Some  parties  adver- 
tise that  they  will  cure  the  disease  or  habit  of  drunk- 
enness for  a  fee ;  and,  as  there  are  millions  of  ways  in 
which  the  alcoholic  appetite  may  be  met  and  satisfied 
with  vegetable  drugs,  the  field  for  their  operations  is 
sufficiently  large.  They  often  succeed  in  effecting  a 
cure,  for  the  principal  thing  a  drunkard  needs  is  to  be- 
come a  slave  to  some  friend  who  will  force  him 
through  some  course  of  treatment.  The  sober  ele- 
ment of  society  generally  would  prescribe  total 
abstinence  and  steady  work. 

Dry  Earth -Closet :    see  Privy. 

Drying.  Preserving  fruit  by  drying  is  a  method 
as  ancient  as  the  growth  of  fruit.  Until  the  modern 
way  of  canning  was  invented,  there  was  no  other 
method  of  converting  fresh  fruits  into  long-keeping' 
goods,  suitable  for  distant  transportation  and  com- 
merce throughout  the  world.  By  this  means  figs, 
dates,  prunes,  currrants,  and  raisins  are  prepared. 
Sun-drying  is  practiced  largely  in  this  country.  In 
the  Southern  States,  notably,  drying  fruit  is  quite  an 
industry.  The  product  is  sold  or  bartered  at  country 
stores,  shipped  to  eastern   houses,  and   exported  to 


374 


DR  YJNG. 


Europe.  All  over  the  Eastern,  Middle  and  Western 
States,  where  fruit  is  raised,  sun-drying  is  practiced, 
but  by  different  methods.  In  New  England,  apples 
are  pared,  quartered,  cored,  strung  with  a  needle,  and 


Fig.    I. — Ryder^s  American  Fruit   Er'aporator, 


hung  out  in  the  sun  or  around  the  kitchen  stove  to 
dry.  This  practice  is  somewhat  common  in  the 
Middle  and  Western  States,  but  in  other  sections,  in- 
stead of  strings,  boards  or  dishes  are  more  often  used, 
and  the  apples  are  thinly  sliced  and  spread  on  the 
surfaces.  When  a  particularly  fine  article  is  desired, 
the  fruit  is  placed  in  the  sunlight,  between  muslin 
sheets,  and  dried.  This  keeps  away  insects,  dust, 
etc.,  and  gives  a  finer  color. 

An  available  method  is  to  dry  under  glass,  by 
which  the  hot-bed  sash  can  be  utilized.  Make 
wooden  boxes  or  frames  to  fit  the  bed,  set  them  up  on 
legs,  one  pair  longer  than  the  other,  to  get  the  proper 
shape.  Cut  holes  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box 
to  secure  a  current  of  air  over  the  drying  fruit.  Place 
the  fruit  on  trays,  boards,  or  dishes  in  the  box  or 
frame,  and  put  on  the  sash.  Leave  in  the  sun  till 
the  fruit  is  sufficiendy  dry  to  be  packed  in  boxes,  bar- 
rels, or  sacks.  This  method  keeps  out  all  dirt  or  in- 
vasion by  birds  and  insects,  and  requires  less  care 
than  any  other.  Drying  in  stoves  is  attended  by  in- 
convenience and  scorching,  but  can  be  practiced  in 
cold  weather  for  the  saving   of  fruit   liable  to  decay. 

Artificial  heat  has  now  become  the  sole  means  for 
drying,  in  large  establishments  or  by  persons  who 
dry  for  market.  By  this  method  only  a  few  hours  are 
necessary;  birds,  insects,  dust,  and  storms  are  ex- 
cluded, and  the  fruit  retains  color  and  taste. 


An  efficient  and  not  costly  home  dryer  is  made  in 
the  following  manner :  Take  a  hogshead  and  saw  a 
door  in  the  side  of  it  to  admit  the  stove  and  fuel  for 
feeding  it;  cut  a  hole  in  the  rear  top  for  the  pipe, 
carrying  the  pipe  above  the  drying-box  on  top. 
Saw  an  1 8-inch  square  hole  in  the  head  of  the 
hogshead.  Take  a  box — any  one  large  enough 
that  is  handy— knock  one  end  out ;  nail  cleats 
to  the  sides  for  perforated  drawers  or  shelves 
to  hold  the  fruit.  Convert  the  top  of  the  box 
into  a  door,  with  a  button  or  strap  to  fasten  it. 
Coal  or  wood  may  be  used,  and  a  very  hot 
fire  is  not  desirable.  The  door  should  be  left 
open  to  provide  air  for  the  stove.  With  this 
arrangement  the  drying  of  apples,  peaches, 
the  small  fruits,  wild  berries,  plums,  etc.,  is  an 
easy  task.  The  color  and  the  flavor  of  the 
fruit  will  be  improved  by  keeping  a  dish  of 
water  on  the  back  of  the  stove,  to  furnish 
moisture  for  the  heated  air.  The  box  need 
not  be  tight.  There  should  be  a  few  auger- 
holes  in  the  top  to  induce  a  current  of  hot  air 
through  the  fruit.  Vegetables  can  be  dried 
by  this  method  as  well  as  fruit. 

An  iron  drying-machine  on  the  above  prin- 
ciple, costing  about  $75,  is  in  use.  It  is  porta- 
ble, and  may  be  used  indoors  and  out.  It  will 
dry  as  much  fruit  in  one  day  as  a  whole  family 
can  prepare  in  the  same  time. 

The  later  method  of  pneumatic  evaporation 
has  become  extensively  adopted  among  large 
fruit-growers  and  dealers.  Of  the  different 
varieties  of  this  method,  the  first  in  use  is  the 
Alden  process.  The  description  of  this  will  illustrate 
the  principle  of  evaporating  fruits  and  vegetables. 
The  Alden    process  consists   in    exposing  fruits  and 


Fig.  2. — Ryder^s  American  Heater. 

%  egetables  to  the  action  of  rarefied,  moist  air.  The 
heated  air  currents  move  in  the  same  direction  with 
the  fruits,  etc.,  which  steadily  advance  into  an  atmos- 


DRY  ROT— DUCK. 


375 


phere  constantly  becoming  cooler  and  more  damp, 
commencing  with  200°  to  240°.  The  effect  of  this 
increasing  humidity  and  decreasing  heat  is  to  keep 
moist  the  surfaces  of  the  articles  under  treatment,  to 
open  their  minute  pores  and  cells,  and  retain  them 
in  that  condition  until  the  water  is  evaporated  and 
passes  off  in  the  form  of  warm  vajxar.  This  process 
occupies  about  two  hours  for  apples. 

The  effects  produced  by  evaporation  are  the  op- 
posites  of  the  effect  of  drying.  The  latter  begins  by 
the  formation  of  an  external  skin,  which  confines  the 
internal  moisture  until  the  cellular  structure  of  the 
fruit  is  broken  down ;  it  is  a  process  of  fermentation 
or  cooking,  and  makes  the  fruit  leathery  and  indiges- 
tible. Such  is  the  value  of  evaporated  fruit  over  dried, 
that,  for  five  years  after  the  process  was  adopted,  the 
evaporated  product  sold  for  100  to  500  per  cent,  more 
than  the  old-fashioned  dried  fruit.  The  cost  by  the 
new  method  is  also  considerably  less  than  by  the  old, 
being  about  20  to  25  cents  a  bushel. 

We   give   an    illustration    of  the  American    Fruit 


^fSgimwi! ' ' !  ^,■  ■  ',!,^iiijijmi^^g 


Fig.  3. — Steam  Drier. 

Evaporator,  Fig.  i,  made  by  the  American  Fruit- 
Drier  Co.,  Chambersburg,  Penn. 

It  is  28  inches  wide,  9^  feet  in  length;  4  lines  of 
tags;    capacity  12  to  15  bushels  per  day. 

To  Dry  Cherries.  When  they  are  pitted,  put 
them  into  a  porcelain  kettle,  add  to  them  as  much 
white  sugar  as  will  sweeten  them  nicely ;  let  them  come 
to  a  boil,  then  take  out  with  a  skimmer  and  lay  on 
plates.  Boil  down  the  juice  till  it  is  almost  thick,  and 
pour  over  the  cherries. 

The  smaller  and  more  perishable  fruits,  such  as 
currants,  grapes,  cherries,  plums  and  the  berries,  may  be 
dried  in  sugar,  by  preparing  the  fruit  as  for  canning  or 
preserving.  Take  five  pounds  of  fruit  to  one  pound 
of  sugar ;  put  in  a  kettle  and  boil,  stirring  at  first.  As 
the  fruit  rises  to  the  top,  skim  it  off;  boil  the  syrup 
down  till  quite  thick,  ix)ur  over  the  fruit,  then  dry.  In 
sun-drying,  the  dishes  must  be  covered  with  musquito 
netting,  to  keep  the  flies  off  the  fruit.  In  cooking  for  pies 
or  sauce  i)ut  in  cold  water  and  stew,  adding  sugar  to 
suit  the  taste. 


Fig.  3  is  a  cut  of  the  latest  improved  dryer  for  grain 
and  meal.  It  is  made  by  the  Nordyke  &  Marmon 
Company,  of  Indianapolis,  Indiana. 

Dry  Bot,  rapid  decay  of  timber,  by  which  its  sub- 
stance is  converted  into  a  dry  powder,  which  issues 
from  minute  tubular  cavities  resembling  the  borings  of 
worms  :  called  also  "  sap  rot  "  and  "  powder  jwst." 

Duck,  a  very  extensive  family  of  water-birds,  which 
are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Mallard,  or  common  wild  duck,  which  is  the 
original  stock  of  domesticated  ducks,  appears  to  have 
been  reclaimed  at  a  very  early  period.  The  nest  of 
the  duck  is  usually  ])laced  in  the  most  solitary  re- 
cesses of  a  marsh  or  bog,  among  coarse  grass,  reeds  and 
rushes,  and  generally  contains  from  12  to  16  eggs,  of 
a  dull  greenish-white.  The  flesh  of  the  wild  duck  is 
held  in  general  estimation,  and  various  methods  are 
resorted  to  in  order  to  obtain  these  birds  in  quantities. 
The  Muscovy  duck  is  the  largest  of  the  duck  kind, 
and  approaches  nearly  to  the  size  of  the  goose.  It  has 
obtained  its  name  from  a  strong  smell  of  musk,  which 
e.xhales  from  its  body  and  not 
because  it  comes  from  Rus- 
sia, as  has  been  supposed. 
The  Muscovy  ducks  are 
damed  in  great  quantities  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  are  found 
wild  in  Guiana,  where  they 
nestle  on  trunks  of  trees,  close 
I0  the  water's  edge.  They 
feed  in  the  morning  upon  a 
plant  called  wild  rice,  and 
seldom  permit  the  sportsman 
to  approach  within  gunshot. 
The  Canvass-back  is  pecul- 
iar to  North  America,  and  was 
known  to  the  epicure  long  be- 
fore it  was  discribed  by  the 
naturalist.  The  canvass-back 
ducks  arrive  in  the  United  States  from  the  north  in 
October.  When  they  first  arrive  they  are  very  lean ; 
but,  from  the  abundance  of  their  favorite  food,  they 
become  fat  atout  November.  They  are  sometimes 
found  in  very  great  numbers.  The  Canvass-back  is 
constantly  attended  by  another  species,  the  Widgeon, 
which  manages  to  make  a  good  subsistence  from  his 
labors.  This  bird  is  extremely  fond  of  the  tender 
roots  of  that  particular  species  of  plant  on  which  the 
Canvass-back  feeds.  The  Widgeon,  which  never  dives, 
watches  the  moment  the  Canvass-back  rises,  and,  be- 
fore he  has  his  eyes  well  opened,  snatches  the  morsel 
from  his  mouth,  and  makes  off.  Among  other  varieties 
of  the  wild  duck  are  the  Sheldrakes,  Shovellers,  Sum- 
mer Duck,  Pintails,  Gadwalls,  Teals,  Bluewings,  etc. 

Domestic  Ducks.  This  species,  in  a  wild  state, 
always  pairs,  but  in  domestication  it  becomes  ix)lyg- 
amous,  and  the  care  of  the  young  is  left  entirely  to 
the  female.  It  has  been  long  common  in  the  jwultry- 
yard,  being  valued  for  its  eggs  and  its  flesh;  and  there 
are  breeds,  as  the  Aylesbury  duck,  etc.,  remarkable 


376 


DUCK. 


for  their  great  size  and  delicacy  of  flesh.  In  situa- 
tions where  they  have  ready  access  to  a  lake,  pond,  or 
stream,  ducks  are  easily  managed,  and  very  profitable 
poultry.  In  other  circumstances,  they  cannot  be  kept 
with  advantage. 

For  the  table  everyone  is  willing  to  admit  the  duck's 
excellence,  though  the  want  of  cleanliness  in  its  habits 
meets  with  everybody's  reprobation.  As  a  feeder,  it  has 
few  equals,  while  its  feathers  in  the  market  stand  high 
above  those  of  the  hen  or  turkey  and  only  second  to 
those  of  its  giant  companion,  the  goose. 

Dutks  are  easily  hatched,  and  if  properly  managed 
they  are  easily  raised — much  more  so  than  chickens 
or  turkeys.  Probably  the  worst  thing  for  ducklings  is 
the  first  thing  they  usually  receive,  and  that  is  unlim- 
ited range  and  water  to  swim  in.  The  little  things 
are,  in  a  measure,  nude,  and  should  be  kept  in  pens 
with  dry  soil  floors  or  stone  pavement  that  can  be 
washed  down  daily.  No  kind  of  poultry  will  succeed 
on  bare  boards.  AH  the  water  they  need  is  best  furn- 
ished by  burying  an  old  pot  in  the  ground  and  laying  a 
round  piece  of  board  on  the  top  of  the  water  with 
room  for  the  ducks  to  stick  their  heads  in  and  fish  out 
the  corn  that  is  put  in  the  water.  This  amuses  them 
and  does  no  harm,  while,  if  allowed  to  go  off  to  ponds 
or  streams,  they  are  very  liable  to  fall  a  prey  to  vermin 
in  some  shape,  or  to  get  their  bodies  wet  and  chilled 
from  remaining  too  long  in  the  water.  Their  pens 
must  be  kept  clean  if  Ihey  are  expected  to  thrive. 
The  young  of  all  ducks  are  great  insect  destroyers  ; 
hence  in  the  garden  or  on  the  farm  they  will  be  found 
to  amply  pay  for  themselves.  Ducks  are  also  prolific 
layers,  laying  about  loo  eggs  a  year.  The  period  of  in- 
cubation of  the  duck  is  from  28  to  36  days,  depending 
apon  the  season,  the  variety,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  air. 

Tame  ducks  are  well  known  to  be  greedy,  and  not 
nice  feeders.  They  not  only  eat  incessantly  all  day, 
but  if  it  is  a  moonlight  night  they  will  up  and  at  it 
again  an  hour  or  two  before  morning.  They  require  a 
mixture  of  animal  with  vegetable  food,  being  accus- 
tomed, in  the  natural  state,  to  live  on  worms,  which 
they  are  always  seeking  for  in  water.  They  will  eat 
flesh  and  garbage  of  any  kind ;  but  water  insects,  veg- 
etables, corn,  and  pulse  are  their  proper  nutriment. 
If  fed  much  upon  grain  they  fatten  rapidly,  and  the 
flesh  becomes  delicate,  but  is  apt  to  be  insipid ;  and  if 
fed  too  much  upon  animal  food,  their  taste  is  strong 
and  more  like  wild  fowl.  They  require  water,  and 
that  which  is  stagnant  is  best  as  affording  more  nour- 
ishment from  weeds  and  insects.  They  are  some- 
times fattened  in  coops ;  but  they  become  of  a  more 
delicate  flavor,  fatten  equally  well,  and  are  more 
wholesome  by  having  access  to  a  pond  with  plenty  of 
food.  Their  flesh  is  savory  and  stimulant,  and  is 
considered  to  be  less  gross  than  that  of  the  goose  as 
well  as  more  easily  digested. 

The  character  of  the  duck  is  quite  inoffensive 
and  harmless,  and  is  even  distinguished  by  its  social 
disDOsition.  It  is  also  valuable  forits  great  fecundity, 
and  the  cheapness  and  ease  with  which  it  may  be 


provided  for,  although  voracious  eaters,  as  they  are. 
How  TO  Tell  Ducks  from  Drakes.  It  is  gener- 
ally supix)sed  that  the  only  distinction  between  drakes 
and  ducks  is  that  the  former  have  curls  on  their  tails. 
This  is  not,  by  any  means,  an  infallible  sign,  for  some 
ducks  have  curls  also,  while  some  drakes  have  none 
at  all.  For  instance,  when  a  cross-bred  Rouen  and 
Mallard  duck  becomes  seven  or  eight  years  old  she 
looks  exactly  like  a  drake,  curl  and  all.  We  have 
known  a  superannuated  duck  to  be  sold  for  a  drake, 
just  because  she  happened  to  have  a  curl  on  her  tail,  and 
had  stopped  laying,  neither  buyer  nor  seller  being  con- 
sciousof  the  mistake;  and  the  poorduck  would haveany 
amount  of  scolding  showered  down  upon  her  because 
she  failed  in  her  intended  mission.  The  only  true  test 
is  to  judge  by  the  sound  of  the  voice.  Ducks  utter  a 
sound  very  insulting  to  some  medical  men — quack, 
quack,  but  drakes  only  make  a  kind  of  a  wheezing 
noise,  as  if  suffering  from  a  bad  cold,  and  never  say 
quack.  This  distinction  can  be  noticed  when  very 
young,  just  as  soon  as  the  pinion  feathers  of  the  wing 
begin  to  grow. 

Varieties.  The  most  important  varieties  of  do- 
mestic ducks 
are  the  Mal- 
lard, A  y  1  e  s- 
bury,  R  o  u- 
en,  Musk, 
or  Brazilian 
duck,  called 
Muscovy  and 
also  Guinea 
duck,  the 
Black  East 
Indian,  the 
Wood  duck, 
the  Mandarin, 
the  Pekin  and 
the  Black  Ca- 
Fic.  i.—RnutH  Ducks.  yuga  duck. 

The  Aylesbury  is  the  largest,  except  the  White 
Musk,  and  by  far  the  best  white  duck.  It  is  distin- 
guished by  its  large  size,  its  cream-white  plumage,  and 
its  characteristic  light  yellow  or  cream-colored  bill  and 
orange  legs.  When  well  bred,  adult  Aylesbury  ducks 
weigh  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  per  pair,  while  the 
best  specimens  will  reach  twelve.  It  is  the  great 
favorite  in  England.  The  Aylesbury  is  a  prolific  lay- 
er, it  being  not  unusual  for  the  duck  to  lay  more  than 
100  eggs,  and  in  some  instances  150,  in  a  single  sea- 
son. The  average  weight  of  their  eggs  is  about  three 
ounces.  Early-hatched  birds  sometimes  lay  in  the 
fall.  It  is  quiet  and  easily  fattened,  and  fine  for  the 
table. 

The  Black  East  Indian  or  Buenos-Ayrean  duck,  a 
native  of  both  sections  that  contribute  to  its  name,  is 
more  remarkable  for  its  beauty  and  excellent  game 
flavor  than  for  its  size,  being  less  in  size  than  the 
Aylesbury.  Metallic  tints,  varying  with  the  light 
from  green  to  a  gilded  purple,  decorate  their  form 
of    unform     velvet     black,    their     bills     and     feet 


DUCK. 


377 


being  of  the  same  hue.  The  female  has  the  sam^ 
general  color  as  herniate,  and  is  nearly  as  beautiful, 
while  her  disposition  is  far  more  amiable.  These 
ducks  require  but  comnion  feeding  to  be  fit  for  the 
table,  their  flesh  being  prized  for  its  high  game  flavor. 
The  Mallard  duck  is  only  interesting  as  being  gen- 
erally regarded  as  the  progenitor  of  our  common  do- 
mestic duck. 

It  is  small,  hardy,  prolific,  dark  gray,  and  is  esteem- 
ed as  a  game  bird. 

The  Musk 
duck  is  a  native 
of  Brazil,  South 
America,  where 
it  is  still  found 
in  large  num- 
bers in  its  wild 
state.  It  is  oc- 
casionally call- 
ed the  Brazilian 
duck.     In  their 

-Th€  Coiiiiiioa  [Sarnyard  Duck.        wild  State    theSC 

ducks  are  very  dark  colored,  while  with  us  they  are 
changed  to  various  mixtures  of  brown,  black,  and 
white,  and  sometimes  a  blending  of  brown  and  drab. 
The  adult  drake  weighs  from  nine  to  ten  pounds,  while 
the  duck  rarely  exceeds  half  his  weight.  They  have 
long  bodies,  short  legs,  and  a  very  clumsy  ap- 
pearance ujxjn  the  ground,  which  they  much  pre- 
fer to  large  bodies  of  water.  They  like  to  perch 
upon  the  branches  of  a  low  tree,  a  fence,  or  a 
low  building,  especially  during  the  night.  They  do 
not  rank  high  for  the  table,  even  when  young;  and 
the  males  are  tyrants  in  the  poultry  yard.  Time  of  in- 
cubation from  34  to  36  days. 

The  Rouen  duck  has  for  a  long  time  been  as  distin- 
guished in  France  as  is  the  Aylesbury  in  England. 
It  is  the  largest  and,  in  some  respects,  the  best  duck 
of  all  our  domestic  varieties,  though  less  beautiful  in 
form  than  the  Aylesbury.  Its  color  is  pleasing,  close- 
ly resembling  the  wild  Mallard.  These  ducks  have 
broad,  clumsily-built  bodies,  and  when  highly  fattened 
they  are  very  ungainly  in  their  niovenients.  They  are 
remarkably  quiet,  easily  fattened,  and  are  most  excel- 
lent layers  of  very  large  eggs,  and  have  no  equal  for 
the  table  in  the  domestic  family  of  ducks.  The  adult 
Rouen  not  unfrequently  reaches  from  18  to  21  pounds 
per  pair. 

Tlie  ^Vood  duck,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  building 
its  nest  in  the  hollows  of  trees,  and  also  from  its  fre- 
quenring  the  edges  of  river  groves  in  search  of  acorns 
— one  of  its  principal  foods  in  autumn — is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  duck  tribe  and  easily  domesti- 
cated, its  small  size  making  it  unprofitable  either  for 
eggs  or  flesh. 

The  Bahama  duck  is  very  easily  domesticated,  and 
resembles  a  small  Mallard  with  a  pointed  tail,  but 
the  bright  red  color  on  the  base  of  its  bill  renders  it  a 
most  beautiful  object  when  swimming.  Of  these 
varieties  the  Mandarin  duck  is  generally  disseminated. 
They  were  originally  imported  to  the  United  States  in 


1854.  In  its  plumage  it  resembles  the  wood  duck, 
but  is  more  beautiful  and  elegant.  It  is  chiefly  valu- 
able as  an  ornamental  species. 

Cayuga  Black  duck,  one  of  the  most  superior,  as  it  is 
among  the  largest  of  either  American  or  foreign  ducks, 
has  been  bred  in  the  country  so  long  that  all  trace  of 
its  origin  is  lost.  Tradition  says  they  are  descended 
from  a  sort  of  wild  ducks  that  stop  in  Cayuga  lake 
and  Seneca  river,  on  their  passage  north  and 
south,  fall  and  spring.  The  Black  Cayuga  duck,  in 
perfection,  is  black  with  a  white  collar  on  the  neck,  or 
white  flecks  on  the  neck  and  breast — rarely  black  with- 
out white;  and  as  the  white  seems  inclined  to  increase, 
we  usually  select  them  nearly  or  quite  black  for  breed- 
ing. The  duck  has  a  faint  green  tint  on  the  head, 
neck  and  wings.  The  drakes  usually  show  more 
white  markings  than  ducks,  and  the  green  tint  on  the 
head  and  neck  is  more  strongly  marked. 

The  Cayuga  ducks  are  hardy,  of  good  size,  and  for 
the  table  are  superior  to  other  ducks;  the  flesh  quite 
dark  and  highly  flavored.  If  well  fed,  they  become 
very  fat ;  can  be  readily  made  so  fat  that  they  cannot 
raise  themselves  from  the  ground  by  their  wings ; 
12  to  14  pounds  to  the  pair  would  be  a  good  average 
weight. 

They  are  very  quiet  in  their  habits  ;  they  are  rarely 
able  to  rise  from  the  ground— a  fence  one  foot  high  will 
turn  them ;  they  are  not  disposed  to  wander  from  home ; 
they  commence  laying  about  the  last  of  March  and 
lay  50  to  90  eggs,  when  they  wish  to  sit,  which 
they  do  well,  but  they  are  careless  mothers ;  they  cross 
readily  with  other  ducks,  and  produce  is  certain. 

The  title  Call-duck  is  given  to  two  small  varieties 
of  the  domestic  duck,  that  bear  the  same  relation  to 
the  full-sized  birds  that  Bantams  do  to  ordinary  fowls. 
They  are  known  as  the  Grey  and  the  White  Call ;  they 
both  differ  from  ordinary  breeds  in  their  veiy  small  size; 
for  show  birds,  the  smaller  the  better.  The  shape  of 
the  head  is  also  distinct;  they  are  most  esteemed 
when  ix)ssessing  a  full,  round  forehead,  with  a  broad, 
short  bill.  In  color,  the  Grey  Call  should  be  an  exact 
counterpart  of  the  Rouen  and  wild  breeds,  not  only  in 
plumage,  but  also  in  legs,  feet,  and  bill.  The  White 
Call  should  be  clothed  in  feathers  of  pure  and  unsul- 
lied white ;  the  bill,  however,  is  not  flesh-colored,  as 
that  of  the  Aylesbury,  but  a  bright  clear  unspotted 
yellow,  any  other  color  being  regarded  as  disqualify- 
ing the  birds  from  success  in  a  severe  competition. 
Call-ducks,  as  their  name  implies,  are  remarkable  for 
their  loud  and  continuous  quacking,  in  a  shrill,  high 
note,  which  can  be  heard  at  a  great  distance,  and 
which  renders  them  admirable  as  decoy  ducks  to  al- 
lure the  wild  species  to  their  destruction. 

The  Penguin  duck  is  characterized  by  greater  length 
of  the  femora,  or  upper  bones  of  the  legs,  and  of  the 
bones  of  the  feet,  whilst  the  tibiae  remain  unchanged. 
In  consequence  of  this  peculiarity  of  structure,  the 
duck,  in  walking,  is  obliged  to  assume  an  erect  atti- 
tude, like  that  of  the  Penguin.  Beyond  this  quaint  pe- 
culiarity, the  Penguin  duck  has  no  specialty  to  call  for 
particular  observation,  or   to   distinguish  it  from  the 


378 


DUCK— DYEING. 


ordinary  species,  of  which  it  is  evidently  only  an  ac- 
cidental variation,  perpetuated  by  the  care  of  man. 
The  colors  of  the  Penguin  duck  are  varied,  and  the 
bird  breeds  freely  with  any  of  the  common  varieties. 

The  Hook-billed  duck  is  another  accidental  varia- 
tion which  has  been  propagated  by  man.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  the  bill  being  turned  downwards,  instead 
of  being  straight,  as  in  the  other  varieties.  In  color 
and  size,  they  vary  considerably. 

The  Tufted,  or  Crested  duck  is  another  variation 
which  has  been  perpetuated  and  increased  by  the  care 
and  selection  exercised  by  man.  It  is  characterized 
by  a  large  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  the  skull,  very 
like  that  of  a  Polish  hen.  In  some  cases  this  globu- 
lar crest  attains  a  size  of  three  inches  in  diameter,  and 
renders  the  birds  very  remarkable  objects. 

The  Pekin  duck  is  one  of  the  most  popular  breeds 
now  raised  in  this  country,  although  comparatively  a 
modern  bird  for  the  United  States,  having  been  first 
imported  in  1871.  They  are  larger  than  the  Ayles- 
bury, but  seldom  weigh  heavier. 

Duck,  To  Cook.  Ragout  of  Duck.  Put  the 
gizzards,  livers,  necks,  etc.,  into  a  pint  of  good  strong 
beef  broth,  or  other  well  seasoned  stock.  Season  the 
ducks  inside  with  salt  and  mixed  spices.  Brown  them 
on  all  sides  in  a  frying  pan,  and  then  stew  them  till 
tender  in  strained  stock.  When  nearly  ready  thicken 
the  sauce  with  browned  flour  and  butter. 

Ro.\ST  Duck.  Prepare  your  duck  for  roasting  and 
use  the  following  dressing  :  Chop  fine  and  throw  into 
cold  water  three  good-sized  onions,  one  large  spoonful 
of  sage,  two  of  bread  crumbs,  a  piece  of  butter  the 
size  of  a  walnut,  a  little  salt  and  pepper,  and  the  on- 
ions drained.  Mix  well  together,  and  stuff  the  duck. 
An  hour  is  enough  for  an  ordinary -sized  duck.  The 
gravy  is  made  by  straining  the  dripping;  skim  off  the 
fat,  then  srir  in  a  large  spoonful  of  browned  flour,  a 
teaspoonful  of  mixed  mustard,  a  wineglassfulof  claret. 
Simmer  for  ten  minutes. 

To  Hash  Duck.  Nothing  tastes  better  than  a  fat 
roast  duck.  Cut  it  into  pieces  as  in  carving  at  table, 
skin  and  soak  these  by  the  side  of  the  fire  in  a  litde 
boiling  gravy  till  thoroughly  hot.  Add  a  small  glass 
of  wine  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mixed  spices  to 
give  the  sauce  a  high  relish. 

Due-Bill,  a  brief  written  acknowledgment  of  a 
debt,  not  made  payable  to  order,  and  not  transferable 
by  indorsement,  like  a  promissory  note.  They  are  as 
binding  as  notes,  and  collectible  by  law. 

Dumb  Waiter,  a  movable  frame  by  which  dishes, 
etc.,  are  passed  from  one  room  or  story  of  a  house  to 
another. 

Dumpling,  a  kind  of  pudding  or  mass  of  paste,  in 
cookery  ;  often  a  cover  of  paste  inclosing  an  apple  and 
boiled, — called  also  "apple  dumpling."  The  latter 
may  be  prepared  and  cooked  as  follows  :  Take  one 
pound  of  suet,  one  ix)und  of  flour,  heaping  teaspoon- 
ful of  salt;  chop  the  suet  in  a  little  of  the  flour  to  pre- 
vent its  caking,  chop  very  fine,  then  add  flour  and  mix 


thoroughly ;  add  cold  water  enough  to  make  a  paste ; 
roll  as  thin  as  pie-crust;  pare  a  dozen  large  apples, 
quarter  and  core  them,  keeping  each  apple  by  itself; 
place  the  quarters  together  again  and  cut  the  paste  in 
a  square  to  cover  the  apple;  tie  each  dumpling  in  a 
square  cloth,  leaving  a  very  little  room  to  swell.  Boil 
an  hour,  putting  them  into  boiling  water.  Serve  with 
hard  sauce.  Some  cooks  prefer  to  put  the  dumphngs 
into  cold  water  and  boil  until  done,  when  they  will  be 
light.  Another  method  is  to  put  pared  and  quartered 
apples  in  a  tin  pan,  with  considerable  water  to  cook 
thgn.  Cover  tight  with  soda-biscuit  crust ;  leave  no 
vent;  cover  close  with  another  pan  inverted  over  it ; 
put  on  top  of  the  stove  and  cook  half  an  hour,  or  un- 
til the  crust  and  apples  are  done. 

Dun,  a  color  partaking  of  brown  and  black. 
Large  dun  horses  are  generally  well-tempered,  good 
feeding  animals,  neither  swift-footed  nor  very  strong, 
but  well  adapted  to  the  labors  of  the  farm  ;  but  small 
duns,  when  somewhat  lightly  bred,  suit  excellently  for 
the  curricle  or  the  phaeton,  and  when  they  have  a 
dappling  of  a  darker  color  upon  their  prevailing  dun, 
they  are  thought  to  be  decidedly  beautiful. 

Duress,  an  actual  or  threatened  violence  or  re- 
straint of  a  man's  person,  property  or  character,  con- 
trary to  law,  to  compel  him  to  enter  into  a  contract  or 
surrender  property.  The  violence  must  be  such  as 
would  naturally  operate  upon  a  person  of  ordinary 
firmness  and  inspire  a  Just  fear  of  great  injury  to  the 
person's  reputation  or  fortune.  A  contract  obtained 
by  such  duress  is  void. 

Dutch  Cheese,  a  small,  round,  hard  cheese,  made 
from  skim  milk, — called  also  "cottage  cheese."  To 
make  it,  heat  sour  milk  until  the  whey  rises  to  the  top; 
pour  off  the  whey,  put  the  curd  in  a  bag  and  let  it 
drip  six  hours,  without  squeezing  it;  chop  it  fine  in  a 
wooden  bowl,  salt  to  taste,  and  work  to  the  consistency 
of  soft  putty,  adding  a  little  cream  and  butter  as  you 
proceed ;  thenmold,with  yourhands,intoround  "  pats  " 
or  balls,  and  keep  in  a  cool  place.  It  is  best  when 
fresh. 

Dwelling:     see  Residence. 

Dyeing.  Formerly  this  process  was  very  tedious 
and  troublesome,  requiring  special  attention  and  ap- 
pliances, together  with  a  degree  of  chemical  knowledge 
not  common.  But  with  the  dyes  and  drugs  that  may 
now  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store,  a  ribbon,  a  feather, 
a  soiled  or  faded  dress  may  be  quickly,  easily  and 
cheaply  dyed. 

General  Directions.  See  that  everything  is 
clean.  Scour  the  goods  in  soap,  then  rinse  thor- 
oughly ;  sometimes  they  are  steeped  over  night  in  soap 
dye.  Before  putting  goods  into  the  coloring  matter, 
dip  them  into  water,  to  guard  against  spotting.  In 
coloring,  soft  water  only  is  used,  and  sufficient  to  cover 
the  goods.  In  the  recipes  that  follow,  this  is  always 
understood  where  the  quantity  of  water  to  be  used  is 
not  mentioned.  When  thefabrics  aredyedthey  should 
be  first  aired,  then  rinsed  well,  then  hung  up  to  dry. 


D  YEING. 


379 


Never  wring  silk  or  fine  materials  of  any  kind,  either 
in  scouring  or  dyeing.  If  a  light  color  is  to  be  given 
cotton  goods,  they  should  be  bleached  before  color- 
ing. 

To  Dye  Cotton  Goods.  Black.  For  each  5 
pounds  of  goods  boil  half  an  hour  in  a  decoction  of 
3  ix)unds  of  sumac,  and  steep  in  the  same  12  hours; 
then  dip  in  lime-water  for  half  an  hour;  remove  and 
let  them  drip  i  hour;  then  run  through  the  lime-water 
again  for  15  minutes.  Now  make  a  new  dye  oi  2% 
pounds  of  logwood,  boiled  i  hour,  and  dip  again  for  3 
hours;  then  add  2  ounces  bichromate  of  potash  to  the 
logwood  dye,  and  dip  another  hour.  Wash  in  clean, 
cold  water;  dry  in  the  shade,  and  you  have  a  perma- 
nent black, — one  that  will  stand  anything. 

For  coloring  black  that  will  not  crock:  Extract 
logwood,  3  ounces ;  copperas,  i  ounce.  Dissolve 
copperas  in  an  iron  kettle ;  dip  goods  in  copperas  wa- 
ter; after  wetting  thoroughly  wring  out,  air  a  few  min- 
utes, then  dip  in  logwood  dye,  bring  to  a  boil,  keep  in 
dye  about  i  hour,  occasionally  airing;  color  in  iron 
kettle,  wash  and  rinse ;  when  dry,  is  ready  for  use.  The 
secret  consists  in  keeping  the  dye  apart. 

Red.  Take  muriate  of  tin  two-thirds  of  a  cupful, 
add  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  goods,  and  raise  to  a 
boiling  heat;  boil  an  hour,  stirring  often  ;  then  remove 
the  goods,  empty  the  kettle,  fill  with  clear  water,  and 
add  I  jwund  of  nicwood.  Steep  half  an  hour  at 
blood-heat,  then  put  in  the  goods  and  increase  the 
heat  to  almost  boiling  for  one  hour.  Now  air  the 
goods  and  dip  for  an  hour,  then  wash  without  using 
soap. 

Sky  Bluk.  For  each  3  jxjunds  of  goods  take  4 
ounces  of  blue  vitriol,  and  water  to  cover;  boil  a  few 
minutes,  then  dip  for  3  hours,  and  pass  the  goods 
through  strong  lime-water. 

Other  Shades  of  Blue.  For  5  jxjunds  of  cotton 
cloth  dissolve  5  ounces  of  copperas,  drain  off,  boil  in 
the  copperas  water  i  hour;  then  dissolve  5  ounces  of 
prussic  jx)tash  in  clear  water;  put  in  your  goods,  and 
scald  well,  frequently  turning  them;  then  lift  from  the 
dye,  drain  them,  and  air  them  one-half  hour;  then  add 
2  ounces  of  oil  of  vitriol;  dip  again,  rinse  well  in  clear 
water,  and  dry  them.  Be  sure  to  have  your  goods 
thoroughly  wet  before  dyeing  them  any  color,  or  they 
will  be  sixjtted.  Two  shades  of  any  color  may  be 
obtained  by  leaving  some  rags  in  the  dye  longer  than 
others.  Woolen  goods  always  take  the  dye  most 
readily. 

Brown.  A  beautiful  brown  may  be  obtained  by 
putting  the  goods  through  a  solution  of  prussiate  of 
potash  after  having  colored  them  blue  by  the  last 
recipe. 

Or,  for  5  jwunds  of  goods  dissolve  i  }4  pounds  of 
catechu  insufficient  water  to  dip  the  goods;  in  another 
vessel  dissolve  4  ounces  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  a 
like  amount  of  water.  Have  both  liquids  hot;  dip  the 
goods  first  in  the  catechu  li(iuid,  then  in  the  solution 
of  potash  alternately,  until  the  color  is  of  the  right 
shade ;  wash  in  cold  water.  Bichromate  of  potash  is 
the  proper  mordant  for  catechu. 


Yellow.  Use  7  ounces  sugar  of  lead  for  5  [K)unds 
of  goods;  dip  for  two  hours,  then  make  a  new  dye 
with  4  ounces  bichromate  of  potash  and  dip  until  the 
color  suits.  Wring  out  and  dry,  repeating  if  not  yel- 
low enough. 

Orange.  For  5  jMunds  of  goods  use  4  ounces  sugar 
of  lead  for  the  first  dye ;  boil  a  few  minutes  and  after 
cooling  a  little,  put  in  the  goods.  Dip  for  two  hours 
and  wring.  Make  a  new  dye  with  2  ounces  madder 
and  8  ounces  bichromate  of  potash,  and  dip  until 
color  suits.  If  the  color  is  too  red  dip  a  sample  into 
lime-water  and  take  your  choice. 

Or,  prepare  a  lime-water,  as  for  whitewash,  the^ 
stronger  the  deej>er  the  color.  Let  the  lime  settle; 
drain  off  the  clear  water  and  boil ;  while  boiling  put  in 
the  goods  which  have  been  colored  yellow ;  rinse  well 
in  cold  water. 

Green.  Dip  the  goods  in  home-made  blue  dye 
until  blue,  then  dry  and  rinse  a  little.     Take  fustic, 

3  pounds,  and  3  ounces  logwood  to  each  pound  of 
goods,  and  make  a  dye  by  boiling  or,e  hour.  When 
sufficiently  cool  to  bear  the  hand,  put  in  the  goods, 
move  briskly  about  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  let 
tjjem  lie  an  hour,  after  which  remove  and  thoroughly 
drain.  Then  dissolve  and  add  to  the  dye  half  an 
ounce  of  blue  vitriol  for  each  jx)und  of  goods,  and  dip 
another  hour,  then  wring  and  dry  in  the  shade.  Any 
shade  of  color  may  be  obtained  by  adding  or  dimin- 
ishing the  logwood  and  fustic. 

To  Dye  Woolen  Goods.  Black.  Use  6  ounces  of 
blue  vitriol  for  each  5  [xjunds  of  goods.  After  boiling 
a  few  minutes,  dip  the  goods  for  3/i  hour,  airing  often; 
then  remove  and  make  a  new  dye  by  boiling  3  pounds 
logwood  for  half  an  hour.  Now  dip  the  goods  3/£  hour 
and  air,  and  then  for  ^  hour  more,  and  wash  in  strong 
suds.  It  is  said  exposure  to  the  sun  will  not  fade  this 
color. 

Blue.  For  each  2  pounds  of  goods  make  a  dye  of 
alum,  5  ounces,  cream  tartar  3  ounces,  in  which  boil 
the  goods  one  hour,  then  put  them  into  warm  water 
containing  more  or  less  extract  of  indigo,  according  to 
color  desired ;  boil  until  the  shade  suits,  adding  more 
blue  if  necessary. 

Scarlet.  For  each  2  jxiunds  of  goods  make  a  dye 
of  I  ounce  cream  tartar;  pulverized  cochineal,  i 
ounce ;  muriate  of  tin,  5  ounces.  Put  in  the  goods 
while  dye  is  boiling  hot,  stir  briskly  for  15  minutes, 
then  boil  i  J^  hours,  stirring  slowly.  Wash  in  clear 
water;  dry  in  shade.     Said  to  be  very  fine. 

Pink.  For  each  3  pounds  of  goods  take  3  ounces 
of  alum ;  boil  and  dip  an   hour,  then  add  to  the  dye 

4  ounces  cream  tartar,  pulverized  cochineal  i  ounce. 
Boil  well  and  dip  goods  while  boiling  until  the  desired 
shade  is  obtained. 

Madder  Red.  For  each  pound  of  goods,  use 
alum,  5  ounces;  cream  tartar,  i  ounce.  Put  in  the 
goods  and  bring  to  a  boil  for  ]4  hour,  then  rinse  and 
boil  }4  hour  longer;  empty,  and  fill  the  kettle  with 
clean  water,  into  which  put  one  i  peck  of  bran  ;  raise 
to  milk  heat ;  let  it  stand  until  the  bran  rises,  then 
skim  it  off,  and  put  in  madder  }4  pound.     Put  in 


jSo 


D  YEING—D  YSEI\rTER  Y. 


goods,  and  heat  slowly  to  a  boil.  Use  strong  soap- 
suds in  washing. 

Dark  Snuff  Brown.  For  each  5  pounds  of  goods 
use  I  pound  of  camwood,  boiling  15  minutes,  and  then 
dipping  i/l  hour.  Remove  goods  and  put  2]/^  pounds 
of  fustic  into  the  dye;  boil  15  minute"-;  dip  goods 
again  for  ^  hour,  then  add  blue  vitriol,  i  ounce,  co]> 
peras,  4  ounces,  and  dip  for  %  hour.  More  copperas 
will  darken  the  shade. 

Purple.  For  each  3  pounds  of  goods  use  6  ounces 
cudbear.  Rinse  the  goods  well  in  soap-suds,  then 
dissolve  the  cudbear  in  hot  suds  (not  quite  boiling) 
and  soak  goods  until  the  desired  shade  is  obtained. 
Brighten  by  rinsing  in  alum  water. 

CRiMson.  Work  for  i  hour  in  a  bath  made  of  i 
pound  of  cochineal,  i  pound  cream  tartar,  i  pint  pro- 
tochloride  of  tin.     Wash  out  and  dry. 

To  dye  yarn  for  striped  stockings,  when  your  dye 
is  ready,  dip  only  %  the  skein  into  it,  leaving  the 
other  white.  If  you  wish  to  dye  in  two  colors,  the 
first  color  must  be  dried  before  attempting  to  dye  the 
other  half. 

To  Dye  Silks.  Black.  Use  the  formula  for 
dyeing  woolen  goods  black,  except  that  it  should  be 
weaker.  Work  the  goods  in  the  bichromate  of  potash, 
a  little  below  boiling  heat;  then  dip  in  the  logwood. 
If  colored  in  the  blue  vitriol  dye  use  about  the  same 
heat.  , 

Purple.  Dye  a  light  blue  first  by  dipping  in  the 
home-made  dye,  then  dry.  Now,  for  each  j^ound  of 
goods  take  4  ounces  of  alum,  water  to  cover,  and  dip 
in  the  goods  while  the  alum  is  warm. 

Crimson.  For  each  2  pounds  of  goods  use  6 
ounces  of  alum  ;  dip  at  hand-heat  for  one  hour,  then 
take  out  and  drain  while  you  make  a  new  dye  of 
cochineal,  6  ounces;  bruised  nut-galls,  4  ounces; 
cream  of  tartar,  J/^  ounce,  in  6  gallons  of  water ;  boil 
the  mixture  ten  minutes,  and  when  a  little  cool,  begin 
to  dip,  gently  raising  to  the  boiling  point ;  dip  for  one 
hour,  and  then  wash  dry. 

Sky  Blue.  (Either  silk  or  cotton.)  Take  2 
ounces  of  blue  vitriol  and  dissolve  in  i  gallon  of 
water.  Dip  the  goods  in  this  for  15  minutes  and  then 
run  through  lime  water.  Said  to  be  beautiful  and 
durable. 

Brown.  (For  silk  or  cotton.)  After  dyeing  sky 
blue  by  last  recipe,  run  the  goods  through  a  solution 
of  I  ounce  of  prussiate  of  potash  dissolved  in  i  gallon 
of  water.     Simple  and  cheap. 

Green.  Take  3^  pound  of  yellow-oak  bark  for 
each  pound  of  goods ;  boil  %  hour,  and  then  turn  off 
the  liquor  and  dissolve  it  in  6  ounces  of  alum  ;  let  it 
stand  until  cold.  While  making  this  give  the  goods  a 
light  blue  in  the  dye-tub ;  then  dry  and  wash  them, 
after  which  dip  in  the  alum  and  bark  dye.  If  the 
goods  do  not  take  color  well,  warm  the  dye  a  little. 

Old-Gold.  To  dye  silk  or  satin  a  beautiful  old- 
gold  color,  take  green  horse-radish  leaves,  steep  them 
in  water,  make  a  strong  dye;  after  dipping  the  silk  or 
satin  into  the  dye  thoroughly,  wash  in  soft-soap  suds ; 
iron  while  damp,  laying   a  cloth  over  the  silk.     This 


should   always  be  done  when    ironing  silk  or  ribbon, 
even  if  it  has  not  been  washed,  but  simply  sponged. 

To  color  linen,  make  a  strong  solution  of  black 
tea,  and  mix  it  with  the  starch  after  washing  the  goods. 
Then  dip  the  goods  in  this  starch  and  dry  quickly. 
Boiling  linen  in  a  decoction  of  common  green  grass  or 
good  hay  will  make  it  look  new. 

To  color  OLD  DRESSES,  either  cotton  or  worsted,  any 
shade  of  drab  or  slate  color.  To  color  14  yards  get  1 
pound  cheapest  black  tea,  probably  any  kind  of  cheap 
tea  will  do;  boil  thoroughly  with  old  rusty  nails,  or 
any  kind  of  rusty  iron  in  the  tea;  get  the  shade  you 
want  by  the  amount  of  water  used.  It  makes  a  very 
pretty  color  to  color  over  light  dresses. 

To  color  a  faded  shawl,  take  5  cents'  worth  (more 
will  do  no  harm)  of  extract  of  logwood,  and  copperas 
the  size  of  a  nutmeg;  put  into  an  iron  boiler  or  kettle, 
with  water  sufficient  to  well  cover  the  goods.  Scald 
and  stir  well  from  the  bottom  until  dissolved ;  then  put 
in  the  goods  and  scald  half  an  hour;  take  out  and 
drain,  after  which  scald  in  skimmed  sweet  milk.  You 
need  not  have  your  hands  stained  in  the  processs  if 
you  avoid  handling  the  goods  before  scalding  in  the 
milk.  Wash  thoroughly  after  scalding.  If  the  shawl 
is  all  wool,  it  will  hide  the  stripes,  but  cotton  will  not 
take  a  perfect  black. 

To  color  kid  gloves  black,  take  4  ounces  cf  alco- 
hol and  a  handful  of  logwood  chips ;  dissolve  the 
chips  in  the  alcohol,  put  the  gloves  on  your  hands, 
and  put  the  liquid  on  with  a  sponge. 

To  color  GRASS,  take  i  jxiund  of  alum  to  5  quarts 
of  water,  dissolved  on  the  stove  in  a  tin  pan;  when  a 
little  cool,  put  the  grasses  in,  and  let  stand  until 
formed.  Gum-arabic  water  is  the  best  to  stick  flour 
or  dry  paints  on  grasses.  Get  5  cents'  worth  of 
chrome  yellow,  chrome  green,  ultramarine  blue,  Van- 
dyke brown,  and  carmine, — all  dry  paints.  The 
mucilage  should  be  shook  off  the  grass,  so  that  little 
remain.  Then  whip  them  in  the  dry  paint,  tipping 
brown  with  blue,  etc.  Enough  of  the  dry  paint  sticks 
on  to  color  them  beautifully.  These  mixed  with  the 
crystallized  grasses  make  pretty  winter  bouquets. 

Analine  Dyes.  These  are  put  up  in  packages 
which  may  be  obtained  at  drug  stores.  They  em- 
brace almost  every  conceivable  tint,  and  are  not  ex- 
pensive. Full  directions  accompany  each  package. 
They  save  much  trouble,  and  as  a  general  thing  are 
not  apt  to  disappoint. 

Dye-Stains,  How  to  Remove  from  the  Hands: 
Wash  them  in  cold  water  that  is  made  about  as  sour 
as  lemon-juice  with  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol); 
wash  them  thoroughly  in  pure  water  immediately 
afterward. 

Dynamometer  (di-na-mom'e-ter),  an  instrument 
for  measuring  the  force  or  power  of  a  machine  or  plow, 
the  amount  of  draft,  etc. 

Dysentery,  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  large  intestine,  attended  with  bloody 
evacuations  and  pains.  It  is  very  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken by  ignorant  observers  for  the  far  milder  disease 


D  YSPEPSIA. 


3Sr 


of  diarrhcea.  It  begins  with  a  griping  pain,  and  a  de- 
sire to  void  the  alimentary  contents.  In  general, 
little  is  voided  at  a  time.  The  matter  discharged 
is  composed  chiefly  of  mucus  mi.xed  with  blood.  A 
dose  of  castor  oil  with  2  teaspoonfuls  of  paregoric, 
mixed,  taken  once  a  day,  will  relieve  dysentery.  No 
solid  food  should  be  eaten,  and  the  drink  ought  to  be 
flaxseed  tea,  or  some  other  demulcent.  Laudanum 
is  also  efficacious  to  check  the  discharge.  Take  20 
or  30  drops  for  an»  adult.  Or,  mix  i  drachm  each  of 
fX)wdered  rhubarb,  saleratus,  and  pulverized  pepper- 
mint, and  Yi  pint  each  of  the  decoction  of  anise  seed 
and  hot  water;  strain,  sweeten,  and  add  3  table- 
spoonfuls  of  brandy,  and  take  a  tablespoonful  every 
hour.  Hygienic:  Same  as  for  diarrhoea.  As  soon 
as  one  suspects  he  may  have  dysentery,  he  should 
call  his  favorite  physician. 

Dyspepsia.  A  person  is,  in  common  language,  said 
to  be  dyspeptic  when  the  appetite  is  impaired  or  lost ; 
when  there  is  a  load  and  weight  at  the  stomach  after 
taking  food,  with  eructations  of  gas,  and  sometimes  of 
an  acid  fluid  into  the  mouth;  accompanying  these 
symptoms  is  nausea,  an  occasional  sickness,  with  a 
tense  headache  at  the  back  of  the  head,  or  localized 
over  the  eyes ;  very  often,  also,  there  are  dark  specks 
before  the  eyes,  and  the  eyes  themselves  look  heavy, 
yellow,  with  a  dark  circle  beneath.  The  tongue  is 
red ;  the  papillae  small,  but  elongated,  and  the  organ 
itself  enlarged,  indented  by  the  teeth,  or  pale  and  en- 
larged in  the  same  way,  or  covered  with  a  white  or 
yellow  fur;  the  bowels  are  costive,  the  water  high 
colored,  and  with  a  red,  or  more  rarely,  a  whitish  sedi- 
ment. Such  are  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  symp- 
toms of  the  different  kinds. 

The  principal  causes  of  dyspepsia,  and  the  whole 
train  of  distressing  complaints  resulting  therefrom,  are 
produced  from  the  present  fashionable  habits  of  lux- 


ury and  intemperance,  both  in  eating  and  drinking, 
such  as  spirituous  liquors,  high-seasoned  meats,  ex- 
cessive use  of  tea  and  coffee,  hot  bread,  spices,  pastry, 
tobacco  in  every  form,  irregular  evacuations,  excessive 
venery,  swallowing  the  food  without  chewing  it  suffici- 
ently, overloading  the  stomach,  derangements  of  the 
liver  and  spleen,  want  of  exercise,  and  pure  air,  the 
depressing  passions,  or  great  anxiety  of  the  mind,  and 
whatever  has  a  tendency  to  debilitate  the  lining  of 
the  stomach,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from  the  healthy  per- 
formance of  its  functions. 

People  in  cities,  whose  minds  are  distracted  with 
the  pressure  of  business,  and  who  are  forced  to  great 
irregularity  in  sleep  and  eating,  are  peculiarly  liable 
to  dyspepsia.  Farmers  and  their  wives  and  children, 
who  live  in  the  country,  who  labor  daily,  never  hurry, 
sleep  sound  at  night,  and  eat  wholesome  articles  of 
food,  and  who  drink  cold  water,  or  very  weak  tea  and 
coffee,  are  seldom  affected  with  it.  In  the  country, 
milk  is  the  drink  of  children,  instead  of  tea  and  coff"ee, 
which,  no  doubt,  contributes  greatly  to  strengthen  and 
fortify  the  stomach  against  disease.  In  the  beginning 
of  dyspepsia  strengthening  medicines  should  not  be 
given.  First,  remove  the  load  or  oppression,  then 
improve  and  strengthen  the  digestive  organs.  This 
may  be  done  by  a  gentle  dose  of  ipecacuanha,  from  5 
to  10  or  even  20  grains,  and  when  the  operation  is 
over  and  the  stomach  has  become  quiet,  give  a  gentle 
purgative,  as  Seidlitz  powder.  For  children,  a  drachm 
of  rhubarb,  and  the  same  quantity  of  calcined  mag- 
nesia, divided  into  four  equal  parts,  one  stirred  up  in 
syrup  and  given  night  and  morning,  will  relieve  the 
digestive  organs  from  sourness  and  wind  colics,  with 
which  young  persons  are  so  much  tormented.  We 
recommend  all  dyspepUcs  to  apply  for  competent  aid, 
if  they  find  their  complaints  to  resist  their  own  treat- 
ment for  two  or  three  weeks.  A  proper  diet  is  one  of 
the  best  remedies. 


E 


'AR,  an  animal's  organ  of  hearing.     Its  in- 
-flkfflsaip*  ^^"""^^  structure  is  somewhat  similar  in  man 
J^Hi  ^nd  in  the  numerous  species  of  the  higher 
^^^  order  of  quadrupeds;  and  it  possesses,  in 
K^  all,  a  very  complex, and  yet  simple  organization, 
J  J     exquisitely  adapted  to  its  functional  uses,  beauti- 
' '     fully  combining  utility  with   protection,  and  ad- 
j      mirably  illustrating  the  wisdom  and  beneficence 
of  the  Creator.     Its  external  structure,  in  the  several 
animals,  varies  in  adaptation  to  their  respective  habits 
and  constitution,  and  affords,  both  in  its  general  form 
and  in  its  wide  variations,  high  and  striking  evidences 
of  minute  and  most  benevolent  designs.     Though  any 
description  of  eitherthe  internal  or  the  external  struct- 
ure would  be  out  of  our  province,  yet  one  great  dif- 
ferential feature  may  be  noticed,  that  the  outward  ear 
of  timid  and  graminivorous  animals  usually  lies  back- 
ward, to  enable  them   to  detect  sounds  of  danger  or 
pursuit,  while  that  of  the  predacious  and  carnivorous 
animals  usually  lies  forward  to  enable  them  to  catch 
every  intelligence  of  prey. 

The  outward  ear  of  the  horse  is  a  truncated,  ob- 
liquely severed  and  very  elegant  cone,  so  admirably 
constructed  as  to  receive  a  vast  volume  of  vibration 
in  the  air,  and  so  exquisitely  mounted  on  organic 
mechanism  as  to  wheel  and  circle  and  oscillate  with 
the  utmost  power  and  freedom  of  motion.  The  ears 
of  a  horse,  especially  of  a  spirited  one,  are  in  contin- 
ual play,  and  are  so  often  and  easily  stretched  in  di- 
rections opposite  to  each  other  as  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  double  organ,  and  possesses  such  power  and  play 
of  nerve  as  to  afford  expressive  indications  of  temper 
and  intention.  "The  ears,"  remarks  Mr.  Blaine,  "we 
usually  suppose  criterions  of  the  spirit  of  the  animal," 
and  we  have  seldom  seen  a  horse  that  carried  one  ear 
forward  and  the  other  backward  during  his  exercise, 
especially  if  on  a  journey,  but  what  was  lasting  and 
good.  The  reason  appears  a  plain  one ;  a  horse  of 
spirit,  strong,  and  not  easily  farigued,  is  attenrive  to 
everything  around  him,  and  directs  one  ear  forward  and 
one  backward  to  collect  sounds  from  every  quarter. 
We  need  not  mention  that  the  ears  are  an  indicarion 
of  the  temper  of  the  animal,  and  that  he  is  seldom 
either  playful  or  vicious  but  the  ears  are  laid  flat  on 
the  neck.  It  was  kind  in  Providence  to  give  us  such 
a  warning  in  an  animal  who  does  not  want  craft  to 
surprise  us,  nor  strength  to  render  his  resentment  ter- 
rible. The  twitching  of  a  horse's  ear  in  the  way  of 
discipline  or  punishment  may  occasionally  be  necessary 
in  a  case  of  obstinacy,  and  in  order  to  prevent  a  se- 


vere application  of  the  whip  to  other  parts  of  the  body; 
but  generally  it  is  both  unnecessary  and  cruel,  and 
sometimes  it  inflicts  very  painful  wounds  and  contu- 
sions. When  a  wound  in  the  ear  is  merely  a  lacera- 
tion of  the  cartilage,  it  readily  heals ;  but  when  it  is 
an  ulceration  of  the  integument  and  the  cellular  sub- 
stance, it  will  probably  be  healed  by  no  gentler  means 
than  powerful  caustics  or  the  application  of  the  cau- 
ter)'. 

The  ears  of  cattle  have  a  very  different  form  and 
size  in  some  breeds  than  in  others ;  and  they  consti- 
tute one  of  the  minute  or  secondary  points  by  which 
the  character  and  the  comparaUve  value  of  breeds  are 
judged.  They  are  usually  of  well  proportioned  size 
and  freely  movable  in  the  polled  breeds,  and  are 
comparatively  small,  inconspicuous  and  stiff  in  most 
of  the  horned  breeds. 

The  ears  of  some  breeds  of  swine  are  peculiarly 
and  amazingly  subject,  in  the  back  part  of  their  great 
lops,  to  troublesome  cracks  and  sores.  A  good  cure 
in  these  cases,  as  in  that  of  squrf  in  the  ears  of  cattle, 
is  calamine  and  rosin  ointment.  If  there  is  any  dis- 
position to  mange  in  swine,  it  is  most  evident  about 
the  ears,  and  the  mischief  is  sadly  aggravated  when 
brutes  in  human  shape  set  their  dogs  on  them,  the 
favorite  hold  of  which  is  the  ear. 

Ear-wax  assists  the  hearing  and  is  so  bitter  and 
offensive  to  all  insects,  that  the  fear  of  ear-wigs,  etc., 
entering  the  ears  is  to  a  great  extent  unnecessary.  In- 
stances of  insects  entering  the  ear,  are,  however,  not 
altogether  unknown,  although  it  is  difficult  to  account 
for  their  doing  so. 

Ear-wigs  in  the  Ear.  If  one  of  these  insects 
should  crawl  within  the  ear,  and  a  piece  of  apple  is 
applied  to  the  ear  the  insect  will  crawl  upon  it,  it  be- 
ing fond  of  apples  ;  or  some  drops  of  sweet  oil,  oil  of 
almonds,  or  olive  oil  may  be  dropped  into  the  ear, 
which  will  instantly  kill  this  or  any  kind  of  insect. 
Insects  are  deterred  from  attempting  to  penetrate  the 
ear  by  the  offensive  bitterness  of  the  wax  it  contains, 
but  they  sometimes  get  in,  and  are  unable,  although 
desperately  anxious,  to  get  out. 

Ear,  a  spike  or  head  of  corn,  oats,  barley,  wlieat  or 
other  cereal  grass.  Ears  of  grain,  though  an  almost 
universal  popular  phrase,  is  a  somewhat  indefinite  one, 
and  cannot  be  used  in  botanical  or  minute  description. 

Eaxache.  This  troublesome  complaint  is  some- 
times occasioned  by  some  foreign  substance  getring 
into  the  ear,  or  by  exposure  to  cold,  or  by  the  forming 
of  an  abscess.     Dip  a  piece  of  wool  into  a  little  sweet 


EAR.MARK~ED  UCA  TIOM. 


3^3 


oil,  and  place  it  into  the  ear.  The  progress  of  this 
painful  complaint  may  often  be  checked  by  means  of 
a  large  poultice  of  bread  and  milk,  with  a  little  fine  oil 
added.  This  should  be  applied  as  warm  as  possible 
and  renewed  every  three  or  four  hours.  At  the  same 
time  an  aperient  medicine  should  be  taken.  A  little 
warm  oil  of  laudanum  dropped  into  the  ear  sometimes 
gives  relief,  and  may  be  used  before  the  application  of 
a  poultice.  When  suppuration  appears,  a  little  warm 
milk  and  water  should  be  used  for  its  removal,  with  a 
syringe,  several  times  a  day,  care  being  taken  not  to 
use  too  much  force.  The  following  remedies  are  rec- 
ommended :  Boil  a  fig  for  five  minutes,  wrap  it  in  a 
piece  of  rag  and  put  it  into  the  ear,  binding  it  on  with 
a  handkerchief  round  the  head.  When  the  earache 
is  very  severe  and  of  long  continuance,  put  a  small 
blister  behind  the  ear  in  addition  to  one  of  the  above 
remedies,  or  a  leech  maybe  applied  to  the  same  part; 
or  put  4  drops  of  best  kerosene  oil  and  the  same 
quantity  of  laudanum  into  a  teasjxjon  ;  put  in  a  lit- 
tle bit  of  cotton  batting,  about  enough  to  absorb  the 
mixture;  hold  the  spoon  and  contents  over  a  lighted 
candle  until  it  begins  to  hiss  with  the  heat;  turn  the 
cotton  over,  apply  spoon  and  contents  once  more  to 
the  heat,  then  pinch  out  the  cottoij ;  put  it  hot  in  the 
ear;  tie  a  bandage  over  the  ear  to  keep  the  heat 
in,  and  relief  is  immediate.  If  you  are  subject  to 
earache,  keep  a  small  bottle  with  each  or  the  articles 
named,  and  you  can  get  relief  at  all  hours  of  night  or 
day  in  a  few  minutes. 

t^lace  in  the  ear  cotton  wool  moistened  with  sweet 
Oil  and  laudanum.  A  flannel  bag  of  salt,  or  cham- 
omile flowers,  made  very  hot  and  applied  to  the  ear  at 
bed-time,  will  often  give  relief  Or,  a  roasted  onion, 
and  hartshorn  and  oil,  are  household  remedies.  If  it 
arises  from  heat,  frequently  apply  wet  cloths.  If  from 
cold,  boil  rue,  or  rosemary,  and  steam  the  ear  through 
a  funnel.  Or,  rub  the  ear  hard  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour.  Tried.  Or,  be  electrified.  Or,  soak  the  feet 
in  warm  water;  roast  an  onion  and  put  the  heart  of  it 
into  the  ear  as  warm  as  can  be  borne;  heat  a  brick, 
wrap  it  up,  and  apply  to  the  side  of  the  head.  Wheiv 
the  feet  are  taken  from  the  water,  bind  roasted  on- 
ions on  them.  Lard  or  sweet  oil,  dropped  into  the 
ear,  as  warm  as  it  can  be  borne,  is  good.  Or,  drop  in 
juice  of  onions.  Or,  take  equal  parts  of  the  best 
strained  honey,  balsam  copaiva,  and  brandy ;  put  in  a 
bottle,  and,  when  wanted,  warm  and  shake  it  thor- 
oughly, and  put  two  drops  in  the  ear  three  times  a 
day,  until  relieved.  It  will  cure  deafness  when  caused 
by  cold.  A  little  piece  of  raw  cotton  will  keep  the  oil 
in  the  ear. 

Hardened  wax  in  the  ear  may  be  softened  with  oil 
and  then  syringed  out.  Insects  and  other  foreign 
bodies  may  be  carefully  swabbed  out  or  syringed  out. 
Do  not  introduce  sticks,  tweezers  or  other  hard  sub- 
stances into  the  ear  for  taking  out  these  things,  as 
there  is  great  danger  of  injuring  some  delicate  organ 
permanently. 

Ear-Mark,  a  notching,  clipping,  slitting,  or  other 
artificial  mark,  made  on  the  ears  of  cattle,  sheep,  dogs 


or  other  tame  animals,  with  the  design  of  distinguish- 
ing them  from  other  individuals  or  flocks  of  their  own 
species.  In  counties  where  stock  is  permitted  to  run 
at  large  these  marks  are  recorded  generally  in  the 
county  clerk's  office  and  then  they  become  legal  means 
of  identifying  stock. 

Earnest,  any  jxjrtion  of  price  or  wages,  paid  or 
given  as  ratification  of  contract.  The  smallest  por- 
tion, even  a  penny,  is  sufficient;  but  in  order  to  make 
it  binding  on  either  party  to  the  terms  of  the  agree- 
ment, it  must  be  expressly  stated  to  be  earnest. 

Eave-Trough.      This   economical  attachment  to 


Eaije-  Trough, 

every  building  is  made  either  of  wood  or  tin,  the  for- 
mer being  generally  preferable.  The  styles  of  each 
are  somewhat  various,  the  greatest  difference  being  in 
the  degree  of  substantialness  with  which  they  are  con- 
structed. Probably  the  best  kind  is  the  literal  trough, 
consisting  of  single  pieces  of  guttered  wood,  joined  at 
the  ends  only,  if  joined  at  all  ;  but  the  cheapest  and 
quickest  made  is  that  which  consists  simply  of  two 
boards  nailed  together,  as  illustrated  in  the  annexed 
cut,  with  the  seems  filled  with  putty,  pitch  or  other 
like  substance.  The  joints  should  be  embraced  by  a 
bracket,  as  seen  in  the  engraving.     See  Residence. 

Eccentric  (ek-sen  trie),  out  of  center.  An  eccen- 
tric wheel  or  disc  performs  the  office  of  a  crank. 

Eclectic,  selecting;  taking  points  from  many  or 
all  systems;  as,  the  "eclectic"  system  of  medicine; 
an  "  eclectic  "  philosopher,  etc. 

Economy,  management  of  domestic  affairs ;  system 
of  rules  by  which  anything  is  managed;  wise  manage- 
ment ;  prevention  of  waste.  We  have  "  domestic," 
"political,"  "social,"  etc.,  economy.  See  Domestic 
Economy.  Political  economy  is  the  science  of 
wealth, — the  accumulation  and  distribution  of  wealth  ; 
and  in  national  affairs  questions  of  currency,  tarifl", 
finance,  etc.,  are  involved  in  ixjlitical  economy.  Chang- 
ing the  volume  of  currency  is  generally  considL-red 
bad  policy,  as  the  mysterious  fluctuations  pf  prices 
which  it  occasions  gives  unprincipled  speculators  the 
advantage  of  the  laboring  classes.  In  comparing 
prices,  one  should  consider  both  what  he  buys  and 
what  he  sells.  For  example,  labor  at  %x  a  day  when 
wheat  is  %\  a  bushel  is  the  same  to  a  man  as  when 
labor  is  $2  a  day  and  wheat  $2  a  bushel. 

Education,  that  discipline  and  knowledge  which 
one  obtains  by  systematic  study.  In  the  broadest 
sense,  everything  that  we  S|p,  hear,  touch,  taste,  smell 
and  think  of  has  a  tendency  to  "  educate  "  us  in  some 
direction  or  another;  in  the  more  restricted  sense, 
"  education  "  signifies  that  knowledge  and  mental  dis- 
cipline which  we  obtain  at  school.  By  "mental  disci- 
pline "  is  meant  such  a  culture  of  the  mental  powers 


384 


EDUCATION. 


and  systematizing  of  the  data  of  knowledge  or  facts, 
as  enable  one  to  make  use  of  his  knowledge  when  he 
needs  it.  There  is  the  same  difference  between 
knowledge  and  discipline  as  between  tools  and  the 
having  of  them  at  hand  in  good  trim,  with  ability  to  use 
them  properly. 

There  is  no  topic  of  more  vital  imix)rtance  to  the 
farmers  of  America  than  that  of  education,  and  none 
should  receive  from  them  more  zealous  attention.  We 
will  divide  this  article  into  two  departments ;  in  the 
one  we  will  speak  of  the  common  schools,  and  the 
education  obtained  therefrom,  the  other  we  will  con- 
fine to  agricultural  education. 

While  we  have  a  very  elaborate  and  excellent  sys- 
tem of  education,  yet  it  is  evident  that  the  schools  of 
the  rural  districts  are  not  doing  the  good  they  should 
and  might  do,  as  they  do  not  sufficiently  allow  for  the 
peculiar  talents  of  each  pupil,  and  their  courses  of 
study  are  too  far  behind  the  demands  of  this  utilita- 
rian age.  We  wish  to  show  why  and  how  it  is  that 
almost  the  entire  force  of  our  common  schools  tend  to 
throw  our  young  men  away  from  the  shop  and  the 
farm,  and  to  drive  them  into  the  scholastic  professions ; 
or  pile  them  up  in  huge  stacks  of  agents,  clerks,  and 
office-seekers.  A  committee  of  the  Massachusetts 
Legislature,  where  the  whole  system  originated,  and 
where  it  has  been  carried  to  greater  perfection  than 
perhaps  in  any  other  State,  report  t  lat  "  the  results  of 
their  system  of  schools  is  not  satisfactory;  "  and  that 
"  the  public  school  system  of  New  England  fails  to 
meet  the  demands  of  modern  civilization." 

The  great  uprising  of  the  industrial  classes,  and 
their  new  attempts  at  founding  schools  all  over  the 
republic,  whatever  may  be  said  or  thought  of  their 
work,  shows  the  same  fact.  Along  side  of  the  efforts 
to  confine  children,  through  all  their  young  and  grow- 
ing years,  to  school-rooms,  and  the  abstract  studies  in 
books,  the  nervous  system  has  become  either  excess- 
ively developed  or  diseased ;  insanity  has  greatly  in- 
creased ;  a  whole  crop  of  brain  and  nervous  diseases 
are  said  to  have  sprung  up,  some  of  which  are  not 
developed  till  late  in  life ;  females  in  particular  become 
inert,  weak,  and  nervously  diseased,  indisposed  and 
incapacitated  for  the  real  duties  of  the  wife  and  the 
mother,  insomuch  that  the  most  highly  educated  races 
are  perpetually  running  out,  and  giving  place  to  races 
of  less  so-called  culture,  but  of  greater  stalwart  vigor; 
all  of  which  tends  to  show  that  we  may  be  making 
them  over  into  angels  a  little  too  fast  for  the  good  of 
earth  and  time ;  or,  if  not,  it  betokens  widespread  dis- 
trust and  doubt,  not  of  our  present  system  as  such,  but  of 
our  present  mode  of  running  it.  The  general  complaint 
that  children  are  kept  in  school  so  continuously  that 
they  become  dull  and  listless,  and  although  immense 
sums  of  money  are  expended  upon  the  schools,  that 
they  do  not  after  all  leave  them  as  well  fitted  for  the 
real  duties  of  life  as  they  used  to  do  in  half  the  time, 
and  at  less  than  half  the  expense,  shows  the  same 
general  fact  of  uneasiness  under  our  present  adminis- 
tration. 

However  great  these  evils  may  be,  or  may  not  be, 


one  great  vital  and  all-important  end  of  the  school 
system  is,  after  all,  being  perpetually  realized  and  at- 
tained, whatever  else  may  fail ;  the  children  of  our 
nation  are  learning  those  habits  of  self-government 
and  self-restraint  in  public,  in  crowds,  and  acquiring  a 
sort  of  homogeneity  in  manners,  tastes  and  feelings, 
which  could  never  be  learned  at  home;  and  whicii 
perhaps  tends  to  conserve  and  perpetuate  the  freedom 
of  the  republic  more  than  all  else  combined. 

But  we  wish  to  more  particularly  point  out  some  of 
the  evils  that  have  grown  up  under  our  system,  that 
affect  the  farmers  and  the  industrial  classes  in  the 
rural  districts. 

The  first  is  the  curse  of  "  thoroughness  "  so- 
called,  which  is  really  not  genuine,  but  a  sham 
thoroughness.  In  a  philosophical  jx)iiit  of  view,  a 
child  cannot  go  thoroughly  into  any  subject  whatever, 
and  it  is  utterly  absurd  to  attempt  to  make  him  do  it. 
It  would  not  be  more  absurd  to  attempt  to  glue  tassels 
and  ripe  ears  u]X)n  a  corn-stalk  as  soon  as  it  is  out  of 
the  ground,  in  order  to  make  a  sort  of  dumb  show 
of  an  early  harvest,  and  seem  to  outstrip  the  old-fogy 
pace  of  your  neighbors.  A  child's  thoroughness,  in 
any  such  sense,  is  all  a  mere  sham.  More  than  that, 
it  is  a  curse  that  may  and  will  weight  him  down  in  all 
after  life.  Nature  requires,  everywhere,  that  things 
should  slowly  grow  into  all  organisms,  physical,  men- 
tal and  moral ;  they  can  neither  be  pounded  into  them, 
nor  gluedortiedon  to  them.  It  is  as  absurd  to  attempt 
to  teach  a  child  what  a  man  ought  to  know,  as  it  would 
be  to  attempt  to  make  him  lift  or  eat  what  a  man 
does.  He  cannot  safely  even  begin  those  fomis  and 
modes  of  knowledge  that  are  peculiar  to  riper  years; 
or  if  he  does  he  begins  at  the  peril  of  his  physical  or 
intellectual  well-being,  or  both.  He  may,  indeed, 
seem  to  be  a  prodigy  when  he  is  young,  but  he  will  be 
dead,  or  a  fool,  before  he  grows  old.  Long  continued, 
wearisome  and  exhaustive  attention  to  any  subject 
whatever,  is  unsuitable  for  a  child,  under  pretense  of 
giving  him  something  to  do.  Something  to  do ! ! 
Who  ever  saw  a  voung  child  idle.'  Something  to  do!! 
Why,  has  he  not  got  all  the  flies  of  the  house,  and  all 
the  butterflies  of  the  field  to  catch  and  examine  ;  his 
top,  and  whip,  and  skates,  to  mend  and  to  spin,  and 
ten  thousand  other  things  to  do,  that  no  mortal  else 
ever  thought  of?  Has  he  not  got  to  stand  on  his 
head,  knock  his  hat-crown  in,  and  wear  holes  in  his 
shoe-toes,  knees  and  elbows.?  Look  into  a  boy's 
drawer,  where  he  keeps  his  own  peculiar  "school  ap- 
paratus," and  you  will  find  out  that  he  has  got  enough 
planned  out  to  do  for  a  life-time.  Has  he  not  got  to 
eat  tons  of  green  apples  and  other  coarse  vegetable 
and  animal  products,  and  before  he  is  a  dozen  years 
old,  to  transform  all  this  rough  garbage  into  at  least 
one  hundred  pounds  of  good,  solid,  human  bones, 
muscles  and  nerves,  so  firmly,  and  yet  so  delicately 
elaborated,  that  they  are  fit  for  an  angel's  use .'  All 
these  things  which  he  now  contrives  to  do  for  himself, 
help  him  forward  in  this  first,  greatest,  and  most  ini- 
[Xjrtant  part  of  all  his  life-work  on  earth.  When  will 
it  get  through  our  stupid,  scholastic  heads,  that  the 


EDUCATION. 


38s 


first  duty  of  every  born  man  and  woman  on  earth, 
both  to  God  and  man,  is  to  eat,  to  drink,  to  roUic,  and 
to  grow?  And  if  they  are  simply  shielded  from  harm, 
and  kept  out  of  unendurable  mischief,  and  allowed  to 
do  it,  much  in  their  own  way,  it  is  the  best  thing  we 
can  do  for  them,  or  with  them,  for  well  nigh  the  first 
ten  years  of  their  life.  Some  little  general  shaping  of 
their  course,  some  power  of  reading,  some  "  kinder- 
garten" care,  either  in  school  or  out,  and  better  out  all 
the  time  than  in,  more  with  reference  to  varying  their 
tastes  and  employments,  and  improving  their  moral 
feelings,  than  in  hope  of  making  them  savans  in  any- 
thing, is  ajjout  all  we  can  safely  do  for  them. 

In  a  world  where  no  man  thoroughly  knows  how  a 
candle  burns  or  a  blade  of  grass  grows,  or  his  own 
eyes  see,  what  consummate  folly  to  attempt  to  make  a 
mere  child  thorough  in  anything.  Nature  and  Nature's 
God  give  a  child  a  sort  of  bird's-eye  view  of  a  vast 
variety  of  thiiigs  in  their  most  natural  and  simple  re- 
lations without  protracted  or  profound  views  of  any- 
thing. 

It  is  evident  that  those  who  would  be  anything,  or 
become  anything,  must  elect  some  very  stiiall  part,  to 
start  with;  and  one  of  the  chief  uses  of  our  schools 
(after  confirming  them  all  in  the  great  moral  American 
habit  of  self-government)  is  to  enable  them,  by  giving 
them  tastes  and  snatches  of  as  wide  a  range  of  sub- 
jects as  jxissible,  connected  with  the  real  arts  and  in- 
terests of  common  and  social  life,  more  intelligently 
to  make  this  proper  selection  for  themselves. 

AVe  should  not  assume  that  they  are  to  become 
teachers,  or  experts  in  any  one  thing  whatever,  that 
can  be  got  out  of  books ;  for  not  one  in  a  thousand  of 
them  ever  will,  or  ever  ought  to,  do  so. 

Take  for  example  our  four  fundamental  branches : 
reading,  spelling,  writing  and  arithmetic.  These  are 
the  keys  that  unlock  the  gateways  of  knowledge  to  all 
other  branches,  and  open  the  doors  to  all  other  forms 
of  human  intercourse,  human  thought,  and  human 
knowledge.  Of  course,  some  knowledge  of  these  is  an 
indispensable  necessity,  as  a  first  step,  to  every  child 
alike.  But  how  much?  that  is  the  question.  To  be- 
come an  expert  at  any  single  one  of  these  most  sim- 
ple and  elementary  of  all  the  forms  of  learning,  a  man 
must  devote  his  whole  life  to  the  task;  and  then  prob- 
ably not  one  in  a  hundred  would  really  succeed.  Amid 
all  our  schools  and  schoolings,  a  real  expert  at  read- 
ing, writing,  or  arithmetic,  is  about  the  rarest  of  all  men 
found.  The  fact  is,  that  even  in  these  most  common 
and  indispensable  of  all  branches  of  human  learning, 
there  is  no  more  sense  in  keeping  our  children  drum- 
ming and  thumbing  over  them  in  the  schools,  year  af- 
ter year,  as  though  we  expected  to  make  them  experts 
in  one,  or  all  of  them,  than  there  would  be  in  trying  to 
fit  them  out  with  a  pair  of  wax  wings,  to  fly  to  the 
moon  with.  A  child  should  be  taught  to  read,  write 
and  cipher,  well  enough  for  a  child — not  for  a  man ; 
an  expert;  a  writing  master;  a  stage  player;  an  Uni- 
ted States  senator;  and  there  the  whole  subject  should 
lie  dropped,  giving  him  pen,  ink,  and  paper,  and  in- 
teresting books  to  read ;  and  in  his  regular  school  drill 


he  should  pass  on  to  something  else,  of  more  interest 
and  imjxirtance  for  him. 

Who  ever  thinks  of  reading,  writing,  or  ciphering, 
as  our  teachers  tried  to  drill  us  to  do  when  we  were 
boys?  To  be  sure,  we  use  the  same  alphabet,  and 
that  is  about  all  of  it.  With  good  books,  eloquent 
speakers,  interest  tables,  and  lightning  calculators 
lying  all  about  us,  we  soon  make  out  methods  of  our 
own,  for  our  own  peculiar  use,  shorter  and  better  than 
any  school-drill  in  childhood  can  possibly  give  us,  and 
have  no  need  to  fill  our  heads,  to  start  with,  so  full  of 
dry,  abstract,  memorized  rules,  that  there  is  no  room 
for  brains  in  them. 

In  all  this  we  are  fully  aware  of  the  popular  mono- 
mania for  spelling,  or  of  the  pedant's  unpardonable 
sin  of  not  knowing  how  to  spell ;  and  of  the  common 
inq^ression,  that  if  a  child  is  not  drilled  for  years 
in  the  spelling  book  he  never  will  learn  to  spell.  Well, 
supix)se  it  is  so;  it  may  be  better  still  not  to  know  how 
to  spell  or  write  all  the  totally  absurd  words  in  the 
English  language,  than  it  is  to  know  nothing  else. 
The  man  who  can  make  a  plow,  or  invent  a  plow,  or 
hold  a  plow,  is  a  vastly  greater  man,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  than  one  who  can  only  spell  it,  however 
many  silent  letters  he  may  hitch  on  to  it. 

Reading  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  branches : 
reading  for  personal  information,  or  silent  reading, 
and  loud  reading  for  the  benefit  or  amusement  of  oth- 
ers, or  elocution.  The  first  is  of  vastly  the  most  con- 
se(|uence  to  all  children  in  our  common  schools.  The 
sole  thing  for  the  child  here  is,  that  he  should  learn  to 
associate  every  printed  word  vnth  its  common  conver- 
sational, natural  pronunciation  or  sound,  and  its  ex- 
act idea.  A  better  way  to  teach  him  exactly  how  not 
to  do  it  could  not  be  devised  than  to  set  him  to  de- 
claiming, in  an  unnatural  orotund  voice,  high  flights 
of  oratory,  or  poetry,  of  which  he  cannot  jxDssibly  have 
an  adequate  and  proper  conception,  no  more  than  \\t 
can  of  the  man  in  the  moon.  One  of  the  greatest 
curses  that  can  befall  any  man,  and  especially  any 
child,  is  to  form  the  habit  of  using  words  which  he 
feels  he  does  not  know  the  meaning  of 

In  writing,  a  child  ought,  first,  to  learn  to  write  his 
name  in  the  simplest  and  clearest  form  of  letters  jxjs- 
sible,  with  no  flourish  of  great,  sprawHng  capitals  or 
shadings  about  it.  He  should  approach  this  one  most 
useful  thing  to  be  achieved,  equally  necessary  to  all 
alike,  by  the  simplest  and  best  analysis  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  but  with  no  flour- 
ish of  trumpetsor  pens  whatever,  under  pretence  of  giv- 
ing him  a  free  hand,  or  making  him  an  expert  at  mere 
writing.  When  he  can  write  a  passable  letter  to  his 
young  friends,  he  should  be  let  alone,  and  left  to  prac- 
tice by  himself,  and  to  feel  that  something  is  really  ac- 
complished, actually  done  with  for  the  present,  and 
that  he  is  not  to  be  put  on  a  life  tramp  over  a  never- 
ending  sea  of  flourishes. 

Children  are  drilled  and  trained  and  schooled  in 
geography  till  they  are  well  nigh  schooled  out  of  the 
world,  instead  of  being  made  acquainted  with  what 
is  in  it.     They  start  with  a  wheelbarrow  full  of  books, 


20 


386 


EDUCATION. 


in  endless  series  and  progressions ;  of  all  imaginable 
shapes,  forms,  sizes  and  editions ;  with  the  last  improv- 
ed edition  in  their  satchel  as  a  specimen.  A  school 
boy  of  eight  or  ten  years  really  needs  a  dray-cart  to 
get  his  books  to  school  with,  and  back  again;  and  he 
is  drilled  in  this  matter  af  geography  as  though  it  was 
expected  that  his  future  life-work  was  to  be  world- 
making,  and  that  he  was  in  great  danger  of  getting 
some  island  of  two  acres  in  the  South  Seas  or  some 
village  in  Kamtschatka  misplaced,  or  of  making  some 
river  in  Africa  to  run  up  hill.  But  most  probably  the 
jxx)r  child  will  never  make  a  world  in  all  his  life; 
though  he  may  get  his  head  so  full  of  mere  memorized 
names  and  localiues  that  there  is  room  for  nothing 
else  in  it. 

Then  comes  grammar,  with  another  host  of  memor- 
ized rules,  which  every  sensible  man  takes  special 
pains  to  forget  as  soon  as  he  possibly  can,  in  order  to 
make  room,  in  his  head,  for  matters  of  more  impor- 
tance. 

The  boy  who  has  learned  not  to  swear  when  he 
pounds  his  fingers  with  a  hammer,  and  the  girl  who 
has  not  learned  to  exclaim,  "Oh,  dear!"  or  "Awful," 
when  she  breaks  a  teacup  or  bespatters  her  dress, 
has  already  learned  the  most  important  rules  in  the 
.  use  of  the  English  language.  For  the  remainder,  if  in 
some  very  brief  book,  or  on  the  blackboard,  those 
errors  or  vulgarisms  most  common  in  each  location 
were  simply  pointed  out  to  the  pupil  for  practical  cor- 
rection, whenever  he  speaks  or  writes,  without  any 
wearisome  memorizing  of  abstract  rules  whatever,  it 
would  do  more  and  better  for  him,  as  a  child,  than  all 
that  Lindley  Murray  and  his  whole  succession  of 
grammatical  saints  have  written  from  his  day  to  ours. 
When  a  boy  has  decided  to  become  an  expert,  or  a 
teacher  of  language  or  of  literature,  then  he  should 
commence  the  metaphysical  study  of  grammar,  and 
not  before.  We  all  learn  language  and  use  language 
only  by  habit  and  by  imitation ;  and  never  by  rule. 
No  man,  from  Adam's  day  to  ours,  ever  yet  learned  a 
spoken  language  by  rule,  or  ever  will  so  learn  it ;  and 
those  few,  who  even  think  of  any  of  their  rules  while 
speaking  or  writing,  always  advertise  you  of  the  fact. 
Their  thoughtful,  stiff,  precise,  "  school-marm  "  mode 
of  utterance  always  seems  to  say  to  you  :  "  I  am  a 
pedant  or  a  pedagogue.  I  have  been  clean  through 
the  grammars.    I  know  a  thing  or  two  that  you  don't." 

Then  there  is  airthmetic.  Suppose  you  should 
take  a  boy  and  tie  upon  his  back  all  imaginable  sorts 
of  tin  cups,  and  gill-cups,  and  quart  and  gallon  cups ; 
tight  lace  him  with  all  sorts  of  tape-lines,  strings, 
sticks,  chains,  and  measures ;  fill  his  pockets  with  all 
sorts  of  old  coin  and  spring  steelyards;  put  all  sorts 
of  peck  measures,  baskets,  and  bushels  over  his  head, 
already  filled  brimfull  with  all  imaginable  sorts  of 
fractions  and  rules  of  fractions,  and  send  him  thus 
equipped  out  into  life  because  he  may  happen  to 
want  to  weigh  or  measure  something,  you  don't  know 
exactly  what,  in  after  years,  and  you  wish  to  have  his 
ai)paratus  always  with  him,  right  at  hand.  He  needs 
his  measures  ever  at  hand,  as  much  as  he  does  his 


memorized  rules  and  tables.  He  can  do  nothing  with- 
out the  one  any  more  than  the  other:  why  not  have 
both  always  at  hand  in  all  afterlife.'  If  a  man  is 
going  to  sea,  or  into  the  army  or  navy,  where  sudden 
emergencies  may  arrest  him,  with  no  possibility  of 
consulting  anew  either  tables  or  books  of  any  sort,  he 
should,  of  course,  have  the  most  essential  parts  of  his 
library  reprinted  on  his  brain ;  for  there  alone  it  be- 
comes practically  available.  And  so,  too,  he  must 
keep  all  his  other  apparatus  on  board,  or  along  with 
him.  But  how,  if  in  five  minutes  at  any  time,  he  can  go 
into  his  pantry  or  library,  and  find  whatever  of  these 
things  he  may  need  to  use  for  the  next  six  months, 
need  he  try  to  pack  them  round  with  him  all  his  life- 
time.' As  a  plain  matter  of  fact,  not  one  in  a  thou- 
sand ever  did  do  it  or  ever  will  do  it.  Men  of  action 
and  enterprise  will  not  burden  or  bother  their  heads 
with  retaining  such  scholastic  trifles.  They  will  soon 
throw  them  all  overboard,  to  make  room  for  some- 
thing vastly  better  and  more  imjxjrtant. 

Of  course,  all  of  these  studies  are  both  elemental 
and  fundamental,  the  indispensable  tools  of  all 
other  forms  of  knowledge.  But  how  much  time  shall 
we  spend  on  these  mere  elemental  tools,  before  we 
begin  to  look  out  toward  their  application  to  real  life 
as  it  is  and  must  be?  Shall  we  pause  over  these 
mere  elements  of  tools  for  the  whole  common-school 
period  of  life,  before  we  begin  to  cast  an  eye  out  to 
the  big  world  as  it  actually  is,  and  as  God  himself 
made  it,  solely  for  our  education .'  or,  shall  we  go 
through  the  thirty-nine  years'  course  of  Harvard,  in 
still  studying  these  mere  tools  and  elements  of  all 
human  knowledge.'  Where  shall  we  stop?  and  why? 
That  is  the  prime  question,  especially  for  all  our 
workingmen  on  farms  and  in  shops.  If  we  wanted 
to  make  a  practical  mechanic,  would  we  require  that 
he  should  first  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  theoretical  use  of  all  the  implements  and  tools  and 
machines  of  the  globe,  or  even  of  any  one  of 
them,  before  he  attempted  to  strike  a  blow,  under 
the  pretext  of  disciplining  him  for  his  trade,  or  of  giv- 
ing him  a  broad  culture  ?  Who,  that  really  knows 
anything  about  it,  does  not  know  that  such  sort  of  dis- 
cipline, is  dicipHne  to  the  death,  for  all  the  great  ends 
of  practical  industrial  life,  however  good  it  may  be 
for  mere  teachers  and  experts ;  and  that  such  broad 
culture,  even  in  their  case,  often  becomes  at  last  as 
broad  as  vacuity  itself?  It  is  true  they  get,  as  they 
say,  a  "  rounded  development," — as  round  as  a  stove- 
pipe, and  just  as  hollow.  The  whole  scheme  is 
pedantic,  scholastic,  arrificial,  and  unnatural.  God 
made  the  actual,  practical  world  of  honest  labor  as  it 
actually  is,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  properly  disciplin- 
ing, developing,  broadening,  and  rounding  out  all  the 
faculdes  of  man  ;  rounded,  not  like  a  stove-pipe,  full 
of  wind,  but  like  a  cannon-ball,  full  of  solid  metal, 
sure  of  its  aim  and  resistless  in  its  force ;  and  the 
man  or  the  boy  that  is  taken  out  of  this  great  common 
school  of  our  Heavenly  Father,  the  actual  service  and 
hard  work  of  the  shop  or  the  field,  for  more  than  half 
his  growing  years,  is  actually  robbed  of  the  best  and 


EDUCATION. 


387 


most  important  part  of  all  possible  education  for  any 
industrial  art  or  service  whatever. 

One  of  the  chief  evils  of  this  school  system  is  that 
the  book-makers  and  publishers  have  assumed  about 
as  absolute  control  of  the  schools  as  the  "politicians" 
have  of  the  post-offices ;  neither  teachers  nor  parents 
nor  committees  have  any  real  control  over  their  abso- 
lute practical  direction.  Publishers  often  pay  fabulous 
amounts  to  have  their  books  introduced.  They  will 
send  oily-tongued  agents  into  the  country  to  show  the 
superior  merit  of  their  series  of  books  over  those  in 
use.  He  will  offer  to  make  exchange — book  for  book 
— for  all  the  old  books  then  used  in  the  school.  This 
is  simply  done  to  get  the  pupils  to  using  their  line  of 
books,  knowing  that  when  once  introduced  they  will 
then  be  forced  to  pay  the  exorbitant  prices  at  which 
they  are  sold  ever  afterwards,  or  at  least  until  some 
other  man  comes  along  and  takes  them  up  and  re- 
places by  others.  An  agent  for  a  school-book  ijub- 
lishing  house  told  us  that  during  one  season  he  took 
up  about  80,000  volumes  of  school  books  from  the 
State  of  Wisconsin.  This  enormous  expense  of  fre- 
quent changing  and  salaries  and  expenses  of  agents 
have  to  be  paid  by  the  farmers.  Books  are,  of  course, 
generally  made  by  experts.  Every  expert  desires  duly 
t»  magnify  his  office  and  his  department:  a  mathe- 
matician naturally  thinks  that  God  and  nature  are 
nothing  but  an  unsolved  problem  in  mathematics ;  a 
chemist  thinks  they  are  all  in  the  bottom  of  his  cru- 
cible; a  linguist  or  an  elocutionist  thinks  they  are  all 
"  voice  and  nothing  more ;"  while  a  spelling-book 
maker  thinks  they  are  all  spelling,  and,  in  English  at 
least,  all  spelled  wrong.  Each  one  wants  to  make  a 
book  on  his  department:  he  wants  every  child  to  be 
"thorough,"  at  least  in  that.  He  soon  finds  that  it  will 
take  a  series  of  books  to  go  over  even  the  elements 
needful  to  an  expert,  and  that  if  you  were  to  begin 
with  a  child  as  soon  as  he  is  born,  and  drill  him  till  he 
is  older  than  the  archangels,  he  could  not  become  per- 
fect, even  in  that  single  department.  But  he  intends 
to  make  a  thorough  beginning,  so  he  crams  into  his 
new  series  of  books  all  the  little  unimaginable  rules 
and  trifles  that  the  human  race  in  twenty  centuries 
have  ever  thought  upon  the  subject.  The  first  dose 
is  homeopathic;  one  grain  of  science  diluted  by  a 
world  full  of  wind,  for  very  young  children;  each  dose 
becomes  a  little  more  allopathic  and  stiff  and  formal, 
than  the  preceding :  but  the  trouble  is,  you  never  get 
through  with  it :  you  are  never  done  with  it ;  never 
ready  to  throw  it  aside  and  pass  on  to  something  else. 
A  new  term  brings  you  flat  back  against  a  new  series 
on  the  same  subject :  you  don't  get  one  dose  fairly 
down  before  another  is  ready.  All  the  doses  are  com- 
posed mainly  of  the  three  R's,  "  readin',' "'ritin',"  and 
"  'rithmertic."  You  never  seem  to  get  out  of  that 
charmed  circle. 

The  book-maker  likes  all  this :  the  more  series  there 
are,  the  more  printing  and  binding  and  sales  and 
profits  in  all  respects, — especially  as  it  is  morally  cer- 
tain that  no  two  children  or  pupils  of  any  sort  will 
continue  to  use  the  same  books  in  succession;  and  a 


totally  new  series,  full  of  most  wonderful  improve- 
ments, even  on  the  dead  classics,  is  sure  to  be  bom  at 
least  once  a  year,  and  to  out-rival  everything  that  pre- 
ceded it. 

A  man  with  much  of  a  family  needs  to  build  an 
out-house  for  the  storing  of  his  old  cast-off  school- 
books.  He  cannot  manage,  economically,  to  burn 
them  up  for  kindling  wood  as  fast  as  the  book-makers 
want  him  to  buy  them.  But  the  main  trouble  is,  they 
are  all  made  by  experts;  and  th^y  usually,  either  like; 
commentaries  on  the  Bible,  explain  everything  except 
the  precise  ix)int  that  needs  explanation,  or  adjust 
their  explanation  to  the  wants  of  a  preconceived*ex- 
pert,  rather  than  to  those  of  a  common  child.  What 
would  we  say  of  a  child's  book  on  human  teeth  or 
eyes,  which  attempted  to  embody  in  it  all  the  little 
rules  and  minute  facts  essential  to  the  expert  oculist, 
or  dentist.?  What  of  a  child's  book  on  the  plow,  with 
all  the  miners',  and  forgers',  and  wood-workers',  and 
painters',  and  holders',  and  teamsters'  and  farmers' 
rules  for  making,  and  handling,  and  using  it,  embodied 
in  an  everlasting  series  of  most  thorough  and  impor- 
tant rules,  to  be  committed  to  memory  by  the  tyro 
learner  about  the  plow,  in  order  to  make  him  thorough 
in  his  knowledge  of  it,  well-disciplined,  and  well 
rounded  out?  Or  what  should  we  say  if  it  was  a  rule 
of  the  school,  that  every  child  alike,  who  took  up  sing- 
ing, should  advance  precisely  so  far  in  it  before  he 
was  allowed  to  take  up  anything  else,  wholly  irre- 
spective of  his  natural  taste  and  aptitude  for  music? 
Some  might  sing  till  the  stars  fall,  and  do  nothing 
else,  and  still  never  be  singers.  Precisely  so:  some 
children  never  would  make  good  spellers,  or  elocu- 
tionists, or  grammarians,  or  arithmeticians,  if  they  were 
drilled  on  them  to  all  eternity;  while  they  might  all  easily 
excel  in  some  one  of  these  things,  or  in  other  things 
outside  of  them.  The  teacher  has  little  chance  to  get 
hold  of  this  matter:  like  the  postmaster,  he  must  use 
the  materials  actually  furnished  him,  simply  because 
he  can  get  no  others ;  or,  if  he  could,  it  is  doubtful  if 
the  community  would  tolerate  him  in  the  change. 

We  hope  these  observations  may  have  the  desired 
result  of  aiding  the  reformation  of  the  present  school 
system.  As  it  is,  we  can  justly  Ixsast  of  its  superiority 
over  that  afforded  by  any  other  nation.  There  are 
needed  reforms,  however,  as  the  above  full  descrip- 
tion of  very  much  of  the  present  plan  clearly  indicates. 
With  a  few  remarks  in  reference  to  the  teachers,  the 
school  and  the  proper  discipline  of  the  school,  we  will 
pass  to  a  treatise  of  agricultural  education. 

The  exercise  of  the  supreme  ix)wer  in  a  school  is 
generally  vested  in  the  teacher,  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  those  from  whom  he  receives  his  appointment. 
We  call  to  mind  that  in  our  system  of  civil  gov- 
ernment there  are  three  departments — the  legisla- 
tive, judicial,  and  executive.  These  in  the  school  are 
usually  united  in  the  person  of  the  teacher,  making 
his  duties  sometimes  trying,  and  always  responsible. 
He  frames  the  rules  of  action  for  the  pupils  while 
they  are  intrusted  to  his  care;  he  is  master  to  direct, 
friend  to  advise,  teacher  to  instruct,  and  executive  to 


388 


EDUCAT/O^r. 


enforce  his  rules.  It  is  his  duty  to  look  after  the 
health,  secure  the  comfort,  protect  the  rights,  and  pre- 
serve the  morals  of  his  pupils. 

As  he  assumes  to  be  a  teacher,  there  are  those  who 
expect  him  to  be  learned,  wise,  careful,  prudent,  ami- 
able, gentle,  sociable,  forbearing,  long-suffering,  impar- 
tial, charitable,  diligent,  attentive,  studious,  energetic, 
polite,  commanding,  healthy,  omniscient,  and  omni- 
present. Such  expectations  are  never  realized,  and 
consequently  it  will  not  be  surprising  that  he  does  not 
give  full  satisfaction  to  all  his  i)upils  and  their  parents. 
Still,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  as  a  class  teachers 
do  "possess  at  least  the  desire  to  do  right. 

The  teacher  has  rights,  it  must  be  remembered,  and 
which  are  due  to  his  jMsition,  his  age,  and  his  supe- 
rior acquirements.  He  also  has  feelings  as  tender, 
sensibilities  as  delicate,  pride  as  sensitive,  and  self- 
love  as  strong  as  any  of  his  pupils,  and  no  pupil  has 
a  right  to  imjxjse  \.\\x>\\  him  in  violation  of  the  golden 
rule.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  he  shall  be  over- 
come by  passion,  prejudice,  or  pride,  unless  under 
very  strong  provocations ;  but  wliat  moral  right  has  any 
one  to  exercise  his  patience  by  provocation  ?  Teacher 
and  pupils  are  under  the  same  obligations  to  each 
other  to  be  kind,  patient,  charitable,  and  forgiving. 
It  may  safely  be  said,  however,  that  whenever  the  pu- 
pils of  a  school  endeavor  to  do  right,  no  fear  need  be 
entertained  that  any  teacher  will  attempt  to  provoke 
them  to  act  differently. 

It  is  the  interest  of  the  teacher  to  make  every  rea- 
sonable exertion  to  secure  the  friendship  of  his  pupils. 
Those  who  meet  him  in  a  spirit  of  friendliness,  and 
show  a  disfxisition  to  please  him  will,  of  course,  be 
more  esteemed  than  those  who  are  indifferent  to  his 
feelings  and  comfort.  The  teacher  will  necessarily  be 
more  attracted  to  those  who  are  kind,  polite  and  at- 
tentive and  who  manifest  a  disiX)sition  to  make  them- 
selves agreeable.  To  do  otherwise  would  be  unnatural. 
His  favorites  are  those  to  whom  his  sympathies  aredrawn 
by  acts  of  kindness  and  respect.  But  while  he  may  ad- 
mire and  love  some  pupils  for  their  agreeable  qualities, 
itdoes  not  follow  that  he  shall  dislike  or  hate  those  who 
have  not  tried  to  win  his  favor.  He  may  be  kind,  at- 
tentive, and  faithful  to  every  one  in  school,  and  yet  he 
may  and  must  be  partial  to  such  as  try  to  do  their 
duty. 

The  term  partiality  is  often  used  to  indicate  a  want 
of  fairness  on  the  partof  the  teacher.  If  investigated 
thoroughly,  the  charge  will  frequently  be  found  to 
originate  with  such  pupils  as  are  conscious  of  their 
own  neglect  of  duty,  and  their  indisposition  to  make 
an  effort  to  merit  the  teacher's  friendship.  The  teach- 
er is  in  honor  bound  to  do  justice  to  all  his  pupils; 
but  that  he  should  be  expected  to  possess  an  equal  re- 
gard for  all  is  absurd.  Jealousy  and  ill  nature  are 
generally  the  causes  that  originate  the  charge  of  unfair 
partiality  in  school. 

Common  sense  forbids  the  idea  that  any  teacher 
should  exercise  injustice  toward  a  pupil  without  a 
cause,  and  in  opposition  to  self-interest;  and  yet, 
when  the  impression  of  partiality  takes  hold  of  some 


minds,  it  is  almost  impossible  by  any  reasoning  to  re- 
move it.  It  is  so  mingled  with  passion,  prejudice,  and 
pride  that  its  correction  seems  an  almost  hopeless 
task.  The  sooner  such  a  habit  of  mind  is  overcome 
by  the  exercise  of  reason  and  charity,  the  happier  will 
all  parties  be  in  school. 

School  Habits.  A  good  education  is  but  little 
more  than  the  formation  of  good  habits.  To  insure  a 
systematic  training  in  all  that  is  necessary  to  fit  a 
young  man  or  woman  for  good  society,  time,  patience, 
and  industry  are  required.  Good  habits  must  be 
formed.  There  are  certain  rules  which  experience  has 
proven  to  be  necessary  in  the  management  of  every 
good  school.  These  are  not  merely  arbitrary  regula- 
tions; they  are  founded  in  reason,  and  cannot  be  dis- 
pensed with,  if  the  school  shall  be  made  to  accom- 
plish the  design  of  its  organization.  Their  observance 
will  insure  habits  of  attention,  punctuality,  regularity, 
and  self-control,  that  are  an  essential  part  of  a  good  ed- 
ucation, while  their  neglect  will  certainly  entail  a  life 
of  mortification,  annoyance,  and  failure. 

The  welfare  of  the  school,  the  progress  of  each  pu- 
pil, and  the  comfort  and  success  of  the  teacher  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  unfailing  attendance  of  every 
member.  There  is  a  moral  obligation  resting  \\\x>n 
each  person  at  school  that  he  shall  do  nothing  to  in- 
terfere with  the  rights  of  his  neighbors.  It  is  his  duty, 
therefore,  to  be  present  each  day,  unless  prevented  by 
some  unavoidable  occurrence.  'l"he  waste  of  time, 
the  hindrance  in  study,  and  the  annoy  ance  to  teacherand 
pupils  occasioned  by  unnecessary  absence,  has  ruined 
many  a  school ;  and  the  habits  of  c;;relcssness,  indif- 
ference, and  irregularity,  arising  from  the  same  cause, 
have  blasted  the  prospect  of  many  a  pupil.  Self- 
respect,  self-interest,  and  the  love  of  the  right  should 
compel  every  pupil  to  spare  no  effort  to  secure  a  con- 
stant attendance. 

Agricultural  Education.  Not  an  art  is  prac- 
ticed by  man  which  includes  a  greater  variety  of  oper- 
ations or  involves  a  greater  amount  of  scientific  princi- 
ples than  fanning;  and  yet  almost  every  other  art  is 
popularly  regarded  as  far  more  technical  and  intricate, 
and  as  requiring  far  higher  qualifications,  and  a  far 
more  systematic  and  prolonged  course  of  preparation 
for  its  successful  performance.  Popular  opinion  justly 
imposes  a  long  apprenticeship-  upon  every  candidate 
for  any  department  of  mere  handicraft,  a  long  course 
of  preparatory  study  upon  every  candidate  for  scientific 
or  intellectual  employment,  and  both  an  apprenticeship 
and  a  course  of  preparatory  study  ujxin  every  candi- 
date for  several  of  such  professions  as  comline  art 
and  science;  and  yet,  with  marvelous  inconsistency, 
it,  in  most  instances,  imix)ses  no  apprenticeship  and 
no  special  study  whatever  upon  the  candidate  for  an 
employment  far  more  noble  and  intricate  than  any 
handicraft,  and  eminently  combining  the  influence  of 
at  least  two-thirds  of  all  the  physical  sciences  with 
the  most  varied  manipulations  of  complex  art.  How 
*  monstrous  is  it  that,  while  one  man  is  apprenticed  two 
or  three  years  in  order  to  make  a  shoe,  another  is  not 
apprenticed  at  all  in  order  to  manage  a  farm !  that 


EDUCATION. 


389 


while  one  is  required  for  many  years  to  be  both  an  ap- 
prentice and  a  student  in  order  to  make  the  contents 
of  a  statute  book  bear  ujwn  a  case  of  litigation,  an- 
other is  not  reiiuired  to  be  either  a|)prentice  or  student 
in  order  to  make  the  experience  of  all  countries  and 
ages  of  the  civilizjd  world,  and  the  principles  and  dis- 
coveries of  some  of  the  most  prominent  and  complex 
of  human  sciences,  bear  iqwn  the  diversified  aad 
multitudinous  practices  of  agriculture!  One  year  as  a 
shoemaker's  apprentice,  and  three  years  as  a  young 
lawyer,  ought  to  be  every  particle  as  effective  as  seven 
years  as  a  candidate  for  farming ;  and  with  not  more 
than  one  or  two  exceptions,  not  an  artificer,  an  artist, 
or  a  i)rofessional  exists,  who  requires  more  special 
training  or  alargeramount  of  technical  knowledge  than 
a  farmer,  or  who  possesses  equal  facilities  to  turn  a  lib- 
eral and  munificent  education  to  practical  account. 
Were  the  next  generation  of  farmers  all  over  the  civil- 
ized world  to  be  educated  comparatively  with  other 
men  in  something  like  the  proportionsof  their  callings, 
human  society  would  at  one  move  experience  almost 
as  great  a  transition  as  when  it  passed  from  the  deg- 
radation of  the  feudal  ages  to  the  dignity  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Even  an  old  Roman  author,  amid 
the  material  condition  of  a  proud,  vicious,  and  heath- 
enish empire,  had  the  sagacity  to  see  the  paramount 
im[X)rtance  of  agricultural  education,  and  the  honesty 
to  utter  his  astonishment  at  its  neglect.  "  Nothing 
equals  my  surprise"  says  he,  "when  1  consider  tjiat 
while  those  who  desire  to  learn  to  speak  well,  select 
an  author  whose  eloquence  may  serve  them  as  a: 
model;  while  those  who  are  anxious  to  dance,  or  be- 
come good  musicians,  employ  a  dancing  or  a  music 
master ;  in  short,  that  while  every  one  looks  for  the 
best  master,  in  order  to  make  the  best  progress  under 
his  instructions,  the  most  important  science,  next  to 
that  of  wisdom,  has  neither  pupils  nor  teachers.  We 
have  seen  schools  established  for  teaching  rhetoric, 
♦geometry,  music,  dancing,  etc.,  and  have  never  yet 
seen  a  master  to  teach  agriculture,  or  a  pupil  to  learn 
it. 

Actual  farmers  who  have  had  no  special  training, 
in  multitudes  of  instances,  improve  their  knowledge 
and  their  general  qualifications  by  free  intercourse  with 
persons  better  informed  than  themselves,  by  accepting 
the  advantages  of  example  and  instruction  afforded  on 
the  home  or  model  farms  of  many  well  conducted  es- 
tates, by  watching  the  proceedings  and  receiving  the 
assistance  of  the  agricultural  societies  of  their  county 
or  district,  by  attending  any  occasional  or  serial  agri- 
cultural lectures  which  professional  or  scientific  gen- 
tlemen may  deliver  in  their  vicinity,  and  by  making  a 
diligent  and  discriminating  use  of  one  or  more  of  the 
best  books  on  agriculture.  Thousands  of  the  worst 
instructed  class  of  farmers  might  by  the  use  of  sev- 
eral of  these  means,  or  even  of  any  one  of  them, 
speedily  acquire  such  knowledge  as  would  enable  them 
to  draw  20  or  30  per  cent,  of  additional  produce  from 
their  farms. 

All  descriptions  of  young  persons  training  to  be 
fanners  require  to  spend  a  large  portion  of  their  time 


upon  a  farm,  to  observe  with  all  possible  frequency  the 
practices  of  the  farm  and  the  field,  to  take  full  and 
daily  i)art  in  the  operations  of  every  season,  and  to 
learn,  in  a  practical  manner,  the  nature  and  conditions 
of  every  piece  of  labor,  from  the  coarsest  drudgery  to 
the  nicest  and  most  artistic  performance.  Mere  look- 
ing on,  mere  reading,  mere  listening,  mere  occasional 
acting,  or  all  of  these  four  combined,  will  far  less  en- 
able a  man  to  conduct  a  farm  than  even  teach  him  to 
make  a  shoe  or  construct  a  steam  engine.  Pupil  farm- 
ers do  not  require,  indeed,  to  become  adepts  in  every 
agricultural  practice ;  they  do  not  need  to  be  the  best 
workmen  on  the  farm,  the  ablest  plowmen,  the  most 
skillful  sowers,  the  most  expert  manipulators  of  the 
stable  and  the  barn  ;  yet  they  certainly  must  acquire 
sufficient  proficiency  in  every  art  and  process,  or  at 
least  sufficient  practical  acquaintance  with  the  tact 
and  method  of  performing  it,  and  to  judge  when  it  is 
well  and  expertly  done.  They  must  fully  obey,  and 
they  must  know  how  to  command;  they  must  take 
part  in  everything,  that  they  may  learn  to  make  judi- 
cious applications  of  the  grand  economical  principle 
of  the  division  of  labor ;  they  ought,  in  fact,  to  recjuire 
the  same  comprehensive  views  of  the  operations  of 
the  farm  as  the  farmer  himself. 

Yet  mere  practical  learning,  as  we  have  already 
hinted,  will  as  completely  fail  to  make  a  man  a  wise 
farmer  as  a  mere  theory.  The  pupil,  by  carefully  im- 
itating all  around  him,  may  become  a  very  expert 
monkey  ;  but,  unless  he  learn  a  reason  for  every  oper- 
ation, he  will  never  farm  like  a  rational  being.  His 
business,  in  preparing  to  become  a  farmer,  is  to  learn 
the  science  of  agriculture  as  well  as  the  art,  the  prin- 
ciples of  it  as  well  as  the  practices.  He  ought  there- 
fore, during  the  whole  course  of  his  practical  instruc- 
tion on  the  farm,  to  be  receiving  explanations  of  the 
phenomena  which  he  witnesses  and  the  practices  in 
which  he  shares,  to  be  soliciting  information  respect- 
ing every  matter  which  he  does  not  clearly  under- 
stand, and  to  be  exercising  his  judgment  as  to  the 
fittest  mode  of  performing  operations,  the  likeliest 
mode  of  overcoming  difficulties,  and  the  most  feasible 
mode  of  attempting  improvements.  When  he  is  un- 
der the  care  of  a  father  or  a  kind  master  who  farms 
intelligently,  and  possesses  a  fair  share  of  science,  he 
ouglit  to  acquire  from  him  a  large  amount  of  requisite 
intellectual  instruction  ;  yet  even  in  this  case,  and  un- 
speakably more,  if  he  be  under  the  care  of  a  mere 
imitative  farmer,  he  requires  the  aid  of  such  stores  of 
knowledge  as  can  be  obtained  only  from  other  sources 
and  by  separate  study.  He  needs,  in  fact,  to  be  scien-  ■ 
tifically  trained  with  books  and  by  a  schoolmaster,  not 
less  than  to  be  practically  trained  with  implements 
and  Vjy  the  farmer. 

Whatever  any  ordinary  school  can  furnish,  in  the 
departments  of  English  education,  writing,  arithmetic, 
book-keeping,  and  elementary  mathematics,  ought,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  to  be  acquired  by  every  son  of  a 
farmer,  and  by  every  other  boy  who  is  likely  to  be- 
come an  agriculturist. 

The  old  view  that  anybody  could  be  a  farmer  is 


390 


EELS— EGGS. 


passing  away.  Farmers  are  "  looking  over  the  fence  " 
more  than  ever  before ;  they  observe,  and  imitate  when 
it  seems  desirable.  This  awakening  of  thought  has 
developed  into  the  establishment  of  various  agricul- 
tural schools,  many  of  which  have  been  unsuccessful, 
and  for  various  reasons.  Too  much  was  expected  of 
them  ;  the  teachers  were  not  trained  to  their  work,  and 
the  pupils,  in  many  cases,  have  been  educated  away 
from  the  farm.  The  love  for  farming  and  fann  life 
must  be  developed  in  the  child.  The  home  teachings 
mainly  shape  the  farmer  boy's  future.  Object  lessons, 
instead  of  book  lessons,  must  interest  and  instruct  the 
young — and  the  farm  with  all  its  plants  and  animals 
offers  the  very  best  opportunities  for  this  training  of  the 
powers  of  observation.  Study  nature  and  refer  to 
books,  and  not  study  books  and  afterwards  refer  to 
nature. 

The  great  lack  in  the  farmer's  education  is  system  and 
balance.  In  no  occupation  is  there  geater  demand 
for  independent  thought  and  accurate  judgment.  To 
obtain  these  he  must  read  the  best  agricultural  pa- 
pers, establish  and  attend  farmers'  clubs,  take  part  in 
the  annual  exhibitions,  and  in  every  way  possible  meet 
his  fellow  farmers,  that  by  so  doing  he  may  increase 
his  knowledge. 

There  is  much  work  for  agriculture  to  be  done  in 
the  common  school.  The  apparatus  required  is  sim- 
ple and  cheap,  and  plants,  etc.,  are  always  at  hand. 
A  text-book  of  the  rudiments  of  farming  could  be  put 
into  every  common  school  with  great  advantage  to 
every  child.  Scientific  methods  should  he  cultivated 
in  youth;  the  method  is  as  valuable  as  the  facts.  The 
only  reason  for  this  lack  of  agricultural  instruction  is 
the  indifference  of  the  people.  Every  teacher  of  a 
district  or  common  school  should  know  enough  of 
budding  and  grafting  to  teach  the  scholars  by  practi- 
cal lessons.  The  leading  principles  of  vegetable 
physiology,  as  taught  in  Gray's  First  Lessons,  may  be 
understood  by  any  intelligent  teacher  in  the  course  of 
a  few  days,  in  connection  with  a  little  voluntary  field 
practice.  Youn-^  students  may  understand  a  great 
deal  about  germination  by  planting  beans,  peas,  corn, 
wheat,  etc.,  and  examining  the  progress  of  the  young 
shoots  every  day.  They  can  try  the  effect  of  planting 
at  different  depths  at  the  same  time.  They  can  trace 
the  length  of  roots  from  young  trees.  A  few  ligatures 
about  the  limbs  of  trees  will  show  them  much  in  rela- 
tion to  circulation,  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  Every 
teacher  should  show  his  pupils  how  to  bud  and  graft, 
and  to  raise  plants  from  cuttings  and  layers.  He 
should  explain  the  principles  to  them  on  which  suc- 
cess depends.  These  things  should  be  well  under- 
stood by  both  girls  and  boys  ;  they  will  not  only  prove 
attractive  and  interesting,  but  be  useful  all  their  days. 
Young  men  spend  years  in  the  study  of  Latin  and 
algebra,  which  are  useful;  but  one-tenth  of  this  time 
given  to  the  fascinating  and  useful  arts  connected 
with  vegetable  growth,  would  be  more  valuable  for  the 
time  devoted.  Young  ladies  study  French  and  craj'on 
work  for  years,  but  if  they  could  cut  off  a  few  frag- 
ments of  this  time,  and  give  them  to  some  of  the  arts 


connected  with  horticulture,  it  would  be  better  for 
their  health,  their  minds,  and  add  much  to  their  use- 
fulness. 

As  a  stimulus  and  an  aid  in  bringing  about  this  sys- 
tem in  agricultural  education,  schools  of  a  few  months' 
duration,  in  the  winter  season  it  may  be,  might  be 
held  at  various  points  in  the  State.  The  nation  is 
safest  only  when  the  youth  are  educated  thoroughly; 
and  agriculture  is  on  a  sound  and  permanent  basis 
only  when  the  boys,  and  girls  too,  are  instructed  in  the 
elements  of  farming. 

E.  E.,  "  Errors  Excepted."  These  initial  letters 
are  written  upon  bills  of  purchase  or  statements  of 
account  to  keep  them  open  for  future  correction. 

Eels  afford  light  nourishing  food,  but  they  are  gen- 
erally considered  better  from  this  point  of  view  when 
fried  than  when  boiled.  They  should  be  well  sea- 
soned. They  are  sometimes  salted,  in  which  con- 
dition they  are  very  wholesome  eating.  Wash  them 
clean,  and  cut  them  in  pieces,  season  them  with 
pepper  and  salt,  flour  them,  and  fry  them  in  butter. 
Let  the  sauce  be  a  plain  melted  butter,  with  a  piece 
of  lemon,  or  a  little  fish  sauce  may  be  added. 

Eel  Pie.  Make  a  rich  pie-crust,  and  gut,  clean 
and  wash  enough  eels  to  fill  the  dish ;  season  with 
salt,  pepper,  mace,  etc.,  to  your  taste ;  put  in  as  much 
water  as   the  dish  will  hold  and  cover  with  the  paste. 

Eggs.  The  constitution  of  an  egg  exhibits  very 
many  and  most  striking  evidences  of  the  design  and 
beneficence  of  the  Creator,  in  the  form  of  perfect  and 
wonderful  adaptations  jointly  to  its  immediate  pur- 
pose of  developing,  feeding,  and  maturing  an  embryo 
bird,  and  to  its  incidental  and  secondary  though 
scarcely  less  important  purpose  of  affording  food  to 
man  and  to  other  animals.  Yet  so  very  numerous 
are  both  the  chemical  and  the  vital  processes  involved 
in  the  transmutation  of  its  minute  embryo  into  a  per- 
fect bird,  that  the  exact  provisions  for  some  of  the 
more  recondite  of  them  have  hitherto  eluded  the 
scrutiny  of  the  keenest  human  observation.  A  certain 
degree  of  porosity  in  the  shell  permits  a  comparatively 
free  interchange  of  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere  with 
the  evolving  gases  of  the  interior ;  the  detachment  of 
a  portion  of  the  membrana  putaminis  at  the  great  end 
of  the  egg  permits  a  small  and  increasing  volume  of 
atmospheric  air  to  be  stored  up  there,  as  in  a  cell,  for 
the  ready  use  of  the  developing  embryo ;  the  mem- 
branous envelopments  of  respectively  the  white  and 
the  yolk  together  with  their  two  connecting  ligaments, 
admirably  preserve  them  from  intermixture,  while 
both  the  thinness  of  these  envelopments  and  the 
ready  permeability  of  their  own  interior  just  as  admir- 
ably permit  an  interchange  of  influences  or  a  mutual 
reaction  of  chemical  jx)wer;  and  the  peculiar  com- 
position of  the  shell  most  beautifully  combines  the 
properties  of  a  strong  shield,  a  jxjrous  sheath,  a  smooth 
coat,  and  a  frangible  or  facile  doorway ;  while  the 
chemical  elements  of  both  the  white  and  the  yolk,  be- 
sides jxjssessing  mighty  mutual  adaptation  for  devel- 
oping the  bird,  are  singularly  eminent  in  nutrition,  and 


EGGS. 


391 


exert  almost  the  highest  possible  power  as  food  both 
in  the  embryo  bird  and  upon  the  digestive  system  of 
a  human  being. 

Great  chemical  changes  necessarily  take  place  ujx))! 
all  the  contents  yf  an  egg  during  the  process  of  incu- 
bation, and  if  they  could  be  examined  and  tested  one 
by  one,  or  stage  by  stage,  they  would  unquestionably 
unfold  a  manifold  and  most  instructive  display  of  the 
sutordi nation  of  chemical  behavior  to  vital  action. 
When  incubation  is  complete,  all  the  interior  has  lost 
its  dead  matter,  and  is  occupied  with  a  perfectly  formed 
animal,  whose  organization  is  as  complex,  intricate, 
and  wonderful  as  that  of* an  elephant  or  of  man;  the 
inert  mass  with  its  mainly  chemical  influences  has 
almost  wholly  disappeared,  and  a  perfect  bird,  with  its 
mainly  vital  jx)wers  and  its  multitudinous  organic 
functions,  is  present. 

Eggs  of  the  hen  are  hatched  by  being  kept  at  a 
temperature  of  104°  for  three  weeks.  Their  vitality 
has  been  retained  after  being  exposed  to  a  temper- 
ature of  10'  Fahr.,  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
freezing  point  of  new-laid  eggs  is  much  lower  than 
that  of  the  water  and  albumen  of  which  they  princi- 
pally consist,  and  both  of  which  congeal  at  about  the 
same  temperature.  Eggs,  too,  that  have  been  once 
frozen,  or  have  been  long  kept,  freeze  at  the  ix)int 
their  constituents  would  seem  to  require.  The  specific 
gravity  of  new-laid  eggs  is  from  1.08  to  1.09.  By 
keeping  they  diminish  in  weight  from  evajxjration  of 
water,  and  the  substitution  of  air  through  the  jwres  of 
the  shell.  This  diminution  has  been  observed  to 
continue  for  two  years,  an  egg  weighing  originally 
9°1%  grains  being  reduced  to  363.2  grains.  When 
they  have  lost  so  much  weight  as  to  float  upon  water, 
they  are  generally  unsound.  The  preventing  of  this 
evaporation  by  covering  their  surface  with  a  coating  of 
varnish,  wax,  gum  arable,  or  lard,  checks  their  putre- 
faction. It  is  said  that  if  every  new-laid  egg  was  at 
once  rubbed  over  with  sweet  butter  it  would  be  a  rare 
thing  to  see  one  unsound.  Hens'  eggs  vary  so  much 
in  gravity  that  it  is  a  wonder  they  continue  to  be  sold 
by  numbers  instead  of  weight.  A  dozen  of  the  largest 
have  been  found  to  weigh  24  ounces,  while  the  same 
number  of  smaller  ones  of  the  same  stock  weighed  only 
145^  ounces.  The  fair  average  weight  is  said  to  be 
about  22^  ounces  to  the  dozen.  About  one-third  of 
tTie  entire  weight  may  be  regarded  as  nitrogenous 
and  nutritious  matter,  a  greater  ixjrtion  than  that  of 
meat,  which  is  rated  at  only  from  20  to  28  per  cent., 
while  the  nutritive  portion  of  the  oyster  is  only  about  1 2 
per  cf  nt. 

Eggs  as  Food.  Raw  eggs  are  gently  laxative,  and 
are  found  to  be  serviceable  in  jaundice  and  obstruc- 
tions of  the  liver.  Eggs  have  the  peculiar  quality  of 
singularly  affecting  some  stomachs,  while  on  others 
they  do  not  produce  the  slightest  sensation.  The 
white  of  an  egg  closely  resembles  the  lymph  of  the 
blood ;  the  yolk  is  an  animal  mucilage.  Eggs  yield  a 
mild  demulcent  and  strengthening  food;  but  they 
are  mostly  digestible  when  boiled  so  long  as  is  neces- 
sary to  slightly  coagulate  the  greater  part  of  the  white 


without  depriving  the  yolk  of  its  fluidity.  Raw  eggs 
are  more  wholesome  than  boiled,  or  even  than  those 
lightly  jx)ached,  which  are  very  digestible.  The  white 
of  an  egg,  from  its  tendency  to  coagulate  into  a  hard 
and  indigestible  substance,  is  likely  to  disagree  with 
the  stomach  of  invalids,  when  the  yolk  may  prove 
perfectly  harmless.  Eggs  become  more  difficult  of  di- 
gestion by  being  kept. 

To  Preserve  Eggs.  How  to  preserve  eggs  for 
winter  use  has  long  been  a  matter  of  great  solicitude. 
Among  the  processes  in  use  by  dealers  and  others  is 
"  liming."  This  is  done  by  taking  slacked  lime  and 
salt,  a  half  pound  each  to  a  bucket  of  water.  Some 
dealers  use  no  salt,  but  instead  add  to  the  lime  a  small 
quantity  of  nitre,  say  a  quarter  of  a  ix)und  to  half  a 
barrel  of  pickle.  The  eggs  to  be  preserved  in  this 
solution  must  be  thoroughly  tested  to  be  certain  that 
they  are  fresh.  This  is  generally  done  by  "  sunning  " 
them  through  a  roll  of  paper.  The  liquid  must  fully 
cover  the  eggs.  If  they  are  kept  in  a  cool  jjlace  they 
will  remain  good  for  several  months.  Long  storage, 
however,  in  this  way,  is  apt  to  make  the  shells  brittle, 
and  impart  a  limy  taste  to  their  contents.  "  Limed 
eggs  "  generally  sell  several  cents  lower  in  the  market 
than  fresh  ones.  The  effect  of  the  lime  may  in  some 
measure  be  avoided  by  anointing  the  eggs  all  over 
with  lard  before  putting  them  in  the  pickle,  though 
this  would  be  too  expensive  for  large  dealers ;  this 
plan  can  be  practiced  by  housewives,  and  thus  they 
can  preserve  eggs  for  six  months  or  more,  when  stored 
in  a  cool  celler. 

The  following  is  said  to  be  a  better  method  of  stor- 
ing eggs :  Select  perfectly  fresh  eggs,  put  a  dozen  or 
more  in  a  small  willow  basket,  and  immerse  this  for 
five  seconds  in  boihng  water,  containing  about  five 
lX)unds  of  brown  sugar  per  gallon  of  water.  Place 
the  eggs  immediately  after  on  trays,  to  dry.  The  scald- 
ing water  causes  the  formation  of  a  thin  skin  of  hard 
albumen  next  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell,  the  sugar 
effectually  closing  all  the  pores  of  the  latter.  The 
cool  eggs,  when  packed,  small  end  down  in  fresh  salt, 
or  in  a  mixture  of  one  measure  of  finely  powdered 
charcoal,  and  two  measures  of  bran,  keep  nicely,  be- 
ing found  perfectly  fresh  after  having  been  thus  stored 
for  six  months. 

A  French  authority  gives  the  following:  Melt  four 
ounces  of  beeswax,  and  stir  in  eight  ounces  ol  olive 
oil.  Let  the  mixture  cool  somewhat,  then  dip  the 
fresh  eggs  into  it,  so  as  to  coat  every  part  of  the  shell. 
Wipe  ofl"  with  a  cloth.  The  absorption  of  the  oil  by 
the  shell,  and  the  sealing  of  the  pores  by  the  wax, 
make  the  treatirtent  perfect.  It  is  claimed  that  eggs 
thus  treated,  then  packed  in  charcoal,  and  stored  in  a 
cool  place,  have  been  known  to  keep  perfectly  fresh 
for  two  years.    • 

Dry  salt  was  the  old  means  for  preserving  eggs  for 
the  household,  btit  experience  has  proved  that  it  is  lit- 
tle better  than  bran. 

A  mixture  of  eight  measures  of  bran,  with  one  of 
powdered  quicklime,  makes  an  excellent  packing  for 
eggs  for  transportation. 


392 


EGG-NOGG. 


vA  very  jwpular  method  is  to  grease  or  oil  the  eggs, 
with  fresh  grease  or  oil,  place  them  in  salt,  ashes,  slack- 
ed lime,  oats,  sawdust  or  bran,  and  keep  them  in  a 
dry,  cool  place,  but  wiiere  they  will  not  freeze.  Sim- 
yjle  scalding,  by  dipping  in  boiling  water  quickly  three 
times  and  out,  and  packing  in  oats,  etc.,  is  also  recom- 
mended. 

If  eggs  are  not  stored  when  perfectly  fresh  they  will 
not  keep  under  any  circumstances.  A  broken  egg 
stored  with  sound  ones  will  sometimes  endanger  the 
whole  lot.  In  packing,  the  small  end  should  be  plac- 
ed downward ;  if  in  charcoal  or  other  jxiwder  they 
must  be  packed  so  that  they  do  not  touch  one  another, 
the  intertsices  being  filled  with  the  jxjwder.  Under 
all  circumstances  stored  eggs  should  be  kept  in  as  cool 
a  place  as  possible  not  to  freeze  them.  Frequent 
chani:e  of  temperature  must  also  be  avoided. 

A  modern  method,  practiced  by  a  few  dealers,  is  to 
prepare  an  egg-preserving  house,  so  that  it  can  be 
kept  at  a  uniform  temperatuie  through  all  kinds  of 
weather.  This  temperature  must  be  as  cool  as  ix)ssi- 
ble,  and  not  reach  the  freezing  ]X)int.  The  eggs  are 
placed  ix)int  downwards,  in  cases,  or  racks,  each  egg 
in  a  separate  receptacle.  It  is  said  that  this  plan  works 
to  perfection,  and  dealers  have  grown  wealthy  in  its 
practice. 

For  domestic  use,  when  it  is  desired  to  use  the  lim- 
ing process,  take  freshly  slacked  lime,  put  into  four 
gallons  of  boiling  water,  strain  through  a  coarse  sieve, 
and  add  ten  ounces  of  salt  and  three  of  cream  tartar, 
mixed  thoroughly.  It  is  better  if  allowed  to  stand 
two  weeks  before  using.  Pack  the  eggs  in  stone  jars 
as  closely  as  possible,  taking  care  not  to  break  any  of 
them,  and  [X)ur  the  pickle  over  them.  Float  a  board 
on  the  surface  to  keep  them  all  under.  Set  in  a  cool 
place.  It  is  claimed  that,  thus  treated,  eggs  will  keep 
for  one  to  four  years. 

Boil  four  or  six  dozen  eggs  in  a  capacious  sauce-pan 
until  they  become  quite  hard.  After  carefully  remov- 
ing the  shells,  lay  them  in  large-mouthed  jars,  and 
lX)ur  over  them  scalding  vinegar,  well  seasoned  with 
whole  pepper,  allspice,  a  little  ginger,  a  few  cloves 
and  garlic.  When  cold,  bung  down  closely,  in  a 
month  they  are  fit  for  use. 

Eggs,  when  stored  in  charcoal,  bran,  or  salt,  or  in 
holes  in  boards,  or  in  pasteboard  cases,  should  always 
be  placed  the  small  end  downward,  as  the  more  recent 
experiments  have  demonstrated  this  to  be  the  safer 
method. 

Eggs, to  be  transported  for  a  long  distance,  should 
either  be  packed  in  the  regular  pasteboard  cases,  or 
in  boxes  or  barrels,  between  layers  of  finely-cut,  dry, 
sweet  straw  or  hay,  care  being  taken  that  they  do  not 
touch  the  sides  of  the  package  or  each  other.  Oats 
may  be  used  for  packing,  and  the  grain  disposed  of  at 
a  price  after  the  eggs  are  removed. 

To  tell  good  from  bad  eggs:  Put  them  in  water 
enough  to  cover  them;  all  that  lie  flat  are  good;  the 
large  end  will  rise  of  those  that  are  bad.  Good  eggs, 
also,  when  held  up  toward  the  light,  seem  more  trans- 
lucent than  spoiled  ones.     The  large  end  of  a  fresh 


egg  is  said  to  feel  a  little  warm  to  the  tongue,  when 
touched  with  it. 

An  egg-tester  may  be  made  by  fitting  a  looking- 
glass  in  the  bottom  of  a  cigar  box,  and  cutting  round 
holes  in  the  cover,  just  large  enough  for  the  eggs  to 
fit,  and  not  drop  through.  Set  in,  large  end  down- 
ward. Make  a  slit  near  the  end  of  the  cover  i  by  2 
inches  to  look  through.  With  the  egg  in  place,  and 
the  box  held  in  a  strong  light,  a  peep  in  the  glass  will 
show  the  fertile  eggs  to  be  dark  and  opaque,  and  the 
unfertile  ones  transparent. 

To  determine  the  age  of  eggs,  dissolve  4  ounces 
of  salt  in  i  quart  of  water,  and  immerse  the  egg.  If 
it  is  only  one  day  old  it  will  sink;  if  three  days,  it  will 
just  begin  to  float  in  the  liquid  ;  if  more  than  five  days, 
it  will  come  to  the  top  and  project  above  it  in  pro- 
ixjrtion  to  its  increased  age. 

To  determine  the  sex  of  eggs,  it  is  said  that  those 
producing  males  are  wrinkled  at  the  small  end,  at 
least  more  than  those  which  would  produce  females. 

To  Bon,  Eggs.  Three  minutes  will  boil  them  very 
soft ;  five  minutes  will  cook  hard,  all  but  the  yolk, 
and  eight  minutes  will  cook  them  hard  all  through. 

A  good  plan  is  to  put  the  eggs  on  in  cold  water, 
and  as  soon  as  the  latter  boils  the  eggs  are  soft-done, 
with  the  white  portion  less  hardened,  in  proportion  to 
the  yolk,  than  by  putting  them  in  boiling  hot  water  at 
first.  Besides,  by  this  method,  one  does  not  need  to 
watch  a  time-piece.  To  prevent  the  contents  of 
cracked  eggs  from  oozing  out  when  boiling,  rub  them 
with  moistened  salt. 

Poached  Eggs.  T;ave  boihng  water  in  a  shallow 
pan,  break  the  eggs  separately  in  a  saucer,  and  slip 
gently  into  the  boiling  water;  when  all  are  in  the 
water,  place  the  pan  over  the  fire  until  the  white  of 
each  is  perfectly  set;  remove  with  a  sheer,  and  lay 
on  buttered  toast  or  broiled  ham. 

Scrambled  Eggs.  Have  aspiderhot  and  buttered; 
break  the  eggs  into  a  dish,  being  careful  not  to  break 
the  yolks;  slip  them  into  the  spider,  add  a  very  little 
salt,  with  butter  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  for  half  a  dozen 
eggs,  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  rich  cream.  When 
the  eggs  begin  to  whiten,  stir  carefully  from  the  bottom 
until  cooked  to  suit. 

Egg-Balls,  for  made  dishes  or  soup.  Pound  the 
hard-boiled  yolks  of  eight  eggs  in  a  mortar  until  very 
smooth ;  then  mix  with  them  the  yolks  of  four  raw 
eggs,  a  little  salt,  and  a  dust  or  so  of  flour  to  make 
them  bind.  Roll  them  into  small  balls,  boil  them  in 
water,  and  add  them  to  any  made  dishes  or  soups  for 
which  they  may  be  required. 

Frozen  Eggs  can  be  used  for  all  ordinary  cooking 
by  thawing  them  in  cold  water.  Do  not  use  for  cake, 
as  they  will  invariably  make  it  heavy. 

Egg-Nogg.  Take  one  tablesi)oonful  of  fine  sugar, 
dissolve  with  water;  i  egg;  i  wineglass,  more  or  less, 
of  brandy,  rum,  whisky,  or  other  spirit,  in  ])roix)rtion  de- 
sired, or  according  to  the  strength  of  the  liquor.  Fill 
the  tumbler  one-fourth  full  with  shaved  ice ;  shake 
the  ingredients  till  they  are  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
grate  a  little  nutmeg  on  top. 


EGG  PLANT— ELM. 


393 


Egg  Plant.  This  is  an  interesting  vegetable  to 
cultivate,  being  ornamental  as  well  as  eatable.  The 
seeds  may  be  sown  in  a  hot- 
bed in  March  and  the  young 
plants  [xitted  when  an  inch 
or  two  high  ;  then  transplant 
in  open  ground  in  rows  two 
feet  apart  each  way;  man- 
age, however,  so  as  not  to 
transplant  before  warm 
weather  is  established. 

Varieties.  -Long  White 
China.  Delicate  and  beau- 
tiful; late. 

Very  Early  Utcarf.  A 
new  French  variety  of  long 
purple. 

Large  Purple  Egg  Plant.  Round    J'urJ>/r.       Mcdium 

size ;  well  known. 

Large  Round  Purple.     Very  jxjpular. 

Long  Purple.  Earlier  and  more  productive,  but 
smaller  than  the  Round  Purple. 

Black  Pekin.  A  new  variety  of  Round  Purple  with 
blackish  violet  leaves  and  very  large  fruit. 

New  3  'ork  Improved.      Extra  large  and  choice. 

Scarlet  China  Guadalonpe.  Striped  and  white  are 
ornamental  varieties. 

To  Cook  Egg  Plant,     ("hoose  the  medium-sized 


Fig.    I. — Catitfierdown    Weeping    Elm. 

fruit,  cut  it  in  slices  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick  and  remove  the  skin.     Sprinkle  salt  on  each 


piece,  put  it  in  a  dish  and  cover  with  water,  placing 
a  plate  on  top  to  keep  it  under.  Leave  it  in  this 
water  for  an  hour  or  two  to  draw  out  the  bitter  taste; 
then  wipe  each  slice  dry,  dip  it  in  beaten  egg ;  put  in 

fine  cracker 
crumb ;  season 
with  a  little  pep- 
per, and  fry  in 
equal  parts  of 
hot  butter  and 
lard  until  it  is 
done  to  a  light 
brown.  The  lard 

r,c.  ,.-El,n. Tree^Curculio.    (Magdalinus       ^^^^j^  ^^  ^^^^^^ 

in  the  frying  pan,  and  the  butter  added  just  before 
putting  the  egg  plant  in.  Do  not  cover  while  cooking, 
as  the  steam  would  prevent  that  crispness  which  is  a 
feature  of  nicely  cooked  egg-y 
plant. 

Egg  Pl^t  au  Gratin. 
Peel  and  cut  them  in  slices 
lengthwise,  arrange  them  in 
layers  on  a  well-buttered  tin, 
previously  rubbed  with  garlic. 
Put  between  the  layers  a 
sprinkling  of  fine  bread  crumbs.p  ,„.       ^  r,    t 

°  .  ,     ,        ,      '*^"^-    A.— Wing  qf  Elm-Tree 

chopped  parsley,  sweet    herbs;  J-ouse.   (.iciraneura  uimi.) 
.Kid  some   melted  butter;  and  a  sprinkling  of  grated 
cheese  and  a  few  baked  bread  crumbs;  bakein  theoven 
antl  brown  with  a  salamander. 

Elder,  a  well-known  shrub 
with  a  pith  in  the  stem.  All  parts 
of  the  plant  have  been  used 
medicinally,  to  aid  in  sweats, 
etc.,  but  the  flowers  and  fruit 
are  the  principal  parts  used. 
The  berries  are  sometimes  cooked 
and  eaten,  especially  in  pies.  To 
make  elder  wine,  see  Wine. 

Elecampane  (el-e-cam-jinne'), 
a  plant  having  a  flower  like  a 
small  sunflower.  The  roots  iiave 
been  much  used  in  herbal  medi- 
cinal practice  as  diuretics  and 
expectorants,  but  they  have  lost 
much  of  their  medicinal  celebri- 
ty and  are  now  esteemed  of  but 
little  value  by  many. 

Electricity:  see  Lightning, 
Lightning-rods   and  Hygiene. 

Elevator,  a  belt  mounted  with 
cups  for  elevating  grain;  also, 
the  building  in  which  grain  is 
thus  elevated  or  stored. 

Elm,  a  well  known  forest  tree, 

highly  prized  as   an  ornamental 

and  shade  tree.     The  white  elm 

is  by  far   the   most  abundant ;  the  red,   or  slippery, 

elm  is  rare,  and  the  corky  elm  is  also  rare. 


394 


ELM  BARK— EMERY  WHEEL. 


The  greatest  objection  to  the  elm  as  an  ornamental 
tree  is  its  liability  to  be  infested  by  insects,  the  princi- 
pal of  which  we  figure  in  the  annexed  cuts,  giving 
magnified  views  of  eggs,  larvae,  wings,  legs,  antennae. 


^^^iSlIl^M 


etc.,  as  well  as  the   appearance  of  their  work  on  the 
leaves. 

The  Camperdown  weeping  elm  is  a  variety  grafted 
from  the  Scotch  or  Wych  elm.  It  is  of  rank  growth, 
the  shoots  often  making  a  zigzag  growth  outward  and 
downward  of  several  feet  in  a  single  season.  The 
leaves  are  large,  dark  green  and  glossy,  and 
the  tree  forms  one  of  the  most  picturesque  ob- 
jects on  the  lawn.     See  Fig.  i. 

Elm  Bark,  Slippery,  when  scalded  with 
hot  water  makes  a  useful  poultice  for  irrita- 
ble wounds,  sores  and  ulcers.  A  decoction 
of  the  bark  will  answer  every  purpose  for 
which  flaxseed,  or  linseed,  is  used  or  recom- 
mended, as  in  diseases  of  the  kidneys  and 
bladder,  produced  bv  the  use  of  Sjjanish  fly, 
and  from  over-dosing  with  rosin  and  other 
diuretics.  In  diarrhoea,  in  all  animals,  slip- 
pery-elm tea  or  decoction  will  serve  a  good 
purpose,  by  sheathing  the  bowels,  which  are 
so  apt  to  become  irritated  and  inflamed  in 
violent  super-purgation. 

Emaciation     (e-ma-she-a'shun),   wasting 
away  of  the  flesh  on  account  of  disease. 
Embroidery,  fancy  needle  work. 

Embrocation,  oil  or  medicated  liquid 
which  is  rubbed  upon  a  diseased  part ;  also, 
the  act  ofrubbing  a  diseased  part  with  a  liquid 

Emery,  a  granular  mineral  mixed  with  oxide  of 
iron,  often  pasted  u]»n  the  circumference  of  wheels 
for  grinding  and  (xilishing  metals. 

Emery  Wheel,  How  to  Make:     Provide  a  solid 


wheel,  made  of  soft  wood,  and  of  the  size  you  wish. 
Turn  the  wheel  true  and  then  turn  rounds  or  hollows 
in  its  face  to  suit  the  tools  which  you  wish  to  grind. 
Then  prepare  some  of  the  best  glue,  and  while  hot  and 
thin,  put  it  upon  the  face  of  the  wheel 
with  a  brush.  The  first  coat  should 
be  a  light  one,  and  when  it  is  dry,  an- 
other should  be  applied,  and  as  quickly 
as  possible  sift  as  much  emery  on  it  as 
the  glue  will  hold.  When  this  is  dry 
another  coat  of  glue  and  emery  should 
be  applied.  We  do  not  know  of  any 
process  to  make  the  jxiwder  solid. 

Emetic,  a  substance  which,  intro 
duced  into  the  stomach,  produces  vomit- 
ing. The  cleanest  and  simplest  is 
warm  water;  next, salt  and  warm  water. 
The  most  popular  medicinal  emetics 
are  the  following:  No.  i. — Ipeca- 
cuanha wine,  %  ounce  ;  water,  i  ounce; 
simple  syrup,  }4  o.mce.  Mix.  For  a 
child,  20  drops,  or  more,  every  quarter 
of  an  hour  until  vomiting  ensues.  An 
adult  may  take  from  J^  to  1  ounce.  No. 
2. — Lobelia, 4  ounces;  spirits,  a  pint; 
infuse  for  a  week  or  ten  days  and  it  is 
This  tincture  is  an  efficient  and  gentle 
emetic.  No.  3. — Give  tincture  of  lobelia,  J^  tea- 
spoonful  every  half  hour  until  vomiting  is  produced. 

As  horses,  cattle  and  sheep  cannot  vomit  whilst  the 
stomach  remains  entire,  emetics  are  of  no  use  in  vet- 
erinary practice.     In  case  of  rupture  of  that  viscus. 


fit  for  use. 


Fig.   t„— Elm-Leaf  Cockscomb  Gall.     (Glyptiin.i  ntmicola,) 

however,  vomiting  is  occuisionally  seen.  Emetics  are 
useful  in  diseases  of  the  dog  and  swine.  Tartar 
emetic  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  given  in  from  two  to  five 
grain  doses,  will  cause  dogs  and  swine  to  vomit. 


ENGINE. 


395 


Sngine,  a  machine  for  applying  power;  more 
specifically,  the  machinery  by  which  steam,  power 
is  communicated  to  other  machinery  or  apparatus; 
in  a  still  more  restricted  sense,  it  is,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  boilers,  fly-wheel,  etc.,  the  cylinder 
and  piston-rod,  with  their  immediate  attachments. 


Fig.  I,— Traction  Engine. 

A  "portable  "  engine  is  one  which  is  fixed  upon 
wheels,  to  be  easily  move^  from  place  to  place. 

A  "locomotive"  engine  is  one  that  is  propelled 
by  its  own  power  from  one  ph)ce  to  another.  A 
locomotive  for  farm  work  must  plow  or  draw  loads, 
in  which  case  it  becomes  a  "traction"  engine. 
("Traction  "  signifies  drawing.) 

A  "  stationnry "  engine  is  fixed  to  one  place, 
with  more  or  less  masonry,  and  is  therefore  difficult 
to  be  moved  to  another  locality.  This  is  the  most 
economical  form  where  great  power  is  required,  in 
one  place. 

Fig.  I  gives  a  correct  view  of  one  of  the  best 
farm  engines  in  the  market.  It  has  a  complete 
water  front  and  water  bottom,  a  heav3'  wrought- 
iron  axle  extending  completely  under  the  fire-box, 
double  wrought-iron  doors,  strong  stay  bolts  around 
fire-box,  a  splendid  pump  made  entirely  of  brass, 
a  surface  blow-olF,  strong  and  elegant  iron 
drive  wheels,  with  eight-inch  corrugated  tires,  a 
patent-lever  throttle  valve,  controlled  from  either 
end  of  the  boiler;  extra  largo  fire-box,  double  thick 
flue-sheet,  copper  thimbles  on  every  flue,  perfect 
safety  from  file  or  explosion,  great  durability, 
elegant  workmanship,  beautiful  finish,  and  superior 
material. 

Some  manufacturers  freqviently  advertise  an 
engine  weighing  several  hundred  pounds  less  than 
another,  and  at  a  proportionate  decrease  in  price. 
On  a  superficial  view,  this  light  weight  may  seem 
to  be  an  advantage;  but  it  is  found, on  examination, 
that  in  every  case  this  decrease  in  weight  (and 
consequent  cost  to  the  manufacturers)  is  effected 
entirely  in  the  boiler,  which  is  cheapened  in  every 


possible  way,  such  as  using  a  thinner  and  inferior 
quality  of  iron  in  the  shell,  and  "  setting  up"  or 
swaging  the  seam  to  make  it  look  thick;  by 
using  light,  punched  flue-sheets,  which  spring  and 
warp  with  every  change  iu  the  temperature  and 
pressure  of  the  boiler;  by  using  cheap  flues  (with- 
out copper  thimbles),  which  soon  corrode  and  leak; 
by  making  a  small  fire-box  with  insuflicient  fire  room, 
which  necessitates  constant  "forcing"  to  make 
steam  enough,  and  consequent  burning  and  straining 
of  the  crown-sheet  and  other  paits;  and  by  using 
cheap  cast-iron  fronts, doors,  dome,  etc.,  which  add  no 
strength,  but,  on  the  contrary,  seriously  detract  from 
the  efficiency.  Yet  one  of  these  "  Cheap  John  " 
boilers  will  look  well  and  often  pass  muster  among 
the  inexjjerienced  buyers  of  farm  engines.  It  takes 
a  few  months'  use  to  disclose  its  weakness  and 
defects.  It  is  perfectly  easy  for  the  manufacturers 
of  these  cheap  engines  to  warrant  them  to  do  cer- 
tain things  or  perform  a  certain  amount  of  work, 
such  as  driving  a  separator,  etc.  They  send  their 
experts,  who  understand  exactly  how  to  manage 
them  to  the  best  advantage  and  get  the  highest 
results,  and  they  can  thus  make  them  work  long 
enough  to  capture  the  purchasei"'s  money  or  notes, 
and  that  is  all  they  care  for. 

The  engine  represented  by  Fig  2  is  one  of  the 
best  for  threshing,  running  a  light  saw-mill,  etc., 
and  is  made  witii  tlie  same  care  as  Fig.  i,  and  by  a 
well  known  responsible  firm. 

All  owners  of  large  farms  find  it  a  great  economy 
to  possess  a  portable  engine,  and  generally  one  of 
the  "traction  "  kind.  "Small"  farmers,  too,  often 
find  it  a  convenience  to   obtain    from   their    more 


Fig,  2. — ij- Horse' Power  Traction  Ertgine. 

fortunate  neighbors  the  temporary  use  of  such 
power.  Sometimes  more  power  is  wanted  than 
can  be  well  afforded  by  a  portable  engine,  and  in 
nearly  all  such  cases  the  need  is  so  local  that  a 
stationary    engine    fulh'  supplies  it,  as   in   running 


396 


ENGINE— ENSILA  GE. 


Monarch ''  Horizontal  Etlgitie, 


large  mills  for  sawing,  grinding,  etc.  Fig.  3  is  a 
cut  of  a  good  stationary  engine,  furnislied,  with 
boiler  (Fig  4),  by  Messrs.  Willard  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
Tiiese  boilers  are  tubular  and  set  in  brick  work. 
Each  boiler  is 
complete,  with 
full  fire  front, 
grates,  skeleton 
arch,  safety  valve 
and  blow-ofF 
cock,  water  col- 
umn with  sy- 
phon, steam 
^auge,  water 
glass,  and  com- 
pression gauge 
cocks,  hand  holes 
and  hand  hole 
plates  and  crabsy 
holes  for  pipes  cut 
and  threaded. 
Boilers  are  so  con- 
structed as  to  be 
set  as  "  return 
fiue,"  by  which 
the  heat  passes 
once  along  the 
boiler   on   its 

under  side,  and  returning  through  the  flues  passes 
out  of  the  smoke  stack  at  the  front  end  right  over 
the  fire.     This  is  well  known  to  be  the  most  econ- 
omical of  fuel  of  all  methods  of  setting  a  boiler. 
The  boilers  are 
made    of    first- 
class  ch;ircoal 
htimmeredNo.i 
iron,  with  flange 
iron   heads   and 
the   best  lap- 
wekled  wrought 
iron    flues,   and 
-are  hand-riveted 
in  the  most  ap- 
proved manner. 
All  these  boilers 
are  tested  by  hy- 
drostatic   prcs- 
ure  before  lea- 
ing  the  shop,  111 
der  p  r essu  1  i 
much  greaterl 
than  any  steam 
pressure  they  are 
ever     expected 

to     carry,    and  r^o.  ^.-HoHzontal  Tubular  BoiUr 

every  precaution  is  taken  to  ensure  them  against 
explosion  in  case  of  neglect.  The  engraving 
shows  brick  torn  away  to  indicate  manner  of  set- 
I'ng  grate;  also  skeleton  arch  in  the  rear. 


Ennui  (ong-nwe'),  mental  satiety  and  weari- 
ness; lack  of  disposition  to  entertain  or  to  be  enter- 
tained. In  an  extreme  case,  the  patient  is  tempted 
to  commit  suicide,  or  at  least  wishes  he  were  dead. 

This  is  really  a 
morbid  condi- 
tion, brought  on 
either  by  too 
much  mental 
labor,  or  by 
some  form  of  in- 
temperance. It 
is  a  disease,  and 
instead  of  repel- 
ling it  with  in- 
toxicating bev- 
erages or  other 
drugs,  one 
should  apply  all 
the  resources  of 
general  h  y  g  i- 
ene,  the  most 
important  of 
which,  in  such 
cases,  are,  per- 
haps, a  plenty 
of  sleep,  and  a 
journey. 
Engrail  (en-grail'),  to  variegate  or  spot,  as 
with  hail;  to  indent  or  make  ragged  at  the  edges, 
as  if  broken  with  hail. 

Ensilage  (en-si-lazh'),  preservation  of  fodder  in 

its  green  and 
juicy  state 
through  tiie 
■winter,  in  caves 
or  out -houses 
called  "  silos." 
These  are  of 
two  kinds  — 
those  in  the 
ground  without 
masonry,  and 
those  made  of 
masonry  or  con- 
crete, either  in 
pits  or  above 
ground.  The 
earth  silo  has 
been  used  suc- 
cessfully in  this 
country  ,but  ma- 
sonry is  prefer- 
able, and  should 
always  be  used 
by  beginners  in  the  practice  of  ensilage. 

In  using  the  simple  earth  silo,  the  sides  are  lined 
with  straw,  standing  so  that  the  fodder  will  slide 
down  as  it  settles.     The  bottom  is  floored  with 


ENSILAGE. 


397 


plank.  The  green  fodder  is  thrown  in  and  trodden 
down.  When  the  pit  is  full,  round  up  the  top,  and 
cover  it  with  a  thin  layer  of  long  straw.  On  this, 
place  a  covering  of  tarred  roofing  felt,  and  pile  on 
earth  till  it  is  about  two  feet  thick.  An  earth  trench 
can  also  be  lined  with  boards. 

Wooden  Silos.  There  is  no  difficulty  about  mak- 
ing wooden  silos ;  the)'  rec^uire,  however,  more  com- 
pression to  prevent  air  from  entering  through  the 
joints.  The  bays  in  the  barn  can  lie  boarded  up  and 
down  with  matched  flooring.  The  moist  ensilage  will 
keep  the  joints  tight  and  it  will  keep  well.  The  cover 
must  be  loose,  and  weighted  so  as  to  make  a  continu- 
ous pressure.  But  this  silo  requires  an  elevation  of 
the  cut  fodder,  and  should  the  barn  burn  the  winter 
supply  is  lost.  Wherever  it  is  ix>ssible,  the  cellar  un- 
der the  barn  should  be  utilized  if  the  barn  be  large 
enough  to  serve  for  a  cover,  and  for  the  working  place 
for  cutting  up  the  fodder.  In  the  Southern  States 
wooden  silos  are  often  built  in  the  fields  with  double 
thickness  of  boards  and  a  coat  of  tar  between.  The 
weight  used  may  be  cord  wood,  which  becomes  more 
valuable  as  it  dries.  These  silos  have  doors  through 
which  the  ensilage  is  excavated  from  below.  The 
best  silos,  however,  are  built  specially  of  masonry  or 
concrete. 

Concrete  Silos.  For  a  silo  12  feet  by  20  feet  (or 
longer)  and  14  feet  deep,  which  would  hold  72  tons, 
or  sufficient  for  ten  cows  six  months  with  full  rations, 
the  concrete  walls  should  be  14  inches  thick  at  the 
1  lottom  and  ten  inches  thick  at  ^he  top  of  the  side  walls, 
with  the  bevel  on  the  outside  of  the  wall,  and  the  end 
walls  12  inches  thick  top  and  Ixjttom.the  inside  being 
petpendicwlar  and  smooth,  so  that  the  plank  covering 
may  settle  with  the  ensilage.  The  concrete  wall  is 
stronger  than  an  ordinary  stone  wall,  and  for  this  short 
silo,  14  inches  at  bottom  is  thick  enough.  It  is  not 
best  to  go  any  deeper  in  the  earth  than  can  be  well 
drained,  and  a  trench  should  be  cut  on  the  outside  of 
the  wall,  six  to  ten  inches  deep,  all  around,  to  carry  off 
all  water  that  may  reach  this  depth.  If  the  land 
around  the  silos  is  nearly  level,  it  is  best  to  go  only  so 
deej)  that  the  bottom  of  tlie  wall  will  be  below  frost. 

Having  excavated  the  earth  as  deep  as  the  wall  is 
to  go,  15  feet  wide  and  23  feet  long,  then  set  the 
standards  for  the  boxes  to  form  the  concrete  walls  in. 
It  will  require  20  standards  three  by  six  inches,  1 1; 
feet  long  (if  the  walls  are  to  be  14  feet  high),  of 
straight-grained  timber.  Those  standards  intended 
for  the  inside  of  the  wall  should  be  joined  straight  on 
one  edge,  so  that  the  wall  may  be  made  very  straight 
and  plumb  on  the  inside.  There  will  be  three  stand- 
ards upon  each  long  side — one  at  each  corner  and  one 
in  the  middle.  The  other  edges  of  these  inside  stand- 
dards  will  be  1 1  feet  9  inches  apart ;  and  as  the  box- 
ing plank  are  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  this  will 
bring  the  walls  just  12  feet  apart.  The  outside  stand- 
ards will  be  opposite  the  inside  ones,  and  just  three 
inches  farther  apart  than  the  wall  is  thick,  so  that 
when  the  plank  are  placed  inside  it  forms  a  box  14 
inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  the  bevel  or  slant  on 


the  outside  of  the  wall  is  made  by  bringing  the  out- 
side standard  four  inches  nearer  the  inside  standard 
at  the  top.  The  end  standards  will  be  parallel  with 
each  other,  and  15  inches  apart.  These  standards 
are  held  together  by  nailing  a  lath  under  the  bottom 
ends  and  a  bracket  across  the  top  ends,  holding  the 
side  standards  17  inches  apart  at  the  bottom  and  13 
inches  at  top.  Then,  when  the  standards  are  set 
up,  and  the  inside  standard<iplumbed  very  carefully, 
and  both  stay-lathed  to  hold  them  firmly  in  positior., 
and  the  standards  placed  all  around  the  proposed  silo, 
it  is  all  ready  for  fitting  in  the  boxing  plank.  These 
boxing  plank  should  be  straight-grained  hemlock  qr 
pine,  13  inches  wide,  and  a  half  inch  thick,  and  may 
be  the  whole  length  of  each  side  and  end,  or,  if  more 
convenient,  the  sides  may  be  two  planks  long,  and 
the  outside  end  plank  will  require  to  be  14^^  feet 
long,  but  they  may  run  by  the  ends  of  the  side  planks. 
The  outside  of  the  ends  must  be  plumb,  so  that  the 
outside  plank  of  the  long  sides  can  be  raised,  but  the 
end  walls  being  shorter,  12  inches  thick  is  enough  of 
strength,  and  has  the  same  material  per  foot  of  sur- 
face. ^V'hen  these  boxing  planks  are  placed,  there 
will  be  a  continuous  box,  14  inches  on  the  sides  and 
12  inches  on  the  ends,  around  the  silo. 

Water  lime  concrete  is  the  only  concrete  suitable 
for  silos,  as  it  requires  a  strong,  air-tight,  smooth  wall 
and  one  that  will  stand  moisture  to  some  extent.  This 
kind  of  wall  is  easily  made  air-tight,  and  is  built  cheap- 
er than  an  ordinary  stone  wall.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  use  water  lime  or  cement  enough  to  completely  coat 
the  particles  of  sand,  so  as  to  cement  them  together, 
and  this  becomes  a  cement  to  fill  in  spaces  among 
large  gravel  or  between  stones.  The  cement  is  made 
by  mixing  one  part  of  water  lime  with  four  of  fine 
sand,  while  dry,  so  that  the  lime  and  sand  can  be 
evenly  mixed.  Then  work  it  into  mortar,  and  if  you 
have  coarse  gravel  and  no  stone  you  may  put  in  five 
or  six  parts  of  gravel,  and  this  will  be  sufficient  to  ce- 
ment all  together.  The  gravel  is  best  mixed  in  the 
mortar  bed,  but  it  must  be  used  at  once,  as  such  mor- 
tar sets  in  a  few  minutes  after  wetting.  But  if  you 
have  rough  stones  of  any  kind,  cobble  or  flat  stones, 
they  can  be  worked  into  the  wall  to  good  advantage, 
and  save  cement.  When  stones  are  to  be  worked  in, 
put  one  or  two  inches  of  thin  mortar  in  the  wall  box, 
then  bed  into  this  mortar  a  layer  of  stones,  keeping 
them  back  a  half  inch  from  the  boxing  plank,  so  that 
the  cement  may  be  tamped  all  around  the  stone,  leav- 
ing a  smooth  surface  on  both  sides  of  the  wall.  This 
cement  is  a  jxjorer  conductor  of  heat,  cold  and  moist- 
ure than  stone.  A  properly  built  concrete  wall  never 
shows  frost  on  the  inside.  In  many  parts  of  the 
country,  thin,  flat,  irregular  stones  are  found  in  abund- 
ance, and  these  are  well  adapted  to  concrete  walls, 
it  requiring  only  a  thin  layer  of  concrete  mortar  be- 
tween them,  and  the  walls  become  solid  in  a  few  days. 
But  with  these  flat  stones,  it  is  better  not  to  bring 
them  quite  to  the  boxing  plank,  but  to  let  the  con- 
crete come  over  the  edges  so  as  to  form  a  smooth  sur- 
face. 


398 


EPIDEMIC. 


When  the  concrete  wall  is  laid  with  stone,  sand 
and  lime,  as  stated,  so  large  a  proixjrtion  of  stone  may 
be  worked  in  that  the  water  lime  will  be  only  one- 
tenth  of  the  wall,  and  the  same  when  the  wall  is  made 
of  sand  and  coarse  gravel ;  so  that,  to  find  the  amount 
of  water  lime  required,  count  one  barrel  to  40  cubic 
feet  of  wall  to  be  built.  If  water  lime  is  very  expens- 
ive, and  you  have  flat  stones,  no  matter  how  irregular, 
you  may  use  quicklime  after  you  get  one  foot  higher 
than  the  earth  will  come  against  it.  One  of  quick- 
lime to  five  of  sand  will  make  excellent  mortar  to  lay 
these  stones  in,  doing  the  work  in  all  respects  as  above 
stated.  The  concrete  should  be  well  tamped  into 
the  boxes,  filling  all  crevices  between  the  stones,  and 
solid  against  the  planks.  Water  lime  will  set  hard 
enough  so  that  these  boxing  planks  can  be  raised  12 
inches  every  day.  That  is,  if  you  fill  the  box  all 
around  the  silo  in  one  day,  the  next  morning  you  may 
raise  the  boxing  planks  where  you  began  the  day  be- 
fore ;  and  as  you  fill,  raise  section  after  section  of 
planks  till  you  get  around  again.  This  may  be  re- 
peated each  day  till  the  wall  is  completed,  provided 
the  mortar  sets  in  the  usual  time.  But  if  quicklime 
is  used,  this  sets  slower,  and  will  take  two  or  three 
days  to  become  strong  enough  to  raise  the  plank.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  planks  are  to  be  14  inches  wide, 
but  are  raised  only  1 2  inches,  which  leaves  a  lap  of 
two  inches  on  the  wall  below,  keeping  the  sides  of  the 
wall  smooth  and  even.  The  proposed  silo  will  have 
952  cubic  feet  in  it,  and  requires  22  barrels  of  cem- 
en  ,  of  the  Akron  or  Rosendale  brand.  This  cement  in 
many  places  will  cost  from  %\  to  $r.25   per  bushel. 

About  the  only  other  cost  of  the  wall  is  the 
labor,  which  can  be  done  by  common  laborers.  The 
standards  can  be  set  by  any  one  who  can  use  a  level 
and  plumb.  When  the  walls  are  completed,  take  a 
seasoned  board  as  wide  as  the  wall  is  thick,  tar  one 
side,  and  turn  the  tarred  side  down  upon  the  wall. 
This  will  prevent  the  moisture  from  rotting  the  plate 
rim  placed  on  top  of  the  wall. 

The  roof  placed  over  the  silo  must  be  elevated  some 
three  feet  above  the  plates  so  as  to  give  head-room  for 
filling  the  silo  full.  This  may  be  done  by  framing 
short  posts  into  the  timber  on  top  of  the  wall,  and 
placing  light  plates  on  these,  upon  which  the  roof  is  to 
stand.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  silo  can  be  built,  by 
many  farmers,  with  only  a  small  expenditure  for  cem- 
ent, shingles  and' nails,  all  the  rest  of  the  materials 
being  from  their  own  farms.  The  bottom  of  the  silo 
is  usually  cemented,  to  prevent  moisture  from   rising. 

The  drainage  so  as  to  avoid  pressure  of  water  is  very 
important,  as  the  slightest  in-road  of  water  will  cause 
the  mass  to  mould  as  far  as  it  penetrates.  The  con- 
tents of  a  silo  will  be  about  50  pounds  of  compact 
ensilage  to  the  cubic  foot.  In  the  prairies  the  natural 
ravines  with  stone  bluffs  will  serve  with  little  expense 
for  silos,  and  the  cattle  carried  over  the  drought  and 
winter  seasons. 

The  cover  of  the  silo  should  be  laid  directly  upon 
the  ensilage  without  any  straw  between,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  pressure  should  be  uniform. 


Make  the  cover  of  two-inch  plank,  matched  and  bat- 
tered in  sections  of  three  feet,  the  battens  put  on 
with  screws  and  projecting,  which  will  keep  them  level. 
The  ensilage  will  settle  about  one  quarter,  and  if  the 
walls  are  smooth  and  free  from  any  projections  it  will 
not  require  any  trampling.  The  less  trampling  the 
better,  for  when  the  juice  is  out,  the  air  enters.  For 
this  reason  it  is  imjxjrtant  to  cut  the  maize  when  in 
full  juice,  while  the  pollen  is  falling  from  the  tassel. 
The  screws  and  levers  suggested  by  some  inexperienced 
people  are  entirely  unnecessary. 

The  ensilage  should  be  piled  up  in  curbs  or  sides 
above  the  silo,  about  one-third  the  depth  of  the  silo; 
these  sides  should  be  firm,  but  movable;  the  cut  fod- 
der should  be  leveled  with  care,  and  the  cover  ad- 
justed ;  so  that  it  will  be  sure  to  press  with  uniform- 
ity, continuously,  and  not  leave  any  garrets  under  it 
for  the  air  to  lodge  in.  Ujwn  this  cover  will  be  found 
a  convenient  place  for  piling  sacks  of  grain  meal,  as  there 
will  not  be  steam  enough  to  stain  the  sacks ;  or  jx)sts 
or  beams  will  answer.  It  was  formerly  considered 
necessary  to  use  great  pressure  in  order  to  squeeze  out 
all  the  air  contained  in  the  cut  fodder  (about  100 
pounds  pressure  to  square  foot),  but  it  has  been  found 
by  experience  that  when  cut  y^Xo  'i/i_  ol  an  inch  long 
and  in  full  juice,  the  shrinkage  of  fodder  compacts  it 
sufficiently  close  v/ithout  any  great  weight  besides  weight 
of  cover.  If  the  crop  has  dried  so  as  to  show  pith, 
the  air  has  already  entered  its  cells,  and  it  would  be 
well  to  increase  the  weight. 

It  is  probable  that  the  practice  will  become  more 
general  of  covering  with  earth  instead  of  any  other 
cover.  This  has  the  advantage  of  avoiding  all  un- 
evenness,  but  it  requires  some  watching  for  crai;ks. 
The  earth  will  cake  so  that  it  can  be  removed  without 
trouble  and  thrown  in  the  manure  heap. 

In  either  kind  of  silo  the  fodder  should  be  fine 
enough  to  pack  close ;  the  finer  it  is  cut  the  better 
is  the  preservation.  It  should  be  taken  from  the  silo 
the  evening  before  it  is  fed,  in  order  that  it  may 
have  15  hours  to  become  alcoholic.  Eight  hours  later 
it  will  have  passed  the  proper  limit  of  time,  and  will 
rapidly  spoil  as  food.  It  should  never  remain  over  48 
hours  out  of  the  pit  without  being  fed. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  ensilage  system  are: 
It  enables  the  farmer  to  store  green  fodder,  palatable 
and  nutritious,  for  winter  use ;  it  provides  him  a  way 
to  raise  a  large  quantity  of  fodder  to  the  acre,  corn- 
stalks being  the  crop  grown  late  in  the  season  for  this 
purpose ;  the  increased  product  enables  the  farmer  to 
feed  a  large  number  of  cattle,  and  thus  he  can  make 
a  larger  quantity  of  manure. 

Epidemic  (ep-i-dem'ic),  prevailing  among  the  peo- 
ple :  said  of  diseases,  such  particularly  as  small-jxix, 
Asiatic  cholera,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  hooping-cough, 
influenza,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  contagious  (see 
Contagion).  The  epithet  "epidemic"  signifies  "  upon 
tbe  people,"  and  properly  designates  prevailing  dis- 
eases among  human  l)eings,  while  tlie  term"  epizootic," 
signifying  "upon  brutes,"  is  the  corres]X)nding  proper 
designation  of  prevailing  distempers  among  the  lower 


EPILEPS  Y—ER  YSIPELAS. 


399 


animals.     Yet  many  writers  speak  of  epidemic  dis- 
eases in  reference  as  much  to  brutes  as  to  men. 

Epilepsy,  a  violent  nervous  disease  in  man  and  in 
domestic  animals.  Among  men  it  is  known  by  the  fol- 
lowing symptoms :  Rigidity  of  the  muscles,  distorted 
countenance,  purple  color  or  ashy  paleness  of  the  skin, 
rolling  of  the  eyes,  often  finally  fixed,  as  it  were  look- 
ing at  some  point  within  the  forehead,  protrusion  of 
the  tongue,  champing  of  the  jaws,  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, hurried  breathing  and  frothing  at  the  mouth;  the 
fit  is  followed  by  a  stupid  condition  for  some  hours. 
In  most  cases  the  mind  of  the  patient  is  affected  for 
life.  Treatment:  During  the  spasm,  nothing;  after- 
ward, to  prevent  its  return,  cold  water  to  the  head  and 
hot  applications  to  the  feet ;  or  a  teasjxxsnful  every 
five  or  ten  minutes  of  the  following:  One  pint  each  of 
lobelia  tincture,  prepared  from  the  seed,  tincture  of 
myrrh  and  nervine  tincture:  the  latter  is  comiX)sed  of 
extract  of  cypripedium,  i  ounce,  oil  of  anise,  }4  ounce, 
camphor  i^  ounce,  and  tincture  of  garden  lettuce,  i 
p.jund;  or  brom.potassa, 800 grains, bicarbonate  potas- 
sa,  90  grains,  tincture  columbo,  2  ounces,  water"  3 
ounces.  Dose,  one-half  teaspoonful  in  a  litde  water 
three  rimes  a  day,  before  earing.  Of  course  a  phy- 
sician will  be  called  in  all  such  frightful  attacks  as 
these. 

Epizootic  (ep-i-zo-ot'ic),  prevailing  among  animals ; 
said  of  certain  diseases,  as  Texas  (or  splenic)  fever, 
hog  cholera,  distemper  or  influenza,  chicken  cholera, 
etc.,  some  of  which  are  contagious,  or  infectious.  See 
Contagion,  and  Epidemic. 

Epsom  Salt,  the  sulphate  of  magnesia.  This  is  a 
mild  and  safe  cathartic,  producing  watery  stools.  It 
also  acts  as  a  diuretic  and  a  refrigerant.  It  has  been 
ixjpular  in  fevers  and  inflammatory  affections,  in  colic 
and  for  consripation.  The  medium  dose  for  a  person 
is  an  ounce,  and  the  most  agreeable  form  for  taking  it 
is  a  solution  in  carbonic-acid  water  and  lemon  syrup. 

Epsom  salts  is  a  valuable  medicine  in  diseases  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  No  other  purgative  should  ever  be 
thought  of  or  given  to  either  catrie  or  sheep.  Even 
supjwsing  other  purgarives  to  be  as  good,  none  cer- 
tainly can  be  so  cheap  as  Epsom  and  Glauber  salts,  or 
the  sulphate  of  soda.  For  all  purgative  purposes,  the 
one  is  as  good  as  the  other.  Salts  should  be  largely 
diluted  with  water :  for  the  quantity  of  fluid  given 
with  theiii,  facilitates  their  operation.  In  domestic 
practice,  half  an  ounce  of  salts,  in  one  tumbler  full 
of  water,  will  operate  as  strongly  as  one  ounce,  in  half 
the  quantity  of  water. 

Doses.  For  ordinary-sized  cows,  one  to  two  pounds 
is  the  dose,  mixed  with  four  quarts  of  cold  water,  one 
ounce  of  ginger  in  powder,  and  the  whole  sweetened 
with  molasses  or  coarse  sugar.  For  average-sized 
calves,  two  to  four  ounces;  for  sheep,  four  to  six  ounces. 
A  few  drops  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  say  20  to 
60  drops,  will  greatly  rentove  the  nauseous  taste. 

Equestrian,  pertaining  to  horseback-riding;  also, 
a  man  who  rides  horseback     An  "  equestrienne"  is  a 


lady  who  rides  horseback.      See   Horseback   Riding. 

Equine,  pertaining  to  the  horse  genus. 

Equity  (ek'wit-y),  justice.  A  "  court  of  equity"  is 
one  held  to  supply  deficiencies  of  courts  of  law,  in 
order  to  attain  the  ends  of  justice. 

Ergot,  a  very  poisonous  fungus,  which  grows  on 
diseased  rye, — sometimes,  though  rarely  in  this 
country,  on  other  plants, — and  is  known  by  its  honey- 
like appearance  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  enlarging 
the  grain,  and  finally  turning  brown.  It  is  nicknamed 
"honey-dew."  It  is  supjxssed  by  some  to  be  an  ex- 
crescence similar  to  the  oak-apple  and  the  nutgall, 
and  to  be  occasioned  by  the  puncture  of  some  insect. 
By  others  it  is  thought  to  be  a  monstrous  develop- 
ment, of  morbid  swelling  of  the  seed,  occasioned  by 
some  disturbance  in  the  organs  of  circulation  or 
secretion.  Still  others  think  it  a  foreign  vegetable 
growth,  occasioned  by  a  parasiric  fungus.  Whatever 
be  its  origin  and  its  physical  nature,  it  exerts  a  dread- 
fully noxious  power  upon  the  system  of  man  or  brute 
who  receives  even  a  small  portion  of  it  in  their  food. 
It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiments  upon  many  of 
the  lower  animals,  to  produce  the  most  horrible  gan- 
grenes, rotring  of  the  extremities,  internal  tortures,  and 
death.  It  has  been  known  to  cause  sloughing  and 
kill  many  persons  who  have  eaten  grain  or  flour  infected 
with  it.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  cause  of 
dangerous  epidemics  which  have  at  various  periods 
scourged  the  poor  in  parts  of  France.  If  a  farmer 
wishes  to  keep  himself  and  family  and  all  his  stock 
from  being  poisoned  by  it,  he  must  look  out  for  it  in 
May,  and  destroy  all  infected  heads. 

Ergot,  in  the  hands  of  cautiovis  and  skillful  prac- 
titioners, is  a  very  valuable  medicine  for  rousing  weak 
or  exhausted  uterine  acrion  in  cases  of  prolonged  and 
difficult  labor ;  but  it  is  by  far  too  critical  in  its  proper 
use.  and  too  dangerous  in  its  misapplication,  to  be 
ever  safely  prescribed  by  persons  of  small  professional 
education  or  of  raw  and  youthful  experience.  It  has 
also  been  very  beneficially  used  in  cases  of  difficult 
parturition  in  the  mare,  the  cow,  and  the  sheep ;  yet 
it  ought  never  to  be  administered  to  any  of  these, 
especially  the  cow,  except  in  cases  of  extremity. 

Ergot  in  rye  occurs  most  frequently  in  wet  and 
stiff  land,  and  may  probably  be  either  much  increased 
by  raising  the  crop  on  soil  which  will  keep  the  roots 
constantly  moist,  or  much  diminished  by  raising  the 
crop  on  naturally  thirsty  soil,  of  on  land  that  has  been 
thoroughly  sub-soil-drained.  When  ergot  has,  in  any 
district,  been  detected  in  wheat,  the  health  of  the 
whole  community  loudly  demands  the  thorough  drain- 
ing of  every  field  on  which  wheat  may  at  any  time  be 
growing. 

Erysipelas,  a  general  fever,  attended  with  rapidly 
spreading  inflammations  of  the  skin,  characterized  by 
redness  and  swelling.  Sometimes  about  the  third 
day  little  blisters  appear  which  contain  a  yellowish 
fluid,  but  often  no  eruption  appears,  and  the  disease 
"  strikes  in,"  often  becoming  chronic.  This  is  another 
disease  for  which  a  physician  should  be  called. 


400 


ESCULENT— ESTR A  YS. 


Esculent,  any  plant  whose  roots,  stem,  shoots, 
leaves,  or  other  bulky  parts  are  suitable  food  for  man. 
Familiar  examples  of  esculents  are  carrots,  turnips,  and 
all  our  common  garden  vegetables. 

Escutcheon,  in  dairying,  is  the  direction  of  the 
growth  of  the  hair  on  the  hinder  portion  of  a  cow's 
bag  and  adjacent  parts,  as  an  index  to  her  qualities 
as  a  milch-cow.     See  "  Milk-Mirror,"  page  298. 

Essence,  the  virtue  of  any  medicinal  or  flavoring 
herb,  drawn  out  either  by  boiling,  by  soaking  in  alco- 
hol or  oil,  or  by  distillation.  A  real  essence,  strictly 
so  termed,  requires  the  complications  of  a  scientific 
laboratory  for  their  proper  preparation,  but  many  sub- 
stitutes can  be  prepared  at  any  home  by  making  ex- 
tracts (see  Extracts),  or  pulverizing  the  dried  herb, 
root,  or  whatever  is  desired.  ' 

Essence  of  Ginger.  Grate  and  put  into  a  quart 
of  brandy,  3  ounces  of  fresh  ginger,  with  the  yellow 
part  of  the  rind  of  a  fresh  lemon  ;  shake  it  up  well, 
and  daily,  ten  days,  when  it  may  be  used.  It  is  nice 
for  flavoring  many  kinds  of  sweetmeats  ;  and  a  litde 
of  it  mixed  with  water,  or  put  on  a  piece  of  sugar,  sub- 
serves all  the  purposes  of  ginger  tea,  and  is  far  more 
palatable. 

Essence  op  Lemon.  The  best  way  of  obtaining 
the  essence  of  lemon  peel,  is  to  rub  all  the  yellow  part 
of  the  peel  off,  with  lumps  of  white  sugar,  and  scrape 
off  the  surface  of  the  sugar  into  a  preserving  pot  as 
fast  as  it  becomes  saturated  with  the  oil  of  the  lemon. 
Press  the  sugar  close,  -and  cover  it  tight.  A  little  of 
this  sugar  imparts  a  fine  flavor  to  puddings,  pies,  and 
cakes.  This  is  the  preferable  mode  of  obtaining  and 
preserving  the  essence  of  lemon. 

Essential  Oils.  This  name  is  applied  to  those  vol- 
atile fluids  usually  obtained  from  aromatic  plants,  by 
subjecting  them  to  distillation  with  water.  The  oil  is 
volatilized  with  the  aqueous  vapor,  and  is  easily  con- 
densed; a  small  portion  of  it  is  retained  in  solution 
by  the  water,  but  the  greater  part  separates,  and  is 
obtained  pure  from  the  diff"erence  in  their  specific 
gravity.  In  some  instances,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
rind  of  the  orange  and  lemon,  the  oil  exists  in  distinct 
vesicles,  and  may  be  obtained  by  expression.  The 
principal  volatile  or  essential  oils  are  those  of  turpen- 
tine, anise-seed,  nutmeg,lavender,cloves,  caraway,  pep- 
permint, spearmint,  sassafras,  chamomile  and  citron. 
The  taste  of  these  oils  is  acrid  and  burning,  and  their 
odor  very  pungent,  generally  resembling  the  taste  and 
smell  of  the  vegetables  affording  them.  They  are 
generally  fluid,  and  remain  so  even  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture ;  but  some  congeal  at  a  very  moderate  degree  of 
cold,  and  others  are  naturally  concrete.  They  are 
extremely  volatile,  very  soluble  in  strong  alcohol,  but 
do  not  form  soaps  with  the  alkalies,  by  which  they  are 
distinguished  from  the  fixed  oils.  They  are  readily 
inflamed  by  strong  nitric  acid,  especially  with  the  pre- 
caution of  adding  a  little  sulphuric  acid  to  render  the 
former  more  concentrated.  Exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  air  they  undergo  an  alteration  in  consequence  of 
the  absorption  of  oxygen,  become  thickened,  and  grad- 


ually change  into  a  solid  matter,  resembling  the  true 
resins.  One  of  the  most  useful  and  abundant  of  the 
essential  oils  is  that  of  turpentine,  commonly  called 
spirits  of  turi^entine.  In  general,  the  volatile  oils  are 
used  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  or  as  perfumes. 
Those  applied  to  the  latter  use,  as  the  essence  of  roses, 
of  jasmine,  violet,  etc.,  are  possessed  of  a  more  feeble 
odor,  and  being  obtained  from  the  flowers  of  their  re- 
spective plants,  require  much  care  in  their  prepara- 
tion. 

Estate,  in  law,  is  the  title  or  interest  which  a  person 
has  in  lands,  tenements,  hereditaments  or  other  effects. 
Estate   is   real  or  personal.     The    phrase  "personal 
estate"  is  applied  not  only  to  movable  goods,  money, 
bonds  and  notes,  but  also  to  some  fixtures  temporarily 
attached  to  lands  or  buildings,  and  the  distinction  be- 
tween those   fixtures  which  are  temporarily  such  and 
those  which  belong  to  and  form  a  part  of  the  house 
or  other  real  estate,  is  of  imjxjrtance,  as  this  distinc- 
tion will  determine  how  it  is  to  be  attached  on  mesne 
process,  or  seized  and  sold,  or  set  off  on  an  execution, 
and  also  how  it  descends  on  the  decease  of  the  pro- 
prietor.    But  personal  estate  also  applies  to  some  in- 
terest in  lands  or  houses;  thus,  a  lease  of  them  for  a 
certain   number  of  years.     Real  estate  in  lands  is  of 
various  kinds  and  descriptions,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  interest,  its  duration,  or  the  time  by  which  it  is 
limited  in  respect  to  its  commencement  or  termina- 
tion, and  the  number  and  condition  of  the  owners.     A 
fee  simple  is  the  amplest  estate  which  the  law  admits 
of.       A  freehold  is  an  estate  for  the  life  of  any  person 
or  persons.     An  estate  in  tail  is  one  limited  to  certain 
heirs.     An  estate  in   remainder  is  one  of  which  the 
owner  is  to  come  into  possession  after  the  expiration 
of  an  intermediate  estate  of  another  person,  or  num- 
ber of  persons  or  heirs;  and  so,  also,  is  an  estate  in 
reversion  ;  thus,  if  one  grants  an  estate  tail,  this  estate 
may  expire,  in  which  case  the  lands  will  come  back 
or  revert  to  the  grantor,  and  his  estate,  which  still  re- 
mains to  him  after  he  has  granted  the  estate  tail,  is 
therefore  called  a  reversion.     As  to  the  number  of 
owners,  an  estate  in  common  is  a  freehold  belonging 
to  more  than  one  proprietor,  in  individual  shares  ;  and 
so  also  is  an  estate  in  joint-tenancy;  but  there  is  this 
distinction  between  these  two  kinds  of  estates, — that 
when  one  joint-tenant  dies  his  share  goes  to  the  other 
joint  tenants,  which  is  not  the  case  in  tenancies  in 
common.      An  estate  in  coparcenary  arises  when  an 
estate  in  fee  simple  descends,  on  the  decease  of  the 
owner,  to  hisdaughters, sisters, aunts,  orfemale  cousins, 
or  their   representatives,  being  females,  and  they  are 
called  coparceners,  or,  for  brevity,  parceners.     Real 
estate  left  to  any  one  by  will  is  called  a  devise,  or  an 
estate  by  devise,  in  distinction  from  a  bequest  of  per- 
sonal property,  which  is  called  a  legacy. 

Estrays  are  domestic  animals  wandering  about  on 
the  commons,  or  pubhc  roads,  or  in  the  fields,  whose 
owners  are  unknown.  Any  resident  citizen  and  house- 
holder may  take  up  estrays,  in  nearly  all  the  States, 
during  some  portion  of  the  year.     When  an  estray  is 


ETIQUETTE. 


401 


taken  up,  write  out  a  particular  discription  of  the  ani- 
mal, then  goto  the  nearest  justice  of  the  peace  and  no- 
tify him  you  have  taken  up  such  animal  as  an  estray, 
and  ask  him  to  show  you  the  estray  law  of  your  State. 
The  statutes  of  the  several  States  are  so  voluminous 
and  unlike  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  correct  instruc- 
tions in  this  book.  Remember,  however,  that  estrays 
can  only  be  taken  up  at,  nearer  on  your  own  premises. 
You  cannot  go  out  upon  the  commons  or  upon  the 
road  away  from  your  own  farm  to  take  up  stock  of 
any  kind,  and  when  you  do  take  up  estrays,  consult 
the  State  law. 

Etiquette  (et-i-ket),  the  forms  essential  to  social 
or  official  intercourse.  Politeness  includes  etiquette, 
along  with  pleasing  manners  in  every  little  detail  of 
conduct  and  conversation.  Politeness  has  been  de- 
fined as  "  minor  morals,"  and  all  true  [xiliteness  is 
based  upon  the  golden  rule,  "  Do  unto  others  as  ye 
would  that  they  should  do  unto  you."  This  is  the 
governing  motive  of  good  society,  influencing  all  its 
thoughts,  modifying  all  its  speech,  and  controlling  all 
its  actions.  True  politeness  requires  that  we  shall  ex- 
ercise oar  faculties  to  secure  the  approbation,  and,  if 
[xjssible,  the  admiration  of  all  with  whom  we  come  in 
contact.  Good  manners  are  habits  of  mind  and  body, 
derived  from  right  thinking  and  acting;  such  thinking 
and  acting  as  shall  afford  us  the  greatest  happiness, 
and  at  the  same  time  preserve  the  rights  and  feelings  of 
our  neighbor.  These  habits  are  acquired  by  observa- 
tion and  study,  and  by  association  with  persons. bf  re- 
fined taste  and  elegant  culture.  For  the  sake  of 
convenience  we  shall  give  the  laws  and  forms  of  eti- 
quette and  the  principles  of  [wliteuess  all  together  un- 
der one  head,  in  this  place. 

In  this  article  we  shall  endeavor  to  give  such  rules 
of  action  as  will  enable  the  young  to  entier  good  society 
with  pleasure  to  themselves  and  satisfaction  to  their 
friends.  The  importance  of  such  knowledge  should  be 
apparent  to  every  person  who  has  sons  and  daughters 
ready  to  be  introduced  into  society.  It  always  affords 
a  pleasure  to  even  the  most  uncultured  parents  to  have 
their  children  appear  to  advantage  among  persons  of 
refinement  and  culture. 

A  thoroughly  good-hearted  person,  a  man  or  woman 
of  correct  principles,  will  always  shape  his  or  her  con- 
duct so  as  to  command  respect;  but  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  always  act  justly  or  from  right  principles  to  fulfill 
one's  duty  in  society.  There  are  so  many  observances 
to  be  met,  so  many  things  to  be  considered  and  pro- 
vided for,  that,  without  an  exact  knowledge  of  what  is 
due  to  one's  self  and  one's  associates,  it  is  impossible 
to  fulfill  all  the  requirements  of  society.  This  knowl- 
edge is  obtained  by  the  study  of  what  is  termed  Eti- 
quette. 

Young  men  and  women  \i\)Ox\  first  entering  society 
are  made  to  feel  keenly  their  ignorance  of  the  many 
forms  and  customs  to  which  all  are  expected  to  con- 
form. No  allowance  is  made  for  the  inexperience  of 
the  young  persons,  and  any  social  blunder  or  awk- 
wardness is  sharply  criticised.  Even  those  who  are 
26 


well  informed  in  this  respect  are  sometimes  at  a  loss 
to  know  just  what  to  do  under  certain  circumstances. 
To  all  such  an  article  embodying  the  rules  recognized 
by  the  best  society,  and  stating  simply  and  plainly  the 
exact  thing  required,  and  what  should  be  done,  must 
be  a  welcome  assistance.  It  can  be  consulted  at  any 
time,  and  will  show  what  the  best  society,  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  regards  as  good  manners.  Then  what 
means  have  young  persons  who  have  been  reared  and 
educated  in  the  country  and  are  brought  into  the  so- 
ciety of  a  city,  of  learning  its  customs  except  through 
this  channel,  or  through  dearly  bought  lessons  of  ex- 
perience.' Good  breeding  is  the  same  in  the  country 
as  in  the  city,  it  is  true,  but  social  intercourse  is  so 
differently  conducted  that  customs  and  formalities  en- 
tirely foreign  to  country  life  are  in  vogue.  Then  there 
are  few  young  gentlemen  and  ladies  of  the  country 
but  have  occasion  to  visit  the  city,  or  village,  either  to 
see  relatives  or  friends,  or  on  business  or  a  tour  of 
sight-seeing.  Such  should  certainly  be  informed  be- 
forehand at  least  of  the  more  common  customs  of  city 
life.  To  neglect  to  learn  and  practice  the  rules  pre- 
scribed by  good  society  for  the  regulation  of  social  in- 
tercourse, brings  with  it  its  own  punishment.  Those 
who  are  rough,  coarse  and  vulgar  do  not  merit  the 
respect  of  well-bred  people,  much  less  than  they  com- 
mand any  good  social  influence.  It  is  the  duty  of 
every  one  to  gain  friends  by  making  the  best  impres- 
sion jxjssible,  providing  it  can  be  done  without  the  sac- 
rifice of  principle  or  honor.  Daily  experience  shows 
that  civility  is  not  only  one  of  the  essentials  of  high 
success,  but  that  it  is  almost  a  fortune  of  itself, 
and  that  he  who  has  this  cjuality  in  perfection,  though 
a  blockhead,  is  almost  sure  to  get  on  where,  without 
it,  even  men  of  aJjility  fail.  "  Give  a  boy  address  and 
accomplishments,"  said  an  eminent  writer,  "  and  you 
give  him  the  mastery  of  palaces  and  fortunes  wher- 
ever he  goes  ;  he  has  no  trouble  of  earning  or  owning 
them;  they  solicit  him  to  enter  and  possess."  Among 
strangers  a  good  manner  is  the  best  letter  of  recom- 
mendation ;  for  a  great  deal  depends  nixjn  first  im- 
pressions, and  these  are  favorable  or  unfavorable 
according  to  a  man's  bearing,  as  he  is  polite  or  awk- 
ward, shy  or  self-possessed.  While  coarseness  and 
gruffness  lock  doors  and  close  hearts,  courtesy,  refine- 
ment and  gentleness  are  an  "open  sesame  "  at  which 
bolts  and  bars  fly  back  and  doors  swing  open.  The 
rude,  boorish  man,  even  though  well  meaning,  is 
avoided  by  all.  Even  virtue  itself  is  offensive  when 
coupled  with  an  ofTensive  manner.  « 

For  convenience  we  will  treat  the  various  topics  al- 
phabetically, after  giving  a  few  remarks  as  to  personal 
care,  both  as  to  appearance  and  health.  In  the  arti- 
cles given  on  the  several  subjects  we  do  not  lay  down 
any  arbitrary  rules  of  our  own,  but  simply  give  the 
principles  and  observances  that  govern  in  good  so- 
ciety, adapted  especially  to  the  rural  residents. 

The  first  care  of  all  persons  in  society  should  be  for 
their  personal  appearance.  The  preservation  of  health 
and  comfort,  good  taste,  and  the  approbation  of  friends, 
require  cleanliness  of  person  and  dress      The  habits 


402 


ETIQUETTE. 


of  neatness  and  cleanliness  should  be  cultivated. 
The  hands,  face,  neck  and  ears  should  be  thoroughly 
washed  every  morning  in  soft  water,  then  briskly 
rubbed  with  a  crash  towel  until  they  are  dry  and  warm. 
There  is  nothing  that  preserves  and  promotes  personal 
beauty  like  this.  It  gives  softness  and  pliancy  to  the 
skin  and  imparts  a  beautiful  glow  to  the  cheeks. 
Good  health  and  cleanliness  also  requires  that  the 
whole  body  should  be  frequently  bathed.  The  gar- 
ments of  an  individual  may  be  plain  or  coarse,  or  even 
worn  "  thin  and  shiny,"  but  if  carefully  brushed,  neat 
and  worn  with  dignity,  the  true  lady  or  gentleman  is 
indicated.  The  matter  of  cleanliness  extends  to  all 
articles  of  clothing,  underwear  as  well  as  outer-wear. 

The  hair  and  teeth  should  receive  the  utmost  atten- 
tion. The  skin  of  the  head  should  be  as  white  as 
that  of  the  hands,  and  the  hair  thoroughly  brushed 
and  kept.  So,  also,  with  the  beard  of  men.  It  should 
be  adapted  to  the  style  of  the  face,  and  carefully  at- 
tended to,  or  it  will  become  offensive  to  its  wearer. 
A  man  may  be  as  cleanly  in  all  respects  at  the  table 
with  a  beard  as  without  one,  but  not  without  care  and 
attention.  One  of  nature's  most  beautiful  gifts  is  fine 
teeth.  The  laws  of  health  require  that  they  be  kept 
in  good  order,  and  social  law  demands  that  they  be 
presented  clean,  pure  and  sweet.  For  information  as 
to  the  preservation  of  both  hair  and  teeth,  hands,  face, 
feet  and  eyes,  see  respective  articles  in  this  book. 

Boots  and  shoes  should  be  kept  so  neat  and  clean 
as  to  show  that  their  owners  are  not  lacking  in  good 
taste.  One  should  also  be  careful  not  to  perfume 
themselves  with  tobacco  or  odors  of  the  hen-house, 
pig  pen  or  barn. 

Balls.  Persons  giving  balls  or  dancing  parties 
should  be  careful  not  to  invite  more  than  their  rooms 
will  accommodate,  so  as  to  avoid  a  crush.  Invitations 
A  to  crowded  balls  are  not  hospitalities,  but  inflictions. 
A  hostess  is  usually  safe,  however,  in  inviting  one- 
fourth  more  than  her  rooms  will  hold,  as  that  propor- 
tion of  regrets  are  apt  to  be  received.  Peoj^le  who  do 
not  dance  will  not,  as  a  rule,  expect  to  be  invited  to  a 
dancing  party. 

The  Dawes.  The  dances  should  be  arranged  be- 
forehand, and  for  large  balls  programmes  are  printed 
with  a  list  of  the  dances.  Usually  a  ball  opens  with 
a  waltz,  followed  by  a  quadrille,  and  these  are  suc- 
ceeded by  galops,  lancers,  polkas,  quadrilles  and 
waltzes  in  turn. 

General  Rules  of  the  Ball  Room.  In  private  balls 
introductions  are  effected  through  the  lady  of  the  house 
or  members  of  the  family. 

No  gentleman  should"  ask  a  lady  to  dance  with  him 
until  he  has  received  an  introduction. 

The  usual  form  of  asking  a  lady  to  dance  is:  "May 
I  have  the  pleasure  of  dancing  this  quadrille  with 
you.'"  Where  there  is  great  intimacy,  "Will  you 
dance?"  may  suffice.  To  accept  is  easy  enough: 
" Thank  youJ' is  sufficient;  to  decline  with  delicacy, 
and  without^ving  offence,  is  more  difficult — "Thank 
you;  I  am  engaged,"  suffices  when  that  expresses  the 
fact :  when  it  does  not,  and  a  lady  would  rather  not 


dance  with  a  gentleman  applying  to  her,  she  must  beg 
to  be  excused,  as  politely  as  possible,  and  it  is  in  better 
taste  for  her  not  to  dance  at  all  in  that  set. 

Ladies  should  take  especial  care  not  to  accept  two 
partners  for  the  same  dance ;  nor  should  a  gentleman 
ask  a  lady  to  dance  with  him  more  than  twice  during 
the  same  evening ;  if  he  is  inUmate  with  a  lady  he  may 
dance  with  her  three,  or  even  four,  times.  Do  not 
forget  to  ask  the  daughters  of  the  house.  When  a 
lady  has  accepted,  the  gentleman  offers  her  his  right 
arm,  and  leads  her  to  her  place  on  the  floor. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  bow  to  the  lady  at  the  end  of 
a  quadrille;  in  fact,  anything  like  formality  is  now  dis- 
countenanced ;  it  is  enough  that  you  again  offer  her 
your  right  arm,  and  walk  half  round  the  room  with 
her.  You  should  inquire  if  she  will  take  refresh- 
ments, and  if  she  replies  in  the  affirmative,  you  will 
conduct  her  to  the  room  devoted  to  that  purpose. 

The  gentleman  who  dances  with  a  lady  in  the  last 
dance  before  supper,  conducts  that  lady  to  the  supper- 
room,  attends  on  her  while  there,  and  escorts  her  back 
to  the  ball-room.  At  a  private  ball  the  lady  of  the 
house  may  ask  a  gentleman  to  take  a  lady  down  to 
supper,  and  he  is  bound  to  comply 'and  to  treat  her 
with  the  utmost  delicacy  and  attention. 

It  is  not  well  to  dance  every  dance,  as  the  exercise 
is  unpleasantly  heating  and  fatiguing.  Never  forget 
an  engagement:  it  is  an  offense  that  does  not  admit  of 
excuse,  except  when  a  lady  commits  it ;  and  then  a 
gentleman  is  bound  to  take  her  word  without  a  mur- 
mur. It  is  not  the  mode  for  married  persons  to  dance 
together.  Engaged  persons  should  not  dance  together 
too  often ;  it  is  in  bad  taste.  Gentlemen  should  en- 
deavor to  entertain  the  ladies  who  dance  with  them 
with  a  little  conversation,  or  something  more  novel 
than  the  weather  and  the  heat  of  the  room ;  and  in 
round  danced  they  should  be  particularly  careful  to 
guard  against  collisions,  and  to  see  that  their  dresses 
are  not  torn. 

Assemblies  of  this  kind  should  be  left  quietly.  If 
the  party  is  small,  it  is  permissible  to  bow  to  the  host- 
ess ;  but  at  a  large  ball  this  is  not  necessary,  unless, 
indeed, you  meet  heron  your  way  from  the  room.  The 
great  thing  is  to  avoid  making  your  departure  felt  as  a 
suggestion  for  breaking  up  the  party,  as  you  have  no 
right  to  hint  by  your  movements  that  you  consider  the 
entertainment  has  been  kept  up  long  enough. 

Finally,  let  no  gentleman  presume  on  a  ball-room 
introduction.  It  is  given  with  a  view  to  one  dance 
only,  and  vidll  certainly  not  warrant  a  gentleman  in 
going  farther  than  asking  a  lady  to  dance  a  second 
time.  Out  of  the  ball-room  reach,  an  introduction  has 
no  force  whatever. 

Dress.  To  dress  well  requires  good  taste,  good 
sense  and  refinement.  A  woman  of  good  sense  will 
neither  make  dress  her  first  nor  her  last  object  in  life. 
No  sensible  wife  will  betray  that  total  indifference  for 
her  husband  which  is  implied  in  the  neglect  of  her 
appearance,  and  she  will  remember  that  to  dress  con- 
sistently and  tastefully  is  one  of  the  dudes  which  she 
owes  to  society.     Every  lady,  however  insignificant 


ETIQUETTE. 


403 


her  social  iX)sition  may  appear  to  herself,  must  exer- 
cise a  certain  influence  on  the  feelings  and  opinions 
of  others.  An  attention  to  dress  is  useful  as  retaining, 
in  the  minds  of  sensible  men,  that  pride  in  a  wife's 
appearance  which  is  so  agreeable  to  her,  as  well  as 
that  due  influence  which  cannot  be  obtained  without 
it.  But  a  love  of  dress  has  its  perils  for  weak  minds. 
Uncontrolled  by  good  sense  and  stimulated  by  per- 
sonal vanity,  it  becomes  a  temptation  at  first,  and  then 
a  curse.  When  it  is  indulged  in  to  the  detriment  of 
better  employments,  and  beyond  the  compass  of  means 
it  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 

Consistency  in  regard  to  station  and  fortune  is  the 
first  matter  to  be  considered.  A  woman  of  good  sense 
will  not  wish  to  expend  in  unnecessary  extravagances 
money  wrung  from  an  anxious,  laborious  husband ;  or, 
if  her  husband  be  a  man  of  fortune,  she  will  not,  even 
then,  encroach  ujxjn  her  allowance.  In  the  early  years 
of  married  life,  when  the  income  is  moderate,  it  should 
be  the  pride  of  a  woman  to  see  how  little  she  can 
spend  upon  her  dress,  and  yet  present  that  tasteful 
and  creditable  appearance  which  is  desirable.  Much 
depends  ui»n  management,  and  ujxjn  the  care  taken 
of  garments.  She  should  turn  everything  to  account, 
and  be  careful  of  her  clothing  when  wearing  it. 

Gloves.  Gloves  are  worn  by  gentlemen  as  well 
as  ladies  in  the  street,  at  an  evening  party,  at  the 
opera  or  theater,  at  receptions,  at  church,  when  pay- 
ing a  call,  riding  or  driving;  but  not  in  the  country  or 
at  dinner.  White  should  be  worn  at  balls;  the  pal- 
est colors  at  evening  parties  and  neutral  shades  at 
church. 

Evening  Dress  for  Gentlemen.  The  evening 
or  full  dress  for  gentlemen  is  a  black  dress  suit — a 
"  swallow-tail "  coat,  the  vest  cut  low,  the  cravat 
white,  and  kid  gloves  of  the  palest  hue  or  white. 
The  shirt  front  should  be  white  and  plain ;  the  studs 
and  cuff-buttons  simple.  Especial  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  hair,  which  should  be  neither  short  nor 
long.  It  is  better  to  err  upon  the  too-short  side,  as 
too  long  hair  savors  of  aff"ectation,  destroys  the  shape 
of  the  physiognomy,  and  has  a  touch  of  vulgarity  about 
it.  Evening  dress  is  the  same  for  a  large  dinner  par- 
ty, a  ball  or  an  opera.  In  some  circles,  however, 
everiing  dress  is  considered  an  affectation,  and  it  is  as 
well  to  do  as  others  do. 

Morning  Dress  for  Gentlemen.  The  morning 
is  a  black  frock-coat,  or  a  black  cut-away,  white  or 
black  vest,  according  to  the  season,  gray  or  colored 
pants,  plaid  or  stripes,  according  to  the  fashion,  a  high 
silk  (stove-pipe)  hat,  and  a  black  scarf  or  necktie.  A 
black  coat  with  black  pants  is  not  considered  a  good 
combination,  nor  is  a  dress  coat  and  colored  or  light 
pants.  The  morning  dress  is  suitable  for  garden  par- 
ties, Sundays,  social  teas,  informal  calls,  morning  calls 
and  receptions. 

fewelry  for  Gentlemen.  It  is  not  considered  in 
good  taste  for  men  to  wear  much  jewelry.  They  may 
with  propriety  wear  one  gold  ring,  studs  and  cuff-but- 
tons, and  a  watch  chain,  not  too  massive,  with  a  mod- 
est pendant,  or  none  at  all.     Anything  more  looks  like 


a  superabundance  of  ornament,  and  even  affectation. 

Evening  Dress  for  Ladies.  Evening  dress  for 
ladies  may  be  as  rich,  elegant  and  gay  as  one  chooses 
to  ni^ke  it.  It  is  everywhere  the  custom  to  wear  full 
evening  dress  in  brilliant  evening  assemblages.  It 
may  be  cut  either  high  or  low  at  the  neck,  yet  no  lady 
should  wear  her  dress  so  low  as  to  make  it  quite  no- 
ticeable or  a  special  subject  of  remark.  Evening 
dress  is  what  is  commonly  known  as  "full  dress,"  and 
will  serve  for  a  large  evening  party,  ball  or  dinner. 
No  directions  will  be  laid  down  with  reference  to  it, 
as  fashion  devises  how  it  to  is  be  made  and  what  ma- 
terial should  be  used. 

Ball  Dress.  Ball  dressing  requires  less  art  than 
the  nice  gradations  of  costume  in  the  dinner  dress, 
and  the  dress  for  evening  parties.  For  a  ball,  every- 
thing should  be  light  and  diaphanous,  somewhat  fan- 
ciful and  airy.  The  heavy,  richly-trimmed  silk  is  only 
appropriate  to  those  who  do  not  dance.  The  rich- 
est velvets,  the  brightest  and  most  delicate  tints  in 
silk,  the  most  expensive  laces,  elaborate  coiffures,  a 
large  displayof  diamonds,  artifical  flowers  of  the  head- 
dress and  natural  flowers  for  hand  bouquets,  all  be- 
long, more  or  less,  to  the  costume  for  a  large  ball. 

The  Full  Dinner  Dress.  The  full  dinner  dress 
for  guests  admits  of  considerable  splendor.  It  may 
be  of  any  thick  texture  of  silk  or  velvet  for  winter,  or 
light  rich  goods  for  summer,  and  should  be  long 
and  sweeping.  Every  trifle  in  a  lady's  costume 
should  be,  as  far  as  she  can  afford  it,  fault- 
less. The  fan  should  be  perfect  in  its  way,  and 
the  gloves  should  be  quite  fresh.  Diamonds  are 
used  in  broaches,  pendants,  ear-rings  and  bracelets. 
If  artificial  flowers  are  worn  in  the  hair,  they  should 
be  of  the  choicest  description.  All  the  light  neutral 
tints,  and  black,  dark  blue,  purple,  dark  green, 
garnet,  brown  and  fawn  are  suited  for  dinner  wear. 

Dress  of  Hostess  at  a  Dinner  Party.  The 
dress  of  a  hostess  at  a  dinner  party  should  be  rich  in 
material,  but  subdued  in  tone,  so  as  not  to  eclipse  any 
of  her  guests.  .A  young  hostess  should  wear  a  dress 
of  rich  silk,  black  or  dark  in  color,  with  collar  and 
cuffs  of  fine  lace ;  and  if  the  dinner  be  by  daylight, 
plain  jewelry,  but  by  gaslight,  diamonds. 

Ordinary  Evening  Dress.  The  ordinary  evening 
house  dress  should  be  tasteful  and  becoming,  with  a 
certain  amount  of  ornament,  and  worn  with  jewels. 
Silks  are  the  most  appropriate  for  this  dress,  but  all 
the  heavy  woolen  dress  fabrics  for  winter,  and  the 
lighter  lawns  and  organdies  for  summer,  elegantly 
made,  are  suitable.  For  winter,  the  colors  should  be 
rich  an^  warm,  and  knots  of  bright  ribbon  of  a  becom- 
ing color  should  be  worn  at  the  throat  and  in  the  hair. 
The  latter  should  be  plainly  dressed.  Artificial  flow- 
ers and  diamonds  are  out  of  place.  This  is  both  a 
suitable  dress  in  which  to  receive  or  make  a  casual 
evening  call.  If  a  hood  is  worn,  it  must  be  removed 
during  the  call.  Otherwise  a  full  dress  bonnet  must  be 
worn. 

Traveling  Dress.  Comfort  and  protection  from 
dust  and  dirt  are  the  requirements  of  a  traveling  dress. 


404 


ETIQUETTE. 


When  a  lady  is  about  making  an  extensive  journey,  a 
traveling  suit  is  a  great  convenience  ;  but  for  a  short 
journey,  a  large  linen  overdress  or  duster  may  be  put 
on  over  the  ordinary  dress  in  summer,  and  in  winter 
a  waterproof  cloak  may  be  used  in  the  same  way.  For 
traveling  costumes  a  variety  of  materials  maybe  used, 
of  soft,  neutral  tints,  and  smooth  surface  which  does 
not  retain  the  dust.  These  should  be  made  up  plainly 
and  quite  short.  The  underskirts  should  be  colored, 
woolen  in  winter  and  linen  in  summer.  The  hat  or 
bonnet  must  be  plainly  trimmed  and  completely  pro- 
tected by  a  large  veil.  Velvet  is  unfit  for  a  traveling 
hat,  as  it  catches  and  retains  the  dust ;  collars  and 
cuffs  of  plain  linen.  The  hair  should  be  put  up  in 
the  plainest  manner.  A  waterproof  and  warm  woolen 
shawl  are  indispensable  and  may  be  rolled  in  a  shawl 
strap  when  not  needed.  A  satchel  should  be  carried, 
in  wliich  may  be  kept  a  change  of  collars,  cuffs,  gloves, 
handkerchiefs,  toilet  articles,  and  towels.  A  traveling 
dress  should  be  well  supplied  with  jwckets,  the  w  iter- 
proofs  should  have  large  pockets,  and  there  should  be 
one  in  the  underskirt  in  which  to  carry  such  money 
and  valuables  as  are  not  needed  for  immediate  use. 

Mourning.  The  people  of  the  United  States  have 
settled  upon  no  prescribed  periods  for  the  wearing  of 
mourning  garments.  Some  wear  them  long  after  their 
hearts  have  ceased  to  mourn.  Where  there  is  profound 
grief,  no  rules  are  needed,  but  where  the  sorrow  is  not 
so  great,  there  is  need  of  observance  of  fixed  periods 
for  wearing  mourning. 

Deep  mourning  requires  the  heaviest  black  of  serge, 
bombazine,  lusterless  alpaca,  delaine,  merino  or  simi- 
lar heavy  clinging  material,  with  collar  and  cuffs  of 
crape.  Mourning  garments  should  have  little  or  no 
trimming ;  no  flounces,  ruffles  or  bows  are  allowable. 

The  bonnet  is  of  black  crape ;  a  hat  is  inadmissible. 
The  veil  is  of  crape  or  barege  with  heavy  border ; 
black  gloves  and  black-bordered  handkerchief  In 
winter  dark  furs  may  be  worn  with  the  deepest  mourn- 
ing. Jewelry  is  strictly  forbidden,  and  all  pins,  buck- 
les, etc.,  must  be  of  jet.  Lusterless  alpaca  and  black 
silk  trimmed  with  crape  may  be  worn  in  second 
mourning,  with  white  collars  and  cuffs.  The  crape 
veil  is  laid  aside  for  net  or  tulle,  but  the  jet  jewelry  is 
still  retained.  A  still  less  degree  of  mourning  is  in- 
dicated by  black  and  white,  purple  and  gray,  or  a 
combination  of  these  colors.  Crape  is  still  retained  in 
bonnet  trimming,  and  crape  flowers  may  be  added. 
Light  gray,  white  and  black,  and  light  shades  of  lilac, 
indicate  a  slight  mourning.  Black  lace  bonnet,  with 
white  or  violet  flowers,  supersedes  crape,  and  jet  and 
gold  jewelry  is  worn.  , 

The  deepest  mourning  is  that  worn  by  a  widow  for 
her  husband.  They  wear  deep  mourning  for  one 
year,  then  ordinary  mourning  for  one  year.  For 
parents,  from  one  to  two  years.  For  brothers  and  sis- 
ters that  have  reached  maturity,  one  year. 

Harmony  of  Colors.  A  lady  must  always  consider 
what  colors  will  suit  her  comjjiexion.  If  she  be  dark, 
blue  will  not  look  well  uiwn  her ;  or  if  she  be  fair, 
pink  will  not  become  her.     The  most  trying  color  is 


yellow.     Only  very  prominent  brunettes  can  wear  it. 

Red  and  blue,  red  and  yellow,  blue  and  yellow,  and 
scarlet  and  crimson  may  never  be  united  in  the  same 
costume.  If  the  dress  be  red,  green  may  be  intro- 
duced in  a  minute  quantity ;  if  blue,  orange ;  if  green, 
crimson.  Scarlet  and  Solferino  are  deadly  enemies, 
each  killing  the  other  whenever  they  meet. 

Two  contrasting  colors,  such  as  red  and  green,  may 
not  be  used  in  equal  quantities  in  the  dress,  as  they 
are  both  so  positive  in  tone  that  they  divide  and  dis- 
tract the  attention.  When  two  colors  are  worn  in  any 
quantity,  one  must  approach  a  neutral  tint,  such  as 
gray  or  drab.  Black  may  be  worn  with  any  color, 
though  it  looks  best  with  the  lighter  shades  of  the  dif- 
ferent colors.  White  may  also  be  worn  with  any 
color,  though  it  looks  best  with  the  darker  tones. 
Thus,  white  and  crimson,  black  and  pink,  each  con- 
trast better  and  have  a  richer  effect  than  though  the 
black  were  united  with  the  crimson  and  the  white 
with  the  pink.  Drab,  being  a  shade  of  no  color  be- 
tween black  and  white,  may  be  worn  with  equal  effect 
with  all. 

A  person  of  very  fair,  delicate  complexion  should 
always  wear  the  most  delicate  of  tints,  such  as  light 
blue,  mauve,  and  pea-green.  A  brunette  requires 
bright  colors,  such  as  scarlet  and  orange,  to  bring  out 
the  brilliant  tints  in  her  complexion.  A  florid  face 
and  auburn  hair  call  for  blue. 

Black  hair  has  its  color  and  depth  enhanced  by 
scarlet,  orange,  or  white,  and  will  bear  diamonds, 
pearls,  or  lusterless  gold. 

Dark-brown  hair  will  bear  light  blue  or  dark  blue 
in  a  lesser  quantity. 

If  the  hair  has  no  richness  of  coloring,  a  pale  yel- 
lowish green  will  by  reflection  produce  the  lacking 
warm  tint. 

Light-brown  hair  requires  blue,  which  sets  off  to  ad- 
vantage the  golden  tint. 

Pure  golden  or  yellow  hair  needs  blue,  and  its 
beauty  is  also  increased  by  the  addition  of  pearls  or 
white  flowers. 

Auburn  hair,  if  verging  on  the  red,  needs  scarlet  to 
tone  it  down.  If  a  golden  red,  blue,  green,  purple,  or 
black  will  bring  out  the  richness  of  its  tints. 

Flaxen  hair  requires  blue. 

Size  in  Relation  to  Dress  and  Colors.  A 
small  person  may  dress  in  light  colors  which  would 
be  simply  ridiculous  on  a  person  of  larger  proportions. 
So  a  lady  of  majestic  appearance  should  never  wear 
white,  but  will  be  seen  to  the  best  advantage  in  black 
or  dark  tints.  A  lady  of  diminutive  stature  is  dressed 
in  bad  taste  when  she  appears  in  a  garment  with  large 
figures,  plaids,  or  stripes.  Neither  should  a  lady  of 
large  proportions  be  seen  in  similar  garments,  because, 
united  with  her  size,  they  give  her  a  "loud"  appearance. 
Indeed,  pronounced  figures  and  broad  stripes  and 
plaids  are  never  in  perfect  taste. 

Heavy,  rich  materials  suit  a  tall  figure,  while  light, 
full  draperies  should  only  be  worn  by  those  of  slender 
proportions  and  not  too  short.  Short  people  must 
be  content  with  meager  drapery  and  quiet  colors. 


ETIQUETTE. 


405 


Tall  and  slim  persons  should  avoid  stripes;  short, 
chunky  ones  flounces,  or  any  horizontal  trimming  of 
the  dress  which,  by  breaking  the  outline  from  the 
waist  to  the  feet,  produces  an  effect  of  shortening. 

Calls.  There  are  calls  of  various  kinds  to  be  made 
by  people  of  good  breeding,  and  as  the  young  lady  who 
has  been  reared  in  her  quiet  country  home  emerges 
into  womanhood,  and  enters  society,  she  should  know 
something  of  the  etiquette  of  calling  and  receiving 
calls.  She  should  be  able  to  entertain  in  the  best 
manner  those  who  visit  or  call  at  her  rural  home,  or 
present  herself  properly  to  her  friends,  acquaintances 
or  strangers,  in  the  neighborhood.  Often,  too,  she 
may  visit  a  relative  or  friend  in  the  village  or  city  where 
she  will  receive  callers.  Likewise  the  young  man  may 
have  occasion  to  call  in  the  city,  or  upon  lady  friends 
in  his  vicinity,  and  should  be  jx)sted  as  to  the  proper 
manner  to  make  the  calls  and  conduct  himself.  Thus 
it  is  the  object  of  this  article  to  give  such  information 
as  will  enable  persons  to  familiarize  themselves  with 
the  rules  governing  calls,  ^\'e  do  not  forget  the  ma- 
tron, but  incorporate  such  information  as  is  adapted  to 
her. 

Calls  upon  Strangers.  When  strangers  enter  a 
community,  either  to  make  a  visit  or  secure  a  home, 
those  who  desire  to  make  their  acquaintance  shall 
manifest  their  disposition  to  be  sociable  by  giving 
them  the  first  call.  When  a  call  is  thus  made  upon  a 
stranger  he  or  she  should  be  politely  invited  to  return 
the  compliment,  which  should  be  done  at  the  earliest 
convenience.  AVhen  calls  are  not  returned  it  is  un- 
derstood that  even  a  formal  sociability  is  not  consid- 
ered agreeable. 

Formal  Calls.  It  frequently  happens  that  persons 
have  a  long  list  of  acquaintances,  with  whom,  on  ac- 
count of  pressure  of  domestic  cares,  or  other  import- 
ant business  which  demands  the  greater  part  of  their 
time,  they  cannot  be  on  terms  of  intimacy,  and  yet 
who  desire  to  cuUivate  their  friendship  by  the  exercise 
of  at  least  a  formal  sociability.  In  order  to  accom- 
modate this  social  necessity  for  recognition  it  is  the 
custom  to  make  brief  visits  or  calls.  As  the  call  is 
necessarily  short  it  is  not  expected  that  ladies  shall  re- 
move their  bonnets  or  shawls. 

The  lady  of  the  house  rises  on  the  entrance  of  her 
visitors,  who  at  once  advance  to  pay  their  res])ects  to 
her  before  speaking  to  others.  If  too  many  callers  are 
present  to  enable  her  to  take  the  lead  in  conversation, 
she  pays  special  attention  to  the  latest  arrivals,  watch- 
ing to  see  that  no  one  is  left  alone,  and  talking  to  each 
of  her  guests  in  succession,  or  seeing  that  some  one  is 
doing  so. 

A  lady  who^is  not  in  her  own  house  does  not  rise, 
either  on  the  arrival  or  departure  of  ladies,  unless  there 
is  some  great  difference  of  age.  Attention  to  the  aged 
is  one  of  the  marks  of  good  breeding  which  is  never 
neglected  by  the  thoughtful  and  refined. 

When  introductions  are  given,  it  is  the  gentleman 
who  should  be  presented  to  the  lady;  when  two  ladies 
are  introduced  it  is  the  younger  who  is  presented  to 
the  older. 


A  lady  receiving  gives  her  hand  to  a  stranger  as  to 
a  friend,  when  she  wishes  to  bestow  some  mark  of 
cordiality  in  welcoming  a  guest  to  her  home,  but  a 
gentleman  should  not  take  the  initiatory  in  hand- 
shaking. It  is  the  lady's  privilege  to  give  or  withhold 
as  she  chooses. 

A  gentleman  rises,  when  those  ladies  with  whom 
he  is  talking  rise  to  take  their  leave.  He  also  rises  upon 
the  entrance  of  ladies,  but  he  does  not  offer  seats  to 
those  entering,  unless  in  his  own  house,  or  unless  re- 
quested to  do  so  by  the  hostess,  and  then  he  does  not 
offer  his  own  chair  if  others  are  available. 

A  call  should  not  be  less  than  15  minutes  in  dura- 
tion, nor  should  it  be  so  long  as  to  become  tedious. 
A  bore  is  a  person  who  does  not  know  when 
you  have  had  enough  of  his  or  her  company, 
and  gives  more  of  it  than  is  desirable.  Choose  a 
time  to  leave  when  there  is  a  lull  in  the  conversation, 
and  the  hostess  is  not  occupied  with  fresh  arrivals. 
Then  take  leave  of  your  hostess,  bowing  to  those  you 
know  as  you  leave  the  room,  not  to  each  in  turn,  but 
let  one  bow  include  all. 

If,  on  making  a  call,  you  are  introduced  into  a  room 
where  you  are  unknown  to  those  assembled,  at  once 
give  your  name  and  mention  upon  whom  your  call  is 
made. 

In  meeting  a  lady  or  gentleman  whose  name  you 
cannot  recall,  frankly  say  so  if  you  find  it  necessar)-. 
Sensible  persons  will  prefer  to  recall  themselves  to 
your  memory  rather  than  to  feel  that  you  are  talking 
to  them  without  fully  recognizing  them.  To  affect 
not  to  remember  a  person  is  despicable,  and  reflects 
only  on  the  pretender. 

Gentlemen  as  well  as  ladies,  when  making  formal 
calls,  send  in  but  one  card,  no  matter  how  many 
members  of  the  family  they  may  wish  to  see.  If  a 
guest  is  stopping  at  the  house,  the  same  rule  is  ob- 
served. If  not  at  home,  one  card  is  left  for  the  lady, 
and  one  for  the  guest.  The  card  for  the  lady  may 
be  folded  so  as  to  include  the  family. 

General  Rules  Regarding  Calls.  A  gentleman 
in  making  a  formal  call  should  retain  his  hat  and 
gloves  in  his  hand  on  entering  the  room.  The  hat 
should  not  be  laid  ufxin  a  table  or  stand,  but  kept  in 
the  hand,  unless  it  is  found  necessary  from  some 
cause  to  set  it  down.  In  that  case,  place  it  upon  the 
floor.  An  umbrella  should  be  left  in  the  hall.  In  an 
informal  evening  call,  the  hat,  gloves,  overcoat,  and 
cane  may  be  left  in  the  hall. 

A  lady,  in  making  a  call,  may  bring  a  stranger, 
even  a-  gentleman,  with  her,  without  previous  permis- 
sion. A  gentleman,  however,  should  never  take  the 
same  liberty. 

No  one  should  prolong  a  call  if  the  person  upon 
whom  the  call  is  made  is  found  dressed  ready  to  go 
out. 

A  lady  should  be  more  richly  dressed  when  calling 
on  her  friends  than  for  an  ordinary  walk. 

A  lady  should  never  call  upon  a  gentleman  except 
upon  some  business,  officially  or  professionally. 

Never  allow  your  children,  dogs  or  pets  of  any  sort 


4o6 


ETIQUETTE. 


to  accompany  you  in  a  call.     They  often  prove  dis- 
agreeable and  troublesome. 

Two  persons  out  of  one  family,  or  at  most  three,  are 
all  that  should  call  together. 

It  is  not  customary  in  cities  to  offer  refreshments 
to  callers.  In  the  country,  where  the  caller  has  come 
from  some  distance,  it  is  exceedingly  hospitable  to  do 
so. 

Calls  in  the  country  may  be  less  ceremonious  and  of 
longer  duration  than  those  made  in  the  city. 

A  person  making  a  call  should  not,  while  waiting 
for  a  hostess,  touch  an  open  piano,  walk  about  the 
room  examining  pictures,  nor  handle  any  ornament  in 
the  room. 

Never  offer  to  go  to  the  room  of  an  invalid  upon 
whom  you  have  called,  but  wait  for  an  invitation  to  do 
so. 

In  receiving  morning  calls,  it  is  unnecessary  for  a 
lady  to  lay  aside  any  employment,  not  of  an  absorbing 
nature,  uixin  which  she  may  happen  to  be  engaged. 
Embroidery,  crocheting  or  light  needle-work  are  per- 
fectly in  harmony  with  the  requirements  of  the  hour, 
and  the  lady  looks  much  better  employed  than  in  ab- 
solute idleness. 

A  lady  should  pay  equal  attention  to  all  her  guests. 
'The  display  of  unusual  deference  is  alone  allowable, 
when  distinguished  rank  or  reputation  or  advanced 
age  justifies  it. 

A  guest  should  take  a  seat  indicated  by  the  hostess. 
A  gentleman  should  never  seat  himself  on  a  sofa  be- 
side her,  nor  in  a  chair  in  immediate  proximity,  unless 
she  specially  invites  him  to  do  so. 

A  lady  need  not  lay  aside  her  bonnet  during  a 
formal  call,  even  though  urged  to  do  so.  If  the  call 
be  a  friendly  and  unceremonious  one,  she  may  do  so 
if  she  thinks  proper,  but  not  without  an  invitation. 

A  gentleman  caller  must  not  look  at  his  watch  dur- 
ing a  call,  unless,  in  doing  so,  he  pleads  some  en- 
gagement and  asks  to  be  excused. 

In  calling  upon  a  person  living  at  a  hotel  or  board- 
ing-house, it  is  customary  to  stop  in  the  parlor  and 
send  your  card  to  the  room  of  the  person  called  ufxsn. 

When  a  person  has  once  risen  to  take  leave,  he 
should  not  be  persuaded  to  prolong  his  stay. 

Visits  of  friendship  are  conducted  by  no  particular 
rules  of  etiquette,  as  it  is  presumed  that  intimate  friends 
or  relatives  understand  each  other's  tastes  and  pecul- 
iarities, and  will  conduct  themselves  in  a  manner 
mutually  agreeable. 

A  sick  person  sometimes  desires  visits  or  calls  from 
acquaintances,  and  sometimes  not;  and  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  a  friend  or  neighbor  should  ascertain, 
from  the  resixmsible  attendant,  the  desires  of  the  sick 
in  this  respect,  as  well  as  the  orders  of  the  physician, 
before  incurring  the  risk  of  intrusion.  Do  not  be  too 
officious.  Be  willing  to  serve,  but  not  to  consume 
time  in  wearying  the  patient  with  long  calls,  visits  or 
anything  else  that  might  be  tedious.  Nor  is  it  proper 
to  insist  on  remedies  and  prescriptions  of  your  own. 

On  hearing  of  the  death  of  a  friend,  or  in  the  family 
of  a  friend,  it  is  well  to  make  a  short  call  of  condo- 


lence, ascertaining  first,  of  some  responsible  person  in 
charge  of  affairs,  whether  such  call  might  be  agree- 
able. Calls  of  condolence  are  often  proper,  made  in 
the  parlor  in  the  presence  of  the  person  in  charge, 
even  if  the  bereft  party  does  not  personally  appear. 

Cards.  A  card  used  in  calling  should  have 
nothing  upon  it  but  the  name  of  the  caller.  A  lady's 
card  should  not  bearher  place  of  residence.  A  physi- 
cian may  put  the  prefix  "Dr.,"  or  the  affix  "  M.  D.," 
upon  his  card,  and  an  army  or  navy  officer  his  rank 
and  branch  of  service. 

Wedding  Cards.  Wedding  cards  are  only  sent  to 
those  people  whom  the  newly  married  couple  desire  to 
keep  among  their  acquaintances,  and  it  is  then  the 
duty  of  those  receiving  the  cards  to  call  first  on  the 
young  couple. 

Size  and  Style  of  Visiting  or  Calling  Cards.  A 
medium-sized  is  in  better  taste  than  a  very  large  card, 
for  married  persons.  Cards  bearing  the  name  of  the 
husband  alone  are  smaller.  The  cards  of  unmarried 
men  should  also  be  small.  The  engraving  in  simple 
writing  is  preferred,  and  without  flourishes.  Nothing 
in  cards  can  be  more  common-place  than  large  printed 
letters,  be  the  type  what  it  may.  Young  men  should 
dispense  with  the  "Mr."  before  their  names.  Tinted 
or  colored  cards  are  not  in  good  taste. 

Card  for  Mother  and  Daughter.  The  name  of 
young  ladies  are  sometimes  printed  or  engraved  on 
their  mother's  cards ;  both  in  script.  It  is,  of  course, 
allowable  for  the  daughter  to  have  cards  of  her  own. 

Calling  at  Hotels.  In  calling  upon  a  person  living 
or  stopping  temporarily  at  a  hotel,  wait  in  the  parlor 
and  send  up  your  card.  Even  intimate  friends  should 
observe  this  rule.  Gentlemen  may  wait  in  office  or 
hall  of  the  hotel  while  the  waiter  takes  up  their  card. 

Conversation,  It  is  not  given  to  every  man  to  be 
a  brilliant  talker.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  why 
any  person  who  goes  into  society  should  be  ignorant 
of  the  rules  of  polite  intercourse.  To  be  able  to  con- 
verse well  is  an  attainment  which  should  be  cultiva- 
ted by  every  intelligent  man  and  woman.  It  is  better 
to  be  a  good  talker  than  a  good  singer  or  musician, 
because  the  former  is  more  widely  appreciated,  and 
the  company  of  a  person  who  is  able  to  talk  well  on  a 
great  variety  of  subjects,  is  much  sought  after.  The 
importance,  therefore,  of  cultivating  the  art  of  conver- 
sation cannot  easily  be  over-estimated.  It  should  be 
the  aim  of  all  intelligent  persons  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  talking  sensibly  and  with  facility  ujxm  all  topics  of 
general  interest  to  society,  so  that  they  may  both  in- 
terest others  and  be  themselves  interested,  in  what- 
ever company  they  may  chance  to  be  thrown. 

The  training  for  this  should  be  commenced  in  early 
childhood.  Parents  should  not  only  entourage  their 
children  to  express  themselves  freely  uixin  everything 
that  attracts  their  attention  and  interests  them,  but 
they  should  also  incite  their  faculties  of  preception, 
memory  and  close  observation,  by  requiring  them  to 
recount  everything,  even  to  its  minutest  details,  that 
they  may  have  observed  in  walking  to  and  from 
school,  or  in  taking  a  ride  in  a  carriage  or  in  the  cars. 


ETIQUETTE. 


407 


By  training  a  child  to  a  close  observation  of  every- 
thing he  meets  or  passes,  his  mind  becomes  very  act- 
ive, and  the  habit  having  once  been  acquired,  he  be- 
comes interested  in  a  great  variety  of  objects ;  sees 
more  and  enjoys  more  than  one  who  has  not  been  so 
trained. 

Topics.  It  is  ahiiost  useless  to  say  that  your  con- 
versation should  be  adapted  to  your  company,  but  this 
is  the  golden  rule  on  this  subject.  Some  men  make  a 
point  of  talking  common-place  to  all  ladies  alike,  as 
if  a  woman  could  only  be  a  trifler.  Others,  on  the 
contrary,  seem  io  forget  in  what  respect  the  education 
of  a  lady  differs  from  that  of  a  gentleman,  and  com- 
mit the  opposite  error  of  conversing  on  topics  with 
which  ladies  are  seldom  acquainted,  and  in  which 
few  or  any  are  seldom  interested.  Religion,  ix)litics 
and  all  disputed  points  whereon  party  lines  are  strong- 
ly drawn,  are  topics  that  should  never  be  introduced 
into  general  conversation,  for  they  are  subjects  dan- 
gerous to  harmony.  Persons  are  most  likely  to  differ, 
and  least  likely  to  preserve  their  tempers  on  these  top- 
ics. Long  arguments  in  general  company,  however 
entertaining  to  the  disputants,  are  very  tiresome  to  the 
hearers. 

Gossip,  or  tattling,  is  the  telling  of  unfounded  sus- 
picions or  unreliable  stories  about  a  neighbor.  This 
is  probably  the  most  difficult  vice  to  avoid. 

Talk  of  yourself  and  your  own  affairs  as  little  as 
possible.  If  you  wish  to  be  an  agreeable  listener,  show 
an  interest  in  the  affairs  of  others  as  related  by  them. 

Correct  Use  of  Words.  Tlie  correct  use  of  words 
is  indispensable  to  a  good  talker  who  would  escape 
the  unfavorable  criticism  of  an  educated  listener. 
There  are  many  words  and  phrases  used  in  some  cases 
by  persons  who  have  known  better,  but  who  have  be- 
come careless  from  association  with  others  who  make 
constant  use  of  them.  "Because  that"  and  "but 
that "  should  never  be  used  in  connection,  the  word 
"that"  being  entirely  superfluous.  Tlie  word  "  avo- 
cation "  is  often  used  for  "vocation."  "Unhealthy" 
food  is  spoken  of  when  it  should  be  "  unwholesome, 
or  unhealthful."  "  Had  not  ought  to"  is  sometimes 
heard  for  "  ought  not  to ;  "  "  banister  "  for  "  baluster ;  " 
"  handsful  "  and  "  spoonsful  "  for  "  handfuls  "  and 
"  sjxwafuls ;  "  "  it  was  him  "  for  "  it  was  he  ;  "  "it  was 
me  "  for  "  it  was  I ;  "  "  whom  do  you  think  was  there? " 
for  "  who  do  you  think  was  there  ?  "  "a  mutual  friend  " 
for  "  a  common  friend ;  "  "  like  I  did  "  instead  of  "  as  I 
did ;  "  "  those  sorts  of  things  "  instead  of  "  that  sort  of 
thing;"  "laying  down"  for  "lying  down;"  "setting 
on  a  chair  "  for  "  sitting  on  a  chair;  "  "  try  and  make 
him  "  instead  of  ''  try  to  make  him  ;  "  "  she  looked 
charmingly  "  for  "  she  looked  charming ;  "  "  loan  "  for 
"  lend ;  "  "  to  get  along  "  instead  of  "  to  get  on ;  "  "cu- 
palo  "  instead  of  "  cu]X)la ;  "  "  who  "  for  "  whom  " — as, 
"  who  did  you  see  ?"  for  "  whom  did  you  see  ?  "  double 
negatives,  as,  "he  didn't  want  no  money;  "  "lesser" 
for  "  least ;  "  "  off-set  "  instead  of  "  set-off,"  and  many 
other  words  which  are  often  carelessly  used  by  those 
who  have  been  better  taught  as  well  as  those  who  are 
ignorant  of  their  proper  use. 


Profanity.  No  gentleman  uses  profane  language. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  add  that  no  gentleman  will  use 
profane  language  in  the  presence  of  a  lady.  For  pro- 
fanity there  is  no  excuse.  It  is  a  low  and  paltry  habit, 
acquired  from  association  with  low  and  paltry  spirits, 
who  possess  no  sense  of  honor,  no  regard  for  decency, 
and  no  reverence  or  respect  for  beings  of  a  higher 
moral  or  religious  nature  than  themselves.  The  man 
who  habitually  uses  profane  language  lowers  his  moral 
tone  with  every  oath  he  utters.  Moreover,  the  silliness 
of  the  practice,  if  no  other  reason,  should  prevent  its 
use  by  every  man  of  good  sense. 

Profanity  never  did  any  one  the  slightest  good.  No 
one  is  richer,  wiser,  happier,  or  more  esteemed  for  it. 
It  helps  no  man's  education  or  manner;  it  commends 
no  one  to  good  society;  it  is  disgusting  to  man  and 
insulting  to  God. 

Expletives.  It  exhibits  a  want  of  culture  to  inter- 
lard your  sentences  with  hackneyed  phrases  of  em- 
phasis, as,  "sure  as  death,"  "quick  as  lightning,"  "most 
horrid  sight  I  ever  saw,"  "Jerusalem!"  "by  hoky," 
"uix)n  my  honor,"  "you  may  bet  your  bottom  dollar," 
"plague  take  it,"  "you  bet,"  etc. 

Attention.  Polite  people  always  look  the  person  to 
whom  their  conversation  is  addressed  in  the  face,  and 
he,  to  appear  respectful,  must  look  directly  at  the 
speaker. 

Things  to  be  Avoided.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  a  social  gathering  should  never  be  made  the  arena 
of  a  dispute.  Consequently  every  subject  liable  to 
provoke  a  discussion  should  be  avoided.  Even  slight 
inaccuracy  in  statement  of  facts  or  opinions  should 
rarely  be  remarked  on  in  conversation. 

Do  not  permit  yourself  to  lose  your  temper  in  society, 
or  show  that  you  have  taken  offense  at  a  supiwsed 
slight. 

If  any  one  should  assume  a  disagreeable  tone  of 
voice  or  offensive  manner  toward  you,  never  return  it 
in  company,  and  above  all,  do  not  adopt  the  same  style 
of  conversation  with  him.  Appear  not  to  notice  it,  and 
generally  it  will  be  discontinued,  as  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  has  failed  in  its  object. 

Avoid  all  coarseness  and  undue  familiarity  in  ad- 
dressing others.  A  person  who  makes  himself  offens- 
ively familiar  will  have  few  friends. 

Never  attack  the  character  of  others  in  their  absence; 
and  if  you  hear  others  attacked,  say  what  you  can 
consistently  to  defend  them. 

Do  not  ask  the  price  of  articles  you  observe,  except 
from  intimate  friends,  and  then  very  quietly,  and  only 
for  some  good  reason. 

Do  not  appear  to  notice  an  error  in  language,  either 
in  pronunciation  or  grammar,  made  by  the  person  with 
whom  you  are  conversing,  and  do  not  repeat  correctly 
the  same  word  or  phrase.  This  would  be  as  ill-bred 
as  to  correct  it  when  spoken. 

Mimicry  is  ill-bred  and  must  be  avoided. 

Sneering  at  the  private  affairs  of  others  has  long 
ago  been  banished  from  the  conversation  of  well- 
mannered  people. 

Never  introduce  unpleasant  topics,  nor  describe  re- 


4o8 


ETIQUETTE. 


volting   scenes    or    incidents    in    general    company. 

Never  give  officious  advice.  Even  when  sought  for, 
give  advice  sparingly. 

Never,  directly  or  indirectly,  refer  to  the  affairs  of 
others,  which  it  may  give  them  pain  in  any  degree  to 
recall. 

Do  not  intrude  upon  those  who  appear  to  be  en- 
gaged in  any  conversation  which  they  may  be  unwill- 
ing for  you  to  hear. 

Do  not  interrupt  a  person  in  speaking,  without  his 
consent  or  asking  his  pardon. 

Never  hold  your  companion  in  conversation  by  the 
button-hole.  If  you  are  obliged  to  detain  him  forcibly 
in  order  to  say  what  you  wish,  you  are  pressing  upon 
him  what  is  disagreeable  or  unwelcome,  and  you  com- 
mit a  gross  breach  of  etiquette  in  so  doing. 

Especially  avoid  contradictions,  interruptions  and 
monopolizing  all  conversation  yourself  These  faults 
are  all  intolerable  and  very  offensive. 

To  speak  to  one  person  in  a  company  in  ambiguous 
terms,  understood  by  him  alone,  is  as  rude  as  if  you 
had  whispered  in  his  ear. 

Avoid  stale  and  trite  remarks  on  common-place  sub- 
jects ;  also  all  egotism  and  anecdotes  of  personal  ad- 
venture and  exploit,  unless  it  should  be  called  out  by 
persons  you  are  conversing  with. 

To  make  a  classical  quotation  in  a  mixed  company 
is  considered  pedantic  and  out  of  place,  as  is  also  an 
ostentatious  display  of  your  learning. 

Long  arguments  or  heated  discussions  are  apt  to  be 
tiresome  to  others,  and  should  be  avoided. 

It  is  considered  extremely  ill-bred  for  two  persons  to 
whisper  in  society,  or  to  converse  in  a  language  with 
which  all  persons  are  not  familiar. 

Avoid  talking  too  much,  and  do  not  inflict  upon  your 
hearers  interminably  long  stories,  in  which  they  can 
have  but  little  interest. 

Courtship  and  Marriage.  The  correct  behavior 
of  a  young  man  toward  young  ladies,  and  of  young 
ladies  toward  young  men,  during  that  [wrtion  of  their 
lives  when  they  are  respectfully  paying  attention  to 
and  receiving  attention  from,  one  another,  is  a  matter 
which  requires  no  little  consideration. 

A  Gentleman's  Conduct  Toward  Ladies.  Young 
"people  of  either  sex,  who  have  arrived  at  mature  age, 
and  who  are  not  engaged,  have  the  utmost  freedom  in 
'  their  social  intercourse  in  this  country,  and  are  at 
liberty  to  associate  and  mingle  freely  in  tlie  same 
circles  with  those  of  the  opjwsite  sex.  As  soon,  how- 
ever, as  a  young  gentleman  neglects  all  others,  to  de- 
vote himself  to  a  single  lady,  he  gives  that  lady  reason 
to  suppose  that  he  is  particularly  attracted  to  her,  and 
may  give  her  cause  to  beheve  that  she  is  to  become 
engaged  to  him,  without  telling  her  so.  A  gentleman 
who  does  not  contemplate  matrimony  should  not  pay 
too  exclusive  attention  to  any  one  lady. 

Ladies'  Conduct  Tcnvard  Gentlemen.  A  young  lady 
who  is  not  engaged  may  receive, calls  and  attentions 
from  such  unmarried  gentlemen  as  she  desires.  She 
should  use  due  discretion,  however,  as  to  whom  she 
favors  by  the  acceptance  of  such  invitations.  A  young 
lady  should  not  allow  special  attention  from  any  one 


to  whom  she  is  not  specially  attracted,  bficause,  first, 
she  may  do  injury  to  the  gentleman  in  seeming  to  give 
his  suit  encouragement;  and,  secondly,  she  may  keep 
away  from  her  those  whom  she  likes  better,  but  who 
will  not  approach  her  under  the  mistaken  idea  that 
her  feelings  are  already  interested.  A  young  lady 
should  not  encourage  the  address  of  a  gentleman  un- 
less she  sees  that  she  can  return  his  affections.  It  is 
the  prerogative  of  a  man  to  propose,  and  of  the  woman 
to  accept  or  refuse,  and  a  lady  of  tact  and  kind  heart 
will  exercise  her  prerogative  before  her  suitor  is 
brought  to  the  humiliation  of  an  offer  which  must  re- 
sult in  a  refusal. 

No  well-bred  lady  will  too  eagerly  receive  the  at- 
tentions of  a  gentleman,  no  matter  how  much  she  ad- 
mires him ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand,  will  she  be  so 
reserved  as  to  altogether  discourage  him.  A  man  may 
show  considerable  attention  to  a  lady  without  becom- 
ing a  lover ;  and  so  a  lady  may  let  it  be  seen  that  she 
is  not  disagreeable  to  him  without  discouraging  hmi. 
She  will  be  able  to  judge  soon  from  his  actions  and  de- 
portment, as  to  his  motive  in  paying  her  his  attentions, 
and  will  treat  him  accordingly.  A  man  does  not  like 
to  be  refused  when  he  makes  a  pro[X)sal,  and  no  man 
of  tact  will  risk  a  refusal.  Neither  will  a  well-bred 
lady  encourage  a  man  to  make  a  proposal  which  she 
must  refuse.  She  should  endeavor,  in  discouraging 
him  as  a  lover,  to  retain  his  friendship.  A  young  man 
of  sensibilities,  who  can  take  a  hint  when  it  is  offered 
him,  need  not  run  the  risk  of  a  refusal. 

Premature  Declarations.  It  is  very  injudicious,  not 
to  say  presumptuous,  for  a  gentleman  to  make  a  pro- 
posal to  a  young  lady  on  too  brief  an  acquaintance. 
A  lady  who  would  accept  a  gentleman  at  first  sight 
can  hardly  possess  the  discretion  needed  to  make  a 
good  wife. 

Perhaps  there  is  such  a  thing  as  love  at  first  sight, 
but  love  alone  is  a  very  uncertain  foundation  upon 
which  to  base  marriage.  There  should  be  thorough 
acquaintanceship  and  a  certain  knowledge  of  harmony 
of  tastes  and  temperaments  before  matrimony  is  ven- 
tured upon. 

An  Acceptable  Suitor.  Parents  should  always  be 
able  to  tell  from  observation  and  instinct  just  how 
matters  stand  with  their  daughter;  and  if  the  suitoi 
is  an  acceptable  one  and  everything  satisfactory,  then 
the  most  scrupulous  rules  of  etiquette  will  not  prevent 
their  letting  the  young  couple  alone,  if  the  lover 
chooses  to  propose  directly  to  the  lady  and  consult 
her  father  afterward,  consider  that  he  has  a  perfect 
right  to  do  so.  If  her  parents  have  sanctioned  his 
visits  and  attentions  by'  a  silent  consent,  he  has  a 
right  to  believe  that  his  addresses  will  be  favorably 
received  by  them. 

Requirements  for  a  Happy  Marriage.  Respect 
for  each  other  is  as  necessary  to  a  happy  marriage  as 
that  the  husband  and  wife  should  have  an  affection 
for  one  another.  Social  equality,  intellectual  sym- 
pathy, and  sufficient  means  are  very  imjxjrtant  mat- 
ters to  be  considered  by  those  who  contemplete  matri- 
mony. 

It  must  be   remembered  that   husband  and  wife, 


ETIQUETTE. 


409 


after  marriage,  have  social  relations  to  sustain,  and 
perhaps  it  will  be  discovered,  before  many  months  of 
wedded  life  have  passed,  when  there  is  a  social  in- 
equality, that  one  of  the  two  have  made  sacrifice  for 
which  no  adequate  compensation  has  been  or  ever 
will  be  received.  And  so  both  lives  become  soured 
and  s[X)iled,  because  neither  receives  nor  can  receive 
the  sympathy  which  their  efforts  deserve,  and  because 
their  cares  are  multiplied  from  a  want  of  congeniality. 
One  or  the  other  may  find  that  the  noble  qualities 
seen  by  the  impulse  of  early  love  were  but  the  creation 
of  an  infatuated  fancy,  existing  only  in  the  mind 
where  it  originated. 

Another  condition  of  domestic  happiness  is  intel- 
lectual sympathy.  Man  requires  a  woman  who  can 
make  his  home  a  place  of  rest  for  him,  and  woman 
requires  a  man  of  domestic  tastes.  While  a  woman 
who  seeks  to  find  happiness  in  a  married  life  will 
never  consent  to  be  wedded  to  an  idler  or  a  pleasure- 
seeker,  so  a  man  of  intelligence  will  wed  none  but  a 
woman  of  intelligence  and  good  sense.  Neither 
beauty,  physical  characteristics  nor  other  external 
qualifications  will  compensate  for  the  absence  of  in- 
telligent thought,  and  clear  and  quick  comprehensions. 
An  absurd  idea  is  held  by  some  that  intelligence  and- 
domestic  virtues  cannot  go  together,  that  an  intel- 
lectual woman  will  never  be  content  to  stay  at  home 
to  look  after  the  interests  of  her  household  and  chil- 
dren. A  more  unreasonable  idea  has  never  been  sug- 
gested; for,  as  the  intellect  is  strengthened  and  cul- 
tured, it  has  a  greater  capacity  of  affection,  of  domes- 
ticity, and  of  self-sacrifice  for  others. 

Mutual  trust  and  confidence  are  other  requisites 
for  happiness  in  married  life.  There  can  be  no  true 
love  without  trust.  The  responsibility  of  a  man's  life 
is  in  a  woman's  keeping  from  the  moment  he  puts  his 
heart  into  her  hands.  Without  mutual  trust  there 
can  be  no  real  happiness. 

Another  requisite  for  conjugal  happiness  is  moral 
and  religious  sympathy,  that  each  may  walk  side  by 
side  in  the  same  path  of  moral  purpose  and  social 
usefulness,  with  joint  hope  of  immortality. 

Proposals  of  Marriage.  Rules  in  regard  to  pro- 
posals of  marriage  cannot  be  laid  down,  for  they  are 
and  should  be  as  different  as  people.  The  best  way 
is  to  apply  to  the  lady  in  person,  and  receive  the 
answer  from  her  own  lips.  If  courage  should  fail  a 
a  man  in  this,  he  can  resort  to  writing,  by  which  he 
can  clearly  and  boldly  express  his  feelings.  A  spoken 
declaration  should  be  bold,  manly,  and  earnest,  and 
so  plain  in  its  meaning  that  there  can  be  no  mis- 
understanding. As  to  the  exact  words  to  be  used, 
there  can  be  no  set  formula:  each  proposer  must  be 
governed  by  his  own  ideas  and  sense  of  propriety  in 
the  matter. 

A  gentleman  should  evince  a  sincere  and  unselfish 
affection  for  his  beloved,  and  he  will  show  as  well  as 
feel  that  her  happiness  must  be  considered  before  his 
own.  Consecjuently,  he  should  not  press  an  unwel- 
come suit  u[X)n  a  young  lady.  If  she  has  no  affection 
for  him,  and  does    not   conceive   it  possible  ever   to 


entertain  any,  it  is  cruel  to  urge  her  to  give  her  per- 
son without  her  love.  The  eager  lover  may  believe, 
for  the  time  being,  that  such  possession  would  satisfy 
him;  but  the  day  will  surely  come  when  he  will  re- 
proach his  wife  that  she  had  no  love  for  him,  and  he 
will  possibly  make  that  an  excuse  for  all  manner  of 
unkindness. 

A  Lady's  First  Refusal.  It  is  not  always  neces- 
sary to  take  a  lady's  first  refusal  as  absolute.  Diffi- 
dence or  uncertainty  as  to  her  own  feelings  may  some- 
times influence  a  lady  to  reply  in  the  negative,  and  af- 
ter consideration  cause  her  to  regret  that  reply. 

Though  a  gentleman  may  repeat  his  suit  with  pro- 
priety after  having  been  once  repulsed,  still  it  should 
not  be  repeated  too  often  or  too  long,  lest  it  should  de- 
generate into  imjxjrtuning. 

No  lady  worthy  any  gentleman's  regard  will  say  "No  " 
twice  to  a  suit  which  she  intends  ultimately  to  receive 
with  favor.  A  lady  should  be  allowed  all  the  time  she 
requires  before  making  up  her  mind ;  and  if  the  gen- 
tleman grows  impatient  at  the  delay,  he  is  always  at 
liberty  to  insist  on  an  immediate  answer  and  abide  by 
the  consequences  of  his  impatience. 

Nothing  can  be  more  unfair  or  more  unjustifiable 
than  a  doubtful  answer  given  under  the  plea  of  spar- 
ing the  suitor's  feelings.  It  raises  false  hopes.  It  ren- 
ders a  man  restless  and  unsettled.  It  may  cause  him 
to  express  himself  or  to  shape  his  conduct  in  such  a 
mariner  as  he  would  not  dream  of  doing  were  his  suit 
utterly  hopeless. 

Hmv  to  Treat  a  Refusal.  As  a  woman  is  not  bound 
to  accept  the  first  offer  that  is  made  to  her,  so  no  sens- 
ible man  will  think  the  worse  of  her,  nor  feel  himself 
personally  injured,  by  a  refusal.  That  it  will  give  him 
pain  is  most  probable.  A  scornful  "No  '  or  a  simper- 
ing promise  to  "  think  about  it "  is  the  reverse  of  gen- 
erous. 

In  refusing,  the  lady  ought  to  convey  her  full  sense 
of  the  high  honor  intended  her  by  the  gentleman,  and 
to  add,  seriously  but  not  offensively,  that  it  is  not  in 
accordance  with  her  inclination,  or  that  circumstances 
comi^el  her  to  give  an  unfavorable  answer. 

It  is  only  the  contemptible  flirt  that  keeps  an  hon- 
orable man  in  suspense  for  the  purpose  of  glorifying 
herself  by  his  attentions  in  the  eyes  of  friends.  Nor 
would  any  but  a  frivolous  or  vicious  girl  boast  of  the 
offer  she  had  received  and  rejected.  Such  an  offer  is 
a  privileged  communication.  The  secret  of  it  should 
be  held  sacred.  No  true  lady  will  ever  divulge  to  any- 
one, unless  it  may  be  to  her  mother,  the  fact  of  such 
an  offer.  It  is  the  severest  breach  of  honor  to  do  so. 
A  lady  who  has  once  been  guilty  of  boasting  of  an 
offer  should  never  have  a  second  opportunity  for  thus 
boasting. 

No  true-hearted  woman  can  entertain  any  other  feel- 
ing than  that  of  commiseration  for  the  man  over  whose 
happiness  she  has  been  compelled  to  throw  a  cloud, 
while  the  idea  of  triumphing  in  his  distress,  or  abus- 
ing his  confidence,  must  be  inexpressibly  painful  to 
her. 

Presents.     When  a  couple  become  engaged,  the 


4IO 


ETIQUETTE. 


gentleman  presents  the  lady  with  a  ring,  which  is 
worn  on  the  ring-finger  of  the  right  hand.  He  may 
also  make  her  other  small  ijresents  from  time  to  time, 
until  they  are  married ;  but  if  she  has  any  scruples 
about  accepting  them,  he  can  send  her  flowers,  which 
are  at  all  times  acceptable. 

An  Engaged  Woman.  An  engaged  woman  should 
eschew  all  flirtations,  though  it  dots  not  follow  tliat  she 
is  to  cut  herself  off  from  all  association  with  the  other 
sex  because  she  has  chosen  her  future  husband.  She 
may  still  have  friends  and  acquaintances,  she  may 
still  receive  visits  and  calls,  but  she  must  try  to  con- 
duct herself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  no  offense. 

An  Engaged  Man.  The  same  rules  may  be  laid 
down  in  regard  to  the  other  party  to  the  contract,  only 
that  he  pays  visits  instead  of  receiving  them.  Neither 
should  assume  a  masterful  or  jealous  attitude  toward 
each  other.  They  are  neither  of  them  to  be  shut  up 
away  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  but  must  mingle  in 
society  after  marriage  nearly  the  same  as  before,  and 
take  the  same  delight  in  friendship.  The  fact  that 
they  have  confessed  their  love  to  each  other  ought  to 
be  deemed  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  faithfulness  ;  for 
the  rest  let  there  be  trust  and  confidence. 

The  conduct  of  a  gentleman  who  is  engaged 
should  be  tender,  assiduous  and  unobtrusive.  He 
will  be  kind  and  polite  to  the  sisters  of  his  betrothed 
and  friendly  with  her  brothers.  Yet  he  must  not  be  in 
any  way  unduly  familiar  or  force  himself  into  family 
confidences  on  the  ground  that  he  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a  member  of  the  family.  Let  the  advance  come 
rather  from  them  to  him,  and  let  him  show  a  due  ap- 
preciation of  any  confidences  which  they  may  be  pleas- 
ed to  bestow  upon  him.  The  family  of  the  young 
man  should  make  the  first  .  advances  toward  an  ac- 
quaintance with  his  future  wife.  They  should  call 
upon  her  or  write  to  her,  and  they  may  with  perfect 
propriety  invite  her  to  visit  them  in  order  that  they 
may  become  acquainted. 

Introduction.  The  initiatory  step  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  acquaintanceship  or  friendship  is  usually  by 
introduction,  though  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  that 
when  it  has  taken  place  without  an  introduction,  it  is 
not  of  the  best  and  purest,  and  results  to  the  advan- 
tage of  both. 

We  briefly  give  the  rules  governing  introduction  that 
will  apply  equally  to  the  country  or  city.  One  of  the 
fundamental  principles  is  the  care  and  discrimination 
that  should  be  exercised  in  making  introductions,  es- 
pecially of  gendemen  to  ladies.  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  an  introduction  is  regarded  as  a  social 
indorsement  of  the  person  introduced,  and  that  under 
certain  circumstances  it  would  be  wrong  to  introduce 
to  our  friends  casual  acquaintances  of  whom  we  know 
nothing,  who  may  prove  to  be  anything  but  desirable 
persons  to  know.  By  introducing  a  man  of  bad  char- 
acter to  a  lady  you  do  her  a  jxjsitive  wrong.  She  can- 
not shake  him  off  as  easily  as  a  man  can,  and  his  asso- 
ciation with  her  is  an  injury  fo  her  reputation. 

How  to  Introduce.  The  proper  form  of  i.itroduc- 
tion  is   to   present  the  gentleman  to  the  lady,  the 


younger  to  the  elder,  the  inferior  in  social  standing  to 
the  superior.  In  introducing, you  lx)w  to  the  lady  and 
say,  "  Miss  R.,  allow  me  to  introduce  to  you  Mr.  D. 
Mr.  D.,  Miss  R."  It  is  the  duty  of  Mr.  D.  uixjn  lx)w- 
ingtosay,  "  It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  form  your 
acquaintance.  Miss  R.,"  or  a  remark  of  this  nature. 

If  gentlemen  are  to  be  introduced  to  one  another, 
the  form  is,  "  Col.  Blank,  permit  me  to  introduce  to 
you  Mr.  Cole.  Mr.  Cole,  Col.  Blank."  The  exact 
words  of  an  introduction  are  immaterial,  so  long  as 
a  proper  form  and  order  is  preserved. 

The  word  '"  present  "  is  often  used  in  place  of  "  in- 
troduce." While  it  is  customary  to  repeat  the  names  of 
the  two  parties  introduced  at  the  close  of  the  intro- 
duction, it  is  often  omitted  as  a  useless  formality.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  each  name  should 
be  spoken  distinctly.  If  either  of  the  parties  does  not 
distinctly  hear  the  name  of  the  other  he  should  say  at 
once,  without  hesitation  or  embarrassment,  before 
making  the  bow,  "  I  beg  your  pardon ;  I  did  not  catch 
(or  understand)  the  name,"  when  it  may  be  repeated 
to  him. 

If  several  persons  are  to  be  introduced  to  one  in- 
dividual, mention  the  name  of  the  single  individual 
first,  and  then  call  the  others  in  succession,  bowing 
slightly  as  each  name  is  pronounced. 

Introducing  Relatives.  In  introducing  members  of 
your  own  family,  be  careful  not  only  to  specify  the  de- 
gree of  relationship,  but  to  give  the  name  also.  It  is 
awkward  to  a  stranger  to  be  introduced  to  "  My  brother 
Tom,"  or  "  My  sister  Carrie."  When  either  the  in- 
troducer or  the  introduced  is  a  married  lady,  the  name 
of  the  party  introduced  can  only  be  guessed  at. 

Bestoioing  of  Titles.  In  introducing  a  person  give 
him  his  appropriate  title.  If  he  is  a  clergyman,  say 
"The  Rev.  Mr.  Clark  "  If  a  doctor  of  divinity,  say 
"The  Rev.  Dr.  Clark."  If  he  is  a  member  of  Con- 
gress, call  him  "  Honoral)le,"  and  specify  to  which 
branch  of  Congress  he  belongs. 

Whom  to  Introduce.  A  gentleman  should  not  be 
introduced  to  a  lady  unless  her  permission  has  been 
previously  obtained,  and  no  one  should  ever  be  intro- 
duced into  the  house  of  a  friend  except  permission  is 
first  granted.  As  a  rule,  gentlemen  should  not  be  in- 
troduced to  each  other  until  their  wishes  on  the  sub- 
ject are  ascertained. 

A  friend  visiting  at  your  house  must  be  introduced 
to  all  callers,  and  courtesy  requires  the  latter  to  culti- 
vate the  acquaintance  while  your  visitor  remains  with 
you.  If  you  are  the  caller  introduced,  you  must  show 
the  same  attention  to  the  friend  of  your  friend  that 
you  wish  shown  your  own  friends  under  the  same 
circumstances.  Persons  meeting  at  a  public  place  need 
not  introduce  each  other  to  the  strangers  who  may 
chance  to  be  with  them  ;  and,  even  if  the  introduction 
does  take  place,  the  acquaintance  need  not  be  con- 
tinued unless  desired. 

77/1?  Salutation.  A  slight  lx)w  is  all  that  is  required 
by  courtesy,  after  an  introduction.  Shaking  hands  is 
optional,  and  it  should  rest  with  the  older,  or  the  su- 
perior in  social  standing,  to  make  the  advances.     It  is 


ETIQUETTE. 


411 


often  an  act  of  kindness  on  their  part,  and  as  such  to 
be  commended.  It  is  a  common  practice  among 
gentlemen,  when  introduced  to  one  another,  to  shake 
hands,  and,  as  it  evinces  more  cordiahty  than  a  mere 
bow,  is  generally  to  be  preferred.  An  unmarried  lady 
should  not  shake  hands  with  gentlemen  indiscrimin- 
ately. 

Recognition.  It  is  the  privilege  of  the  lady  to  de- 
termine whether  she  will  recognize  a  gentleman  after 
an  introduction,  and  he  is  bound  to  return  the  bow. 
In  bowing  to  a  lady  on  the  street,  it  is  not  enough 
that  a  gentleman  should  touch  his  hat:  he  should  lift 
it  from  his  head. 

The  "  Cut  Direct."  The  "  cut  direct,"  which  is  given 
by  a  prolonged  stare  at  a  person,  if  justified  at  all,  can 
only  be  in  case  of  extraordinary  and  notoriously  bad 
conduct  on  the  part  of  the  individual  "cut,"  and  is 
very  seldom  called  for.  If  any  one  wishes  to  avoid  a 
bowing  acquaintance  with  another,  it  can  be  done  by 
looking  aside  or  dropping  the  eyes.  It  is  an  invaria- 
ble rule  of  good  society  that  a  gentleman  cannot  "  cut  " 
a  lady  under  any  circumstances,  but  circumstances 
may  arise  when  he  may  be  excused  for  persisting  in 
not  meeting  her  eyes ;  for  if  their  eyes  meet,  he  must 
bow. 

Meeting  in  the  Street.  If,  while  walking  with  one 
friend  in  the  street,  you  meet  another  and  stop  a  mo- 
ment to  speak  to  the  latter,  it  is  not  necessary  to  in- 
troduce the  two  who  are  strangers  to  one  another; 
but  when  you  separate  the  friend  who  accompanies 
you  gives  a  parting  salutation,  the  same  as  yourself 
The  same  rule  applies  if  the  friend  you  meet  chances 
to  be  a  lady. 

Introducing  Yourself.  If,  on  entering  a  drawing- 
room  to  pay  a  visit,  you  are  not  recognized,  mention 
your  name  immediately.  If  you  know  but  one  mem- 
ber of  the  family  and  you  find  others  only  in  the  room, 
introduce  yourself  to  them.  Unless  this  is  done,  much 
awkwardness  may  be  occasioned. 

Shaking  Hands.  When  a  lady  is  introduced  to  a 
gentleman  she  should  merely  bow  but  not  give  her 
hand,  unless  the  gentleman  is  a  well  known  friend  of 
some  member  of  the  family.  In  that  case  she  may  do 
so  if  she  pleases,  as  a  mark  of  esteem  or  respect.  A 
gentleman  must  not  offer  to  shake  hands  with  a  lady 
until  she  has  made  the  first  movement. 

A  married  lady  should  extend  her  hand  upon  being 
introduced  to  a  stranger  brought  to  her  house  by  her 
husband  or  common  friend,  as  an  evidence  of  her 
cordial  welcome. 

New- Year's  Calls.  The  custom  of  New-Year's 
calling  is  so  prevalent  in  ciries,  and  most  villages,  that 
we  deem  a  few  paragraphs  on  the  etiquette  of  New- 
Year's  calling  necessary.  Often  a  farmer's  wife  or 
daughter  wishes  to  "receive"  with  a  friend  or  relative 
in  the  village  or  city,  or  the  farmer  or  his  sons  may  be 
in  the  city  and  wish  to  make  New-Year's  calls,  and 
not  being  accustomed  to  such  will  neglect  it,  or  meet 
with  many  embarrassments  in  receiving  or  making 
them.  We  thus  append  a  few  of  the  simplest  rules  to 
be  observed  in  both  receiving  and  calling. 


January  first  is  the  day  when  gentlemen  keep  up 
their  acquaintanceship  with  ladies  and  families,  some 
of  whom  they  are  unable  to  see,  probably,  during  the 
whole  year.  For  convenience,  and  to  add  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  day,  several  ladies  frequently  unite  in 
receiving  calls  at  the  residence  of  one  of  their  num- 
ber, but  this  is  usually  done  when  only  one  or  two 
members  of  a  family  can  receive.  When  there  are 
several  members  of  a  family  who  can  do  so,  they  usu- 
ally receive  at  their  own  home. 

Gentlemen  call  either  singly,  in  couples,  by  threes 
or  fours,  and  sometimes  even  more,  in  carriages  or  on 
foot,  as  they  choose.  Calls  commence  about  ten  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  and  continue  until  about  nine  in  the 
evening.  When  the  gentlemen  go  in  parties  they  call 
upon  the  lady  friends  of  each,  and  if  all  are  not  ac- 
quainted those  who  are  introduce  the  others.  The 
length  of  a  call  is  usually  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes, 
but  it  is  often  governed  by  circumstances  and  may  be 
prolonged  to  even  an  hour. 

Refreshments  are  usually  provided  for  the  callers, 
and  should  always  be  offered,  but  it  is  not  necessary 
that  they  should  be  accepted.  If  not  accepted,  an 
apology  should  be  tendered,  with  thanks  for  the  offer. 
The  refreshments  may  consist  of  oysters,  raw  or  scal- 
loped, cold  meats,  salads,  fruits,  cakes,  sandwiches, 
etc.,  and  hot  tea  and  coffee. 

When  callers  are  ushered  into  the  reception-room, 
they  are  met  by  the  ladies,  when  introductions  are 
given,  and  the  callers  are  invited  to  remove  their  over- 
coats, but  it  is  optional  with  them  whether  they  do  so 
or  not.  It  is  also  optional  with  them  whether  they 
remove  their  gloves. 

A  gentleman  may  call  at  the  house  of  a  friend 
whether  he  knows  they  are  receiving  or  not.  If  they 
are  not  receiving  leave  your  card.  In  some  places 
families  not  receiving  calls  close  the  front  windows  of 
the  house,  and  hang  a  tasteful  basket  from  the  knob 
of  the  front  door.  The  visitor  simply  deposits  his  card 
in  the  basket  without  ringing  the  bell. 

Gentlemen  provide  themselves  with  cards  which 
vary  in  style  with  the  seasons,  and  according  to  the 
tastes  of  the  different  individuals.  They  leave  one  at 
each  place  where  they  have  called,  and  where  more 
than  one  lady  is  receiving  together  a  card  is  left  for 
each  one.  Ladies  generally  preserve  these  cards,  as 
they  constitute  a  pleasant  reminiscence  of  the  occasion. 

Public  Places.  All  well-bred  persons  will  con- 
duct themselves  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  with 
perfect  decorum.  Wherever  they  meet  people  they 
will  be  found  polite,  considerate  of  the  comfort,  con- 
venience and  wishes  of  others,  and  unobtrusive  in 
their  behavior.  Many  people,  however,  either  from  ig- 
norance, thoughtlessness  or  carelessness,  are  constant- 
ly violating  some  of  the  observances  of  etiquette  per- 
taining to  places  of  public  assemblages.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  rules  are  here  given  by  which  may  be  reg- 
ulated the  conduct  of  people  in  various  public  gather- 
ings, where  awkwardness  and  ostentatious  display  often 
call  forth  unfavorable  criticism. 

Conduct  in  Church.     A  gentleman  should  remove 


I 


412 


ETIQUETTE. 


his  hat  ujwn  entering  the   auditorium  of  a   church. 

When  visiting  a  strange  church,  you  should  wait  in 
the  vestibule  or  just  inside  the  door,  until  an  usher 
appears  to  show  you  to  a  seat. 

A  gentleman  may  walk  up  the  aisle  either  a  little 
ahead  of,  the  lady  or  by  her  side,  allowing  her 
to  first  enter  the  pew.  There  should  be  no  haste  in 
passing  up  the  aisle. 

People  should  preserve  the  utmost  silence  and  de- 
corum in  church,  and  avoid  whispering,  laughing,  star- 
ing, or  making  a  noise  of  any  kind  with  the  feet  or 
hands. 

It  is  ill-mannered  to  be  late  at  church.  If  one  is 
unavoidably  late,  it  is  better  to  take  a  pew  as  near  the 
door  as  [Xjssible. 

Ladies  always  take  the  inside  seats,  and  gentlemen 
the  outside  or  head  of  the  pew.  When  a  gentleman 
accompanies  a  lady,  however,  it  is  customary  for  him 
to  sit  by  her  side  during  church  services. 

A  person  should  never  leave  church  until  the  ser- 
vices are  over,  except  in  some  case  of  emergency. 

Do  not  turn  around  in  your  seat  to  gaze  at  anyone, 
to  watch  the  choir,  to  look  over  the  congregation  or  to 
see  the  cause  of  any  disturbing  noise. 

If  books  are  passed  in  church,  let  them  be  offered 
and  accepted,  or  refused  with  a  silent  gesture  of  the 
head. 

It  is  courteous  to  see  that  strangers  are  provided 
with  books ;  and  if  the  service  is  strange  to  them,  the 
places  for  the  day's  reading  should  be  indicated. 

It  is  pefectly  proper  to  offer  to  share  the  prayer- 
book  or  hymn-book  with  a  stranger  if  there  is  no 
separate  book  for  his  use. 

In  visiting  a  church  of  a  different  belief  from  your 
own,  pay  the  utmost  respect  to  the  services  and  con- 
form in  all  things  to  the  observances  of  the  church; 
that  is,  kneel,  sit  and  rise  with  the  congregation.  No 
matter  how  grotesquely  some  of  the  forms  and  ob- 
servances may  strike  you,  let  no  smile  or  contemptu- 
ous remark  indicate  the  fact  while  in  the  church. 

When  the  services  are  concluded,  there  should  be 
no  haste  in  crowding  up  the  aisle,  but  the  departure 
■should  be  conducted  quietly  and  decorously.  When 
the  vestibule  is  reached,  it  is  allowable  to  exchange 
greetings  with  fnends,  but  here  there  should  be  no 
loud  talking  nor  boisterous  laughter. 

Invitation  to  Opera  or  Concert.  A  gentleman, 
upon  inviting  a  lady  to  accompanyhim  to  opera,  theater, 
concert,  or  other  public  place  of  amusement,  must 
send  his  invitation  the  previous  day.  The  lady  must 
reply  immediately,  so  that  if  she  declines,  there  will 
yet  be  time  for  the  gentleman  to  secure  another  com- 
panion. 

Conduct  in  Theater,  Opera,  or  Public  Hall.  On 
entering  the  hall,  theater,  or  opera  house,  the  gentle- 
man should  walk  side  by  side  with  his  companion 
unless  the  aisle  is  too  narrow,  in  which  case  he  should 
precede  her.  Uixjn  reaching  the  seats,  he  should  al- 
low her  to  take  the  innei;  one,  assuming  the  outer 
one  himself. 

A  gentleman  should,  on  no  account,  leave  the  lady's 


side  from  the  beginning  to  the  close  of  the  perform- 
ance. 

If  it  is  a  promenade  concert  or  opera,  the  lady  may 
be  invited  to  promenade  during  intermission.  If  she 
declines,  the  gentleman  must  retain  his  position  by 
her  side. 

There  is  no  obligation  whatever  ujxjn  a  gentleman 
to  give  up  his  seat  to  a  lady.  On  the  contrary,  his  duty 
is  solely  to  the  lady  whom  he  accompanies.  He  must 
remain  beside  her  during  the  evening  to  converse 
with  her  between  the  acts,  and  to  render  the  enter- 
tainment as  agreeable  to  her  as  possible. 

During  the  performance  complete  quiet  should  be 
preserved,  that  the  audience  may  not  be  prevented 
from  seeing  or  hearing.  Between  the  acts  it  is  per- 
fectly proper  to  converse,  but  it  should  be  done  m  a 
low  tone,  so  as  not  to  attract  attention.  Neither 
should  one  whisper. 

It  is  proper  and  desirable  that  the  actors  be  ap)- 
plauded  when  they  deserve  it.  It  is  their  only  means 
of  knowing  whether  they  are  giving  satisfaction. 

The  gentleman  should  see  that  the  lady  is  pro- 
vided with  a  programme,  and  with  a  libretto  also  if 
they  are  attending  opera. 

In  passing  out  at  the  close  of  the  performance  the 
gentleman  should  precede  the  lady,  and  there  should 
be  no  crowding  or  pushing. 

If  the  means  of  the  gentleman  warrant  him  in  so 
doing,  he  should  call  for  his  companion  in  a  carriage. 
This  is  especially  necessary  if  the  evening  is  stormy. 
He  should  call  sufficiently  early  to  allow  them  to 
reach  their  destination  before  the  perfonnance  com- 
mences. 

Salutation.  In  meeting  a  friend  upon  the  road, 
street,  or  in  company,  you  should  make  your  saluta- 
tion quietly,  but  cordially  and  with  dignity,  always 
paying  the  highest  respect  to  the  person  saluted. 

The  Bo7v.  Gentlemen  should  always  salute  a  lady 
by  raising  the  hat  and  making  a  formal  bow.  Be- 
tween gentlemen  an  inclination  of  the  head,  a  gesture 
of  the  hand,  or  mere  touching  of  the  hat  is  sufficient. 
If  you  know  people  slightly,  you  recognize  them 
slightly;  if  you  know  them  well  you  bow  with  more 
familiarity.  The  body  is  not  bent  at  all  in  bowing; 
the  inclination  of  the  head  is  all  that  is  necessary. 

If  the  gentleman  is  smoking  he  withdraws  his  cigar 
from  his  mouth  before  lifting  his  hat  to  a  lady,  or  if  he 
should  happen  to  have  his  hand  in  his  pocket  he  re- 
moves it. 

At  the  moment  of  the  first  meeting  of  the  eyes  of  an 
acquaintance  you  bow.  Any  one  who  has  been  in- 
troduced to  you,  or  anyone  to  whom  you  have  been  in- 
troduced, is  entitled  to  this  mark  of  respect. 

The  bow  is  the  touchstone  of  good  breeding,  and  to 
neglect  it,  even  to  one  with  whom  you  may  have  a 
trifling  difference,  shows  deficiency  in  cultivation  and 
in  the  instincts  of  refinement.  A  bow  does  not  entail 
a  calling  acquaintance.  Its  entire  neglect  reveals  the 
character  and  training  of  the  person  ;  the  manner  of 
its  observance  reveals  the  very  shades  of  breeding 
that  exist  between  the  ill-bred  and  the  well-bred. 


E.TIQUETTE. 


413 


Returtiing  a  Brno.  A  gentleman  walking  with  a 
lady  returns  a  bow  made  to  her,  whether  by  a  lady  or 
gentleman  (lifting  his  hat  not  too  far  from  his  head), 
although  the  one  bowing  is  an  entire  stranger  to  him. 

It  is  civility  to  return  a  bow,  although  you  do  not 
know  the  one  who  is  bowing  to  you.  Either  the  one 
who  bows  knows  you,  or  has  mistaken  you  for  some 
one  else.  In  either  case  you  should  return  the  bow 
and  probably  the  mistake  will  be  discovered  to  have 
occurred  for  want  of  quick  recognition  on  your  own 
part,  or  from  some  resemblance  that  you  bear  to 
another. 

Hmv  to  Avoid  Recognition.  If  a  person  desires  to 
to  avoid  a  bowing  acquaintance  with  a  person  who 
has  been  properly  introduced,  he  may  do  so  by  looking 
aside,  or  dropping  the  eyes  as  the  person  approaches, 
for,  if  the  eyes  meet  there  is  no  alternative  ;  bow  he 
must. 

On  Public  Promenades.  Bowing  once  to  a  person 
upon  a  public  promenade  or  drive  is  all  that  civility 
requires.  If  the  person  is  a  friend,  it  is  in  better  fonn, 
the  second  and  subsequent  passings,  should  you  catch 
his  or  h(y  eye,  to  smile  slightly  instead  of  bowing  re- 
peatedly. If  an  acquaintance,  it  is  best  to  avert  the 
eyes. 

It  is  very  proper  that  farmers  driving  with  their 
wagons  or  carriages  on  the  country  roads  should  salute 
one  another,  though  they  be  not  acquainted. 

Words  of  Salutation.  The  words  commonly  used 
in  saluting  a  person  are  "Good  Morning,"  "Good 
Afternoon,"  "  Good  Evening,"  "  How  do  you  do.''  " 
(sometimes  contracted  into  "  Howdy  "  and  "  How  dye 
do?")  and  "  How  are  you.'"  The  three  former  are  most 
appropriate,  as  it  seems  somewhat  absurd  to  ask  after 
a  person's  health  unless  you  stop  to  receive  an  an- 
swer.   A  respectful  bow  sliould  accompany  tlie  words. 

Hand-shaking.  An  authority  upon  this  subject  says: 
"  The  etiquette  of  hand-shaking  is  simple.  A  man  has 
no  right  to  take  a  lady's  hand  until  it  is  offered.  He  has 
even  less  right  to  pinch  or  retain  it.  Two  ladies  shake 
hands  gently  and  softly.  A  young  lady  gives  her  hand, 
but  does  not  shake  a  gentleman's  unless  she  is  his 
friend.  A  lady  should  always  rise  to  give  her  hand ; 
a  gentleman,  of  course  never  dares  to  do  so  seated. 
On  introduction  in  a  room,  a  married  lady  generally 
offers  her  hand  ;  a  young  lady,  not.  In  a  ball-room, 
where  the  introduction  is  to  dancing,  not  to  friendship, 
you  never  shake  hands;  as  a  general  rule,  an  intro- 
duction is  not  followed  by  shaking  hands, — only  by  a 
bow.  It  may  perhaps  be  laid  down  that  the  more 
public  the  jjlace  of  introduction,  the  less  hand-shaking 
takes  place.  But  if  tfie  introduction  be  particular,  if 
it  be  accompanied  by  jiersonal  recommendation,  such 
as, '  I  want  you  to  know  my  friend  Jones ;'  or  if  Jones 
comes  with  a  letter  of  presentation,  then  you  give 
Jones  your  hand,  and  warmly,  too.  Lastly,  it  is  the 
privilege  of  the  superior  to  offer  or  withhold  his  or  her 
hand,  so  that  an  inferior  should  never  put  his  forward 
first." 

When  a  lady  so  far  puts  aside  her  reserve  as  to 
shake  hands  at  all,  she  should  give  her  hand  with 


frankness  and  cordiality.  There  should  be  equal  frank- 
ness and  cordiality  on  the  gentleman's  part,  and  even 
more  warmth,  though  a  careful  avoidance  of  anything 
like  offensive  familiarity  or  that  which  might  be  mis- 
taken as  such. 

In  shaking  hands,  the  right  hand  should  always  be 
offered,  unless  it  be  so  engaged  as  to  make  it  impossi- 
ble, and  then  an  excuse  should  be  offered.  The  French 
give  the  left  hand,  as  nearest  the  heart,- — which  as  a 
matter  of  fact  is  not  true,  as  it  is  exactly  in  the  center, 
or  if  any  difference  slightly  to  the  right. 

The  mistress  of  a  household  should  offer  her  hand 
to  every  guest  invited  to  her  house. 

A  gentleman  must  not  shake  hands  with  a  lady  un- 
til she  has  made  the  first  move  in  that  direction.  It 
is  a  mark  of  rudeness  not  to  give  his  hand  instantly, 
should  she  extend  her  own. 

The  Kiss.  This  is  the  most  affectionate  form  of 
salutation,  and  is  only  properamongnear  relations  and 
dear  friends. 

The  kiss  of  friendship  and  relationship  is  on  the 
cheeks  and  forehead.  In  this  country  this  act  of  affec- 
tion is  generally  excluded  from  public  eyes,  and  in  the 
case  of  parents  and  children  and  near  relations,  it  is 
perhaps  necessarily  so. 

The  custom  which  has  become  quite  prevalent  of 
women  kissing  each  other  when  they  meet  in  public,  is 
regarded  as  vulgar,  and  by  ladies  of  delicacy  and  re- 
finement is  entirely  avoided. 

Street  Etiquette.  The  manners  of  a  person  are 
clearly  shown  by  his  treatment  of  the  people  he  meets 
on  the  public  roads,  in  the  streets  of  a  city  or  village, 
in  public  conveyances  and  in  traveling  generally.  The 
true  gentleman,  at  all  times,  in  all  places,  and  under 
all  circumstances,  is  kind  and  courteous  to  all  he 
meets,  regards  not  only  the  rights,  but  the  wishes  and 
feelings  of  others,  is  deferential  to  women  and  to 
elderly  men,  and  is  ever  ready  to  extend  his  aid  to 
those  who  need  it. 

The  true  lady  walks  the  street  wrapped  in  a  mantle 
of  proper  reserve  so  impenetrable  that  insult  and 
coarse  familiarity  shrink  from  her,  while  she,  at  the 
same  time,  carries  with  her  a  congenial  atmosphere 
which  attracts  all,  and  puts  all  at  their  ease. 

A  lady  walks  quietly  through  the  streets,  seeing  and 
hearing  nothing  that  she  ought  not  to  see  and  hear, 
recognizing  acquaintances  with  a  courteous  bow,  and 
friends  with  words  of  greeting.  She  is  always  unob- 
trusive, never  talks  loudly  or  laughs  boisterously,  or 
does  anything  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  passers  by. 

Recognizing  Friends.  No  one,  while  walking  the 
streets,  should  fail  to  recognize  friends  or  acquaint- 
ances, either  by  a  bow  or  some  form  of  salutation.  If 
two  gentleman  stop  to  talk  they  should  retire  to  one 
side  of  the  walk.  If  a  stranger  should  be  in  company 
with  one  of  the  gentleman  an  introduction  is  not  nec- 
essary. If  a  gentleman  meets  another  gentleman  in 
company  with  a  lady  whom  he  does  not  know,  he  lifts 
his  hat  to  salute  them  both.  If  he  knows  the  lady  he 
should  salute  her  first.  The  gentlernan  who  accom- 
panies a  lady  always  returns  a  salutation  made  to  her 


414 


ETIQUETTE. 


A  Crowded  Street.  When  a  gentleman  and  lady 
are  walking  in  the  street,  if  at  any  place,  by  reason  of 
the  crowd,  or  from  other  cause,  they  are  compelled  to 
proceed  singly,  the  gentleman  should  always  precede 
his  companion. 

The  First  to  Bow.  In  England  strict  etiquette  re- 
quires that  a  lady,  meeting  upon  the  street  a  gentle- 
man with  whom  she  has  acquaintance,  shall  give  the 
first  bow  of  recognition.  In  this  country,  however, 
good  sense  does  not  insist  ujxjn  an  imi)erative  follow- 
ing of  this  rule.  A  well-bred  man  bows  and  raises 
his  hat  to  every  lady  of  his  acquaintance  whom  he 
meets,  without  waiting  for  her  to  take  the  initiative. 
If  she  is  well-bred  she  will  certainly  respond  to  his 
salutation.  As  politeness  requires  that  each  salute 
the  other,  their  salutations  will  thus  be  simultaneous. 

Talking  with  a  Lady  in  the  Street.  In  meeting  a 
lady  it  is  optional  with  her  whether  she  shall  pause  to 
speak.  If  the  gentleman  has  anything  to  say  to  her 
he  should  not  stop  her,  but  turn  around  and  walk  in 
her  company  until  he  has  said  what  he  has  to  say, 
when  he  may  leave  her  with  a  bow  and  lift  of  the  hat. 

Manner  of  Walking  Together.  A  gentleman  walk- 
ing with  a  lady  should  treat  her  with  the  most  scrupu- 
lous jKiliteness,  and  may  take  either  side  of  the  walk. 
It  is  customary  for  the  gentleman  to  have  the  lady  on 
his  right-hand  side,  and  he  offers  her  his  right  arm 
when  walking  arm  in  arm.  If,  however,  the  street  is 
crowded,  the  gentleman  must  keep  the  lady  on  that 
side  of  him  where  she  will  be  the  least  exposed  to 
crowding. 

Offering  the  Arm  to  a  Lady.  A  gentleman  should, 
in  the  evening,  or  whenever  her  safety,  comfort  or 
convenience  seems  to  require  it,  offer  a  lady  compan- 
ion his  arm.  At  other  times  it  is  not  customary  to  do 
so  unless  the  parties  be  husband  and  wife  or  engaged. 
In  the  latter  case,  it  is  not  always  advisable  to  do  so, 
as  they  may  be  made  the  subject  of  unjust  remarks. 

Keeping  Step.  In  walking  together,  especially  when 
arm  in  arm,  it  is  desirable  that  the  two  keep  step. 
Ladies  should  be  particular  to  adapt  their  pace  as  far 
as  practicable  to  that  of  their  escort.  It  is  easily 
done. 

Opening  the  Door  for  a  Lady.  A  gentleman  should 
always  hold  open  the  door  for  a  lady  to  enter  first. 
This  is  obligatory,  not  only  in  the  case  of  the  lady  who 
is  with  him,  but  also  in  that  of  any  strange  lady  who 
chances  to  be  about  to  enter  at  the  same  time.  A 
gentleman  must  never  pass  before  a  lady  anywhere, 
if  he  can  avoid  it,  or  without  an  apology. 

Offensive  Behavior.  No  gentleman  is  ever  guilty 
of  the  offense  of  standing  on  street  corners  and  the 
steps  of  hotels  or  other  public  places  and  boldly 
scrutinizing  every  lady  who  passes. 

Carrying  Packages.  A  gentleman  will  never  per- 
mit a  lady  with  whom  he  is  walking  to  carry  a  package 
of  any  kind,  but  will  insist  ujwn  relieving  her  of  it. 
He  may  even  accost  a  lady  when  he  sees  her  over- 
burdened and  offer  his  assistance,  if  their  ways  lie  in 
the  same  direction. 


Shopping  Etiquette.  In  inquiring  for  goods  at  a 
store  or  shop,  do  not  say  to  the  clerk  or  salesman,  "  I 
want"  such  an  article, but,  "Please  show  me"  such  an 
article,  or  some  other  polite  form  of  address. 

You  should  never  take  hold  of  a  piece  of  goods  or 
an  article  which  another  person  is  examining.  Wait 
until  it  is  replaced  upon  the  counter,  when  you  are  at 
liberty  to  examine  it. 

It  is  rude  to  interrupt  friends  whom  you  meet  in  a 
store  before  they  have  finished  making  their  purchases, 
or  to  ask  their  attention  to  your  own  purchases.  It  is 
rude  to  offer  your  opinion  unasked,  u]x)n  their  judg- 
ment or  taste  in  the  selection  of  goods. 

It  is  rude  to  sneer  at  and  depreciate  goods,  and  ex- 
ceedingly discourteous  to  the  salesmen.  Use  no  de- 
ceit, but  be  honest  with  them,  if  you  wish  them  to  be 
honest  with  you. 

Avoid  "jewing  down"  the  prices  of  articles  in  any 
way.  If  the  price  does  not  suit,  you  may  say  so  quiet- 
ly, and  depart,  but  it  is  generally  best  to  say  nothing 
about  it. 

It  is  an  insult  for  the  salesman  to  offensively  sug- 
gest that  you  can  do  better  elsewhere,  whicb  should 
be  resented  by  instant  departure. 

Ladies  should  not  monopolize  the  time  and  atten- 
tion of  salesmen  in  small  talk,  while  other  customers 
are  in  the  store  to  be  waited  upon. 

Whispering  in  a  store  is  rude.  Loud  and  showy 
behavior  is  exceedingly  vulgar. 

Table  Etiquette.  When  friends  have  been  in- 
vited to  dinner  or  tea  they  should  be  prompt  and  not 
keep  the  hostess  and  other  guests  waiting.  When 
dinner  is  announced  the  master  of  the  house  offers  his 
right  arm  to  that  lady  to  be  escorted  by  him ;  the  oth- 
ers follow,  arm  in  arm,  the  hostess  being  the  last  to 
enter  the  dining-room.  Age  should  take  the  prece- 
dence in  proceeding  to  the  dining-room,  the  younger 
falling  back  until  the  elder  have  advanced.  The  host 
escorts  the  eldest  lady  or  greatest  stranger,  or  if  there 
be  a  bride  present,  precedence  is  given  to  her,  unless 
the  dinner  is  given  for  another  person,  in  which  case 
he  escorts  the  latter.  The  host  places  the  lady  whom 
he  escorts  at  his  right.  The  hostess  is  escorted  either 
by  the  greatest  stranger,  or  some  gentleman  whom  she 
wishes  to  place  at  the  seat  of  honor,  which  is  at  her 
right.  The  seats  of  the  host  and  liostess  may  be  in 
the  middle  and  at  opposite  sides  of  the  table,  or  at 
the  opposite  ends.  Husbands  should  not  escort  their 
wives,  or  brothers  their  sisters,  as  this  partakes  of  the 
nature  of  a  family  gathering. 

Courses.  Soup  is  the  first  course.  All  should  ac- 
cept it  even  if  they  let  it  remain  untouched,  because 
it  is  better  to  make  a  pretense  of  earing  unril  the  next 
course  is  served,  than  to  sit  waiting,  or  compel  the  ser- 
vants to  serve  one  before  the  rest.  Soup  should  not 
be  called  for  a  second  time.  A  soup-plate  should 
never  be  rilted  for  the  last  sjxwnful. 

Fish  follows  soup  and  must  be  eaten  with  a  fork, 
unless  fish  knives  are  provided.  If  fish  knives  are  not 
provided,  a  piece  of  bread  in  the  left  hand  answers 
the  purpose  as  well,  with  the  fork  in  the  right  hand. 


ETIQUETTE. 


415 


Fish  may  be  declined,  but  must  not  be  called  for  a 
second  time. 

After  soup  and  fish  come  the  side  dishes,  which 
must  be  eaten  with  the  fork,  though  the  knife  is  used 
in  cutting  meats  and  anything  too  hard  for  a  fork. 

For  the  carving  of  meats  poultry  and  game,  see 
Carving. 

The  Knife  and  Fork.  The  knife  and  fork  were 
not  made  for  playthings,  and  should  not  be  used  as 
such  when  people  are  waiting  at  the  table  for  the  food 
to  be  served.  Do  not  hold  them  erect  in  your  hands 
at  each  side  of  the  plate,  nor  cross  them  on  your  plate 
when  you  have  finished,  nor  make  a  noise  with  them. 
The  knife  should  only  be  used  for  cutting  meats  and 
hard  substances,  while  the  fork,  held  in  the  left  hand, 
is  used  in  carrying  food  into  the  mouth.  A  knife 
must  never  on  any  account  be  put  into  the  mouth. 
When  you  send  your  plate  to  be  refilled,  do  not  send 
your  knife  and  fork,  but  put  them  on  a  piece  of  bread, 
or  hold  them  in  your  hand. 

Greediness.  To  put  large  pieces  of  food  into  your 
mouth  appears  greedy,  and  if  you  are  addressed  when 
your  mouth  is  so  filled,  you  are  obliged  to  pause,  be- 
fore answering,  until  the  vast  mouthful  is  masticated, 
or  run  the  risk  of  choking,  by  swallowing  it  too  hastily. 
To  eat  very  fast  is  also  a  mark  of  greediness,  and 
should  be  avoided.  The  same  may  be  said  of  soak- 
ing up  gravy  with  bread,  scraping  up  sauce  with  a 
s|X)on,  scraping  your  plate  and  gormandizing  upon 
one  or  two  articles  of  food  only. 

General  Rules  on  Table  Etiquette.  Refrain  from 
making  a  noise  when  eating  or  supping  from  a  spoon, 
and  from  smacking  the  lips  or  breathing  heavily  while 
masticating  food,  as  they  are  marks  of  ill-breeding. 
The  lips  should  be  kept  closed  in  eating,  as  much  as 
possible. 

Cheese  is  eaten  with  a  fork  and  not  with  a  knife. 
Vegetables  are  eaten  with  a  fork. 

Bread  is  broken  at  dinner. 

You  are  at  liberty  to  refuse  a  dish  that  you  do  not 
wish  to  eat.  If  any  course  is  set  down  before  you 
that  you  do  not  wish,  do  not  touch  it.  Never  play 
with  food,  nor  mince  your  bread,  nor  handle  the 
glass  and  silver  near  you  unnecessarily. 

When  a  dish  is  offered  you,  accept  or  refuse  at 
once,  and  allow  the  waiter  to  pass  on.  A  gentleman 
will  see  that  the  lady  whom  he  has  escorted  to  the 
table  is  helped  to  all  she  wishes,  but  it  is  ofificious- 
ness  to  offer  to  help  other  ladies  who  have  escorts. 

If  the  guests  pass  the  dishes  to  one  another  instead 
of  being  helped  by  a  servant,  you  should  always  help 
yourself  from  the  dish,  if  you  desire  it  at  all,  before 
passing  it  on  to  the  next. 

Be  careful  to  remove  the  bones  from  the  fish  before 
eating.  If  a  bone  inadvertently  should  get  into  the 
mouth,  the  lips  must  be  covered  with  the  napkin  in 
removing  it.  Cherry  stones  and  grape  skins  should  be 
removed  from  the  mouth  as  unobtrusively  as  jxjs- 
sible,  and  deiwsited  on  the  side  of  the  plate. 

Never  use  a  napkin  in  place  of  a  handkerchief  for 
wiping  the  forehead,  face,  or  nose. 


Pastry  should  be  eaten  with  a  fork.  Everything 
that  can  be  cut  without  a  knife  should  be  eaten  with 
the  fork  alone.  Pudding  may  be  eaten  with  a  fork  or 
spoon. 

Never  lay  your  hand,  or  play  with  your  fingers, 
upon  the  table.  Do  not  toy  with  your  knife,  fork,  or 
spoon,  make  crumbs  of  your  bread,  or  draw  imaginary 
lines  upon  the  table-cloth. 

Never  bite  fruit.  An  apple,  peach  or  pear  should 
be  peeled  with  a  knife,  and  all  fruit  should  be  broken 
or  cut. 

Do  not  hesitate  to  take  the  last  piece  of  bread  or 
cake  in  a  dish  handed  to  you.  Your  host  has  more 
for  other  guests. 

When  a  plate  containing  food  is  handed  to  you,  set 
it  down  before  you,  and  do  not  pass  it  to  your  neigh- 
bor. 

Do  not  keep  others  waiting  for  you  either  at  the  be- 
ginning or  close  of  the  meal. 

Do  not  sip  soup  from  the  tip,  but  from  the  side  of 
the  six)on. 

Be  careful  not  to  drop  or  spill  anything  on  the  table- 
cloth. 

Keep  your  plate  neat;  do  not  heap  all  sorts  of  food 
on  it  at  once. 

In  passing  your  plate  to  be  re-helped,  retain  the 
knife  and  fork. 

When  asked  for  a  dish,  do  not  shove,  but  hand  it. 

While  drinking  do  not  look  around. 

Instruct  the  servant  to  hand  the  cup  at  the  left 
side  so  that  it  may  be  received  by  the  right  hand. 

Do  not  drink  your  tea  or  coffee  without  first  remov- 
ing the  teasjxjon  from  the  cup  to  the  saucer.  We 
need  hardly  say  that  it  should  not  be  poured  into  the 
saucer  to  cool. 

Break  your  bread  into  small  pieces  and  rest  them  on 
your  plate  while  spreading. 

Do  not  eat  too  fast ;  besides  giving  one  the  appear- 
ance of  greed,  it  is  not  healthful. 

If  you  find  anything  unpleasant  in  your  food  put  it 
aside  as  quietly  as  possible,  without  drawing  the  at- 
tention of  others  to  it. 

Do  not  open  the  lips  nor  make  any  unnecessary 
noise  in  chewing. 

Do  not  rest  the  elbow  on  the  table. 

Do  not  touch  the  head. 

Do  not  speak  with  the  mouth  full.  > 

Brush  the  table  neatly  before  bringing  on  the  des- 
sert. 

Be  thoughtful  of  and  attentive  to  the  wants  of  those 
sitting  near  you. 

Converse  on  pleasant  subjects  with  those  sitting 
near  you. 

Do  not  say  anything  not  intended  for  all  present  to 
hear. 

Never  pick  your  teeth  at  the  table. 

Do  not  begin  to  eat  meat  until  you  have  all  the  ac- 
cessories— the  vegetables  and  gravy. 

Do  not  load  your  plate  with  different  kinds  of  veg- 
etables.    Eat  them  with  a  fork.  » 


4i6 


ETIQUETE. 


Leave  your  plate  with  the  knife  and  fork  lying  par- 
allel, the  handles  ixjinting  to  the  right. 

Never  leave  the  table  before  others  without  asking 
the  lady  or  gentleman  who  presides,  to  excuse  you. 

Traveling.  In  these  days  of  railroad  travel,  when 
every  railway  is  equipped  with  elegant  coaches  for  the 
comfort,  convenience  and  sometimes  luxury  of  its 
passengers,  and  provided  with  gentlemanly  conduct- 
ors and  servants,  the  longest  journeys  by  railroad  can 
be  made  alone  by  self-possessed  ladies  with  perfect 
safety  and  but  little  annoyance. 

Duties  of  an  Escort.  When  a  gentleman  under- 
takes the  escort  of  a  lady,  he  should  proceed  with  her 
to  the  deix)t,  or  meet  her  there  a  sufficient  time  before 
the  departure  of  the  train  to  attend  to  the  checking 
of  her  baggage,  procure  her  ticket,  and  obtain  for  her 
an  eligible  seat  in  the  cars,  allowing  her  to  choose  such 
seat  as  she  desires.  He  will  then  dispose  of  her  pack- 
ages and  hand-baggage  in  their  proper  receptacle,  and 
make  her  seat  and  surroundings  as  agreeable  for  her 
as  possible,  taking  a  seat  near  her,  or  by  the  side  of 
her  if  she  requests  it,  and  do  all  he  can  to  make  her 
journey  a  pleasant  one. 

Uix)n  arriving  at  her  destination,  he  should  conduct 
her  to  the  ladies' waiting-room  or  to  a  carriage,  until  he 
has  attended  to  her  baggage,  which  he  arranges  to 
have  delivered  where  the  lady  requests  it.  He  should 
then  escort  her  to  whatever  part  of  the  city  she  is  go- 
ing and  deliver  her  into  the  hands  of  her  friends  be- 
fore relaxing  his  care. 

The  Duty  of  a  Latiy  to  her  Escort.  The  lady  may 
supply  her  escort  with  a  sum  of  money,  ample  to  pay 
all  the  expenses  of  the  journey,  before  purchasing  her 
ticket,  or  furnish  him  the  exact  amount  required,  or, 
at  the  suggestion  of  her  escort,  she  may  allow  him  to 
defray  the  expenses  from  his  own  pocket,  and  settle 
■with  him  at  the  end  of  the  journey.  The  latter  course, 
however,  should  only  be  pursued  when  the  gentleman 
suggests  it,  and  a  strict  account  of  the  expenses  in- 
curred must  be  insisted  on. 

A  Lady  Traveling  Aloiu.  A  lady  in  traveling  alone 
may  accept  services  from  her  fellow-travelers,  which 
she  should  always  acknowledge  graciously.  Indeed, 
it  is  the  business  of  a  gentleman  to  see  that  the  wants 
of  an  unescorted  lady  are  attended  to.  He  should  of- 
fer to  raise  or  lower  her  window  if  she  seems  to  have 
any  difficulty  in  doing  it  herself.  He  may  offer  his 
assistance  in  carrying  her  packages  upon  leaving  the 
car,  or  in  engaging  a  carriage  or  obtaining  a  trunk. 
Still,  women  should  learn  to  be  as  self-reliant  as  ix)ssi- 
ble ;  and  young  women  particularly  should  accept 
proffered  assistance  from  strangers,  in  all  but  the 
slightest  offices,  very  rarely. 

The  Comfort  of  Others.  In  seeking  his  own  com- 
fort, no  passenger  has  a  right  to  overlook  or  disregard 
that  of  others.  If  for  his  own  comfort,' he  wishes  to 
raise  or  lower  a  window  he  should  consult  the  wishes 
of  the  passengers  immediately  around  him  before  do- 
ing so.  The  discomfort  of  traveling  should  be  Ixirne 
cheerfully,  for  what  may  enhance  your  own  comfort 
may  enddnger  the  health  of  some  fellow-traveler. 


Attending  to  the  Wants  of  Others.  See  everywhere 
and  at  all  times  that  ladies  and  elderly  people  have 
their  wants  supplied  before  you  think  of  your  own. 
Nor  is  there  need  for  unmanly  haste  or  pushing  in  en- 
tering or  leaving  cars  or  boats.  There  is  always  time 
enough  allowed  for  each  passenger  to  enter  in  a  gentle- 
manly manner  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  rights  of 
others.  * 

If,  in  riding  in  the  street-cars  or  crossing  a  ferry, 
your  friend  insists  in  paying  for  you,  permit  him  to  do 
so  without  serious  remonstrance.  You  can  return  the 
favor  at  some  other  time. 

Occupying  too  many  Seats.  No  lady  will  retain  pos- 
session of  more  than  her  rightful  seat  in  a  crowded 
car.  When  others  are  looking  for  accommodations 
she  should  at  once  and  with  all  cheerfulness  so  dis- 
pose of  her  baggage  that  the  seat  beside  her  may  be 
occupied  by  any  one  who  desires  it,  no  matter  how 
agreeable  it  may  be  to  retain  jxjssession  of  it. 

It  shows  a  great  lack  of  proper  manners  to  see 
two  ladies,  or  a  lady  and  gentleman,  turn  over  the 
seat  in  front  of  them  and  fill  it  with  their  wraps  and 
bundles,  retaining  it  in  spite  of  the  entreating  of  re- 
monstrating looks  of  fellow-passengers.  In  such  a 
case  any  person  who  desires  a  seat  is  justified  in  re- 
versing the  back,  removing  the  baggage  and  taking 
possession  of  the  unused  seat. 

Retaining  Possession  of  a  Seat.  A  gentleman  in 
traveling  may  take  possession  of  a  seat  and  then  go  to 
purchase  tickets  or  look  after  baggage  or  procure  a 
lunch,  leaving  the  seat  in  charge  of  a  companion,  or 
depositing  traveling-bag  or  overcoat  upon  it  to  show 
that  it  is  engaged.  When  a  seat  is  thus  occupied  the 
right  of  possession  must  be  respected,  and  no  one 
should  presume  to  take  a  seat  thus  previously  en- 
gaged, even  though  it  may  be  wanted  for  a  lady.  A 
gentleman  cannot,  however,  injustice  vacate  his  seat 
to  take  another  in  a  smoking-car,  and  at  the  same 
time  reserve  his  rights  to  the  first  seat.  He  pays  for 
but  one  seat,  and  by  taking  another  he  forfeits  the 
first. 

It  is  not  required  of  a  gentleman  in  a  railway  car  to 
relinquish  his  seat  in  favor  of  a  lady,  though  a  gentle- 
man of  genuine  breeding  will  do  so  rather  than  allow 
the  lady  to  stand  or  suffer  inconvenience  from  jxxjr 
accommodations. 

Weddings.  The  circumstances  under  which  wed- 
dings take  place  are  so  varied,  and  the  religious  forms 
observed  in  their  solemnization  so  numerous,  that  to 
lay  down  rules  applicable  to  all  cases  would  be  a 
matter  of  great  difficulty,  if  not  an  imjxissibility. 

The  Bridesmaids  and  Groomsmen.  Only  relatives 
and  the  most  intimate  friends  are  asked  to  be  brides- 
maids— the  sisters  of  the  bride  and  of  the  bridegroom, 
where  it  is  possible.  The  bridegroom  chooses  his  best 
man  and  the  groomsmen  and  ushers  from  his  circle 
of  relatives  and  friends  of  his  own  age,  and  from  the 
relatives  of  his  fiancee  of  a  suitable  age.  The  dresses 
of  the  bridesmaids  are  not  given  unless  their  circum- 
stances are  such  as  to  make  it  necessary. 

Wedding   Dress.     It    is    irripossible   to  lay  down 


ETIQUETTE. 


417 


specific  rules  for  dress,  as  fashions  change  and  tastes 
differ.  The  great  art  consists  in  selecting  the  style 
of  dress  most  becoming  to  the  person.  A  stout 
person  should  adopt  a  different  style  from  a  thin  per- 
son ;  a  tall  one  from  a  short  one.  Peculiarities  of 
complexion  and  fonn  of  face  and  figure  should  be 
duly  regarded;  and  in  these  matters  there  is  no  better 
course  than  to  call  in  the  aid  of  any  respectable 
milliner  and  dressmaker,  who  will  be  found  ready  to 
give  the  best  advice.  The  bridegroom  should  simply 
appear  in  full  dress,  and  should  avoid  everything 
eccentric  and  broad  in  style.  The  bridesmaids 
should  always  be  made  aware  of  the  bride's  dress  be- 
fore they  choose  their  own,  which  should  be  deter- 
mined by  a  proper  harmony  with  the  former. 

Ceremonials.  When  there  are  no  bridesmaids  or 
ushers  the  marriage  ceremonials  at  the  church  are  as 
follows  :  The  members  of  the  bride's  family  proceed 
to  the  church  before  the  bride,  who  follows  with  her 
mother.  The  bridegroom  awaits  them  at  the  church 
and  gives  his  arm  to  the  bride's  mother.  They  walk 
up  the  aisle  to  the  altar,  the  mother  falling  back  to 
her  position  on  the  left.  The  father,  or  relative  repre- 
senting him,  conducts  the  bride  to  the  bridegroom, 
who  stands  at  the  altar  with  his  face  turned  toward 
her  as  she  approaches,  and  the  father  falls  back  to 
the  left.  The  relatives  follow,  taking  their  places 
standing;  those  of  the  bride  to  the  left,  those  of  the 
groom  to  the  right.  After  kneeling  at  the  altar  for  a 
moment,  the  bride,  standing  on  the  left  of  the  bride- 
groom, takes  the  glove  off'  from  her  left  hand,  while  he 
takes  the  glove  off  from  his  right  hand.  The  service 
then  begins.  The  father  of  the  bride  gives  her  away 
by  bowing  when  the  question  is  asked,  which  is  a 
much  simpler  form  than  stepping  forward  and  placing 
his  daughter's  hand  in  that  of  the  clergyman.  Per- 
fect self-control  should  be  exhibited  by  all  parties 
during  the  ceremony. 

The  bride  leaves  the  altar,  taking  the  bridegroom's 
right  arm,  and  they  pass  down  the  aisle  without  look- 
ing to  the  right  or  left.  It  is  considered  improper 
to  recognize  acquaintances  by  bows  and  smiles  while 
in  the  church. 

The  bride  and  bridegroom  drive  away  in  their  own 
carriage,  the  rest  following  in  their  carriages. 

Another  Form  of  Church  Ceremonials.  The  cer- 
emonials for  the  entry  to  the  church  by  the  bridal 
party  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  taste.  Precedents  for 
the  style  already  described  are  found  among  the  high- 
est social  circles  in  New  York  and  other  large  cities, 
but  there  are  brides  who  prefer  the  fashion  of  their 
grandmothers,  which  is  almost  strictly  an  American 
fashion.  In  this  style,  the  bridesmaids,  each  leaning 
upon  the  arm  of  a  groomsman,  first  pass  up  the  aisle 
to  the  altar,  the  ladies  going  to  their  left,  and  the  gen- 
tlemen to  their  right.  The  groom  follows  with  the 
bride's  mother,  or  some  one  to  represent  her,  leaning 
on  his  arm,  whom  he  seats  in  a  front  pew  at  the  left. 
The  bride  follows,  clinging  to  the  arm  of  her  father 
(or  a  near  relative),  who  leads  her  to  the  groom.  The 
father  waits  at  her  left  and  a  step  or  two  back  of  her, 

27 


until  asked  to  give  her  away,  which  he  does  by  taking 
her  right  hand  and  placing  it  in  that  of  the  clergyman. 
After  this  he  joins  the  mother  of  the  bride  in  the  front 
pew,  and  becomes  her  escort  while  they  pass  out  of 
the  church. 

In  case  there  are  no  bridesmaids,  the  ushers  walk 
into  church  in  pairs,  just  in  advance  of  the  groom,  and 
parting  at  the  altar,  half  of  them  stand  at  one  side  and 
half  at  the  other.  While  the  clergyman  is  congratu- 
lating the  bride,  they  pass  out  in  pairs,  a  little  in  ad- 
vance of  the  wedded  couple. 

Weddings  at  Home.  Weddings  at  home  vary  but 
little  from  those  at  church.  The  music,  the  assem- 
bling of  friends,  the  entree  of  the  bridal  party  to  the 
position  selected,  are  the  same.  An  altar  of  flowers 
and  a  place  of  kneeling  can  be  easily  arranged  at 
home.  The  space  behind  the  altar  need  be  no  wider 
than  is  allowed  for  the  clergyman  to  stand.  The  altar 
is  generally  only  a  fender  or  railing  entirely  wound  and 
concealed  by  greenery  or  blossoms.  Other  floral  ac- 
cessories, such  as  the  marriage-bell,  horse-shoe  or 
white  dove,  etc.,  can  be  arranged  with  ease  by  a  skill- 
ful florist,  if  desired. 

When  the  marriage  ceremony  is  concluded,  the  party 
turn  in  their  places  and  face  their  friends,  who  proceed 
to  congratulate  them.  If  space  be  required,  the  kneel- 
ing-stool  and  floral  altar  may  be  removed,  a  little  later, 
without  observation. 

The  Evening  Wedding.  If  the  wedding  occur  in 
evening,  the  only  difference  in  the  ceremonials  from 
those  in  the  morning  is  that  the  ushers  or  groomsmen 
wear  full  evening  dress,  and  the  bridal  pair  retire 
quietly  to  dress  for  their  journey  before  the  dancing 
party  disperses,  and  thus  leave  unobserved.  At  the 
morning  weddingonly  bridesmaids,  ushers  and  relatives 
remain  to  witness  the  departure  of  the  pair. 

" At-Home"  Receptions.  When  the  newly  married 
couple  commence  life  in  a  home  of  their  own,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  issue  "  at-home  "  cards  for  a  few  evenings, 
at  an  early  date  after  the  wedding,  for  informal  recep- 
tions. Only  such  persons  are  invited  as  the  young 
couple  vifish  to  keep  as  friends,  or  perhaps  only  those 
whom  they  can  afford  to  retain.  This  is  a  suitable 
opiwrtunity  to  carefully  re-arrartge  one's  social  list,  and 
their  list  of  old  acquaintances  may  be  sifted  at  the 
time  ^  the  beginning  of  housekeeping.  This  custom 
of  arranging  a  fresh  list  is  admitted  as  a  social  neces- 
sity, and  nobody  is  offended. 

Calls.  All  guests  and  friends  who  receive  "at- 
home  "  invitations,  or  who  are  invited  to  the  church, 
are  required  by  etiquette  to  call  upon  the  family  of  the 
bride,  or  to  leave  their  cards,  within  ten  days  after  the 
wedding. 

IVcdding  Ring.  Many  churches  at  present  use 
the  ring,  and  vary  the  sentiment  of  its  adoption  to  suit 
the  customs  and  ideas  of  their  own  rites.  A  jeweled 
ring  has  been  for  many  years  the  sign  and  symbol  of 
betrotlial,  but  at  present  a  plain  gold  circlet,  with  the 
date  of  the  engagement  inscribed  within,  is  generally 
preferred.  This  ring  is  removed  by  the  groom  at  the 
altar,  passed  to  the  clergyman  and  used  in  the  cere- 


4i8 


ETIQUETTE. 


mony.  A  jeweled  ring  is  placed  upon  her  hand  by 
the  groom  on  the  way  home  from  the  church,  or  as 
soon  after  the  service  as  is  convenient.  It  stands 
guard  over  its  precious  fellow,  and  is  a  confirmation 
of  the  first  promise. 

The  Marriage  Ceremonials  of  a  Widow.  The  mar- 
riage ceremonials  of  a  widow  differ  from  those  of  a 
young  lady  in  not  wearing  the  veil  and  orange  blossoms. 
She  may  be  costumed  in  white  and  have  her  maids  at 
the  altar  if  she  pleases.  This  liberty,  however,  has 
only  been  given  her  within  a  few  years.  On  her  wed- 
ding cards  of  invitation  her  maiden  name  is  used  as  a 
part  of  her  proper  name ;  which  is  done  in  respect  to 
her  parents.  Having  dropped  the  initials  of  her  dead 
husband's  name  when  she  laid  aside  her  mourning, 
she  uses  her  Christian  name.  If  she  has  sons  or  un- 
married daughters  at  the  time  she  becomes  again  a 
wife,  she  may  prefix  the  last  name  of  her  children  to 
her  new  one  on  all  ceremonious  occasions  in  which 
they  are  interested  in  common  with  herself  This  re- 
spect is  really  due  them,  and  etiquette  permits  it, 
although  our  social  usages  do  not  command  its  adoj)- 
tion.  The  formalities  which  follow  the  maniage  of  a 
widow  can  seldom  be  regulated  in  the  same  manner 
as  those  of  a  younger  bride.  No  fixed  forms  can  be 
arranged  for  entertainments,  which  must  be  controlled 
by  circumstances. 

Invitations.  Wedding  invitations  should  be  hand- 
somely engraved  in  script.  Neither  Old  English  nor 
German  Text  is  admissible  in  invitations.  The  fol- 
lowing is  given  as  the  latest  form  for  invitations : 

Mr.  &  Mrs.  Clifford  Mortimer, 

request  your  presence  at  the  marriage  of  their  daughter. 

Miss  Cora  Mortimer, 

TO 

Mr.  Milo  C.  Johnson, 

on  Wednesday,  March  6th,  at  one  o*clock. 

Summer  Hill  Church. 

This  invitation  requires  no  answer. 

In  some  circles  the  young  couple  send  out  cards 
stating  the  day  and  hour  they  will  receive  callers, 
after  their  return  from  their  wedding  tour.  These  are 
enclosed  in  the  same  envelope  as  the  invitation,  and 
generally  on  a  square  card,  the  same  size  as  the>sheet 
of  note  paper  which  bears  the  invitation  for  the  cere- 
mony after  it  has  been  once  folded  across  the  middle. 
The  following  is  one  of  the  adopted  forms: 

At  Home, 

Wednesday,  September  7th, 

from  12  until  3  o'clock. 

Separate  cards  of  the  bride  and  groom  are  no  longer 
necessary. 

The  Wedding  Fees.  There  is  no  prescribed  fee  for 
perforrning  the  marriage  ceremony.  It  is  regulated 
according  to  the  means  and  liberality  of  the  bride- 
groom, but  no  less  amount  than  five  dollars  should  be 
given  under  any  circumstances. 

Wedding  Tour.     The  wedding  tour  should  be  def- 


initely arranged  before  the  marriage.  It  is  best  that 
the  young  couple  should  make  the  tour  unaccom- 
panied by  any  of  their  friends. 

A  Home.  M\.&x  marriage  one  of  the  first  require- 
ments for  happmess  is  a  home.  This  can  seldom  be 
found  in  a  boarding  house  or  at  a  hotel,  and  not  al- 
ways beneath  the  parental  roof  of  either  husband  or 
wife.  It  will  oftenest  be  found  in  a  house  or  even  a 
cottage  apart  from  the  immediate  association  of  rela- 
tives or  friends,  acquaintances  or  strangers,  and  here 
husband  and  wife  may  begin  in  reality  that  new  life 
of  which  they  have  had  fond  dreams,  and  upon  their 
own  actions  must  depend  their  future  welfare. 

Miscellaneous  Rules.  A  gentleman  precedes  a 
lady  passing  through  a  crowd ;  ladies  precede  gen- 
tlemen under  ordinary  circumstances. 

Give  your  children,  unless  married,  their  Christian 
names  only,  or  say  "  my  daughter"  or  "my  son,"  in 
speaking  of  them  to  any  one  except  servants. 

Ladies  in  escorting  each  other  never  offer  to  take 
the  arm. 

Acknowledge  an  invitation  to  stop  with  a  friend, 
or  any  unusual  attention,  without  delay. 

Never  boast  of  birth,  money  or  friends,  or  of  any 
superior  advantages  you  may  possess. 

Never  ridicule  others,  be  the  objects  of  your  ridi- 
cule present  or  absent. 

Always  show  respect  for  the  religious  opinions  and 
observances  of  others,  no  matter  how  much  they  may 
differ  from  your  own. 

You  should  never  scratch  your  head,  pick  your 
teeth,  clean  your  nails  or  pick  your  nose  in  com- 
pany. 

Never  lean  your  head  against  the  wall,  as  you  may 
disgust  your  wife  or  hostess  by  soiling  the  paper  of  her 
room. 

Never  slam  a  door  or  stamp  noisily  on  entering  a 
room. 

Always  be  punctual.  You  have  no  right  to  waste 
the  time  of  others  by  making  them  wait  for  you. 

Always  hand  a  chair  for  a  lady,  pick  up  her  glove 
and  perform  any  little  service  she  may  seem  to  re- 
quire. 

Never  attract  attention  to  yourself  by  talking  or 
laughing  loudly  in  public  gatherings. 

Keep  yourself  quiet  and  composed  under  all  cir- 
cumstances. Do  not  get  fidgety.  If  you  feel  that 
time  drags  heavily,  do  not  let  this  be  apparent  to  others 
by  any  visible  sign  of  uneasiness. 

Refrain  from  absent-mindedness  in  the  presence  of 
others.  You  pay  them  a  poor  compliment  if  you  thus 
forget  them. 

Never  refuse  to  accept  an  apology  for  an  offense, 
and  never  hesitate  to  make  one,  if  one  is  due  from 
you. 

Never  answer  another  rudely  or  impatiently.  Re- 
ply courteously,  at  whatever  inconvenience  to  your- 
self 

Never  intrude  upon  a  business  man  or  woman  in 
business  hours  unless  you  wish  to  see  them  on  busi- 
ness. 


E  VAPOR  A  TION—E  VERGREENS. 


4'9 


Never  engage  a  person  in  private  conversation  in 
presence  of  others,  nor  make  any  mysterious  allusions 
which  no  one  else  understands. 

On  entering  a  room,  bow  slightly  as  a  general  salu- 
tation, before  speaking  to  each  of  the  persons 
assembled. 

Do  not  seem  to  notice,  by  word  or  glance,  the  de- 
formity of  another. 

To  administer  reproof  to  anyone  in  the  presence  of 
others  is  very  impolite.  To  scold  at  any  time  is 
unwise. 

Never  undertake  a  commission  for  a  friend  and 
neglect  to  perform  it. 

Never  play  a  practical  joke  ujxin  any  one,  or  answer 
a  serious  remark  by  a  flippant  one. 

Never  lend  a  borrowed  book,  and  never  keep  such 
a  book  a  single  day  after  you  are  done  with  it. 

Never  pass  between  two  persons  who  are  talking 
together;  and  never  pass  before  persons  when  it  is 
jx)ssible  to  pass  behind  them.  When  such  an  act  is 
absolutely  necessary,  always  aixilogize  for  so  doing. 

"  Never  speak  of  a  man's  virtues  before  his  face, 
or  his  faults  behind  his  back,"  is  a  maxim  to  be  re- 
membered. 

Another  maxim  is :  "  In  private  watch  your  thoughts ; 
m  your  family  watch  your  temper ;  in  society  watch 
your  tongue." 

Never  address  a  mere  acquaintance  by  his  or  her 
Christian  name.  It  is  a  presumption  at  which  the 
acquaintance  may  take  offense. 

Haughtiness  and  contempt  are  among  the  habits  to 
be  avoided.  The  best  way  is  to  deal  courteously  with 
the  rude  as  well  as  with  the  courteous. 

In  the  presence  of  others,  talk  as  little  of  yourself 
as  jx)ssible,  or  of  the  business  or  profession  in  which 
you  are  engaged. 

It  shows  a  want  of  courtesy  to  consult  your  watch, 
either  at  home  or  abroad.  If  at  home,  it  appears  as 
if  you  were  tired  of  your  company,  and  wished  them 
to  be  gone.  If  abroad,  it  appears  as  though  the  hours 
dragged  heavily,  and  you  were  calculating  how  soon 
you  would  be  released. 

Do  not  touch  or  handle  any  of  the  ornaments  in 
the  house  where  you  visit.  They  are  intended  to  be 
admired,  not  handled  by  visitors. 

Do  not  read  in  company ;  a  gentleman  or  lady 
may,  however,  look  over  a  book  of  engravings  or  a  col- 
lection of  photographs  with  propriety. 

Every  species  of  affectation  should  be  avoided,  as 
it  is  always  detected,  and  exceedingly  disagreeable. 

Impolite  Ads.     Loud  and  boisterous  laughter. 

Reading  when  others  are  talking. 

Reading   aloud  in  company  without  being  asked. 

Talking  when  others  are  reading. 

Sitting  about  the  house  smoking  or  chewing. 

Cutting  finger-nails  in  company. 

Leaving  a  church  before  public  worship  is  closed. 

Whispering  or  laughing  in  the  house  of  God. 

Gazing  rudely  at  strangers. 

Leaving  a  stranger  without  a  seat. 

A  want  of  respect  and  reverence  for  seniors. 


Correcting  older  persons  than  yourself,  especially 
parents. 

Receiving  a  present  without  an  expression  of  grati- 
tude. 

Joking  others  in  company. 

Making  yourself  the  hero  of  your  own  story. 

Sitting  with  your  back  to  a  person  without  asking 
to  be  excused. 

Standing  or  sitting  with  your  feet  apart. 

Humming,  whistling  or  singing  in  suppressed 
tones. 

Using  profane  language,  or  stronger  expressions 
than  the  occasion  justifies. 

Evaporation  by  Heat.  The  conversion  of  water 
into  steam  by  heat  is  a  familiar  illustration  of  evap- 
oration by  heat,  of  which  we  need  say  nothing  here. 
Liquids  while  evajxirating  absorb  heat,  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  ether,  which  requires  comparatively  lit- 
tle heat  to  convert  it  into  vapor,  is  used  to  relieve  the 
pain  of  a  scald  or  a  burn.  Ether  is  converted  into 
vajwr  at  96°  Fahrenheit.  Water,  which  requires  212° 
Fahrenheit  to  convert  it  into  steam,  is  often  sprinkled 
about  a  room  in  summer  weather  to  cool  the  air,  and 
it  does  so  by  withdrawing  the  heat  which  is  absorbed 
during  its  evajxaration.  The  refreshing  coolness  of  a 
summer  shower  is  due  to  the  same  cause.  Winds  aid 
evaiX)ration  by  removing  the  vajxirmore  rapidly.  Grass 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  garden  uncut,  or  dead  leaves 
allowed  to  accumulate  on  the  paths,  promote  cold  by 
retaining  moisture  and  consequently  absorbing  heat. 
Wet  feet  and  wet  clothes  absorb  heat  by  evaporation, 
and  by  rapidly  lowering  the  natural  temperature  of 
the  body,  so  affect  the  circulation  as  to  injure  the 
health  more  or  less  seriously.  A  damp  bed  for  the 
same  reason  is  an  extremely  dangerous  one  to  sleep 
in.  Salt  in  the  water  retarding  evaporation,  sea-water 
consequently  does  not  have  the  same  effect  as  other 
Water  does.  The  rapidly  revolving  wheels  of  certain 
machines  would  catch  fire  if  they  were  not  kept  con- 
stantly wet,  in  order  that  the  heat  might  be  kept  down 
by  evajx)ration.  Tea  poured  into  a  saucer  grows  cool 
more  quickly  than  it  does  in  a  cup,  because,  having  a 
larger  surface,  evajwration  proceeds  more  rapidly. 
Thick  clothing  worn  while  taking  active  exercise,  by 
which  the  perspiration  is  increased,  is  often  unhealth- 
ful  because  it  retards  evaporation,  and  so  increases  the 
heat  of  the  body  beyond  its  natural  standard. 

Evener  (eav'-ner),  a  double-tree  or  whifHe-tree- 
See  Whiffletree. 

Evergreens,  plants  which  retain  their  leaves  green 
through  the  winter,  and  acquire  a  growth  of  new  ones 
before  fully  shedding  the  old.  In  the  United  States 
they  are  mainly  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  pine  and  ce- 
dar kind,  and  constitute  the  most  substantial  and  poj>- 
ular  ornament  of  the  lawn  and  landscape.  They  are 
also  the  best  resource  for  wind-breaks,  the  Norway 
spruce  being  perhaps  the  best  of  all  the  trees  in  the 
world  for  the  purjxise. 

Varieties.  Among  the  smaller  evergreens  adapt- 
ed to  places  of   limited  extent  and    village  grounds 


420 


EVERGREENS. 


are  the  following:  The  Mugho  pine,  growing  15  or 
20  feet  high,  with  numerous  ascending  or  creeping 
branches,  the  foliage  resembling  that  of  the  Scotch 
pine.  It  is  sometimes  confounded  with  the  dwarf 
mountain  pine,  but  differs  in  shorter  leaves  and  more 
upright  tree  form.  The  mountain  dwarf  pine  has  a 
more  rounded  growth  of  the  tree.  A  very  small  vari- 
ety of  the  Mugho  pine  grows  only  about  two  feet  high. 
The  stone  pine,  although  ultimately  attaining  30  or  40 
feet,  grows  so  slow  that  for  many  years  it  keeps  well 


Fig.  t.— White  Spruce. 

within  bounds,  and  formj  a  neat  and  handsome  pyra- 
mid, varied  by  the  tufts  of  foliage  on  its  outline.  The 
dwarf  white  pine  is  a  bushy  variety  of  the  common 
white  i>ine,  of  a  compact  forai,  growing  from  six  to 
ten  feet  high.  Another  larger  variety,  known  as  the 
compacta,  is  double  the  size  of  the  last  named,  mak- 
ing an  annual  growth  of  three  or  four  inches,  and 
forming  a  beautiful  tree. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Norway  spruce  of 
various  sizes,  from  the  pigmy  fir,  a-  foot  high,  to  those 
that  become  small  trees.  The  common  Nor^vay  spruce 
may  be  kept  to  the  size  of  a  small  tree  or  shrub  by 
continually  cutting  back ;  there  are,  however,  two  ob- 
jecrions,  one  of  which  is  the  common  want  of  skill  and 


taste  required  to  preserve  a  graceful,  natural  form,  in- 
stead of  a  heavy,  formal  or  stiff  figure ;  and  the  other 
the  liability  to  neglect  this  cutting  back  until  the  tree 
has  grown  beyond  the  limited  bounds  allotted  to  it. 
The  white  spruce  forms  a  handsome  tree  of  moderate 
size,  growing  40  or  50  feet  high;  and  there  is  a  dwarf 
variety  about  the  size  of  a  currant  bush.  A  more 
beauriful  tree  is  the  black  spruce,  which  has  less  stiff- 
ness and  more  grace  of  outline  than  many  other 
spruces;  it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  70  feet. 
The  red  spruce  much  resembles  the  black,  and  while 
some  regard  them  as  distinct  species,  others  look  uix)n 
them  as  only  varieties. 

There  are  some  other  rarer  firs  worthy  of  attention, 
among  which  are  the  Cephalonian  fir  and  Nordmann's 
fir,  the  latter  being  regarded  by  some  as  the  most 
beautiful  and  reliable  of  all  the  new  sorts. 

Among  the  larger  pines,  none  can  exceed,  and  few 
equal,  the  common  white  pine  and  the  Austrian  pine, 
while  the  native  hemlock  is  one  of  the  finest  of  all  our 
evergreen  trees,  when  allowed  full  space  to  grow  and 
develop  its  graceful  form. 

Turning  again  to  seme  of  the  smaller  evergreens, 
we  should  not  omit  to  mention  the  Siberian  arbor-vitae 
and  the  red  cedar  and  common  juniper.  The  tree 
box,  although  a  slow  grower,  forms  a  beautiful  broad 
and  dense  mass  of  green  foliage,  and  becomes  one  of 
the  best  winter  ornaments.  Dwarf  pine,  a  European 
species,  is  perfectly  hardy,  and  easily  transplanted,  and 
grows  in  a  dense  rounded  form  ten  or  twelve  feet 
high. 

By  a  due  share  of  attention  to  these  winter  orna- 
ments, there  is  no  necessity  whatever  for  the  bleak  and 
dreary  appearance  of  which  so  many  complain,  and 
even  the  bare  branches  and  the  shining  buds  which 
invest  them  become  objects  of  study  and  delight. 
A  proper  blending  and  contrast  in  various  shades  of 
different  evergreens  may  be  made  to  give  additional 
charms  to  the  plantings  of  the  grounds. 

Small  ornamental  undergrowth  beneath  the  trees 
and  larger  shrubs  should  not  be  overlooked,  as  it  gives 
a  beautiful  effect  late  in  autumn,  early  in  spring,  and 
when  the  ground  is  bare  of  snow  in  winter.  Ever- 
green shrubs,  like  the  wild  yew;  such  small  plants, 
with  broad,  thick,  evergreen  leaves,  as  the  Chimaphila, 
and  the  evergreen  ferns ;  the  whole  surface  carpeted 
with  such  species  of  moss  as  give  a  soft,  green  surface, 
— all  add  greatly  to  the  effect.  Among  the  evergreen 
ferns  very  few  may  be  mentioned.  The  common  poly- 
pody is  rather  small,  very  hardy,  and  will  grow  on  or 
among  rocks.  The  hard  fern  is  common  along 
wooded  ravines  and  hillsides,  and  is  a  large,  handsome 
plant;  also  the  Woodwardias  and  Aspleniunis,  and 
several  Aspidiums,  which  may  be  easily  collected  in 
our  wild  woods  early  in  spring. 

Among  the  flowers  that  may  be  made  to  bloom  in 
early  winter  is  the  Christmas  rose,  so  called,  which, 
if  planted  under  the  protection  of  evergreens,  and  on 
the  south  side,  facing  the  sun,  may  be  often  seen  in 
bloom  half  hid  under  the  snow. 

For  early  spring  blooming,  even  before  all  the  snow- 


EVERGREENS. 


42t 


drifts  are  gone,  plant  the  bulbs  of  the  snow-drop, 
crocus,  and  Siberian  squill,  in  similarly  sheltered 
places ;  and  plant  such  early  bloomers  among  the  wild 
flowers  of  the  woods  as  tlie  Claytonia  and  Hepatica, 
and  they  will  add  greatly  to  the  charms  of  the  grounds 
while  all  the  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs  are  yet  des- 
titute of  foliage,  and  buds  have  not  begun  to  swell. 

Propagation.  All  evergreen  seed  needs  planting 
in  raised  beds  so  that  the  water  will  run  off,  covered 
slightly  with  sand  about  a  quartet  of  an  inch  deep, 
then  shaded  by  a  lath  cover,  leaving  the  spaces  not 
wider  than  the  lath,  and  of  a  convenient  size  to  re- 


FiG.   i,—yuniperu$  Venusta. 

move,  both  for  watering  and  weeding.  The  object  of 
the  cover  is  to  break  the  heat  of  the  sun ;  in  fact,  make 
it  cloudy.  Brush  about  a  foot  above  the  bed  will 
answer,  with  the  leaves  on.  After  the  seedlings  are 
well  cared  for,  the  first  summer  a  light  mulch  should 
be  given  them,  and  in  the  spring  following  they  can 
be  transplanted  to  a  new  bed  and  shaded  as  before, 
and  the  second  or  third  spring  they  can  safely  be  set 
12  by  8  feet,  or  12  by  12  feet  for  timber.  The  pine, 
■when  three  years  old,  may  be  8  to  12  inches,  and  if 
■well  cultivated  they  will  not  be  more  than  10  feet 
high  when  ten  years  old.     After  that  they  grow  much 


more  rapidly.  A  good  way  to  utilize  the  ground  is  to 
set  larch  3  by  3  feet  on  all  the  ground  between  the 
pine,  and  after  they  become  8  to  to  feet  high,  thin  out 
around  the  pine  and  give  them  room.  Part  of  the 
larch  may  remain  till  they  are  15  to  20  feet  high,  and 
will  make  good  fence-posts,  jxales,  etc.  Nineteen  out 
of  twenty  will  fail  in  raising  evergreen  seedlings,  and 
after  they  are  removed  from  the  seed-bed,  there  will 
be  just  as  good  a  chance  for  failure,  unless  set  thickly 
together  and  shaded.  Forest  seedlings  and  ever- 
greens may  be  safely  set  out  if  kept  damp  and  shaded 
the  first  year ;  they  can  be  set  4  to  6  inches  each  way 
and  remain  one  or  two  years  in  the  transplanted  bed, 
the  first  year  always  under  shade.  Select  those  speci- 
mens which  are  in  the  most  exposed  situations,  pro- 
tect the  roots  from  the  sun  and  air,  and  take  the  spring- 
time for  the  work  of  transplanting.  But  it  is  much 
safer  to  transplant  nursery-grown  trees.  Removals 
any  time  during  the  summer  are  often  successful. 
Manure,  mulch,  and  cultivate  as  you  would  any  other 
tree. 

Red  cedar  berries  should  be  bruised  early  in  March, 
and  mixed  with  an  equal  or  greater  bulk  of  wet  wood- 
ashes.  In  three  weeks  the  alkali  will  have  "  cut"  the 
resinons  gum,  when  the  seeds  can  be  washed  clean 
from  the  pulp.  In  preparing  the  seed-beds,  dig  the 
ground  a  foot  or  more  in  depth,  mix  for  three  or  four 
inches  at  the  surface  a  liberal  dressing  of  well-rotted 
leaf-mold,  or  wood  soil,  and  sharp  sand.  Lay  off 
the  beds  4  feet  wide,  lengthwise,  east  and  west ;  sow 
the  seeds  in  rows  a  foot  apart,  running  across  the 
bed.  This  gives  room  for  deep  culture,  which  is 
essential.  Along  the  south  side  of  the  bed,  drive 
stout  stakes  i  J^  feet  above  the  surface,  also  another 
row  on  the  north  side,  2%  feet  high.  Rails  are  nailed 
on  the  tops  of  the  stakes,  across  which  freshly  cut 
brush  with  foliage  on  is  placed,  before  very  hot  weather, 
to  screen  from  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun ;  also,  a 
wide  board  is  laid  along  the  south  side  of  the  short 
stakes,  to  keep  out  the  sun  and  drying  winds.  If 
there  is  a  prospect  of  drouth,  water  occasionally,  in 
the  evening.  In  October  the  shading  may  be  re- 
moved, and  a  mulching  of  two  inches  of  leaves  put 
along  the  rows.  Cultivate  in  seed-bed  the  second 
year;  unless  the  season  is  very  dry,  they  will  need 
no  shading  if  the  ground  is  worked  deeply.  They  are 
transplanted  to  nursery  rows  2  feet  apart  the  second 
spring,  shortening  the  tap-root  at  the  time.  Give  them 
plenty  of  room  in  the  row  to  develop  the  lower 
branches.  In  taking  up  plants  for  sale  the  two  suc- 
ceeding seasons,  it  is  best  to  thin  them  in  the  rows  by 
removing  each  alternate  plant.  When  three  years  in 
nursery,  remove  each  alternate  row  and  root-prune 
the  ones  left  with  a  Harkness  tree  digger,  an  invalu- 
able implement  for  nurserymen. 

For  ordinary  screens  of  moderate  height,  the  red 
cedar  is  preferable  to  any  other  evergreen  for  the 
Northwestern  States. 

Foreign  varieties  of  evergreens  are  best  imported  at 
two  years  from  the  seed,  and  native  varieties  from  the 
forests  of  Michigan  and  New  York. 


422 


E  WE— EXEMPTION. 


EvEPGREEN  Seeds,  Number  of,  to  the  Pound; 
Norway  spruce,  58,000;  Hemlock,  1000,000  White 
pine,  20,000;  White  spruce,  160,000;  Scotch  pine, 
69,000;  Austrian  pine,  28,000;  Balsam  fir,  45,000; 
Cenibran,  or  stone  pine,  2,700;  American  arbor  vitae, 
320,000;  European  larch,  70,000;  pear  and  apple  (not 
evergreen),  12,000.  It  is  remarkable  how  these 
large  trees  have  so  small  seeds  compared  with  the 
nuts,  etc.,  of  other  trees. 

Pruning.  In  pruning  no  one  should  cut  a  branch, 
large  or  small,  evergreen  or  deciduous,  without  having 
a  clear  idea  of  what  he  does  it  for.  Pruning  may  be 
done  to  accomplish  the  most  opixjsite  ends.  We  may 
prune  to  promote  the  growth  of  limb,  or  we  may  prune 
to  check  the  growth,  and  so  on.  Whatever  else  is 
done  to  an  evergreen,  do  not  cut  it  away  below.  Left 
to  themselves,  these  trees  form  pyramids  of  verdure 
of  the  greatest  beauty.  A  tree  with  its  broad  base 
resting  ujwn  the  ground,  and  tapering  gracefully  up- 
wards, is  a  most  pleasing  object  and  gratifying  in  its 
symmetry  and  ap- 
parent stability  to 
every  person  of  taste. 
Cut  away  the  lower 
limbs,  leaving  a 
naked  trunk  of  six  or 
eight  feet,  and  all 
beauty  and  symme- 
try are  destroyed. 
This  treatment  is  of- 
ten excused  by  the 
plea  that  the  trees 
were  at  first  planted 
too  closely  and  now 
light  and  airare  shut 
out;  hence  this  cut- 
ting away  of  the 
lower  branches. 
Light  and  air  are  of 
course  necessary,  but 
the  better  remedy  is 
to  take  out  a  portion 
of  the  trees  altogeth- 
er.    Do   this  rather 

than  to  mutilate  all  Fig.  -i.— Dwarf  a 

by  removing  the  lower  branches.  If  trees  are 
too  near  the  house,  either  remove  or  cut  them 
down,  but  do  not  cut  them  "  up."  There  is  no  proper 
time  for  pruning  of  this  kind.  If  a  tree  grows  one- 
sided, or  irregular,  and  it  is  desired  to  have  an  in- 
creased growth  at  any  point,  the  proper  way  to  secure 
this  is  to  cut  the  branches  back  to  induce  a  new  growth 
to  push  vigorously.  Pruning  for  this  [jurixjse  should 
be  done  when  the  season  of  growth  is  well  matured  in 
early  autumn.  If  the  irregularity  is  di^  to  an  excess 
of  growth,  and  it  is  necessary  to  repress  this,  then  the 
proijer  time  to  do  it  is  immediately  after  the  growth  in 
length  has  been  completed,  but  before  the  wood  has 
become  hardened  and  matured.  Much  may  often  be 
done  to  improve  the  form  of  a  tree,  and  fill  out  their 
places  by  bending  some  of  the  branches  and  tying 


them  in  the  proper  position,  taking  care  that  the  liga- 
tures are  nowhere  so  tight  as  to  check  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  branches.  If  held  thus  for  a  few  years, 
they  will  retain  their  position.  The  pruning  of  ever- 
green hedges  is  governed  by  the  same  rules.  In  the 
first  years  of  a  hedge,  one  wishes  it  to  grow  as  quickly 
as  possible  to  the  required  height ;  therefore  if  the 
growth  can  anywhere  be  encouraged  by  cutting  back, 
it  is  to  Ve  done  in  early  autumn.  In  the  Northern 
States,  October  is  the  proper  time.  When  the  hedge 
is  as  high  and  broad  as  desired,  and  you  wish  to  re- 
press further  growth,  the  main  pruning  should  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  spring's  growth  has  been  made,  but 
while  the  shoots  are  still  tender.  Cutting  in  that  state 
tends  to  check  the  growth.  In  the  Northern  States, 
June  is  the  month  for  this.  In  cutring  all  horizontal 
branches  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  make  a 
sloping  cut  on  the  under  side  of  the  branch,  so  that  in 
looking  down  upon  it  the  wound  is  not  seen. 

See  also  Floriculture,  Forestrj  Lawn  and  Lanscape 

Gardening. 

Ewe  (u),  a  female 
sheep. 

Executors     and 
Administrators. 

An  executor  in  law 
is  one  appointed  by 
a  man's  last  will  to 
carry  its  provisions 
into  execution  after 
the  testator's  death. 
Letters  of  executor- 
ship and  administra- 
tion must  be  taken 
out  in  the  county 
where  the  deceased 
resided  immediately 
preceding  his  death. 
Usually  the  widow 
and  next  other  kin- 
dred have  first  right 
to  administration  un- 
less there  is  a  will 
appointing    some 


merican  Ardor  Vita, 


person  or  persons.  Administrators  are  required  to 
give  bond  in  double  the  amount  of  personal  property 
of  deceased.  When  the  executor  is  authorized  by  will 
to  sell  property,  the  bond  must  be  double  the  amount 
of  the  whole  property,  unless  a  bond  is  waived  by  the 
will.  If  relatives  do  not  take  out  letters,  then  credit- 
ors are  next  in  order.  If  no  person  petitions  for  letters, 
the  probate  court  appoints  some  discreet  person  of 
its  own  motion.  Executors  appointed  by  will  may  re- 
fuse to  act  or  resign  by  permission  of  the  court. 

Exemptions  from  Seizure  on  Executions.  Each 
State  provides  by  law  that  its  hona-fide  residents  shall 
be  allowed  to  own  and  hold  certain  specified  property 
which  shall  be  exempt  from  seizure  upon  any  writ  or 
execution  for  debt.  Generally  the  exemption  ceases 
when  tlie  debtor  attempts  to  remove  the  exempted 


EXERCISE— EX  PERIMENTA  TIONS. 


423 


property  from  the  State.  Upon  the  death  of  the  hus- 
band the  exemption  rights  extend  to  the  widow  and 
minor  children.  The  law  is  so  different  in  the  States 
we  cannot  give  it  all  in  this  work,  and  can  only  say, 
the  best  way  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  same  is  to 
consult  the  statutes,  which  may  be  found  at  the  jus- 
tice's office  and  at  all  the  public  offices  of  the  county. 

Exercise:  see  Hygiene. 

Exhaustion  of  Soils:  see  Fertilizers,  Manure,  etc. 

Exhaust- Pipe,  in  a  steam  engine,  is  the  pipe 
which  permits  the  steam  to  escape  from  the  cylinder, 
either  to  a  condenser  or  to  the  open  air. 

Exhibition,    Agricultural  :    see  Fairs. 

Exotic  (egz-ot'ic,)  foreign,  as  a  plant  which  is  not 
native.  Palms,  for  example,  are  exotic  in  the  North- 
ern United  States. 

Expansion  by  Heat.  Heat  causes  air  to  expand 
or  grow  lighter.  A  familiar  illustration  of  this  may  be 
observed  in  roasting  chestnuts.  When  they  have 
been  made  sufficiently  hot,  the  air  and  moisture  in  them 
expand,  and  being  unable  to  escape,  force  their  way 
violently  through  the  thick  rind,  which  bursts  with  a 
loud  crack.  Under  the  same  influence  even  a  stone 
when  put  into  the  fire  flies  into  pieces.  From  a  bottle 
of  ale  placed  before  a  fire,  the  cork  will  sometimes  be 
forced  out  by  the  expansion  by  heat  of  the  carbonic 
acid.  Hot  air  ascends  a  chimney  in  consequence 
of  the  lightness  whicli  is  due  to  its  expansion.  It  is 
expansion  by  heat  which  causes  ice  to  melt  into  water 
and  water  to  become  steam.  The  kettle  sings  be- 
cause the  heated  air  is  escaping  unequally,  and  it 
does  not  sing  when  it  boils,  because  the  air  is  expand- 
ing equally.  Water  is  increased  in  bulk  by  heat,  just 
as  air  is,  and  hence  it  boils  over.  Iron  expands  by 
heat,  and  for  this  reason  iron  hoops  used  by  coopers 
for  tubs  are  put  on  hot,  so  that  as  they  grow  cold  and 
contract,  they  may  hold  the  pieces  of  the  tub  more  se- 
curely together.  The  cracking  of  iron  stoves  is  due 
to  this  cause.  A  glass  is  frequently  broke  by  hot  wa- 
ter being  poured  into  it,  because  of  its  unequal  expan- 
sion, the  inside  expanding  suddenly  with  heat  instead 
of  gradually,  while  the  outside  surface  is  cold.  Lamp 
glasses  often  break  in  consequence  of  this  unequal  ex- 
pansion by  heat.  Glass  is  like  china,  a  bad  con- 
ductor of  heat,  and  the  heat .  of  the  inner  surface 
permeates  it  so  slowly  that  the  outer  surface  is  not 
affected  by  the  heat  which  expands  the  inner  surface, 
and  is  consequently  torn  asunder.  A  glass  tumbler 
must  not,  therefore,  be  put  upon  a  hot  stove. 

The  force  with  which  water  expands  when  in  the 
act  of  congelation  is  immense.  It  is  by  this  means 
that  huge  fragments  of  rock  are  separated,  the  water 
that  penetrates  into  fissures  expanding  with  such  force 
during  congelation  as  to  break  off  the  corners  and  pro- 
jections. The  same  circumstance  is  sometimes  taken 
advantage  of  in  splitting  slate.  The  benefit  that  frost 
is  known  to  afford  to  plowed  land  is  efi'ected  by  the 
expansion  of  water  breaking  and  crumbling  down  the 


clods  of  earth.  The  sparks  of  fire  which  fly  with  a 
crackling  noise  from  burning  wood  are  due  to  the  ex' 
pansion  of  air  in  the  pores  of  the  wood.  Ingenious 
modes  of  breaking  glass  in  any  required  direction  are 
founded  on  expansion,  by  which  means  broken  glass 
vessels  are  very  ingeniously  fashioned  and  fitted  for  a 
variety  of  uses.  One  mode  is  to  dip  a  piece  of  thread 
or  string  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  wrap  it  around  the 
glass  in  the  direction  you  require  it  to  be  broken,  and 
then  set  fire  to  it.  Another  mode  is  to  draw  a  red-hot 
skewer  across  the  glass  in  the  desired  direction,  and  a 
third  is  to  wrap  a  red-hot  wire  round  the  glass,  and  if 
it  does  not  immediately  crack,  to  throw  cold  water  on 
it  whilst  the  wire  remains  hot.  The  two  former  modes 
depend  upon  the  sudden  expansion,  and  the  last  upon 
the  sudden  contraction  of  the  particles  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  glass. 

The  draughts  of  air  perceived  in  rooms  where  large 
fires  are  burning  consist  of  these  currents  of  air  rush- 
ing in  to  supply  the  place  of  expanded  air  escaping  up 
the  chimney.  It  is  by  facilitating  the  egress  of  the 
heated  air  that  rooms  are  properly  ventilated,  and  by 
contriving  means  to  prevent  its  escape  that  stores  and 
hot-houses  are  able  to  preserve  their  increased  tem- 
perature. 

Expectorant,  a  medicine  or  medicinal  appliance 
which  promotes  the  discharge  of  morbid  mucous  se- 
cretion of  the  air  passages  of  animals,  and,  in  conse- 
quence relieves  cough  and  difficulty  of  breathing. 
Watery  vapor,  whether  simple  or  nedicated,  is  the 
only  expectorant  which  acts  directly  or  by  immediate 
contact  with  the  affected  organs,  and  all  the  other  ex- 
pectorants, exceedingly  great  in  number  and  variety, 
are  gathered  from  among  sedatives,  vegetable  stimu- 
lants, balsams,  gum-resins,  and  other  classes  of  sub- 
stances; are  swallowed  like  food  or  condiments,  and 
can  operate  on  the  affected  organs  only  by  symi-'athy 
or  by  some  other  obscure  mode  of  action.  Expector- 
ants for  the  human  subject,  as  in  instance  of  many  of 
the  jxjpular  and  quack  nostrums  for  common  coughs, 
are  sometimes  so  ill-chosen  as  to  occasion  great  event- 
ual injury  to  the  patient.  In  the  horse  the  action  of 
expectorants  is  not  easily  perceptible.  It  has  been 
said  that  as  a  horse  breathes  only  through  his  nostrils 
the  effect  of  such  medicines  (if  they  would  have  an)  ), 
would  be  shown  by  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  and 
as  they  are  not  observed  to  cause  such  discharge,  they 
must  be  ineffectual.  But  in  coughing  air  is  expired 
by  the  mouth,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  mucus 
may  be  discharged  by  the  lungs  at  the  same  time, 
though  this  point  is  difficult  to  be  ascertained  with 
precision.  Some  of  the  medicines  termed  expectorants 
frequently  prove  serviceable  in  the  horse  by  relieving 
or  curing  cough  and  difficulty  in  breathing,  or  what  is 
termed  thickness  of  wind;  among  these  are  squills 
and  gum  ammoniacum. 

Experimentations,  in  Farming,  should  always 
be  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  but  thoroughly  enough 
to  be  of  value;  and  particular  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  attribute  an  effect  to  the  wrong  cause.  For  exam- 
ple, a  man  turns  his  horse  from  a  constant  stable  life 


424 


EXPRESS  COMPANIES— EXTRACTS. 


into  a  pasture  some  time  in  June ;  the  next  day  the 
animal  is  drooUng  at  the  mouth  and  is  sick ;  the  owner 
forthwith  attributes  his  sickness  to  clover,  while  it  may 
have  been  due  to  any  one  of  a  half-dozen  other  causes; 
as,  too  large  a  quantity  of  green  stuff;  semi-poisonous 
herbs,  or  toadstool,  taken  accidentally  in  the  animal's 
eagerness  to  obtain  a  "  square  meal "  of  his  more  nat- 
ural food ;  the  development  of  some  ailment  which 
was  already  in  existence  in  his  stall  confinement ;  too 
much  exercise,  etc.  Next  to  connection  of  cause  and 
effect,  is  a  faithful  written  memorandum,  from  which 
results  can  be  obtained  with  mathematical  certainty. 
The  almost  universal  practice  is  to  assert  that  "  ex- 
perience teaches "  so  and  so,  when  no  pencil  and 
paper  account  has  been  kept,  and  the  statistical  result 
often  very  different  from  the  assertion.  For  instance, 
a  man  will  assert  that  his  experience  teaches  him  that 
potatoes  planted  in  the  "  dark  "  of  the  moon  always 
do  better  than  those  planted  during  the  "  light  of  the 
moon,"  when  another  member  of  the  family,  perhaps, 
has  been  quietly  keeping  a  written  memorandum  of 
that  man's  "  experience  "  from  year  to  year,  and  he 
finds  no  difference  whatever,  in  the  average  results, 
between  the  one  time  of  planting  and  the  other.  As 
a  rule,  the  more  vehemently  one  asserts  what  "  experi- 
ence teaches,"  the  more  sure  we  may  be  that  he  has  not 
kept  a  written  account.  Memory  is  curiously  treacher- 
ous when  it  is  trusted  under  the  influence  of  a  pre- 
adopted  belief.  We  are  all  inclined  to  read  facts  as 
we  do  the  Bible,  as  supporting  our  own  creed.  Two 
persons,  looking  at  the  same  thing,  often  interpret  it 
differently, — -sometimes  in  direct  opposition  to  one  an- 
other ;  and  in  such  a  case  one  will  afterward  reixirt 
that  he  has  witnessed  a  "  fact,"  as  supporting  his  idea, 
and  the  other  party  will  also  report  that  he  observed 
the  same  "  fact,"  as  proving  the  opposite,  and  "  there 
is  nodenying  facts."  The  "  fact  "  is,  the  words  "fact" 
and  "  experience  teaches,"  etc.,  are  very  commonly 
used  in  the  spirit  of  scofTmg.  The  man  who  really 
has  facts  on  his  side  will  be  neither  vehement  nor  rep- 
etitious. The  celebrated  old  story  to  illustrate  false 
reasoning  from  facts  is  this :  An  Englishman  observed 
that  a  Frenchman,  who  had  a  fever,  ate  a  red  herring 
and  got  well,  and  he  so  noted  it  in  his  memorandum 
book.  Afterward  a  fellow  citizen  had  the  same  kind 
•of  fever,  and  he  was  persuaded  to  eat  a  red  herring. 
He  died,  and  the  "  observer  "  noted  in  his  book,  "  Red 
herring  will  cure  a  Frenchman  but  kill  an  English- 
man!' 

Hence  the  emphasis  in  our  schools  and  colleges  laid 
on  the  necessity  of  training,  first  how  to  observe,  and 
secondly  how  to  tabulate  in  statistical  form,  and  reason 
•out  the  results.  This,  indeed,  is  almost  all  there  is  of 
mental  discipline,  and  we  become  proficient  in  it  in 
proportion  to  our  inherited  mental  capacity  and  dis- 
position. 

It  is  a  common  saying  that  "  there  are  exceptions 
to  all  rules;  "  but  a  more  careful  wording  of  the  idea 
would  be,  "There  are  exceptions  to  most  generaliza- 
tions made  by  man,  but  none  to  any  law  of  nature." 

Most  experiments  in  farming,  stock-raising,  horti- 


culture, gardening  and  household  economy  do  not 
have  to  be  purposely  instituted  as  such.  A  system- 
atic record  of  the  ordinary  work  is  nearly  or  quite 
sufficient.  Systemadc  experiments  as  such  should  be 
conducted  at  the  agricultural  colleges,  as  they  are  in- 
deed established  and  supported  in  great  part  for  this 
express  purpose.  What  devolves  upon  the  farmer  is 
to  endeavor  to  obtain  the  best  results  he  can,  from 
year  to  year  availing  himself  of  what  knowledge 
the  agricultural  schools  and  societies  afford  him. 
This  information  is  published  by  the  State  in  annual 
volumes  for  free  distribution.  This  encyclopedia  is  in 
a  large  proportion  a  classified  and  condensed  alpha- 
betical statement  of  these  reports — the  first  effort  of 
the  kind  ever  made. 

Express  Companies  are  "  common  carriers,"  and 
are  bound  to  carry  all  merchandise  offered  them  at 
uniform  rates  ;  are  liable  for  the  safe  delivery  of  such 
merchandise,  except  such  damages  as  may  result  from 
the  "  acts  of  God"  or  the  public  enemy,  unless  a  con- 
tract is  made  exempting  them  from  liability.  Usually 
they  are  not  hable  beyond  their  own  lines. 

Extracts,  Flavoring,  are  preparations  of  vegetable 
principles  obtained  either  by  putting  the  plants  in  a  sol- 
vent, such  as  water  or  alcohol,  and  then  evajwrating  the 
liquid  down  to  the  consistency  of  honey;  or  by  ex- 
pressing the  juice  of  plants,  and  then  evaixjrating. 
Extracts  contain  only  those  vegetable  principles  that 
are  either  held  in  soludon  in  the  juices  of  the 
plants  themselves,  or  are  soluble  in  the  liquid  em- 
ployed in  extracting  them,  and,  at  the  same  time,  are 
not  so  volatile  as  to  be  lost  during  evaporation. 
Hence,  we  find  in  an  extract  generally  a  great  variety 
of  substances,  as  mucilage,  sugar,  tannin,  resin,  gluten, 
etc.  If  water  alone  is  employed  in  solution  it  is  called 
a  watery  extract ;  if  alcohol  or  proof  spirit,  then  the 
product  is  a  spirituous  extract.  To  make  a  watery 
extract,  the  substances  are  generally  boiled  in  water, 
the  decoction  is  strained,  and  then  boiled  down  till  it 
has  attained  the  desired  consistence,  and,  perhaps, 
gently  dried  on  a  stone.  If  a  spirituous  extract  be 
required,  a  tincture  of  the  substance  is  first  made,  and 
this  is  evaporated  gently  in  a  water  or  sand  bath,  or 
a  distilling  apparatus  may  be  employed,  and  thus  the 
spirit  is  saved.  In  performing  the  operation  of  making 
a  watery  extract  a  higher  temperature  than  boiling 
water  must  be  employed,  and  yet  the  evaporation 
must  be  effected  as  quickly  as  jxissible  by  having  the 
evaporating  vessel  broad  and  shallow,  and  set  in  a 
water-tub.  Some  extracts  are  made  by  a  mixture  of 
spirits  and  water,  it  being  found  that  some  plants  con- 
tain both  a  resin  and  a  gum,  the  first  being  soluble 
only  in  spirit  and  the  latter  in  water,  as,  extract  of 
jalap,  or  Peruvian  bark,  etc. 

A  number  of  flavoring  extracts  are  in  domesric  use. 
These  are  prepared  according  to  the  general  principle 
above  set  forth.  The  most  common  preparations 
known  in  domestic  economy  are,  lemon  extract, 
orange  extract,  extract  of  rose,  cinnamon,  nutmeg, 
ginger,  pepper,  coriander,  vanilla,  celery,  soup-herb  , 


EYE. 


425 


bitter  almond,  cloves,  mace,  thyme,  sweet  marjoram. 
The  fruit  flavors  are  generally  used  in  the  form  of 
essences,  and  are  the  essence  of  pine-apple,  straw- 
berry, raspberr)',  peach,  and  other  fruits.  The  essences 
are  articles  of  frequent  adulteration,  and  purchasers 
should  be  careful  to  procure  their  flavors  only  from 
Tesix)nsible  dealers,  and  buy  only  the  best,  even  if  the 
cost  is  considerably  greater. 

Eye,  the  organ  of  vision.  It  is  possessed  by  all 
the  active  species  of  animals,  except  the  few  who  live 
in  darkness  and  do  not  need  it,  and  in  every  instance, 
from  its  largest  size  in  man  and  quadrupeds,  to  its 
minutest  and  microscopic  form  in  the  smallest  insects, 
it  is  a  museum  of  wonder,  a  collection  of  complicated 
organizations,  a  system  of  intricate  and  multitudinous 
adaptations,  a  mimic  universe  of  the  results  of  design 
and  wisdom  and  beneficence  on  the  part  of  the  Creator. 
To  describe  it  fully  would  require  a  volume,  and  to 
trace  all  its  mechanisms,  its  adaptations,  its  chemical 
relations,  and,  above  all,  its  evidences  of  the  being 
and  perfections  of  its  Divine  Father,  might  fill  vol- 
umes enough  to  constitute  a  library.  We  must  refer, 
for  general  infonnation  upon  it,  to  technical  works  and 
special  treatises,  and  we  feel  obliged  to  restrict  our- 
selves to  a  few  sentences  in  close  connection  with  the 
immediate  design  of  our  work. 

The  eye  of  ciuadrupeds,  though  usually  somewhat 
different  from  the  human  eye  in  forai,  and  sometimes 
widely  different  from  it  in  appendages,  strictly  resem- 
bles it  in  structure.  The  eye  of  the  horse  is  propor- 
tionately larger  than  that  of  some  other  quadrupeds ; 
it  is  situated  less  in  front  and  more  to  the  side  than 
in  man  in  order  to  command  a  wider  lateral  range  of 
view ;  its  jjupilar  opening  is  elliptical,  and  has  a  long 
axis  parallel  to  the  horizon,  so  as  to  increase  the  lat- 
eral field  of  vision,  and  its  edge  is  provided  with  a 
jieculiar  plum-colored  fringe,  which  is  supposed  to  ab- 
sorb occasional  excesses  of  light.  The  horse  has 
excellent  vision,  and  though  not  a  nocturnal  animal, 
can  see  better  in  obscure  light  than  a  man.  His  eye, 
when  healthy,  is  full,  clear,  dark-colored,  and  nearly 
circular,  and  when  eminently  good  it  is  comparatively 
large,  yet  not  over-prominent.  But  this  im]X)rtant 
organ  in  the  most  valuable  of  domestic  animals  is  so 
frequently  obscured,  defective,  or  totally  blinded  from 
disease  as  always  to  require  close  examination  on  the 
part  of  the  purchaser  of  the  horse,  and  special  tender- 
ness and  care  on  the  part  of  his  owner.  If  the  eye- 
ball is  sunk  into  the  orbit,  producing  a  corrugated 
appearance  of  the  lids,  we  may  suspect  latent  disease. 
If  a  horse  shies  we  should  be  doubly  careful  in  the 
examination  of  these  organs,  as  this  habit  often  arises 
from  defective  vision.  Some  horses,  usually  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  white  about  the  face,  have 
what  is  termed  wall-eyes.  In  these  cases  the  iris  is 
found  to  be  deficient  in  its  natural  color,  giving  a 
white  appearance  to  it.  They  are  known  to  be  more 
liable  to  affections  of  the  eye  than  those  in  which  this 
peculiar  defect  is  absent ;  but  certainly  it  does  not 
increase  the  beauty  of  the  animal.     A  horse  whose  eye 


exhibits  more  than  a  normal  proportion  of  white,  has 
generally  a  vicious  temper.  The  principal  diseases 
which  attack  the  eyes  of  horses  are  amaurosis,  cat- 
aract, inflammation,  ophthalmia  and  filaria. 

The  eye  of  the  ox  is  situated  more  on  the  side  of 
the  face,  more  in  a  situation  to  command  a  wide 
lateral  field  of  vision  than  even  in  the  horse.  "  The 
ox  in  a  state  of  nature,"  remarks  Youatt,  "being  ex- 
posed to  the  attacks  of  ferocious  animals,  needs  an 
extended  field  of  vision  in  order  that  he  may  perceive 
the  approach  of  danger  from  every  quarter.  He  is 
oftener  the  pursued  than  the  pursuer,  and  therefore 
requires  a  lateral  instead  of  a  somewhat  forward  di- 
rection of  the  eyes.  The  eyes  are  prominent,  in  order 
to  increase  the  field  of  vision ;  and  they  are  rendered 
thus  prominent  by  the  mass  of  fat  which  is  accumu- 
lated at  the  back  of  them.  A  prominent  eye  is  reck- 
oned as  a  good  point  in  a  beast :  it  shows  the 
magnitude  of  this  mass  of  fat,  and  therefore  the  prob- 
ability of  fat  being  accumulated  elsewhere.  This 
prominence,  however,  should  not  be  accompanied  by 
a  ferocious  or  unquiet  look ;  for  feeders  have  agreed 
that  neither  the  grazing  nor  the  milking  beast  can 
have  too  placid  a  countenance,  or  be  too  quiet  or  docile 
in  her   habits."    .  See    Breeding,    Cattle    and   Cow. 

Care  of  the  Eyes.  There  are  more  individ- 
uals who  ascribe  their  weakness  of  sight  to  a  use  of 
their  eyes  under  an  insufficient  artificial  illumination 
than  to  any  other  one  cause.  In  a  great  many  in- 
stances this  may  not  be  strictly  true,  but  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  faulty  artificial  light  is  one  of  the 
most  productive  causes  of  a  certain  class  of  injuries 
to  which  the  eye  can  be  exposed.  The  two  sources 
of  trouble  with  the  ordinary  artificial  lights  are — first, 
that  they  are  not  pure  white,  and  secondly,  that  they 
are  unsteady. 

The  position  of  light  i^  relation  to  the  body  is  of  great 
importance.  If  a  shade  is  used  on  the  lamp  or  burner 
(it  should,  by  preference,  be  of  ground  or  "  milk  "  glass, 
never  of  colored  glass),  the  light  may  stand  directly  in 
front  of  the  body  and  the  work  be  allowed  to  lie  in 
the  light  under  the  shade,  which  will  protect  the  eyes 
from  the  glare  of  the  flame.  If  no  shade  is  used,  the 
back  should  be  turned  to  the  source  of  the  light,  which 
ought  to  fall  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  same  rule 
applies  in  the  management  of  daylight.  In  this  case 
the  light  should  come  from  behind  and  slightly  above, 
and  fall  directly  on  the  work,  whence  it  is  reflected 
to  the  eye.  It  should  never  fall  directly  in  the  face. 
The  light  in  the  room  during  sleep  is  also  not  without 
its  influence.  Even  the  strongest  eyes  are,  after 
the  reixise  of  night,  more  or  less  sensitive  to  the 
impression  of  intense  light.  The  eyes  must  have  time 
to  accustom  themselves  to  the  stimulus.  Attention 
should  be  called  to  the  injurious  effects  that  some- 
times follow  reading  on  railroad  cars.  On  account  of 
the  unsteadiness  of  a  page,  reading  under  these  cir- 
cumstances is  exceedingly  trying  to  the  eyes  and  should 
never  be  persisted  in  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time.  During  convalescence  from  severe  sickness  the 
eyes  are  generally  the  last  to  regain  their  lost  power. 


F 


AINTING.  This  is  produced  by  various 
causes,  among  which  may  be  named  great 
loss  of  blood,  and  in  some  persons  the  sight 
of  blood ;  violent  passions  of  the  mind ; 
severe  pain  and  suffering;  excessive  joy;  dis- 
gusting sights;  fright;  excessive  eating  and 
drinking;  offensive  odors ;  impure  and  confined 
atmosphere;  and  intense  study.  It  is  also  a 
symptom  of  other  diseases,  particularly  of  the  heart 
and  brain.  Persons  of  weak  and  delicate  constitutions 
are  liable  to  it  from  very  slight  causes.  If  it  occur 
frequently  in  a  person  otherwise  apparently  healthy, 
and  without  any  known  cause,  a  diseased  state  of  the 
heart  or  brain  is  to  be  apprehended. 

Treat.ment.  a  person  who  has  fainted  or 
swooned  should  be  immediately  laid  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  clothes  about  the  chest  and  neck 
loosened,  and  cold  water  sprinkled  freely  in  the  face. 
If  the  fainting  has  taken  place  in  a  tight  or  crowded 
room,  the  patient  should  be  immediately  removed  to 
where  there  is  plenty  of  fresh  air.  The  hands,  legs, 
and  arms  should  be  freely  rubbed.  Spirits  of 
ammonia  or  the  salt  of  hartshorn  should  be  held 
to  the  nose.  A  teasjxxanful  or  two  of  compound 
spirits  of  lavender,  with  some  spirits  of  harts- 
horn, is  very  good,  to  be  taken  internally.  There 
should  be  about  four  tim?s  as  much  lavender 
as  hartshorn,  or  in  about  that  proiX)rtion.  A  tea- 
spoonful  of  No.  6  is  also  good.  It  may  be  diluted 
with  a  little  brandy,  or  other  spirits.  But  in  a  major- 
ity of  cases,  pure  air,  and  a  little  cold  water  in  the 
face,  are  all  that  will  be  required. 

Persons  subject  to  fainting  should  avoid  all  crowded 
assemblies  and  places  where  the  air  is  impure  or  con- 
fined. They  should  also  avoid  mental  excitement, 
too  much  fatigue,  and  tight-lacing. 

Tair.  This  word,  in  the  olden  time,  in  England, 
applied  as  a  name  to  holidays.  Fairs,  or  outdoor 
fetes,  were  held  in  churchyards.  Later,  the  term 
"  fair"  was  applied  to  a  public  sale,  where  the  people 
gathered  at  a  market  town,  on  fixed  days,  and  ex- 
posed cattle,  farm  products,  home  manufactures,  etc., 
for  sale.  Much  pastime  and  carousal  was  indulged 
in  on  these  occasions.  Under  the  patronage  of  the 
"Highland  Society"  of  Scodand,  annual  exhibitions 
of  stock,  etc.,  have  been  held  alternately  in  the  large 
towns  of  that  country  for  many  years.  In  the  United 
States  the  term  "  fair"  applies  to  the  annual  exhibi- 
tions of  agricultural  societies.  There  are  State,  county, 
township,  district,  sectional,  and  national  societies  and 


fairs.  The  first  agricultural  exhibition,  or  fair,  of 
England  was  held  in  1723.  The  first  agricultural 
society  ever  incoriwrated  in  America  was  that  estab- 
lished in  South  Carolina  in  1785,  called  the  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture.  Its  object  included 
the  institution  of  a  farm  for  experiments  in  agricul- 
ture, and  the  importation  and  distribution  of  foreign 
productions  suited  to  the  climate  of  that  State.  An- 
other prominent  object  was  to  direct  the  attention  of 
the  farmers  to  the  economies  connected  with  the 
agriculture  of  the  State,  and  to  enlist  them  generally 
in  the  improvement  of  their  condition. 

The  society  accomplished  an  excellent  work,  among 
other  things,  that  of  introducing  the  cultivation  of  the 
olive  and  the  vine  into  the  State.  Societies  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture  were  always  regarded  by  the 
planters  and  statesmen  of  the  South  as  being  of  the 
first  importance ;  and  naturally  so,  for  the  reason  that 
agriculture  always  was  the  dominant,  in  fact,  almost 
the  exclusive,  interest  there;  more  than  this, however, 
from  the  settlement  of  the  country  until  about  i860, 
it  was  confined  to  special  products,  as,  at  first, 
tobacco,  then  cotton,  and,  later,  sugar,  these,  with 
blooded  horses  and  cattle,  comprising  the  chief  sources 
of  wealth  of  the  southern  planter.  In  the  earlier  history 
of  the  South,  her  clubs  and  societies  were  comixssed 
of  men  of  wealth  and  position,  and,  like  the  earlier 
kindred  societies  of  Great  Britain,  were  exclusive  in 
their  nature.  More  recently,  agricultural  societies  in 
the  South  have  taken  on  a  more  popular  character, 
and  the  last  ten  years  has  witnessed  a  wonderful  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  clubs  and  similar  organiza- 
tions, which  have  had  the  effect  to  re-awaken  interest 
in  this  rich  and  diversified  portion  of  our  common 
country. 

The  primary  purjxjse  of  fairs  in  this  country  was  to 
promote  the  advancement  of  agriculture  and  the  in- 
dustrial arts.  That  object  has  always  been  real  or 
ostensible.  The  interest  that  progressive  and  think- 
ing men  felt  in  the  improvement  of  farming  and  man- 
ufacturing processes  was,  no  doubt,  the  motive  for 
instituting  annual  exhibitions  in  the  country  towns, 
where  competition  in  display  should  beget  emulation 
in  producers.  As  in  all  things,  money  was  required 
to  conduct  fairs,  and  men  of  speculative  minds  saw  an 
opjx)rtunity  to  handle  this  money  to  their  own  benefit. 
The  fairs  of  the  present  time  undoubtedly  contribute 
much  to  the  benefit  of  the  farmer,  the  artisan,  and  the 
householder,  but  it  is  thought  by  many  who  are  both 
wise  and  interested  in  the  success  of  agriculture  and 
kindred  interests  that  the  later  manner  of  conducting 


426 


FAIR. 


427 


fairs  is  fraught  with  abuse  and  damage.  One  of  these 
alleged  abuses  is  horse-racing  and  its  accompaniment, 
betting;  another  is  the  show  business  connected  with 
most  fairs — the  permission  of  various  itinerant  catch- 
l>enny  affiiirs,  by  which  the  money  of  the  farmer  is 
persuaded  from  him;  the  roulette  tables,  wheels-of- 
fortune,  lifting  machines,  etc.,  are  deprecated  by  many. 
Others  decry  the  scheme  of  having  a  programme  of 
amusements,  like  foot-races,  bag  races,  base-ball 
games,  military  displays,  balloon  ascensions,  and  the 
like,  as  vicious,  diverting  from  the  real  object,  and  de- 
tracting from  the  dignity  of  an  industrial  exposition. 
This  section  of  the  farming  community  embraces  indi- 
viduals of  the  soberer  classes,  who  are  intensely  prac- 
tical, and,  having  no  taste  for  variety  and  amusement, 
seek  to  bring  others  to  their  standpoint.  They  are, 
no  doubt,  partly  right,  and  their  opinions  should  have 
their  due  weight. 

There  are  persons  of  the  other  extreme,  who  would 
have  the  agricultural  exhibitions  turned  into  a  sort  of 
annual  circus  and  horse-trot,  with  all  the  accompani- 
ments of  sporting  crowds — free  liquor,  boisterous 
amusement  and  reckless  folly.  The  opinions  of  this 
class  are  worthy  only  of  contempt. 

A  middle  class  believe  that  the  annual  fairs  should 
combine  both  amusement  and  profit.  While  anxious 
that  such  exiX)sitions  should  be  always  a  collection  of 
valuable  exhibits,  so  arranged  and  prized  that  indus- 
trial benefit  may  thereby  result,  yet  they  realize  that 
fairs  are  designed  for  all  classes  of  the  people;  and  if 
an  interest  in  them  is  to  be  maintained,  and  the  high- 
est results  are  to  accrue,  men,  women,  and  children, 
old  and  young,  are  to  find  something  inside  the  gates 
.to  please  and  instruct. 

Besides,  all  who  have  had  experience  in  the  man- 
agement of  fairs  know  that  each  annual  exhibition 
costs  money,  and  that  enough  must  be  taken  at  the 
gates  for  admissions  to  pay  this  outlay,  or  else  the 
association  that  is  resjx)nsible  for  the  fair  will  be  in 
debt.  For  this  reason  some  programme  of  entertain- 
ment has  to  be  provided  to  call  the  people  together. 
If  the  views  of  the  first  class  prevail  the  middle  sec- 
tion argues  the  attendance  at  the  average  fair,  now 
numbered  by  thousands,  would  dwindle  to  hundreds, 
and  a  depleted  treasury  would  be  the  result. 

Following  are  some  further  reflections  on  the  diffi- 
culties and  abuses  of  State  and  county  fairs,  with 
remedies,  as  suggested  from  high  sources  : 

State  Fairs.  It  has  been  urged  that  an  evil  of 
great  magnitude  connected  with  State  exhibitions  is 
the  hurry  with  which  the  exhibits  are  collected  to- 
gether, preventing  adequate  classification,  and  doing 
injustice  to  exhibitors,  judges  and  visitors.  In  Great 
Britain  and  New  York,  and  perhaps  other  States,  the 
practice  has  been  for  some  years  to  have  all  the  en- 
tries made  and  the  books  closed  thirty  days  before  the 
opening  of  the  fair.  A  catalogue  is  also  published 
showing  all  entries  in  each  department  and  class,  and 
the  names  of  the  exhibitors,  and  their  post-office  ad- 
dresses.    These  catalogues  are  offered  for  sale,  and 


the  money  from  this  source  generally  pays  for  the  pub- 
lication of  the  catalogue. 

Some  of  the  wisest  farmers  of  the  country  have 
given  much  attention  to  the  question  of  exciting 
amusements  at  State  fairs.  It  is  held,  probably  by 
the  majority,  that  the  State  exhibitions,  at  least,  should 
be  kept  free  from  such  features.  They  "hold  that  the 
great  interests  attaching  to  a  State  show  will  call  to- 
gether a  large  number  of  exhibitors  and  visitors  in  any 
event,  and,  that  if  there  be  a  necessity  for  exciting 
amusements  at  county  fairs,  it  does  not  apply  to  State 
exix)sitions.  They  hold  that  the  care  and  expense  of 
providing  such  means  of  drawing  people  together  are 
not  balanced  by  the  results  in  dollars  and  cents;  that 
it  distracts  the  managers  from  the  absorbing  and 
graver  purpose  they  have  in  hand,  and  thus  the  value 
of  the  exhibition  is  impaired. 

In  this  connection  horse-racing  is  made  to  receive  a 
large  share  of  deprecation.  It  is  pronounced  outside 
the  objects  of  the  enterprise,  and  vicious  in  the  ex- 
treme. It  promotes  the  spirit  and  practice  of  gam- 
bling ;  it  fosters  a  disposition  for  reckless  gaming,  and 
brings  together  the  sporting  fraternity  from  all  quar- 
ters, with  their  habits  of  drinking  and  debauchery. 
New  York  has  banished  races  from  its  programme, 
and  the  agricultural  societies  of  Great  Britain  have, 
despite  the  racing  influence  of  the  higher  orders,  re- 
fused to  open  their  grounds  to  speeding  practices. 

The  objection  is  probably  true  that  in  the  case  of 
State  fairs  many  exciting  amusements  and  specta- 
cles and  an  unlimited  amount  of  horse-racing  are 
deleterious  to  the  interests  of  the  fairs.  The  object 
of  State  fairs  is  to  bring  together  a  collection  of  the 
products  of  the  State — animal,  vegetable,  mechanical, 
and,  in  a  measure,  artistic,  in  the  greatest  jxassible 
variety  and  perfection.  This  is  to  stimulate  emula- 
tion, impart  information,  and  promote  progress.  It 
requires  grave  consideration  and  hard  work  on  the 
part  of  the  management.  It  is  only  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  the  diversion  of  the  thought  and  effort 
of  the  individuals  charged  with  this  work  will  impair 
their  efficacy.  And  besides,  farmers  from  different 
parts  of  the  State,  who  visit  the  fair,'  are  not  as  apt  to 
be  benefited  by  what  they  see  if  their  minds  are  cap- 
tivated by  the  passage  of  a  frivolous  daily  pageant. 
It  seems  apparent  that  if  the  sole  purpose  of  our  State 
exhibitions  was  that  they  should  be  just  as  replete  as 
possible  with  valuable  exhibits,  their  character'would 
be  raised  appreciably. 

But  the  argument  of  horse-men  also  deserves  con- 
sideration. They  truly  assert  that  the  horse  is  a  pro- 
duct of  the  farm,  and  that  the  roadster  and  the  speedy 
horse  deserve  as  much  notice  as  the  draft  animal. 
Tkey  jxiint  to  the  fact  that  roadsters  of  speed  are 
always  in  demand,  and  command  a  high  price;  that 
the  breeding  of  this  kind  of  stock  has  become  large 
and  remunerative.  They  ask,  not  without  reason,  why 
their  interests  should  be  excluded  from  State  fairs. 

This  much  agitated  question  will  doubtless  be  set- 
tled by  a  compromise.  Horses  entered  by  their  own- 
ers, and  for  legitimate  purposes  of  exhibition  of  speed 


428 


FAIR. 


should  always  be  welcome.  The  trotting  course  should 
always  be  the  arena  on  which  owners  can  exhibit  and 
test  the  speed  of  their  favorites.  Moderate  prizes  can 
be  given,  as  in  case  of  any  other  exhibit,  but  the  gam- 
bling element  should  be  banished  from  our  State  fairs. 
It  can  hardly  be  seen  how  the  exhibition  of  running 
stock  can  be  of  benefit. 

Show  herds  have  caused  much  discontent  among 
ordinary  exhibitors.  It  is  the  practice  of  breeders  and 
others  to  feed  and  foster  a  selection  of  half  a  dozen 
cattle,  sheep  or  swine,  with  which  they  travel  from  fair 
to  fair,  and  sweep  the  prizes.  They  enter  the  herd 
together  and  separately,  bulls,  cows,  yearlings,  calves, 
and  gather  in  a  large  list  of  premiums.  Having  been 
long  in  the  business  they  are  able  by  well-matured 
arts  to  captivate  the  committee-men  and  procure 
prizes  in  their  favor.  Regular  breeders  have  but  little 
encouragement  to  compete  against  these  "  profession- 
al "  exhibitors,  and  hence  the  loud  complaints  and 
deprecation  of  fairs  as  fraudulent  and  partial. 

A  cure  of  this  evil  has  been  suggested  in  this  wise : 
All  stock  for  exhibition  should  be  entered  by  actual 
resident  breeders  or  owners.  There  should  also  be 
two  general  descriptions  of  exhibition  stock — the 
breeders'  and  the  sweepstakes.  The  first  should  be 
open  to  breeders  only ;  the  second  to  all,  with  the  pro- 
vision that  they  should  be  entered  by  the  owners  only. 
Different  breeds  should  be  shown  separately.  There 
should  be  no  general  sweepstakes  department,  where 
all  breeds  compete  together. 

Following  the  lead  of  these  suggestions  there  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  improvement  of  our  State  fairs. 

The  pro[X)sition  to  exclude  intoxicating  liquors  from 
State  fair  grounds  has  also  been  much  discussed.  Gen- 
erally the  stronger  liquors  have  been  banished,  but  a 
single  beer  stand  is  allowed,  which  is  a  privilege  that 
somebody  is  willing  to  pay  roundly  for.  The  tempta- 
tion to  gather  in  this  revenue  is  generally  omnipotent 
•with  most  agricultural  boards. 

The  renting  of  refreshment,  amusement  and  gaming 
stands  on  fair  grounds  is  one  also  of  revenue.  Where 
the  grounds  are  ample  they  can  do  but  little  harm.  In 
the  matter  of  refreshments,  privileges  of  this  sort  are 
an  absolute  necessity. 

County  Fairs.  When  we  arrive  at  the  considera- 
tion of  county,  district  and  local  exhibitions,  the 
aspect  somewhat  changes.  There  is  less  dignity  at- 
taching to  them,  and  rules  that  apply  to  one  cannot 
always  adhere  to  the  other.  The  general  object  is  the 
same  in  both.  The  argument  regarding  "show  herds;" 
favoritism  in  awarding  premiums  ;  the  determination 
to  have  a  full  and  praiseworthy  exhibition  ;  the  plan  of 
having  entries  close  30  days  before  the  opening  of  the 
show;  and  the  suggestions  about  the  division  of  the 
breeders'  and  sweepstakes  classes,  apply  to  both  State 
and  county  fairs.  But  in  questions  of  amusements, 
horse-racing,  etc.,  the  two  are  somewhat  different. 

State  fairs  are  supported  by  the  entire  State.  Their 
importance  will  call  together  numerous  entries  and  a 
large  attendance  in  any  event.  Not  so  with  the  county 
fairs ;  many  of  them  have  hard  work  to  be  self-sustain- 


ing. It  requires  careful  and  judicious,  as  well  as  in- 
genious management,  to  conduct  a  successful  county 
fair.  The  interests  connected  with  them  are  local. 
Managers  and  patrons  are  neighbors.  Bickerings  and 
dissatisfaction  are  liable  to  arise.  The  people  are  apt 
to  expect  more  than  they  realize.  The  demands  upon 
the  management  are  rigorous  and  onerous.  For  this 
reason  they  are  obliged  to  furnish  tlie  people  some- 
thing that  will  entertain.  This  often  brings  down  up- 
on the  managers  the  censure  of  the  sages  of  the 
community,  and  thickens  the  difficulties  of  the  mana- 
gers. No  wonder  that  many  local  fairs  dwindle  out  a 
sickly  existence,  aiKl  finally  die  of  financial  debility. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  good  county  fair  is  an  am- 
ple, convenient  and  pleasant  ground.  A  natural  am- 
phitheater, with  rising  ground  at  one  side,  is  the  best. 
Plenty  of  water  and  shade  are  indispensable.  Anoth- 
er feature  should  be  ample  and  convenient  stalls,  and 
pens  for  all  classes  of  stock.  This  invites  exhibitors. 
Commodious  and  tasteful  exhibition  halls,  fully  weath- 
er-proof and  tasteful  in  construction,  should  be  pro- 
vided. In  these,  tables,  racks  and  cases  should  be 
placed  for  the  use  of  exhibitors. 

A  farir-ground  is  always  beautified  by  an  ornament- 
ally constructed  floral  and  art  hall.  A  little  effort  in 
filling  this  with  floral  displays,  miniature  landscapes, 
etc.,  makes  it  a  }X)int  of  general  attraction.  Am- 
ple accommodation  should  be  given  to  the  domestic 
department,  and  full  encouragement  to  household  ex- 
hibits. The  departments,  mechanical  and  other,  where 
selfish  interest  is  the  prompter,  will  more  readily  take 
care  of  themselves.  Liberal  premiums  should  be 
awarded  at  county  fairs ;  for  it  is  a  fact  that  wherever 
this  is  done,  there  the  fair  has  been  the  most  success- 
ful. Encouragement  to  art  exhibitions  and  other  at- 
tractive features  should  be  given. 

A  late  feature  of  county  fairs  in  some  instances  has 
been  the  awarding  of  premiums  to  competitive  schools. 
This  is  done  by  a  system  of  lesson  papers,  and  be- 
comes a  very  interesting  and  valuable  part  of  the  fair. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  small  girls  be  en- 
couraged in  sewing  by  receiving  premiums  for  excel- 
lence in  this  useful  art.  Anything  domestic,  such  as 
cookery,  model  housekeeping,  bread-making  and  the 
like,  should  enter  into  competition  at  county  fairs. 

The  county  fair  is  the  farmer's  great  annual  holiday 
time,  and  he  who  would  reduce  it  to  a  mere  show  of 
farm  products  is  unwise  in  that  he  prevents  the  aes- 
thetic and  amusing  from  entering  into  the  festive 
occasion,  and  thus  deprives  it  of  half  its  attractive- 
ness. He  also  deprives  the  management  of  half  their 
revenues.  The  young  people  from  the  fanii  certainly 
attend  the  county  fair  to  be  amused  as  much  as  profit- 
ed in  the  more  substantial  things  of  life.  If  the  means 
of  amusement  are  not  furnished  on  the  fair  ground 
they  will  not  attend.  The  same  may  be  said  of  two- 
thirds  who  visit  the  fair  out  of  the  villages  and  cities 
of  the  county.  The  necessity  therefore  seems  impera- 
tive that  amusements  be  furnished  at  county  ex- 
hibitions ;  but  this  does  not  imply  that  the  more 
important  features  be  neglected. 


FALLO  W—FARM. 


429 


Fallow,  to  plow,  harrow  and  break  up,  as  land, 
without  seeding,  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  weeds 
and  insects,  and  rendering  it  mellow.  The  word  is 
also  used  as  an  adjective  and  as  a  noun. 

Fan,  of  a  windmill,  is  the  "  tail,"  or  vane,  to  keep 
the  sails  facing  the  wind. 

Fanning-Mill,  a  mill  used  for  fanning  out  chaff 
and  other  light  material  from  grain,  beans,  etc.  A 
mill  as  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  engraving 
should  be  on  every  farm.  The  modern  threshers  are 
provided  with  a  fanning  mill  for  cleaning  grain,  yet  a 
farmer  will  find  more  or  less  service  for  a  good  fan- 
ning mill. 


Fanning-Mill. 

The  best  fanning-mills  must  not  only  winnow  out 
all  the  chaff,  but  remove  every  foul  seed  which  may 
have  found  its  way  among  the  grain.  Cockle  and 
chess  must  lie  taken  from  winter  wheat,  oats  from 
spring  wheat  and  from  barley,  and  most  imixjrtant  of 
all,  grass  seed  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned — clover 
separated  from  timothy,  sorrel  or  plantain  seed ;  and 
timothy  from  other  small  seeds. 

Farce,  in  cookery,  is  a  stuffing  or  mixture  of  viands, 
like  that  used  in  dressing  a  fowl ;  force-meat. 

Farcy,  a  disease  of  horses  similar  to  mange  or 
glanders.     See  Horse. 

Farding-Bag,  the  first  stomach  of  a  cow  or  other 
ruminant  animal ;  the  paunch. 

Farina  (fa-ri'-na  or  fa-re' -na),  the  flour  of  corn  or 
of  any  starchy  tuber  or  root,  as  jxjtato,  manihot,  etc. 
It  is  sold  at  drug-stores  and  groceries.  To  prepare  it 
for  eating,  stir  a  large  tablespoonful  of  it  into  a  cup  of 
boiling  water,  in  a  vessel  which  is  inside  a  kettle  of 
boiling  water;  Ijoil  15  minutes,  stirring  constantly  un- 
til it  is  well  thickened;  then  stir  in  gradually  a  cup  of 
fresh  milk  and  boil  15  minutes  longer;  sweeten,  if  de- 
sired, and  eat  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  cool.    Enough 


can  be  made  in  the  morning  to  last  all  day,  as  it  can 
be  warmed  up  with  a  little  milk. 

Farinaceous  Food.  Wheat,  barley,  sago,  chest- 
nuts, beans,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  classified  as  farinaceous. 
Farinaceous  food,  although  much  recommended  for 
invalids,  is  often  injurious.  A  weak  stomach  is  fre- 
quently made  still  ^  more  feeble  by  the  long  and 
exclusive  use  of  farinaceous  food.  It  should  always 
be  combined  with  a  little  animal  food  given  either  as 
a  solid  or  in  the  form  of  gravy.  Of  all  farinaceous 
food  the  best  is  probably  gruel.  When  passing 
through  a  course  of  farinaceous  diet,  if  the  invalid 
should  find  a  perceptible  increase  in  the  clammy  or 
metallic  sensation  in  the  mouth,  it  may  be  taken  as 
an  indication  that  this  diet  is  enfeebling  the  stomach, 
and  that  a  slight  change  toward  animal  food  must  be 
made. 

Farm.  Farms  have  a  great  variety  of  both  char- 
acter and  objects,  and  are  capable  of  distribution 
into  many  classes.  The  farms  of  hot  countries  differ 
in  the  aggregate  from  those  of  the  cold  countries,  and 
at  the  same  time  considerably  differ  among  them- 
selves. 

Size  of  Farms.  A  controversy  has  long  existed, 
and  has  at  times  been  acrimonious  and  engrossing,  as 
to  the  comparative  advantages  of  very  small  farms 
and  very  large  ones.  The  most  common  argument 
in  favor  of  large  farms  are,  that  they  call  into  play 
large  capital,  that  they  command  the  requisite  facil- 
ities of  both  science  and  art  for  the  proper  working  of 
the  land,  that  they  nfford  scope  for  enterprise  and 
incite  the  peculiar  activities  requisite  for  progressive 
improvement,  that  they  greatly  economize  labor  and 
expenditure ;  and  that  they  evoke  both  a  better  and 
a  bulkier  produce,  and  iwssess  a  freer  and  stronger 
subserviency  to  the  national  wealth,  and,  therefore,  to 
the  common  well  being.  The  most  prominent  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  very  small  farms  are,  that  they 
reward  merit,  that  they  encourage  industry,  that  they 
keep  up  and  multiply  the  population,  that  they  pro- 
mulgate a  general  feeling  of  manliness  and  independ- 
ence throughout  the  community,  that  they  furnish 
the  best  class  of  men  in  all  subordinate  stations  of 
life,  and  that,  in  such  peculiar  circumstances  as  those 
of  a  large  part  of  Ireland,  with  a  crowded  population, 
and  without  any  other  general  means  of  supjxsrt  than 
the  cultivation  of  the  land,  they  are  essential  to  the 
prevention  of  extensive  starvation  and  general  misery. 
Some  enthusiasric  advocates  of  the  minute  subdivision 
of  land  have  contended  that  small  farms  are  not 
necessarily  encumbered  with  any  disadvantages  what- 
ever, except  such  as  are  common  to  farms  of  all  sizes, 
that  they  possess  some  advantages  peculiar  to  them- 
selves, and  that,  under  almost  any  kind  of  treatment, 
they  actually  yield  a  larger  produce  than  if  they  were 
consolidated  into  large  farms.  But  the  controversy 
is  in  a  great  degree  unmeaning.  Either  small  farms 
or  large  ones  will  produce  much  or  little  according  as 
they  are  or  are  not  worked  with  energy  and  skill;  and 
small  farms  possess  just  the  same  adaptation  to  men 


43° 


FARM. 


of  small  capital  as  large  farms  possess  to  men  of  large 
Capital.  A  controversy  about  the  size  of  workshops 
and  factories  in  the  world  of  manufacture  would  ap- 
pear to  us  nearly  as  wise  as  the  controversy  about  the 
size  of  farms  in  the  world  of  agriculture.  Let  inter- 
ested parties  observe  what  arungement  is  most 
desirable  in  the  circumstances  oijpeir  own  portion  of 
the  community;  and  instead  of  romenting  discontent 
and  creating  disorder  by  comparing  its  advantages 
and  disadvantages  with  those  of  arrangements  in  other 
States  or  counties,  let  them  do  all  they  can  to  push 
all  its  parts  into  the  grand  and  rapid  current  of  gen- 
eral agricultural  improvement. 

Renting  Farms.  The  hiring  or  renting  of  a  farm 
is  the  most  serious  professional  act  of  the  farmer's 
life,  and  requires  a  nice  exercise  of  judgment.  A  per- 
son who  wishes  to  rent  a  farm  must  call  all  his  abilities 
and  information  into  play :  he  must  take  a  compre- 
hensive and  symmetrical  view  of  the  numerous  circum- 
stances which  determine  both  the  intrinsic  character 
of  the  farm  and  its  relative  adaptation  to  his  capital 
and  knowledge;  he  must  examine  alike  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages,  and  assign  to  each  its  due  or 
comparative  degree  of  imjXDrtance;  he  must  discard 
both  a  too  solicitous  prudence,  which  doubts  every 
benefit,  and  too  daring  courage,  which  overlooks  or 
lessens  every  evil;  and  he  must  carefully  beware  of 
having  his  choice  principally  or  even  partially  deter- 
mined by  considerations  which  are  merely  incidental, 
or  which  do  not  belong  to  the  real  merits  or  demerits 
of  the  farm.  It  must  be  obvious  to  almost  every 
person  that  the  common  farmers  often  lose  them- 
selves in  deliberating  concerning  a  farm.  They  have 
so  many  mistaken  rules  of  judgment  that  they  often 
reject  farms  that  soon  after  make  the  fortunes  of  those 
who  hire  them.  In  particular,  they  are  very  apt  to 
take  one  false  guide,  the  success  of  the  last  renter.  If 
a  man  makes  a  good  deal  of  money  ujxjn  a  farm,  or 
leaves  it  for  a  much  larger  one,  numbers  will  immedi- 
ately apply,  almost  without  viewing  it ;  but  if  a  renter 
or  two  breaks,  or  is  jxsor,  most  of  the  neighbors  look 
down  on  it  without  further  consideration.  They  at- 
tribute all  to  the  land,  and  avoid  it  under  an  idea  that 
without  a  reduction  of  rent  the  farm  cannot  be  profit- 
able. These  norions  are  absurd  in  the  extreme ;  for 
the  management  of  various  farmers  is  so  essenrially 
different  that  success  often  depends  very  httle  on  rent. 
A  fanner  with  a  proper  sum  of  money  in  his  pocket 
hires  a  farm  and  thrives  upon  it;  another  with  one 
hundred  dollars  less,  hires  it  and  starves.  Suppose 
two  farmers  of  the  same  means,  and  living  upon 
similar  farms:  one  manages  his  land  with  judgment 
and  spirit,  makes  all  the  manure  he  can,  sells  no  hay 
or  straw,  does  not  injudiciously  crop  his  land,  drains 
his  fields,  and  keeps  his  fences  in  good  order:  this 
man  grows  rich ;  the  other,  a  sloven  in  these  particu- 
lars, falls  into  poverty.  These  are  the  circumstances 
that  make  one  man  rich  and  the  other  poor;  the  rent 
has  but  little  influence.  And  surely  it  must  be  ap- 
parent that  the   succeeding  renters,  judging  of  the 


respective  farms  by  the  success ,  of  others,  are  taking 
as  blind  a  guide  as  they  can  jwssibly  fix  on. 

One  important  consideration  is  the  quality  and  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  The  mere  color  and  mechanical 
texture  of  the  land,  or  the  general  resemblance  of  its 
appearance  to  other  lands  with  whose  jxiwer  of  pro- 
duction the  party  is  acquainted,  are  very  insignificant 
circumstances,  and  are  quite  as  likely  to  mislead  the 
judgment  as  to  direct  it.  Both  the  elementary  con- 
stitution of  the  soil  and  the  precise  condition  into 
which  recent  cuUivation  has  brought  it,  ought  to  be  as- 
certained, the  former  by  analysis,  and  the  latter  by 
searching  through  courteous  inquiry  into  the  method 
of  tillage  which  has  been  practiced,  the  course  of  ro- 
tation which  has  been  pursued,  the  kind  of  manure 
which  has  been  applied,  and  the  species  and  com- 
parative bulk  of  the  weeds  which  have  been  encoun- 
tered. A  soil  of  very  inferior  constitution  may  be  very 
similar  in  both  color  and  comminution  to  a  soil  of 
very  superior  constitution,  and  a  soil  of  mediumly 
fertile  powers,  in  a  state  of  good  health,  will  for  a 
number  of  years  to  come  yield  more  valuable  crops 
than  a  soil  of  very  highly  fertile  powers  in  a  state  of 
rankness  from  mismanagement  or  exhaustion. 

Another  important  consideration  is  the  compact- 
ness of  the  farm,  and  the  convenient  distribution  of 
its  enclosures.  Every  farm,  in  order  to  be  managed 
with  ease  and  economy,  or  without  an  irritating  and 
wasteful  expenditure  of  daily  labor,  requires  to  be  free 
from  the  intrusions  of  any  other  man's  ground,  and 
free  also  from  intricacy,  angularity,  and  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  its  own  parts.  When  the  fields  of  a 
farm  are  mutually  straggling  and  disjointed,  the  general 
business  of  it  is  never  collectively  under  the  eye;  all 
the  operations  of  tillage  and  after  culture  involve 
waste  of  time  and  labor,  the  equal  distribution  of 
manure  is  difficult  and  perhaps  imjxsssible,  the  main- 
taining of  fences  is  very  troublesome  and  not  a  little 
expensive,  and  depredations  of  all  sorts  by  both  men 
and  brutes  are  comparatively  frequent  and  disastrous. 

Another  important  consideration  is  the  nature  of 
the  fences,  the  condition  of  the  gates,  and  the  yearly 
expense  which  will  be  requisite  for  keeping  all  the  en- 
closures in  a  state  of  efficient  repair.  Some  fences 
are  so  incomi^etent  as  to  entail  enormous  damage  from 
exposure  or  depredation ;  some  are  so  unsuitable,  or 
so  positively  mischievous,  as  to  impoverish  the  fields, 
embarrass  the  tillage,  annoy  the  flocks,  counteract  much 
of  the  beneficial  effect  of  draining ;  and  some,  though 
otherwise  unobjectionable,  may  require  from  the  rent- 
er, for  their  repair  or  maintenance,  an  amount  of  ex- 
pense which  probably  may  lx)th  surprise  and  distress 
him.  The  nature  and  state  of  the  fences  is  a  very 
important  item,  insomuch  that  it  alone  is  sufficient 
to  render  some  farms  unprofitable  for  renting  which 
otherwise  would  be  very  remunerative.  See  article 
on  Fence. 

A  fourth  important  consideration  is  the  situation  of 
the  farm  with  reference  to  the  public  market,  to  sources 
of  mineral  manures,  to  sources  of  fuel,  to  roads  and 
other  public  facilities  of  conveyance,  and  to  the  com- 


FARM. 


431 


munication  of  neighboring  grounds.  A  greater  distance 
from  the  public  market  than  a  majority  of  farms  of 
similar  character,  involves  the  cost  of  carrying  produce 
the  additional  distance,  and  subtracts  the  amount  of 
that  cost  from  the  net  price  which  the  renter  obtains 
for  his  produce. 

Ample  and  free  facilities  of  conveyance,  in  the  form 
of  roads,  bridges,  canals  and  railways,  exert  so  mighty 
an  influence  as  speedily  to  raise  a  starving  and  bar- 
barous agricultural  district  to  a  condition  of  plenty  and 
refinement;  and  limited  or  ragged  means  of  communi- 
cation from  any  one  farm  to  the  rest  of  the  country, 
particularly  if  these  means  consist  of  bad  roads,  re- 
press enterprise,  shut  out  ameliorating  influences,  and 
occasion  great  wear  of  vehicles,  excessive  jading  of 
horses,  much  irritation  of  farm  help,  great,  wasteful 
expenditure  of  strength,  and  an  incredibly  large  ag- 
gregate of  incidental  or  general  expense. 

A  fifth  important  consideration  is  the  character  of 
the  farming  or  the  condition  of  the  farm  buildings. 

A  sixth  important  consideration  is  the  kind  and 
amount  of  restriction  imix)sed  by  the  conditions  of  the 
lease.  The  conditions  exacted  by  some  landlords, 
especially  when  viewed  with  specific  reference  to 
peculiarities  of  soil,  ar.d  to  improved  methods  of  cul- 
tivation, are  incompatible  with  some  of  the  best  profes- 
sional interests  of  a  farmer,  and  even  with  the  practice 
of  sound  principles  of  husbandry. 

A  seventh  important  consideration  is  the  amount  of 
rent.  This  is,  in  a  great  degree,  controlled  and  de- 
termined by  the  other  considerations,  yet  it  must  be 
separately  viewed,  and  both  minutely  and  comprehen- 
sively examined.  The  evils  of  an  exorbitant  rent  are 
too  obvious  to  require  mention,  and  have  been  too 
often  and  dismally  exemplified  to  need  illustration. 
Four  highly  controlling  elements  over  rent  are  the 
quality  of  the  soil,  the  duration  of  the  tenure,  the  stip- 
ulations of  the  lease,  and  the  aggregate  of  all  sorts  of 
current  and  professional  expenses ;  but  another  con- 
trolling element,  perhaps  c|uite  as  high  and  yet  far 
from  being  so  obvious,  is  the  amount  of  capital  to  be 
invested  in  the  cultivation. 

An  eighth  important  consideration,  immediately  de- 
pendent on  the  preceding,  is  adaptation  of  the  size 
and  capacities  of  the  farm  to  the  amount  ef  capital  to 
be  employed  in  its  cultivation.  Many  a  renter  is  poor, 
;<nd  maintains  a  severe  struggle  upon  a  large  farm, 
who  might  live  in  ease  and  comfort,  and  even  acquire 
a  considerable  property  upon  a  farm  of  less  extent. 
A  man  who  possesses  less  capital  than  the  full  stock- 
ing and  free  working  of  his  farm  require,  becomes 
embarrassed  at  the  very  outset,  and  passes  through 
a  constant  series  of  varied  and  harassing  difficulties  ; 
he  lives  in  penury,  in  anxiety,  and  in  hard  labor;  he 
keeps  fewer  cattle  and  accumulates  less  manure  than 
the  state  of  his  land  demands;  he  overworks  his 
horses,  and  either  neglects  or  abuses  a  portion  of  his 
fields ;  he  sells  his  produce  in  any  state  of  the  market, 
and  for  anything  it  will  bring,  and  in  the  first  season 
of  poor  crops  or  incidental  misfortune,  he  either  be- 


comes insolvent  or  passes  through  an  ordeal  most 
perilous  to  both  his  credit  and  his  health. 

Selection  of  a  Farm  is  a  most  important  question 
to  be  considered  by  any  man  who  proposes  to  begin 
farming,  or  one  who  expects  to  change  his  location. 
Perhaps  he  has  been  a  renter  and  expects  to  go  into 
another  district  and  become  the  owner  of  a  tract  of 
land.  It  is  much  better,  when  jxjssible,  for  a  man  to 
own  the  farm  he  tills  than  to  rent,  even  though  he  can 
buy  but  a  small  one  and  not  pay  cash  down  for  it. 
The  man  who  owns  his  farm,  though  illy  improved 
and  meagerly  provided  with  implements,  is  much 
happier  than  he  who  expends  his  force  on  another 
man's  land.  The  thought  that  he  must  leave  at  the 
owner's  bidding,  the  improvements,  associations,  the 
conveniences  and  all  that  he  has  brought  around  him, 
perhaps  just  at  the  age  or  condition  of  health  when  he 
is  least  able  to  encounter  the  fatigues  and  embarrass- 
ments attending  the  moving  and  making  of  a  new 
home,  is  an  ever-present  specter.  In  the  selection  of 
a  location  health  is  the  first  thing  to  be  sought;  the 
quality  of  the  soil,  surroundings,  etc.,  are  after  consid- 
erations. Before  making  the  purchase  of  a  farm  upon 
which  one  expects  to  live,  he  should  ix)nder  well  over 
features  in  any  way  connected  with  it.  Remember 
you  are  selecting  a  home- — a  sjxst  where  you  will  rear 
your  children,  expend  your  life-forces,  and  pass  from 
earth,  leaving  the  harvests  you  have  sown  to  be  gar- 
nered by  otliers.  In  thus  purchasing  a  farm,  observe 
the  following  rules  and  you  will  be  enabled  to  select  a 
place  that  will  suit  you,  and  where  you  may  live  hap- 
pily and  prosperously  : 

Always  avoid  a  district  known  to  be  unhealthful,  no 
matter  how  cheap  the  land  may  be. 

Determine  in  advance  what  kind  of  farming  you 
will  follow,  and  seek  a  soil  to  suit.  If  you  are  going 
to  make  a  speciality  of  any  single  crop,  as  corn, 
wheat,  sugar-cane,  rice,  fruit,  etc.,  read  up  well,  that 
you  may  be  ix)sted  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  cli- 
mate, etc.,  required,  and  as  to  the  most  desirable  loca- 
tion of  such  lands.  If  you  are  going  to  engage  in 
stock-raising,  then  seek  a  locality  jx)ssessing  all  the 
requisites,  and  where  stock  has  been  successfully 
raised  by  others.  But  if  you  are  to  engage  in  "  mixed 
farming,"  there  are  few  townships  in  the  country  where 
suitable  soil  can  not  be  found.  It  is  true  there  is  ]X)or 
land  in  almost  every  county  of  every  State  in  the 
Union,  and  rich  land  as  well ;  hence  care  must  be  ob- 
served, or  disappointment  will  follow. 

By  all  means,  if  possible,  see  the  land  yourself  upon 
which  you  would  make  a  life  settlement,  before  pur- 
chasing. Remember,  such  a  settlement  is  fraught 
with  vital  interests — interests  you  yourself  under- 
stand better  than  anybody  else.  In  examining 
a  piece  of  land  you  think  of  purchasing,  if  a  stranger 
in  the  locality,  learn  all  you  can  from  neighboring 
farmers.  Ascertain  the  cost  of  labor,  the  quality  and 
size  of  the  crops  they  raised  last  year  and  the  year 
before,  how  much  manure  and  other  fertilizers  they 
use,  and  many  other  things  which  will  readily  suggest 


43« 


FARM  BUILDINGS— FARMING. 


themselves  to  the  wide-awake  man,  seeking  a  perma- 
nent home  for  himself  and  family. 

Ascertain  what  are  the  present  and  prospective 
facilities  for  furnishing  a  school  education  for  your 
children,  and  social  enjoyments  for  your  family ;  also, 
regarding  religious  meetings  and  privileges.  They  are 
important  items  in  building  up  happy  and  contented 
homes,  and  which  have  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, particularly  in  the  sparsely  settled  districts  of  the 
West  and  South. 

Look  out  for  pure  water  on  the  land  you  buy,  both 
for  family  and  stock  purposes.  An  inexhaustible  spring 
or  small  stream  upon  a  farm  is  almost  indispensable, 
and  adds  largely  to  its  value. 

Do  not  forget  to  inquire  how  far  it  is  to  the  nearest 
saw  and  grist  mills,  for  you  will  want  lumber  for  build- 
ing houses  and  fences,  and  wheat  and  corn  ground  for 
family  and  animal  use. 

Facilities  for  marketing  your  produce,  too,  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  as  it  is  a  subject  of  no  little 
imix)rtance.  How  far  it  is,  by  wagon  road,  to  the 
nearest  market  town  or  city,  the  distance  to  the  near- 
est railway  station,  the  probable  construction  of  other 
railroads  in  the  vicinity,  if  upon  a  navigable  stream  or 
body  of  water,  the  running  of  boats,  are  all  points  to  be 
investigated  in  purchasing  a  farm,  or  land  out  of  which 
you  propose  to  construct  a  farm. 

Examine  the  soil  and  subsoil  upon  every  square  rod 
of  the  contemplated  purchase,  that  you  may  know 
exactly  what  you  are  buying.  Satisfy  yourself  thor- 
oughly that  it  will  produce  what  you  desire  to  raise, 
or  that  you  can  make  it  so  produce  by  the  use  of  fertil- 
izers, etc.  If  the  soil  is  naturally  thin  and  unproduc- 
tive, while  so  much  good  land  "lies  out  of  doors"  in 
this  coimtry,  do  not  touch  it  for  general  farming  pur- 
poses, though  it  may  do  for  special  farming. 

It  is  better  to  buy  a  farm  much  run  down  and  out 
of  repair,  provided  you  pay  only  its  present  value, 
than  to  purchase  one  with  improvements  which  do 
not  suit  your  purpose ;  for,  depend  U[X)n  it,  the  chang- 
ing and  altering  into  what  you  do  require  will  be  a 
source  of  annoyance  for  years.  In  other  words,  it  is 
better  to  pay  $40  an  acre  for  a  place  that  $40  more 
will  make  just  what  you  want,  than  $80  for  one  which 
will  never  exactly  suit  you. 

See  to  it  that  the  land  has  a  clear,  sightly  spot  upon 
it  for  the  dwelling-house  and  yard — a  site  which  can 
be  made  beautiful  by  means  of  trees,  flowers,  shrub- 
bery, etc.  For  the  sake  of  wife  and  children,  as  well 
as  the  cash  value,  if  you  should  desire  to  sell  out 
afterward,  do  not  overlook  this  suggestion. 

Count  your  money  and  then  invest  only  a  portion 
of  it  in  land,  reserving  sufficient  for  improvements, 
implements,  and  machinery  for  its  successful  cultiva- 
tion. 

Buy  but  few  acres,  and  pay  for  them,  if  you  have 
but  limited  means,  rather  than  go  largely  in  debt  and 
run  the  risk  of  losing  all.  One  small  farm  paid  for  is 
worth  more  than  a  large  one  only  half  paid  for,  unless 
you  are  sure  of  your  ability  to  meet  obligations.  Debt, 
with  ever-growing  interest,  is  the  nightmare  of  far  too 


many  farmers  in  this  country.  Forty  acres  of  land 
thoroughly  and  intelligently  cultivated  will  put  more 
money  in  the  owner's  purse  than  two  or  three  times 
that  amount  "  skimmed  over  "  in  a  slovenly,  hurried 
manner.  System  and  thoroughness  in  all  things 
apply  most  emphatically  to  farmers ;  and  if  the  farm 
is  too  large  for  the  farmer  and  his  means,  many 
things  have  to  be  neglected,  whereby  he  loses  money. 
Therefore,  it  is  better  to  purchase  a  few  acres  at  a 
time,  bearing  in  mind  that  as  your  means  will  allow, 
land  adjoining  your  farm  can  be  purchased,  and  thus 
you  will  gradually,  but  safely  and  surely,  enlarge  your 
domain. 

Consider  the  proposed  purchase  in  the  light  of  a 
cash  investment.  Will  it  produce  sufficient  to  pay 
fair  interest  upon  your  money,  not  only  that  invested 
in  the  land  directly,  but  in  improvements,  machinery, 
etc.,  thereafter  to  be  expended '!  Unless  it  will  do 
this,  besides  yielding  a  fair  profit  on  the  labor  of  care 
and  cultivation,  do  not  invest.  It  won't  pay.  Con- 
sider, also,  the  prospects  of  a  material  advance  in 
value,  leaving  the  improvements  you  make  out  of 
consideration.  All  things  considered,  what  will  the 
land  be  apt  to  be  worth  five,  ten  or  twenty  years  from 
now.'  More  money  is  sometimes  made  through  such 
advance  than  from  "  hard  knocks  "  on  the  farm.  Re- 
member you  are  buying  not  only  in  your  own  interest, 
but  in  that  of  your  children,  and  buy  so  as  never  to 
regret  it,  for  discontent,  dissatisfaction  and  partial 
failure  follow  regret. 

As  circumstances  may  arise  making  a  future  sale  of 
your  farm  desirable,  it  is  perhaps  well  in  selecting  and 
improving  land  to  bear  this  possibility  in  mind.  In- 
deed, the  spirit  of  speculation  is  so  strong  in  the 
make-up  of  some  men  that  this  idea  forms  about  the 
only  incentive  to  action.  It  is  commendable  when  not 
carried  to  extremes.  In  general,  it  is  better  not  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  selling  at  all  unless  you  have 
bought  an  exhausted  farm  and  buy  for  the  purpose  of 
building  up  and  then  selling.  Men  who  intend  to 
follow  farming  as  an  occupation  should  look  upon 
their  calling  more  from  the  stand-point  of  living 
than  a  mere  occupation.  Do  not  consider  money  in- 
vested in  improvements  in  the  light  of  the  selling 
value  they  will  add  to  the  farm  so  much  as  vidth  refer- 
ence to  the  annual  return  they  will  bring  in  health, 
economy,  comfort,  convenience  or  fertility.  Consider 
the  farm  a  part  of  yourself  and  cherish  it  accordingly. 

Farm  Buildings :  see  Residence,  Barn,  etc. 

Farm  Accounts,  a  regular  arithmetical  record,  or 
systematic  and  daily  course  of  book-keeping,  of  all 
the  pecuniary  affairs  of  the  farm.     See  Book-keeping. 

Farmer's  Calling:  see  next  article. 

Farming,  the  art  of  cultivating  the  ground  for  the 
production  of  food  for  the  support  of  man.  In  its 
broad  sense,  farming  embraces  all  that  pertains  to  the 
working  of  the  soil,  and  obtaining  sustenance  and 
clothing  therefrom,  whether  it  be  from  the  cereal  grains, 
pasturage,  hay,  the  herding,  feeding  and  fattening  of 


FARMING. 


433 


animals ;  all  that  relates  to  the  making  and  applying 
of  manures,  the  draining,  and  in  fact  to  all  which  goes 
to  increase  the  productive  capacity  ofithe  soil.  Farm- 
ing may  properly  be  divided  into  two  great  divisions, 
that  which  relates  to  the  farm  proper,  and  that  which 
relates  to  the  forest,  the  orchard,  and  the  garden. 
The  former  is  termed  husbandry,  the  latter  horticult- 
ure. Husbandry  is  divided  into  several  departments: 
the  cultivation  of  the  farm  crops,  as  grass,  grain,  etc., 
stock  breeding  and  feeding  and  dairying.  As  the  coun- 
try develops,  these  subdivisions  become  more  widely 
separated.  Many  farmers  have  their  specialty,  some 
turning  their  attention  exclusively  to  stock,  others  to 
grain,  while  some  are  engaged  solely  in  the  dairying 
business,  or  even  in  the  butter,  cheese  or  milk  depart- 
ment of  the  latter  subdivision. 

Horticulture,  the  second  great  division  of  agricult- 
ure, embraces  jwinology,  or  that  which  relates  to  the 
orchard;  arboriculture,  or  that  which  relates  to  the 
planting  and  care  of  trees  and  the  rearing  and  caring 
of  groves,  forests  and  wind-breaks  ;  vegetable  garden- 
ing, or  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  culinary  use  ;  flori- 
culture, or  the  cultivation  and  the  care  of  flowers  in 
the  garden,  conservatory,  greenhouse  and  hot-house  ; 
landscape  gardening,  or  all  that  pertains  to  the  orna- 
mentation of  the  home,  public  and  private  parks. 

Farming,  as  a  vocation,  dates  back  beyond  any 
other  in  the  history  of  the  world.  After  God  had  cre- 
ated the  world  and  fitted  it  for  the  occupation  of  man 
He  gave  him  directions  to  dress  and  to  keep  the  beau- 
tiful garden  in  which  he  was  placed.  Then  we  read 
of  Cain  tilling  the  soil  and  Abel  keeping  the  sheep. 
Thus  we  see  the  first  inclination  of  man  was  to  de- 
velop the  resources  of  nature,  and  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world's  history  to  the  present  time  there  has 
been  a  larger  portion  of  the  human  family  engaged  in 
this  calling  than  in  any  other.  All  rely  w\x>x\.  the 
faithfulness,  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  farmer  to  be 
supplied  with  their  daily  food  and  the  clothing  they 
wear. 

Traditional  history  traces  man  back  to  the  time  of 
the  deluge.  After  that  catastrophe,  man  seems  to  have 
recovered  himself  in  the  central  part  of  Asia,  and  to 
first  have  attained  to  eminence  in  arts  and  govern- 
ment on  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  Nile.  Egypt  colo- 
nized Greece,  Carthage,  and  some  other  places  on  the 
Mediterranean  sea;  and  thus  the  Greeks  received 
their  arts  from  the  Egyptians,  afterwards  the  Romans 
from  the  Greeks,  and  finally  the  rest  of  Europe  from 
Rome.  Such  is  the  route  by  which  agriculture  spread 
over  Europe ;  how  it  may  have  reached  the  eastern 
countries  of  India  and  China  is  less  certain,  though 
from  the  great  anti(iuity  of  their  inhabitants  and  gov- 
ernments, it  appears  highly  probable  that  arts  and 
civilization  were  coeval  there,  or,  if  not,  that  they  trav- 
eled to  the  east  much  more  rapidly  than  they  did  to 
the  west. 

The  early  history  of  man  in  America  rests  on  very 
indistinct  traditions;  their  arts  and  civilization  do  not 
seem  of  such  anticjuity  as  in  Asia;  in  North  America 
they  are  of  very  recent  introduction  ;  but  of  the  agri- 

28 


culture  of  either  division  of  that  continent  and  of  India 
and  China  we  shall  attempt  little  more  than  some 
sketches  of  the  modern  history,  and  its  present  state. 
The  history  of  agriculture  among  the  nations  of  what 
may  be  called  classic  antiquity,  is  involved  in  impen- 
etrable obscurity.  Very  few  facts  are  recorded  on  the 
subject  previously  to  the  time  of  the  Romans.  This 
enterprising  people  considerably  improved  the  art,  and 
extended  its  practice  with  their  conquests.  After  the 
fall  of  their  empire  it  declined  throughout  Europe; 
and,  during  the  dark  ages,  was  chiefly  preserved  in  the 
estates  of  the  church.  With  the  general  revival  of 
arts  and  letters,  which  took  place  during  the  sixteenth 
century,  agriculture  also  revived, — first  in  Italy ,then  in 
France  and  Germany ;  but  it  flourished  most  in  Switz- 
erland and  Holland ;  and  finally,  in  recent  times,  has 
attained  its  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  Britain. 
The  modern  agriculture  of  America  is  copied  from  that 
of  .Europe;  and  the  same  maybe  said  of  the  agri- 
culture of  European  colonies  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  world.  The  agriculture  of  China  and  the 
native  agriculture  of  India,  seem  to  have  undergone 
no  change  for  many  ages.  Such  is  the  outline  which 
we  now  proceed  to  fill  up  by  details,  and  we  shall 
adopt  the  usual  division  of  time  into  the  ages  of  an- 
tiquity, the  middle  ages,  and  the  modern  times. 

The  world,  as  known  to  the  ancients,  consisted  of 
not  more  than  half  of  Asia,  and  of  a  small  part  of 
Africa  and  Europe.  During  the  inundation  of  the 
deluge,  a  remnant  of  man  and  of  other  animals  is  re- 
lated to  have  been  saved  on  the  top  of  the  high  moun- 
tain of  Ararat,  near  the  Caspian  sea,  and  when  the 
waters  subsided,  to  have  descended  and  multiplied  in 
the  plains  of  Assyria.  As  they  increased  in  numbers 
they  are  related  to  have  separated,  and,  after  an  un- 
known length  of  time,  to  have  formed  several  nations 
and  governments.  Of  these,  the  principal  are  those 
of  the  Assyrian  empire,  known  as  Babylonians,  Assyr- 
ians, Medes  and  Persians  in  Asia;  of  the  Jews  and 
the  Egyptians  chiefly  in  Africa;  and  of  the  Grecians, 
chiefly  in  Europe.  Least  is  known  of  the  nations 
which  composed  the  Assyrian  empire:  of  the  Jews 
more  is  known  of  their  gardening  and  domestic  econ- 
omy than  of  their  field  culture;  the  Egyptians  may 
be  considered  the  parent  nation  of  arts  and  civiliza- 
tion, and  are  supix)sed  to  have  excelled  in  agriculture; 
and  something  is  known  of  that  art  among  the  Greeks. 
The  authors  whose  writings  relate  to  the  period  under 
consideration  are  few,  and  the  relations  of  some  of 
them  are  veiy  contradictory.  The  earliest  is  Moses, 
who  flourished  B.  C.  1600;  Herodotus  and  Diodorus 
Siculus,  who  wrote  more  particularly  on  the  history 
and  geography  of  Egypt,  lived,  the  former  in  the  fifth 
and  the  latter  in  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  and  Hesiod, 
the  ancient  Greek  writer  on  husbandry,  in  the  tenth 
century  preceding  our  era. 

Estimating  the  writers  of  antiquity  on  these  jjrinci- 
ples,  they  may  be  considered  as  reaching  back  to  a 
period  1,600  years  before  our  era,  or  nearly  3,500  years 
from  the  present  time;  and  it  is  truly  remarkable  that 
in  the  Eastern  countries  the  state  of  agriculture  and 


■ 


434 


FARMING. 


other  arts,  and  even  of  machinery  at  that  period,  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  materially  different  from 
what  It  is  in  the  same  countries  at  the  present  day. 

Property  in  land  was  recognized,  the  same  grains 
cultivated,  and  the  same  domestic  animals  reared  and 
employed;  some  led  a  wandering  life  and  dwelt  in 
tents  like  the  Arabs,  and  others  dwelt  in  towns  or 
cities,  and  pursued  agriculture  and  commerce  like  the 
fixed  nations.  It  is  reasonable,  indeed,  and  consistent 
with  received  opinions,  that  this  should  be  the  case; 
for,  admitting  the  human  race  to  have  been  extermin- 
ated at  the  deluge,  those  who  survived  that  catastrophe 
would  possess  the  more  useful  arts,  and  general  habits 
of  life,  of  the  antediluvian  world.  Noah,  accord- 
ingly, is  styled  a  husbandman,  and  is  said  to  have 
cultivated  the  vine  and  made  wine.  In  little  more 
than  three  centuries  afterwards  Abraham  is  stated  to 
have  had  extensive  flocks  and  herds,  slaves  of  both 
sexes,  silver  and  gold,  and  to  have  purchased  a  family 
sepulchre  with  a  portion  of  territory  around  it.  Isaac, 
his  son,  during  his  residence  in  Palestine,  is  said  to 
have  sown  and  reaped  an  hundred  fold.  Corn  seems 
to  have  been  grown  in  abundance  in  Egypt,  for  Abra- 
ham, and  afterwards  Jacob,  had  recourse  to  that  coun- 
try during  times  of  famine.  Irrigation  was  also 
extensively  practiced  there,  for  it  is  said  the  plain  of 
Jordan  was  watered  everywhere,  even  as  the  garden 
of  the  Lord,  like  the  land  of  Egypt.  Such  is  the 
amount  of  agricultural  information  contained  in  the 
writings  of  Moses,  from  which  the  general  conclusion 
is  that  agriculture,  in  the  East,  has  been  practiced  in 
all  or  most  of  its  branches  from  time  immemorial. 
The  traditions  of  other  countries,  however,  as  recorded 
by  various  writers,  ascribe  its  invention  to  certain  fab- 
ulous personages,  as  the  Egyptians  to  Osiris;  the 
Greeks  to  Ceres  and  Triptolemus ;  the  Latins  to  Janus; 
and  the  Chinese  to  Chin-hong,  successor  of  Fo-hi. 

Thus  we  see  in  the  very  morning  of  the  labor  of 
man  on  earth  agriculture,  in  some  of  its  subdivisions, 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  great  men.  Even  the 
most  savage  tribes  have  to  some  extent  been  farmers. 
They  gathered  seeds  and  nuts  for  food,  and  many  till 
the  soil  in  a  crude  way  for  the  production  of  roots  and 
grain.  Civilization  has  always  carried  with  it  a  higher 
development  of  agriculture.  The  civilization  of  the 
nineteenth  century  finds  the  art  of  agriculture  as  far 
advanced  as  any  of  the  sciences  and  arts,  and  she  has 
given  to  the  world  as  great  men  as  came  from  other 
walks  of  life. 

As  men  multiplied  upon  the  face  of  the  earth  it 
seemed  necessary  that  some  should  engage  in  other 
caUings,  and  great  cities  and  manufacturing  centers 
were  the  outgrowth ;  yet  agriculture  has  continued  to 
hold  the  most  prominent  place  among  the  industries 
of  the  world.  The  earliest  recorded  history  of  farm- 
ing, aside  from  those  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  is  from 
inscriptions  and  hieroglyphics  uix)n  the  ancient  tombs 
of  Egypt.  It  is  very  probable,  however,  that  even  the 
Egyptians  received  the  rudiments  of  her  civilization 
from  China.  An  ancient  monument  in  Asia  Minor 
shows  a  plow  and  yoke,  supposed  to  be  the  oldest 


known,  made  wholly  of  wood,  the  natural  crook  of  a 
tree.  The  ancient  Egyptians  carried  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  to  a  high  state.  They  had  some  knowledge 
of  the  art  of  manuring,  the  value  of  rotation,  and 
knew  something  of  horticulture.  The  Carthaginians 
considered  agriculture  to  be  the  most  aristocratic  of 
all  callings,  and  the  kings,  princes  and  nobles  were 
among  the  most  active  cultivators  of  the  soil.  When 
the  Romans  finally  subdued  and  laid  waste  the  land, 
the  only  Ixxjks  which  they  deemed  worthy  of  preser- 
vation, it  is  said,  were  28  volumes  of  manuscript  re- 
lating to  agriculture. 

As  above  mentioned,  perhaps  China  was  the  first 
nation  to  make  any  great  advances  in  developing  the 
wonderful  resources  of  nature.  Before  the  days  of 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  and  the  building  of  the  great 
Jewish  temple  they  nurtured  the  delicate  silk-worm ; 
while  Europe  lay  slumbering  in  the  gloom  of  the 
dark  ages  they  performed  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
works  of  the  world  in  the  building  of  the  great  wall 
around  their  kingdom.  A  district  near  Shanghai  has 
been  tilled  for  countless  generations,  yet  it  is  termed 
the  Garden  of  China.  In  Greece  agriculture  flour- 
ished a  thousand  years  before  the  dawn  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.  The  agricultural  literature  of  the  Greeks, 
and  their  knowledge  of  the  art,  were  comparatively 
extensive  and  eminently  practical.  Their  soil  was 
inferior  and  much  of  it  had  to  be  reclaimed  from 
sand-banks,  morasses  and  swamps,  making  successful 
farming  more  difficult,  and,  therefore,  requiring  a 
greater  knowledge  of  all  its  different  departments. 
Agriculture  was  greatly  esteemed  by  the  Romans. 
The  most  illustrious  senators  of  ancient  Rome,  during 
time  not  occupied  with  public  affairs,  applied  them- 
selves personally  to  agriculture.  We  are  told  that 
Cincinnatus  left  his  fields  to  serve  as  Dictator  of 
Rome,  and  Regulus  left  the  Roman  Senate  to  care  for 
his  farm.  Great  men  wrote  works  on  agriculture. 
The  Emperor  Constantine  made  a  valuable  compila- 
tion of  these  works,  and  after  conquering  the  Saracens 
and  Arabians,  fixed  his  attention  uix>n  agriculture  as 
the  surest  basis  of  his  country 's  prosperity. 

The  Romans'  love  for  this  pursuit  made  them  care- 
ful and  scientific,  and  their  crops  were  large.  De- 
votion and  profit  mingled.  Pliny  claimed  that  the 
soil  loved  to  be  tilled  by  the  hands  of  men.  He  states 
that  400  stalks  of  wheat,  grown  from  a  single  grain, 
were  sent  to  the  Emperor  Augustus,  and  340,  also 
from  one  seed,  to  Nero.  That  agriculture  is  the 
foundation  of  all  prosperous  nations  is  abundantly 
tested  by  history.  During  the  golden  age  of  agricul- 
ture, when  eminent  men  themselves  held  the  plow,  the 
Roman  Empire  flourished,  becoming  the  mightiest  on 
the  globe  ;  but  when  its  agricultural  interests  were  in- 
trusted to  menials,  and  the  nation  came  to  rely  upon 
the  production  of  conquered  provinces,  the  zenith  of 
its  glory  was  passed,  and  dissolution  speedily  followed. 
Countless  hordes  swept  down  upon  it  from  the  North, 
and  the  once  jxiwerful  empire  fell  never  to  rise  again. 
The  history  of  agriculture  from  the  fall  of  the  mighty 
Roman  Empire  until  the  present  century  is  as  varied 


FARMING. 


435 


and  interesting  as  the  history  of  man  during  those 
centuries. 

In  the  ages  of  anarchy  and  barbarism  which  suc- 
ceeded the  Roman  Empire  agriculture  was  ahnost 
wholly  abandoned.  Pasturage  was  preferred  to  tillage, 
because  of  the  facility  with  which  sheep,  oxen,  etc., 
could  be  driven  away  or  concealed  on  the  approach 
of  an  enemy.  The  conquest  of  England  by  the  Nor- 
mans contributed  to  the  improvement  of  agriculture  in 
Great  Britain.  Owing  to  that  event,  many  thousands 
of  husbandmen  from  the  fertile  and  well  cultivated 
plains  of  Flanders  and  Normandy,  settled  in  Great 
feritain,  obtained  farms,  and  employed  the  same 
methods  of  cultivating  them  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  use  in  their  native  countries.  The  imple- 
ments of  agriculture  at  this  period  were  similar  to 
those  in  common  use  in  more  modern  times.  The 
various  operations  of  husbandry,  such  as  manuring, 
plowing,  sowing,  harrowing,  reaping,  threshing,  win- 
nowing, etc.,  are  incidentally  mentioned  by  the  writers 
of  those  days,  but  itis  impossible  to  collect  from  them 
a  definite  account  of  the  manner  in  which  theseopera- 
tions  were  performed. 

From  the  Restoration  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  agriculture  remained  almost  sta- 
tionary. Immediately  after  that  period,  considerable 
improvement  in  the  process  of  culture  was  introduced 
by  Jethro  TuU,  a  gentleman  of  Berkshire,  who  began 
to  drill  wheat  and  other  crops  about  the  year  1701. 
Great  Britain  is  perhaps  more  indebted  to  Lord  Bacon 
than  to  any  of  his  contemixjraries  for  the  impetus 
which  agriculture  received  in  his  day.  Arthur  Young 
is  justly  celebrated  for  his  labors  in  behalf  of  agricul- 
ture. He  traveled  extensively  over  Europe  to  observe 
the  various  methods  of  tillage  which  prevailed,  and  is 
said  to  have  edited  nearly  one  hundred  volumes  re- 
lathig  to  the  profession.  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  was 
another  benefactor  of  husbandry.  It  was  the  result 
of  his  experiments  which  led  to  the  establishment  of 
agricultural  chemistry  as  a  recognized  branch  of 
modern  science. 

At  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  America 
was  only  just  beginning  to  be  settled  by  colonies, 
widely  separated  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  in- 
terior was  one  unbroken  primeval  forest,  until  the 
great  prairie  region  of  the  West  was  reached,  which, 
after  passing  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  gradually 
merged  itself  into  what  is  now  known  as  the  great 
plains,  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  All  this  great 
country  was  then,  and  continued  to  be  until  long  after 
the  Revolutionary  war,  inhabited  by  wild  Indians, 
more  savage  and  cruel  than  the  wild  beasts.  But  the 
fertile  soil  and  the  great  diversity  of  climate  and  its 
great  natural  water  systems,  soon  attracted  emigration 
from  all  arts  of  the  civilized  world.  They  have  con- 
tinued to  flock  in  from  year  to  year,  until  now  they 
have  occupied  much  of  the  available  land,  in  co-- 
nection  with  our  own  hardy  pioneers,  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific.  It  is  true  that  many  large  and  fertile 
tracts  are  yet  remaining,  but  a  very  few  years  more  will 
find  these  all  settled.     Of  the  agriculture  of  the  early 


part  of  the  present  century  we  find  the  agricultural 
implements  and  farming  operations  of  the  United 
States,  in  most  particulars,  were  very  similar  to  those 
of  Great  Britain.  Circumstances,  however,  required 
variations,  which  the  sagacity  of  the  American  culti- 
vator caused  him  to  adopt,  often  in  contradiction  to 
the  opinions  of  those  who  understand  the  science  better 
than  the  practice  of  husbandry.  In  Europe,  land  was 
dear  and  labor  cheap;  in  the  United  States,  the  re- 
verse was  the  case.  The  European  cultivator  was 
led,  by  a  regard  to  his  own  interest,  to  endeavor  to 
make  the  most  of  his  land ;  the  American  cultivator 
has  the  same  inducement  to  make  the  most  of  his 
labor. 

The  climate  and  soil  of  the  United  States  are 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  Indian  corn,  which  the 
climate  of  Great  Britain  is  not.  This  entirely  and 
very  advantageously  supersedes  the  field  culture  of 
the  horse-l)ean,  one  of  the  most  common  fallow  crops  on 
that  island.  Root  husbandry,  or  the  raising  of  roots  for 
the  purpose  of  feeding  cattle,  is  likewise  of  less  im- 
portance in  the  United  States  than  in  Great  Britain, 
The  winters  are  so  severe  in  the  northern  section  of 
the  Union  that  turnips  can  rarely  be  fed  on  the 
ground,  and  all  sorts  of  roots  are  with  more  difficulty 
preserved  and  dealt  out  to  stock  in  this  country  than 
in  those  which  jMssess  a  milder  climate.  Besides, 
hay  is  more  easily  made  from  grass  in  the  United 
States  than  in  Great  Britain,  owing  to  the  season  for 
hay-making  being  generally  more  diy  and  the  sun 
more  powerful.  There  are  many  other  circumstances 
which  favor  the  American  farmer  and  render  his  situ- 
ation more  eligible  than  that  of  the  European.  He  is 
generally  the  owner  as  well  as  the  occu])ier  of  the  soil 
which  he  cultivates;  is  not  burdened  with  tithes;  his 
taxes  are  light,  and  the  product  of  his  labors  will  com- 
mand more  of  the  necessaries,  comforts,  and  innocent 
luxuries  of  life. 

In  reladon  to  the  difficulties  experienced  in  ad- 
vancing agricultural  art  in  the  United  States,  it  is  well 
known  that  the  earliest  settlers  found  the  country  a 
wilderness,  with  many  varieties  of  climate  and  soil,  of 
which  they  were  entirely  ignorant,  and  to  which  the 
knowledge  they  had  obtained  in  their  mother  country 
did  not  apply.  Thus,  they  had  to  contend  with  the 
innumerable  obstacles,  such  as  the  wilderness  of 
nature,  their  ignorance  of  the  climate,  the  hosrility  of 
the  Indian,  the  depredations  of  wild  beasts,  the  diffi- 
culty and  expense  of  procuring  seeds,  farming  imple- 
ments, and  superior  stock.  These  various  difficulties 
are  quite  sufficient  to  explain  the  slow  progress  they 
made  in  the  way  of  improvement.  For  many  years 
agriculture  was  in  an  exceedingly  backward  and  de- 
pressed condition.  Stocks  and  tools  were  jxjor,  and 
there  were  obstacles  and  prejudices  against  any  in- 
novations in  the  established  routine  of  practice.  This 
state  of  things  continued  for  many  years  with  very 
little  change. 

No  real  efforts  mere  made  to  improve  farming  unril 
after  the  Revolution,  when  a  more  settled  state  of  the 
countr}'  and  the  gradual  increase   of  the    jxjpulation 


436 


FARMING. 


began  to  impress  the  intrinsic  importance  of  the  sub- 
ject upon  the  minds  of  a  few  enlightened  men.  They 
sought,  by  associated  effort,  to  awaken  an  interest 
in  the  subject,  and  spread  abroad  valuable  informa- 
tion. The  South  Carolina  Agricultural  Society  was 
established  in  1784,  and  still  exists,  and  the  Phila- 
delphia Society  for  the  Improvement  of  Agriculture, 
established  in  the  same  year,  and  a  similar  association 
in  New  York  in  1792,  incorporated  in  1798,  and  the 
Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricul- 
ture, established  in  1792,  were  active  in  their  field  of 
labor,  and  all  accomplished  important  results.  The 
corresixjndence  at  this  period  between  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair and  Washington  shows  how  anxious  was  the 
father  of  his  country  to  promote  the  highest  interests 
of  the  people  by  the  improvement  of  agriculture.  But 
all  the  efforts  of  the  learned  and  all  the  investigations 
of  the  scientific  prove  comparatively  unavailing  unless 
the  people  themselves,  the  actual  workers  of  the  soil, 
are  prepared  to  receive  and  profit  by  their  teachings. 
Many  years  elapsed  before  the  habit  of  reading  became 
suificiently  common  among  the  masses  of  the  actual 
tillers  of  the  soil  to  justify  an  expectation  that  any 
profit  would  arise  from  the  annual  publication  of  the 
transactions  of  the  several  societies.  The  improve- 
ments proposed  fell  dead  upon  the  people,  who 
rejected  book  farming  as'impertinent  and  useless,  and 
knew  as  little  of  the  chemistry  of  agriculture  as  of  the 
problems  of  astronomy.  Such  has  been  the  increase 
of  inteUigence  and  the  growth  of  liberal  ideas  among 
all  classes  of  men  during  the  last  half  century,  both 
in  this  country  and  Great  Britain,  that  we,  at  this  dis- 
tance of  time,  can  with  difficulty  realize  the  extent  of 
the  prejudices  which  blinded  the  eyes  of  the  people  of 
those  days.  The  farmer  who  ventured  to  make  ex- 
periments, to  strike  out  new  paths  of  practice,  or  to 
adopt  new  modes  of  culture,  subjected  himself  to  the 
ridicule  of  a  whole  neighborhood.  For  many  years, 
therefore,  the  same  routine  of  farm  labor  had  been 
pursued  in  the  older  settlements,  the  son  planting  just 
as  many  acres  of  corn  as  the  father  did,  in  the  old  of 
of  the  moon,  using  the  same  number  of  oxen  to  plow, 
and  getting  in  his  crops  on  the  same  day,  after  having 
hoed  them  the  same  number  of  times  as  his  father 
and  grandfather.  So  all  farm  practices  were  merely 
traditional;  no  country  or  town  agricultural  societies 
existed  to  stimulate  careful  effort  through  compedtion. 
There  were  no  journals  devoted  to  the  spread  of  agri- 
cultural knowledge,  and  the  mental  energies  of  the 
farmer  lay  dormant. 

The  stock  of  the  farm  was  such  as  one  might  expect 
to  find  under  such  circumstances;  the  sheep  were  small 
and  ill  cared  for  in  the  winter,  and  even  the  size  of 
catde  generally  was  but  little  more  than  half  that 
of  the  present  time.  The  value  of  manures  was  little 
regarded;  the  rotation  of  crops  was  scarcely  thought 
of;  the  introduction  even  of  new  and  labor-saving 
machinery  was  sternly  resisted  and  ridiculed  by  the 
American  farmers  of  that  day  as  well  as  by  the  Eng- 
lish laborers.  It  was  long  before  the  horse-rake  was 
brought  into  use  in  opposition   to   the   prejudices   it 


encountered.  It  was  equally  long  before  the  horse- 
power threshing-machine  was  adopted.  In  some 
parishes  of  Great  Britain,  even  so  late  as  1830,  the 
laborers  actually  went  about  destroying  every  machine 
they  could  find.  Now,  on  the  contrary,  the  use  of  the 
flail  is  a  drudgery  to  which  very  few  are  willing  to 
submit,  and  steam-power  has  in  many  instances  been 
substituted  for  the  horse,  while  new  and  improved 
implements  of  all  kinds  are  sought  to  an  extent  un- 
precedented in  the  history  of  agriculture.  Changes 
are  gradually  made  everywhere,  and  the  success 
which  attends  the  introduction  of  new  implements 
disarms  prejudice. 

Within  the  last  half  century,  chemistry,  the  indis- 
pensable handmaid  of  agriculture,  has  grown  with 
great  rapidity,  and  in  each  new  discovery  some  new 
truth  applicable  to  practical  agriculture  has  come  to 
light,  while  willing  experimenters  have  labored  in  the 
field  to  prove  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  theories  pro- 
posed, and  thus  the  well-established  facts  from  which 
the  science  of  agriculture  is  derived,  and  the  sound 
theories  deduced  from  these  facts,  are  constantly  in- 
creasing in  number.  The  substitution  of  animal  for 
manual  power,  and  yet  more,  the  saving  of  animal 
ix)wer  by  the  substitution  of  natural  and  mechanical 
forces,  are  the  surest  indications  of  improvement. 
From  the  changes  which  have  grown  up  in  these 
respects,  and  from  the  more  constant  use  of  chemical 
analysis  to  determine  the  qualities  of  soils  and  manures 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  we  may  safely  assert  that 
the  progress  made  during  this  period,  or  within  the 
last  twenty  years,  is  wholly  unparalleled. 

Turning  now  from  this  glimpse  of  the  historj'  of 
agriculture,  we  wish  to  make  a  few  practical  observa- 
tions, such,  we  hope,  as  will  be  adapted  to  the  farmers 
of  this  day.  There  is  no  art  which  is  practiced  by 
man  which  includes  a  greater  variety  of  operations  or 
involves  a  greater  amount  of  scientific  principles  than 
farming.  No  tradesman  or  professional  man,  with 
one  or  two  exceptions,  requires  more  training  or  a 
larger  amount  of  technical  knowledge  than  the 
farmer.  None  jxjssesses  equal  facilities  to  him  to  turn 
a  liberal  education  to  an  excellent  practical  account. 
Agricultural  operations  present  a  wider  field  for  in- 
ventive genius  and  scientific  research  than  any  occu- 
pation allotted  to  man.  Farming  stands  at  the  head 
of  human  arts,  both  in  its  antiquity  and  usefulness. 
It  is  the  source  of  wealth  and  existence.  Every  ma- 
terial thing  except  air  comes  from  the  earth.  The  farmer 
who  does  not  realize  the  importance  and  greatness  of 
his  calling,  who  is  unwilling  to  acquire  the  knowl- 
edge necessary  to  success  as  do  professional  men, 
artisans,  etc.,  in  fitting  themselves  for  their  profession, 
is  out  of  his  sphere  and  should  seek  another  vocarion. 
Farming  is  both  a  science  and  an  art,  demanding 
knowledge  to  successfully  cope  with  its  subtle  and 
sublime,  intricate  and  important  problems. 

The  farmer  should  have  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  plants  and  animals  capable  of  ministering  to 
human  comfort.  He  should  have  a  fair  knowledge  of 
botany,  that  he  may  interpret  the  silent  language  of 


FARMING. 


437 


the  vegetable  world  around  him ;  that  he  may  become 
acquainted  with  each  plant  with  which  he  deals, 
knowing  its  pecuhar  necessities,  and  the  various  meth- 
ods employed  to  improve  and  care  for  it,  thus  obtain- 
ing the  greatest  returns  from  the  smallest  outlay  of 
labor  and  money.  In  accomplishing  this  he  deals 
largely,  also,  with  chemistry,  whether  conscious  of  it 
or  not.  By  this  beautiful  and  interesting  science  the 
mysteries  attending  the  transition  of  plant-life  from 
inert  matter  to  buds,  leaves,  stems,  flowers  and  fruits 
are  made  intelligible.  A  farmer  may  raise  corn  and 
hogs  with  some  profit,  though  ignorant  of  the  why  or 
the  how. 

Every  business  must  be  learned,  and  the  more 
thoroughly  the  better.  The  earlier  the  farmer  under- 
stands the  manifold  changes  constantly  occurring 
around  him,  the  earlier  will  his  granaries  be  filled. 
Some  knowledge  of  chemistry  and  botany  are  as  es- 
sential to  him  as  arithmetic  and  writing,  and  pays  in 
dollars  and  cents  better  than  money  at  interest. 

To  be  a  good  farmer  now  reijuires  more  than 
mere  unenlightened,  patient  drudgery.  The  calling 
demands  knowledge,  constant  study,  patient  experi- 
ment, and  tireless  industry.  The  farmer  feeds  the 
hungry  of  all  classes.  He  deals  in  commodities 
which  must  be  purchased.  His  income  is  not  de- 
pendent upon  the  caprice  of  fashion.  He  is  the  inde- 
pendent man  of  the  age. 

As  between  the  farmer  and  the  importer,  or  jobber, 
or  manufacturer,  or  merchant  in  specific  lines  of  trade, 
the  latter  classes  have  but  a  few  leading  jxjints  to 
consider,  such  as  the  probable  demand  or  supply, 
while  the  farmer  must  not  only  take  these  into  account, 
but  also  all  the  variations  of  soil,  adaptability  of 
crops,  vicissitudes  of  climate,  weather,  etc.  Hence,  to 
be  a  successful  farmer  requires  a  wider  range  of 
knowledge,  better  reasoning — in  short,  better  trained 
mental  faculties  than  any  of  the  other  callings  named 
above. 

This  is  literally  true,  and  a  popular  fallacy  to  the 
contrary  is  responsible  for  the  limited  success  of  the 
mass  of  farmers,  and  the  low  estimate  of  their  calling, 
not  only  by  others  but  by  themselves  and  by  their  sons 
and  daughters. 

We  are  not  arguing  that  every  farmer  should  nec- 
essarily be  highly  educated  mentally,  but  we  do  claim 
that  the  more  knowledge  any  farmer  acquires  by  read- 
ing about  his  business,  by  study  and  observation,  and 
the  more  he  trains  and  develops  his  thinking  and 
reasoning  faculties,  the  better  will  he  forecast  and 
plan  for  the  future,  and  the  more  successful  will  he 
be.  In  this  view  of  the  subject  reading  and  study 
will  pay  the  farmer  even  more  largely  than  those  in 
most  other  business  pursuits. 

Every  l)ook  or  journal  he  reads  brings  him  some- 
thing of  the  thoughts,  experiences  and  observations  of 
others.  These  are  often  of  direct  practical  application 
to  his  own  work;  and  if  not,  they  at  least  increase  his 
general  knowledge,  stimulate  thought,  and  strengthen 
his  ability  to  reason  well,  and  indirectly  at  least,  pay 
a  hundredfold. 


A  formidable  drawback  on  the  comforts  and  attrac- 
tions of  country  life  exists  in  the  drudgery  to  which 
farmers'  wives  and  daughters  are  subjected  in  board- 
ing and  lodging  a  number  of  hired  men.  Farmers 
who  are  in  comfortable  circumstances  as  to  proi^erty, 
often  compel  the  women  to  work  early  and  late  in 
feeding  these  men,  and  many  have  been  thus  reduced 
to  a  condition  but  little  better  than  slavery.  To  them 
rest  never  comes;  through  the  week  days  and  on 
Sunday  the  same  ceaseless  round  of  cooking,  and  the 
many  labors  connected  with  it,  must  be  submitted  to, 
and  more  than  a  thousand  meals  must  be  annually 
prepared  for  the  men,  who  have  their  seasons  of  labor 
and  of  rest.  The  wife  of  a  man  who  owned  700  acres 
of  beautiful  land  told  us,  in  her  worn-down  and  pre- 
mature old  age,  that  she  had  cooked  fifty  tons  of  food, 
by  careful  estimate,  for  the  hired  men  who  performed 
the  labor  of  the  farm.  But  the  labor  alone  is  not  the 
only  drawback.  The  rooms  of  the  house  are  occu- 
pied, and  the  privacy  and  repose  which  women  ought 
to  enjoy,  at  least  part  of  the  time,  is  not  to  be  found. 
Farmers'  daughters  see  the  contrast  between  their 
condition  and  that  of  wives  and  daughters  of  mechan- 
ics and  tradesmen,  and  they  resolve  not  to  continue  in 
such  a  life  of  discomfort  by  marrying  a  young  farmer. 
This  is  a  silent  but  jx)werful  influence  operating  all 
through  the  country  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  and 
effecting  a  wide-spread  injury  to  agriculture. 

The  average  Western  farmer  toils  hard,  early  and 
late,  often  depriving  himself  and  family  of  rest  and 
sleeiJ — for  what?  To  raise  corn.  For  what?  To 
feed  hogs.  For  what?  To  get  money  with  which  to 
buy  more  land.  For  what?  To  raise  more  corn.  For 
what?  To  feed  more  hogs.  For  what?  To  buy 
more  land.  And  what  does  he  want  with  more  land? 
Why,  he  wishes  to  raise  more  corn — to  feed  more  hogs 
— to  buy  more  land — to  raise  more  corn — to  feed  more 
hogs — and  in  this  circle  he  moves  till  the  Almighty 
stops  his  hoggish  proceedings. 

Doing  Farm  Work  Early.  The  soil  must  always 
be  the  first  object  of  the  farmer's  attention.  Any  advan- 
tage of  loss  here  will  be  felt,  not  only  for  the  season, 
but  through  the  farmer's  life,  as  it  is  so  much  cumu- 
lating value  made  or  lost.  He  myst  begin  his  work 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  as  he  has  no  time  to 
lose.  Weeds  begin  their  growth  at  once,  and  these 
can  never  be  subdued  so  well  as  when  they  first  ap- 
pear, or  earlier.  Some  even  put  forth  before  the  soil 
is  dry  enough  to  work,  on  undrained  clay,  showing  the 
advantage  of  a  drained  soil,  where  the  work  may  be 
comn.enced  with  the  starting  of  the  weeds  on  land  in- 
tended for  grain  by  early  sowing,  harrowing  well,  and 
if  need  be,  cultivating  the  land,  which  gives  the  grain 
the  start  of  the  weeds;  and  the  land  being  good,  the 
chances  are  it  will  keep  the  start,  shading  the  ground 
and  smothering  the  pest.  It  is  also  a  safeguard  to 
some  extent  against  the  drouth,  which  often  occurs, 
and  is  sometimes  hurtful.  All  this  can  be  done  only 
when  the  crop  is  put  out  early.  The  yield  in  general 
will  then  be  better,  the  straw  brighter  and  the  berry 
sounder.     All  spring  grains   will  bear  early  sowing, 


438 


FARMING. 


which  means  early  harvesting,  thus  distributing  the 
work  well,  favoring  also  seeding  down,  which  is  al- 
ways risky  if  delayed. 

AH  land  intended  for  spring  sowing  should  have  its 
surface  worked  early  to  keep  down  the  weeds,  the 
benefit  to  the  soil  in  improved  texture  and  fertility 
more  than  paying  for  the  labor.  Keep  the  harrow 
and  cultivator  going,  and  see  that  there  is  no  lack  of 
implements  and  that  they  are  of  the  best  kind.  Money 
here  is  well  laid  out ;  only  keep  the  implements  in  use. 

Where  manure  is  needed,  it  is  always  best  to  apply  it 
in  the  fall  or  winter  on  plowed  land  intended  to  be 
sown  in  the  spring.  This  makes  the  finest  of  seed 
beds.  Or  it  may  be  applied  in  the  spring  if  done 
early  and  spread  at  once,  so  the  spring  rains  may 
wash  the  strength  into  the  soil  instead  of  losing  it  at 
the  barn.  It  is  well,  as  soon  as  the  weather  gets  warm, 
to  lay  open  the  manure  piles  so  4s  to  get  them  thawed 
for  early  application.  The  manure  made  during 
snowy  winters  is  better  than  usual,  as  the  severe  and 
continued  cold  weather  largely  saves  the  liquid  por- 
tions from  loss.  Pains,  therefore,  should  be  taken 
with  the  manure  to  get  it  on  the  land  as  early  and  as 
evenly  as  jxDssible.  There  will  then  be  a  good  start 
of  tlie  grain,  even  if  the  weather  is  not  so  very  favor- 
able. Once  well  started  in  such  soil,  it  will  grow  on. 
It  is  such  soil,  if  quite  mellow  and  even,  that  should  be 
seeded  latest  and  the  smoothing  harrow  passed  over  to 
cover  the  seed  and  still  further  fine  and  even  the  soil. 
A  drouth  then  will  not  much  interfere  with  the  seed- 
ing, as  the  young  plant,  once  started,  will  be  pushed 
by  the  manure,  the  growth  of  the  root  keeping  the 
start  of  the  drouth. 

Corn  ground,  if  plowed  early  in  the  fall,  should  have 
its  surface  worked  occasionally  to  destroy  weeds,  be- 
ginning as  soon  as  the  season  will  allow.  If,  after 
planting,  the  smoothing  harrow  be  used  for  a  few 
weeks,  and  the  cultivator  as  long  as  the  corn  will  ad- 
mit, there  will  be  few  weeds  left ;  indeed,  there  need 
be  none  at  all,  if  the  rows  are  put  well  apart,  as  the 
work  on  the  soil  may  tl\en  be  continued  as  late  as  de- 
sired, or  till  no  more  weeds  make  their  appearance. 
This  is  really  one  of  the  most  imixjrtant  things  in  corn 
culture,  as  it  not  only  favors  the  growth  of  the  crop, 
aided  by  sun  and  air,  which  the  wide  space  between 
the  rows  favors,  but  cleans,  pulverizes  and  enriches 
the  soil  for  the  succeeding  crop. 

Thus  we  see  the  advantage  of  beginning  an  early 
war  against  the  weeds;  but  the  work  must  be  kept  up 
in  all  hoed  crops,  including  especially  hops,  where 
it  may  be  continued  till  picking  time,  stirring  only  the 
surface.  Sometimes  a  wet  season  interferes  with  the 
work ;  but  no  season  is  so  wet  but  there  are  occasional 
times  when  the  cultivator  can  be  used,  when  all  other 
work  should  give  way  to  this,  else  the  weeds  are  sure 
to  hurt  if  not  ruin  the  crop,  and  fill  the  soil  with  seeds 
for  future  trouble.  Carelessness  allows  land  to  be- 
come foul.  A  desperate  warfare  with  the  weeds  is 
before  you  and  you  must  engage  in  it  with  unremit- 
ting effort,  beginning  early  in  the  season,  continuing 
until  no  more  foothold  can  be  obtained.     Fortunately 


this  work  is  a  highly  paying  one;  all  the  soil  is  now 
occupied  by  the  crop,  which,  whether  of  grass  or  grain, 
is  a  clean  one  as  well  as  increased  in  yield;  the  ma- 
nure is  clean ;  the  land  by  working  is  improved  in 
texture  and  fertility,  working  therefore  easier.  Unless 
hoed  crops  are  thus  treated  there  will  be  little  or  no 
profit ;  consequently  no  more  land  should  be  set  aside 
for  them  than  can  be  properly  attended  to,  and  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  work  occurs  in  haying.  / 

There  is  another  thing  that  should  be  done  early, 
but  is  sadly  neglected  in  general,  and  seldom  well 
done.  It  is  the  use  of  the  roller.  As  soon  as  the  frost 
is  well  out  of  the  ground,  and  there  is  no  danger  of 
any  more  heaving,  and  the  soil  is  not  too  soft  (it  will 
be  firm  enough  early  if  there  is  good  drainage),  apply 
the  roller  to  all  grass  lands  whether  meadow  or  pas- 
ture, and  also  to  winter  grain  which  needs  it  even 
more  than  grass.  This  packs  the  roots  which  were 
loosed  and  exposed  to  the  air  by  frost.  Snowy  win- 
ters are  favorable  to  protection  ;  but  the  spring  does 
always  more  or  less  harm  to  grass  and  grain,  and  this 
cannot  be  better  corrected  than  by  the  roller,  which, 
in  effect,  is  replanting.  But  it  must  be  done  before 
the  early,  sharp,  drying  winds  hurt  the  plant.  To  do 
this  effectually  the  roller  must  be  hea\ier  than  those 
commonly  in  use, — as  heavy,  with  the  usual  length,  as 
a  good  pair  of  horses  can  draw,  better  if  three  horses 
have  to  be  used.  After  the  wheat  has  been  rolled  and 
the  plant  has  made  some  growth,  having  become  well 
fastened,  go  over  once  or  twice  with  a  light  harrow. 
This  is  equivalent  to  hoeing  the  wheat  and  is  destruct- 
ive to  young  weeds,  and  it  favors  seeding  down,  if  that 
has  been  deferred. 

Our  State  and  national  departments  of  agriculture 
are  engaged  in  systematically  collecting  facts,  tabula- 
ting them  and  working  up  the  results  into  shapes 
usable  by  the  average  intelligence ;  while  farmers' 
clubs  and  institutes,  the  Grange,  the  weekly  agricul- 
tural paper  and  compilers  of  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural manuals  comple  e  the  work,  supplying  all  with 
the  latest  improvements  and  aids  that  are  useful  to 
the  community;  and  the  general  results  can  be  readily 
enough  seen  by  the  striking  contrast  between  the 
prosperous  farming  communities  of  the  Northern 
States  and  those  further  South,  even  where  they  were 
not  devastated  by  the  ravages  of  war. 

"High  farming,"  which  means  such  manuring  and 
cultivation  as  will  raise  the  most  on  a  given  piece  of 
ground,  generally,  but  not  always,  pays.  It  is  remun- 
erative only  up  to  a  certain  limit.  Mr.  Lawes,  of  Eng- 
land, who  has  been  systematically  experimenting  for 
30  years,  has  ascertained,  for  example,  that  such 
manuring  and  cultivation  as  will  produce  30  to  35 
bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  yields  a  greater  net  profit 
than  either  lower  or  higher  farming.  Everything^ 
therefore,  depends  on  circumstances,  and  it  is  just 
those  circumstances  which  our  agricultural  colleges  and 
other  institutions  are  engaged  in  finding  out,  for  the 
interests  of  the  farmer,  the  horticulturist,  the  dairy- 
man, etc.  Nearly  every  piece  of  ground  can  be  im- 
proved by  manuring  and  fertilizers,  but  occasionally  a 


FARMING. 


439 


soil  may  be  found  that  is  so  deficient  in  some  mineral 
ingredient  that  no  amount  of  manuring  will  render  it 
good  ground,  unless  one  should  haul  also  the  mineral, 
yea,  the  whole  soil  from  some  other  piece  of  ground 
to  the  six)t,  which  of  course  would  be  too  expensive. 
By  such  scientific  study  as  is  now  made  easy  for  the 
farmer  by  the  manuals  published,  he  will  be  able  to 
ascertain  what  are  the  peculiarities  of  his  land. 
Sometimes  a  very  slight  change  in  the  management 
will  make  a  remarkable  difference  in  the  results,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  great  change  in  the  management 
sometimes  yields  no  result. 

Pasturing  takes  too  much  ground  in  a  thoroughly 
settled  country.  The  time  will  come,  as  Horace 
Greeley  used  to  say,  when  all  the  feed  will  be  raised 
and  fed  to  stock. 

During  the  winter  the  farmer  and  the  gardener 
should  plan  for  his  next  summer's  campaign,  deciding 
what  he  will  do  with  this  and  that  field,  what  imple- 
ments he  will  buy,  and  wliat  preparations  to  make, 
etc. ;  as  to  machines,  and  indeed,  with  reference  to 
every  other  thing,  he  will  endeavor  to  "  read  up,"  con- 
sult his  neighbors  and  reason  outhis  conclusions.  The 
particular  faults  of  machines  and  methods  he  should 
inquire  into,  so  that  in  every  step  he  makes  he  will  get 
a  little  ahead  of  his  neighbor.  But  beware  of  making 
too  many  radical  changes  in  your  line  of  business,  as 
that  causes  a  waste  of  machinery  and  material ;  for 
example,  in  changing  from  grain-raising  to  stock-rais- 
ing, one  loses  much  of  his  machinery  and  appurte- 
nances which  he  had  supplied  himself  with  at  great 
expense  for  the  prosecution  of  raising  grain  crops. 

"Co-operation"  among  farmers  is  a  subject  much 
talked  of,  and  is  a  good  thing  for  many  purjxsses,  as  in 
the  use  of  large  machinery  too  expensive  to  be  pur- 
chased by  one  man,  in  the  arrangement  of  fences, 
roads  and  drains,  the  exchange  of  seeds,  etc.  It  is 
true  that  many  crops  gradually  run  out  if  raised  from 
seed  grown  on  the  same  ground  from  year  to  year. 
Seed  obtained  from  a  distance  will  often  do  better.  In 
the  absence  of  co-operation,  for  example,  in  the  em- 
ployment of  complicated  machinery,  where  it  requires 
the  skill  of  experts  to  make  them  successful,  it  is  best 
to  let  the  particular  machine  remain  as  the  property  of 
one  man,  at  least  in  the  care  of  one  man,  and  him  be 
paid  for  his  work  by  the  piece.  Where  several  farm- 
ers own  a  machine  in  common,  it  should  be  stipulated 
that  the  machine  should  have  the  same  care  in  the 
hands  of  all;  they  all  should  have  their  ground  in 
good  condition,  so  that  one  would  not  wear  out  the 
machine  much  more  than  the  others  would. 

The  necessity  and  utility  of  co-operation  afford  a 
striking  example  of  the  pecuniary  interest  which  every 
farmer  has  in  keeping  on  good  terms  with  his  neigh- 
bors. 

All  tools  and  implements  should  be  repaired  in  the 
fall,  besides  being  stored  away  under  good  sheds. 
Small  implements,  as  hammers,  chisels,  wrenches, 
etc.,  should  be  painted  red,  so  that  in  hunting  them 
up  they  will  more  readily  catch  the  eye  and  be  found. 
In  raising  seed,  it  is  best  to  go  through' the  piece  at 


the  beginning  of  the  flowering  season  and  destroy  all 
the  imperfect  plants,  on  the  same  principle  that  in 
breeding  stock  you  would  not  breed  to  inferior  strains 
or  specimens.  Much  has  heen  gained  by  close  watch- 
ing in  this  respect.  For  example,  many  years  ago  the 
potato  rot  was  almost  universal;  by  improving  the 
quality  of  the  seeds,  varieties,  fructification,  etc.,  we 
have  patatoes  now  that  are  not  subject  to  rot ;  so  all 
good  qualities  are  continually  being  sought  after  by 
scientific  breeding.  Florists  and  originators  of  varie- 
ties are  ever  on  the  alert  looking  out  for  "six)rts,"or 
"  freaks  of  nature,"  as  they  are  called,  in  the  shape  of 
larger  or  better  or  more  beautiful  specimens,  which 
they  enthusiastically  seize  upon  and  nurse  and  care  for, 
and  thus  succeed  in  improving  our  stock.  It  is  by  this 
method  that  we  now  have  all  our  luscious  fruits,  de- 
rived originally  from  the  sour,  crabbed  things  which 
are  still  to  be  found  wild.  So  with  our  grains  and  all 
our  vegetables.  The  largest  seeds  are  generally  the 
best,  but  not  always.  For  instance,  medium-sized 
grains  of  wheat  on  long,  vigorous  heads  are  better 
than  large  grains  on  small  heads.  The  smaller,  too, 
are  often  of  much  better  quality.  In  crossing,  the  selec- 
tion of  closely  related  varieties  of  the  same  country 
is  not  quite  so  good  as  plants  of  a  foreign  country  of 
the  same  variety. 

Some  farmers  run  themselves  out  by  selling  the  best 
and  keeping  the  poorest  at  home.  In  the  course  of 
time  their  stock  becomes  poor,  and  they  fail  to  com- 
pete successfully  in  the  market.  Bad  economy  ihat. 
He  should  keep  only  his  best  specimens  for  stock. 
Farmers  generally  would  grow  rich  if  they  only  would 
do  their  best.  A  farm  properly  managed  will  increase 
in  productiveness  from  year  to  year.  Every  agricul- 
turist can  find  manure  and  fertilizers  if  he  will  only 
look  around  and  be  willing  to  work  in  tlie  fall  to  col- 
lect it.  "There  is  a  class,"  says  Greeley,  "  of  drink- 
ing, hunting,  frolicking,  rarely  working  frontiersmen 
who  seem  to  have  been  created  on  purjwse  to  erect 
log  cabins  and  break  paths  in  advance  of  a  different 
class  of  settlers,  who  regularly  come  in  to  buy  them 
out  and  start  them  along  after  a  few  years." 

While  many  fine  eulogies  and  ghttering  generalities 
characterize  the  speeches  and  writi'ngs  on  the  farmer's 
calling,  we  will  here  emphasize  the  most  settled  and 
important,  namely:  i.  Farming  is  the  most  inde- 
pendent vocation.  2.  .Farming  is  the  most  healthful 
vocation.  The  cities  are  kept  up  to  what  they  are  by 
a  constant  influx  of  the  sturdy  country  element.  The 
city  man  who  accomplishes  the  most  good  is  the  one 
who  frequently  runs  out  into  the  country  to  recruit  his 
physical  and  mental  powers.  3.  Farming  is  the  most 
honorable,  honest  and  revered  vocation.  It  requires 
the  honor  and  virtue  of  the  country  residents  lo  keep 
up  the  integrity  of  the  State.  Were  it  not  for  the  vir- 
tuous and  "temperance"  (abstinent)  character  of  the 
agricultural  community  our  cities  and  towns  would  be 
worse  than  they  are.  Country  people,  with  less  cere- 
mony and  hypocrisy,  average  more  genuine  politeness 
than  city  people  do.  4.  The  life  of  a  farmer  (that  is, 
of  a  scientific  one,  not  a  mere  drudger),  is  more  spir- 


440 


FARMERS'  CLUBS— FARROW. 


itual,  poetical  and  elevating  than  all  other  conditions 
of  life  combined.  Scientific  farming  develops  the 
normal  man;  city  life  effeminates.  All  the  advantage 
the  city  has  over  the  country  is  convenience  of  trade 
and  show.  Extremes  of  intellect  and  prodigies  of 
talent  flock  to  the  cities  to  make  money  by  their  ex- 
traordinary performances  ;  "  level "  heads  remain  in 
the  country  to  be  "monarchs  of  all  they  survey." 

A  glorious  future  awaits  the  farming  community  of 
America.  It  is  not  generally  known,  even  in  cultivated 
circles,  that  the  amount  of  arable  soil  in  this  country 
is  greater  than  in  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa  put  together, 
and  can  therefore  sustain  more  lives.  This  is  no  rash 
conclusion.  Our  continent  is  narrow,  and  therefore 
the  winds  of  the  ocean  water  it  well.  The  mountain 
chains  on  the  east  side  of  the  American  continent  are 
low;  on  the  east  side  of  the  old  world,  are  high. 
From  this  it  results  that  the  trade  winds,  laden  with 
the  wetness  of  the  sea,  are  attracted  to  our  land.  The 
breadth  of  the  old  world  and  its  high  eastern  ranges 
cause  the  rainless  interiors  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Again, 
America  is  the  land  of  fertile  plains  ;  the  old  wodd  of 
scorched  plains.  Our  plains  run  north  and  south,  and 
so  attract  and  receive  the  rains.  America  is  high 
under  the  equator,  the  old  world  is  wide ;  hence,  with 
us  a  small  surface  is  exposed  to  the  scorching  sun. 
The  result  is  that  the  productive  soil  in  the  old  worid 
is  10,000,000  square  miles,  and  in  the  new,  1 1,000,000. 
Thus  bursts  ujwn  us  all  in  the  light  of  scientific  truth 
the  fact  that  America  can  sustain  a  greater  population 
than  the  old  world ;  and  if  she  can,  it  is  unquestion- 
able that  some  day  she  will. 

Tarmers'  Clubs,  associations  of  farmers  for  mutual 
instruction  and  protection.  Meetings  for  mutual  in- 
struction should  be  our  highest  social  happiness;  but 
in  any  one  community  a  large  proiwrtion  of  near 
neighbors  are  more  or  less  out  with  each  other,  so  that 
they  cannot  co-operate  very  well,  and  this  is  perhaps 
the  only  reason  why  any  organization  does  not  flourish 
more  in  the  country.  Kindred  minds  are  too  far 
apart,  and  qualified  teachers  are  too  scarce.  As  this 
has  been  the  case  now  for  many  thousands  of  years, 
it  is  scarcely  prdbable  that  there  will  be  any  radical 
change  for  ages  to  come,  if  ever ;  therefore  let  us  get 
what  good  we  can  in  our  own  life-time,  by  reading  and 
conversing  with  friends.  Carried  on  properiy,  farmers' 
clubs  are  eminently  important  and  should  be  made 
popular,  if  personal  prejudices,  as  above  alluded  to, 
could  be  overthrown.  Each  district  has  important 
topics  to  be  discussed,  and  from  a  financial  point  of 
view  should  adopt  every  means  for  the  advancement 
of  their  calling.  The  farmers  of  the  present  enlight- 
ened age  are  beginning  to  realize  the  fact  that  by 
comparisons,  discussions,  mutual  conferences,  and  a 
hearty  co-operation,  progressiva  agriculture  is  to  be- 
come the  rule  instead  of  the  exception. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  an  isolated  individual  should 
struggle  on  with  tiis  limited  stock  of  knowledge  and 
experience ;  life  is  not  long  enough  to  develop  to  its 
fullest  extent  any  one  principle  of  science  or  art; 


each  cultivator  of  the  soil  needs  to  know  all  that  the 
wisdom  and  experience  of  others  may  teach.  It 
should  be  as  much  a  part  of  the  farmer's  programme 
of  living  to  become  an  active  member  of  some  club, 
or  grange,  or  gathering,  in  the  interests  of  agriculture, 
as  to  plow  and  cultivate  and  plant  his  broad  acres. 
No  cuUivator  of  the  soil  can  afford  to  shut  himself 
out  of  the  warming,  sdmuladng  and  beneficial  influ- 
ence of  association  with  his  brother  farmers  and  the 
friction  of  discussion  and  debate. 

The  objects  of  the  club  should  be  the  acquisition 
and  dissemination  of  agricultural  knowledge  ;  the  pro- 
motion of  acquaintance  and  friendship  among  neigh- 
bors; the  improvement  of  its  membership  in 
conversation,  comiX)sition  and  public  speaking;  the 
improvement  of  farms,  farm  implements,  stock,  build- 
ings, and  every  department  of  agriculture.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  judicious  and  careful  experiments, 
each  to  be  confided  to  a  certain  number  of  the  mem- 
bers, who  would  subject  every  portion  of  the  operation 
to  the  most  careful  test  of  weighing  and  measuring, 
and  carefully  record  every  step.  At  the  conclusion  of 
each  expenment  a  full  reixart  should  be  made  to  the 
club,  by  each  person  engaged  in  making  the  same, 
embracing  all  particulars  and  details,  of  soil,  season, 
weather,  etc.  Every  farmer  should  not  only  join  a 
club,  but  take  his  enthusiasm  into  it. 

A  club  can  not  be  maintained  without  effort.  Any 
one  can  start  a  club  as  well  as  any  two  or  twelve,  but 
where  are  the  men  to  maintain  it .''  Plenty  of  people 
are  willing  to  be  part  of  a  political  ring  because  it 
pays.  Let  the  farmers  of  every  neighborhood  form  an 
agricultural  ring,  a  club  that  shall  look  after  their  own 
interests,  mental,  physical  and  pecuniary.  It  will  pay 
as  well  as  politics. 

Farmers' clubs  will  produce  more  good  farmers,  and 
stimulate  the  production  of  more  grain  and  provisions 
than  national  associations  or  societies.  The  great 
flood-tideof  agricultural  prosperity  now  permeating  and 
revivifying  every  channel  of  industry  throughout  the 
country  is  the  result,  not  of  buncombe  speeches,  elo- 
quent periods  or  magnificent  resolves,  but  rather  of 
long-continued,  persistent,  energetic  labor  on  the  part 
of  individual  farmers,  each  working  out  the  problems 
in  an  humble  and  unostentatious  way.  There  is  room 
for  little  faith  in  any  grand  schemes  for  the  advance- 
ment of  agriculture  which  do  not  include  the  attend- 
ance and  co-operation  of  the  practical  working  farmers 
themselves.  Men  of  ability  should  be  employed  to 
deliver  courses  of  lectures.  Fifteen  to  twenty  dollars 
per  week,  with  expenses,  will  secure  good  talent. 

Clubs  for  the  transaction  of  some  special  business, 
for  m^utual  insurance,  social  intercourse,  secret  work  of 
the  orders,  etc.,  are  kept  alive  without  the  aid  of  pop- 
ular sentiment,  and  a  consideration  of  such  societies 
or  organizations  falls  without  the  scope  of  this  volume. 

Farrier,  a  horse-shoer ;  also,  one  versed  in  the  care 
and  treatment  of  horses  ;  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Farrow,  not  producing  young  in  a  given  season  or 
year;  said  only  of  cows.     If  a  cow  has  had  a  calf, 


FARRO  WING—FEA  THER. 


441 


but  fails  in  a  subsequent  year,  she  is  said  to  be  "  far- 
row," or  "  go  farrow." 

Farrowing,  the  parturition  or  the  littering  of  the 
sow.  She  is  said  to  farrow  when  she  brings  forth  her 
pigs;  and  the  number  of  her  young  ones  produced  at 
one  farrowing  are  called  a  farrow  or  litter. 

Fat,  an  unctuous,  solid  substance,  or,  more  proper- 
ly, a  concrete  oil,  deposited  in  little  membranous  cells 
in  various  parts  of  animal  bodies.  It  is  generally 
white  or  yellowish,  with  little  taste  or  smell,  and  varies 
in  consistency  according  to  the  relative  quantities  of 
stearine  and  oleine  which  it  contains.  When  exam- 
ined under  the  microscope  the  cells  are  found  to  lie 
amidst  the  filaments  of  the  areolar  or  cellular  tissue, 
the  most  extensively  diffused  of  all  the  tissues  of  the 
human  body ;  and  are  found  everywhere  in  the  net- 
work of  tissues  composing  the  living  body.  Fat,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  component  part  of  the  living  organs,  for 
the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  do  not  run  through  its 
cells.  Therefore  the  fat  itself  is  not  susceptible  to 
feeling,  and  if  a  pin  could  be  passed  into  it  without 
piercing  the  skin  there  would  be  no  sensation  to  make 
the  owner  of  it  conscious  of  what  had  been  done. 
Matter  contained  in  the  fat-cells  has  various  names. 
When  melted  down  it  is  called  tallow.  In  another 
form  it  is  known  as  lard.  When  it  is  the  refuse  of  fat 
it  is  called  grease,  or  kitchen  stuff.  When  hard,  we 
call  it  suet ;  when  soft  and  separated  from  milk,  it  is 
called  butter ;  when  liquid,  oil.  Fat  is  comixjsed  of 
II  parts  of  carbon,  hydrogen  10  parts,  and  oxygen  i 
part ;  and  its  use  in  the  animal  system  is  to  give  those 
beautiful  gradations  of  contour  possessed  by  the 
properly  developed  human  figure,  to  keep  in  the  heat, 
of  which  it  is  a  bad  conductor,  to  serve  as  a  store  of 
spare  fuel  for  an  emergency,  for  which  reason  it  con- 
tains both  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which  are  the  elements 
we  employ  for  lighting  and  heating,  and  to  secure  the 
proper  nourishment  of  the  animal  body.  Fat  cells 
surround  every  tissue,  and  where  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  fat  there  also  will  be  found  a  deficiency  of  other 
tissues.  In  a  case  of  consumption^  where  the  body 
wastes  rapidly  away,  the  daily  administration  of  oil — 
usually  cod-liver  oil — is  found  to  be  very  beneficial. 
As  the  fat  is  defxisited  the  tendency  to  develop  those 
tissues  on  which  bodily  strength  depends  is  increased. 
An  excessive  accumulation  of  fat  in  certain  parts  of 
the  body,  generally  induced  by  indolence  and  by  the 
more  extensive  use  of  fat-producing  food,  interferes 
with  the  vital  energies,  and  unfits  the  body  for  a  proper 
degree  of  exertion. 

Of  the  varieties  of  fat  in  quadrupeds,  suet  is  the 
finest.  The  next  in  hardness  is  the  fat  of  bones,  and 
the  next  to  that  the  fat  in  the  muscles.  The  fat  of 
the  hog  is  the  least  solid.  The  fat  of  birds  has  little 
solidity,  and  in  many  species  it  is  always  fluid ;  this  is 
usually  distinguished  by  the  term  grease,  as  goose 
grease.  The  fat  of  fish  is  always  in  oil  or  fluid,  ex- 
cept spermaceti. 

Different  kinds  of  fat  liquefy  at  different  tempera- 
tures ;  lard  melts  at  97  ° ;  tallow  requires  a  heat  some- 


what greater;  but  the  fat  taken  from  suet  by  boiling 
requires  127"  to  liquefy  it.  The  great  inflamma- 
bility and  the  bright  white  light  it  gives  while  burning 
renders  the  most  solid  kind,  tallow,  eminently  service- 
able for  producing  artificial  light.  Tallow  itself  will 
not  inflame;  it  is  only  the  vapor  that  inflames,  and  it 
does  not  boil  until  it  is  heated  to  400". 

Marrow  differs  from  other  fat  only  in  the  fineness  of 
the  membranous  texture  in  which  it  is  contained,  the 
fluidity  of  the  oil  and  its  situation  within  the  bones. 
Fat,  as  well  as  all  fixed  oils,  is  difficult  of  digestion, 
particularly  by  weak  stomachs,  and  therefore  it  is  not 
proper  for  dyspeptics.  It  is  apt  to  cause  bile  in  the 
stomach.  But  fat  is  rendered  still  less  digestible  when 
subject  to  high  temperatures  in  some  culinary  process- 
es, as  in  frying.  All  meats  and  fish  that  contain  much 
oil  or  fat  are  apt  "  to  lie  heavy  at  the  stomach,"  as  it  is 
called,  or,  in  other  words,  to  be  difficult  of  digestion  ; 
and  then  they  are  apt  to  occasion  heartburn  and  other 
injurious  effects.  It  is  thought,  however,  that  bacon 
and  salt  pork  are  more  easily  digested  than  fresh  fat. 

Fatness  of  the  Human  Body,  to  prevent:  Abstain 
from  starchy  foods  and  work  hard  at  manual  labor. 
To  obtain  healthy  fat  in  the  body,  live  according  to  all 
the  laws  of  health  as  noted  under  the  head  of  Hygiene 
in  this  volume ;  to  become  fat  more  rapidly,  but 
unhealthfully,  remain  inactive,  drink  beer  or  other 
liquors  and  diet  on  the  grain  foods. 

Fattening  of  Farm  Animals  :  see  respective  ani- 
mals and  Feeding.  The  general  principle  for  produc- 
ing healthy  fat  is,  give  the  animal  all  the  food  he  will 
eat  up  clean  and  no  more.  Of  course  it  is  understood 
that  the  food  should  consist  of  the  proper  article,  clean, 
of  sufficient  variety,  with  the  various  natural  condi- 
ments, as  twigs,  roots,  etc.,  such  as  they  have  an 
avidity  for  when  at  large  in  their  favorite  clime ;  also, 
clean  pasturage,  freedom  from  disease  and  from  mo- 
lestation. For  producing  unhealthy  fat  (which  can  be 
done  more  rapidly),  keep  in  close  confinement  and 
feed  almost  exclusively  on  starchy  food,  with  such 
stimulants  and  appetizers  as  will  make  the  animal  over- 
eat, contract  a  diseased  liver  and  caul,  etc.  Some  de- 
gree of  darkness  and  filth  will  aid  the  process  with 
most  animals,  but  rather  hinder  it  with  some.  Most 
diseases,  of  course,  emaciate.  In  fattening  swine  for 
other  purposes  than  food  for  man,  it  is  probably  more 
profitable  to  adopt  the  disease-producing  method.  See 
Feeding. 

Faucets  of  wood  are  certainly  more  free  from 
poisonous  oxides  than  one  of  metal  of  any  kind.  To 
prevent  wooden  faucets  from  cracking,  boil  them  in 
paraffine  as  long  as  bubbles  of  air  escape  from  them ; 
allow  the  paraffine  to  cool  about  120°,  when  the  fau- 
cets are  taken  out  and  rubbed  clean  with  a  dry  piece 
of  coarse  cloth.  In  boiling  them  they  should  be  put 
in  when  the  paraffine  is  just  melting,  and  the  tempera- 
ture kept  at  about  212°. 

Feather,  of  a  plow,  is  the  thin  cutting  part  of  the 
share ;  also,  the  ridges  of  hair  on  the  legs  of  a  dog. 


442 


FEATHERS— FEED  CUTTER. 


Feathers.  To  obtain  feathers  in  their  best  con- 
dition they  should  be  plucked  from  the  fowls  dry. 
A  few  days'  airing  then  puts  them  in  proper  con- 
dition for  use.  Feathers  which  have  been  picked 
from  scalded  fowls  require  much  care  and  work  to 
restore  the  original  buoyancy  of  the  down.  Strip 
the  plumage  from  the  quills  of  the  larger  feathers, 
and  mix  them  with  the  small  ones,  putting  the 
whole  loosely  into  paper  bags,  which  should  be 
hung  up  in  the  kitchen  or  some  other  warm  place 
for  a  few  days,  to  dry  and  cure;  then  bake  the  bags 
three  or  four  times,  half  an  hour  each  time,  in 
a  lukewarm  oven,  drying  them  for  two  days 
between  each  baking.  The  work  is  then  done. 
Kneading  the  bags  aids  and  hastens  the  process. 

Feather-beds  that  have  become  soiled  and  heavy, 
may  be  made  clean  and  light  by  being  treated  in 
the  following  manner:  Rub  them  well  with  a  stiff 
brush,  dipped  in  soft  soap-suds.  When  clean  lay 
them  on  a  shed  roof,  or  any  place  where  they  will 
be  clean,  and  the  rain  will  fall  on  them.  When 
thoroughly  soaked,  let  them  dry  in  a  hot  sun  for 
six  or  seven  days,  shaking  them  up  well  and  turn- 
ing them  over  each  day.  They  should  be  covered 
over  with  a  thick  cloth  during  the  night.  If  ex- 
posed to  the  night  air,  they  will  become  damp  and 
mildewed.  This  way  of  washing  the  bed-tick  and 
feathers  makes  them  very  light,  and  is  much 
easier  than  the  old-fashioned  way  of  emptying  the 
beds  and  washing  the  feathers  separately,  while  it 
answers  quite  as  well.  Care  must  be  taken  to  dry 
the  bed  perfectly  before  sleeping  on  it. 

Another  method  to  cleanse  goose  feathers  is  to 
expose  them  to  the  sunshine  or  in  a  stove  until 
perfectly  dry,  then  beat  to  remove  dust.  When 
carelessly  collected  and  dirty  they  may  be  cleansed 
with  lime  water;  or,  still  better,  with  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  carbonate  of  soda,  or  with  water  containing 
a  thin  solution  of  chloride  of  lime;  after  which  they 
are  rinsed  in  clean  water  and  dried  as  before. 

To  clean  and  curl  feathers  use  white  soap  (or, 
better,  curd)  cut  into  small  pieces;  pour  on  boiling 
water,  and  dissolve.  When  cool,  draw  the  feathers 
through  the  solution.  Repeat  this  several  times, 
press  the  feathers  gently  in  the  hand,  or  carefully 
pass  through  the  fingers  two  or  three  times,  to 
squeeze  out  the  dirt.  Use  another  lather  in  the 
same  manner.  Remove  the  feathers  and  rinse 
well  in  cold  water;  beat  against  the  hand  or  a  clean 
cloth,  and  wave  around  in  the  air  a  short  distance 
from  the  fire.  Before  quite  dry  curl,  with  a  pen- 
knife, each  fiber  separately,  by  drawing  carefully 
over  the  blade's  edge.  Or,  after  heating,  stroke 
them  with  the  back  of  a  knife.  This  can  be  used 
for  all  feathers  but  black;  they  may  be  cleaned 
with  water,  adding  to  it  some  gall,  and  following 
the  above  directions  in  all  respects.  Feathers  of 
brighter  colors  cannot  be  cleaned,  but  must  be  re- 
dipped,  as  they  usually  fade  by  exposure  to  the  sun. 


To  dye  feathers,  first  steep  them  a  few  hours  in 
warm  water;  then,  to  dye  blue,  boil  them  in  a 
solution  of  extract  of  indigo,  simmering  over  the 
fire  a  few  minutes.  To  dye  green,  dip  them  in  a 
solution  of  equal  quantities  of  verdigris  and  verditer. 
To  dye  lilac,  dip  in  a  hot  solution  of  cudbear.  To 
dye  red,  boil  together  for  half  an  hour  Brazil-wood, 
a  little  Vermillion,  alum  and  vinegar;  then  dip  the 
feathers.  To  dj'e  yellow,  use  turmeric  in  a  similar 
manner.  For  scarlet,  take  cochineal,  cream  of. 
tartar  and  muriate  of  tin. 

Feed,  relative  value  of  the  different  articles  for 
domestic  animals,  equivalent  to  loo  pounds  of  hay; 

POUNDS. 

Clover 95 

Rye  Straw 355 


Oat  Straw 220 

Potatoes 195 

Carrots 280 

Beets 346 

Ruta-bagas 262 

Wheat 43 


POUNDS. 

44 

46 

49 


Peas. . 

Beans. 

Rye.. 

Barley 

Corn . . 

Oats... 

Buckwheat 64 

Oil  Cake 64 


SI 
56 

59 


The  hay  consumed  by  different  animals  does  not 
vary  greatly  from  three  pounds  daily  for  each 
hundred  pounds  weight  of  the  animals.  The  fol- 
lowing ratios  have  been  determined,  allowing  the 
articles,  of  course,  to  be  of  good  quality : 

POUNDS.  POUWDS. 


Working  Horses 3.08 

Working  Oxen 2.40 

Milk  Cows 2.21; 

Young  Growing  Cattle.. 3.08 

Feed  Cutter, 
cornstalks,  etc.,  for  stock  feed, 
to  be 


Steers 2.S4 

Dry  Cows 2.42 

Pigs about  3X)o 

Sheep 3.00 

a  machine, for  cutting  straw,  hay. 
While  a  large  one, 
run  by   horse  or  steam 
power,  is  justifiable   only    on 
large  farms,  a  hand-power  cut- 
ter, such  as  represented  by  the 
annexed  engravings,  should  be 
in     the    possession    of    every 
farmer.     A  great  deal  of  fod- 
der, which  would  be  otherwise 
wasted,  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  the  cutter. 

A  feed    cutter   that  would  really  cut  hay,  straw 
and   corn-stalks    equally  well,  to    lengths   suitable, 


Fig.  \.—St.  Louis  Feed 
Cutter. 


Fig.  z.—Miller^t  Stra-m  and  Feed  Cutter. 

and  that  would  run  easy,  and  stay  in  repair,  has  long 
been  desired  by  the  best  of  farmers,  and  many  others 
who  have  stock  or  horses  to  feed.     It  is  claimed 


FEED    CUTTER— FEED  MILLS. 


443 


for  the  cutter  shown  by  Fig.  i  that  it  does  this  work 
satisfactorily.  Fig.  2  represents  a  machine  made  on 
the  same  principles,  and  used  for  the  same  purposes. 
The  machine  shown  by  Fig.  3  is  self-feed- 
ing, the  fodder  being  taken  by  two  notched  iron 
rollers  and  held  firmly  until  cut  by  the  knives, 
which  are  fastened  to  a  strong  knife-wheel,  and 
are  adjusted  by  set  screws,  so  that  they  will  always 
cut  clean,  clear,  and  not  drag  straw  through  uncut. 

reeding  Stock:  see  Stock. 

Feed  Mills,  hiachines  for  crushing  and  grind- 
ing of  grain  to  be  fed  to  stock.  That  the  crushing 
and  grinding  of  grain  insures  more  perfect  mastica- 
tion, and  may  be 
p  e  r  f  o  r  m  e  d  by 
machinery  at 
much  less  ex- 
pense than  by  the 
animals  consum- 
ing it,  no  intelli- 
gent farmer  will 
deny.  Then  the 
final  step  toward 
the  easy  and  prof- 
itable assimila- 
tion of  food  is  the 
steaming  or 
cooking  process, 
which  we  very 
fully  treat  under 
the  head, "Feed, 
steaming  aiul 
cooking,"  a  little  4 
further  on.  Ass 
in  all  depart- 
inents  of  agricul- 
ture where  ma- 
c  h  i  n  e  r  y  is 
needed,  inventors 
have  not  over- 
loo  k  e  d  this 
branch,  for  there 
may  be  found  in 
the  market  num- 
erous makes  of  feed  mills. 

Some  of  these  grind  the  ear,  cob  and  all,  and 
thereby  save  shelling. 

Fig.  I  represents  a  corn  and  cob  mill  for  grinding 
feed  for  stock.  It  can  be  geared  either  from  above 
or  below^;  will  not  choke,  grinds  fast,  feeds 
regularly,  and  grinds  fine. 

Fig.  2  is  the  representation  of  another  corn  mill 
or  crusher,  placed  on  a  platform,  with  legs.  It  is 
light  running,  has  a  large  strong  hopper,  and  will 
grind  with  the  husk  on  as  well  as  without;  and  the 
farmer  who  is  able  to  own  a  mill  as  represented 
by  Figs.  I  and  2,  and  will  use  it  to  advantage,  will 
soon    more    than    realize    the .  amount  expended. 


Fig.  I.— The  Belle  City  Feed  Cutter. 


in  the  continued  improvement  of  his  farm-stock. 
J.  A.  Field  &  Co.,  St  Louis,  Mo.,  manufacture  a 
grinder  and  crusher,  Figs.  3  and  4.  it  is  made  of 
"  cast  cast-steel."  This  mill  will  grind  coarse  or 
fine,  for  stock  or  for  the  table,  and  its  capacity  is 
extraordinay  for  its  size.  When  the  grinding 
plates  are  worn  out,  they  are  easily  replaced  with 
new  ones.  Iron  grinders  are  also  furnished  with 
this  mill.  For  grinding  corn  with  the  husks  on, 
the  breaker  arms  are  so  constructed  as  to  form  a 
cutter,  which,  with  the  blades  on  the  mill,  cut  the 
husk.  The  tubes,  Fig.  4,  aid  in  forcnig  down  the 
husk  through  the  mill. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  mill  adapted  to  the  grinding 

of  corn  and  feed 
for  stock  and 
family  purposes. 
It  is  simple  in 
construction,  and 
a  boy  can  oper- 
ate it,  keep  it  i  n 
good  order,  and 
easily  make  good 
meal  with  it.  It 
will  make  good 
meal,  grind 
wheat,  middlings 
or  minerals,  and 
all  kinds  of  feed 
as  fine  as  flour,  or 
as  coarse  as  may 
be  desired. 

One  of  the  best 
standard  farm 
g  r  i  s  t-m  ills  is 
made  by  Living- 
ston &  Co.,  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  Fig.  6. 
It  makes  good 
meal  for  family 
use,  has  an  im- 
proved automat- 
ic feed  check,  is 
reversible  and 
self-sharpen  i  ng. 
The  grinding  plates  are  made  of  chilled  iron,  will 
last  for  years,  and  when  worn  out  can  be  replaced 
at  a  small  cost.  It  can  be  run  by  hand  or  belt,  will 
grind  from  six  to  ten  bushels  of  feed  per  hour,  and 
delivers  the  meal  direct  into  the  bag  when  desired. 
On  the  two  following  pages  we  gf^e  the  illustra- 
tions referred  to  above. 

Few  persons  realize  how  palatable  and  rich  is  the 
taste  of  bread  or  mush  made  from  fresh-ground 
corn  meal,  or  even  wheat  and  rye  meal,  as  com- 
pared with  the  dusty,  musty  stuff  they  generally 
use.  Grinding  from  day  to  day  only  what  you  use, 
you  can  commence  with  new  corn  in  August  or 
September,  and  have  an  article  of  food  as  different 


444 


FEED-MILLS— FEED,  COOKING. 


from,  and  as  superior  to,  common  breadstuff  as  cul- 
tivated apples  are  compared  with  crab-apples. 
With  the  M-dinary  process  of  wholesale  milling, 
new   corn  or  other  grain  cannot  be  used,  for  the 

meal   from    it 


— -rfl"' 


Fig.  I. 


■< T- ■* 

—Economic  Corn- Crusher. 


would  keep 
sound  and  sweet 
but  a  few  days. 
A  h  a  n  d  mill, 
even  i  f  b  u  t  a 
large  coffee  mill, 
is  therefore  the 
means  of  a  great 
luxury  in  a 
household. 

Feed  Back. 
The  farmer, 
with  stock, 
should  always 
provide  himself 
with  a  feed  rack. 
It  may  be  of 
poles,  rails  or 
stakes  held  in 
place  by  laying 
a  pole  in  the 
rack,  or  spiking 
each  stake  to  the 
horizontal  pole. 
A  good  rack 
may  be  provided 


by  placing  stakes  between  fence-boards,  and  nail- 
ing a  two-inch  strip  between  them. 

Feed,   Steaming    and    Cooking.      Cooking 
food  for  live  stock  is  no  new  experiment.     It  has 

been  practiced  in 
all  countries  for 
years,  and  the 
universal  testi- 
mony is,  it  pays. 
It  is  estimated  by 
all  the  best  stock 
men  of  this 
c  o  u  n  tr )',  after 
years  of  experi- 
ence and  obser- 
vation, that  at 
least  one-third 
the  feed  is  saved 
by  steaming. 
Grain,  hay,  veg- 
e  t  a  b  1  e  s,  corn- 
stalks, and,  in 
fact,   all    sub- 

Vx^i.-r<m«gAm^anComandCobM,n.  ^^^^^^^    ^^^^     ^^ 

food   for  stock   are  greatly   improved   in   nutritive 
value  by  steaming. 

The  additional  cost  of  cooking  food  for   large 
lots  of  stock   is   only    about    one-seventh  of  the 


amount  saved  thereby.  With  the  proper  arrange- 
ments for  performing  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
work  by  power,  one  man  can  cook  for  and  feed 

loo  head  of 
cattle. 

The  fol- 
lowing  ad' 
vantages  for 
cooking 
f  o  o  d  have 
been  d  e- 
duced  from 
years  of  trial 
and  innum- 
erable ex- 
periments: 

It  has  a 
remarkable 
effect    upon 

Via.  L-Cast-Steel  Grinder.  muSty    hay, 

straw  and  corn-stalks,  rendering  them  sweet  and 
palatable.  Hay  which  animals  will  not  touch, 
unless  starved  to  it,  will  be  greedily  eaten  after 
cooking. 

This  effect  of 
steam    in     re- 
n  e  w  i  n  g   the 
flavor  of  dam- 
aged foodjsug- 
gested    the 
mixing  of  dif- 
ferent qualities 
to    produce    a 
proper  balance 
—  good    hay 
with     straw,         ^"''  ''■—'^'■""'•"t'  '•'"'■"  ^'''"'  """''  ""■ 
sliced   carrots,  turnips   and   beets,  with   poor  hay, 
etc.,  blending  their  qualities  and  sugar-coating  the 
less  palatable  and  coarser  ^forage,  so  that  a  larger 

proporti  on 
of  it  may  be 
eaten.  Ani- 
mals are 
much  less 
liable  to 
become 
clogged 
when  the 
feed  is  thus 
mixed,  than 
when  the 
rich  an  d 
palatable  is 
fed  separate- 
ly,and  thrive 
much  better 
or    mixing  of 


Fig.  i.—Corn  and  Feed  Mill. 

change   of 


food 


with    a    frequent 
different  kinds. 

The  purgative  tendency   of  fruits    and    roots  is 


FEED,  COOKING. 


445 


greatly  fliminished  by  cooking,  and  a  larger  quan- 
tity may  be  fed  with  impunity. 

Peas  and  beans,  rich  in  nitrogen,  as  well  as  pea 
and  bean  straw,  usually  virasted,  are  readily  eaten 
by  stock,  when  steamed.  Bean  strav/,  dry  and 
unpalatable  when  uncooked,  in  steaming  becomes 
soft  and  pulpy,  and  emits  an  agreeable  odor.  It  is 
rich  in  albuminous  matter,  making  it  especially 
valuable  for  milk-cows.  Bran  undergoes  a  great 
improvement  in  the  fla- 
vor in  steaming. 

This  system  is  admira- 
bly adapted  to  the  raising 
of  yoimg  stock,  making 
their  food  the  year  round 
as  soft  and  easily  masti- 
cated as  the  tender  herb- 
age of  spring,  and  thus 
obviating  all  the  troubles 
resulting  from  teething. 
With  it,  colts  and  calves 
are  uniformly  larger  and 
stronger  than  those  fed 
in  the  ordinary  way. 
Heifers  become  cows  at 
two  years  old,  saving  a 
year's  time  and  care. 

The  manure  m  a  d  e 
from  cooked  food  decom- 
poses more  rapidly,  and 
is  therefore  more  valua- 
ble than  when  used  in  a 
fresh  state. 

Cooked  ibod  will  cure 
incipient  heaves  and 
troublesome  coughs  in 
horses  more  effectually 
than  any  other  remedy. 

It  enables  fattening 
stock  to  eat  their  food 
with  less  labor,  and  saves 
one-third  of  the  time  re- 
quired to  fiitten  them. 

It  gives  work-horses 
time  to  eat  all  that  is 
necessary  in  the  intervals 
of  labor. 

The  season  for  making 
cheese  and  for  butter 
dairies,  dependent  upon  green  pasturage,  by  cooked 
food  might  easily  be  extended  from  seven  to  ten 
months. 

Cooking  is  a  complete  corrective  of  the  unhealth- 
fulness  of  mildew,  rot,  smut  and  other  diseases  *oi 
wheat,  grass,  corn,  etc. 

It  enables  the  feeder  to  use  everything  he  raises 
as  food  for  stock,  without  lessening,  but  rather 
improving  its  value  as  a  good  manure.  Steaming  is 
found  to  be  the  most   practical   and  economical  way 


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Via.  6.— Farm  Grist-MiU. 


of  cooking.  Any  arrangement  by  which  steam 
may  be  generated  under  the  slightest  pressure  re- 
quired to  make  it  permeate  the  mass  to  be  cooked 
and  conducted  to  the  vessel  in  which  the  steaming 
is  to  be  done,  will  answer  the  purpose. 

We  present  views  on  the  two  following  pages  of 
four  of  the  best  feed-steamers  now  made. 

The  various  operations  it  will  facilitate  makes  the 
steamer  especially  desirable  for  farmers.  For  cook- 
ing feed  it  is  superior  to  a 
kettle  or  cauldron,  as  it 
has  much  greater  capac- 
ity, performs  the  work 
more  quickly,  never 
burns  the  feed,  and  re- 
quires but  little  fuel. 
Hay  and  corn-stalks 
sh  o  u  1  d  be  wet,  and 
most  other  kinds  of 
feed  thoroughly  mixed 
with  water,  before 
steaming. 

By  protecting  the  cook- 
ing apparatus  from  frost 
or  cold,  using  a  tight 
heating  vessel  with  cover, 
and  not  over-cooking,  a 
waste  of  steam  will  be 
avoided,  thus  saving  a 
large  percentage  of  time 
and  fuel. 

The  Anderson  steamer. 
Fig.  I,  is  well  adapted 
for  cooking  food  for  all 
kinds  of  stock;  for  heat- 
ing milk  or  water  in 
cheese  factories  or  milk 
dairies;  for  heating  water 
or  rendering  tallow  for 
butchers'  use;  steaming 
cheese-box  material ;  or 
for  any  purpose  requir- 
ing a  light,  portable  and 
economical  boiler.  The 
cut  shows  the  steamer  as 
set  up  and  ready  for  use, 
and  shows  the  form 
of  float-box,  with  steam 
whistle  and  attachment 
food  may  be  cooked  in 
ordinary  barrels,  or  tight  water  vats  or  boxes  of  any 
suitable  size.  If  these  steamers  become  coated 
with  lime  scale  by  the  continued  use  of  hard  water, 
this  may  be  reinoved  by  using  soft  rain-water  for  a 
time,  which  detaches  and  dissolves  the  lime  scale, 
and  can  then  be  readily  rinsed  or  washed  out  of 
the  bottom  opening  left  for  that  pui'pose.  This  is 
important  to  hear  in  mind,  not  only  for  the  preser- 
vation of  the  boiler,  but  as  a  saving  of  fuel. 


belonging  with  it.     The 


I 


446 


FEEDING  ANIMALS. 


Dalley's  Steamer  and  Evajwrator  is  portable,  and  is 
very  simple  in  construction.  It  cooks  stock  feed,  heats 
water  for  scalding  hogs,  evaporates  cane  juice,  etc. 

It  consists  of  a  cast-iron  furnace,  arranged  to  burn 
coal  or  wood,  or  any  other  kind  of  fuel.     It  is  6  feet 


Fig.   % — The  Anderson  Steamer, 

long,  26  inches  wide,  and  open  flue,  which  gives  a 
12-foot  heating  surface.  The  steam-chest  is  6  feet 
and  4  inches  long,  28  inches  wide  at  the  face,  14 
inches  deep,  and  holds  10  bushels,  but  it  can  be  en- 
larged to  30  bushels.  This  steamer  is  made  of  wood 
encased  with  galvanized  iron;  has  a  perforated  bot- 
tom, which  is  placed  inside  the  steam-chest,  leaving 
space  underneath  for  about  six  pails 
of  water.  Cornstalks,  hay,  straw,  corn 
ia  the  ear,  shelled  corn,  or  meals, 
or  any  class  of  food  is  placed  in  the 
chest  above  the  perforated  bottom, 
the  cover  closed  and  the  fire  started. 
The  steam  rises  uniformly  through  the 
perforations  in  the  false  bottom  and 
cooks  the  mass  above  it.  The  steam- 
chest  can  easily  be  removed,  as  it  sits 
on  the  furnace  as  a  boiler  sits  on  a 
cook-stove,  and  in  the  place  of  the 
steam-chest,  a  pan  for  evaporating 
sugar  water  or  sorghum  can  be  used. 

reeding  Animals.  The  dietetic 
treatment  of  animals,  as  to  the  kinds, 
the  quantity,  the  frequency,  the  prep- 
aration, and  the  condition  of  their 
food,  and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  is  given, 
should  receive  the  zealous  attention  of  farmers,  and 
especially  those  engaged  in  stock-raising  to  any  ex- 
tent. The  sorts  of  food  proper  for  man  are  noticed  in 
ofar  articles  on  Food  and  Hygiene-  the    dietetic  treat- 


ment of  the  several  classes  of  farm  animals  is  noticed, 
in  our  articles  on  Cattle,  Ox,  Horse,  Sheep,  Hog,  etc. 
Though  the  topics  proper  to  the  present  article  might 
be  discussed  at  great  length,  and  pursued  through 
multitudes  of  ramifications,  yet,  to  prevent  wasteful 
repetition,  they  must  be  restricted  within  such  limits 
as  shall  not  invade  those  of  any  of  the  articles  named. 
The  General  Principles  of  Feeding.  A  pre- 
vailing law  in  all  proper  feeding  of  animals,  but  one 
which  in  several  instances  is  grossly  violated  in  the 
dietetic  treatment  of  live  stock  of  multitudes  of  farms, 
is  the  use  of  as  large  a  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
principles  as  shall  maintain  the  normal  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  assimilations  and  secretions  of  the 
animal  system.  Nitrogen  is  emphatically  the  char- 
acteristic element  of  both  animal  organism  and  animal 
aliment,  not  only  in  the  case  of  carnivorous  animals, 
but  in  the  case  also  of  herbivorous,  and  especially  of 
the  granivorous ;  and  whenever  it  is  not  present  in 
due  quantity  in  the  food  of  any  animal,  they  cease  to 
acquire  substance,  begin  to  lose  strength,  and  eventu- 
ally lose  constitutional  vigor  and  healthiness,  and 
sink  into  emaciation  and  death.  The  increase  of  the 
mass  of  the  body,  the  development  of  its  organs, 
and  the  supply  of  waste  are  all  dependent  on  the 
blood,  that  is,  on  the  ingredients  of  the  blood ;  and 
those  substances  only  can  properly  be  called  nutritious, 
or  considered  food,  which  are  capable  of  conversion 
into  blood.  To  determine,  therefore,  what  substances 
are  capable  of  affording  nourishment,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  the  composition  of  the  food,  and  to 
compare  it  with  the  ingredients  of  the  blood.  But 
the  chief  ingredients  of  the  blood  contain  nearly  1 7 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen ;  and  no  part  of  any  organ  of  the 
body  contains  less  ;  and  animals  can  not  be  fed  on 
matters  destitute  of  nitrogenized  constituents.  But 
vegetable  fibrine,  vegetable  albumen,  and  caseine  are 


Fig.  x.—New   Triumph  Steamer, 

the  true  nitrogenized  constituents  of  the  food  of 
granivorous  animals.  These  three  principles  contain 
the  same  elements  in  the  same  proportion  by  weight, 
and  are  identical  in  comjxjsition  with  animal  fil^rine 
and  animal  albumen,  the  nitrogenized  and  most  im- 


FEEDING  ANIMALS. 


447 


portant  constituents  of  the  blood.  Vegetable  fibrine 
and  vegetable  albumen,  in  fact,  hardly  differ  from 
animal  fibrine  and  animal  albumen  even  in  form;  and 
the  former  are  simply  the  latter  in  a  state  exterior  to 
the  animal  system,  and  of  an  elaboration  independ- 
ently of  it,  and  of  thorough  preparedness,  under  the 
benign  arrangements  of  the  Creator,  to  be  taken  into 
it  for  its  appropriation  and  supix)rt.  When,  therefore, 
the  nitrogenous  principles  are  wanting  in  the  stated 
food  of  animals,  the  very  flesh  and  blood  must  die  out 
for  want  of  aliment ;  and  when  these  principles  are  in 
deficient  quantity,  the  flesh  and  blood  will  fail  ex- 
actly in  the  proportion  of  the  deficiency. 

An  important  and  familiar  illustration  of  this  rule, 
quite  sufficient  to  show  the  necessity  of  attention  to  it 
in  all  the  departments  of  feeding  live-stock,  is  afforded 
by  the  alimenting  of  sheep  or  cattle  upon  turnips.  • 
The  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  principles  in  turnips 
is  enough  to  prevent  any  perceptible  diminution  of 
strength,  and  even  enough  to  promote  a  certain  degree 
of  growth  and  healthiness,  but  not  near  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  maximum  or  even  a  normal  development  of 
bulk  and  energy  in  the  animal  system;  so  that  sheep 
fed  on  turnips  can  not  duly  thrive,  and  will  not  favor- 


FlG.  3. — Dalleys^  Stock  Foot  Steamer  and  Evaporator, 

ably  fatten  unless  they  receive  also  a  jwrtion  of  the 
cereal  grasses. 

Another  pervading  law  in  all  proper  feeding  of  ani- 
mals, and  one  which  has  been  grievously  overlooked 
in  almost  all  experiments  for  ascertaining  the  relative 
effects  upon  cattle  of  different  kinds  of  food,  is  main- 
taining such  a  warmth  by  shelter  during  the  cold 
season  of  the  year  as  shall  prevent  a  wasteful  expen- 
diture of  animal  heat  by  radiation  into  the  atmos- 
phere, and  therefore  a  wasteful  expenditure  of  aliment 
in  producing  volumes  of  heat  in  lieu  of  those  lost  by 
radiation.  The  living  system  of  animals  constantly 
accumulate  large  quantities  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
from  their  food,  the  mutual  acrion  of  oxygen  and  these 
elements  of  food  is  supix)sed  to  be  the  chemical  ac- 
companiment of  their  vital  heat;  and  the  dissipation 
of  the  carbon  and  part  of  the  hydrogen  from  the  blood 
by  oxygenizement  or  the  formation  and  expulsion  of 
carbonic  acid  and  aqueous  vajwr,  are  supposed  to  be 
the  chemical  accompaniment  of  respiration ;  so  that 
the  amount  of  nourishment  required  by  the  Snimal 
body,  or  at  least  of  the  carbonaceous  and  hydrogenous 
elements  of  nutrition,  is  theoretically  assumed  and  has 
been  practically  tested,  to  be  proix)rtionate  to  the  ex- 
penditure of  heat  generated  within  the  system,  whether 


that  expenditure  have  the  form  of  accelerated  breath- 
ing and  increased  perspiration  occasioned  by  the 
relative  low  temperature  of  the  surrounding  air.  The 
clothes  of  the  man  and  the  shelter  of  the  brutes,  there- 
fore, serve  in  winter  as  an  equivalent  for  a  certain 
amount  of  food.  The  more  warmly  men  are  clothed 
and  brutes  are  sheltered,  within  certain  limits,  the  less 
food  will  they  consume ;  and  the  less  protected  they 
are  from  the  colds  of  the  winter,  also  within  certain 
limits,  the  more  food  do  they  require.  "  If  we  were  to 
go  naked  like  certain  savage  tribes,  or  if  in  hunting  or 
fishing  we  were  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  cold 
as  the  Samoyedes,  we  should  be  able  with  ease  to 
consume  ten  pounds  of  flesh,  and  perhaps  a  dozen 
tallow  candles  into  the  bargain  daily,"  as  warmly  clad 
travelers  have  related  of  these  people.  We  should 
then  be  able  to  take  the  same  quantity  of  brandy  or 
train-oil  without  bad  effects,  because  the  carbon  and 
the  hydrogen  of  these  substances  would  only  suffice 
to  keep  up  the  equilibrium  between  the  external  tem- 
perature and  that  of  our  bodies. 

As  the  fattening  of  animals  has  become  a  matter 
of  dollars  and  cents  to  the  farmer,  and  as  economy  is 
at  the  base  of  all  success,  it  becomes  important  that 
he  should  make  every  pound  of  fat  at 
the  least  possible  cost.  Much  of  the 
food  the  animal  eats  is  consumed  in 
warming  the  atmosphere  which  sur- 
rounds it,  which  would  not  be  needed  if 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  was 
70°  or  80".  Now,  the  question  is,  Can 
we  not  warm  the  atmosphere  around  our 
stock  with  cheaper  material  than  corn.'* 
In  1859  corn  was  burned  in  Illinois  in- 
stead of  coal,  to  warm  dwellings  ;  but  an 
equal  vandalism  is  committed  in  feeding 
it  to  stock  exjx)sed  to  inclementweather.  Of  course 
all  stock  should  be  protected  from  severe  winter  winds 
and  storms,  yet  this  is  not  enough,  for  even  a  quiet 
atmosphere,  if  very  cold,  requires  a  vast  amount  of 
food  to  keep  it  warm  around  the  animal. 

The  fact  is,  farmers  do  not  stop  to  count  the  cost  of 
raising  corn,  or  what  might  be  saved  in  money  by  in- 
telligent feeding.  They  feed  grain  without  calcula- 
tion as  to  profit.  If  they  think  they  have  made  money 
on  the  season's  operation  it  is  all  right ;  otherwise  "  the 
season  was  bad,"  "the  crops  poor,  "  or  something  was 
wrong.  The  result  is  charged  to  Providence,  when  it 
is  only  the  indifference  or  ignorance  of  the  farmer 
himself. 

Our  suggestion  then,  is,  that  animals  be  kept  in 
warm,  well-ventilated  houses  of  such  temperature  as 
would  be  comfortable  for  human  beings  to  live  in. 
These  buildings  should  be  heated  with  coal  or  wood, to 
warm  the  atmosphere  around  the  stock  and  prevent 
it  from  exhausting  the  heat  from  their  bodies.  All 
the  heat  extracted  from  an  animal  by  a  cold  atmos- 
phere costs  money,  and  is  a  useless  waste  of  food,  for 
the  heat  can  be  supplied  with  fuel  at  a  much  less 
cost.  A  sheep  or  hog  will  consume  about  as  much 
air  as  a  man,  hence  would  require  about  the  same 


448 


FEELING— FELLING. 


facilities  for  ventilation,  while  a  cow  will  consume  at 
least  as  much. 

If  the  following  rules  are  observed  by  the  farmer  in 
feeding  his  stock,  he  will  find  they  will  thrive  and  fat- 
ten much  quicker,  and  with  less  food,  than  did  he 
ignore  all  the  essential  principles  : 

1.  Very  young  animals  require  large  quantities  of 
phosphate  of  lime  for  bone  formation.  This  is  found 
more  largely  in  milk  than  in  any  other  food. 

2.  Growing  animals  require  not  only  bone  forma- 
tion, but  the  production  of  muscle  and  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  fat.  The  grasses,  roots  and  grains  supply 
these. 

3.  Horses,  cattle  and  sheep  should  be  given  hay 
always,  when  fed  with  roots  or  grain. 

4.  Fattening  animals  should  have  an  abundance 
of  food  abounding  in  vegetable  oils  or  fat,  starch  and 
sugar.  Com,  probably,  contains  the  several  ingredi- 
ents in  the  best  proix)rtion  for  fattening  purposes. 
The  potato  contains  a  large  amount  of  starch,  and  the 
beet  has  large  quantities  of  sugar,  and  both  may  be 
fed  with  hay. 

5.  A  mixture  of  food  is  always  desirable,  especially 
in  fattening  animals.  This  will  be  a  perpetual  stimu- 
lant to  the  appetite. 

6.  Such  a  system  of  feeding  and  sheltering  should 
be  adopted  as  will  keep  the  animals  in  a  constantly 
improving  condition.  They  should  not  be  permitted 
to  rise  and  fall  in  condition  with  the  changes  of  the 
season. 

Feeling,  one  of  the  five  external  senses,  by  which 
we  obtain  the  idea  of  solid,  hard,  soft,  rough,  hot,  cold, 
wet,  dry  and  other  tangible  qualities.  It  is  the  most 
universal  of  all  the  senses.  We  see  and  hear  with 
small  portions  of  our  bodies,  but  we  feel  with  all. 
Nature  has  bestowed  that  general  sensation  wherever 
there  are  nerves,  and  they  are  everywhere  where  there  is 
life.  Were  it  otherwise,  the  parts  divested  of  it  might  be 
destroyed  without  our  knowledge.  It  seems  that  upon 
this  account  nature  has  provided  that  this  sensation 
should  not  require  a  particularorganization.  Thestruc- 
ture  of  the  nervous  papillae  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  it.  The  lips  of  a  fresh  wound,  the  periosteum,  and 
the  tendons,  when  uncovered,  are  extremely  sensible 
without  them.  _  These  nervous  extremities  serve  only 
to  the  perfection  of  feeling,  and  to  diversify  sensa- 
tion. Like  every  other  sense,  feeling  is  capable  of 
the  greatest  improvement ;  thus  we  see  that  persons 
born  without  arms  acquire  the  nicest  feeling  in  their 
toes ;  and  in  blind  people  this  sense  becomes  so  much 
developed  that  persons  born  blind,  and  acquiring  the 
faculty  of  sight  in  after  life,  for  a  long  time  depend 
rather  on  their  feeling  than  their  sight,  because  they 
receive  _  clearer  ideas  through  the  former  sense.  A 
person  in  this  condition,  who  could  not  remember  the 
difference  of  things  if  he  only  saw  them,  as  soon  as  he 
touched  them  distinguished  them  perfectly  well.  Feel- 
ing is  the  most  common  of  all  the  senses,  as  it  exists 
in  all  creatures  which  have  any  sense  at  all ;  even 
some  plants  show  a  sensibility  to  touch.  Many  ani- 
mals have  no  sense  but  that  of  feeling. 


Feet.  The  care  of  the  feet  is  so  important  that  a 
complete  volume  on  the  subject  has  recently  been 
published.  We  will  attempt  here  to  give  a  con- 
densed statement  of  the  most  important  considera- 
tions. Wash  them  every  night,  especially  if  inclined 
to  sweat.  If  abnormally  given  to  sweating  and  cold- 
ness, wear  cotton  socks  next  to  the  skin,  changing  them, 
in  severe  cases,  several  times  a  day ;  or  mix  together 
7  ounces  carbonate  of  magnesia,  2  ounces  calcined 
alum,  powdered,  7  ounces  orris  root  and  J^  drachm 
IxDwdered  cloves,  and  cover  the  feet  with  this  in  the 
morning.  An  offensive  smell  may  be  corrected  by 
bathing  them  in  a  weak  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potassa,  I  scruple  to  8  ounces  of  water.  Cold  feet 
should  have  a  great  deal  of  friction,  and  it  is  unfortu- 
nate for  such  a  person  if  he  has  a  sedentary  occupa- 
■  tion.  To  cure  slight  frost-bites  rub  with  a  cold  flannel 
or  with  the  hands,  avoiding  fire  heat,  or  even  a  warm 
room.  To  relieve  the  itching  caused  by  frost-bites, 
wash  the  feet  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  a  solution 
of  I  ounce  hydrochloric  acid  to  7  ounces  rain-water. 
To  remedy  blistered  feet  from  long  walking,  rub  them, 
on  going  to  bed,  with  spirits  mixed  with  tallow  dropped 
from  a  hghted  candle  into  the  palm  of  the  hand.  In- 
growing toe-nails  are  caused,  generally,  by  trimming 
around  the  comers  too  closely.  When  the  case  has 
become  so  bad  that  tender  or  proud  flesh  is  formed, 
apply  to  the  part  a  small  quanrity  of  perchloride  of 
iron ;  this  causes  some  pain,  but  it  will  be  sure  to  kill 
the  flesh,  which,  two  or  three  weeks  afterward,  can  be 
soaked  soft  and  pared  off.  To  prevent  the  nails  from 
growing  in,  scrape  the  tops  of  them  very  thin  with  a 
piece  of  broken  glass,  and  do  not  trim  them  close 
around  the  corners.  To  prevent  all  troubles  gener- 
ally, wear  shoes  two  or  three  sizes  larger  than  fashion 
would  dictate,  vnth  soft  uppers  and  thick  soles. 
Leather  is  not  so  healthful  for  the  feet  as  some  vege- 
table material  would  be,  but  it  seems  the  world  has 
not  yet  thought  of  making  vegetable  shoes.  See 
Bunions,  Chilblains  and  Corns. 

Feline  Animals,  carnivorous  animals  furnished 
with  sharp  incisor  teeth  and  retractile  claws,  as  the 
cat,  lion,  panther,  tiger,  etc. 

Felloe,  or  Felly,  one  of  the  pieces  of  the  rim  of  a 
wagon  wheel  into  which  the  spokes  are  inserted. 

Felling,  the  cutting  down  of  trees.  The  common 
methods  of  felling  are  simply  to  hew  with  the  ax,  to 
cut  with  the  cnass-cutUng  saw,  or  to  alternate  or  com- 
bine the  action  of  these  two  instmments.  But  a 
superior  method,  in  the  case,  at  least,  of  all  large, 
straight,_  and  valuable  trees,  is  to  employ  the  saw,  and 
to  combine  with  its  action  the  use  of  the  wedge.  In 
order  to  make  the  tree  fall  the  way  required,  enter  the 
cross-cut,  say,  on  that  side  of  the  tree  it  is  intended 
to  fal^  and  cut  it  about  a  third  part  through ;  then 
enter  the  saw  on  the  other  side,  and  when  it  is  cut  so 
far  as  to  admit  a  wedge,  place  the  wedge  exactly  op- 
ixjsite  to  the  way  you  want  the  tree  to  fall,  and  keep 
dnvmg  it  closely  undl  the  tree  is  nearly  cut  through. 
Be  sure  the   saw  meets  the  opposite   cut  equally  on 


FELON— FENCE. 


449 


both  sides ;  and  do  not  imagine,  as  some  have  done, 
that  by  making  the  saw  meet  sooner  through  the  one 
side  than  the  other,  the  tree  will  fall  to  the  side  soon- 
est met  or  first  cut  through ;  on  the  contrary,  the  side 
of  the  tree  longest  in  being  cut  is  that  side  to  which 
the  tree  will  naturally  fall.  Every  tree,  in  being 
felled,  ought,  for  the  sake  of  the  value  of  the  timber, 
and  also  for  other  considerations,  to  be  cut  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  ground.  All  young  trees  and  all  con- 
stitutionally soft  trees,  in  fact,  ought  to  be  felled  about 
midwinter,  when  little  or  no  albumen  exists ;  and  all 
old  and  constitutionally  hard  trees  may,  generally 
speaking,  be  economically  felled  at  almost  any  time  of 
the  year.  A  tree  about  to  be  felled  ought  to  be  care- 
fully divested  of  any  arm  or  branch  which  may  be  at 
all  likely  to  occasion  damage  to  it  in  its  fall.  '  Any 
very  large  bough  should  be  chopped  or  nicked  one- 
third  through  close  to  the  junction  with  the  trunk,  by 
strokes  of  the  ax  below ;  and  if  then  struck  with  a  few 
downright  strokes  on  the  upper  side,  it  will  be  severed 
without  splitting.  A  clear  place  for  the  fall  of  the 
tree  should  be  selected,  such  as  will  prevent  it  from 
damaging  other  trees,  or  from  impairing  shrubs,  fences 
or  other  objects  by  its  fall;  and  the  felling  process 
should  be  so  performed  as  to  make  the  tree  descend 
through  this  space.  Careless  woodmen,  in  conse- 
quence of  taking  insufficient  precaution  to  guide  the 
fall  or  of  hewing  into  the  stem  without  due  reference 
to  the  proper  point  of  upsetting  the  equilibrium,  often 
perpetrate  very  serious  and  costly  damage.  A  com- 
mon precaution  in  the  case  of  any  considerable  tree 
in  a  somewhat  crowded  situation,  is  to  attach  ropes  to 
its  upper  parts  by  means  of  climbing-boys  or  a  ladder, 
and  to  have  the  ropes  pulled  by  one  or  more  assistants 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  tree  is  intended  to  fall. 
The  stuinp  or  stool  of  a  tree  is  that  part  which  re- 
mains in  the  ground  after  felling;  and  this,  in  some 
instances,  dies  away,  in  others  makes  shoots  which 
can  be  coaxed  up  into  new  trees;  and  in  others  is 
grubbed  up  or  otherwise  artificially  destroyed,  to  make 
way  for  the  passage  of  the  plow.  The  stools  of  some 
trees,  such  as  those  of  many  of  the  pine  tribe,  never 
send  out  shoots ;  and  the  shoots  of  others,  such  as 
those  of  oak  and  ash  trees,  readily  send  out  each  from 
ten  to  twenty  shoots. 

Pelon  (fel'on),  or  Whitlow,  a  very  painful  in- 
flammation of  the  fingers  or  toes;  usually  of  the  last 
joint,  commencing  near  the  bone,  and  pressing  out  the 
flesh  with  more  or  less  rupture.  The  following 
remedies  are  recommended :  A  small  piece  of  calfs 
rennet  soaked  in  milk,  occasionally  renewed;  kero- 
sene, thoroughly  applied ;  salt  roasted  within  a  folded 
cabbage-leaf  and  pulverized;  soap  salve,  or  lye;  i»ke- 
root  roasted  and  put  on  hot ;  blister  with  cantharides 
for  six  hours,  and  therf  extract  the  core  with  a  needle 
or  lancet;  poultice  with  a  mixture  of  soft  soap  and 
yolk  of  egg  in  equal  quanrities,  with  a  little  salt  and 
turpentine,  and  so  on  world  without  end.  Perhaps 
the  virtue  of  all  these  consist  simply  in  producing  the 
most  comfortable  temperature,  which  can  be  as  well 

29 


done  with  water.     Anodyne  ointments   will   mitigate 
the  pain, 

Telt,  a  cloth  or  stuff  made  of  wool,  or  wool  and 
fur,  fulled  or  wrought  into  a  compact  substance  by 
rolling  and  pressure,  with  lees  or  size.  Hats,  pack- 
ing, lining,  etc.,  are  someUmes  made  of  this  kind  of 
stuff. 

Fence,  the  defensive  work  of  an  enclosure,  or  a 
protection  of  any  kind  around  a  garden,  field,  forest 
or  any  other  defined  and  separated  piece  of  land. 
Fencing  is  a  cause  of  great  cost  and  annoyance  to  the 
farmer.  Besides  the  first  cost  they  need  yearly  re- 
pairs. How  to  fence,  what  is  the  best  and  cheapest 
material,  is  always  a  vital  question  with  the  agricul- 
turist. Farms  should  be  encumbered  with  fence  as 
little  as  possible,  because  it  occupies  valuable  land 
that  might  be  otherwise  productive;  they  promote  a 
selvage  of  weeds  along  the  fields ;  they  are  an  ob- 
struction to  plowing  and  other  work  requiring  the 
turning  about  of  teams;  they  bother  about  driving 
across  the  farm  ;  they  require  the  construction  of  gates 
or  bars,  both  of  which  in  the  opening  and  shutting 
consume  a  great  deal  of  time,  besides  constantly  get- 
ring  out  of  repair.  A  half  mile  of  fence  is  a  half 
acre  lost  for  cultivating  purposes.  A  good,  lawful 
fence  around  the  farm  is,  of  course,  indispensable. 
Pastures  and  barnyards  must  be  fenced,  though  there 
has  of  late  years  sprung  up  an  advocacy  of  the  rail- 
ing system  of  feeding  stock,  which,  if  fiilly  adopted 
on  a  farm,  would  do  away  with  thenecessity  of  fences 
elsewhere  than  around  the  buildings  for  yards.  In 
many  sections  of  the  Western  States,  especially  west 
of  the  Missouri  river,  fencing  is  in  great  part  super- 
seded by  tethering,  herding  and  corraling ;  but  as  the  - 
country  becomes  older  and  more  densely  settled, 
farmers  wish  to  pasture  one  part  of  their  farm  while 
cropping  another;  hence  general  fencing  is  adopted 
at  last. 

There  are  two  general  kinds  of  fences — those  made 
of  dead  material,  like  wood,  stone  and  wire,  and  live 
fences,  or  hedges. 

The  primitive  fence  in  this  country  is  the  log  and 
brush  fence,  which  is  constructed  on  timbered  land  by 
cutting  down  trees  in  line  with  the  proposed  barrier, 
forming  a  windrow,  and  lopping  the  limbs  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  make  the  fence  complete  against  stock. 
SomeUmes,  where  it  is  desired  to  use  the  bodies  of 
the  trees,  brush  only  is  used;  then  branches  or  under- 
growth can  be  udlized. 

In  all  rocky  districts,  stone  fences  have  been  used, 
and,  besides  being  durable,  they  provide  a  profitable 
way  to  disiMse  of  the  obstructions  upon  the  land. 

Stump  fences  came  into  use  in  all  timbered  States 
when  farmers  began  to  pull  the  stumps  by  machines. 
They  are  an  effectual  barrier,  and  dispose  of  the 
stumps,  but  are  uncouth,  and  occupy  too  much  land, 
harboring  too  many  weeds. 

Rail  Fences.  "  Snake"  and  straight,  or  post  and  rail, 
are  the  most  common  in  all  timbered  countries.  Of 
this  kind  the  staked  and  ridered  is  the   best.     To 


45° 


FENCE. 


make  this  kind  of  fence,  place  foundation  stones,  or 
blocks,  to  keep  the  lower  rail  off  the  ground,  and  then 
be  sure  that  each  successive  rail,  at  the  bearing,  lies 
solidly  ujx)n,  and  directly  over,  the  one  below,  making 
a  secure  bearing  by  cutting  a  slight  notch  in  the  top 
of  the  rail,  where  the  next  rail  above  is  to  be  laid  on. 
The  rails  are  laid  at  different  angles ;  some  deflecting 
six  feet,  some  seven, 
and  some  eight  feet 
from  a  right  line.  The 
more  they  deflect,  or 
in  other  words,  the 
"crookeder"  they  are 
laid,  the  firmer  the 
fence  will  be,  but  more 
space  will  be  taken  up 
and  more  rails  required.  Fig.  i. 

The  deflection  for  a  twelve-foot  rail  is  usually  six  feet ; 
for  fourteen-foot  and  for  a  rail  a  rod  long,  eight  feet. 
A  foot  is  generally  allowed  at  each  end  for  the  lap. 

The  rails  of  this  kind  of  a 
fence  are  cut  different 
lengths  in  different  local- 
ities, even  in  the  same 
neighborhood,  farmers  be- 
ing governed  by  the  tim- 
ber they  have,  and  the 
kind  of  ground  upon  which 
EiG.  ■2.  the  fence  is   to  be    laid. 

Some  cut  them  12  feet,  some  14  feet  and  others  even 
16  J^  feet  or  one  rod  in  length.  The  ordinary  lengths 
are  12  and  14  feet  rails,  and 
may  be  made  of  any  kind 
of  oak,  black  walnut,  black 
and  white  oak,  elm  ^nd 
hickory.  Some  fences  are 
built  5  rails  high,  some  6, 
and  some  7 ,  the  rider  mak- 
ing an  additional  rail  high. 
A  rail  fence  40  rods  long,  8  rails  high,  requires  800 
rails,  the  rails  being  reckoned  at  loj^  feet  in  length 

and  4  inches  square,  mak- 
ing the  timber  in  that 
amount  of  fence  equal  to 
10,700  feet  of  lumber. 
The  number  of  rails, 
stakes  and  riders  required 
to  build  a  certain  amount 
of  fence  has  hitherto  been 
pretty  much  guess-work; 
and  often  the  farmer,  be- 
fore he  can  finish  his  fence,  has  to  quit  it,  and  go  and 
split  more  rails,  or  gear  up  and  haul  a  few  more  loads. 
The  number  of  rails  can  be  exactly  calculated  by 
constructing,  either  in  fact  or  theoretically  on  paper, 
two  such  panels  as  are  desired,  and  dividing  the  to- 
tal distance,  in  feet,  by  the  number  of  feet  these  pan- 
els occupy,  and  multiplying  the  quotient  by  the 
number  of  rails  in  the  two  panels.  The  following 
table  enables  one  to  tell  within  a  few  rails  how  many 


Fig.  3. 


will  be  required   to  build  a   given  amount  of  fence. 
Table  showing  the  number  of  rails,  stakes  and  rid- 
ers required  for  each  ten  rods  of  fence : 


r 

D 

s 

^ 

■2.0 

2.3- 
0 

2: 

2; 

1 

0 

I. 

3 

S  3 
2.S- 

0 

Number  of  rails  for  each  lo  rods. 

S  3 
It 

0 

■2.0 

5  raili 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

high. 

high. 

high. 

12 

6 

8 

20« 

103 

123 

J44 

42 

21 

M 

7 

10 

16H 

83 

99 

116 

34 

17 

\b% 

8 

12 

I3K 

69 

84 

95 

28 

14 

""C^^^^^^^^^n 


Fig. 


Note. — Should  the  number  of  rods  exceed  10,  the 
requisite  number  of  rails,  stakes  and  riders  can  be 
found  by  multiplying.  For  instance,  should  the 
length  offence  be  100  rods,  multiply  the  above  num- 
ber by  10;  should  it  be  75  rods,  multiply  the  above 
number  by  75^;  for  77  rods,  multiply  by  7  7-10,  and 
so  forth. 

We  illustrate 
by  Fig.  I  an  ex- 
cellent mode  of 
staking  a  rail 
fence.  Staking 
the  wromers  by 
projecting  rails 
gives  an  un- 
sightly appear- 
ance, and  is 
particularly  ob- 
jectionable for 
plowing,  as  it  considerably  increases  the  waste  of 
ground.  More  symmetry  and  neatness  besides  the 
saving  of  the  ground  is  secured  in  this  way.  After 
the  foundation  has  been  put  down  the  stakes  should 
be  driven.  Holes  to  the  depth  of  20  inches  should 
be  made  ynth.  a  crowbar  before  beginning  to  drive  the 
stakes. 

We  illustrate 
by  Figs.  2,  3,  4, 
5,  6  and  7  the 
most  approved 
ways  of  building 
zigzag,  or  stake- 
and-  idered 
fences.  Fig.  5 
represents  an  ex- 
cellent plan  for 
bracing  a  rail  fence,  whether  it  be  staked  and  ridered, 
or  staked  and  capped,  locked  and  ridered,  staked  and 
wired,  or  wired  and  pinned,  all  of  which  kinds  offences 

are  liable  to  be  blown  down 
by  heavy  winds.  Place 
upon  the  inside  leeward  cor- 
ner a  piece  of  rail,  one  end 
resting  upon  the  ground, 
theotherplaced  underneath 
the  third  rail  from  the  top. 
Fig.  7.  Fig.  6  illustrates  the  mode 

of  building  a  rail  fence  up)on  a  hillside. 


Fig.  6. 


FENCE. 


451 


Fig  8. 


Post  and  Rail  Fences.     These  are  perhaps  more 
economical  in  the  long  run  than  the  zigzag  fence. 

They  cos  t 
more  but 
wasteless 
land  and  gen- 
erally  last 
longer.  The 
rails  for  these 
fences  are  cut 
^y**"  of  different 
lengths.  A 
foot  at   each 

end  should  be  allowed  for  the  lap.     They  are  from  five 

to  eight  rails  high  and  the 
posts  are  set  in  the  ground 
from  two  to  three  feet.  We 
illustrate  by  Figs.  8  and  9 
two  of  the  best  plans  of 
building  these  fences. 
When  well  built  they  will 
Fig.  9.  be  found  to  be  both  dura- 

ble and  neat:  besides,  they  do  not  consume  anything 
like  the  room  of  the  zigzag  fence. 

Table  showing  the  number  of  rails  and  posts  re- 
quired for  each  ten  rods  of  post  and  rail  fence. 


r 

0 

c 
3 

c 
3 

Number  of  rails 

or  each  lo  rods. 

s 
tn 

5* 

u. 

C^ 

^ 

» 

0 

—1 

■0 

0 

"* 

I. 

P 

p 

M_ 

V 

3 

•g 

•-* 

3- 

'1 

XT' 

3- 

1 

) 

3 

to' 

TO 

TO 

I 

t 

f 

p* 

123 

lO 

8 

20^8 

21 

103 

144 

•«5 

12 

10 

^t% 

17 

83 

99 

116 

'33 

14 

12 

nVA 

H 

69 

84 

95 

109 

16^ 

14H 

^^'A 

12 

57 

6g 

Si 

93 

Note.— Should  the  length  exceed  10  rods,  multi- 
ply as  for  the  preceding  table. 

Board  Fences.  These  are  the  most  common  fences 
used  upon  the  prairies  of  the  West.  Where  timber  is 
plenty  and  saw  mills  abound,  or  where  lumber  is  cheap, 
post  and  board  fences  are  preferable  to  any  other. 
The  boards  are  usually  sawed  1 6  feet  fong  and  the 
posts  set  eight  feet  apart.  They  are  generalljjpnade 
five  boards  high,  the  uppermost  space  being  10 
inches  wide,  the  second  eight,  the  third  six,  and  the 
fourth  and  fifth  five  inches  wide.  They  may  vary  in 
width,  however,  as  cost,  taste,  or  use  may  dictate.  The 
first,  third  and  fifth  boards  are  joined  on  one  post  and 

the  second  and  fourth  joined 

on  the  next.  We  show  by 
Figs.  10  and  11  two  excel- 
lent styles  of  a  post  and 
board  fence. 

The  best  timber  for  posts 
in  the  order  of  its  durability 
is  red  cedar,  catalpa,  Osage 
^■<^-  '°-  orange,  honey  locust,  black 

walnut,  white  oak  and  chestnut.     The  posts  should  be 


Fig. 


placed  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  below  the  sur- 
face, in  the  center  of  a  large  hole  and  surrounded  by 
fine  stone,  which  should  be  well  pounded  down  by  a 
heavy  iron-shod  rammer,  as  they  are  filled  in.  The 
posts  will  not  stand  as  firmly  at  first  as  if  surrounded 
by  dirt,  but  they  will  last  much  longer.  The  lower 
end  should  be  pointed,  which  prevents  it  heaving  with 
the  frost.  If  the  post  while  in  the  tree  be  reversed, 
or  the  upper  end  of  the 
split  section  of  the  trunk 
which  is  used  for  a  jwst  be 
placed  in  the  earth  it  will 
be  more  durable.  Charring 
or  practically  burning  the 
part  of  the  post  which  is 
buried,  will  add  to  its  duration :  so,  also,  will  imbed- 
ding it  in  ashes,  lime,  charcoal, or  clay.  In  charring, 
the  posts  should  be  thoroughly  seasoned  and  dried, 
else  the  protective  process  will  cause  decay  to  go  on  fast- 
er than  if  nothing  had  been  done.  Poisoning  the  ends 
of  the  TOSts  by  dipping  them  in  a  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate  (i  part  to  50  parts  of  water),  or  by  boring  a 
hole  into  them  and  plugging  up  arsenic,  corrosive  sub- 
limate or  other  subtle  poisons  therein,  prevents  decay 
and  the  working  of  worms  and  grubs. 

Sawed  [XDSts  should  be  cut  about  the  first  of  August 
and  as  soon  as  convenient  and  before  the  wood  borer 
attacks  it,  taken  to  the  sawmill  and  sawed  into  posts 
suitable  for  the  fence  to  be  built ;  and  be  sure  and  have 
some  mark  by  which  to  determine  which  is  the  butt 
end  of  the  post  before  it  is  treated  and  set.  After  be- 
ing sawn  they  should  be  piled  and  thoroughly  seasoned 
through  before  preparation.  Then  the  ixjrtion  to  enter 
the  ground,  which  is  always  that  portion  or  end  of  the 
post  opposite  the  butt  of  the  tree,  and  four  to  six  inches 
of  the  wood  above  the  ground,  should  be  treated  as 
above  directed  or  have  a  good  thick  coat  of  coal  tar 
applied. 

A  post-hole  digger,  as   illus- 
trated by  Fig.  1 2,  is  a  very  con- 
venient tool  to  have  on  the  farm, 
especially    where      any    great 
amount  of  fence  is  to  be  built. 
Fig  13  shows  the  post-hole 
digger  in  use.     It  works   per- . 
fectly  everywhere    except    in^ 
stony   ground,   where  nothingl 
hut  the  spade  and  ladle  will! 
work.     In  clayey  ground,  freei 
from  boulders,  the  ground   au- 
ger is  in  common  use.  i,, .  ^^.—Dig. 

In  order  to  find  the  num-  «"'  "'  ^"' 
ber  of  feet  of  boards  required  for  each  rod 
of  fence,  add  the  different  widths  of  the 
boards,  in  inches,  together,  and  divide  the 
sum  by  12  for  the  width  in  feet;  then  multiply  the 
width  by  i6}4  and  the  product  will  be. the  number 
of  feet,  board  measure,  required  for  each  rod  of  fence. 
To  find  the  number  of  posts  required  for  a  given 
length  of  this  kind  of  fence,  reduce  the  number  of 
rods  to  feet  by  multiplying  by  i6j^    and   divide   the 


452 


FENCE. 


product  by  the  number  of  feet  the  posts  are  set  apart ; 
the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  posts  required. 

From  the  following  table  any  one  can  calculate  the 
cost  of  a  board  fence  for  any  given  distance.  The  fig- 
ures denotes  the  number  of  feet,  board  measure. 


Number  of 
boards  high. 

One  Mile. 

One-Half  Mile. 

One-Fourth 
Mile. 

One 

Two 

Three 

Four 

Fire. 

2640 
5280 
7920 
10560 
13200 

1320' 
2640 
3960 
5280 
6600 

66a 

1320 
1980 
2640 
3300 

UMIDIMMIIIM 


Picket  Fences,  except  to  enclose  the  yard  about 
the  dwelling  house  and  in  making  hen  parks,  are  but 

'cause   of  the   expense.     Fig. 

14  is  an  illustration  of  a  picket 

fence,   which,  when   painted, 

will  make  a  neat  and  substan- 

F.G.  z.^.-Pickit  Fittct.      tial  one  for  the  yard. 

Hedge  Fences.  For  centuries  hedge  fences  have 
been  used  in  Europe,  but  they  occupy  considerable 
ground  and  afford  a  harbor  for  vermin.  For  those  dis- 
posed to  try  them,  as  a  matter  of  taste  or  fancy  there 
are  many  kinds  of  thorny  native  shrubs  that  are  both 
beautiful  and  hardy,  for  the  cultivation,  care,  etc.,  of 
which,  see  Hedge. 

Barbed  Wire  Fence.  Among  the  fundamental 
questions  in  farm  economy,  fences  are  the  most  im- 
portant, because  of  their  extent,  protection,  first  cost, 
and  rapid  decay.  Within  15  years,  and  more  prom- 
inently within  ten  years,  a  new  material,  barbed  wire, 
has  demanded  public  favor,  with  very  many  argu- 
ments pro  and  con.  In  the  Northwestern  States  it 
has  rapidly  become  established  in  the  confidence  of 
the  farmers  and  mainly  supplanted  all  other  fencing. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  requisites  for  a  per- 
fect fence : — ist.  It  must  form  a  reliable  barrier  to 
the  passage  of  stock,  and  must  be  furnished  at  a 
moderate  cost.  2nd.  It  must  be  simple,  durable  in 
all  places  and  climates,  easily  transported,  and  im- 
mediately available  for  a  fence.  3d.  It  should 
occupy  the  least  space  practicable,  thereby  wasting 
little  land,  affording  no  harbor  for  weeds,  and  not 
seriously  defacing  the  landscape. 

Barbed  wire  comes  nearer  meeting  all  these  con- 
ditions, in-  the  larger  portion  of  the  United  States, 
than  any  other  material/  ODiiipared  with  hedge, 
board,  or  rail  fences,  it  can  claim  superiority  in  nearly 
every  point  for  a  valuable  fence  on  the  fami.  The 
main  objection  urged  to  its  use  is  that  of  cruelty.  It  is 
claimed  that  horses,  in  particular,  are  liable  to  run 
against  it  and  be  seriously  injured,  if  not  maimed  for 
life.  If  this  objection  is  valid,  and  cannot  be  removed, 
then  the  use  of  barbed  wire  will  be  limited.  Careful  ob- 
servers, however,  have  noted  that  the  injury  to  animals 
has  arisen  from  the  stock  being  unaccustomed  to  wire 
fence,or  from  its  faulty  construction.  Horses  and  cattle 
have  had  little  respect  for  the  ordinary  board  and  rail 
fences  of  the  country,  and  only  the  well  disposed  have 
been  restrained  by  them.     The  first  thing  is  to  teach 


animals  to  entertain  a  becoming  respect  for  a  fence, 
and  one  that  looks  like  a  skeleton.  While  they  are 
learning  this  lesson,  quite  likely  some  of  them  may  get 
hurt;  but  once  learned  they  will  always  regard  a  line 
of  posts  as  very  significant.  Injury  to  stock  has  more 
frequently  arisen  from  faulty  construction  than  from 
any  other  cause.  A  majority  of  prairie  fences  are  made 
of  three  wires,  which  is  a  mistake,  because  the  distance 
of  the  wires  apart  offers  a  constant  temptation  to  the 
animal. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  the  practical  value  of 
the  following  suggestions  for  constructing  barbed- 
wire  fence  :  Set  substantial  posts  one  rod  apart ;  the 
post  at  the  starting  jxjint  should  be  braced  by  cutting 
a  notch  in  it  two  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
running  a  strong  jxile  from  the  notch  to  the  foot  of 
the  second  jxjst,  where  it  is  fitted  to  rest  firmly,  and 
is  supported  about  three  inches  above  the  ground  by 
means  of  a  short  block  driven  down  beside  the  fence 
post.  This  method  of  bracing  should  be  repeated 
once  in  forty  rods.  A  faulty  construction  would  be  to 
cut  the  notch  in  the  starting  post  four  feet  from  the 
ground,  make  the  brace  shorter,  and  allow  the  lower 
end  to  rest  ujxin  the  ground ;  for  the  moment  the  wire 
is  tightened  \x]X)n  the  fence,  the  short  brace  acts  as  a 
fulcrum  to  lift  the  initial  post.  When  the  posts  are 
set  a  wire  is  wrapped  firmly  around  the  first  jx)st, 
four  feet  and  two  inches  from  the  ground ;  then  the 
coil  is  unrolled  40  rods  and  the  wire  drawn  tight  by 
means  of  a  set  of  small  pulleys  with  grapples.  After 
this  wire  has  been  securely  stapled,  a  second  is  sim- 
ilarly fastened  one  foot  below  it,  and  a  third  and  fourth 
below  this,  bearing  a  foot  apart  between  the  respect- 
ive wires.  Four  wires  thus  arranged,  make  a  perfect 
cattle  fence.  For  horses,  the  lower  wire  should  be 
without  barbs  to  prevent  cutting  the  knee,  and  a  fifth 
wire  should  be  blaced  upon  the  posts  five  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  upper  wire  prevents  accident  by 
attempting  to  reach  over  the  fence.  Instead  of  the 
upper  wire,  a  galvanized  steel  barbed  ribbon  is  used, 
as  more  sightly  for  horses. 

For  swine,  the  fourth  wire  of  a  cattle  fence  is  raised 
four  inches,  and  two  barbed  wires  placed  at  equal  dis- 
tances below  it.  For  sheep,  the  three  lower  wires,  as 
in  a  fopce  for  swine,  are  smooth.  Thus  constructed, 
barbed  wire,  while  uniting  all  the  conditions  of  a  per- 
fect fence,  is  comparatively  harmless.  Upon  the 
Iowa  Agricultural  College  farm,  there  are  nine  miles 
of  barbed  wire  fence,  enclosing  pastures  upon  which 
graze  170  horses  and  cattle ;  during  the  season  of  1881 
not  an  animal  has  been  scratched  to  draw  blood,  ex- 
cept in  one  instance,  and  that  was  slight  and  due  to 
a  faulty  construction  of  the  fence.  Barbed  wire  -mW 
not  answer  for  fencing  in  narrow  lanes  and  yards  or 
any  place  where  animals  are  liable  to  be  crowded 
against  it.  Yards  and  lots  for  sheep  can  be  made 
practically  dog-proof  by  placing  one  barbed  wire  near 
the  ground,  three  fence  boards  above,  and  three  wires 
above  the  boards ;  the  lower  wire  prevents  digging, 
and  the  upper  wires  suggest  that  the  dog  better  not 


FENCE. 


453 


climb.  Within  such  an  enclosure  the  grateful  sheep 
rest  in  perfect  security. 

Barbed  wire  is  valuable  for  adding  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  older  fences  and  hedges.  We  will  point  out  how 
this  wire  may  be  advantageously  employed  in  this  way. 

The  common  post-and-board  fence,  as  commonly 
made,  is  not  strong  enough  to  resist  bulls  and  un- 
ruly horses,  which  frequently  tear  off  the  upper  boards. 
Additional  strength  is  given  by  nailing  a  stout  top 
board  on  each  side  of  the  post,  and  surmounting  both 
with  a  strong  cap-board  on  the  top  of  the  sawed  ends 
of  the  posts.  But  a  much  simpler,  cheaper,  and  more 
efficient  protection  is  to  stretch  a  single  line  of  barbed 
wire  along  the  top  of  the  fence.  It  may  rest  on  the 
top  board,  or  run  along  the  tips  of  the  posts,  or  the 


Fig.  \i,.~~\Vire  Fence, 

top  board  may  be  omitted  and  the  barbed  wire  take 
.  its  place. 

It  is  only  in  neighborhoods  where  civilization  has 
made  but  partial  progress  that  swine  are  permitted  to 
run  in  the  streets,  and  where  tight  fences  below  are 
required.  In  such  cases  a  single  wire  just  below  the 
bottom  board  will  be  sufficient  to  exclude  them,  and 
such  a  fence  will  answer  a  good  purpose  for  the  bound- 
aries of  small  hog  pastures. 

Many  serious  accidents  to  horses,  and  occasionally 
to  other  animals,  have  occurred  where  barbed  wires 
have  been  wholly  employed  in  the  construction  of 
fences.  Being  nearly  invisible,  animals  have  heed- 
lessly dashed  against  them  and  become  badly  lacer- 
ated, and  the  damage  has  been  greatly  increased 
when  they  have  been  caught  between,  or  been  en- 
tangled in,  the  wires.  Some  additional  and  more  visi- 
ble barrier  should  therefore  always  accompany  the 
wires.  In  regions  where  small  stones  are  common,  a 
ridge  of  these  placed  along  under  the  wires  and  be- 
tween the  jxists,  will  answer  a  good  purpose.  The 
adjacent  fields  will  be  improved  by  the  removal  of 
these  stones.  This  line  of  stones  need  not  be  a  regu- 
larly built  wall,  but  they  may  be  placed  loosely,  evenly 
and  regularly.  Animals  dislike  setting  their  feet  on 
them.  As  the  wind  obtains  no  purchase  on  such  a 
fence,  and  as  little  pressure  is  even  exerted  against  it, 
the  posts  need  not  be  deeply  set,  the  stotaes  ajsout 
them  affording  additional  support.  This  line  of  stones 
may  be  two  feet  high  and  three  or  four  feet  wide. 


Where  stones  do  not  exist,  a  cheap  substitute  is  a 
bank  of  earth.  A  few  furrows  are  plowed  on  each 
side,  and  the  earth  thrown  up  into  a  smooth  embank- 
ment, about  two  feet  above  the  bottoms  of  the  ditches 
on  each  side.  Such  a  fence  as  this,  with  two  barbed 
wires  for  cattle  and  horses,  or  three  for  sheep,  is  one 
of  the  cheapest  and  most  durable  that  can  be  con- 
structed. The  posts  need  not  be  heavy;  they  may 
be  placed  at  least  a  rod  apart;  they  may  be  cheaply 
set,  as  deep  holes  are  not  required;  the  embanking  is 
done  readily  with  the  plow ;  and  lastly,  the  wires  are 
stretched  rapidly  on  the  posts.  The  bank  becomes 
sodded  with  grass,  and,  together  with  the  ditch,  will 
prevent  animals  from  blindly  striking  the  barbs. 
The  cheapest  form  of  the  barbed  fence  is  where  a 
line  of  trees  may  be  used  for 
supporting  the  wires.  A  line 
of  maple  or  other  shade  or 
timber  trees  will  answer  the 
purix)se,  and  the  fence  may 
be  completed  (with  the  ridge 
or  bank  of  earth)  when  they 
are  two  or  three  inches  in  di- 
ameter. 

The   cost   of   such   fences 
may  be  readily  estimated  by 
counting  one    post   to   every 
rod,  and  50   cents  a   rod   for 
__  the    three    barbed    wires. 

The  labor  of  construc- 
tion may  be  reckoned  at  about  20  cents  a  rod,  making 
the  whole  expense  less  than  $1,  or  about  80  cents  for 
two  wires.  An  important  item  of  saving  is  in  avoid- 
ing all  necessity  for  repairs  for  many  years.  The  cost 
will  vary  with  the  price  of  posts,  and  with  the  ease  or 
difficulty  of  forming  the  embankment  of  soil. 

In  all  barbed-wire  fences  the  wires  should  not  ex- 
tend for  a  distance  of  more  than  20  or  25  rods,  that 
the  expansion  by  heat  and  contraction  by  cold  may 
not  be  too  great — the  ends  being  secured  to  stout  posts 
set  at  these  distances  apart.  Galvanized  wire  is  bet- 
ter and  more  durable  than  wire  covered  with  paint. 

Smooth-Wire  Fence.  The  common  smooth  wire 
is  very  popular  in  some  sections  of  the  country.  They 
make  a  neat  and  durable  fence.  A  good  wire  fence, 
especially  for  garden  and  lawn  purposes,  is  shown  by 
Fig.  15.  It  is  made  by  Sedgwick  Bros.,  Richmond, 
Indiana.     It   is   made  of  the  best  steel  wire.     The 

margin  wire,  i.  e.,  top 
and  bottom  wire  s, 
run  nearly  straight, 
and  are  No.  9,  which 
is  common-sized  tel- 
egraph wire.  The 
body  wires  are  No. 
13.  The  breaking 
strain   of  No.   9    is 

Fig.  xfi.—Mesh  of  Wire  Fence.  about  2,500  pounds, 

and  of  No.  1 3  abdut  800  pounds. 

Fig.  t6  illustrates  the  general  shape  of  the  mesh 
and  shows  the  twist  correctly. 


454 


FENCE. 


In  making  a  wire  fence  observe  the  following: 
First,  use  nothing  but  the  best  material.  The  best 
galvanized  wire  and  well-seasoned  oak  or  cedar  posts 
should  be  employed.  With  this  material  properly  put 
up,  a  wire  fence  will  last  30  years.  The  posts  should 
be  set  from  30  to  36  inches  in  the  ground.  It  will 
.  pay  in  the  end  to  make  a  fence  good.  Whether 
barbed  or  smooth  wire  should  be  used  we  will  not  pre- 
tend to  say  positively.  To  make  a  fence  hog-proof  it 
will  require  one  more  strand  of  the  smooth  wire  than 
of  the  barbed,  but  then  the  smooth  wire  costs  less  per 
foot,  and  probably  the  cost  per  rod  would  be  about 
the  same  in  either  case.  Horses  sometimes  run 
against  the  barbs,  not  being  able  to  see  the  wires. 
Cut  triangular  pieces  of  tin,  each  side  of  the  pieces 
being  about  two  inches,  and  fasten  them  every  few 
feet  to  the  top  strand  of  wire  by  bending  the  corner  of 
the  tin  around  the  wire.  The  horses  can  easily  see 
these  pieces  of  tin,  and  these  will  give  warning  of  the 
obstruction  in  their  way. 

To  stretch  the  wire,  bore  holes  in  the  end  posts  for 
the  wire  to  pass  through,  then,  having  stretched  the 
strands  out  along  the  fence,  securely  fasten  them  at 
one  end.  An  easy  way  to  stretch  the  wire  then  is  to 
hitch  a  team  to  it.  You  need  not  be  afraid  of  break- 
ing it.  But  a  better  way  is  to  drive  your  wagon  up  to 
the  end  post.  Brace  it  so  it  cannot  move.  Then 
wrap  the  free  end  of  the  wire  around  the  hub  of  the 
hind  wheel  and  with  the  sjwkes  or  levers  you  can 
easily  stretch  the  wire.  It  acts  on  the  same  priciple 
as  the  sailor's  capstan.  The  end  posts  should  be 
securely  braced  back  from  the  next  ix)Sts. 

As  any  wire  will  lengthen  and  shorten  with  the 
varying  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  at  one  end  it 
should  pass  over  a  pulley  or  smooth  surface,  with  a 
50-pound  weight  attached  at  the  extremity ;  and  this 
should  be  watched,  that  it  be  not  allowed  to  rest  upon 
the  ground  and  cease  its  function  upon  the  wire.  If 
any  wire  is  found  not  to  be  kept  straight  with  the 
^      weight  attached,  increase  the  latter  until  it  is  sufficient. 


Fig.  rT.— Barbed  Fence   IVire. 

Within  the  past  few  years  over  50  patents  have  been 
issued  to  inventors  of  the  barbed  wire  for  fences.  We 
cannot  describe  them,  but  illustrate  by  Fig.  17  one 
among  the  best. 

Portable  Fence.  Fig.  18  shows  an  improved 
portable  fence,  recently  invented  "and  patented  by 
Daniel  T.  Hazen,  of  East  Milan,  Monroe  county, 
Michigan.     The  construction  of  the  fence  is  simple, 


being  composed  of  panels  which  are  interlocked  on 
the  well-known  principle  of  a  zigzag  fence,  but  taking 

up  much  less  room,  and 
consuming  much  less  n^a- 
terial  than  the  ordinary  rail 
fence.  The  panels  re- 
ferred to  are  each  composed 
of  four  rails  or  slabs,  two 
posts,  shaped  triangularly 
and  set  vertically,  fitting 
into  the  intersection  of  the 
panel  rails,  so  as  to  make 
a  firm  and  neat  structure. 
Besides  these  parts,  there 
are  two  vertical  end  pieces, 
one  attached  to  the  top  and 
bottom  rails,  the  other  at- 
tached to  the  ends  of  the 
I  central  rails  which  project 
for  this  purpose.  In  put- 
ting up  the  fence,  these 
,  united  projecting  ends  of 
the  central  rails  in  the  one 
panel  fit  into  the  opening 
1  between  the  top  and  bot- 
tom rails  of  the  next  panel, 
and  so  on,  interlocking  the 
ends  and  forming  a  con- 
tinuous fence.  The  hold- 
ing together  is  done  by 
means  of  wooden  turn  but- 
tons, which  are  held  by 
screws,  and  the  turning  of 
■which  makes  the  fence  en- 
tirely portable  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  short  posts 
which  are  driven  into  the 
ground.  For  farm  uses, 
this  fence  possesses  pecu- 
liar advantages,  especially 
in  the  division  of  fields 
from  season  to  season.  It 
has  a  full  measure  of 
strength,  and  combines 
durability  with  economy  in 
material  and  use. 

Flood  Fence.  A  prac- 
tical and  inexpensive  plan 
for  constructing  a  fence 
across  the  bed  of  a  stream, 
especially  that  of  a  rocky 
one  through  which  the 
water  runs  only  after  heavy 
rains,  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 
ig.  The  logs  are  the 
trunks  of  straight  trees 
about  18  inches  in  diame- 
FiG.  T.i.— Pert  able  Fenci.  ter,  which  are  hewed  on 
two  ^ides ;  posts  are  mortised  in  each  of  these  logs, 
and  on  them  planks  are  firmly  nailed.  The  logs  are 
then  linked  together  with  inch  iron  rods,  and  the  first 


FENCE  LA  W—FERRET. 


455 


one  connected  by  means  of  a  long  link  to  a  tree,  or 
post  firmly  set  in  the  ground  upon  the  banks  of  the 
stream.  The  links  must  all  wqrk  freely.  When  high 
water  occurs,  the  fence  is  washed  around  and  left  on 
the  bank ;  after  the  water  has  subsided  sufficiently, 
the  logs  may  be  dragged  back  to  their  places,  as 
shown  in  the  engraving,  Fig.  ig,  by  means  of  a  horse 
hitched  to  a  staple  in  the  end  of  the  log. 

Fig.  20  illustrates  a  good  flood  fence  to  put  across 


I 


Fig.  ig. — A  Fence/or  a  siitnll  Stream. 

sloughs  when  they  are  too  wide  for  a  flood  gate.  The 
posts  are  driven  or  otherwise  put  down  three  to  four 
feet,  with  the  tops  about  one  foot  above  ground;  the 
other  i»sts,  that  the  planks  are  nailed  to,  are  bolted 
to  the  top  of  the  inserted  jxists,  and  a  wire  is  placed 
over  the  tops.  The  ends  of  the  panel  that  connect 
with  the  post  on  the  bank  are  slightly  nailed  with  cross 
strips  near  the  top,  so  as  to  be  easily  broken  loose 
when  the  flood  comes.  There  are  also  temporary 
braces  bearing  up-stream,  put  in  to  prevent  the 
fence  from  falling,  but  are  easily  washed  out,  when 
the  fence  falls  down  stream,  and  logs  and  other 
obstructions  pass  by  readily.  As  soon  as  the  flood 
goes  down,  the  fence  is  easily  raised,  a  panel  at  a 
time,  to  its  proper  place. 

Tenee  Law.  In  almost  every  State  in  the 
Union  there  are  laws  defining  what  legal  fences 
shall  be.  In  some  States  the  law  leaves  it  for 
towns,  villages  and  counties  to  define  what  the 
fence  shall  be,  or  whether  there  be  no  fences.  In 
most  of  the  Western  States  stock  is  permitted  to 
run  at  large,  and  owners  of  land  who  desire  to 
cultivate  it  must  protect  it  with  suitable  fences 
of  a  prescribed  height,  five  feet  being  the  usual 
height.  When  parties  have  lands  adjoining  others 
they  desire  fenced,  the  law  provides  what  is  known  as 
partition  fences,  each  person  being  required  to  erect 
and  maintain  an  equal  distance  of  such  fence.  The 
several  States  have  different  statutes  and  regulations 
concerning  them.  Most  of  them  have  officials  known 
as  fence-viewers,  whose  offices  are  not  sufficiently  uni- 
form to  be  stated  generally.  In  all  the  States,  how- 
ever, if  the  parties  agree  about  the  partition  fence,  it  is 


like  any  other  contract,  easily  adjusted  and  can  be 
enforced.  It  is  only  when  the  owners  of  adjoining 
lands  can  not  agree  that  the  law  steps  in  for  the  pub- 
lic good  and  provides  how  persons  may  be  compelled 
to  build.  Outside  fences  are  required  to  be  built  and 
maintained  by  the  owner  or  occupant  of  the  land,  if 
he  would  recover  damages  for  loss  or  injury  to  crops 
or  soil,  except  in  some  jwrtions  of  the  country,  where 
stock  is  required  to  be  kept  up.  This  is  known  as  a 
stock  law.  Where  such  a  law  is  in  force,  if  stock 
is  not  permitted  to  run  at  large,  and  it  escape 
from  the  owner,  he  is  liable  for  all  damages. 
Should  you  be  driving  your  stock  along  the  pub- 
lic highway,  and,  without  your  fault  or  negligence, 
they  break  away  from  your  control  and  run  \x\xix\. 
adjoining  land,  and  you  drive  them  out  as  soon  as 
you  reasonably  can,  you  are  not  responsible  for  the 
damages,  for  you  have  a  right  to  drive  them  along 
the  highway,  with  proper  care  and  attention.  If, 
under  such  a  law,  persons  entering  your  fields  hunt- 
ing, fishing,  or  berrying,  and  leave  your  bars  or 
fence  down,  or  gate  open,  and  your  cattle  escape, 
you  will  be  liable  for  all  damages  they  may  do  to 
your  neighbor,  because  the  stock  law  requires  you 
to  keep  them  up,  and  you  have  a  right  to  exclude 
all  persons  from  entering.  Your  negligence  in  allow- 
ing such  persons  to  enter  makes  you  liable  to 
your  neighbor  for  the  carelessness  of  such  persons  as 
you  permit  to  enter  your  fields.  This  law,  however, 
is  in  force  only  in  certain  localities.  The  genral  rule 
is  that  land-owners  must  have  and  maintain  a  lawful 
fence  around  their  premises.  Partition  fences  can 
only  be  compelled  to  be  built  when  both  the  adjoining 
owners  desire  to  improve  their  lands.  Therefore,  if 
one  desires  to  let  his  land  lie  idle  and  open  he  can 
not,  under  any  statute,  be  compelled  to  contribute  to- 


pic. 20 A  Flood  Fence  in  Position, 

wards  the  erection  of  a  partition  fence.  After  such 
fence  has  been  erected  each  person  must  keep  hi* 
portion  in  repair,  and  if  either  neglects  to  do  so,  the 
other,  after  giving  reasonable  notice  to  repair,  may  re- 
pair the  fence  and  recover  the  expense  from  the  per- 
son whose  duty  it  was  to  maintain  such  partition. 

Ferret,  an  animal  of  the  weasel  family,  so  nearly 
allied  to  the  polecat  that  many  regard  it  as  a  mere  do- 
mesticated variety.  It  is  of  rather  smaller  size,  the 
head  and  body  being  about  fourteen  inches  long,  the 


4S6 


FERR  ULE—FER  TILIZERS. 


tail  five  inches  and  a  half,  the  muzzle  rather  longer 
and  more  jxjinted,  the  head  rather  narrower;  and  the 
color  is  very  different,  being  yellowish,  with  iiiore  or 
less  of  white  in  some  parts,  there  being  two  kinds  of 
hair,  the  longer  partly  white,  the  shorter  yellow.  The 
eyes  are  pink.  It  is,  however,  much  more  susceptible 
of  cold  than  the  ixilecat,  and  requires  careful  protec- 
tion from  it  in  climates  where  the  polecat  is  a  hardy 
native.  It  was  imported  into  Europe  from  Africa, 
and  was  well  known  to  the  Romans,  being  anciently 
employed,  as  it  still  is,  in  catching  rabbits,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  often  sent  into  their  burrows  muzzled,  or 
'•  coped,"  by  means  of  a  piece  of  string,  to  drive  them 
out  into  nets,  or,  with  a  string  attached  to  it,  it  is  al- 
lowed to  seize  a  rabbit  in  the  burrows,  and  is  then 
drawn  out,  holding  it  fast.  The  usual  plan,  however, 
is  to  let  the  ferret  have  free  range  of  all  rabbit  holes 
unmuzzled.  Ferrets  are  generally  kept  in  boxes,  and 
attention  to  warmth  and  cleanliness  is  essential  to 
their  health.  They  are  capable  only  of  partial  do- 
mestication, acquiring  a  kind  of  familiarity  with  man, 
and  submitting  wth  perfect  quietness  to  his  handling, 
but  apparently  never  forming  any  very  decided  at- 
tachment; and  they  never  cease  to  be  dangerous  if 
not  carefully  watched,  especially  where  infants  are 
within  their  reach.  If  allowed  any  measure  of  free- 
dom, they  are  ready  to  attack  poultry,  and  kill  far 
more  than  they  can  devour,  merely  sucking  the  blood. 
They  generally  breed  twice  a  year,  each  brood  con- 
»  sisting  of  six  or  nine.  The  female  sometimes  devours 
the  young  ones,  in  which  case  another  brood  is  speed- 
ily produced. 

Fernile,  in  mechanics,  a  ring  or  band  on  the  end 
of  a  wooden  rod  or  bar,  to  prevent  splitting. 

Fertilization,  the  act  or  process  of  rendering  fer- 
tile. In  flowering  plants  this  is  done  by  the  pollen 
of  the  stamen  falling  upon  the  pistil.  Most  plants  are 
self-fertilizing,  the  stamens  and  pistils  being  in  the 
same  flower  or  in  separate  flowers  upon  the  same 
plant.  A  few  plants,  as  hops  and  hemp,  have  these 
organs  upon  separate  individuals.  Some  strawberries, 
as  Russell's  ProUfic,  are  "  pistillate  "  (non-staminate), 
and  cannot  fertilize  themselves.  Other  sorts,  as  Wil- 
son's Albany,  have  hermaphrodite  (or  perfect)  flowers, 
and  not  only  fertilize  themselves,  but  also  the  pistillate 
varieties  near  them.  Plant  fertilization  is  greatly 
aided  by  bees  and  other  insects,  which  undesignedly 
carry  the  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another,  or  even 
from  the  stamens  to  the  pistil  in  the  same  flower. 
Some  plants,  indeed,  are  entirely  dependent  upon  in- 
sects for  fertilization.  When  a  horticulturist  desires 
to  "  cross  "  fertilize,  he  protects  by  a  covering  a  flower 
on  each  of  the  two  plants  against  the  introduction  of 
pollen  by  insects  or  the  wind,  and,  at  the  proper  time, 
by  his  own  hand,  he  transfers  the  pollen  of  the  one  to 
the  pistil  of  the  other.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
plucked  out  the  stamens  from  the  flower  he  wished  to 
fertilize  to  prevent  self-fertilization.  The  product  ex- 
pected is,  of  course,  a  combination  of  two  or  more  good 
qualities  in  one  plant.     The  subsequent  propagation 


of  such  new  variety  must  be  by  cuttings,  graftings, 
etc., — any  other  method  than  by  seed.     See  Varieties. 

"  Fertilization "  of  the  soil  consists  in  supplying  it 
with  such  chemicals  as  disintegrate  and  render  avail- 
able sundry  mineral  and  vegetable  materials  of  plant 
nutriment.     See  next  article. 

Fertilizers.  These  are  chemical  and  semi-organic 
substances  which  dissolve  the  plant-food  in  the  soil 
and  render  it  available  by  the  growing  plants.  They 
also  add  to  the  soil  a  little  of  the  ash  element  of  plant 
food.  They  have  a  tendency,  in  the  long  run,  to  ex- 
haust the  soil.  They  comprise  ashes,  lime,  marl,  gas 
lime,  gypsum,  bones,  common  salt,  many  of  the  basic 
salts,  guano  and  soot. 

The  quantity  of  ashes  which  should  be  applied  to 
the  acre  depends  upon  their  strength,  on  the  soil,  and 
on  the  character  of  thecrops  cultivated.  Clover,  lucern, 
peas,  beans,  the  grasses,  and  all  the  root  crops  are  great 
exhausters  of  the  soil.  For  them,  ashes  and  bone  dust 
are  the  best  fertilizers;  and,  for  clover,  peas  and  roots, 
their  effects  are  much  enhanced  when  mixed  with 
gypsum.  Rich  lands  require  a  heavier  dressing  than 
light  soils.  For  the  former,  30  bushels  of  unleached 
ashes  per  acre  is  not  too  much  ;  if  leached,  apply  45 
bushels  to  the  acre ;  light  soils  require  about  half  as 
much.  Of  course,  unless  vegetable  and  mineral 
manures  are  correspondingly  supplied  to  the  soil,  the 
fertilizers  will  cause  it  to  be  entirely  exhausted.  Ashes 
may  be  applied  to  meadow  lands  for  a  longer  time 
than  to  any  other  crops.  Coal  ashes  are  of  some 
value,  especially  to  aid  in  the  mechanical  division  of 
heavy  soils.     Peat  ashes  are  more  valuable. 

Lime,  next  to  ashes,  whether  simple  or  as  a  car- 
bonate (chalk)  or  sulphate  (gypsum),  is  the  most  val- 
uable among  the  saline  manures ;  and,  like  ashes,  too, 
its  application  is  beneficial  to  every  soil  not  already 
sufficiently  charged  with  it.  It  makes  heavy  land 
lighter,  and  hght  land  heavier ;  it  gives  adhesiveness 
to  creeping  sands  or  leachy  gravel,  and  comparative 
openness  and  porosity  to  tenacious  clays  ;  in  short,  it  is 
chiefly  a  mechanical  agent,  and  has  the  remarkable 
office  of  catching  and  holding  the  more  volatile  ele- 
ments of  plant-food  until  they  are  wanted  by  the  crops 
of  the  farmer.  It  may  be  carried  to  the  field  imme- 
diately after  burning  and  placed  in  small  heaps,  where 
it  may  be  left  to  slack  by  the  rains  and  the  air  ;  but  it 
is  better  to  reduce  it  at  once  with  water,  if  convenient, 
and  then  spread  it  preparatory  to  plowing.  A  good 
practice  is  to  place  it  in  large  piles  and  cover  it  thickly 
with  earth,  which  gradually  reduces  it  to  powder.  It 
may  then  be  carried  where  it  is  wanted  and  spread 
from  the  cart.  When  small  quantities  only  are  wanted, 
the  best  plan  is  to  air-slack  it  thoroughly  and  add  it  to 
the  compost;  but  in  this  case  the  heap  must  be  spread 
upon  the  field  before  fermentation  commences,  or  cov- 
ered with  a  thick  coating  of  earth  to  retain  the  am- 
monia, as  this  element  is  rapidly  expelled  by  the 
action  of  lime  in  fermentation.  Fresh-burnt  lime 
does  not  act  on  the  crops  during  the  first  year,  and  it 
may  be  prepared  for  action  as  well  by  mixing  it  with 
three  or  four  times  its  bulk  of  earth  as  by  spreading  it 


FERTILIZERS. 


45  7 


directly  upon  the  ground.  Magnesian  limestone  may 
be  applied  with  benefit  in  large  quantities,  the  average 
for  first  dressing  being  from  50  to  120  bushels  per 
acre,  which  may  be  renewed  every  four  or  six  years  at 
the  rate  of  20  to  40  bushels.  If  too  much  is  applied, 
putrescent  or  green  manures  are  the  only  correctives. 

To  give  lime  its  fullest  effect,  it  should  be  kept  as 
near  the  surface  as  possible;  therefore,  apply  it  after 
plowing,  harrow  it  in,  and  then  allow  the  ground  to 
remain  in  grass  as  long  as  possible  ;  or,  if  the  land  is 
not  devoted  to  grass,  apply  the  lime  as  soon  as 
possible  after  a  crop  is  taken  off,  so  as  to  allow  plenty 
of  time  for  its  action  before  the  next  planting.  Lime 
is  useful  to  meadows  in  destroying  the  mosses  and 
decomposing  the  accumulated  vegetable  decay  or  the 
surface.  For  this  purix)se  it  may  be  spread  on  them 
unmixed,  after  having  first  passed  into  the  state  of 
carbonate  or  effete  lime,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  grass; 
but  if  no  such  necessity  requires  its  use  in  this  form, 
it  may  be  combined  advantageously  with  the  muck 
and  scattered  broadcast  over  the  meadow.  Land  pro- 
ducing sorrel  or  dock  is  said  to  be  "  sour,"  and  should 
have  lime  added,  but  not  gypsum. 

The  marls  derive  their  principal  value  from  the 
lime  which  they  yield,  a  portion  of  which  is  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  a  phosphate.  They  are  adapted  to  the 
improvement  of  all  soils  not  already  filled  with  lime, 
and  they  are  generally  more  useful  to  meadows  than 
the  pure  carbonate.  From  20  to  400  cart-loads  of 
marl  per  acre  have  been  applied,  according  to  its 
quality  and  the  character  of  the  land  to  be  benefited. 
It  should  be  carried  out  and  exposed  in  small  heaps 
to  the  sun,  and  especially  to  the  frosts  of  winter,  be- 
fore it  is  spread  ujxjn  the  land. 

Gas  lime  is  the  spent  lime  of  gas-works,  and  is 
a  useful  top-dressing  for  soils  requiring  lime  or  gyp- 
sum. It  may  be  drawn  out  in  the  fall  or  winter 
season,  and  if  not  intended  for  composts,  dumped  in 
small  heaps,  and  especially,  if  fresh,  it  should  at  once 
be  spread  upon  the  surface  so  as  to  be  well  exposed  to 
the  air.  It  may  be  applied  either  to  grass  or  plowed 
crops  with  equal  benefit,  operating  in  much  the  same 
way  as  gypsum,  although  it  should  be  spread  in 
several  times  the  quantity  per  acre.  Caution  must 
always  attend  its  use,  for  without  several  months'  ex- 
posure it  exercises  a  poisonous  influence  upon  vege- 
tation. 

Gypsum,  or  "land-plaster,"  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  the  sulphate  of  lime,  and  a  very  jwpular 
fertilizer,  its  best  effects  being  on  sandy,  loamy  and 
clay  soils,  the  latter  requiring  more  than  the  others. 
Some  soils,  especially  the  prairies  of  the  West,  do  not 
seem  to  need  it.  The  following  is  a  good  summary  of  its 
qualities:  It  acts  best  in  dry  soils  and  in  moderately 
dry  seasons ;  it  is  inactive,  or  at  least  fails  to  give  the 
best  results  in  soils  deficient  in  vegetable  mold ;  it 
tends  to  dissipate  the  vegetable  matter  in  soils  by 
promoting  oxidation ;  it  benefits  plants  by  directly 
supplying  sulphur  and  lime,  and  by  indirectly  sup- 
plying potash  and  magnesia;  it  fixes  or  converts  the 
volatile  carbonate  of  ammonia  into  the   non-volatile 


sulphate  of  ammonia;  its  office  in  preventing  the 
waste  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  the  stable  and  in 
fermenting  manure  is  much  more  important  than  in 
fixing  the  ammonia  of  the  atmosphere ;  it  increases 
the  development  of  leaves  and  stalks,  without  a  cor- 
responding increase  of  seed ;  it  is  markedly  beneficial 
to  clovers  and  all  leguminous  crops ;  as  plaster  is  of 
sparing  solubility  in  water,  a  comparatively  small 
dressing  is  as  beneficial  as  a  very  large  one;  a  hun- 
dred weight  is  as  good  as  a  ton,  so  far  as  the  crop  is 
concerned  to  which  it  is  applied ;  since  plaster  is 
rapidly  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  the  heavy  rains  of 
fall  and  spring,  it  is  best  to  apply  the  plaster  to  the 
crop  we  wish  to  benefit  in  the  quantity  which  that 
crop  requires,  and  at  the ,  time  it  is  found  to  do  the 
most  good,  viz.:  in  the  early  spring  growth.  There  is 
great  diversity  of  views  among  farmers  in  regard  to 
the  influence  of  plaster  on  Indian  corn.  Although 
corn  ranks  second  or  third  as  a  market  crop,  yet  for 
use  upon  the  farm  it  stands  first  in  importance  among 
our  grains.  All  doubts  in  regard  to  the  influence  of 
so  important  a  manural  substance  on  a  leading  crop 
should  be  solved  by  accurate,  careful,  and  repeated 
experiments  by  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 

Two  pecks  may  be  applied  per  acre  of  sandy  soil, 
and  15  bushels  per  acre  of  clay  soil;  but  the  usual 
quantity  applied  is  two  to  four  bushels.  The  crops 
upon  which  it  produces  the  greatest  effects  are  the 
red  and  white  clovers,  lucern,  sainfoin,  and  other 
leguminous  plants,  as  peas,  beans,  etc.  On  natural 
meadows  and  on  cereal  grains  it  has  no  perceptible 
influence.  It  should  be  sown  broadcast  as  soon  as 
the  leaves  of  the  earliest  trees  have  expanded 
in  the  spring.  It  requires  an  abundance  of  rain 
to  properly  dissolve  it  and  incorporate  it  into  the 
soil.  For  corn,  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  it  is  usually 
put  in  with  the  seed,  or  sprinkled  upon  them  after  the 
first  hoeing.  It  is  a  great  exhauster  of  the  soil,  and 
one  should  first  try  his  land  carefully  with  it  on  a 
small  scale.  At  Dowagiac,  Mich.,  and  possibly  other 
places,  a  "  plaster-sower"  is  made,  at  a  cost  of  $40. 
which  will  do  the  work  of  a  whole  neighborhood  in 
good  style. 

One  part  of  Paris  green  to  60  of  gypsum  makes  a 
good  protection  against  the  potato-beetle. 

Bones,  to  be  of  the  greatest  value,  should  be  crushed 
or  ground,  without  having  been  previously  burned. 
Before  their  manipulation  for  this  purpose,  however, 
they  are  generally  boiled  for  the  oil  and  glue  in  them. 
This  does  not  lessen  their  agricultural  value  very  per- 
ceptibly. Bone-dust  is  particularly  applicable  to 
pastures.  It  is  sown  broadcast  upon  the  surface  at 
the  rate  of  50  to  100  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Old  lime  plaster  from  the  walls  of  buildings  is  often 
worth  twice  its  weight  in  hay,  as  it,  when  sown  broad- 
cast upon  a  meadow,  increases  its  fertility  for  years 
without  any  further  treatment. 

Guano  is  the  hardened  remains  of  the  dung,  feathers, 
eggs,  food,  and  carcasses  of  innumerable  flocks  of 
marine  birds,  which  refuse  has  been  collecting  for 
ages  on  some  of  the  islands  of  the  sea.     It  is  a  valu- 


458 


FERTILIZERS. 


able  fertilizer,  especially  near  the  seajwrts,  where  it 
can  be  obtained  more  cheaply  than  inland.  It  is  ap- 
plied to  all  kinds  of  crops ;  for  grass  it  is  used  as  a 
top-dressing.  It  is  first  mixed  with  twice  its  bulk 
of  fine  earth,  ashes,  plaster  or  charcoal  dust, 
and  the  proper  quantity  is  200  to  400  pounds  per 
acre,  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed  in,  or  supplied  in 
two  dressings,  the  first  soon  after  the  plants  appear, 
but  not  in  contact  with  them;  the  last,  10  or  14  days 
after  and  immediately  before  moist  or  wet  weather. 
Rich  lands  have  in  some  cases  been  injured  by  it. 
For  hot-houses  and  many  minor  purposes  it  is  a  de- 
sirable manure,  and  in  solution  it  is  very  convenient 
as  an  occasional  dressing.  It  is  thus  prepared  by  dis- 
solving one  pound  in  three  gallons  of  water  24  hours 
before  using.  It  is  somewhat  volatile,  and  therefore 
should  be  kept  closely  covered  until  used. 

Soot  is  valuable  in  wet  seasons.  It  is  applied  at 
the  rate  of  50  to  300  bushels  per  acre,  sown  broad- 
cast and  hanowed  in.  Salt  increases  its  value.  Its 
use,  however,  has  been  so  limited  in  the  West  that 
the  few  contradictory  rejwrts  which  reach  us  do  not 
justify  us  in  being  very  ix)sitive  concerning  its  value. 

The  salt  should  always  be  applied  as  a  top-dressing, 
for  wheat  and  rye  either  alone,  or  mixed  with  guano 
or  nitrate  of  soda;  for  barley,  oats,  clover  and  the 
grasses,  apply  in  May  or  June  in  dry  seasons ; 
in  gardens  and  orchards,  sprinkle  a  strong  solu- 
tion when  there  is  mildew;  for  the  root  crops, 
hops,  and  flax,  use  in  dry  seasons  after  the 
plant  is  fairly  up,  alone  or  with  guano.  For  all  the 
grains,  root  crops,  beans,  peas,  flax  and  hops,  apply 
either  a  month  before  or  a  month  after  seed  time;  for 
gardens,  orchards,  and  meadows,  in  the  fall ;  for 
clover  and  the  grasses,  a  month  before  seed  time,  and 
for  fallows,  at  the  time  of  breaking  up.  According 
to  some,  the  chief  value  of  salt  as  a  "  fertilizer"  is  to 
draw  moisture  during  dry  seasons.  It  is  said  also  to 
aid  in  destroying  worms.  Salt  should  be  applied  to 
fruit  trees  in  trenches  on  each  side  of  the  tree,  at  the 
rate  of  four  pounds  to  the  tree.  It  is  applied  to  hay 
at  the  rate  of  10  to  20  pounds  to  the  ton  at  the  stack- 
ing. It  should  never  be  applied  with  the  seed,  or  on 
very  cold,  wet,  undrained  land.  In  composts,  at  the 
rate  of  100  pounds  per  load. 

The  phosphates  are  generally  insoluble  in  the  water 
of  the  soil,  and  hence  many  manufacturers  add  sul- 
phuric acid  to  it,  forming  a  "  superphosphate,"  in  order 
to  render  it  soluble ;  but  eminent  authorities  declare 
that  this  is  unnecessary,  and  is  only  an  excuse  for 
throwing  into  the  market  a  high-priced  article.  The 
phosphates  furnish  phosphoric  acid  to  the  crops,  on 
an  average  about  one  pound  to  13  of  potash.  The 
grains  are  pre-eminently  phosphoric-acid  crops,  while 
forest  trees  and  the  coarse  grasses  are  potash.  The 
only  three  essential  elements  of  a  fertilizer  are  phos- 
phoric acid,  potash  and  ammonia.  A  grain  of  wheat, 
for  example,  contains,  in  1,000  of  its  mineral  parts,  298 
of  phosphoric  acid,  137  jxatash,  120  of  magnesia,  91 
soda,  28  lime,  15  silica,  7  of  peroxide  of  iron,  and  3  of 
sulphuric  acid.     It  stands  the  farmer  in  hand,  when 


he  buys  a  fertilizer,  to  get  these  in  the  cheapest  man- 
ner, and  not  pay  out  enormous  sums  for  material  he  has 
already  in  his  soil.  For  instance,  the  selling  price  of 
one  brand  of  silicated  superphosphate  is  $45  a  ton, 
while  its  actual  value  is  only  $17.50;  the  price  of  ' 
double  refined  poudrette  is  $25  a  ton,  while  its  actual 
value  is  $8.50  a  ton.  Price  of  ammoniated  bone,  $48 
a  ton,  actual  value  $13.26;  Russell  Coe's  superphos- 
phate $60,  actual  value  $33.50  to  $34.50;  Wilson's 
superphosphate,  price  $55,  real  worth  $23  to  $25.  The 
high-priced  fertilizers  do  not  pay  the  farmer,  especially 
in  the  Northwestern  States. 

To  apply  superphosphate,  for  corn  or  potatoes,  put 
one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  to  the  hill,  mixing  thor- 
oughly with  the  soil;  or  it  can  be  drilled  in  with  the 
corn  at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  to  the  acre ;  for  wheat, 
15010  200  pounds  to  the  acre;  for  oats  and  barley, 
100  pounds  to  the  acre;  for  grass,  100  pounds,  either 
late  in  the  fall  or  spring.  But  different  soils,  of  course, 
require  different  variations  from  the  foregoing. 

Superphosphates  can  be  manufactured  at  home  by 
getting  up  a  sufficient  quantity  of  dry  bones,  making 
a  large  heap,  mixed  with  dry  pine  wood,  and  burning 
the  whole  mass  to  ashes.  Pound  and  sift  till  the 
ash  is  reduced  to  a  powdered  mass.  Now  have  ready 
a  box,  water  tight,  of  suitable  dimensions,  into  which 
put  the  bone  ash  and  add  sufficient  water  to  wet  the 
mass  thoroughly.  Then  take  the  brown  acid  of  com- 
merce, and  to  every  gallon  add  about  four  gallons  of 
water.  Pour  on  the  moistened  bone  ash  this  diluted 
acid,  slowly,  keeping  several  hands  stirring  with  wooden 
paddles.  Continue  to  pour  on  the  acid  until  the  con- 
tents of  the  box  becomes  a  semi-fluid  mass,  and  all 
effervescence  ceases.  One  carboy  of  acid  might  be 
used  on  300  pounds  of  bone  ash.  But  it  would  not 
pay  a  Western  farmer  to  resort  to  this  proceeding. 
There  are  mills  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  bones,  but 
no  one  farmer  would  likely  have  enough  bones  to  war- 
rant the  purchase  of  machinery,  and  it  is  hardly  prob- 
able that  an  entire  community  would  have.  In  ab- 
sence of  a  mill,  bones  can  be  reduced  by  making  a 
compost  with  good  wood  ashes,  although  it  requires 
considerable  time  to  do  it.  The  process  is  to  place  a 
layer  of  bones  in  the  bottom  of  a  barrel,  and  then 
over  them  place  a  layer  of  ashes,  and  so  on,  until  the 
barrel  is  filled  or  the  bones  are  exhausted.  This 
should  then  be  kept  wet  all  the  time.  The  mixture 
will  be  ready  for  use  in  about  a  years  time.  When 
softened,  take  the  bones  out  and  crush  them  before 
applying  to  the  land. 

As  a  general  rule  concerning  the  application  of  fer- 
tilizers, top-dressing  is  better ;  but  all  volatile  fertiliz- 
ers and  manures  should  be  plowed  or  harrowed  under 
immediately.  The  stronger  the  smell,  the  more  rap- 
idly are  the  virtues  of  a  manure  or  fertilizer  wasting 
away. 

It  is  useless  for  a  farmer  to  go  to  an  agricultural 
chemist  for  a  prescription  of  fertilizers  for  his  farm  ; 
he  must  feel  his  way  along  by  careful  experimenting. 

The  various  manures  are  also  spoken  of  as  fertiliz- 
ers, especially  clover.     See  Manure.     Red  clover  is 


FESCUE— FIG. 


459 


the  best,  of  which  about  1 2  bushels  of  the  unhulled 
seed  is  sown  to  the  acre.  Summer  fallowing  should 
be  done  the  second  year,  taking  the  first  crop  off  and 
turning  under  the  second. 

Directions  as  to  the  quantities  of  salt  and  the  time 
to  be  applied  to  different  grain,  roots  and  other  crops: 


Crops. 


Wheat 

Rye 

Barley 

Oats 

Beans  and  peas 

Rape  seed 

Flax 

Hops 

Potatoes 

Turnips,  mangolds,  beets  and  carrots. 

Gardens 

Fruit  trees 

Fallows 

Clover  and  grasses  (artificial) 

Meadows  and  g rasses  (natural) 


CwT.  Per  Acre. 


4M-  5 

5  -  6 

6  -7M 
6K-  iM 
6  -  6% 
6     -7 

4-5 
6-65^ 
6    -7 
5     -6 
7/4-IO 


g    -10 

6'A-7'A 

6ii-7'A 


4-4^ 
4>^-  5 
6-6 
6-6}^ 
4K-S 
5  -  6 
3'A-  4 
5  -  6 
4  -  5 
4-5 
7     -8 


8     -  q 
5     -6'A 
5     -6  / 


o  n 


3     -4 

3  -4 

4  -5 
4J^-S 
3A-* 
4  -5 
2%-3 
4     -5 

3     -3>i 
3'A-* 
6    -i'A 


7M-8 
4  -5 
4    -5 


These  quantities  are  calculated  for  soils  in  which 
there  is  an  insufficiency  of  the  elements  of  salt;  but 
in  such  soils  where  an  analysis  would  already  show 
considerable  quantities  of  soda  and  chlorides  or  muri- 
ates in  various  forms,  smaller  qu^nrities  than  the 
above  should  be  used,  as  also  in  the  cases  where  salt 
has  already  been  used  in  compost  and  with  stable 
dung,  or  where  cattle  are  regularly  fed  salt. 

Fescue  (fes'-cu),  the  name  of  a  genus  of  grasses, 
of  which  there  are  several  well  known  useful  species, 
as  meadow  fescue,  hard  fescue,  sheep's  fescue,  etc. 

Fetlock,  the  part  of  the  horse's  leg  where  the 
tuft  of  hair  grows,  behind  the  pastern.  The  joint  of 
this  part  is  called  the  fetlock-joint,  and  is  the  principal 
seat  of  motion  below  the  knee.  Four  bones  belong  to 
it,  the  cannon,  the  long  pastern  bone,  and  the  two 
sesamoids;  an  extraordinary  provision  exists  in  its 
configuration  and  accompaniments  to  obviate  concus- 
sions. Inflammation  in  the  ligaments  of  this  joint  at- 
tends most  cases  of  sprains  of  the  back  sinew ;  and 
inflammatory  action  in  these  ligaments  or  in  the  parts 
immediately  connected  with  them  is  frequently  mis- 
taken for  sprain  in  some  higher  part  of  the  leg. 

Fever,  a  general  inflammation,  which  may  arise 
from  various  causes,  aff"ecting  persons  of  different  con- 
stitutions more  or  less  violently.  This  should  prompt 
every  one  to  look  well  into  the  constitution  of  the  pa- 
tient before  giving  remedies.  Should  the  same  active 
treatment  be  employed  for  a  weak  and  delicate  person 
that  would  be  used  for  a  healthy,  robust  one,  the  re- 
sult would  doubtless  be  disastrous.  The  cause  of  the 
fever  should  be  known,  if  ix)ssible,  as  the  treatment 
may  be  more  intelligibly  prescribed.     Fevers  are  often 


aggravated  in  their  virulence  or  protracted  in  theii 
duration  by  wrong  medication. 

As  to  the  particular  form  of  fever,  whether  bilious, 
nervous,  typhoid,  remittent,  intermittent,  rheumatic, 
malarial,  scarlet,  spotted,  erysipelas,  small-pox,  or 
something  else,  it  is  generally  difficult  to  tell  for  the 
first  day  or  two,  but  this  makes  no  difference  with  the 
home  treatment  prescribed  below.  These  fevers,  with 
their  treatment,  are  treated  under  their  respective 
heads.  The  symptoms  of  fever  are  lassitude  and 
weakness  of  muscular  power,  accompanied  with  an 
expression  indicative  of  some  inward  distress;  and  an 
aversion  and  inability  to  every  exertion,  either  of  mind 
or  body,  usually  denote  the  approach  of  fevers.  Ir- 
regular chills  and  heats,  with  great  restlessness,  and  a 
general  sensation  of  soreness,  succeed;  while  flushing 
of  the  face,  increased  heat  of  the  skin,  especially  of 
the  hands  and  feet,  quick  pulse,  headache,  or  a  dis- 
turbed condition  of  the  mental  faculties,  demonstrate 
that  the  fever  is  already  formed,  and  that  medical  as- 
sistance should  be  rendered  to  the  patient. 

All  fevers  have  a  tendency  to  be  higher  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  day  and  reduced  in  the  morning.  Those 
which  entirely  remit  (that  is,  cease)  on  alternate  days, 
are  called  "intennittent."  Some  intermittents,  how- 
ever, have  both  their  quickening  and  cessation  daily, 
and  some,  very  rare,  every  three  days.  "  Ague," 
"  chilk  ancl  fever,"  etc.,  are  other  names  of  this  form 
of  fever,  and  it  is  always  more  or  less  bilious.  Those 
fevers  which  only  partially  cease,  daily  or  on  alternate 
days,  are  denominated  "remittent."  Sometimes  this 
fomi  of  fever  is  also  bilious,  and  sometimes  nervous. 
Both  the  intermittent  and  remittent  are  "  malarial," 
as  is  also  typhoid.  In  times  of  small-pox,  if  one  feels 
chilly,  with  pain  in  the  back  and  head,  he  should  sus- 
pect that  dreaded  epidemic  and  act  accordingly.  Very 
few  persons,  not  doctors,  are  willing  to  take  the  respons- 
ibility of  treating  fevers,  except  the  intermittent  form, 
termed  ague,  when  the  favorite  quinine,  or  hot  bathing, 
or  hot  herb  teas  will  be  called  into  requisition. 

For  treatment  in  the  early  stages  of  fever,  or  until 
the  particular  type  is  developed,  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended by  the  profession  to  keep  the  head  cool  by 
bathing  and  fresh  air;  the  feet  warm,  if  they  are  not 
already  hot.  Give  injections  to  clean  out  the  bowels. 
If  there  is  nausea,  give  an  emetic.  Give  no  food,  but 
give  drinks  of  pure  water  of  such  temperature  as  is 
least  nauseous  to  the  patient,  which  may  be  a  little 
flavored  with  cream,  sugar,  juice  of  sour  fruit,  or  some 
innocent  aromatic.  Further  than  this,  let  him  rest,  or 
even  sleep,  all  he  wants  to. 

Field,  a  division  or  a  subdivision  of  a  farm.  Each 
field  on  a  farm  ought  to  have  a  distinctive  name  and 
the  difl'erent  fields  of  a  farm  should  be  in  succession 
managed  in  a  strict  and  regular  adaptation  to  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  cropping. 

Field  Mouse :  see  Mole. 

Fig.  This  celebrated  fruit-tree,  whose  history  is 
as  ancient  as  that  of  the  world,  belongs  properly  to  a 
warm  climate,  though  it  may  be  raised  in  the  open 


460 


FIG— FILTER. 


air  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Northern  States, 
with  proper  care.  In  its  native  countries,  Asia  and 
Africa,  near  the  sea-coast,  it  forms  a  low  tree  20  feet 
in  height,  with  spreading  branches  and  large,  deeply 
lobed  and  rough  leaves.  The  blossoms  are  scarcely 
visible,  being  concealed  in  a  fleshy  receptacle  which 
finally  becomes  the  fruit  which  is  eaten.  This  is  very 
sweet,  and  of  such  peculiar  richness  and  flavor  that 
some  persons  do  not  Uke  it  at  first ;  but  it  is  never- 
theless a  very  nutritious  article  of  diet. 

Cultivation.  This  tree  is  very  rapidly  increased 
by  cuttings  taken  off  in  March  and  planted  in  a  light 
soil  in  a  hot-bed ;  or  they  may  be  planted  in  a  shady 
border  in  the  open  air  quite  early  in  April,  with  tolera- 
ble success.  The  cuttings  should  be  eight  or  ten 
inches  long  of  the  last  year's  shoots,  with  about  half 
an  inch  of  the  previous  year's  wood  left  at  the  base. 
The  best  soil  is  one  moderately  deep,  neither  very 
moist  nor  very  dry.  In  very  moist  ground  the  tree 
will  run  to  coarse  wood,  and  in  dry  ground  the  fruit 
will  drop  before  fully  ripe.  In  this  climate  a  loamy, 
chalky  or  limy  soil  is  the  best,  with  marl  or  mild  lime 
in  compost  as  a  suitable  manure.  In  the  Northern 
States  the  tree  is  kept  as  a  kind  of  dwarf,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  carried  in-doors  or  otherwise  protected 
during  cold  weather.  One  good  method  is  to  set  open 
boxes  or  barrels  over  them,  filling  in  with  straw  or 
any  other  litter.  In  order  to  prevent  a  too  luxurious 
growth  of  the  branches  under  this  process  of  dwarfing, 
"root-pruning"  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Short-jointed 
wood  and  only  moderate  vigor  of  growth  are  well 
known  accompaniments  of  fruitfulness  in  this  tree; 
and  there  is  no  means  by  which  firm,  well  ripened, 
short-jointed  wood  is  so  easily  obtained  as  by  an  an- 
nual pruning  of  the  roots,  cutting  off  all  that  projects 
more  than  half  the  length  of  the  branches.  This  work 
is  done  in  autumn  by  digging  a  trench  around  the 
tree,  cutting  off  all  the  roots  with  a  sharp  spade ;  then 
but  little  pruning  of  the  branches  is  necessary  beyond 
that  of  keeping  the  tree  somewhat  low  and  in  regular 
shape,  shortening  in  the  branches  occasionally  and 
taking  out  old  and  decaying  wood.  In  winter  the 
branches  of  the  fig  should  be  bent  down  to  the  ground 
and  fastened  with  hooked  pegs,  and  covered  with 
three  or  four  inches  of  soil  as  in  protecting  the  foreign 
grape.  This  covering,  of  course,  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  the  spring  is  well  settled. 

Two  crops  in  a  year  are  usually  produced  by  the 
fig,  the  first,  which  ripens  here  in  mid-summer,  and 
the  second,  which  is  yielded  by  the  young  shoots  of 
the  same  season,  but  rarely  ripens  well  in  the  Middle 
States.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  rub  off  all  the 
young  fruit  of  this  season's  crop  after  mid-summer  as 
they  are  formed.  In  an  unfavorable  soil  or  climate 
the  ripening  of  the  fig  is  undoubtedly  rendered  more 
certain  and  speedy  by  touching  the  eye  of  the  fruit 
with  a  little  oil ;  the  fruit  is  also  larger. 

Varieties.  Of  the  red,  brown  or  purple  figs  the 
most  hardy  varieties  are  the  Black  Ischia,  Brown 
Ischia,  Brown  Turkey,  Brunswick,  Small  Brown  Ischia 
and  Violette ;  and  of  the  white,  green  and  yellow 


kinds,  they  are  the  Angelique,  White  Ischia  and  Pre- 
gussata.  The  very  hardiest  is  the  Brown  Turkey,  and 
the  most  luscious  varieties  are  too  tender  for  culture 
in  the  Northern  States. 

Fig,  IN  FARRIERY,  an  excrescence  on  the  frog  of  a 
horse's  foot  resulting  from  a  bruise. 

Filbert,  a  large,  thin-shelled  hazelnut,  raised  In 
England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia. The  climate  of  the  northern  portion  of  the 
United  States  is  hardly  adapted  to  their  culture. 

File.  In  using  a  file,  it  saves  its  surface  to  draw 
it  back  lightly.  In  filing  a  flat  surface,  great  care 
must  be  taken  if  you  would  avoid  filing  the  edges 
more  than  the  middle.  Applying  another  perfectly 
level-faced  iron  which  has  been  evenly  coated  with 
red  lead,  will  show  up  the  places  not  sufficiently  filed 
down.  Files  can  be  re-cut  with  acids,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  First  cleanse  them  in  warm  water  in 
which  is  a  little  potash ;  rinse  with  warm  water  and 
dry  by  artificial  heat.  Put  them  in  warm  water,  just 
enough  to  cover  them,  and  to  each  pint  of  the  water 
add  2  ounces  of  blue  vitriol  finely  pulverized,  2  ounces 
of  borax,  well  mixed,  taking  care  to  turn  the  files  over, 
so  that  each  may  come  in  uniform  contact  with  the 
mixture ;  then  add  7  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  and  ]/i 
ounce  vinegar,  which  will  cause  the  files  to  look  red, 
at  first,  but  they  will  in  a  short  time  resume  their 
natural  color.  Then  take  them  out  and  wash  them 
in  cold  water,  and  dry  them  by  artificial  heat.  Sponge 
them  with  olive  oil,  wrap  them  in  porous  paper  and 
lay  them  aside  for  use.  To  clean  a  file,  oil  and  heat 
it,  and  rub  it  off  with  a  wire  brush.  To  temper  a  file, 
grind  out  the  cuttings  on  one  side  until  a  bright  sur- 
face is  obtained ;  then  damp  the  surface  with  a  little 
oil,  and  lay  the  file  on  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron,  bright 
side  upwards  ;  in  about  a  minute  the  bright  surface  will 
begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  when  this  color  has  deep- 
ened about  the  color  of  straw,  plunge  the  file  into 
cold  water,  and  the  work  is  done. 

Fillet,  OF  VEAL,  is  the  fleshy  part  of  the  thigh.  To 
cook,  see  Veal. 

Filly,  a  female  colt,  or  young  mare. 

Filter,  an  apparatus  for  purifying  water.  To  make 
an  exceedingly  cheap  and  simple  filter  take  an  oak  or 
maple  tub  or  cask,  put  into  the  bottom  3  or  4  inches 
of  soft  brick,  pounded  up  about  as  fine  as  coarse  salt; 
over  this  put  as  much  fresh-burned  charcoal,  pounded 
up  to  the  same  grade,  and  over  this  another  layer  of 
the  brick,  and  on  the  surface  a  good,  clean  cloth 
strainer,  so  arranged  that  no  coarse  matter  will  waste 
around  it  and  get  through ;  or  it  may  be  tied  over  the 
top  of  the  vessel.  Have  a  wooden  faucet  as  near  the 
bottom  of  the  tub  as  possible,  and  a  jug  underneath 
to  catch  the  water.  Clean,  fresh-burned  soft  brick, 
pounded  up,  is  far  more  efficient  than  pebbles  or  sand. 
Old  charcoal  will  leave  a  rank  or  bitter  taste  in  the 
water. 

A  filter  for  a  cistern  might  be  made  on  the  same 
principle,  but  on  a  larger  scale,  and  placed  at  one 


FIN— FIRE-DAMP. 


461 


side  near  the  top  of  the  cistern,  just  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground  and  in  the  course  of  the  rain-water,  so 
that  all  the  latter  will  have  to  go  through  it  to  reach 
the  cistern.  A  cistern  filter  made  in  this  way  cannot 
be  used  in  freezing  weather,  unless  it  is  under  the  house, 
which  is  a  bad  place  for  a  cistern.  A  cistern  filter 
which  is  not  subject  to  freezing,  and  is  cheaper,  al- 
though not  so  efficient,  is  made  as  follows :  Build  a 
four-inch  brick  wall  across  the  cistern  from  bottom  to 
top.  This  is  laid  in  cement,  and  curves  to  the  side 
which  is  to  receive  the  water,  which  should  be  about 
two-thirds  the  capacity  of  the  entire  cistern.  The  wa- 
ter will  filter  through  the  brick  of  the  partition,  and 
may  be  drawn  pure  from  the  smaller  compartment. 
A  good  method  is  to  make  a  small  cistern,  adjoining 
the  main  one,  five  feet  wide  by  six  feet  deep,  con- 
nected, about  a  foot  above  the  bottom,  with  the  large 
one  by  a  pipe.  Fill  the  small  cistern  two-thirds  full 
with  sand  and  gravel,  charcoal  or  brick  dust,  and  let 
the  water  from  the  roof  be  discharged  into  it,  and  fil- 
ter through  into  the  main  cistern.  The  advantage  of 
this  method  is  that  when  the  filtering  materials  get 
old  or  too  impure,  they  may  be  taken  out  and  re- 
newed, without  disturbing  or  losing  the  water  in  the 
main  reservoir.  A  common  method  is  to  place  a 
bisecting,  single  brick  wall  in  the  cistern,  from  bottom 
to  top,  laid  without  mortar. 

Every  filter  ought  to  be  renewed  every  few  weeks, 
whether  it  cleans  much  water  or  not  for  the  reason 
that  the  brick  and  charcoal  gathers  foul  gases  and  in- 
sects when  not  in  use,  and  when  in  use  it  gathers  the 
foul  matter  of  the  water. 

Pin,  the  cutting  plate  on  the  colter  of  a  plow. 

Finger  Bar,  that  portion  of  the  cutting  bar  of  a 
mowing  or  reaping  machine  in  which  the  knife  bar 
works. 

Finger  Glass,  a  glass  to  hold  water  for  the  use  of 
the  fingers  at  the  dinner  table. 

Finger-Nails.  Keep  them  clean  by  the  use  of 
the  brush  and  soap-suds,  and  trim  then  once  a  week 
with  a  knife  or  scissors  ;  don't  bite  them  off,  nor  scrape 
them.  Do  i)ot  trim  the  corners  very  close,  lest  they 
grow  inward  and  make  trouble. 

Finger-Plate,  a  strip  of  metal  or  jwrcelain  on  the 
edge  of  a  door  to  prevent  the  fingers  from  soiling  the 
paint. 

Finger-Bings.  When  on  alittle  too  tight  a  finger- 
ring  may  be  slipped  off  comfortably  by  soaking  the 
finger  in  a  strong  lather  of  soap-suds  from  the  ring 
down  to  the  next  joint.  If  on  too  tight  for  this  jjro- 
cess,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  wind  on  a  thread  from 
the  same  joint  up  to  the  ring,  as  carefully  as  on  a 
spool,  and  pass  the  end  under  the  ring  with  a  needle; 
then  unwind  by  passing  this  end  around  the  finger 
underneath  the  ring,  and  the  latter  will  very  gradually 
be  worked  off  If  too  tight  to  be  slipped  off  by  either  of 
these  processes,  corrode  it  in  two  with  aqua  regia,  to 
be  had  at  the  drug-stores. 


Fining  (fi'ning),  a  process  of  refining,  as  liquors 
with  isinglass  or  gelatin.     See  Ale,  Beer  and  Cider. 

Fir  (fur),  a  tree  of  the  spruce  genus.  The  Scotch 
fir  is  a  pine.     See  Evergreens. 

Fire.  In  the  first  place  there  should  be  a  perma- 
nent and  definite  understanding  in  the  family  what  to 
do  in  case  of  fire,  both  as  to  each  one's  own  person 
and  as  to  the  care  of  the  property,  so  that  in  case  of  a 
sudden  emergency  there  will  be  some  wisdom  of  ac- 
tion. Flues  and  ash-barrels  are  the  most  common 
sources  of  fire  about  the  premises  in  the  country. 
They  are  very  deceivingly  treacherous.  You  cannot 
take  too  much  pains  with  them.  When  a  chimney 
takes  fire  within,  throw  some  sulphur  on  the  fire  below 
and  close  up  the  chimney  way  with  a  wet  blanket  so 
that  the  flames  cannot  come  out  into  the  room.  Salt 
is  also  a  good  extinguisher.  To  pass  through  a  room 
of  dense  smoke  and  heat,  crawl  along  on  the  floor, 
and,  if  possible,  have  at  the  same  time  a  woolen  cloth 
over  the  mouth,  which  will  serve  as  a  filter  to  the  air 
you  breathe.  When  clothes  take  fire,  smotheringthe 
burning  place  with  a  woolen  cloth  or  blanket  is  by  far 
the  best  method ;  the  next  is  to  do  anything  else  that 
may  smother  the  fire.  When  children's  clothes  take 
fire  they  should  be  taught  not  to  run,  as  that  would 
increase  the  flame,  but  immediately  snuff  it  out,  or 
smother  it  in  some  way.  The  cotton  and  linen  clothes 
of  children  should  always  receive  their  last  rinsing  in 
water  which  has  two  or  three  ounces  of  alum  dissolved 
in  it ;  that  will  render  the  garments  almost  incom- 
bustible. When  any  kind  of  oil  or  grease  is  on  fire  do 
not  throw  water  upon  it,  but  smother  it  if  practicable, 
— otherwise,  protect  the  things  around  until  the  oil 
has  burned  out.  The  rooms  in  which  a  fire  is  under 
way  should  be  closed,  so  that  the  fire  will  not  have 
much  ventilation.  When  one  is  in  an  upper  room 
during  a  fire  and  cannot  get  down  by  the  stairway,  he 
should  tie  sheets  together,  if  he  can  get  them,  and 
tying  one  end  to  a  bed-post  climb  down  by  the  sheets 
from  a  window.  All  paper  and  cloths  in  places  ex- 
posed to  fire,  may  be  protected  by  a  solution  of  alum 
or  salt.  In  extinguishing  a  fire  which  is  under  full 
headway,  it  is  best  to  advance  ahead  of  it  and  wet 
the  jjlaces  it  is  about  to  attack,  rather  than  spending 
all  the  force  on  the  middle  of  the  conflagration,  where 
it  is  too  late  to  do  any  good. 

Fire-Blight,  a  disease  of  apple  and  pear  trees. 
See  Apple,  jiage  28. 

Fire-Board,  a  chimney  board  used  to  close  a  fire- 
place in  summer. 

Fire-Briek,  a  brick  capable  of  sustaining  an  in- 
tense heat  without  fusion.  It  is  usually  made  of  fire- 
clay. 

Fire-Clay,  a  kind  of  clay,  chiefly  pure  silicate  of 
alumina,  capable  of  sustaining  an  intense  heat,  and 
hence  used  in  making  fire-brick. 

Fire-Damp :  see  Choke  Damp. 


462 


FIRE-DOG— FISH. 


rire-Dog,  andfron ;  a  support  for  wood  in  a  fire- 
place. 

Fire-Irons,  utensils  for  a  fire-place  or  grate,  as 
tongs,  jwker  and  shovel. 

Firing,  the  application  of  the  firing-iron  to  the  dis- 
eased parts  of  the  bodies  of  domestic  animals,  partic- 
ularly the  horse.  It  is  a  severe  and  very  painful 
practice,  and  in  consequence  of  its  having  been  much 
abused  or  unnecessarily  resorted  to  by  bungling  and 
cruel  veterinarians,  it  has  fallen  into  great  disrepute. 
The  Arabs  use  the  firing-iron  as  a  sort  of  panacea  for 
horse  diseases,  and  only  those  that  are  akin  to  them 
in  moral  nature  will  follow  their  barbarous  example 
in  its  indiscriminate  use.  In  some  cases  good  veter- 
inarians claim  that  it  really  e.xerts  great  therapeutic 
power,  while  others  claim  it  does  no  good  whatever. 
When  Prof  A.  Liautard,  of  the  American  Veterinary 
College,  was  queried  in  reference  to  firing  he  gave  the 
following  reply:  The  operation  of  "  firing"  is  one  to 
which  Americans  often  object  in  the  treatment  of  dis- 
eases, and  owners  of  horses  very  often  refuse  to  have 
their  animals  submitted  to  it.  The  objections  are 
made  both  on  account  of  the  blemishes  which  may 
follow,  and  for  the  failures  which  have  often  followed  the 
treatment.  Marks  cannot  be  avoided;  in  fact  they 
are  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  operation,  if  it  is 
projjerly  done,  unless  the  firing  is  very  light.  The 
failures  are  not  necessarily  due  to  the  inefficiency  of 
the  operation,  but  more  frequently  to  the  incomplete 
manner  of  its  performance.  Of  course  we  would  not 
convey  the  impression  that  all  cases  will  be  followed 
by  certain  recovery  after  the  application  of  the  actual 
cautery,  but  our  long  experience  justifies  us  in  saying 
that  in  the  immense  majority  of  cases  it  has  either 
brought  cure,  or  at  least  great  relief ;  and  we  know 
many  cases  of  lameness,  for  instance,  where  all  other 
treatment  had  failed,  in  which  "  firing  "  was  followed 
by  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

"Firing"  consists  in  the  proper  application  to  living 
surfaces  of  a  high  degree  of  heat,  which  will  irritate 
or  even  destroy  those  surfaces,  either  superficially  or 
deeply. 

According  to  Prof  Bouley,  the  cases  in  which 
"  firing  "  may  be  used  are  quite  numerous.  He  recom- 
mends it  in  diseases  of  the  joints,  when  bony  deposits 
are  developed  on  the  borders  ;  in  injuries  of  ligaments ; 
in  diseases  of  bones,  of  tendons,  of  muscles ;  and  in 
some  nervous  affections.  Still  farther,  he  advises  its 
use  as  an  auxiliary  in  pneumonia,  pleurisy,  etc. 

The  reader  will  see  from  this  that  "firing"  is  em- 
ployed with  very  different  objects.  Several  modes  of 
"firing,"  are  used;  that  known  as  the  "Objective  Fir- 
ing" is  where  the  caloric  is  transmitted  to  the  living 
parts  by  radiation,  and  not  by  direct  contact  of  the 
heated  instrument.  It  is  a  dangerous  mode  of  opera- 
tion, which  requires  a  great  deal  of  care,  else  it  may 
be  followed  by  ugly  wounds,  which  may  leave  bad 
blemishes. 

"Transcurent  Firing"  is  the  one  most  commonly 
used,  and  is  performed  with  special-shaped   instru- 


ments called  "  irons,"  or  "cauteries."  Some  are  knife- 
shaped,  and  others  pointed.  Hence  the  cauterization 
in  one  case  is  in  lines,  and  in  the  other  in  points  and 
dots.  Thelines  are  used  principally  for  large  surfaces, 
while  the  dots  or  points  are  used  upon  limited  spaces. 
These  are  preferable,  as  they  leave  fewer  marks  after- 
wards. 

A  third  mode  of  "firing"  has  recently  been  intro- 
duced into  veterinary  surgery,  known  as  "  Needle 
Firing."  This  is  different  from  the  second  mode  of 
operation,  as  the  instruments  are  fine  needles,  which 
are  introduced  while  hot,  through  the  skin,  and  some- 
times through  the  tissues  underneath.  In  cases  of 
large  bony  growths  most  advantageous  results  have 
been .  obtained  from  this  method.  The  operation, 
when  properly  applied,  requires  no  other  application 
than  that  of  the  red  iron ;  it  is,  however,  customary  in 
America  to  join  to  it  blistering.  This,  however,  could 
be  well  dispensed  with,  if  the  "firing"  was  properly 
done.  The  following  are  the  unfavorable  results 
which  may  follow  "firing,"  and  are  of  so  little  import- 
ance that  they  will  by  themselves  show  how  little  risk 
there  is  in  the  operation  : 

1.  Section  of  the  skin,  if  the  iron  is  applied  too  hot 
and  heavily,  healing  rapidly. 

2.  Bleeding,  when  the  instrument  used  is  rough 
and  sharp,  and  pressed  too  hard  on  the  skin ;  this  is 
generally  harmless  and  stops  of  itself. 

3.  Tearing  of  the  scabs  by  carelessness  in  the  at- 
tendance after  the  operation. 

4.  Sloughing  off  of  large  pieces  of  skin,  when  the 
"  firing  "  has  been  too  deep,  or  when  greasy  substances 
are  used  in  connection  with  the  operation. 

5.  Irregular  blemishes  or  cicatrix,  results  of  the 
above  accidents,  which  it  is  impossible  to  remove ;  and 
which  ought  not  to  take  place  at  the  hands  of  a  skill- 
ful operator. 

Firkin  (fur -kin),  a  measure  of  capacity,  being  the 
fourth  part  of  a  barrel,  or  about  eight  gallons ;  also,  a 
small  vessel  or  cask  of  indeterminate  size,  used  chiefly 
for  butter  or  lard. 

Fiscal,  pertaining  to  the  period  of  accounts;  as, 
"  fiscal  year,"  the  year  of  opening  and  closing  an  ac- 
count or  report,  which  is  made  by  the  year. 

Fish,  one  of  the  four  great  classes  or  primary 
divisions  of  vertebrated  animals;  and  although  the 
lowest  form  of  vertebrates,  their  varied  forms  and  col- 
ors, which  often  rival  those  of  precious  stones  and  bur- 
nished gold,  the  wonderful  power  and  velocity  of  some, 
the  wholesome  food  furnished  by  many,  and  the  excit- 
ing sport  of  their  capture  combine  to  render  fish 
subjects  of  greatest  interest  to  the  casual  observer,  as 
well  as  to  the  amateur  and  professional  naturalist. 

Of  all  vertebrates  the  fish  is  the  simplest  in  its  struct- 
ure, and  the  great  geologic  book  of  nature  shows  us, 
on  opening  its  rock  leaves,  that  it  is  the  oldest.  The 
organs  of  fishes  are  adapted  to  living  underwater.  In 
place  of  lungs  they  have  gills.  Instead  of  four  legs 
like  animals,  or  two  legs  and  a  pair  of  arms,  they  have 
two  pairs  of  fins,  called  branchial  and  ventral.     (Toes 


k 


464 


FISH. 


and  fingers  are  represented  in  fish  by  the  rays  and 
membranes  of  fins.)     Besides  these  two  pairs  of  fins, 
they  have  dorsal,  sub-dorsal,  caudal  and  anal  fins — 
varying  with  different  families  and  greatly  modified. 
They  breathe  or  oxygenate  their  blood  by  taking  water 
into  their  mouths,  passing  it  through  the  gills  and  out 
at  the  opening  of  the  gill-cover.     The  eyes  of  fishes 
cannot  be  closed.     Whether  they  sleep  or  not  is  a 
mooted  question. 
Their  eyesight  is 
very  acute,   mak- 
ing up  in   sensi- 
tiveness   for    the 
lack  of  some  of 
theothersenses — 
except  in  some  of 
the  cave  fishes, in 
many  of  which  t  he 
eye  is   only  rudi- 
mentary and  not 
observable    from 
the  outside. 
The  skeletons  of 

fishes  vary.    Some  Y\q.i.— The  CHmUng  Fish,  0/ India. 


are  very  bony,  with  bones  as  tough  and  nearly  as  hard 
as  horn ;  while  others  have,  instead  of  bone,  only 
cartilage.  Most  fishes  have  scales  and  some  of  the 
scaly  fishes,  known  as  ganoids,  have  a  glutinous  sub- 
stance covering  the  body,  called  ganoine.  Ctenoid 
scales  have  their  posterior  edges  pectinated  or  saw- 
shaped,  while  the  cycloids  have  smooth-edged  scales. 
The  tail  or  caudal  fin  is  the  propelling  jx)wer, 
principally — the  side,  or  paired  fins  being  used  for 
balancing  .  Most  fishes  can  swim  very  rapidly  and 
some  of  the  migratory  fish  make  long  journeys  in  an 
incredibly  short  space  of  time.  Most  fishes  are  fur- 
nished with  a  membranous  bag  filled  with  air  and 
called  the  swimming  bladder.   This  enables  them  to  in- 


Such  fishes  as  spend  a  portion  of  their  lives  in  fresh 
and  part  in  salt  water  are  called  migratory.  Those 
that,  like  the  salmon  and  shad,  make  their  growth  in 
the  sea  and  migrate  up  our  streams  to  deposit  and 
mature  their  eggs,  are  called  anadromous.  Those  that, 
like  the  eel,  procure  their  food  and  growth  in  fresh 
water  and  return  in  the  fall  of  the  year  to  the  ocean 
to   hibernate  and   breed,   are   called    catanadromous 

fishes. 

The  shape  or 
position  of  the 
opening  of  the 
fish's  mouth  tells 
whether  he  is  a 
top,  bottom,  or 
middle  feeder. 
The  sucker,  buf- 
falo, sturgeon  and 
others  of  their 
class  have  the 
mouth  opening 
downward  and 
feed  ujx)n  the 
bottom.  The  bass, 


croppie  and  many  of  the  percoids  have  the  mouth 
opening  upward,  thus  saying  to  us  that  they  approach 
their  food  from  below ;  while  the  trout,  pickerel,  and 
most  of  the  cyprinoids,  with  their  mouth  opening 
directly  in  front,  go  straight  for  their  food.  Some 
have  no  teeth;  but  generally  there  are  large  num- 
bers in  different  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat, 
which  vary  widely  in  form,  number  and  position.  The 
horrid  set  which  the  shark  carries  is  regularly  shed 
and  replaced  by  new. 

As  to  whether  fishes  hear  or  not  is  an  undecided 
question.  Some  ichthyologists  do  not  believe  that 
fishes  have  an  organ  so  sensitive  as  to  feel  the  vibra- 
tion of  air  caused  by  talking  or  any  ordinary  sound 


crease  or  diminish  their  specific  gravity,  and  so  float 
or  sink  as  they  desire. 

The  life  of  a  fish  is  devoted  to  procuring  food  and 
escaping  from  its  enemies,  at  which  they  become  ex- 
pert or  careless  as  dangers  are  more  or  less  numerous 
about  them.  Their  growth  depends  on  the  quantity 
of  food  taken  and  the  amount  of  exercise  required  to 
procure  it,  and  the  temperature  of  the  water  in  which 
they  live.  The  warmer  the  water  the  more  rapid  their 
respiration,  or  in  other  words,  the  faster  they  live  the 
more  rapidly  they  will  digest  the  food  they  take. 


above  the  water;  and  that  they  can  be  called  by  the 
voice  or  by  whistling,  they  think  are  mythical  asser- 
tions. To  such  concussions  as  cause  the  ground  or 
water  to  vibrate  they  are  extremely  sensitive.'  For  in- 
stance, thunder,  the  firing  of  a  cannon,  etc.,  in  the  air 
and  entirely  away  from  the  water,  and  anything  that 
directly  causes  a  vibration  of  the  water,  like  the  strik- 
ing of  an  oar  against  the  side  or  bottom  of  the  boat 
ever  so  lightly,  will  cause  the  fish  almost  instant 
alarm.  Some  think  that  the  scales  are  connected  by 
small  nerves  with  the  nerve  centers,  and  that  hearing 


F/SH. 


465 


with  the  fish  is  sensitiveness  to  the  vibrations  of  the 
water  only — conveyed  to  the  senses  through  the  me- 
dium of  the  scales.     All  fishes  have  scales,  even  the 
brook  trout,    eel,    etc.,   that    to 
the  naked  eye  appear  scaleless. 

Most  fishes  are  oviparous  in 
their  manner  of  reproduction; 
but  some  species  bring  forth  liv- 
ing young.  They  produce  a  far 
greater  number  of  eggs  than  any 
other  vertebrates.  A  salmon 
sometimes  contains  as  many  as 
20,000  eggs;  a  i)erch,  28,320; 
a  herring,  36,960 ;  a  mackerel, 
546,000;  a  flounder,  1,357,400; 
a  sturgeon,  7,635,200;  a  cod, 
9,344,000 ;  and  a  species  of  Upe- 
neus,  13,000,000. 

Fresh-water  fish  of  many  spe- 
.  cies  are  everywhere  regarded  as 
delicious  food,  and  sought  after 
with  avidity,  and  in  many  districts 
they  constantly  form  an  article  of 
luxuiy  to  some  classes  and  of 
commercial  profit  to  others. 
Fish  from  the  seas  as  well  as 
fresh,  and  in  great  variety,  enter 
largely  into  human  diet.  Catch- 
ing fish,  for  pleasure  and  profit, 
is  one  of  the  absorbing  employ- 
ments of  men,  and  has  been  from 
the  remotest  time  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge  till  the  pre- 
sent. Until  quite  recently  the 
native  wildness  of  fishes  was 
supreme  and  undisputed;  but 
now  the  art  of  man  has  contrived 
a  system  by  which  fish  can  be 
domesticated  and  cultivated  for 
profit.  It  is  true  that  the  sub- 
ject of  securing  from  the  waters 
a  larger  supply  of  fish  than  they 
would  spontaneously  afford,  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  various 
nations  from  a  very  remote 
period,  one  of  the  first  and  sim- 
plest methods  consisting  in  the 
collection  of  fish  into  natural  or 
artificial  ponds  or  reservoirs  and 
allowing  them  to  prey  upon  each 
other,  or  by  supplying  food  to 
them  artificially.  This  plan  was 
in  vogue  among  the  Romans 
especially,  and  it  is  asserted  that 
not  infrequently  the  food  thus 
supplied  consisted  of  the  flesh  of  Fig.  ^.—Caii/c 

slaves,  which,  it  was  claimed,  imparted  to  the  fisli  a 
rich  and  delicate  flavor.  The  claim  has  been  raised  in 
behalf  oi'China  as  having  earliest  practiced  pisciculture. 
But  if  by  this  is  meant  the  artificial  fecundation  of  the 
30 


eggs  of  fishes  and  raising  them  in  limited  spaces,  the 
assertion  can  hardly  be  sustained.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  very  great  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  China 
in  securing  the  fertilized  eggs  of 
fishes  after  they  have  been  al- 
ready deposited,  in  rearing  the 
young  fish,  and  in  stocking  the 
waters  with  the  best  adapted 
varieties.  In  this  respect  they 
may  be  said  to  have  practiced 
the  art  of  aqua-culture  from  a 
period  far  antedating  the  pros- 
ecution of  the  same  art  by  any 
Other  nation.  As  far  as  the  eggs 
of  fishes  were  concerned,  their 
efforts  were  confined  to  finding 
the  localities  where  they  had 
already  been  deposited,  and  tak- 
ing them  from  the  water  by 
means  of  fine  nets,  or  by  having 
the  eggs  deposited  on  fine  mats 
or  gratings,  and  then  hatching 
them  on  the  spot,  or  carrying 
them  to  other  desirable  places, 
sometimes  to  great  distances. 
The  histories  of  many  of  our 
older  countries  give  us  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  culture  of 
fishes  by  similar  methods  for 
long  ages  past.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  carp  into  Germany 
dates  back  to  the  twelfth  century, 
and  their  cultivation  in  the  Ger- 
man states  has  developed  into  a 
permanent  industry;  but  these 
old  methods  can  be  called  fish 
culture  only  in  a  very  restricted 
sense.  But  not  until  recently  in 
this  country  has  anything  been 
done  toward  fish  culture  worthy 
of  mentioning;  now,  however, 
the  term  "  fish  farming  "  has  be- 
come quite  common. 

Fish  Culture.  There  are 
few  subjects  of  more  importance 
to  the  material  welfare  of  our 
country,  or  that  a  persistent  and 
willful  disregard  of  the  laws  of 
nature  has  rendered  more  neces- 
sary, than  the  culture  of  the 
various  tribes  of  fish  that  were 
once  so  abundant  in  our  rivers 
and  lakes,  and  along  our  coasts. 
One  peculiarity  of  the  American 
people  is,  that  they  attack,  over- 
turn, annihilate,  and  then  labor- 
iously reconstruct.  The  pioneer  farmers  chopped  down 
the  forests  and  shade  trees  and  took  crop  after  crop  of 
the  same  kind  from  the  land,  exhausting  the  soil  and 
making  bare  the  country ;  they  hunted  and  fished,  de- 


rnia    Trout, 


466 


FISH. 


straying  first  the  wild  animals,  then  the  birds,  and  finally 
the  fish,  until  in  many  places  scarcely  a  specimen  was 
to  be  found.  Then,  when  they  had  finished  their  work 
of  destruction,  the  restorer  came  and  began  to  manure 
the  land,  left  it  fallow,  put  in  practice  the  rotation  of 
crops,  planted  shade  and  fruit  trees,  discovered  that 
birds  were  useful  in  destroying  insects  and  worms  and 


Their  efforts  were  rewarded  with  success,  and  out  of 
their  work  has  sprung  the  rising  industry  of  fish  farm- 
ing. 

The  methods  of  fish  culture  are  the  same  in  all 
properly  conducted  establishments  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  In  the  spawning  season  the  female 
ascends  the  stream,  digs  down  into  the  gravel  and 


passed  laws  to  protect  them,  and  now  they  are  turning 
their  attention  to  re-stocking  streams,  rivers  and  ponds 
with  fish.  Experiments  in  fish  culture,  except  that 
above  referred  to,  were  begun  in  the  salmon  streams 
of  Scotland  in  1833,  and  in  1837  a  few  fish  were  arti- 
ficially hatched  and  reared  to  the  age  of  two  years. 
But  we  are  indebted  to  two  Frenchmen,  Remy  and 


Fig.  5. — Carp. 

deposits  her  eggs.  The  male  goes  over  the  eggs  to 
"milt,"  or  impregnate,  them,  and  the  milt  and  spawn 
are  deposited  at  the  same  time.  The  female  then  re- 
turns and  covers  the  eggs  with  gravel,  and  they 
are  left  to  become  the  prey  of  other  fish,  fowls,  or 
reptiles,  or,  perchance,  to  hatch.  The  fish  farmer 
simply  secures  the  eggs,  sees  that  they  are  impreg- 


Fl(i.  6. — Brook 

Gehen,  for  what  we  know  of  practical  fish  culture. 
Being  fishers  for  a  livelihood,  they  saw  and  deplored 
the  steady  diminution  of  fish  in  the  streams  they  fre- 
quented, and,  seeing  how  myriads  of  eggs  were  spawned 
and  came  to  nothing,  about  1832  they  studied  out  a 
means  for  preserving  them  and  making  them  fruitful. 


nated,  watches  their  hatching,  protects  the  fish  from 
their  natural  enemies  and  unnatural  parents,  feeds 
them  and  brings  them  to  maturity.  There  is  nothing 
elaborate  or  intricate  in  it.  The  more  important  part 
of  the  business  is  to  provide  impregnated  eggs  and 
young  fish  for  transportation,  to  re-stock  rivers,  to  sup. 


FISH. 


467 


ply  the  numerous  private  ixjuds,  and  to  raise  sufficient 
fish  for  further  breeding. 

The  essentials  for  a  fish  farm  are  clear  spring  water 
ponds  for  fish  of  different  ages,  and  a  hatching  house. 

The  necessary  implements  are  a  bucket,  tin  pans,  a 
ladle,  a  small  net,  a  syringe  for  feeding,  nippers  and 
a  siphon  to  remove  dead  ones.  A  stove  to  warm  the 
house,  troughs,  divided  into  boxes,  for  conveniently 
distributing  the  eggs,  and  the  young  fish,  when  hatched, 
complete  the  establishment. 

When  the  breeding  fish  are  "ripe,"  that  is,  ready  to 
spawn,  the  farmer  fills  a  tin  pan  with  pure  spring 
water,  over  which  he  holds  the  male  fish  in  his  left 
hand,  keeping  the  fish's  belly  under  water,  while  with 
his  right  hand  he  compresses  the  fish,  and  with  his 
fore-finger  gently  presses  out  the  milt.  The  female 
is  then  taken  in  hand  and  her  eggs  pressed  out  in  the 


fish  upon  the  ova  of  the  female.  As  soon  as  the  milt 
is  dropped  pour  water  on  to  cover  the  eggs,  and  stir 
with  a  quill,  glass  rod,  or  tail  of  a  fish.  It  is  thought 
that  greater  success  is  secured  by  dropping  the  eggs 
dry. 

The  eggs,  after  40  minutes'  contact  with  the  milt, 
are  transferred  from  the  pan  to  the  hatching  boxes, 
and  evenly  spread  over  the  clean  bed.  Over  this  bed 
flows  a  stream  of  filtered  water.  The  boxes  should 
be  watched  in  regard  to  cleanliness  and  temperature 
of  the  water,  and  for  the  immediate  removal  of  any 
dead  ova  (eggs).  The  death  of  the  eggs  may  be  known 
by  change  of  color.  According  to  temperature,  in  from 
40  to  125  days,  the  eggs  will  hatch.  For  45  days  the 
young  fish  is  fed  by  the  yolk-sack  attached  to  it, 
which  is  gradually  absorbed.  The  young  fish  is  now 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  and  must  be  fed  with 


Fio.  T.— Weak  Fish. 


same  way.  This  process,  even  under  the  most  skillful 
handling,  and  the  speediest  return  of  the  fish  to  the 
water,  is  quite  exhausting  and  is  fatal  to  about  three 
per  cent,  of  the  parent  trout.  Experiments  have  ac- 
cordingly been  made  to  arrange  wire  screens  in  the 
ponds,  on  which  the  trout  may  naturally  spawn,  when 
the  ova  thus  impregnated  may  be  removed  to  the 
house.  This  has  been  done  with  success  in  New 
York  and  elsewhere. 

The  alxjve  directions  are  according  to  Seth  Green, 
the  pioneer  fish  culturist  of  this  country.  Others  in- 
struct to  use  as  a  receiver  of  the  extruded  spawn  and 
milt  a  perfectly  dry  porcelain,  or  other  non-corroding 
dish,  and  immerse  the  hands  in  water  to  prevent  the 
glutinous  covering  of  the  fish  adhering  to  the  hands, 
which  injures  the  fish.  By  this  procedure  the  milt 
of  the  male  is  dropped  directly  from  the  body  of  the 


beef  liver  and  sweet  cream  (all  cream  is  better),  finely 
chopped  and  sifted,  mixed  with  water,  and  supplied 
to  the  boxes  through  a  small  syringe,  taking  care  to 
furnish  enough,  but  not  too  much,  as  the  food  not 
eaten  will  foul  the  boxes  and  kill  the  fish.  In  six 
months  the  fish  is  three  inches  long,  and  must  be  fed 
with  sifted  curd.  In  a  year  it  is  six  inches  long,  arid 
is  removed  to  a  pond,  where  he  and  his  fellows  will 
be  safe  from  larger  fish,  to  make  room  for  fresh  ova 
in  the  hatching  boxes. 

The  fish  may  now  be  fed  with  finely  cut  liver,  with 
curds,  grasshoppers,  and  with  small,  chopped  fish,  on 
which  they  will  thrive.  At  the  end  of  the  second 
year  they  will  be  ten  or  fifteen  inches  in  length. 

The  spawning  season  for  shad  is  from  February  to 
June.  The  spawn  of  these  fishes  is  put  in  hatching 
boxes,  and  immersed  in  the  river  to  be  stocked,  and 


468 


FISH. 


with  water  at  75"  the  eggs  will  hatch  in  eighty  hours. 
The  young  fish  subsist  for  three  days  on  the  yolk- 
sac.  The  female  shad  at  two  years  old  will  weigh 
two  pounds;  at  three  years,  three  and  a  half  pounds ; 
at  four,  six  pounds.  The  wonderful  fecundity  of 
shad,  the  ease  with  which  they  can  be  bred,  and  the 
fact  that  they  need  no  subsequent  feeding  or  care, 
make  them  peculiarly  profitable  for  pisciculture. 

Trout,  according  to  age,  will  yield  from  200  to  4,000 
eggs.  The  annual  yield  of  salmon  is  estimated  at 
1 0,000;  shad,  according  to  size,  yield  from  50,000  to 
100,000  eggs.  The  work  of  the  fish  culturist  is  to 
preserve  this  spawn,  to  make  it  productive,  and  so 
to  supply  unlimited  quantities  of  the  best  kinds  offish 
for  market. 

Filters   for  the    hatching  house   are  provided    by 


good  economy  to  cut  the  feed  finely  and  feed  slowly. 

The  preceding  directions  pertain  mostly  to  the 
propagation  and  culture  of  trout.  White-fish,  salmon 
trout,  and  other  fish  can  be  similarly  propagated,  but 
require  deeper  water  for  growth,  according  to  their 
various  habits. 

In  rearing  fish  the  greatest  difficulty  is  in  protect- 
ing the  eggs.  B.  F.Shaw,  Fish  Commissioner  of  Iowa,  in 
some  very  practical  observations  on  fish  culture  before 
the  Farmers'  Institute  of  that  State,  says:  "  It  is  well 
known  that  there  is  no  more  attractive  food  for  fishes 
than  the  roe  or  eggs  of  fish ;  even  th6  parent  fishes 
devour  them  greedily.  It  is  generally  granted  that  at 
least  60  per  cent,  of  all  the  eggs  are  devoured  before 
the  fish  are  hatched,  while  of  the  40  per  cent,  hatched 
probably  at  least  three-fourths   are  eaten  while  in  a 


Fig.  8. — Long  Nosed  Chelmon. 


means  of  one  or  more  flannel  screens  laid  under  the 
spigot  which  supplies  the  trough. 

In  selecting  a  site  for  a  fish  pond  be  sure  that  the 
supply  of  water  is  unfailing.  It  would  be  convenient, 
though  not  absolutely  necessary,  to  have  such  a  fall 
that  every  pondcould  be  drained,  and  the  pond  should 
be  so  situated  that  overflow  from  freshets  is  impos- 
sible. For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  make  jxinds  at 
one  side  of  the  stream  instead  of  damming  it.  Ponds 
for  fattening  purposes  are  made  12x24  feet,  either 
square  or  oval.  In  preparing  ponds  it  is  better  to 
enclose  the  water  with  stone  or  wood,  because  em- 
bankments are  liable  to  be  punctured  by  muskrats, 
which  liberates  the  water.  If  stone  is  used  cement 
the  sides  and  grout  the  bottom.  There  should  be 
30  or  40  inches  of  water  in  the  pond  constantly. 

Adult  fish  should  be  fed  regularly  once  a  day,  and 
they  should  be  fed  till  they  will  eat  no  more.     It  is 


helpless  condition  with  the  yolk-sac  attachment,  and 
before  they  are  able  to  feed  themselves,  or  take  any 
measures  for  their  own  safety — in  fact,  with  just 
enough  vitality  and  motion  to  attract  their  enemies. 

"Again,  a  serious  loss  is  occasioned  under  natural 
conditions  by  the  failure  to  vitalize  the  eggs.  Prob- 
ably less  than  20  per  cent,  are  ever  vitalized.  These 
estimates  reduce  the  numbers  of  fish  produced  from  a 
given  number  of  eggs  to  two  per  cent,  that  live  to  a 
point  in  their  lives  where  they  are  able  to  take  their 
own  food  under  natural  conditions ;  while  by  artificial 
methods  95  per  cent,  is  not  an  unusual  result,  and  40 
per  cent,  loss  would  be  considered  very  bad  work 
indeed.  From  this  point  on,  the  fish  would  be  sub- 
ject to  the  same  dangers  in  both  cases. 

"  Fish  culture  is  but  just  in  its  infancy,  and,  while 
much  has  been  already  accomplished,  very  much 
more  remains  to  be  done.     We  have  yet  more  fully  to 


FISH. 


469 


study  the  character  of  every  lake,  pond,  river,  reser- 
voir or  other  waters,  in  regard  to  its  character  and 
capacity  to  produce  fish.  What  is  its  temperature, 
what  does  it  now  produce  in  the  way  of  fish,  and 
what  would  be  better  suited  to  it?  What  are  its  pres- 
ent productions — vegetables,  infusorial  or  insect  life — 
that  will  furnish  food  for  fishes,  and  what  of  these  that, 
if  introduced,  would  find  a  suitable  home?  To  illus- 
trate, let  us  examine  one  of  our  smaller  lakes.  We 
find  a  few  bass  and  wall-eyed  pike,  but  we  find  them 
in  small  numbers,  of  small  size,  lank,  lean,  and  with  a 
ravenous  look.  These  facts  give  us  evidence  that, 
while  the  water  is  suited  to  produce  these  valuable 
fish,  the  food  on  which  they  live  and  thrive  is  wanting 
in  their  haunts.  They  are  carnivorous.  They  live 
almost  wholly  ujxjn  minnows,  and  these  we  will  find 
almost  if  not  entirely  wanting.  In  our  explorations  we 


millions  of  young  and  many  large  buffaloes.  Again, 
we  find  varieties  of  tender  water  vegetation.  We 
know  that  upon  these  the  carp  and  other  vegetable- 
feeding  fish  live  and  thrive.  We  at  once  introduce  the 
carp.  He  finds  a  happy  home.  He  grows  and  rears 
his  millions  of  young  carp  fry — estimated  as  high  as 
300,000  for  a  five-ix)und  fish. 

"  So  we  can  go  on  to  almost  indefinite  length  and 
utilize  the  various  conditions  we  may  find,  but  we  are 
now  turning  the  insects  into  smelts  and  minnows,  the 
infusoria  into  buffalo,  red  horse  and  suckers,  and  the 
water  vegetation  into  carp  and  other  valuable  varie- 
ties of  vegetable-feeding  fish.  But  I  think  I  hear  some 
one  say,  '  I  do  not  like  suckers  or  red-horse  ;  they  are 
poor  food,  and  the  buffalo  is  but  little  if  any  better, 
and  the  carp  and  smelt  are  too  much  in  the  future, 
and  so  are  only  speculative.'     Very  well,  my    friend. 


Fig.  q.—The  A  rcher  Fish. 

We  pull  one  up,  and  find 


find  a  bed  of  water  plants. 

it  covered  from  end  to  end  with  small  insect  life — 
too  small  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  carnivorous  fishes, 
but  precisely  what  would  delight  the  stomach  of  a 
smelt,  and  make  him  a  fish  paradise.  We  introduce 
the  smell.  He  lives,  thrives  and  grows,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  water  will  be  swanning  with  young  smelts. 
We  dip  up  a  paddle  fullof  mud  from  the  bottom  of  the 
lake,  and  we  find  it  filled  with  small  red  worms,  and 
other  forms  of  infusorial  life.  We  know  that  this  is 
the  food  of  the  buffalo,  red  horse  and  sucker.  We  at 
once  introduce  a  few  large  buffaloes.  He  finds  these 
rich  banks  of  mud  and  infusoria  much  sooner  than 
we  could,  and  turning  his  tail  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  he  soon  fills  himself  with  the  portions  of  the 
bank  richest  in  that  nourishment  on  which  he  lives 
and  thrives.     Soon  we  shall  have  added  to  the  lake 


I  shall  tell  you  that  these  fish  are  much  better  than 
the  insects,  infusoria  mud,  or  water  vegetation  for 
human  food ;  but  these  are  not  the  results  we  were 
aiming  at;  they  are  still  to  follow.  Some  day  one  of  the 
lank,  lean  bass  which  has  been  living  upon  his  own 
young  until  there  are  no  more  to  live  upon,  pressed 
by  a  voracious  appetite,  determines  to  fhange  his 
diet.  He  catches  a  young  smelt.  In  place  of  the  hard, 
scaly  armor  of  the  young  bass  he  finds  the  soft  body 
of  the  smelt;  instead  of  the  stiff,  sharp-pointed  spine 
rays  of  bass  fins  that  so  often  have  very  nearly  taken 
his  life  as  he  has  gorged  his  old  food,  he  finds  only 
the  soft,  velvet  fins  of  the  new.  He  needs  no  further 
argument  to  cause  him  to  henceforth  forswear  the  bass 
and  take  to  the  new  food.  He  took  the  old,  obnox- 
ious, unnatural  food  sparingly,  for  the  labor  and  pain 
of  taking  it  made  him  do  so.     This  caused  his  for- 


470 


FISH. 


mer  small,  lank,  and  lean  condition ;  and  because  he 
took  the  young  bass  for  food,  you  have  a  reason  for 
their  former  scarcity.  The  eating  of  the  new  soft- 
rayed,  finned  fishes  is  a  luxury,  and  their  plentiful- 
ness  insures  him  a  full  meal  with  but  little  labor,  and 
with  these  conditions  he  will  soon  grow  in  size  and 
fatness,  while  the  immunity  given  to  the  young  bass 
will  soon  cause  the  water  to  teem  with  them.  So  we 
can  evolve  our  bass,  wall-eyed  pike,  salmon,  brook- 
trout  and  other  valuable  fish  from  the  insect,  the  in- 
fusoria, the  vegetation  and  other  sources  of  food  by 
simply  furnishing  missing  links.  Is  there  anything 
further  we  may  do  u^wn  the  ground,  or  rather  water, 
we  have  just  gone  over.'  Let  us  see.  Suppose  when 
we  pulled  the  weed  we  found  no  insect  life,  but  we 
knew  that  in  an  adjoining  water  the  same  weed  were 
alive  with  insects.  How  easy  to  carry  a  stem  of  the 
weed  with  its  insects  from  the  one  to  the  other ;  and 
where  is  the  housewife  that  has  seen  the  one  solitary 
fly  of  spring-time  grow  into  millions  before  the  frost  of 
winter,  that  could  not  foretell  what  the  trajisplanting 
would  soon  accomplish ;  or,  again,  if  when  we  dip  our 


tion  of  our  people  more  in  the  future  than  in  the  past 
to  a  subject  so  big  with  the  health,  wealth  and  pros- 
perity of  coming  generations.  The  famous  brook 
trout,  the  lake  or  salmon  trout,  the  California  or  Mc- 
Cloud  River  trout,  the  mountain  trout,  and  grayling  for 
ponds  fed  by  springs,  and  the  scale,  leather  or  mirror 
carp  for  other  ponds,  are  a  few  of  the  better  fish  for 
domestication.  The  results  reached  already  in  their 
cultivation  have  been  a  surprise  to  those  who  have 
cultivated  them  and  studied  their  habits 

VARIETIES    OF    FISH. 

The  subject  of  preserving  and  propagating  fish 
leads  to  the  consideration  of  varieties.  We  give  a  list 
of  many  of  the  more  common  fresh-water  fish  arranged 
alphabetically,  with  short  observations  on  each.  The 
list  is  far  from  complete,  but  comprises  most  of  those 
worthy  of  mention.  We  give  only  the  common  names 
by  which  they  are  known,  and  where  the  same  fish  is 
known  by  different  names  in  different  sections  we  give 
the  several  names. 

Bass.     We  mention  the  two  most  important  species. 


Fig.  io.—  Trout. 


paddle  of  mud,  we  find,  instead  of  a  soil  full  of  infu- 
soria, a  rich  but  barren  muck  or  marl,  in  which  the 
insect-bearing  weed  thrives,  how  easy  to  transplant  an 
insect-covered  weed  and  thus  furnish  a  source  of  sup- 
ply for  both  weeds  and  insects ;  or  if,  instead  of  the 
proper  soil,  we  found  only  sand  or  gravel,  we  could 
still  introduce  the  proper  soil  itself  Thus,  if  we  found 
only  barren  water,  with  a  sand  or  gravel  bottom,  we 
could  introduce  the  proper  soil,  the  weed,  the  insect, 
the  smelt  and  the  bass,  successively." 

The  above  are  not  barren  theories  but  are  facts  that 
may  abound  in  practical  results  to  the  farmer.  He 
may  make  the  barren  water  abound  with  princely  fish, 
by  a  little  care  and  labor,  which  when  once  entered 
upxjn  will  afford  him  a  vast  deal  of  pleasure  and  satis- 
facdonm  prosecuting.  The  cultivation  of  fish  in  private 
ponds  is  carried  on  only  to  a  limited  extent,  but  the 
success  met  with  where  properly  conducted  anithe 
comparative  profits  realized  upon  labor  and  food  used 
in  raising  fish,  and  the  future  demands  of  our  rapidly 
increasing  population  will  conduce  to  turn  the  atten- 


Black  Bass.  This  is  eminently  the  game-fish  par 
excellence  of  western  waters.  It  is  not  so  particular  in 
its  habitat  as  trout.  If  the  waters  are  very  clear,  any 
brown  or  black  fly  will  answer  in  baiting  them.  For 
trolling  the  necessary  tackle  consists  of  a  strong  hand- 
line  of  linen  or  cotton  from  25  to  75  yards  long,  a 
medium-sized  swivel,  and  a  spoon  hook,  and  the 
usual  accompaniment  of  red  and  white  feathers  and 
a  group  of  hooks.  The  ordinary  tin  or  brass  spoon 
with  a  single  hook,  soldered  on  with  a  swivel,  will  be 
found  equal  if  not  superior  to  the  late  inventions. 
Still  fishing  is  generally  done  from  an  anchored  boat. 
This  is  a  very  popular  method,  and  the  one  generally 
practiced  in  the  Northwest.  The  finer  and  more 
delicate  the  tackle  employed,  the  greater  will  be  the 
sport ;  but,  as  a  rule,  still  fishers  use  clumsy  tackle. 
When  the  bass  takes  the  bait,  let  him  have  it  for  a 
a  short  time,  say  from  five  to  ten  seconds,  according 
to  his  mood,  whether  he  is  on  or  off  his  feed,  whether 
eager  or  shy ;  and  by  using  the  thumb  as  a  drag,  give 
him   line   as   he   needs   it,  but  not  too  freely,  always 


FISH. 


471 


I 


keeping  it  taut  enough  to  give  a  slight  bend  to  the 
rod,  so  as  to  be  able  to  feel  every  motion  of  the  fish. 
At  the  proper  time  the  angler  must  check  him  by 
pressing  the  thumb  a  little  harder  upon  the  reel,  and 
if  he  gives  a  succession  of  short  tugs  or  slight  jerks, 
let  him  go  for  a  few  moments ;  but  if  he  seems  to  feel 
the  steel,  or  if  he  pulls  steadily  and  strongly,  hook  him 
by  a  "  slight  twist  of  the  wrist,"  not  by  jerking  or 
"  yanking"  the  rod,  for  in  the  latter  case  there  is  a 
stronger  probability  of  breaking  the  rod,  or  at  least  of 
tearing  out  the  hook,  than  of  hooking  the  fish.  When 
the  bass  is  hooked,  the  angler  must  never,  under  any 
circumstances,  give  him  slack  line.  If  he  breaks 
water,  merely  let  the  rod  straighten  as  he  falls  back; 
and  never,  under  any  circumstances,  must  he  grasp 
his  rod  above  tho  reel,  at  most  not  more  than  sever.il 
inches  above,  for 
by  so  doing  he 
des  troys  the 
spring  and  bal- 
ance of  the  rod, 
and  it  is  liable  to 
become  broken 
by  any  sudden 
movement  of  the 
fish.  The  bass 
must  be  killed 
"  on  the  rod,  " 
then  reeled  in 
and  taken  into 
the  landing  net. 

In  trolling  or 
casting  with  tlie 
minnow,  when  a 
fish  is  hooked  let 
the  oarsman  pull 
out  at  once  to 
deep  water,  so  as 
to  give  the  fish 
better  play  and| 
more  room,  and 
also  to  prevent! 
his  taking  to  the 
weeds.  '^"^-  "•— ^ 

The  angler  should  never  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to 
land  his  fish,  for  if  he  is  well  hooked  he  cannot  get 
away;  but  if  he  is  hooked  in  a  thin  or  weak  part  of  the 
mouth,  there  is  a  greater  necessity  that  he  should  be 
gingerly  played  and  tenderly  handled,  until  he  is 
completely  "tuckered  out"  and  turns  up  his  belly  to 
the  sun.  There  is  never  anything  gained  by  too  great 
a  hurry  in  bass  fishing.  On  the  contrary,  "  the  more 
haste  the  less  speed,"  is  a  maxim  particularly  ap- 
plicable to  this  case. 

In  landing  a  bass  the  oarsman  should,  at  the  proper 
time,  hold  the  net  just  under  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  hold  it  perfectly  still  while  the  angler  brings  the 
fish  into  or  immediately  over  the  net,  when  the  oars- 
man should  lift  it  quickly  and  with  one  motion.  He 
should  never  be  suffered  to  follow  the  fish  with  the 
net,  or  by  sudden  lunges  attempt  to  secure  him ;  for 


this  only  serves  to  frighten  the  fish  and  put  your 
tackle  in  jeopardy.  Remember  that  the  largest  bass 
always  escapes  when  nearest  the  boat,  about  to  be 
landed. 

Straw,  Rock,  or  Calico  Bass;  Goggle-eye;  or 
Croppie.  This  fish  is  a  good  pan-fish,  and  a  free 
biter,  but  destitute  of  game.  Spawn  on  gravelly  bot- 
toms, in  April;  are  taken  in  great  numbers  with  min- 
now bait  early  in  the  season ;  weight  from  one  to  two 
and  a  half  jxiunds. 

Buffalo.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  suckers 
found  in  western  waters.  Is  generally  caught  with 
the  spear  or  "  gig,"  and  with  the  seine.  Can  be 
caught  with  a  hook,  by  a  bait  of  corn-meal  dough  and 
cotton.  As  soon  as  he  begins  to  nibble  or  suck,  throw 
the  jjole   suddenly  to  his  rear,  so  as  to  make  the  hook 

catch  a  thin  hold 
of  the  lip ;    give 
him  line  until  he 
is  worried  down, 
then  draw  him 
near    and    har- 
poon him,  or  se- 
cure him  with  a 
gaff-hook.      His 
^  flesh  has  rather 
J  a  muddy  flavor, 
I  but  it  is  popular 
among  the  west- 
~  em  people. 

Carp.  This 
fish  is  now  at- 
tracting the  at- 
tention of  prac- 
tical piscicultu- 
rists in  this 
country.  It  was 
first  introduced 
into  this  country 
from  France  in 
the  year  1832. 
They  were  first 
placed  in  a  pond 
Ki„goFUk.  jjg^j  Newburgh, 

on  the  Hudson,  and  afterward  introduced  into 
the  Hudson,  where  they  multiplied  very  rapidly,  and 
have  since  been  introduced  into  the  Southern  States, 
over  which  they  have  spread  quite  generally.  There 
are  three  kinds  which  are  profitable, — the  common 
scale  carp,  with  scales  regularly  and  normally  dis- 
tributed over  the  body  ;  the  mirror  carp,  with  scales 
limited  to  the  regions  of  the  bases  of  the  fins  and  the 
hinder  parts  of  the  lateral  line  and  thus  enlarged; 
the  leather  carp,  with  scales  entirely  or  almost  entirely 
lost,  leaving  the  soft,  naked  skin.  The  growth  differs 
according  as  the  fish  inhabits  cold  or  warm  water,  a 
river,  lake,  or  pond,  finding  plenty  of  food  therein,  or 
being  fed.  An  additional  factor  is  the  quality  of  the 
soil,  whether  muddy  or  stony.  In  cold  water  or  such  as 
has  a  stony  ground,  it  will  not  flourish  so  well.  In  the 
culture  of  trout  they  must  be  fed,  while  the  carp,  if  it 


47»    • 


FISH. 


be  culrivated  judiciously  in  ponds,  needs  no  feeding. 
The  normal  weight  which  a  carp  may  attain  in 
three  years,  whether  it  be  scale,  mirror  or  leather 
carp,  is  an  average  of  three  to  three  and  one- 
quarter  pounds;  that  is,  a  fish  that  has  lived  two 
summers  will  weigh  two  and  three-quarters  to  three 
and  one-half  pounds  the  year  following.  They  live 
to  a  very  advanced  age.  Specimens  are  found  in 
Austria  over  140  years  old.  It  increases  in  length 
only  up  to  a  certain  age,  but  in  circumference  till  its 
35th  year.  As  for  food  supply,  carp  will  eat  almost 
anything,  either  vegetable  or  animal,  though  the  former 
is  the  preferable.  It  has  been  said  that  they  will  eat 
anything  that  a  hog  will.  Wild  rice  is  an  excellent 
food  for  them,  and  where  pond  lilies  or  other  aquatic 
plants  do  not  already  exist,  the  sowing  of  wild  rice  will 
furnish  them  all  the  food  they  need.  Many  farmers 
can  make  more  on  an  acre  of  water  in  raising  carp 
than  they  can  on  an  acre  of  land,  and  the  Government 
stands  prepared  to  furnish  them,  without  cost,  the 
necessary  material  for  planting. 


The  former  is  worthless,  but  the  latter,  which  is  com- 
mon in  the  waters  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  is  univer- 
sally regarded  as  a  fine  and  healthy  food  fish,  and  is 
much  sought  for  by  many.  It  is  of  a  dark  brown  color, 
sometimes  nearly  black ;  attains  a  large  size,  occasion- 
ally weighing  as  much  as  100  pounds,  taken  with 
hook  and  line,  with  any  kind  of  bait  from  a  piece  of 
wheat  dough  to  any  piece  of  meat.  Beefs  liver  is  a 
favorite  bait.  On  the  hook  they  are  strong  and  most 
obstinate,  and  will  often  carry  away  the  s'trongest 
tackle. 

Night  fishing  with  a  lantern  or  torch  is  the  most  suc- 
cessful for  all  kinds  of  catfish. 

Grayling,  Michigan  Grayling.  There  is  no  spe- 
cies sought  for  by  anglers  that  surpasses  the  grayling 
in  beauty.  They  are  more  elegantly  formed  than  the 
trout,  and  their  great  dorsal  fin  is  a  superb  mark  of 
beauty.  When  the  well-lids  were  lifted,  and  the  sun- 
rays  admitted,  lighting  up  the  delicate  olive-brown 
tints  of  the  back  and  sides,  the  bluish  white  of  the 
abdomen,  and  the  mingling  of  tints  of  rose,  pale  blue 


Fig.  12- 


The  Catfish,  or  Cat  Family,  comprises  a  dozen  or 
more  varieties,  most  of  which  are  not  worth  mention- 
ing in  their  relations  to  the  angler. 

The  Great  Lake  Catfish  grows  to  a  great  weight,  often 
reaching  80  pounds.  Its  general  color  is  olive  brown. 
It  is  not  generally  esteemed  as  food,  although  it  is 
much  eaten,  and  by  some  persons  well  recommended. 
Like  most  of  its  congeners,  it  prefers  the  mud. 

The  Common  Cat.,  the  Bullhead,  Horn  Pout,  Bull 
Pout,  or  Minister,  has  a  wide  range,  and  too  great  a 
notoriety  for  his  worth.  Its  color  is  dusky.  Is  caught 
from  first  of  April  throughout  the  summer,  with  almost 
any  kind  of  meat  or  worm  bait,  in  ponds  or  lakes 
where  the  bottom  is  muddy.  Many  people  eat  them 
and  like  them. 

The  Channel  Catfish  is  the  best  of  his  tribe,  and  is 
generally  found  in  clear,  pure  streams  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States.  He  is  of  a  clean  greyish  blue 
color,  and  makes  some  sport  on  the  hook.  A  good 
table  fish. 

There  are  but  two  species  of  catfish  found  in  the 
West— the  Mud  Cat  and  the  Lake  or  Channel  Cat. 


Grayling. 

and  purplish  pink  on  the  fins,  is  displayed  a  combina- 
tion of  living  colors  that  is  equalled  by  no  fish  outside 
of  the  tropics. 

In  shape  the  fish  is  like  a  trout, — a  trifle  slimmer, 
perhaps,  and  not  so  thick  near  the  tail ;  but  the  fin  on 
the  back  of  a  trout  looks  so  small  and  square,  so  de- 
ficient in  outline  and  color,  after  beholding  the  graceful 
curve  of  a  grayling's  dorsal.  The  scale  is  large,  sil- 
very, with  sometimes  a  copper  tinge ;  near  the  shoul- 
ders there  are  black  spots,  sometimes  triangular,  and  at 
others  V-shaped ;  in  some  fish  these  extend  nearly  to 
the  tail  near  the  back ;  they  are  in  lines  which  grad- 
ually shorten  towards  the  belly ;  the  mouth  is  small 
(nearly  square  when  opened),  and  the  teeth  are  merely 
a  slight  roughness  on  the  lips:    none  on  the  tongue. 

This  tribe  of  fish  bears  marked  relationship  in  many 
respects  to  the  salmoru  It  inhabits  the  cold  streams 
of  many  portions  of  the  United  States,  Canada,  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  is  a  game  fish  of  the  first  quality,  takes 
the  fly  with  avidity,  and  carries  on  a  brave  and  spirited 
contest  with  its  captor.  Its  flesh  is  white,  or  faintly 
straw  color,  and  excellent  in  flavor. 


FISH. 


473 


Its  habitat  is  the  center  of  the  lower  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  among  three  rivers  of  note,  where  it  most 
abounds, — the  Muskegon,  the  Manistee,  emptying  into 
Lake  Michigan,  and  the  Au  Sable,  emptying  into  Lake 
Huron.  Among  the  minor  streams  are  the  Cheboy- 
gan, Thunder  Bay,  and  Rifle,  tributary  to  Lake  Huron 
and  the  Jordan,  emptying  through  Pine  Lake  into  the 
Traverse  Bay  of  Lake  Michigan. 

The  grayling  is  a  spring  spawner — spawns  in  April, 
and  is  in  best  condition  and  fighting  trim  in  Septem- 
ber. They  take  the  artificial  fly  as  greedily  as  trout 
do,  are  angled  for  in  precisely  the  same  spots  where 
trout  would  be  sought.  He  certainly  affords  as  much 
sport  as  the  trout,  and  his  tender  mouth  requires  more 
careful  handling. 

Goldfish  ;  Golden  Carp.  A  well  known  species 
much  fancied  for  globes  and  aquaria,  often  growing  to 
the  length  of  a  foot.  Body  generally  brilliant  red  or 
orange  above  and  silvery  beneath,  although  they  are 
found  grey,  silvery,  golden,  mottled  with  black,  olive, 
or  almost  black  even.  Their  colors  vary  as  much  as 
those  of  litters  of  cats  or  dogs. 

Lake  Herring.  These  fish  are  very  numerous  in  * 
the  shoaler  waters  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  western  lakes, 
and  very  much  resemble  the  salt-water  herring  in  size, 
form  and  color.  They  seldom  attain  a  weight  of  two 
pounds.  They  are  not  especially  sought  by  the  angler. 
Iftsects  are  the  best  bait,  however.  They  are  found  in 
more  or  less  abundance  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
though  they  swarm  in  greatest  numbers  about  the  mid- 
dle of  November,  which  is  their  spawning  season. 
They  are  not  a  favorite  fish  in  the  market,  being  rath- 
er deficient  in  qualities  as  a  fresh  or  salted  fish ;  but 
when  slightly  pickled  in  brine,  and  exposed  to  the 
smoke  of  a  hot  fire  for  a  short  time,  makfe  most  deli- 
cious food. 

Hogfish;  Speckled  Red-Mouth;  Sailor'sChoice. 
One  of  the  best  Southern  food  fishes,  and  is  angled  for 
from  boats  by  still  baiting  with  shedder  or  soft-shell 
crab.  It  is  excellent  when  boiled  or  stuffed  and  baked. 
It  should  be  skinned  with  a  sharp  knife,  as  its  scales 
are  very  tenacious.  Body  above  pale  brown,  belly  sil- 
very ;  sides  marked  with  numerous  orange-colored 
spots- — those  above  the  lateral  line  in  oblique  rows, 
those  below  it  in  horizontal  rows ;  fins  yellowish,  marked 
in  the  same  way ;  sides  of  the  head  pale  blue,  with 
yellow  spots.  This  fish  appears  in  April,  and  contin- 
ues until  November.  It  is  very  common  in  Bermuda 
and  is  caught  as  far  north  as  Chesapeake  Bay. 

Mascalonge.  Common  in  the  lakes,  and  in  the 
larger  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  In  seasons  of 
low  water,  mascalonge  fishing  is  as  good  in  this  region 
as  in  the  Northeastern  States.  The  fish  are  usually 
of  large  size,  from  lo  to  40  pounds  in  weight.  The 
manner  of  taking  them  does  not  differ  materially  from 
that  practiced  in  other  waters,  except,  perhaps  in  the 
fact  that  trolling  from  a  boat  is  not  generally  success- 
ful. For  excitement  no  angling  can  compare  with 
taking  mascalonge  on  rod  and  line  from  the  shore,  or 
by  wading  out  on  the"~l)ars.  To  kill  in  this  manner  a 
30-pounder  and  tow  him    10  or  30  rods  to  shore  re- 


quires nerve  and  strength,  great  skill,  and  very  strong 
tackle.  Many  of  the  very  largest  are  frequently  lost 
by  weak  tackle  and  unskillful  playing. 

Perch.  There  are  several  good  varieties  of  fish 
under  this  general  name. 

Ycllmu  Ring  Perch.  Sides  yellow ;  six  to  eight  dark 
vertical  bands  over  the  back ;  fins  orange. 

The  yellow  perch  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distrib- 
uted of  our  fluviatile  fishes.  They  are  sometimes 
caught  weighing  three  or  four  pounds,  and  even  more. 
Take  bait  freely,  and  are  often  taken  with  a  fly,  pre- 
ferring the  red  ibis.  They  swim  deep,  and  are  usually 
found  in  company  with  the  junfish,  and  frequently  with 
the  black  bass. 

Black  Perch  is  a  deep  brownish  black  fish,  with  a 
yellowish  tinge,  found  in  various  deep  fresh-water 
]X)iids  on  Long  Island,  New  York,  and  takes  the  fly 
readily,  affording  much  amusement  to  the  angler. 
Weighs  one  or  two  pounds,  and  is  esteemed  as  food. 
It  has  the  general  form  of  the  yellow  perch. 

Pike  Perch  ;  Wall-eyed  Pike ;  Ohio  Salt/ton;  White 
Salmon;  Glass-eyed  Pike;  Western  Salmon.  This  splen- 
did fish  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  all  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Ohio  River,  in  Lakes  Pepin  and  Huron, 
in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  indeed  throughout 
the  western  waters  generally,  as  far  west  as  the  Miss- 
issippi. Tons  of  them  are  taken  through  the  ice  in 
Lake  Pepin  in  March,  just  when  they  are  making  their 
spawning  beds.  Color,  yellowish  olive  above  the  lateral 
line,  lighter  on  the  sides ;  silvery  beneath  ;  head  and 
gill  covers  mottled  with  green ;  dorsal  fin  light  yel- 
lowish. Slotted  with  brown ;  pectoral  fins  yellowish 
olive.  It  is  a  true  perch,  although  its  form  and  habits 
suggest  very  naturally  the  idea  of  a  pike.  Its  scales 
are  hard,  close  and  difficult  to  detach.  The  mandi- 
bles are  wider,  and  the  jaws  stronger  than  those  of  the 
jiike,  while  its  teeth  are  shorter  and  closer  set.  It  is 
exceedingly  voracious,  and  is  highly  prized  as  food.  It 
is  caught  readily  with  the  hook,  baited  with  minnow  or 
crayfish.  The  best  time  for  fishing  is  in  the  dusk  of 
the  evening.  The  foot  of  rapids,  or  beneath  milldams 
appear  to  be  its  favorite  haunts.  In  the  heat  of  sum- 
mer it  seeks  the  deepest  part  of  lakes  or  the  coolest 
part  of  streams,  concealed  under  weeds  or  grass.  Use 
regular  brass  rod  and  reel,  and  fish  with  a  float.  An- 
chor your  boat  at  the  side  or  above  a  rapid,  and  let 
your, bait  run  down  the  rapid,  for  they  sometimes  lie 
behind  huge  rocks  in  the  rapid.  They  average  per- 
haps six  or  seven  jx)unds,  but  are  often  much  larger. 
Goggle-eyed  Perch:  Strawberry  Perch;  Oz/A  (South 
Carolina) ;  Croppie  (St.  Louis) ;  Grass  Bass  (Ohio) ; 
Chinkapin  Perch  (Louisiana);  Sac-a-laii^t^  Orleans 
Creoles).  This  fish  of  many  names  and  extended 
habitat  has  a  dusky  bluish-green  back ;  sides  and  belly 
silvery,  and  marked  with  irregular,  oblong  greenish- 
black  blotches  that  resemble  "chinkapins."  Fins  yel- 
lowish ;  length  12  inches,  and  weighs  up  to  three 
jxjunds.  Inhabits  ponds  and  streams  of  running  water, 
though  it  prefers  the  former.  It  ranges  from  Lakes 
Huron  and  Erie  to  the  Southwestern  States.  It  feeds 
on  insects,  and  takes  bait  freely,  and  also  minnow,  go- 


474 


FISH. 


ing  at  it  with  a  rush.     It  is  a  pretty  fish,  and  much 
esteemed. 

Pickerel.  Body  above  olive  brown,  often  with  a 
greenish  tint;  belly  silvery;  sides  pale  silver  gray 
with  dusky  bars  more  or  less  oblique ;  fins  red.  In 
some  waters  its  general  color  is  quite  dark.  It  is 
found  in  small  streams  of  fresh  water,  and  in  canals 
about  rice  fields;  seldom  in  larger  or  more  rapid 
waters;  and  seldom  grows  to  the  length  of  a  foot.  It 
is  a  great  nuisance  everywhere,  as  it  is  an  inveterate 
eater  of  spawn  and  small  fry.  This  fish  is  everywhere 
confounded  with  the  pike,  which,  although  of  the 
same  origin,  is  of  a  far  nobler  race. 

Fond  Pickerel;  Doree  (Canada).  The  common 
pond  pickerel  thrives  wherever  he  can  get  a  foot-hold, 
and  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  ponds  and  streams  of 
the  north  that  have  not  been  jealously  guarded  against 
his  intrusion.  He  seldom  attains  the  weight  of  a 
pound,  and  is  caught  very  readily  with  a  red  ibis  fly 
on  a  light  rod,  affording  a  very  fair  amount  of  sport; 
but  he  is  so  bony  and  so  small  that  he  is  hardly  worth 
cooking  when  caught.  His  back  is  of  a  greenish  grey, 
sides  yellowish  green,  reticulated  with  oblong,  irregular 
markings,  fins  of  a  deep  yellow  or  red  color.  Spawns 
in  March  and  April. 

Pike.  This,  with  the  trout,  may  be  considered  the 
universal  fish  of  the  world.  It  appears  to  inhabit  the 
inland  waters  of  all  northern  countries.  We  read  of 
them  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  ancient  Rome.  The 
pike  is  called  the  "  tyrant  of  the  waters,"  the  wolf  fish 
and  the  fresh-water  shark,  and  certainly  from  his 
ravenous  disposition  he  deserves  all  these  names. 
Many  stories  are  told  of  the  wonderful  powers  of  this 
fish  to  devour  all  others  smaller  than  it,  and  it  is  even 
claimed  when  one  was  put  in  a  pond  with  an  abund- 
ance of  fish,  in  one  year  devoured  all  but  one,  which 
was  a  carp  weighing  nine  pounds,  and  he  had  taken  a 
piece  out  of  him. 

Red  Horse  or  Lake  Sucker.  A  large  red-finned 
sucker  weighing  from  one  to  six  pounds.  Often  eaten 
fresh,  but  much  better  corned ;  very  bony.  They  are 
quite  a  handsome  fish,  like  many  of  the  family.  It  is 
taken  only  with  spear,  seine  and  snare — the  latter 
method  being  the  best.  On  very  hot,  sultry  days  they 
swarm  by  the  acre,  playing,  jumping  and  tumbling  on 
or  so  near  the  surface  as  to  be  plainly  seen.  In  Lake 
Pepin  they  are  described  as  so  numerous  that  not  a 
foot  of  water  for  acres  in  extent  is  undisturbed.  They 
spawn  early  in  spring.  The  young  are  much  valued 
for  bait,  and  are  well  adapted  for  the  aquarium. 

Salmon.  The  salmon  is  the  finest  game  fish  in  the 
world,  without  doubt,  and  few  are  the  anglers  who 
will  not  readily  yield  him  precedence.  It  was  known 
to  the  world- as  early  as  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
interest  taken  in  him  for  this  reason,  has  caused  much 
attention  to  be  paid  to  his  propagation,  and  stimulated 
a  careful  study  of  his  habits,  which  were  compara- 
tively unknown  until  within  the  present  century.  The 
opportunities  which  the  culture  of  this  fish  has  afforded 
for  investigation  have  now  made  the  subject  familiar 
to  every  one  interested  in  ichthyology.     The  salmon's 


existence,  like  man's,  is  divided  into  four  periods — 
infancy,  youth,  manhood,  and  ripe  old  age,  and  these 
several  stages  of  fish-life  are  designated  by  the  names 
of  Parr,  Smolt,  Grilse,  and  Salmon.  One  portion  of 
this  existence  is  passed  in  salt  water,  and  the  re- 
mainder in  fresh ;  in  salt  water  he  feeds  and  grows 
fat,  and  in  the  fresh  expends  his  strength  and  vital 
forces.  The  salmon  is  a  leaper.  Leaping  is  his  fav- 
orite expedient  to  detach  the  fly  from  his  jaws ;  so, 
when  he  leaps,  deferentially  lower  the  tip  of  your  rod 
and  save  your  fish.  In  gaffing,  coolness  and  dexterity 
are  required ;  never  jerk  your  gaff  violently,  but  lift  it 
sharply  upward  and  inward,  endeavoring  to  fix  the 
point  abaft  the  shoulders.  No  anathemas  will  com- 
pensate for  the  loss  of  a  fish  by  the  clumsy  handling 
of  the  gaff  after  a  persistent  battle  of  an  hour's  dura- 
tion. They  love  to  haunt  the  rapid  rivers  or  large 
lakes  with  sandy  or  pebbly  bottoms,  that  run  into  the 
sea.  They  will  best  take  the  bait  early  in  the  morn- 
ing or  late  in  the  evening,  and  when  there  is  a  light 
breeze  on  the  water. 

Sheepshead.  This  fish  is  of  a  semi-oval  form,  head 
large,  body  a  silver  grey  color,  marked  by  seven  trans- 
verse bluish-black  bars.  The  old  fish  become  more 
dusky.  They  weigh  as  high  as  17  pounds,  and  are 
found  in  all  Florida  waters,  and  as  far  north  as  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

Shiner,  Shiny  Dace,  Fall  Fish.  Colors  very  bril- 
liant, having  as  ground  a  very  pure  silvery  white ;  back 
is  often  steel  blue,  and  sides  of  head  bright  rose  color. 
In  spring  and  summer  the  adult  males  have  rosy 
shades,  and  the  dorsal  and  pectoral  fins  are  crimson. 
Length  12  inches.  Specimens  have  been  caught 
weighing  five  pounds.  Much  esteemed  as  ■  food,  and 
affords  good  sport  for  the  angler. 

Siscowet,  or  Siskowitz.  Head  large,  nearly  one- 
fourth  total  length.  Snout  obtuse  and  rounded.  Two 
rows  of  teeth  on  the  tongue.  Depth  of  body  at  first 
dorsal  equal  to  one-fifth  total  length.  Scales  small, 
larger  on  lower  region  of  the  body.  Color  resembles 
somewhat  the  Mackinaw  trout,  from  which  it  may  be 
recognized  by  its  different  opercular  apparatus.  The 
Siscowet  spawns  in  August  and  Septemier,  and  always 
in  deep  water ;  in  fact,  the  fish  is  never  taken  in  much 
less  than  40  fathoms.  The  fattest  of  all  known  fish, 
it  has  no  unpleasant  or  oily  odor,  and  for  the  table  is 
much  valued.  This  fish  has  been  extensively  ma- 
ligned as  unfit  for  earing  in  a  fresh  state,  as  being 
insufferably  oily  and  rank,  though  all  united  in  its 
praise  when  salted.    It  inhabits  Lake  Superior. 

Smelts.  The  fresh  water  smelts  are  idenrical  with 
the  sea  smelts,  having  been  introduced  into  fresh 
waters  and  acclimated  there.  They  take  the  hook 
freely  in  February  and  March,  and  afford  lively  play 
for  light  tackle. 

Suckers.  Some  of  the  suckers,  of  which  there  are 
many  varieties,  afford  much  sport  when  snared.  The 
snare  is  a  running  loop  of  fine  brags  wire  attached  to 
the  end  of  a  pole,  and  the  method  employed  to  cap- 
ture the  fish  is  to  beat  the  water  with  long  sticks, 
turning  up  logs  and  large  stones,  tossing  stones  into 


FISH. 


475 


the  holes,  etc.,  so  as  to  drive  the  fish  from  under  the 
banks  and  other  hiding  places  into  the  mid-stream, 
wheretheycan  be  readily  seen.  They  willlie  quietly  on 
the  bottom  for  awhile  after  being  disturbed,  and  then 
the  snarer  passes  the  wire  loop  cautiously  over  their 
heads,  and  dextrously  jerks  them  out  to  terra  firtna. 
Sometimes  thq  suckers  will  take  the  baited  hook, 
though  very  seldom.  No  less  than  12  varieties  of 
suckers  are  enumerated  as  belonging  to  northern 
waters,  averaging  a  foot  in  length ;  the  most  promi- 
nent of  which — 

The  Mullet  Sucker.,  grows  to  a  length  of  1 8  inches. 
It  is  very  common  in  Lake  Erie,  where  it  is  severally 
called  the  Mullet,  Golden  Mullet  and  Red  Horse. 
There  is  also  a  common  species  in  Lake  Erie,  very 
black  in  color,  which  is  called  the  Black  Sucker,  and 
the  Shoemaker. 


The  Chub  Sucker. 
Color  olivaceous ; 
smoky  above ;  a 
blackish  band  from 
pectoral  to  superior 
extremity  of  gill 
opening.  Length 
eighth  inches. 
Lives  in  the  rocky 
parts  of  running 
streams,  and  feeds 
on  Physalis  and 
other  small   fish. 

The  Long-finned 
Chub  Sucker. 
Scales  variegated 
with  blue,  yellow 
and  green;  all  the 
fins  are  grey-blue. 
Length  20  inches. 
A  good  edible  fish. 

Horned  Sucker  is 
common  in  most  of 
the  fresh -water 
streams  of  the  Mid- 
dle States  and  New 
England,  where  it  is 

known      as       barbel,  Fig.   i^.—  Vie-.u  o/the  IVeirs   at  Fulton,  N.  V. 

dace,  and  horned  dace.  It  takes  a  hook  readily;  and 
begins  to  bite  in  April.  Some  suckers  seem  to  be 
peculiar  to  certain  localities,  showing  quite  distinctive 
characteristics  as  to  color  and  size.  The  Oneida 
Lake  sucker  is  a  bluish  brown  fish  on  the  back;  lighter 
beneath;  a  much  lighter  colored  fish  is  very  abundant 
around  Peekskill  on  the  Hudson ;  and  others  in  the 
Mohawk  and  Susquehanna  rivers  show  like  varia- 
tions in  color.  The  dace  or  shiner  is  quite  common 
also.  It  is  a  large-scaled  fish,  silvery  white,  and  is 
taken  with  hook  very  often  in  New  England  trout 
streams.  Another  species  of  horned  sucker  is  a  small 
fish  reaching  nine  or  ten  inches  in  length.  Head  dark 
olive  green ;  back  and  sides  of  body  green  ;  sides  tinged 
with  yellow;  anal  fin  blackish  brown,  caudal  lighter, 


and  the  remaining  fins  light  olive  green.  Sometimes 
called  mullet. 

Sun-Fish.  Common  everywhere,  and  known  to 
every  school-boy  from  Maine  to  Florida.  A  very 
beautiful  fish,  olive  brown  black  with  a  light  shade  of 
green,  marked  with  irregular  sjx)ts  of  reddish-brown  ; 
sides  and  belly  yellow  with  brazen  spots.  Fins  yellow. 
Theopercle  or  gill  cover  has  a  bright  vermilion  spot  like 
sealing-wax  on  its  edge.  Inhabits  still,  clear  waters, 
regardless  of  temperature,  spawns  in  spring,  fashions 
her  nest  in  the  sand  or  gravel,  in  shallow  water  near 
the  margin  of  ponds,  and  jealously  guards  it  from 
every  intruder.  It  takes  bait,  and  sometimes  a  fly  or 
troll,  though  seldom.  It  sometimes  reaches  a  jxiund 
in  weight,  and  is  then  very  good  for  the  table.  There 
are  several  closely-related  species  found  in  the  South- 
ern States,  in  com- 
^  ''        ^"^    pany  with  the  above, 

and  with  the  same 
habits.  Color  green- 
ish-yellow, dark  on 
Ijack. 

Trout.  Fishes 
of  quite  different 
genera  go  under 
this  name,  all  of 
which  are  very  pop- 
ular as  food  for 
man. 

M ackinaw  or 
Lake  Trout.  Prof. 
Milner  says  that 
"this  fish  may  be 
readily  taken  with 
the  hook  baited  with 
a  piece  of  fish,  but 
as  they  are  ravenous 
feeders,  almost  any 
kind  of  bait  will 
serve  the  angler's 
purpose,  who  will 
however  derive  lit- 
tle sport  from  their 
capture,  as  they  are 
excessively  dull  and 

Below  the  Upper  Dam,  frotit  the  Bridge,  sluggish."  Profes- 
sional fishemien  capture  them  with  lay-out  lines 
and  nets.  His  great  size  and  immense  strength  alone 
give  him  value  as  a  fish  of  game  ;  but  when  hooked, 
he  pulls  strongly  and  fights  hard,  though  he  is  a  boring, 
deep  fighter,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  leaps  out  of  the 
water  like  the  true  salmon  or  the  brook  trout. 

Nevertheless,  trolling  for  trout  is  a  favorite  pas- 
time of  the  residents  and  tourists  of  Northern  Mich- 
igan. It  is  said  that  the  Mackinaw  trout  bites  best 
when  it  is  fullest.  Large  and  solitary  specimens  are 
frequently  taken— sometimes  with  the  gaff  alone — 
while  swimming  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  These 
are  known  as  "  racers,"  and  are  always  thin.  The 
average  weight  is  about  five  pounds,  but  monsters 
weighing  from  60  to  100  are  heard  of.  The  spawning 


476 


FISH. 


season  begins  in  October  and  ends  early  in  November. 
But  very  little  seems  to  be  known  of  their  habits  at 
this  season.  Rock  bottoms  are  usually,  but  not  al- 
ways, preferred.  A  clay  bottom  near  St.  Joseph,  Mich., 
is  said  to  be  frequented  by  trout  for  this  purpose. 

Q)lor,  dusky  brownish  grey;  chin  and  under  parts 
light  ash  or  cream  color.  Back  and  sides  speckled 
with  numerous  irregularly  shaped  six)ts  of  lighter  grey, 
brown,  or  soiled  white.  Lower  fins  faint  yellow.  Re- 
sembles Siskowet,  but  has  more  pointed  chin  and 
snout,  more  deeply  forked  tail  and  larger  head. 

Habitat,  Lake  Superior,  Lake  Michigan,  Lake  Hu- 
ron, and  probably  in  all  the  great  lakes  which  lie  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  the  Arctic   Sea. 

Cotnmon  Speckled  Trout  or  Brook  Trout.  Sym- 
metrical, oblong  body ;  back  broad,  with  dark  markings 

on    h o r n-colored       ^ ^- 

ground,  with  metal-  ^^ 
lie  bluish  and  green- 
ish  reflections  in 
fresh  specimens  ; 
sides  lighter,  merg- 
ing into  white  on 
abdomen,  which 
shows  reddishin  the 
spawning  season. 
Upper  part  of  head 
dark  greenish 
brown,  with  some- 
what obscure  mot- 
tlings ;  red  vermil- 
ion dots  and  large 
yellow  sjxits  in  the 
vicinity  of  lateral 
line.  The  pectoral 
or  breast  fins  have 
the  first  ray  yellow 
or  the  second  black, 
the  rest  orange. 
The  caudal  or  tail 
fin  is  slightly  forked 
in  the  adult;  more 
so  in  the  young;  is 
reddish,  with  paral- 
lel dark  bands. 

The  range  of  this  well  known  and  much  valued  fish 
is  strictly  between  the  parallels  of  latidude  36°  and 
50"  north.  Its  northwestern  limit  is  Northern 
Minnesota,  and  it  is  not  caught  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river  except  in  a  few  of  its  Minnesota  tributaries. 
Specimens  have  been  taken  that  weighed  seventeen 
jxjunds.  The  largest  are  found  in  Maine  and  in  the 
Nepigon  river,  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  the  specimen  referred  to  was  caught.  It  in- 
habits large  lakes  and  the  smallest  ponds,  the  tiniest 
brooks  and  the  largest  rivers.  Although  a  bold  biter, 
it  is  a  wary  fish,  and  often  requires  much  skill  to 
capture  it.  It  can  be  caught  with  artificial  or  natural 
flies,  minnows,  crickets,  grasshoppers,  grubs,  the  spawn 
of  other  fishes,  or  even  the  eyes  or  cut  pieces  of  other 


trout.  It  spawns  in  the  fall,  and  its  period  of  spawn- 
ing ranges  from  September  to  late  in  November.  The 
older  they  grow  the  more  wary  they  become,  and 
therefore  it  requires  considerable  skill  to  catch  a  very 
old  trout.  A  worm  is,  generally  speaking,  the  best 
bait  for  them  ;  but  in  the  spring,  after  the  rains  that 
usually  prevail  at  that  season,  which  wash  a  great 
many  worms  and  insects  into  the  water,  very  few  of 
which  escape  their  observation,  they  bite  better  at  the 
more  tempting  bait  of  a  fly. 

Pacific  Brook  Trout ;  Mountain  Trottt.  This 
species  may  be  taken  with  almost  any  kind  of  bait.  It 
will  rise  readily  and  greedily  to  the  fly  or  the  grass^ 
hopper;  raw  meat  is  good,  the  eye  of  a  fish  excellent; 
grubs,  larvae,  and  worms,  all  seem  to  be  eagerly  desired. 
Suckley  has  taken  them  by  trolling  wth  a  "  belly  fin  of 
a  fresh-killed  fish." 


Ficj.  14. — Vieiu  o/the  Eel  Wiers  al   FillioH, 


There  is  a  peculiar- 
ity of  this  fish  and 
its  western  congen- 
ers regarding  loca- 
tion, which  is  wor- 
thyofmention.  Un- 
like the  eastern 
trout  it  seems  rather 
to  prefer  moderate 
currents  of  water, 
o  r  indeed  pools 
which  are  absolute- 
ly still,  and  this  fact 
should  be  remem- 
bered by  those  who 
fish.  This  speci- 
men attains  a 
weight  of  from  four 
to  six  pounds,  and 
is  in  good  condition 
for  the  table  from 
spring  until  neat 
Christmas,  at  which 
time  they  begin  to 
spawn.  In  the 
large  mountain 
streams  ttf  Kern 
N.  Y.,  Above  the  Upper  D11711,  East  Side,  r  i  V  e  r ,  California, 
where  the  trout  reach  a  weight  o'  seven  ixsunds.  a 
six)on  bait  often  proves  very  taking.  Early  in  the 
season  any  or  all  baits  suffice,  but  later,  when  the 
trout  get  thinned  out,  they  are  very  shy  and  difficult 
to  tempt  with  anything. 

Pacific  Red  Spotted  Salmon  Trout ;  the  Dolly 
Varden.  This  species  inhabits  chiefly  glacial  waters; 
is  found  in  the  northern  streams  of  California  and  as 
far  north  as  Alaska.  They  have  whitish  yellow  sjxjts 
just  below  the  back,  and  red  spots  above  the  belly. 
Tail  forked.  It  takes  the  bait  greedily,  and  rises 
readily  to  the  fly. 

Whitefish.  The  Lake  Whitefish  is  among  the 
best  of  lake  fish,  being  second  to  the  Siscowet,  and 
by  many  pronounced  equal  to  the  great  trout.  The 
spawning  begins  in  November,  tenninating  in  Decem- 


FISHING. 


477 


ber,  and  is  indicated  by  the  fish  leaving  deep  water 
and  appearing  in  immense  numbers  on  rocky  shoals. 

The  average  whitefish  is  of  two  or  three  [wunds 
weight;  a  large  one  six  or  seven;  rare  specimens  are 
caught,  however,  of  mucn  greater  weight,  sometimes 
turning  the  scales  at  20  pounds.  Those  of  Lake 
Superior  and  the  Straits  are  larger,  fatter  and  finer  in 
flavor  than  those  of  the  lower  lakes.  In  the  rapids  of 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  they  are  taken  in  large  quantises  by 
the  Chippewa  Indians  in  dip  nets,  and  are  of  a  very 
superior  flavor.  The  fish  of  Lake  Huron  and  Upper 
Lake  Michigan  are  very  fair,  but  those  of  Lake  Erie 
are  decidedly  inferior,  which  is  probably  due  to  the 
difference  in  temperature  of  these  waters. 

Whitefish  do  not  take  the  hook  readily,  and  the 
opinion  has  been  entertained  that  they  could  not  be 
caught  in  this  fashion.  Nevertheless,  they  have 
afforded  good  sjxirt  to  the  angler  with  a  fly-rod  baited 
with  the  May-fly,  and  worms  have  also  been  used  with 
success.  The  whitefish  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  take 
flies  as  readily  as  trout,  and  so  do  some  of  the  eastern 
whitefish  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

Miscellaneous.  Archer  Fish.  The  chelmons 
are  a  species  of  fish  indigenous  to  the  Indian  Ocean. 
This  fish  has  a  scrupulous  way  of  obaining  its  food, 
which  has  earned  for  it  the  name  of  archer  fish,  or 
fish  pump.  It  frequents  the  mouths  of  rivers  and 
especially  shallow  places,  in  search  of  insects  which 
exist  on  the  marine  plants  the  stalks  of  which  rise  a 
little  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  As  soon  as  the 
fish  spies  its  prey,  it  approaches  cautiously  as  near  as 
possible,  and  then,  raising  its  snout  above  the  surface, 
squirts  out  a  fine  stream  of  water  with  considerable 
force  and  unerring  aim.  The  jet  is  often  projected 
over  a  distance  of  six  feet.  The  insect  struck  is 
stunned  and  falls  into  the  water,  and  then  is  easily 
captured  by  the  chelmon. 

The  representative  of  another  group  of  Archer  fishes, 
and  to  which  the  name  is  more  specifically  applied,  is 
shown  by  Fig.  2.  Although  the  mouth  of  this  fish  is 
entirely  different  in  formation  from  that  of  the  chel- 
mon, it  takes  its  prey  in  a  precisely  similar  manner. 

Tlie  Kingo,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  varieties  of 
the  golden  carp  probably  ever  bred,  was  imjxjrted  by 
Mr.  Gill,  of  Baltimore,  from  Japan,  at  a  cost  of  $500. 
Too  much  can  hardly  be  said  of  the  wonderful  beauty 
and  grace  of  this  fish.  Its  sides  are  resplendent  with 
delicate  pearly  and  golden  tints,  which,  as  it  moves 
through  the  water  with  great  dignity,  are  constantly 
changed  in  degrees  of  color  under  the  varying  angles 
of  light. 

Climbing  Fish,  of  India.  The  famed  "  climbing 
fish"  is  the  type  of  the  family  of  Anabanrids,  a  fam- 
ily distinguished  Ijy  some  remarkable  pecuharities, 
such  as  the  mode  of  respiration  and  the  strange 
modifications  therefor ;  the  singular  nest  which  they 
make  for  their  eggs ;  the  care  they  take  of  their  young, 
and  their  wonderful  ability  for  climbing,  etc. 

Eel.  The  eel  has  long  figured  as  one  of  the  most 
mysterious  of  animals.  For  2,282  years  it  has  been 
the  object  of  more  or  less  discussion.     Aristotle  main- 


tained that  it  "is  born  of  worms  produced  by  mud;" 
Pliny,  "  that  it  rubbed  itself  against  rocks,  from  the 
fragments  of  which  young  eels  are  born."  Thus, 
from  the  fourth  century  before  Christ  to  the  year  1873, 
the  eel  has  been  the  afflicted  object  of  all  jnanner  of 
absurd  theories.  The  eel  industries  of  the  Oswego 
river.  New  York,  are  nearly  100  years  old.  Toward 
the  clpse  of  the  eighteenth  century  John  Van  Buren 
erected  a  log  hut  in  the  woods  along  the  Oswego 
river.  This  region  was  then  in  its  native  wildness. 
People  came  in  and  made  homes  around  him,  when 
he  started  a  fishery.  There  are  five  great  fisheries  on 
the  Oswego  river  and  its  tributaries,  situated  at  Battle 
Island,  Fulton,  Horse-Shoe  Dam,  Jack's  Rifts,  and 
Caughdenoy.  Battle  Island,  where  the  fisheries 
originated,  has  been  continuously  fished  for  over  80 
years.  At  Fulton  the  river  has  been  fished  for  50 
years.  The  largest  catch  ever  made  was  1,150  jwunds 
in  one  night,  an  equivalent  of  800  live  eels.  The 
Northern  and  Western  cities  are  supplied  with  eels 
from  this  jx)int. 

Fishing.  Angling  for  fish,  whether  for  pleasure  or 
profit,  is  so  ancient  that  the  knowledge  of  man  is  too 
short  to  reach  the  first  angler.  In  modern  times  the 
art  has  been  made  captivating  and  gracious  by  the 
musings  of  the  pensive  and  philosophical  Walton,  and 
now,  in  all  sportsmen's  circles,  fishing  is  a  polite  and 
dextrous  pastime.  It  has  of  late  years  been  so  nearly 
reduced  to  a  science  that  the  true  angler  will  con- 
descend to  fish  only  with  the  artificial  fly.  Several 
particulars  must  be  observed  if  one  would  be  a  skill- 
ful and  successful  angler. 

Angling  and  Trolling.  In  fly-fishing  the  object 
is  to  throw  the  fly  well  out,  and  dropping  it  on  the 
water  as  gently  and  naturally  as  possible,  to  keep  it 
playing  in  the  eddies  like  a  drowning  insect,  till  it  at- 
tracts the  attention  of  a  lurking  trout,  and  tempts  him 
to  strike  at  it.  He  is  then  hooked  by  an  indescribable 
motion  of  the  wrist — not  the  arm — only  to  be  learned 
by  practice.  As  an  attempt  to  land  him  at  once 
would  break  the  line,  he  must  be  played  till  exhausted, 
when  he  can  be  gently  brought  to  the  shore.  Besides 
the  trout  and  salmon,  the  fish  most  valued  in  this 
country  by  the  angler,  are  the  several  varieties  of  pike 
and  bass,  the  pike-perch  ( glass-eye  or  Ohio  salmon), 
the  common  perch,  the  carp,  and  many  other  varieties, 
ranging  in  size  and  excellence  down  to  the  little 
many-colored  jxind-fish.  Bait  fishing  is  suited  to 
sluggish  water  rather  than  to  swift-running  streams. 
To  bait  the  hook,  take  it  in  the  right  hand,  the  bait  in 
the  left,  entering  the  hook  at  the  head  of  the  worm, 
and  carrying  it  through  to  near  the  tail,  so  as  to  cover 
both  the  entire  hook  and  its  fastening.  The  worm 
should  appear  as  life-like  as  possible,  and  all  breaking 
and  bruising  should  therefore  be  guarded  against. 
There  must  not,  however,  be  too  much  spare  worm 
left  at  the  end  of  the  hook  for  the  fish  to  nibble  at 
without  taking  all  in.  When  throwing  the  baited  line, 
do  it  forward  and  upward,  so  as  not  to  splash,  and 
allow  the  bait  to  fall  gently  on  the  surface,  and  sink 


478 


FISHING. 


slowly  in  the  water  to  the  required  depth.  Watch  the 
cork  carefully  as  the  line  floats  slowly  down  stream. 
When  you  barely  feel  a  nibble  do  not  be  too  ready 
to  jerk;  let  the  fish  have  time  to  take  in  the 
bait,  hook  and  all;  then  a  slight,  quick  motion  will 
hook  the  (Tsh,  and  you  can  land  him  at  your  leisure. 
Trolling  and  spinning  are  generally  practiced  with 
dead  fish  for  bait,  to  which  a  motion  is  given  as  if  the 
fish  were  swimming.  There  are  several  methods  of 
trolling,  namely,  with  the  lead  hook,  formed  of  two 
single  hooks  tied  back  to  back,  with  a  little  bead  of 
lead  fixed  to  a  link  or  two  of  chain  depending  from 
the  lower  part ;  the  snap-hook,  spring  or  plain,  made 
of  three  hooks  fastened  together;  and  the  gorge  hook, 
which  is  loaded  in  the  shank  with  lead.  Spinning 
swivels  are  a  series  of  small  hooks,  tied  on  fine  gut, 
and  applied  to  the  bait  externally,  fastened  to  the  line 
head  upward,  with  a  slight  curve  given  to  the  tail,  so 
that  the  action  of  the  swivel  and  the  force  of  the  cur- 
rent revolve  it  in  the  water,  increasing  its  naturalness 
and  making  it  more  tempting.  Trolling  is  chiefly 
used  in  still  waters  for  pike ;  spinning  in  swift  running 
streams,  where  it  is  equally  luring  to  salmon,  trout, 
pike,  or  large  perch.  Spinning  requires  the  greater 
skill  and  delicacy  of  touch,  and  is  the  finer  sport  of 
the  two. 

In  trolling  the  shiner  is  the  best  lure.  In  arranging 
it,  put  the  single  hook  through  the  lip,  the  middle  hook 
in  the  belly,  and  the  end  hook  in  the  tail.  Loop  on 
the  leader  about  36  inches  from  the  fish;  loop  a  large 
fly  to  the  leader;  some  loop  ton  a  smaller  one  30 
inches  from  the  other.  For  a  leader,  use  twisted  gut, 
with  a  small  swivel  attached  to  one  end.  The  other 
end  is  fastened  to  a  reel-line  either  by  loop  or  knot ; 
but  a  knot  is  preferable.  The  leader  should  be  two 
yards  long;  some  use  three  yards.  The  train  of  hooks 
is  attached  to  the  eye  of  the  swivel  at  the  end  of  the 
leader.  It  is  made  with  fine  hooks,  and  of  the  best 
gut.  The  strand  on  which  the  hooks  are  tied  are  fas- 
tened by  a  knot  to  another  equally  strong  strand,  and 
this  is  fastened  by  a  loop  to  the  swivel  at  the  end  of 
the  leader.  Trolling  is  done  solely  by  boat.  The 
troller  sits  with  his  face  to  the  stern,  the  oarsman  in 
the  middle  or  near  the  bow.  The  rowing  must  be 
done  slowly,  one  to  two  miles  an  hour.  Row  out  45 
or  50  ya.rds.  When  the  fish  is  felt,  tip  the  rod  and 
cast  off  so  that  the  fish  shall  have  time  to  take  hold. 
Then  give  a  good  surge,  and  you  will  rarely  miss  him. 
If  you  have  two  rods,  when  you  feel  the  fish,  pass  the 
other  rod  to  the  oarsman.  Never  give  an  inch  to  the 
fish  if  you  can  help  it,  but  be  easy  and  gentle  after 
you  have  fastened  him,  and  let  him  play  till  he  is  ex- 
hausted; then  pass  the  gaff  under  the  fish,  point 
downward,  turn  up  the  inside,  and  strike  as  near  the 
shoulders  as  possible.     Use  no  sinkers  in   trolling. 

For  fishing  with  set-lines,  in  the  lake,  bait  with 
pieces  of  shiners  or  lake  herring.  Anchor  one  end  of 
the  line  near  the  shore,  in  15  feet  of  water.  Run  it 
out  into  the  lake  one-fourth  to  two  miles.  For  the 
line  use  strong  hempen  cord,  and  whip-cord  for  bait 
lines.     The   hooks  are   attached  every  sixteen  feet. 


For  baiting  pike,  use  roach,  dace,  gudgeon,  small  chub, 
trout,  skegger  or  brandhng.  Go  out  each  morning, 
pull  up  the  lines,  take  off  the  fish  that  have  been 
caught,  re-bait  the  hooks,  and  drop  back  into  the 
water.    The  position  of  the  lines  is  marked  by  buoys. 

In  baiting  for  fish,  the  following  hints  will  be  use- 
ful :  In  fishing  for  trout,  use  any  small  fish,  espe- 
cially its  own  fry.  For  perch,  use  minnows,  shiners 
and  small  trout.  For  carp,  taken  by  deep-bottom 
fishing,  use  a  bright  red  worm.  For  black  bass, 
fished  with  the  fly,  the  gorge-hook,  and  trolling  tackle, 
shiners  are  the  best  bait.  For  small  rock  bass,  use 
minnows  and  small  shiners. 

For  catching  eels  use  a  strong  gut  line,  a  light  float 
and  a  No.  9  hook.  Bait  with  a  large,  red  worm.  Let 
the  bait  touch  the  bottom.  The  most  alluring  bait  is 
salmon-roe.  When  fishing  for  eels  with  night-lines, 
lay  in  streams,  or  still  deep  holes  in  rivers. 

In  the  winter,  when  the  water  is  covered  with  ice  so 
clear  that  fish  are  plainly  visible  beneath,  they  may  be 
stunned  and  caught  by  striking  on  the  ice  with  a 
mallet  immediately  above  them.  Winter  fishing 
through  holes  in  the  ice  is  also  rare  sport,  when  it  is 
not  too  cold. 

Rods.  There  is  perhaps  no  article  of  tackle  upon 
which  the  angler  looks  with  so  much  pride  and 
pleasure  as  a  good  rod;  like  the  fowler's  gun,  or 
the  jockey's  horse,  next  to  his  wife,  they 
are  always  the  best.  Rods  are  made  of 
various  kinds  of  wood  and  of  various 
length.  There  are  three  requisites  for 
a  good  rod,  viz. :  strength,  lightness  and 
uniform  flexibility  from  the  butt  to  the  top 
They  should  vary  in  length  and  flexibility 
to  suit  the  habits  of  different  kinds  of  fish. 
A  16  or  18  foot  rod,  strong  and  rather  stiff, 
is  best  for  salmon;  while  one  10  to  14  feet, 
long,  light  and  springy,  and  finely  tapering, 
is  sufficient  for  trout.  The  Cruttenden 
■§  fly  rod.  Fig.  15,  has  a  solid  reel  plate,  nickel- 
'^  plated,  patented  ferrules,  allowing  the  wood 
5;  to  be  used  full  size,  thus  preventing  rod- 
s  breaking  where  wood  and  ferrules  join.  It 
'1  is  well  ringed  throughout,  wound  with  silk, 
^  and  finely  poHshed.  Length  ioj4  feet,  and 
^  weight  about  10  ounces.  A  rod  for  trolling 
I.  with  minnow,  and  a  rod  for  worm-fishing, 
"  should  be  about  the  same  length  as  above, 
j^  but  the  trolling-rod  should  be  stronger.  A 
bamboo  rod,  with  changeable  top,  joints  of 
various  degrees  of  length,  strength  and 
elasticity,  that  can  be  adapted  to  the 
various  purposes  of  fly-fishing,  trolling,  and 
bottom-fishing,  is  very  convenient.  The 
reel  or  "  pirn"  at  the  bottom  end  of  the 
rod,  on  which  the  line  is  wound,  should  be 
simple,  and  made  so  as  to  wind  and  un- 
wind handily. 

Lines.  These  are  made  of  silk,  silk  and 
hair,  gut,  India  grass,  flax,  hemp,  and 
cotton.     They  are  made  of  various  sizes 


FISHING. 


479 


and  lengths,  from  the  size  of  a  hair  to  that  of  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch,  and  from  12  to  200  yards  in  length. 
The  size  and  length  of  the  line  should  vary  in  pro- 
portion to  the  sport  anticipated.  A  line  for  trout 
should  be  either  of  silk,  silk  and  hair,  India  grass,  or 
fine  flax,  and  from  12  to  20  yards  long.  For  salmon, 
lake  pickerel,  black  or  striped  bass,  the  lines  generally 
used  are  made  of  flax,  hemp,  silk,  or  hair  from  50  to 
200  yards.  For  "trolling"  for  blue  fish,  bass,  pickerel, 
or  any  kind  of  sea-fish,  the  cotton  and  hemp  lines  are 
used.  One  had  better  choose  a  heavy  line,  for  the 
sake  of  its  casting  superiority  and  advantages  in  windy 
weather. 

H00K.S.  This  article  is  of  the  greatest  imix)rtance  to 
the  angler,  and  about  no  part  of  the  sjxirtsman's  or 
fisherman's  outfit  is  there  such  a  variety  of  opinion  as 
the  hook.  In  selecting  a  hook,  bear  in  mind  that  a 
large  portion  of  your  success  depends  uixin  the  qual- 
ity, and  therefore  take  particular  pains  and  see  that 
they  are  well  tempered.  Test  every  hook  before  at- 
taching it  to  the  line,  and  see  that  the  barb  and  point 
are  perfect  and  sharp.  A  small  file  will  be  found 
handy  for  sharpening.  Hooks  range  in  size  from  No. 
I,  several  inches  in  length,  down  to  No.  14,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch 'long.  Limerick,  Dublin  2  F's,  and 
2  B's,  Clark's  patent,  Kindal  or  Redditch  hooks  are 
good. 

B.4IT.  The  most  common  bait  used  in  this  country 
for  ensnaring  almost  all  species  of  the  finny  family 
that  inhabit  fresh  water,  is  the  common  earth-worm, 
or,  as  it  is  called,  dew-womi,  dug-worm,  and  the  angle 
or  fish-worm.  The  common  white  grub-worm  is  also 
good  bait,  and  will  often  take  trout  when  all  others 
have  failed.  These  may  be  procured  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  in  decaying  trees,  stumps,  foliage,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  in  fresh  ploughed  ground.  The  grass- 
hopper is  an  excellent  bait  for  trout.  Wasps,  beetles, 
flies,  caterpillars  and  many  other  insects  make  good 
trout  bait.  The  hind  legs  of  the  frog,  when  skinned, 
makes  excellent  bait  for  pickerel. 

For  bait,  minnows  are  good  enough  for  many  species 
of  fish,  even  for  trout,  pickerel  or  salmon.  The  best 
vessel  for  carrying  them  is 
a  pail  made  for  the  pur- 
jx)se.  Fig.  16.  It  is  made  of 
heavy  tin,  with  detachable 
cover,  and  is  10  inches  by 
10  inches.  The  inner  pail 
is  9x9,  with  tinned  wire  bail 
and  brass  wire  spring  catch. 
Artificial  flies  are  the  most 
'important  lures  used  by  the 
angkr.  They  are  made  to 
(Somewhat  resemble  an  ac- 
tual live  fly,  and  are  made 
from  cocks' hackles  or  other 
Ftc.  if>.—M!XMw  Pail.  feathers  to  form  wings.  The 
fur  of  a  rabbit's  ear,  or  some  other  animal,  to  form  the 
body,  and  waxed  silk  thread  to  tie  the  whole  in  an 
artful,  neat  manner  to  the  shank  of  the  hook,  and  the 
lure  is  complete. 


Sinkers,  Dipsies  or  Leads,  and  Swivels,  etc. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  sinkers  in  use,  the  plain, 
slide  and  swivel.  The  first  is  made  of  lead,  with  brass 
wire  loop  at  each  end,  and  of  various  sizes  and 
weights.  The  slide  sinker  is  nothing  more  than  a 
lead  tube,  slightly  rounded  at  each  end.  It  is  used 
principally  in  bottom  fishing,  the  object  of  the  tube 
being  to  allow  the  line  to  pass  through  it  at  the  least 
motion  of  the  fish,  which  is  thus  immediately  felt. 
The  swivel  sinker  is  the  best  for  any  kind  of  fishing. 
It  is  made  similar  to  the  plain,  with  the  exception  of 
the  swivel  at  each  end  instead  of  the  stationary  loops. 
Split  shot  are  used  almost  universally  for  trout  fish- 
ing. They  should  be  quite  small,  and  where  great 
weight  is  required,  a  larger  number  should  be  used 
rather  than  those  of  a  larger  size.  Swivels  are  used 
for  "spinning"  bait  and  for  preventing  entanglement 
of  the  line. 

FL0.4TS.  These  are  made  of  cork,  quills,  and  red 
cedar,  of  various  sizes',  adapted  to  the  current  of  water 
or  the  peculiar  description  of  angling.  They  are  oC 
two  shapes,  egg  and  oblong. 

Reel.  Many  old-fashioned  anglers  think  that  this 
is  a  superfluous  article  in  the  equipment  of  a  sports- 
man, but  to  those  who  have  used  it,  it  is  almost  as  in- 
dispensable as  the  rod  itself.  The  main  object  of  the 
reel  is  to  give  the  fish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  line  to 
tire  itself,  and  consequently  affords  more  sjwrt  than 
could  be  obtained  by  the  rod  alone.  By  means  also 
of  the  reel,  fish  of  greater  weight  may  be  captured 
than  could  jxjssibly  be  with  the  rod. 

Fig.  17  is  a  representation  of  the  Orvis  reel.  It  is 
extra  heavily  nickel-plated   and  finely  finished.     Is. 

perforated  to 
make  it  light,  and 
keep  it  free  from 
sand  and  dirt 
also  that  the  line 
may  dry  without 
removing  it  from 
the  reel  after  use. 
Has  a  perfect 
click,  is  very  light, 
very  strong  and 
holds  from  40  to 
^  Fig.  17.— Orvis  Reel.  50  yards  of  line. 

It  is  more  compact  and  less  cumbersome  than  ordi- 
nary 20-yard  reels.  It  is  quite  narrow  and  takes  up 
line  rapidly. 

The  reel  of  Fig.  1 8  supplies  a  want  that  has  long 
been  felt  by  fishermen.  In  size,  weight  and  general 
appearance  it  does  not 
differ  from  the  reels  in 
ordinary  use.  The  line 
is  withdrawn  from  it  as 
from  the  common  reel 
to  any  desired  length  for 
fly  casting  or  bait  fish- 
ing.    It  is  when  a  game 

fish  is  "struck"  that  x\^t^Flo.a.-FMerman-'s  Automatic  Reel. 

advantages  of  the  automatic  reel  become  more  appar- 


480 


\      FISH,  TO  COOK. 


€nt.  By  a  movement  of  the  finger  an  instantaneous 
tension  of  the  line  is  produced,  so  delicate  that  if  the 
•  angler  chooses  to  allow  it,  and  the  fish  be  obstinate, 
he  can  run  out  the  whole  length  of  the  Hne ;  but  it 
will  be  against  a  continually  increasing  resistance, 
more  or  less  augmented  as  may  be  desired.  If,  when 
at  any  distance,  the  fish  makes  a  charge  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  captor,  no  matter  what  his  rate  of  speed 
may  be>  the  reel  takes  up  the  line  so  rapidly  that  no 
slack  can  possibly  be  obtained.  All  this  is  accom- 
plished without  the  use  of  a  crank.  The  reel  designed 
for  fresh  water  bass  or  pickerel  fishing,  carrying  from 
100  to  no  feet  of  line,  works  equally  well  in  captur- 
ing brook  out. 

Preserving  Fish.  Besides  the  well-known  ways 
of  preserving  fish  by  salting,  drying,  smoking  and 
canning,  here  is  one  that  anybody  can  try  who  wishes 
to  preserve  fish  in  its  fresh  state:  Open  the  fish, 
sprinkle  sugar  over  the  interior,  keeping  the  body  in  a 
horizontal  position  so  that  the  sugar  may  penetrate  as 
much  as  possible.  It  is  said  that  fish  preserved  in 
this  way  can  be  kept  completely  fresh  for  a  long  time, 
the  savor  being  as  perfect  as  if  recently  caught. 
Salmon  thus  treated  before  salting  and  smoking 
possesses  a  much  more  agreeable  taste.  A  table- 
spoonful  of  sugar  is  sufficient  for  a  five-pound  fish. 

Fish,  To  Cook.  All  fish  should  be  thoroughly 
cleansed  and  well  cooked;  nothing  can  be  more  un- 
wholesome and  more  unpalatable  than  fresh  fish  not 
sufficiently  cooked.  Fresh  fish,  when  boiled,  should 
be  placed  in  cold,  and  shell-fish  in  boiling  water.  To 
keep  oysters  after  washing  them,  lay  them  in  a  tub  in 
a  cool  cellar,  with  the  deep  part  of  the  shell  under- 
most. Sprinkle  them  with  salt  and  Indian  meal,  then 
fill  the  tub  with  cold  water.  Change  the  water  every 
day  and  the  oysters  will  keep  fresh  a  fortnight.  Fish 
should  be  garnished  with  horse-radish  or  parsley. 
The  only  vegetable  served  with  fish  is  potatoes.  It  is 
customary  to  eat  fish  only  at  the  commencement  of 
the  dinner.  Fish  and  soup  are  generally  served  up 
alone,  the  soup  first,  before  any  of  the  other  dishes  ap- 
pear. Let  great  care  be  taken  to  well  clean  the  fish 
before  it  is  dressed.  Fresh-water  fish  have  often  a 
muddy  taste  and  smell,  which  may  be  got  rid  of  by 
soaking  them  in  strong  salt  and  water  befcJre  they  are 
cooked.  Salt  fish  should  be  soaked  in  water  befoi^ 
boiling,  according  to  ihe  rime  it  has  been  in  salt. 
When  it  is  hard  and  dry,  it  will  require  36  hours  in 
soaking  before  it  is  dressed,  and  the  water  must  be 
changed  three  or  four  times.  When  fish  is  not  very 
salt,  24  hours,  or  even  one  night,  will  suffice.  Baked 
fish  is  apt  to  be  dry,  and  can  be  improved  by  basting 
it  with  a  little  good  fat  or  olive-oil,  or  by  laying  a  slice 
of  salt  ix)rk  over  it,  or  strips  of  pork  in  slashes  cut  in 
its  upper  surface.  Blue  fish,  bass,  shad,  carp,  red 
snappers,  and  other  fish  from  three  to  six  pounds  in 
weight,  are  good  for  baking ;  brown  gravy  or  sauce 
should  be  served  with  baked  fish,  and  a  highly 
seasoned  bread  stuffing  increases  their  palatability. 
The  best  of  fried  fish  are  those  cooked  in  oil;  small 
fish  should  be  rolled  in  flour,  seasoned  with  salt  and 


cayenne,  and  quickly  fried;  medium-sized  or  sliced 
fish  are  good  for  frying  when  rolled  in  Indian  meal  or 
cracker-dust,  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  fried. 

The  general  method  of  boiling  fish  is  to  put  it  in 
the  saucepan,  and  a  little  more  than  half  cover  it 
with  boiling  water.  Cover  the  lid  closely  and  boil 
gently  until  done.  To  determine  when  a  fish  is 
sufficiently  boiled,  draw  it  up  upon  the  fish-plate,  and 
if  the  thickest  part  of  the  fish  can  be  easily  divided 
from  the  bone  with  a  knife,  it  should  be  at  once  taken 
from  the  water.  A  little  saltpeter  or  a  few  spoonfuls 
of  vinegar  may  be  added  to  the  water  to  render  the 
boiled  fish  firm.  Some  cooks  prefer  to  steep  the  fish 
in  salt  and  water  from  five  to  ten  minutes  before 
putting  it  in  the  kettle  to  cook,  instead  of  putting  salt 
in  the  water  in  which  it  is  to  boil.  By  this  means  less 
scum  rises. 

To  Broil  Fish.  Let  one  day  expire  after  it  has 
been  caught  and  killed,  then  lay  the  inside  on  the  grid- 
iron, and  not  turn  it  till  it  is  nearly  done. 

To  Fry  Fish,  cleanse  them  thoroughly,  dry  them 
on  a  folded  cloth,  dredge  flour  lightly  over  them,  brush 
them  with  a  well-beaten  egg,  then  dip  them  in  fine 
bread-crumbs.  Have  ready  enough  fine  oil,  or  melted 
lard  or  beef  dripping  (clarified),  to  entirely  cover  the 
fish.  Place  the  frying-pan  over  a  clear  fire.  Let  the 
lard  reach  boiling  ix)int,  and  then  immerse  the  fish  in 
it.  You  may  try  whether  the  fat  is  hot  enough  by  let- 
ting a  drop  of  cold  water  fall  into  it  from  the  end  of 
your  spoon.  If  the  hot  fat  spits  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Then  fry,  turning  the  fish  when  one  side  is  browned  to 
the  other.  When  it  is  done,  serve  it  extremely  dry  on 
a  white  cloth  or  embossed  fish  paper. 

To  prepare  very  bony  fish  for  children  to  eat,  cut  out 
the  large  bones  or  slip  them  out  after  boiling  a  while, 
then  fry  the  flesh  to  a  crisp,  when  all  the  fine  bones 
will  be  chewed  up  before  they  are  swallowed. 

To  Bake  a  Large  Fish  Whole,  cut  off  the  head 
and  split  the  fish  down  nearly  to  the  tail ;  prepare  a 
dressing  of  bread,  butter,  pepper  and  salt,  moistened 
with  a  little  water.  Fill  the  fish  with  this  dressing, 
and  bind  it  together  with  fine  cotton  cord  or  tape;  lay 
the  fish  on  a  grate  or  a  bake-pan  or  a  dripping-pan, 
and  pour  around  it  a  little  water  and  melted  butter. 
Baste  frequently.  A  good-sized  fish  will  bake  in  an 
hour.  Serve  with  the  gravy  of  the  fish,  drawn  butter 
or  oyster  sauce. 

Catfish,  To  Fry.  Skin,  clean,  and  remove  the 
head ;  sprinkle  with  salt,  and  lay  aside  for  an  hour  or 
more ;  have  ready  two  or  three  eggs  beaten  to  a  froth, 
and,  in  a  flat  dish,  a  quantity  of  powdered  cracker ; 
dip  the  fish  first  in  the  egg,  then  in  the  cracker,  and 
fry  quickly  in  hot  lard  or  drippings ;  take  up  as  soon 
as  done.  Catfish  cooked  in  this  manner  are  sweet  and 
savory — a  trifle  too  rich  for  delicate  persons,  but  very 
nice  for  those  who  are  blessed  with  good  digestion. 

Another:  Skin  and  split  them,  remove  the  backbone, 
wash  and  dry  the  pieces,  season  them  with  salt  and 
cayenne  pepper,  dredge  them  with  flour,  and  fry  them 
brown  in  smoking  hot  fal. 

To  Stew.    Skin,  clean  and  cut  off'  the  heads ;  sprin- 


FISH,   TO  COOK. 


481 


kle  with  salt  to  remove  any  muddy  taste  they  may 
have  contracted  from  the  flats  or  holes  in  which  they 
have  fed,  and  let  them  lie  in  a  cool  place  for  an  hour 
or  so ;  then  put  them  into  a  saucepan,  cover  with  cold 
water,  and  stew  very  gently  for  from  }^  to  ^  hour,  ac- 
cording to  their  size;  add  a  chopped  shallot  or  butter- 
onion,  a  bunch  of  chopped  parsley,  a  little  pepper,  a 
large  tablespoonful  of  butter,  a  tablespoonful  of  flour 
mixed  to  a  paste  with  cold  water;  boil  up  once,  take 
out  the  fish  carefully,  and  lay  in  a  deep  dish ;  boil  up 
the  gravy  once  more,  and  pour  over  the  fish  ;  send  to 
table  in  a  covered  dish. 

Salt  Cod,  To  Boil.  Put  the  fish  to  soak  over  night 
in  lukewarm  water,  as  early  as  seven  o'clock  in  the 
evening;  change  this  for  more  warm  water  at  bed- 
time and  cover  closely ;  change  again  in  the  morning 
and  wash  off  the  salt ;  two  hours  before  dinner  take 
out  the  cod,  examine  to  see  that  no  crystals  of  salt 
adhere  to  the  under  side,  and  place  it  in  very  cold 
water  to  make  it  firm ;  set  it  over  the  fire  in  lukewarm 
water  enough  to  cover  it  and  boil  for  Y-z  hour;  drain 
well,  lay  it  in  a  hot  dish  and  pour  over  it  egg  sauce, 
when  it  is  ready  for  the  table.  What  is  left  over  from 
this  dish  will  be  excellent  fflr  codfish  balls. 

Codfish  Balls.  After  preparing  as  above  for  boil- 
ing, cut  it  in  pieces  and  boil  20  minutes  ;  turn  off"  this 
water,  jwur  on  boiling  hot  water  and  boil  20  minutes 
more;  drain  very  dry  and  spread  upon  a  dish  to  cool; 
pick  to  pieces  with  a  fork,  removing  every  vestige  of 
skin  and  bone  and  shredding  very  fine ;  add  an  equal 
bulk  of  mashed  jxitato,  a  litde  butter,  sweet  milk  and 
beaten  egg,  and  work  into  a  stiff"  batter ;  flour  your 
hands  and  work  into  balls  or  cakes,  and  fry  to  a  light 
brown  in  boiling  lard  or  dripping.  Plainer  fish  cakes 
are  often  made  by  simply  molding  shredded  cod  and 
mashed  potatoes  together.  Codfish  ready  boned,  and 
sometimes  shredded  also,  is  to  be  found  at  groceries, 
under  the  name  of  "desiccated  codfish."  No  adul- 
teration of  it  is  yet  known. 

Eel,  To  Boil.  Take  small  specimens,  boil  them 
until  tender,  with  a  bunch  of  parsley ;  serve  with  but- 
ter sauce. 

To  Stew.  Inquire,  before  buying,  where  they  were 
caught,  and  give  so  decided  a  preference  to  country 
eels  as  to  refuse  those  fattened  \x\xin  the  off"al  of  city 
wharves.  Nor  are  the  largest  eels  the  best  for  eating. 
One  weighing  a  ix>und  is  better  for  your  purpose  than 
a  bulky  fellow  that  weighs  three.  Skin  and  clean,  care- 
fully extracting  all  the  fat  from  the  insides ;  cut  into 
lengths  of  an  inch  and  a  half;  put  into  a  saucepan, 
with  enough  water  to  cover  them ;  throw  in  a  little  salt 
and  chopped  parsley,  and  stew  slowly,  closely  covered, 
for  at  least  one  hour ;  add,  at  the  last,  a  great  spoonful 
of  butter  and  a  little  flour  wet  with  cold  water;  also 
pepper;  serve  in  a  deep  dish.  The  appearance  and 
odor  of  this  stew  are  so  pleasing  as  often  to  overcome 
the  prejudice  of  those  who  "wouldn't  touch  an  eel  for 
the  world !  they  look  so  like  snakes !  "  and  those  who 
have  tasted  once  rarely  enter  a  second  objection. 

To  Fry.     Prepare  and  wash  the  eels,  wipe  them 
thoroughly  dry,  and  dredge  over  them  a  very  little  flour; 
31 


if  large,  cut  them  into  pieces  about  four  inches  long, 
brush  them  over  with  egg,  dip  them  in  bread-crumbs, 
and  fry  them  in  hot  fat.  If  small  they  should  be 
curled  round  and  fried,  being  first  dipped  into  egg 
and  bread  crumbs.  Serve  them  up  garnished  with 
fried  parsley. 

To  Bake.  Skin,  empty,  and  thoroughly  wash  four 
large  eels,  cut  off  the  heads,  and  divide  them  into 
rather  short  pieces,  wipe  them  very  dry,  dip  each  piece 
into  a  seasoning  of  cayenne,  salt,  minced  parsley,  and 
a  little  powdered  savory  herbs ;  put  them  into  a  deep 
dish,  cover  them  with  veal  stock,  put  a  thick  paper  or 
cover  over  the  dish,  and  set  it  in  the  oven  until  the 
eels  are  tender.  Skim  off  the  fat,  take  the  pieces  of 
fish  carefully  out  on  a  hot  dish  to  keep  warm,  and  stir 
into  the  gravy  the  wine,  strained  lemon  juice,  and 
sauce ;  make  it  just  boil  up,  and  pour  it  over  the  fish. 
Garnish  with  sliced  lemon. 

Halibut,  To  Boil.  Lay  in  cold  salt  and  water  for 
an  hour;  wipe  dry,  and  score  the  skin  in  squares;  put 
into  the  kettle  with  cold,  salted  water  enough  to  cover 
it.  It  is  so  finn  in  texture  that  you-  can  boil  without  a 
cloth,  if  you  choose;  let  it  heat  gradually,  and  boil  for 
J^  to  ^  of  an  hour,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
piece.  Four  or  five  pounds  will  be  enough  for  most 
private  families.  Drain  and  accompany  by  egg-sauce 
— either  poured  over  the  fish,  or  in  a  sauce-boat.  Save 
the  cold  remnants  of  the  fisl^  and  what  sauce  is  left 
until  the  next  morning.  Pick  out  as  you  would  cod, 
mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  mashed  iX)tato,  moisten 
with  the  sauce,  or  with  milk  and  butter  if  you  have  no 
sauce ;  put  into  a  skillet,  and  stir  until  it  is  very  hot 
Do  not  let  it  burn.     Season  with  pepper  and  salt. 

To  Bake.  Take  a  piece  of  halibut  weighing  5  or  6 
pounds,  and  lay  in  salt  and  water  for  two  hours;  wijie 
dry  and  score  the  outer  skin ;  set  in  the  baking-pan  in  a 
tolerably  hot  oven,  and  bake  an  hour,  basting  often 
with  butter  and  water  heated  together  in  a  sauce-pan 
or  tin-cup.  When  a  fork  will  jjenetrate  it  easily  it  is 
done.  It  should  be  of  a  fine  brown.  Take  the  gravy 
in  the  dripping-pan,  add  a  little  boiling  water;  stir  in 
a  tablesixxDnful  of  Worcestershire  sauce,  the  juice  of  a 
lemon,  and  thicken  with  brown  flour,  previously  wet 
with  cold  water;  boil  up  once  and  put  into  the  sauce- 
boat.  There  is  no  finer  preparation  of  halibut  than 
this,  which  is,  however,  comparatively  little  known. 
Those  who  have  eaten  it  usually  prefer  it  to  boiled 
or  broiled.  You  can  use  what  is  left  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  fragments  of  boiled  halibut. 

Halibut  Steak.  Wash  and  wipe  the  steaks  dry;  beat 
up  2  or  3  eggs,  and  roll  out  some  Boston  or  other  brit- 
tle crackers  upon  the  kneading-board  until  they  are 
fine  as  dust;  dip  each  steak  into  the  beaten  egg,  then 
into  the  bread  crumbs  (when  you  have  salted  the  fish), 
and  fry  in  hot  fat,  lard  or  nice  dripping.  Or,  you  can 
broil  the  steak  ujMn  a  buttered  gridiron  over  a  clear 
fire,  first  seasoning  with  salt  and  pepper.  When  done, 
lay  in  a  hot  dish,  butter  well,  and  cover  closely. 

Cutlets  of  Halibut,  Cod  or  Salmon.  Three  pounds 
fish,  cut  in  slices  'i^  of  an  inch,  from  the  body  of  the 
fish;  a  handful  of  bread  crumbs,  with  which  should 


482 


FISH  AS  FOOD. 


be  mixed  pepper  and  salt,  with  a  little  minced  pars- 
ley; one  egg,  beaten  light;  enough  butter,  lard  or  drip- 
ping to  fry  the  cutlets.  Cut  each  slice  of  fish  into 
strips  as  wide  as  your  two  fingers;  dry  them  with  a 
clean  cloth;  rub  lightly  with  salt  and  pepper;  dip  in 
the  egg,  then  the  bread  crumbs,  and  fry  in  enough  fat 
to  cover  them  well;  drain  away  every  drop  of  fat,  and 
lay  upon  hot  white  paper  lining  a  heated  dish. 

Mackerel,  To  Cook.  Put  into  a  crock  (flesh  side 
down),  with  plenty  of  water;  let  soak  8  to  10  hours 
before  using.  After  thoroughly  cleaning,  put  into  a 
spider  in  cold  water;  bring  to  a  boil,  turn  off  water, 
then  pour  over  it  %  cup  of  cream  (sweet)  and  a  piece 
of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg ;  bring  this  to  a  boil  and 
it  is  ready  for  use. 

To  Boil:  same  as  codfish. 

Oysters,  Raw,  To  Prepare  for  Eating.  Select,  by 
experiment,  from  the  following  seasonings :  salt,  pep- 
per (black  and  red),  vinegar,  etc. 

To  Stew.  Put  the  liquor  in  a  saucepan  upon  hot 
coals ;  when  it  all  boils  up,  add  the  oysters  and  ix)ur 
in  a  little  milk, or,  if  you  choose,  water,  about  a  teacup 
to  a  quart  of  oysters.  Let  them  boil  2  or  3  minutes, 
not  more ;  meantime  put  in  a  small  piece  of  butter, 
and  dredge  in  some  flour ;  set  the  saucepan  off,  and 
stir  the  oysters  till  the  butter  is  melted.  Lay  some 
crackers  or  toasted  bread  in  the  dish,  and  ix)ur  on  the 
oysters.  They  are  very  fipe  with  roast  or  boiled  turkey. 

To  Fry.  Select  the  largest  and  best  oysters  you 
can  find;  take  them  carefully  from  the  liquor;  lay 
them  in  rows  upon  a  clean  cloth,  and  press  another 
lightly  upon  them  to  absorb  the  moisture ;  have  ready 
several  beaten  eggs,  and  in  another  dish  some  crack- 
ers crushed  fine ,  in  the  frying-pan  heat  enough  nice 
butter  to  cover  the  oyster  entirely;  dip  eaclj  oyster  first 
in  the  egg  then  in  the  cracker ;  roll  it  over  that  it  may 
become  completely  incrusted ;  drop  them  carefully 
into  the  frying-pan ;  fry  quickly  to  a  light  brown ;  if 
the  butter  is  hot  enough  they  will  soon  be  ready  to 
take  out ;  test  it  by  putting  in  one  oyster  before  you 
risk  the  rest;  do  not  let  them  lie  in  the  pan  an  instant 
after  ,they  are  done ;  serve  dry,  and  let  the  dish  be 
warm.     A  chafing-dish  is  best. 

Scalloped  Oysters.  Crush  and  roll  several  handfuls 
of  "  oyster  "  crackers  ;  put  a  layer  in  the  bottom  of  a 
buttered  pudding-dish ;  wet  this  with  a  mixture  of  the 
oyster  liquor  and  milk,  slightly  warmed ;  next  have  a 
layer  of  oysters ;  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper ;  lay 
small  bits  of  butter  upon  them,  then  another  layer  of 
moistened  crumbs,  and  so  on  until  the  dish  is  full ;  let 
the  top  layer  be  of  crumbs,  thicker  than  the  rest ;  beat 
an  egg  into  the  milk  you  pour  over  them;  stick  bits  of 
butter  thickly  over  it ;  cover  the  dish,  set  it  in  the  oven 
and  bake  ^  hour;  if  the  dish  is  large,  remove  the 
cover  and  brown  by  setting  it  upon  the  upper  grate  of 
the  oven,  or  by  holding  a  hot  shovel  over  it. 

Pickerel,  To  Fry.  The  pickerel  ranks  next  to  the 
trout  among  game-fish,  and  should  be  fried  in  the 
same  manner.  Especially  do  not  fry  it  slowly  and  too 
long ;  and  when  it  is  done  take  it  out  of  the  grease. 

Salmon,  To  Boil.  Put  it  into  warm  water  instead 


of  cold,  in  order  to  preserve  its  color  and  set  the  curd. 
It  should  be  thoroughly  well  dressed  to  be  wholesome ; 
scale  it;  empty  and  wash  it  with  the  greatest  care  j 
do  not  leave  any  blood  in  the  inside  that  you  can  re- 
move. Boil  the  salt  rapidly  in  the  fish-kettle  for  a 
minute  or  two,  taking  off  the  scum  as  it  rises;  put  in 
the  salmon,  first  trussing  it  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  S, 
and  let  it  boil  gently  till  it  is  thoroughly  done.  Take 
it  from  the  water  on  the  fish-plate,  let  it  drain,  put  it 
on  a  hot  folded  fish  napkin,  and  garnish  with  slices 
of  lemon.  Sauce:  shrimp  or  lobster.  Send  up  dressed 
cucumber  with  salmon. 

To  Broil.  Cut  slices  of  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a 
half  thick  from  the  middle  of  a  large  salmon  ;  dust  a 
little  cayenne  pepper  over  them  ;  wrap  them  in  oiled 
or  buttered  paper,  and  broil  them  over  a  clear  fire, 
first  rubbing  the  bars  of  the  gridiron  with  suet.  Broiled 
salmon  is  extremely  rich,  and  really  requires  no  sauce. 
The  slices  may  also  be  simply  dried  in  a  cloth,  floured 
and  broiled  over  a  clear  fire ;  but  they  require  the 
greatest  care  then  to  prevent  them  from  burning.  The 
gridiron  is  always  rubbed  with  suet  first. 

To  Bake.  Wash  and  wipe  drj',  and  rub  with 
pepper  and  salt.  Some  add  a  slight  taste  of  cayenne 
and  powdered  mace.  Lay  the  fish  upon  a  grating 
set  over  your  baking-pan,  and  roast  or  bake,  basting  it 
freely  with  butter,  and  toward  the  last,  with  its  own 
drippings  only.  Should  it  brown  too  fast,  cover  the 
top  with  a  sheet  of  white  paper  until  the  whole  is 
cooked.  When  it  is  done,  transfer  to  a  hot  dish  and 
cover  closely.  Add  to  the  gravy  a  little  hot  water 
thickened  with  arrow-root,  rice,  or  wheat  flour, — wet, 
of  course,  first  with  cold  water, — a  great  spoonful  of 
light  tomato  sauce,  and  the  juice  of  a  lemon.  Boil  up 
and  serve  in  a  sauce-boat,  or  you  can  serve  with 
cream  sauce,  made  as  for  boiled  salmon.  Garnish 
handsomely  with  alternate  sprigs  of  parsley  and  the 
bleached  tops  of  celery. 

Whitefish,  To  Cook.     Same  as  mackerel. 

To  Bake.  Soak  them  all  night  in  a  pail  of  cold 
water.  If  not  fresh  enough  in  the  morning,  then 
slightly  scald  them  till  fresh  enough ;  then  lay  them 
on  a  plate,  well  buttered,  and  put  them  into  the  oven 
till  the  butter  melts,  after  which  they  are  ready  for  use. 

Most  other  kinds  of  fish  may  be  prepared  in  the 
manner  of  those  most  nearly  like  them  in  the  above  list. 

Chowder.     See  page  261. 

Fish  as  Food.  Fish  affords  comparatively  little 
nourishment,  and  its  fat  is  more  insoluble  and  in- 
digestible than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and  turns 
rancid  with  peculiar  readiness.  Acid  sauces  and 
pickles,  because  they  are  calculated  to  resist  putrefac- 
tion, render  fish  more  wholesome  and  digestible; 
while  butter  has  a  tendency  to  increase  its  indigestible 
character.  Spice  and  salt  aid  the  stomach  to  digest 
fish  by  s'timulating  the  fibers  of  the  stomach.  Fish 
when  dried  in  the  open  air  and  afterwards  boiled  soft, 
is  quickly  digested ;  but  salt  and  smoked  fish  are  hard 
of  digestion,  and  afford  but  little  nutrition.  Fish  with 
flesh  of  a  tender  kind  are  less  indigestible  than  those 


FISTULA— FLAX. 


483 


which  are  more  solid  and  tough,  and  some  of  the 
former  have  very  little  to  be  said  against  them  as  food. 

Fistula  (fis'  tu-la),  a  non-healing,  abnormal  opening 
into  the  soft  parts,  with  a  constant  discharge ;  a  deep, 
narrow,  chronic  abscess.  Requires  the  treatment  of  a 
skilled  physician  or  surgeon. 

Fixtures.  All  machinery  and  buildings  that  are 
attached  to  the  ground  by  brick  walls,  or  by  sills  im- 
bedded in  the  ground,  are  fixtures,  and  pass  by  deed  or 
mortgage  with  the  land.  But  such  things  are  largely 
governed  by  the  intention  of  the  parties  at  the  time. 
Many  things  that  would  ordinarily  be  considered 
personal  property  may,  by  the  intention  of  the  parties, 
become  a  part  of  the  real  estate.  Rails  in  a  fence,  or 
laid  along  the  line  for  a  fence,  are  part  of  the  real 
estate  and  pass  with  the  land.     See  Deed. 

Flagon,  a  vessel  with  a  narrow  mouth,  used  for 
holding  and  conveying  liquors. 

Flail  is  a  hand  implement  for  threshing  grain.  It 
is  both  simple  and  ancient.  It  is  the  only  threshing 
implement  in  use  over  a  large  iX)rtion  of  continental 
Europe;  and  though  now  very  generally  superseded 
by  threshing-machines,  it  continues  to  be  in  use  for 
general  purjxjses  on  multitudes  of  small  farms,  and 
for  particular  purposes,  such  as  the  threshing  out  of 
garden  crops,  of  small  seed  crops,  and  of  specimens 
or  samples  of  the  grain  crops,  even  on  large  farms.  It 
consists-  of  a  handstaff,  or  light  ashen  rod,  of  about 
five  feet  in  length,  a  beater  or  rod  of  ash,  thorn,  or 
other  hard  wood,  of  from  30  to  36  inches  in  length 
and  one  and  a  quarter  or  one  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter;  and  such  a  mutual  attachment  of  the 
handstaff  and  the  beater  as  will  allow  the  latter  free 
play,  both  in  striking  the  grain  and  in  gyrating  around 
the  head  of  the  thresher.  The  method  of  using  the 
flail  is  so  well  known  as  not  to  require  description. 

Flange,  a  projection  from  the  end  of  a  pipe  or 
other  mechanism  so  as  to  be  screwed  to  another  part ; 
a  term  also  applied  to  the  projection  of  a  car-wheel  to 
keep  it  from  running  off  the  rail. 

Flank.  The  part  of  a  quadruped's  body  which  ex- 
tends from  the  ribs  to  the  haunches.  When  the 
flank  of  a  horse  is  abnormally  large,  it  is  accompanied 
by  weakness  in  the  loins  and  to  great  length  in  the 
back;  and  when  it  is  hollow,  it  indicates  comparative 
shortness  in  the  transverse  process  of  the  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae, and  consequent  insufficiency  of  space  for  the 
due  attachment  of  the  large  muscles  of  the  loins. 
Either  fever  or  a  diseased  state  of  the  lungs  is  indica- 
ted by  a  comparatively  rapid  rising  and  falling  of  the 
flank  in  respiration. 

Flannel,  a  soft,  nappy,  woolen  cloth,  of  loose  tex- 
ture. See  Woolen  Fabrics,  Dyeing,  Stains,  etc.;  as 
under-clothing,  see  Hygiene. 

Flap- Jack,  a  sort  of  broad  pan-cake ;  also,  an  ap- 
ple puff. 

Flat-irons.     To  remove  starch  or  rust  from    flat- 


irons,  have  a  piece  of  yellow  beeswax  tied  in  a  com- 
mon cloth.  When  the  iron  is  nearly  hot  enough  to 
use,  but  not  quite,  rub  it  quickly  with  the  beeswax, 
and  then  with  a  clean,  coarse  cloth.  Some  have  salt 
on  the  cloth  with  which  they  wipe  the  irons.  Flat-irons 
should  always  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  or  wrapped  in 
paper,  to  prevent  the  condensation  of  the  vapors  of 
the  kitchen  ujwn  them  and  rusting. 

A  flat-iron  is  now  in  market  which  has  a  hollow, 
perforated  handle,  that  is  cooler  than  the  ordinary 
handle ;  or,  as  it  is  detachable,  it  may  be  kept  as  cool 
as  desirable.     (See  engraving.)     Being  semi-circular, 


♦  Flat-irons. 

it  fits  the  hand  better  than  the  ordinary  horizontal  kind. 
Flavoring  Extracts:  see  Extracts. 

Flax.  This  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  cultivated 
plants  of  which  we  have  any  record,  and  its  home  is 
almost  all  over  the  globe.  Latterly  it  is  not  raised  so 
much,  proix)rtionally,  as  is  cotton,  but,  on  account  of 
its  utility  as  a  material  for  certain  kinds  of  clothing 
and  fancy  articles,  as  a  source  of  oil  for  paints,  etc., 
and  of  food  for  cattle  in  the  form  of  cakes  of  its 
pressed  seed,  it  will  probably  remain  a  staple  of  culti- 
vation for  ages  to  come.  The  profit  of  flax-raising  in 
Ohio,  in  1868,  was  twice  as  great  as  that  of  corn  per 
acre,  and  one  and  a  half  times  that  of  wheat. 

The  importance  of  the  flax  crop  to  the  farmer  in 
the  Western  and  Northwestern  States  will  hardly  be 
denied  by  any  one.  Flax  has  been  raised  for  many 
years  in  these  States,  but  only  the  seed  has  been  util- 
ized hitherto;  while  the  much  more  valuable  fiber  has 
been  either  burned,  or  used  for  thatching,  or  as  litter, 
or  at  best,  given  as  feed  to  the  cattle.  The  reason  of 
this  regrettable  waste  of  such  a  valuable  material  as 
the  flax  fiber,  is,  partly,  that  there  has  hitherto  been 
no  regular  market,  where  it  could  be  disposed  of 
easily  and  on  a  large  scale,  there  being  as  yet  in  the 
Uijited  States  no  manufactories  using  flax  fiber  to 
any  large  extent.  It  must  further  be  remarked  that 
the  production  of  a  good  fiber,  suitable  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  requires  from  the  outset  a  very  dif- 
ferent and  much  more  careful  treatment  than  when 


484 


FLAX. 


the  object  is  merely  to  produce  seed ;  and  after  being 
*  pulled,  the  flax  plant  has  still  to  undergo  various  pro- 
cesses and  manipulations  to  make  it  marketable,  and 
these  the  farmers  have  either  been  unwilUng  or  un- 
able to  go  through.  On  the  other  hand  the  raising  of 
flax  for  the  seed  offers  the  farmer  such  an  easy  and 
quick  way  of  turning  this  produce  into  cash  (as  he  has 
only  to  send  it  to  the  nearest  railway  depot,  or  to  the 
next  market  town,  if  he  has  not  already  sold  it  before 
hand  to  the  oil  mill  in  his  neighborhood)  that  he  has 
been  content  with  the  scanty  profit  which  the  seed 
yielded  to  him. 

From  the  agricultural  reports  of  the  different  States 
it  appears  that  the  raising  of  flax-seed  yields  to  the 
farmer  an  average  net  profit  of  from  four  and  one-half 
to  six  dollars  per  acre,  rarely  more,  whereas  the  pro- 
duction of  flax  fiber  would  yield  no  less  than  ten  dol- 
lars, and  may  be  as  much  as  $50,  according  to  the 
length  and  fineness  of  the  fiber  produced.  As,  there- 
fore, the  cultivation  of  flax  for  the  fiber  requires  a  more 
careful  treatment  and  a  greater  outlay  for  seed  than 
if  his  object  is  merely  to  obtain  seed,  the  farmer  is 
largely  compensated  by  the  result  of  the  former  crop. 

It  is  evident  that  the  future  development  and  pros- 
perity of  the  flax  and  linen  industry  in  the  United 
States  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  farmers,  and  that, 
unless  they  energetically  apply  themselves  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  first-class  fiber,  according  to  the  best 
methods  employed  in  the  Old  World,  the  above  in-  - 
dustry  will  never  take  root  in  the  United  States  for 
want  of  raw  material,  as  the  following  example  will 
show :  In  a  Western  county  having  annually  about 
20,000  acres  under  flax,  with  an  adjacent  county  hav- 
ing annually  about  30,000  acres  under  flax,  an  East- 
em  firm  some  time  ago,  at  great  expense,  erected  a 
flax  mill.  They  were  compelled,  however  to  close,  as 
they  state,  "  in  despair  for  want  of  proper  culture,  be- 
cause the  farmers  will  not  raise  flax  straw  for  fiber, 
will  neither  pull  it,  keeping  the  straw  straight,  nor  treat 
it  as  it  deserves.  They  seem  to  be  satisfied  with  rais- 
ing flax  for  seed  alone." 

The  following  quantities  of  clean  flax  fiber  were  pro- 
duced in  1880  respectively  in  the  countries  named, 
with  the  acreage  devoted  to  flax. 


Austfla..  ■ 
Belgium  . . 
France  . . . 
■Germany. 
Ireland. . 

Italy 

Russia . .  ■ . 


ACRES. 

TONS. 

218,042 

45.162 

140,901 

29,580 

162,009 

36,969 

329,362 

57,432 

157,534 

24,508 

200,350 

".953 

2,000000 

250,000 

Referring  in  particular  to  Russia,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  the  breadth  of  land  under  flax  in  that  country 
alone  is  little  less  than  four-sevenths  of  the  entire 
acreage  devoted  to  the  production  of  the  fiber,  and  it 
alone  produces  practically  one-half  of  the  total  pro- 
duce of  the  world.  A  large  proportion  of  this  quan- 
tity is  raised  in  the  governments  of  Archangel,  Wiasma 
and  others,  under  the  65  th  degree  of  north  ladtude, 
where  the  summer  lasts  little  more  than  two  months, 
and  the  mean  temperature  in  winter  is  about  25  "  be- 


low zero.  Agriculturists  in  those  remote  countries 
have  to  contend  with  difficulties  and  hardships  of 
which  the  American  farmer  has  not  the  slightest  con- 
ception. A  comparison  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil  in  those 
high  Northern  latitudes  with  the  Western  farmers 
above  alluded  to  will  scarcely  be  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

Now,  as  the  area  under  flax  in  the  United  States  is 
more  than  one  million  acres,  it  is  surely  no  exagger- 
ation to  say  that  the  loss  to  the  farming  community 
through  the  neglect  of  this  branch  of  agriculture,  is  no 
lass  than  $25,000,000  per  annum.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  these  facts  will  open  the  eyes  of  our  farmers,  and 
that  many  of  them  will  in  future  leave  the  old  beaten 
track  of  raising  flax  for  seed  alone,  and  by  doing  so, 
lay  the  foundation  for  the  future  creation  and  devel- 
opment of  the  flax  and  linen  industry  in  this  country. 

Culture.  The  proper  soil  for  flax  is  a  good  al- 
luvial or  vegetable  loam  about  midway  between  a 
loose  sand  and  tenacious  clay,  and  well-drained.  In 
a  very  rich  soil  the  fiber  grows  too  close,  and  on  a 
hard  soil  the  crop  will  not  do  well.  The  soil  should 
be  new  to  it,  as  it  is  a  very  exhausting  crop.  A  rich 
sod  which  has  been  long  pastured,  well  plowed  and 
rotted  is  about  the  best  model  of  ground  for  flax.  A 
good  wheat  soil  is  also  generally  a  good  flax  soil. 
Salt,  ashes,  and  gypsum  are  proper  fertilizers  for  this 
plant.  The  last  mentioned  has  the  greatest  effect  if 
applied  after  the  plant  is  up,  and  while  covered  with 
dew  or  moisture.  Plow  deeply  in  the  fall,  roll  well, 
and  in  the  spring,  in  corn-planting  time,  pulverize  to 
the  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  when  it  is  ready  for 
the  seed. 

The  heaviest  seed  is  best  for  sowing.  It  should 
be  of  a  bright  brownish  cast  and  oily  to  the  touch. 
The  inside  should  be  of  a  yellowish  green  tint,  and 
taste  sweet  and  oily.  Obtain  it  of  a  reliable  dealer, 
run  it  twice  through  a  fanning-mill  with  a  brisk  blast, 
and  sift  it  through  a  fine  wire  sieve.  Seed  may  be 
tested  by  placing  say  50  between  a  couple  of  sods, 
placed  earth-sides  together,  and  laying  up  in  the 
kitchen  where  the  seeds  will  keep  warm.  Moisten 
the  seeds  once  or  twice,  and  in  two  or  three  days  the 
good  seed  will  have  germinated.  Count  these  and 
you  will  know  the  proportion  of  good  seed  to  the  whole 
lot.  Before  sowing,  soak  the  seed  two  or  three  hours 
in  water  and  roll  it  in  land-plaster  (gypsum).  With  a 
log  chain  mark  the  field  into  squares  18  feet  each 
way,  a  breadth  wide  enough  to  sow  at  one  round  or 
two  casts.  If  you  are  growing  for  the  seed  only,  or 
for  seed  and  coarse  tow,  sow  about  three  pecks  to  the 
acre;  if  for  fiber  only,  about  one  and  one-half  bushels. 
In  the  fonner  instance,  the  plant  will  branch  gener- 
ously, producing  much  seed;  in  the  latter  case  it  will 
have  few  branches,  which,  with  the  seed,  will  be  near 
the  top,  leaving  the  fibers  long  and  unbroken  by 
branches.  Count  the  lands  you  have  marked  off",  and 
calculate  the  amount  of  seed  required  for  each  land, 
each  way.  Begin  at  a  comer;  take  as  much  seed  as 
you  can  handily  hold  between  the  thumb  and  three 
fingers,  and  scatter  as  evenly  as  possible.  Some  sow- 
ers go  directly  back   and  forth  upon  the  same  land; 


FLAX. 


485 


others  take  a  number  of  lands  and  walk  around  them 
as  in  plowing.  The  main  thing  is  to  scatter  the  seed 
evenly. 

Covering  flax  should  never  be  done  with  a  team, 
but  with  a  brush-harrow  drawn  by  man  or  boy.  Such 
a  harrow  may  be  made  at  a  trifling  expense  of  time 
and  labor.  It  saves  in  many  capacities,  and  if  put 
in  a  dry  place  after  use,  will  last  several  years.  Take 
a  five-foot  piece  of  two  to  four-inch  scantling ;  bore 
holes  and  insert  a  pair  of  shafts,  with  a  cross-bar,  as 
in  a  hand-cart.  Then  bore  two  rows  of  three-quarter- 
inch  holes,  alternating  the  holes.  Into  these  place 
the  butts  of  brush  cut  about  two  feet  long,  fastening 
them  with  nails.  Similar  brush  may  also  be  nailed 
along  the  sides  of  the  scantling.  To  make  it  heavier, 
if  necessary,  tie  blocks  of  wood  upon  the  top.  With 
such  an  implement,  a  man  may  cover  four  or  five 
acres  a  day,  and  do  it  well.  Flax-seed  needs  but 
about  half  an  inch  of  covering,  but  that  should  be 
fine  soil.  It  should  be  covered  evenly,  or  it  will  ripen 
unevenly  and  cause  loss  and  trouble.  The  Riga  and 
Dutch  are  the  two  principal  varieties  grown  in  this 
country.  The  former  is  adapted  to  more  soils  than 
the  latter,  and  yields  the  heavier  crop,  though  the 
Dutch  has  a  finer  fiber. 

When  the  flax  has  grown  three  or  four  inches  high, 
it  may  be  carefully  weeded  by  hand  ;  and  for  this  it 
is  best  to  employ  children,  as  they  are  not  so  heavy 
as  to  press  down  the  soil  and  harden  it.  Adults  em- 
ployed to  weed  flax  should  go  barefoot  at  the  work,  so 
that  what  plants  are  trodden  down  may  be  able  to 
rise  again. 

Harvesting,  etc.  Flax  should  be  pulled  or  cut 
when  the  bolls  are  brown  in  color,  the  stems  a  light 
yellowish  hue,  and  the  leaves  also  of  the  same  color 
about  one-fourth  the  way  up.  If  pulled  when  green 
there  is  much  loss  in  quantity  and  quality,  though  it 
is  best  to  be  harvested  when  flowering  if  the  fiber  is 
wanted  for  cambrics  and  the  finest  linen.  If  left 
until  dead  ripe  the  seed  will  be  excellent  but  the  fiber 
will  not  be  strong,  soft  or  heavy.  For  dew-rotting  it 
need  not  be  pulled  until  nearly  ripe.  If,  however,  the 
crop  falls  or  "  lodges"  before  ripening,  it  should  be 
pulled  at  once,  whatever  be  its  stage  of  growth,  as 
that  is  the  only  means  of  saving  it  at  all.  In  pulling, 
gr?sp  a  handful  just  below  the  top,  jerk cjuickly,  shake 
the  dirt  of  the  roots  by  rapping  them  on  the  ground, 
and  either  lay  in  swaths  or  bind  into  four-inch  "gavels" 
(little  shocks),  with  strips  of  bass-wood  bark  or  stems 
of  flax.  Keep  the  dirt  ends  perfectly  even.  If  left  in 
the  swaths,  allow  it  to  dry,  and  bind  it  in  the  morning 
when  the  dew  is  on.  The  gavels  are  subsequently 
gathered  into  ricks  or  windrows  running  north  and 
south,  to  receive  sunlight  ufxin  each  side,  the  ricks  to 
be  made  of  18  or  20  gavels  set  two  and  two.  Before 
stacking  or  stowing  away  in  the  mow,  flax  should  be  as 
dry  as  hay  should  be. 

Cradles,  scythes,  and  machines  are  used  for  cutting 
flax,  but  the  work  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  hand-pull- 
ing. Machines  for  pulling  have  also  been  invented, 
with  doubtful  results. 


To  stack  flax,  lay  three  timbers  parallel  with  each 
other  Ufxin  the  ground,  from  two  to  three  feet  apart, 
as  the  flax  is  long  or  short,  and  lay  the  bundles  ujxin 
these,  heads  upon  heads  and  roots  toward  roots,  alter- 
nating. Cover  the  stack  with  boards  or  clean  straw, 
so  that  it  will  be  kept  dry.  If  the  flax  is  to  be  stored 
in  a  mow,  see  that  all  hay  seed  and  litter  is  first  swept 
out.  The  assorting  of  flax  in  regard  to  its  length  is 
most  easily  attended  to  when  it  is  pulled.  That  which 
is  tangled  should  be  kept  separate. 

Threshing.  This  is  done  in  October,  either  by 
whipping  the  flax  by  handfuls  over  a  stone  or  an  up- 
turned plow,  by  flails,  by  a  machine,  or  by  drawing 
the  heads  through  a  comb  or  rake  of  finely-set  teeth. 
Flails,  however,  somewhat  injure  the  fiber.  Tangled 
flax  is,  of  course,  threshed  out  by  the  rougher  and 
more  rapid  methods. 

Rotting.  This  is  best  done  by  the  manufacturer, 
as  follows :  For  dew-rotting,  spread  the  flax,  in 
October,  evenly  upon  a  smooth,  clean  grass-plat,  in 
swaths  about  half  an  inch  thick,  keeping  the  butts 
even;  after  lying  a  week  or  ten  days,  according  as  the 
weather  is  wet  or  dry,  turn  the  swaths  over  by  a  long 
pole.  In  three  to  six  weeks  it  will  be  sufficiently 
rotted  for  breaking.  For  water-rotting,  or  steeping 
(which  is  a  better  method),  simply  keep  the  flax  under 
water,  not  in  contact  with  the  ground,  until  the  mucil- 
age in  the  stalk  is  thoroughly  dissolved,  which  will  be 
in  five  to  seven  days  if  the  weather  be  warm,  longer 
if  the  weather  is  colder.  Sink  a  platform  with  stone, 
place  the  bundles  ujxjn  it  and  fasten  them  down  with 
slats  over  them  nailed  to  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground.  In  both  the  above  processes  the  degree  of 
rotting  can  be  ascertained  from  time  to  time  by  break- 
ing a  few  stems.  After  rotting  it  is  dried  and  stored 
away  until  it  is  broken. 

Breaking,  etc.  The  old-fashioned  hand  flax- 
break  is  still  in  extensive  use,  though  machines  are 
taking  its  place.  The  "  shives"  (the  woody  stem,  as 
broken)  are  next  "  scotched"  out  by  a  hard-wood, 
double-edged  knife,  two  feet  long,  called  a  "  swingle," 
striking  it  over  the  flax  as  the  latter  is  held  on  the  end 
of  a  board.  The  fiber  is  next  drawn  through  a 
"hatchel"  to  straighten  and  smooth  it,  and  clean  what 
shives  there  may  be  remaining. 

Flax  straw  makes  excellent  packing  for  ice.  But 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  it  is  required.  It  is 
clean,  easy  to  handle,  and  not  as  liable  to  mold  or 
rot  as  the  substances  that  are  usually  employed.  A 
piece  of  ice  taken  from  the  house  and  wrapped  in  flax 
straw  may  be  carried  a  long  distance  with  but  very 
little  waste.  Many  farmers  do  not  put  up  ice  because 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  saw-dust  or  tan-bark  for  pack- 
ing. Flax  straw  makes  excellent  bedding  for  all 
kinds  of  stock,  and  it  is  especially  good  for  hogs.  It 
is  excellent  material  for  mulching,  and  there  are  very 
few  things  superior  to  it  for  mulching  strawberry  vines. 
It  forms  a  close  sort  of  matting  on  which  the  berries 
can  ripen  without  being  spattered  with  mud.  Most 
stock  will  eat  flax  straw  after  they  have  become  ac- 


486 


FLEA— FLEECE. 


customed  to  its  use  by  having  small  quantities  fed  at 
a  time. 

Flea,  a  well-known,  nimble,  annoying,  parasitical 
insect.     Its  habits  and  general  appearance  do  not  re- 
quire description,  further  than  is  given  by  the  accom- 
panying illustration.  Its 
suckers  are  complex  and 
thoroughly   adapted    to 
its   blood-drinking   na- 
ture.    A  sharp,  razor- 
Uke  apparatus,  with  its 
blade  working  on  a  kind 
of  handle,  exists  on  each 
side  of  a  slender,  bristle- 
like tongue.     Fleas  are 
FUa  Magnified.  especially  parasitical  on 

dogs,  and  often  cause  them  great  torment,  and  render 
them  obnoxious  and  disgustmg  to  human  beings.  To 
remove  fleas  and  lice  on  dogs,  mix  soft  soap  with  as 
much  carbonate  of  soda  as  will  make  it  into  a  thick 
paste.  Then  rub  this  well  into  the  roots  of  the  hair 
all  over  the  dog's  body,  adding  a  little  hot  water  as 
you  go  along,  so  as  to  enable  you  to  completely  sat- 
urate the  skin  with  it.  Let  it  remain  on  for  half  an 
hour,  then  put  the  dog  into  a  tub  with  warm  water  for 
ten  minutes,  letting  him  quietly  soak,  and  now  and 
then  ducking  his  head  under.  Lastly,  wash  the  soap 
completely  out,  and  let  him  dry  by  exercise  in  the 
sun,  choosing  a  warm  day  for  the  operation.  This, 
after  two  or  three  repetitions,  will  completely  cleanse 
the  foulest  skin.  To  prevent  vermin  from  again  ac- 
cumulating, moisten  the  hairs  once  a  week  with  a 
teaspoonful  of  carbolic  acid  to  half  a  pint  of  water. 
Keep  his  house  or  resting  place  and  bedding  clean 
and  sweet,  and  sprinkle  it  occasionally  with  the  last 
mentioned  solution.  The  oil  of  pennyroyal  will  cer- 
tainly drive  them  off;  but  a  cheaper  method,  where 
the  herb  flourishes,  is  to  dip  dogs  and  cats  into  a  de- 
coction of  it  once  a  week.  Mow  the  herb  and  scatter 
it  in  the  bed  of  pigs  once  a  month.  When  the  herb 
cannot  be  got  the  oil  can  be  procured.  In  this  case 
saturate  strings  with  it  and  tie  them  around  the  necks 
of  dogs  and 'cats,  pour  a  httle  on  the  back  and  about 
the  ears  of  hogs,  which  you  can  do  while  they  are 
feeding,  without  touching  them.  By  repeating  these 
applications  every  12  or  15  days  the  fleas  will  leave 
the  animals.  Strings  saturated  with  the  oil  of  penny- 
royal, and  tied  around  the  necks  and  tails  of  horses 
will  drive  off  lice ;  the  strings  should  be  saturated 
once  a  day.  A  wash  containing  from  six  to  ten  per 
cent,  of  petroleum,  naphtha  or  benzine  will  drive  fleas 
from  animals;  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid  would 
be  efficacious.  All  mats  or  straw  on  which  dogs, 
cats,  hogs  or  other  animals  sleep  about  the  house, 
kennels,  or  sties,  should  be  frequently  renovated  or 
burned.  Cleanliness  is  important.  In  the  beds  of 
the  house,  a  sprinkling  of  chamomile  flowers  is  recom- 
mended, or  the  placing  of  new  flannel  between  the 
sheets. 

Flecks  in  Cream.    Flecks  are  generally  supposed 


to  be  pieces  of  dried  cream,  and  possibly  sometimes 
they  may  be,  but  usually  they  are  not,  for  occasionally 
they  exist  in  milk  before  any  cream  rises,  and  son.e- 
times  are  mingled  with  butter  made  by  processes  of 
cold-setting  in  which  the  cream  remains  soft,  no  part 
of  it  being  dried  at  all.  They  seldom  appear,  how- 
ever, in  butter  made  by  cold-setting ;  they  are  mostly 
found  in  butter  made  in  dairies  where  the  milk  is  set 
without  any  other  cooling  than  that  of  the  air  in  the 
room  where  the  milk  stands.  For  the  most  part  they 
are  developed  in  milk  after  it  comes  from  the  cow. 
By  quickly  cooling  milk  to  a  low  degree,  change  is  so 
much  arrested  that  they  cannot  develop.  They  can 
only  form  within  certain  limits  of  temperature,  and 
when  they  do,  are  likely  to  appear  as  plentifully  in  the 
milk  as  in  the  cream,  and  often  more  so,  which  is 
evidence  adverse  to  their  being  originated  from  dried 
cream.  In  milk  which  is  in  a  perfectly  normal  con- 
dition they  never  appear.  They  always  occur  in  milk 
which  is  more  or  less  faulty.  They  are  very  apt  to 
accompany  an  inflamed  state  of  the  udder,  and  sel- 
dom or  never  appear  without  it. 

When  milk  in  which  flecks  are  liable  to  occur  is  set 
where  the  sun  will  shine  directly  on  it,  or  even  where 
much  reflected  light  falls  upon  it,  they  form  much 
faster  than  when  light  is  pretty  much  excluded,  and 
form  on  or  near  the  surface,  and  much  more  plenti- 
fully in  the  cream  than  in  the  milk.  A  current  of  air 
over  the  milk  also  favors  their  development,  and  a 
damp  air  more  than  a  dry  one. 

Flecks,  or  "white  caps,"  whichever  they  are  called, 
are  apt  to  be  more  common  in  the  fall  and  winter, 
when  cows  are  drying  up,  and  in  hot  and  dry  weather 
in  the  summer,  when  they  are  affected  by  heat  and 
drouth.  At  such  times  their  udders  are  apt  to  get  in- 
flamed, and  this  appears  to  be  the  cause,  or  at  least  a 
stimulating  cause,  of  their  origin. 

There  are  different  ways  for  disposing  of  flecks.  The 
first  and  best  way  is  to  keep  cows  so  healthy  and  well 
supplied  with  food  and  drink  that  they  will  not  form 
in  their  milk.  Some  attempt  to  dispose  of  flecks  by 
mashing  them  and  crowding  them  through  a  strainer 
made  of  wire-gauze  with  fine  meshes.  By  forcing 
them  through  the  gauze  by  rubbing  with  a  smooth 
wooden  roller  around  the  sides  of  the  conical  strainer, 
the  flecks  are  broken  to  pieces  and  disappear  by  being 
pulverized.  They  never  churn,  however,  whether  fine 
or  coarse,  anymore  than  curd  would,  and  the  finer 
they  are  the  more  likely  they  are  to  get  caught  in  the 
butter  and  affect  its  keeping.  Such  butter  ought  not 
to  be  packed  with  that  which  is  sound,  for  it  is  always 
a  little  imperfect.  If  one  has  milk  in  which  flecks 
are  liable  to  form,  their  development  can  be  pre- 
vented, as  already  stated,  by  either  high  heating  or 
low  cooling  while  new ;  and  if,  by  unforeseen  occur- 
rences, they  form  and  appear  in  the  cream,  they  can 
be  kept  out  of  the  butter  when  churning  by  gathering 
it  in  the  granular  form. 

'  Fleece,  the  woolly  coat  shorn  from  the  body  of  the 
sheep.  A  primitive  and  barbarous  method  of  obtain- 
ing the  fleece  was  to  force  a  flock  through  a  narrow 


FLIES. 


487 


and  rough  passage,  in  order  that  by  rubbing  against 
one  another  and  the  asperities  of  the  passage,  they 
might  denude  themselves  of  their  wool ;  and  a  later 
and  exceedingly  cruel  method,  which  continued  till 
not  very  long  ago  to  be  practiced  in  Orkney,  was  to 
catch  the  animals  and  forcibly  tear  off  their  wool. 
The  mild  and  economical  method  now  practiced,  to- 
gether with  the  proper  rules  for  observing  it,  will  be 
noticed  in  the  article  Wool. 

A  fleece,  immediately  after  being  shorn  from  the 
animal,  ought  to  be  spread  unbroken  on  a  board,  care- 
fully examined,  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  adhering 
substances  and  filthy  locks,  rendered  completely 
pure  and  neat,  and  then  folded  to  a  breadth  of  two  or 
two  and  one-half  feet,  rolled  up  from  the  tail  to  the 
neck,  and  tied  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  neat, 
compact  bundle.  Its  shorn  surface  ought  to  be  out- 
side ;  and  this,  in  consequence  of  the  secretion  tech- 
nically called  yolk,  exhibits  a  silvery  and  lustrous 
appearance.  The  fleeces  obtained  at  any  one  shear- 
ing ought  to  be  carefully  assorted  according  to  their 
different  qualities ;  for  even  though  the  whole  flock  be 
of  one  breed,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  homogeneous, 
the  fleeces,  in  every  case,  jMssess  considerable  varie- 
ties of  character.  Some  differ  from  the  others  in  color; 
some  have  their  wool  matted  and  almost  felted  like 
cloth;  and  some  may  have  suffered  deterioration  and 
loss  by  the  partial  shedding  of  their  wool.  The  fleeces 
of  the  two  sexes,  and  the  fleeces  of  either  sex  of  dif- 
ferent ages,  also  widely  vary.     See  Wool. 

Flies.  A  fly  is  a  two-winged  insect.  The  word,  in 
popular  usage,  is  sometimes  so  restricted  as  to  desig- 
nate only  a  few  species,  or  at  most  a  limited  portion  of 
the  dipterous  order,  and  sometimes  so  extended  as  to 
include  some  winged  insects  of  other  orders,  but  it 
best  comiX)rts*with  definiteness  of  idea,  and  at  the 
same  time  is  not  much  twisted  out  of  any  of  its  ordinary 
applications,  when  used  as  strictly  synonymous  with 
the  scientific  name,  diptera. 

The  wings  of  flies,  or  dipterous  insects,  are  two  in 
number,  and  consist  of  veined  and  transparent  mem- 
branes, and  are  attached  to  the  middle  of  the  sides  of 
the  thorax,  and,  for  the  most  part,  jx^ssess,  near  the 
jx)int  of  their  intersection,  a  pair  of  short  clubbed 
organs  called  halters  or  balances.  The  body  consists 
of  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  The  mouth  has  a 
sucker  of  from  two  to  six  lancet-like  scales,  enclosed 
in  a  kind  of  sheath.  The  antennae  exceedingly  vary 
in  several  of  their  characters,  but  especially  in  their 
length.  The  eyes  are  lateral,  but  in  some  instances 
they  meet  on  the  summit ;  and  in  others  they  are  so 
large  as  to  occupy  nearly  the  whole  head.  The  legs, 
in  most  species,  are  long  and  slender,  but  in  some  are 
thick  and  spiny,  and  in  others  are  exceedingly  long. 
The  larvae  of  flies  have  a  fleshy  head  and  a  simple 
structure,  and  in  general  are  so  like  one  another  that 
those  of  diff"erent  species,  or  even  of  different  genera, 
are  quite  undistinguishable  from  one  another  by  un- 
practised observers.  Most  of  the  larvae  pass  into  the 
pupa  state  without  shedding  the  skin,  or  simply  by  a 


gradual  transmutation  of  it  into  a  cocoon  ;  and  some 
shed  the  skin  and  become  inert-looking  and  cocoon- 
less  pupae ;  but  two  entire  families  of  flies,  the  Hipjx)- 
boscidas  and  the  Nycteribudae,  possess  the  extraordinary 
constitutional  habit  of  producing  their  young  in  the 
condition  of  pupae,  or  of  affecting  the  transformations 
from  ovules  to  larvae,  and  from  larvae  to  pupae  within 
the  body  of  the  parent. 

Flies,  as  to  both  their  numbers  and  their  habits,  act 
a  powerful  part  in  the  economy  of  the  animal  crea- 
tion, and  not  in  a  few  instances  of  great  moment, 
challenge  the  attention  of  almost  all  observers,  but 
particularly  of  cultivators  of  the  soil.  In  their  perfect 
state  they  are  scarcely  less  numerous,  in  point  of 
species,  than  any  other  order  of  insects ;  but  if  we 
look  at  them  with  respect  to  the  number  of  individuals, 
we  find  them  infinitely  to  exceed  any  other. 

The  clouds  of  midges,  for  instance,  rising  at  even- 
tide over  the  marshes,  like  the  incense  of  the  temple, 
efjually  pay  homage  to  the  Divinity  in  showing  forth 
his  mighty  jx)wer;  whilst  myriads  of  flies  of  every 
kind  are  to  be  found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
traversing  plants  and  every  minute  object,  and  more 
particularly  all  that  has  ceased  to  live.  This  im- 
mense profusion  with  which  they  are  dispersed  over 
the  globe,  causes  them  to  fill  two  very  important 
functions  in  the  economy  of  nature;  first,  they  serve 
for  food  to  a  vast  number  of  the  higher  animals; 
charged  with  a  divine  mission  by  Him  "  who  giveth 
food  to  the  young  bird,"  the  swallow  and  the  sparrow 
destroy  them  by  myriads,  and  the  fly-catcher  and  the 
humming-bird  alike  find  in  them  a  constant  shedding 
of  manna ;  whilst,  in  the  second  place,  they  cease  not 
in  effecting  the  disappearance  of  all  substances  in  a 
state  of  decomposition,  both  animal  and  vegetable; 
they  are  universal  scavengers;  and  so  great  is  their 
activity,  and  the  rapid  succession  of  their  generations, 
that  Linnaeus  might  well  say  that  three  flies  can  con- 
sume a  horse  as  fast  as  a  lion.  Amongst  such  vast 
numbers  of  objects,  it  is  not  surprising  that  some 
should  be  found  obnoxious  to  ourselves  or  our 
properties.  Many  species,  accordingly,  cease  not  to 
make  man  their  prey,  by  sucking  his  blood,  whilst 
some  attack  our  cattle,  in  like  manner,  or  deposit 
their  eggs  upon  their  bodies,  within  which  the  parasitic 
larvae  feed  ;  others  deposit  their  eggs,  or  young,  upon 
our  growing  corn,  and  upon  our  prepared  food  of 
various  kinds.  Many  species  reside  in  woods,  mead- 
ows and  marshes;  others  move  with  dancing  feet 
uix)n  the  spray  of  the  waves  and  even  upon  the  snows 
of  the  polar  regions.  Many  are  attached  to  plants, 
upon  the  flowers  of  which  they  abound,  sucking  the 
honeyed  sweets,  without  giving  the  preference  to  any 
particular  plant,  whilst  some  are  confined  to  a  single 
species  of  flower,  but  it  is  upon  the  star-like  Anthemis 
of  our  meadows  that  the  majority  seem  to  revel  with 
the  greatest  delight.  During  the  summer  and 
autumn,  the  flies  are  attracted  to  our  orchards,  in 
order  to  destroy  our  fruits,  whilst  some  species  delight 
in  the  honey-dew  of  the  aphides,  or  the  fluids  which 
1   escape  from  the  wounds  of  trees.    The  domestic  fly 


\ 


488 


FLO  A  T— FLOORS. 


feeds  alike  upon  all  kinds   of  household   provisions. 

To  Destroy  or  Drive  Flies  Away.  The  best 
general  method  of  keeping  flies  out  of  a  house  is 
cleanliness,  keeping  the  rooms  open,  breezy,  and  light, 
and  abstinence  from  the  preparation  and  use  of  sweet 
things  and  meats,  gravies,  etc.  During  a  warm  rain 
the  house  should  be  kept  closed,  while  the  family  can 
remain  on  the  porch.  Good  fly-traps  are  in  market 
everywhere,  but  all  that  can  be  trapped  is  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  whole  number  about  the  premises. 
As  the  saying  is,  "by  killing  one  lot  you  only  make 
room  for  the  next,  which  is  just  outside  ready  to 
come  in." 

To  Kill  Flies.  Beat  up  the  yolk  of  an  egg  with  a 
table-spoonful  each  of  molasses  and  black  pepper 
finely  ground ;  set  it  about  in  shallow  plates,  and  the 
flies  will  be  rapidly  killed.  A  sweetened  infusion  of 
quassia  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  Dissolve  one 
drachm  extract  of  quassia  in  a  gill  of  water,  mix  with 
one-half  gill  of  molasses,  and  pour  the  mixture  on  a 
flat  dish  where  the  flies  have  access.  The  quassia  acts 
on  them  like  a  narcotic. 

To  Drive  Flies  from  Stables.  Scatter  chloride 
of  lime  on  a  board  in  a  stable,  to  remove  all  kinds  of 
flies,  but  more  especially  biting  flies.  Sprinkling  beds 
of  vegetables  with  even  a  weak  solution,  effectually 
preserves  them  from  caterpillars,  slugs,  etc.  A  paste 
of.  one  part  powdered  chloride  of  lime  and  one-half 
part  of  some  fatty  matter  placed  in  a  narrow  band 
round  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  prevents  insects  from 
creeping  up  it.  Even  rats,  mice,  cockroaches,  and 
crickets  flee  from  it. 

To  Keep  Flies  from  Horses.  Procure  a  bunch 
of  smart-weed,  and  bruise  it  to  cause  the  juice  to 
exude.  Rub  the  animal  thoroughly  with  the  bunch 
of  bruised  weed,  especially  on  the  legs,  neck,  and  ears. 
Neither  flies  nor  insects  will  trouble  him  for  24  hours, 
when  the  process  should  be  repeated.  A  very  con- 
venient way  of  using  it,  is  to  make  a  strong  infusion 
by  boiling  in  water.  When  cold  it  can  be  conveniently 
applied  with  a  sponge  or  brush.  Smart-weed  is  found 
growing  in  every  section  of  the  country,  usually  on 
wet  ground  near  highways. 

To  Prevent  Flies  from  Injuring  Looking- 
Glasses,  Picture  Frames,  etc.  Boil  three  or  four 
onions  in  a  pint  of  water;  then  with  a  gilding  brush 
go  over  your  glasses  and  frames,  and  the  flies  will  not 
aUght  on  the  article  so  washed.  This  may  be  used 
without  apprehension,  as  it  will  not  do  the  least  in- 
jury to  the  frames. 

Float,  TO  make.  Take  a  quart  of  new  milk, 
sweeten  and  flavor  to  suit  your  taste,  put  it  on  the  fire, 
let  it  get  hot,  almost  boiling ;  now  add  the  yolks  of 
six  eggs  well  beaten,  and  stir  it  until  it  becomes  thick ; 
do  not  let  it  stand  a  moment  without  stirring  ;  as  soon 
as  it  is  thick  pour  it  in  a  dish  or  jar  and  stir  it  until 
there  is  no  danger  of  its  turning  to  custard.  Now 
beat  the  white  of  the  eggs  to  a  stiff  froth,  and  cut  it  in 
slices  and  lay  it  on  hot  water  to  cook,  turning  it  over 


so  both  sides  will  be  cooked.      When  all  is  done  pour 
your  float  in  a  dish,  and  lay  the  white  on  top. 

Float  Board,  one  of  the  boards  forming  the  ex- 
terior of  a  water-wheel,  against  which  the  stream  of 
water  dashes. 

Flock,  any  number  of  sheep  or  other  domesticated 
gregarious  animals  which  feed  together  or  are  under 
the  care  of  one  person.  We  say  a  flock  of  sheep,  a 
herd  of  swine,  a  drove  of  cattle,  a  pack  of  wolves,  or 
hounds. 

Floors.  Floors  should  not  often  be  wetted,  but 
very  thoroughly  when  done.  Uncarpeted  floors  should 
once  a  week  be  dry-rubbed  with  hot  sand  and  a 
heavy  brush,  the  right  way  of  the  boards.  To  give 
floors  a  beautiful  appearance,  after  washing  them  very 
nicely  with  soda  and  warm  water,  and  a  brush,  wash 
them  with  a  sponge  and  clean  water,  rubbing  length- 
wise the  boards.  Then  dry  with  clean  cloth,  rubbing 
hard. 

To  extract  oil  spots  from  floors,  make  a  strong  lye 
from  pearlash  and  soft  water,  and  add  as  much  un- 
slacked  lime  as  it  will  take  up.  Stir  together  and  let 
settle ;  bottle  it  and  stop  close ;  have  ready  some  water 
to  dilute  it  when  used,  and  scour  the  part  with  it.  If 
the  liquor  lie  long  on  the  boards  it  will  draw  the  color 
out  of  them ;  therefore  do  it  with  expedition. 

A  wax  for  polishing  floors  can  be  made  by  taking 
1 2  5^  pounds  of  yellovv  wax,  rasped,  and  stirred  into  a 
hot  solution  of  six  pounds  of  good  pearlash,  in  rain- 
water. Keep  it  well  stirred  while  boiling,  and  when 
the  froth  goes  down,  stop  the  heat,  and  add  to  the 
mixture,  while  still  stirring,  six  pounds  of  dry  yellow 
ochre.  It  may  then  be  poured  in  tin  cans  or  boxes; 
it  hardens  on  cooling.  When  wanted  for  use,  dis- 
solve a  pound  in  boiling-hot  water,  stir  t^e  mixture  well, 
and  apply  to  the  floor  with  a  paint  brush,  while  the 
fluid  is  yet  hot.  It  will  dry  in  two  hours,  after  which 
polish  the  floor  with  a  large  floor-brush,  and  wipe  with 
a  woolen  cloth.  A  coat  of  this  preparation  will  last 
six  months. 

A  Home-Made  Cloth  for  a  floor  can  be  made  as 
follows:  First,  paper  the  floor  of  your  bed-room  with 
brown  paper  or  newspapers.  Then  over  these  put 
down  the  wall  paper,  which  has  been  selected  for  its 
carpet-like  appearance.  A  good  way  to  do  this  will 
be  to  put  a  good  coat  of  paste,  the  width  of  the  roll 
of  paper  and  the  length  of  the  room,  and  then 
lay  down,  unrolling  and  smoothing  at  the  same  time. 
When  the  floor  is  all  covered,  then  size  and  varnish  ; 
only  glue  and  common  dark  varnish  need  be  used, 
and  the  floor  will  look  all  the  better  for  the  darkening 
these  will  give  it.  When  it  is  dry  put  down  a  few 
rugs  by  the  bedside  and  before  the  toilet  table,  and 
you  have  as  pretty  a  floor  cloth  as  you  could  wish, 
and  at  a  trifling  expense — a  floor  cloth,  too,  that  will 
last  for  years,  if  not  exposed  to  constant  wear. 

If  you  have  a  painted  floor,  keep  soap  and  soap- 
suds off  of  it,  for  it  sfxiils  the  brightness  of  the  paint, 
makes  it  soft,  and  then  it  peels  off,  leaving  the  floor 


FLORICUL  TURE. 


489 


looking  worse  than  if  it  had  not  been  painted.  If  your 
floor  has  not  been  painted,  keep  soap  off  of  it,  for  it 
gives  a  dirty,  grimy  look,  and  keeps  growing  worse  all 
the  time.  Just  take  clean,  hot  water,  put  a  tea- 
sixionful  of  spirits  of  ammonia  into  a  three-gallon  pail 
of  water,  stir  it,  and  with  a  clean,  long-handled 
mop,  rub  the  floor  all  over,  then  wipe  it  off  with  clean 
water.  It  will  take  a  little  while  to  get  the  gray  out 
of  the  boards,  but  it  will  come  out  after  a  time,  and 
you  will  find  it  far  easier  to  keep  your  floor  white  and 
nice  than  it  was  when  cleaned  with  soap  or  suds. 

When  a  carpet  is  taken  up  to  be  cleaned  the  floor 
beneath  it  is  generally  very  much  covered  with  dust. 
This  dust  is  very  fine  and  dry,  and  {Xjisonous  to  the 
lungs.  Before  removing  it  sprinkle  the  floor  with 
very  dilute  carbolic  acid,  to  kill  any  jxsisonous  germs 
that  may  be  present,  and  to  thoroughly  disinfect  the 
the  floor  and  render  it  sweet. 

See  also  Broom,  Sweeping  and  Carpet. 

Floriculture,  the  art  of  cultivating  flowers  and 
ornamental  plants  with  a  special  view  to  the  finest 
forms,  the  most  beautiful  tints,  and  their  improve- 
ment. As  the  country  becomes  older  and  more  wealthy, 
more  and  more  attention  is  paid  to  ornamental  garden- 
ing, to  beautifying  the  homestead,  to  the  decoration  of 
the  house,  the  public  park,  the  churches,  public 
buildings,  etc.  Floriculture  has  taken  rapid  strides 
in  the  past  ten  years.  The  florists  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  have  devoted  themselves  to  their  trade 
with  praiseworthy  emulation  ;  each  country  has  striven 
with  the  other — Germans,  French,  English  and  Amer- 
icans have  all  been  engaged  in  the  strife,  and  to-day 
we  profit  by  their  exertions.  Our  old-time  garden 
flowers  are  utterly  eclipsed  by  the  floral  belles  of  the 
season.  Compare  the  asters,  balsams,  stocks,  pinks. 
Petunias,  which  amateur  florists  now  cultivate,  with 
those  raised  25  years  ago,  and  the  great  improvement 
in  each  and  all  is  seen  at  a  glance. 

Flower  gardening  can  only  be  commended  in  its 
results.  Modern  art  has  compassed  the  globe,  and 
brought  to  our  homes  the  floral  treasures  of  ancient 
Asia  and  the  isles  of  the  sea.  But  flower  culture,  at- 
tractive as  it  is  to  the  more  refined  taste  of  woman,  and 
all  who  sympathize  with  her,  commends  itself  to  us 
asone  of  the  most  instructive  and  refining  of  pursuits. 
It  has,  too,  its  market  value,  though  that  seems  lit- 
tle thought  of;  and  the  increasing  demand  for  flowers 
by  those  who  can  not  or  will  not  grow  them,  will  give 
an  added  interest  to  the  occupation.  Landscape 
gardening  may  be  said  to  include  the  whole,  of  which 
ornamental  trees  and  flower  culture  are  parts.  Here 
we  bring  under  consideration  the  configuration  of  the 
surface ;  the  surrounding  landscape ;  the  effects  of 
grouping  and  massing  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers  of  dif- 
ferent colors  and  shades  of  color;  the  massing  of 
single  colors. 

For  flower  gardening  it  is  as  necessary  to  select 
iiroper  soil  and  location  as  it  is  for  vegetable  garden- 
mg.  The  strong,  clayey,  putty-like  soil  characteristic 
of  the  Northwest  is  well  adapted  to  a  majority  of  orna- 


mental plants ;  a  deep  sandy  loam  is  better,  and  it  is 
also  better  for  nearly  all  plants  to  be  set  in  a  soil 
which  has  good  under  drainage.  It  is  better,  in  the 
first  place,  to  select  a  good  location  than  to  turn  a 
poor  one  into  a  good  one  by  hauling  soil,  etc.,  uix)n  it. 
In  a  general  way,  the  natural  habits  of  the  plant 
should  be  imitated  in  culture;  but  this  does  not  mean 
that  the  plant  should  be  crowded  by  other  plants,  or 
set  in  bad  ground  and  neglected  as  we  generally  find 
wild  plants.  The  hints  to  be  heeded  are  those  given 
by  the  wild  plant  where  and  when  it  attains  its  great- 
est degree  of  perfection. 

The  ground  should  slope  gently  to  the  south  or 
southeast ;  and  if  protected  in  the  opposite  direction 
by  hills  or  timber,  so  much  the  better.  If  not  protected 
naturally,  a  spruce  hedge  on  the  north  and  west  sides 
is  very  desirable.  If  there  is  not  a  sandy  or  gravelly 
sub-soil,  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  tile  drainage, — even 
more  thoroughly  than  for  other  purposes.  When  one 
is  not  able  to  obtain  tiling,  he  can  very  easily  make  a 
board  drain  that  will  last  for  years.  Lay  a  narrow 
board  flat  in  the  bottom  of  a  ditch,  and  place  two 
wider  boards  over  it,  the  upper  edges  meeting  and 
supixjrting  each  other,  forming  a  triangular  drain. 
Some  kinds  of  wood  will  be  serviceable  in  this  way  for 
20  years.  The  preparation  of  the  ground,  of  course, 
is  similar  to  that  for  vegetable  gardening  or  ordinary 
field  culture.  Never  work  in  the  ground  when  itiswet 
enough  to  stick  or  clog,  as  that  makes  mortar  of  it, 
which  dries  into  hard  lumps  and  sticks. 

For  the  manner  of  laying  out  walks,  see  Landscape 
Gardening.  For  Manure  and  Fertilizers,  look  under 
these  respective  heads.  As  to  special  manures  and 
fertilizers  for  particular  plants,  there  are  no  such  things 
requiring  attention.  Plants,  like  man,  need  a  general 
and  natural  combination  of  all  the  foods.  For  Lawn 
culture,  see  that  heading  also,  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

The  subject  of  flower-beds  we  must. consider  here. 
The  old-fashioned  mixed  borders  four  to  six  feet  wide 
along  the  walks  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable  garden,  were 
usually  planted  with  hardy,  herbaceous  plants,  the 
tall  grovidng  at  the  back,  with  the  lower-growing  sorts 
in  front.  These,  when  there  was  a  good  collection, 
gave  a  bloom  of  varied  color  throughout  the  season. 
But  the  more  modern  style  of  flower  borders  has  quite 
displaced  such  collections,  and  they  are  now  but  lit- 
tle seen  except  in  very  old  gardens  or  in  botanical 
collections.  Then,  again,  we  have  mixed  borders  of 
bedding  plants,  a  heterogeneous  grouping  of  all  kinds 
of  tropical  plants,  still  holding  to  the  plan  of  either 
placing  the  highest  at  the  back  of  the  border  if  it  has 
only  one  walk,  or  if  a  bed  has  a  walk  on  each  side, 
the  highest  in  the  middle,  and  the  plants  sloping  down 
to  the  walk  on  each  side.  The  mixed  system  still  has 
its  advocates,  who  deprecate'  the  modern  plan  of 
massing  in  color  as  being  too  formal,  and  too  un- 
natural a  way  of  disposing  of  flowers.  But  be  that  as 
it  may,  we  will  not  stop  to  argue  the  matter  further 
than  to  state  that  the  "  carpet  "  styles  of  massing  plants 
are  more  interesting  than  any  mixed  border.  Neady 
all  the  public  parks   in    and   about    London    are    so 


49° 


FLORICUL  TURE. 


planted,  and  thousands  of  cottage  gardens  vie  with 
other  in  imitation  of  the  parks.  But  to  plant  in  pat- 
terns or  in  ribbon  lines  requires  for  immediate  effect 
a  large  number  of  plants,  for  the  reason  that  they 
must  be  so  stout  that  they  will  meet  to  form  contin- 
uous masses  shortly  after  planting.  A  study  of  fig- 
ured carpets,  therefore,  or  of  kaleidoscopic  views,  will 
best  convey  to  any  amateur  a  general  idea  of  the 
modern  conception  of  beauty  in  the  laying  out  of 
flower  beds.  In  a  circular  bed,  where  it  is  desired  to 
have  the  taller  plants  toward  the  middle,  and  where 
there  should  be  planting  in  masses  or  ribbon  lines, 
the  following  lists  of  plants  will  be  good,  the  first 
mentioned  being  the  taller  : 


LIST  NO.  I. 


Canna  Indica  zebrina,  leaves  green  and  brown  striped. 
Salvia  splendens,  flowers  scarlet. 
Golden  Coleus,  leaves  orange  and  brown. 
Achyranthes  Lindeni,  leaves  rich  crimson. 
Phalaris  arundinacea  var.,  leaves  white  and  green. 
Achyranthes  Gilsoni,  leaves  carmine. 
Bronze  geranium,  leaves  golden  bronze. 
Ccntaurea  Candida,  leaves  white. 
Alternanthcra  latifoiia,  leaves  crimsion  and  yellow 
'.    Lobelia  Paxtoni,  flowers  blue. 

LIST  NO.  2. 

Caladium  esculentum,  leaves  large  green. 
Japanese  maize,  leaves  striped  white  and  yellow. 
Coleiis  Verschaffeltii,  leaves  chocolate  crimson. 
Delphinium  bicolor,  flowers  blue  and  white. 
Cyperusalternifolius  var.,  leaves  white  and  green. 
Achyranthes  Verschaffeltii,  leaves  crimson. 
Mountain-of-snow  geranium,  leaves  white  and  green. 
Tropaeolum,  Ball  of  Fire,  flowers  flame  color. 
Echeveria  metallica,  leaves  gray,  with   metallic  luster. 
Alterr\anthera  amoena,  yellow  and  carmine. 


Height  in  Feet. 


6 
5 
4 
3 
2K 

3 

i>4 


5 
5 

4 
3 

^M 

2 
I 

y.. 

'A 


Of  course  the  above  classes  can  be  transposed  in 
any  way  to  suit  beds  of  all  widths,  keeping  in  view 
that  where  small  beds  are  placed  near  walks  the 
lower  growing  kinds  are  more  suitable,  while  the  taller 
kinds  are  placed  farther  back.  Very  fine  effects  are 
produced  by  planting  on  a  lawn  a  single  specimen  of 
stately  habit,- such  as  a  castor  oil  bean.  Datura,  Cal- 
adium, Hibiscus,  etc.,  which  grow  five  or  ten  feet  high 
in  a  single  season,  and  are  particularly  of  a  striking 
appearance;  or,  instead  of  this,  a  mass  of  six,  eight,  or 
1 2  plants  of  scarlet  sage,  which  will  form  a  group  six 
feet  high  and  wide;  its  dazzling  scarlet  color,  con- 
trasting against  the  green  of  the  lawn,  is  superb. 
Many  of  the  amaranths  are  also  well  suited  for  plant- 
ing in  single  groups.  Amarantus  tricolor  gigantea, 
or  Joseph's  coat,  grows  six  feet  high  and  is  the  most 
brilliantly  colored  of  all  plants  in  foliage,  scarlet, 
crimson  and  golden  yellow  predominating.  The 
amarantus  bicolor  ruber  grows  five  feet  high  and  is 
plumed  with  scarlet  crimson.  In  contrast  to  these, 
plants  of  a  more  somber  tint  may  be  used,  such  as 
Pampas  grass,  Ravenna  grass,  or  the  Tanyah, 
or  Caladium. 

Seedling  plants  can  be  neariy  as  well  raised  in  the 
window  as  m  a  greenhouse,  provided  the  temperature 
is  right ;  for  seeds  do  not  need  a  strong,  direct  light 
while  germinating.  Indeed,  a  strong,  constant  light  is 
a  disadvantage,  as  it  dries  the  earth  too  fast,  necessi- 
tating frequent  watering,  which  bakes  the  surface.  The 
best  things  in  which  to  sow  seeds  are  shallow  boxes, 
only  two  or  three  inches  deep,  with  open  seams  at  the 


bottom  through  which  water  will  drain  quickly.  Fill 
the  boxes  within  half  an  inch  of  the  top  with  light, 
rich  earth  ;  nothing  is  better  than  black  leaf-mold  from 
the  woods,  or  light  sandy  soil  mixed  with  an  equal  bulk 
of  stable  manure  so  rotted  as  to  resemble  leaf  mold ; 
it  will  not  answer  unless  rotted  as  fine  as  dust.  Sweep- 
ings from  a  paved  street  are  excellent  mixed  with  light 
sandy  soil,  the  object  in  all  cases  being  lightness  of  the 
soil  or  mold,  as  the  germs  of  many  seeds  are  too  ten- 
der to  push  their  way  up  through  a  stiff  soil.  \N'hea 
the  proper  soil  is  put  into  its  place,  pat  it  down 
with  a  smooth  board,  sow  the  seed  carefully  and  evenly 
over  the  surface,  and  then,  with  a  common  sieve,  sift 
just  as  much  earth  evenly  over  the  seed  as  will  cover 
it  and  no  more ;  moisten  this  covering  with  the  finest 
jxjssible  spray,  so  that  it  will  not  settle  and  bake  in  the 
least.  Keep  the  box  at  a  temperature  as  near  60"  as 
possible,  taking  care  to  give  it  a  shower  or  spray  only 
when  the  surface  appears  to  be  dr)'.  As  soon  as  the 
plant  is  up,  a  minute  fungus  will  generally  attack  it, 
which,  if  not  successfully  combated,  may  sweep  off  the 
whole  crop  in  48  hours.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  there 
seems  to  be  any  foreign  growth  upon  the  little  plants, 
give  it  a  slight  drenching  of  tobacco  water,  or  of  water 
saturated  with  sulphur  and  quicklime.  As  soon  as 
there  are  indications  of  any  check  in  the  growth  of 
these  tiny  seedlings,  they  must  be  carefully  taken  up 
and  planted  out  in  similar  boxes,  prepared  exactly  as 
the  seed  boxes  have  been;  they  may  be  planted  ([uite 
closely,  not  more  than  half  an  inch  apart ;  then  let 
their  further  treatment  be  precisely  the  same  as  in  ger- 
minating the  seeds.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  they 
will  have  grown  freely,  and  they  may  then  be  lifted 
and  placed  in  similar  boxes,  but  further  apart,  say  3  or 
4  inches,  or  potted  singly  in  2}^  or  3-inch  jxjts,  as 
most  convenient,  until  they  are  ready  to  be  planted  out 
in  the  open  ground  or  elsewhere.  In  this  way  as  great 
a  number  of  plants  may  be  raised  from  a  25  or  50 
cent  packet  of  seed  as  would  cost  $25  or  $50  to  pur- 
chase, besides  the  far  greater  sarisfaction  of  their  be- 
ing the  product  of  your  own  hands. 

Some  plants,  as  geraniums,  roses.  Azaleas,  Camel- 
lias, etc.,  are  best  propagated  by  cuttings.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  lowest  point  at  which  a  twig  or  clod  of 
an  herbaceous  plant  will  break  instead  of  bend,  is  the 
best  place  to  cut  off  the  cion  for  planting ;  but  with 
woody-stemmed  plants  there  is  no  general  rule.  The 
rose,  for  example,  is  in  the  best  condition  for  cutting 
when  the  flower  bud  is  about  the  size  of  a  large  pea. 
Although  the  shoot  on  which  the  flower  bed  shows  will 
make  a  good  cutting,  yet  if  it  is  desired  not  to  waste 
the  flower,  cuttings  should  be  made  of  the  "blind" 
shoots,  that  is,  such  young  shoots  as  do  not  flower.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  cut  at  a  joint,  although  most  gar- 
deners still  do  so. 

What  is  called  the  "mud"  or  "saucer"  system  of 
propagation  is  very  valuable,  and  is  as  follows :  Take 
any  common  saucer  or  plate  with  an  inch  or  two  of 
sand  in  it,  and  put  into  this  the  cuttings  near  enough 
to  touch  each  other;  water  this  until  the  sand  is  in  the 
condition  of  mud;  place  in  a  sunny  window,  green- 


FLORICULTURE. 


49  r 


house  or  hot  bed ;  keep  the  sand  constantly  as  wet  as 
mud.  Be  careful  to  apply  the  water  gently  so  as  not 
to  remove  the  plants ;  keep  the  temperature  between 
65^  and  100"  ;  with  this  system  the  plants  will  bear  a 
higher  temperature,  as  so  much  water  is  used;  a  tem- 
perature of  75°  or  80°  in  the  sunlight  is  about  the 
best.  The  cuttings  will  root  in  6  to  20  days ;  verbe- 
nas, heliotropes,  fuchsias,  etc.,  root  in  a  week,  while 
roses,  carnations  or  Azaleas  take  3  or  4  weeks.  When 
rooted  they  should  be  potted  in  light  soil,  such  as  de- 
scribed above  for  propagating  by  seeds,  in  pots  two  or 
three  inches  in  diameter,  and  treated  carefully  by 
shading  and  watering  two  or  three  days. 

Layering,  Grafting  and  Budding  flowering  plants  are 
done  precisely  as  with  fruit  plants.  See  those  head- 
ings in  their  alphabetical  order  in  this  work. 

Every  class  of  plants  requires  some  peculiarities  in 
their  propagation  and  culture,  and  a  full  detail  of  these 
would  fill  a  very  large  volume ;  here  we  can  only  give 
those  general  directions  which  will  enable  one  to  man- 
age most  plants  successfully;  and  now  a  few  words  in 
regard  to  tropical  bulbs,  seeds,  etc.  The  tuberose  in 
most  Northern  States  must  be  artificially  forwarded  to 
bloom  in  perfection  in  the  open  air.  To  do  this,  place 
the  dry  bulbs  in  soil  in  pots  or  toxes  about  the  first  of 
May,  keeping  them  rather  dry  until  they  start  to  grow 
freely,  and  more  water  may  be  given ;  the  first  week 
in  June  transplant  these  bulbs  to  the  open  l)order. 
While  being  forwarded  the  bulbs  may  be  kept  in  any 
place  where  the  thermometer  ranges  from  65"  to  75" 
at  night ;  at  this  time  light  is  not  necessary ;  nor  is  a 
greenhouse  essential  for  the  purpose,  as  a  hot-bed  or 
even  a  warm  sitting-room  will  do  nearly  as  well.  Cal- 
adium  bulbs  should  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  started 
in  small  pots  and  shifted  into  larger  ones  as  soon  as 
these  get  filled  with  roots;  if  properly  treated  they 
will  be  large  enough  by  late  summer  or  early  fall  to 
require  a  flower  jxst  a  foot  wide,  and  the  plant  should 
be,  according  to  variety,  two  to  three  feet  in  diameter 
across  the  leaves.  They  require  a  partial  shade.  The 
same  general  treatment  is  also  best  for  Begonias,  Bou- 
vardias,  Cissus,  Coleuses,  Dracaenas,  Euphorbias, 
Poinsettias,  and  indeed  all  other  plants  known  as  "  hot- 
house" or  "tropical."  All  plants  kept  in  windows 
should  be  turned  around  every  day  that  every  part 
may  receive  an  equal  ]X)rtion  of  sunlight.  The  matter 
of  temperature  in  all  this  cultivation  is  very  imix)rtant; 
unless  one  is  able  to  keep  the  necessary  high  temper- 
ature, he  sliould  not  undertake  to  raise  tropical  plants. 
Late  planting,  lioth  of  bulbs  and  seeds,  is  therefore 
advised.  Even  tomato,  pepper  and  egg-plant  seeds 
are  better  sown  in  April  than  in  March.  Amaranths, 
balsams,  Salvias,  double  portulacas,  Cannas,  cocks- 
combs. Zinnias,  etc.,  should  not  be  sown  in  hot-bed 
before  April,  or  in  the  open  ground  before  the  middle 
of  May.  Of  the  tens  of  thousands  of  pot  plants  sold 
from  the  street  stands  in  spring,  probably  not  one  in  ten 
survives.  They  are  forced  into  bloom  in  small  pots, 
have  no  constitution,  and  very  few  ever  give  another 
flower.  Plants  fron\  the  warm  greenhouse  should  be 
gradually  inured  to  the  cool  rooms  where  they  are  to 


remain.  Plants  taken  from  the  garden  in  autumrk 
should  be  carefully  potted  early  in  September,  hard- 
ened in  the  shade  out  doors,  and  removed  to  the  par- 
lor when  the  nights  become  frosty,  and  have  plenty 
of  fresh  air  on  warm  and  sunny  days.  If  taken  up 
late,  they  are  long  in  blooming.  The  following  sorts 
are  named  as  best  for  windows :  Of  roses  few  do  well, 
but  among  these  few  are  sanguinea,  the  best ;  agrip- 
pina  and  Safrano ;  nearly  all  the  Abutilons ;  Cuphea, 
a  constant  bloomer;  Cyclamen  Persicum ;  Oxalis,  all 
the  species;  Chinese  primrose;  most  of  the  monthly 
pinks,  which  bloom  all  the  last  half  of  winter;  the 
zonale  pelargoniums;  the  Indian  jasmine  and  Callalily. 

For  the  jxDtting  of  plants  the  best  mold  is  soil  im- 
mediately under  a  turf  mixed  with  well  rotted  stable 
manure,  or  street  sweepings  thoroughly  mixed  with 
fresh  soil.  For  small  and  tender  plants  it  should  be 
sifted.  In  shifting  to  larger  jxjts  there  is  danger  of 
taking  those  which  are  too  large:  they  should  be  large 
enough  merely  to  admit  an  inch  or  two  more  of  soil 
around  and  below  the  plant.  If  old  jwts,  they  should 
be  washed,  in  order  that  there  be  free  evaporation 
through  the  jwres.  Do  not  water  the  plants  imme- 
diately before  transferring  them  to  another  pot:  but 
after  the  fresh  soil  is  carefully  adjusted  around  them 
in  their  new  place,  water  the  new  soil,  and  then  the 
roots  will  make  vigorous  effort  to  extend  themselves 
out  into  it.  The  leaves  of  all  plants  in  the  house 
should  be  kept  clear  from  dust  by  frequent  sponging. 
A  sprinkling  every  day  is  good  for  them,  but  the  soil 
should  not  be  watered  but  once  in  several  days,  and 
then  it  should  be  thoroughly  saturated.  Most  plants 
do  better  without  saucers  or  dishes  of  water  under  and 
in  contact  with  their  pots;  In  the  greenhouse  it  will 
be  convenient  to  set  the  ix)ts  upon  an  inch  or  two  of 
wet  sand,  from  which  moisture  can  be  absorbed  when 
the  watering  is  neglected.  Pots  which  contain  orna- 
mental plants  in  rooms,  are  often  needlessly  repulsive 
by  the  exposure  of  the  earth  in  which  they  are  planted. 
We  have  found  a  covering  of  an  inch  of  white  sand 
to  prevent  crusting  the  surface  or  soiling  the  edges  of 
the  pot,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  free  watering.  A 
more  ornamental  appearance  is  effected  by  procuring 
from  the  woods  the  handsome  flakes  of  fresh,  green 
moss  found  in  damp  places  or  on  rotten  logs,  and  cov- 
ering the  earth  in  the  pots  neatly  with  one  of  these 
flakes.  It  serves  as  a  mulch,  keeps  the  earth  moist 
and  mellow,  admits  watering,  and  furnishes  a  neat, 
green  carpet  under  the  plants. 

The  more  hardy  house-plants,  requiring  a  tempera- 
ture of  45°  to  55",  comprise  the  Azaleas,  Abutilons, 
Ageratums,  carnations.  Cinerarias,  Catalonian  jessa- 
mines. Cape  jessamines.  Camellias,  Callas,  Chorize- 
mas,  geraniums  of  all  kinds,  Hibiscus,  Hyacinths, 
Myrsiphyllum,  Smilax,  Mahemias,  Primulas,  Stevias, 
roses,  violets,  and  the  so-called  greenhouse  plants. 
Those  requiring  a  temperature  10°  higher  are  bego- 
nias, Bouvardias,  Clerodendrons,  Euphorbias,  Epiphyl- 
lums.  Fuchsias,  heliotropes,  Poinsettias,  tuberoses,  etc. 
Roses  will  do  in  either  temperature.  Both  classes  of 
plants  require  a  moist  atmosphere.     In  the  common 


492 


FLORICUL  TURE. 


dwelling  it  is  necessary  to  keep  upon  the  stove  a  very 
wide,  shallow  pan  of  water  in  a  constant  state  of  evap- 
oration. 

The  green  fly  and  most  other  pestiferous  insects 
can  be  kept  away  by  fumigation  with  smoke  of  burn- 
ing slightly  moistened  tobacco  stems,  or  by  syringing 
with  a  cold  infusion  of  the  same.  The  red  spider  is 
kept  off  simply  by  a  proper  temperature  and  degree  of 
moisture,  as  they  appear  only  when  the  atmosphere 
has  been  too  dry  or  warm.  This  insect  is  so  small 
that  we  can  hardly  see  it,  but  the  effect  of  its  work  is 
the  abnormal  brown  color  of  the  leaves.  The  mealy 
bug  can  be  destroyed  by  alcoliol  thrown  on  with  an 
"atomizer,"  an  apparatus  sold  by  druggists  for  the 
purpose ;  but  as  some  plants  can  not  stand  any  drug 
strong  enough  to  kill  the  bug,  it  is  safer  to  "sponge 
him  off,"  either  with  a  sponge  or  a  brush.  He  is  eas- 
ily recognized  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  by  his  dusty, 
or  white-mealy  appearance. 

To  destroy  mildew  on  roses  in  house  cultivation, 
boil  one  pound  each  of  lime  and  sulphur,  in  two  gal- 
lons of  water,  until  it  is  reduced  to  one  gallon;  allow 
the  liquid  to  settle  until  clear,  and  bottle  it  for  use; 
one  gill  only,  and  no  more,  of  this  liquid  is  mixed  in 
five  gallons  of  water,  and  this  is  thoroughly  syringed 
over  the  roses  in  the  evening.  This  liquid  should  in- 
deed be  used  as  a  preventive.  The  rose  slug,  a  light 
green,  soft  insect,  varying  from  one-sixteenth  to  nearly 
a  whole  inch  in  length,  eating  out  the  substance  of 
the  leaves,  is  almost  invulnerable  to  all  attacks ;  a 
good  preventive  is  daily  syringing  the  plant  in  early 
spring  with  a  solution  of  whale-oil  soap  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  pound  of  the  soap  to  eight  gallons  of 
water.  The  rose  bug,  or  chafer,  which  is  also  de- 
structive to  the  dahlia,  aster,  balsam,  and  many  other 
flowers,  can  be  himself  destroyed  only  by  picking  off 
with  the  hand.  An  English  writer  says  that  quassia 
and  soft  soap  will  destroy  lice  on  roses — used  by  boil- 
ing four  ounces  of  quassia  chips  for  half  an  hour  in  a 
gallon  of  water,  and  when  cold  and  strained  adding 
two  or  more  gallons  of  water  and  six  ounces  of  soft 
soap.  With  this  syringe  the  bushes.  The  best  rem- 
edy, however,  is  tobacco  water,  made  by  pouring  a 
gallon  of  boiling  water  on  four  ounces  of  tobacco, 
and  covering  till  cold.  The  shoots  may  be  syringed 
or  dipped  in  it.  The  blue  aphis  attacks  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  roots  of  asters,  verbenas,  petunias,  Centau- 
reas,  etc.,  and  can  be  reached  only  by  thoroughly 
saturating  the  ground  with  a  very  strong  decoction  of 
tobacco.  When  ants  attack  a  plant  they  can  be  easily 
led  off  by  a  fresh  bone;  when  the  bone  is  covered 
with  them  take  it  off  and  destroy  the  insects.  Brown 
and  white  scale  insects,  which  infest  oleanders,  ivies, 
etc.,  have  to  be  washed  or  rubbed  off.  Thrips  (see 
under  Grapes),  does  not  succumb  to  the  usual  reme- 
dies so  easily,  but  Mr.  Peter  Henderson  says  a  moist 
atmosphere,  tobacco  smoke  or  water,  and  good  culture 
generally,  will  keep  off  almost  all  insects.  Where 
angle-worms  make  the  ground  too  open  around  pot- 
grown  plants,  they  can  be  thoroughly  driven  away  by 
saturating  the  place  with  quick-lime  water — one  quart 


of  lime  to  ten  gallons  of  water.  All  kinds  of  worms 
can  be  driven  out  of  jwts  by  securely  corking  up  the 
drainage  holes  and  flooding  for  several  hours  with 
clear  lime-water. 

Whenever  plants  begin  to  drop  their  leaves  it  is 
certain  their  health  has  been  injured  by  wrong  culture, 
generally  one  that  has  been  too  rich  or  stimulating. 
In  this  case  do  nothing  more  to  it  until  signs  of  re- 
action appear,  or  let  the  earth  in  which  it  is  planted 
become  nearly  dry,  take  the  plant  from  the  jxit,  crush 
off  the  old,  soured  soil,  and  put  the  plant  into  new 
earth  and  a  new  jxjt.  Be  careful  not  to  overfeed  it. 
Give  it  water  enough  to  settle  the  -new  soil,  but  no 
more  water  until  it  has  recuperated  and  begun  to 
grow,  unless  the  atmosphere  is  so  dry  as  to  endanger 
the  life  of  the  plant.  The  most  common  error  is  too 
much  watering.  Sometimes  the  escape  of  gas  in  the 
house,  or  smoke  of  wood  or  coal,  causes  plants  to  suf- 
fer. In  all  cases  of  sick  plants,  withhold  water  for 
awhile,  as  we  do  food  from  a  sick  person  who  has  no 
appetite,  and  whose  system  can  therefore  make  no  use 
of  food. 

Frozen  plants  should  be  immediately  removed  to  a 
warmer  atmosphere  and  tiot  treated  to  cold  water,  as 
is  too  often  the  case.  To  prevent  freezing  in  inade- 
quate rooms,  cover  the  plants  with  newspapers,  fasten- 
ing the  edges  of  the  paper  together  so  as  to  prevent  a 
circulation  of  air  to  and  from  the  plants. 

A  number  of  winter-blooming  plants  can  also  be  set 
out  for  summer  decoration,  as  the  carnations,  helio- 
tropes. Fuchsias,  geraniums  and  the  monthly  varieties 
of  roses;  and  the  following  will  give  a  continuous 
bloom  from  June  to  November:  Snapdragon,  dwarf 
Dahlia,  coral  plant.  Gladiolus,  geranium,  Pelargonium, 
Lantana,  lobelia,  Petunia,  pansy,  Pentstemon,  passion- 
flower, Rondeletia,  Salvia,  Tropeeolum,  verbena, 
Veronica;  and  the  following  are  useful  only  for  the 
brilliant  coloring  or  other  peculiarities  of  foliage: 
Altemanthera,  Achyranthes,  Artemisia,  Cerastium, 
Centaurea,  Caladium,  Coleus,  Cineraria,  Dracaena, 
Echeveria,  silver,  gold  or  bronze  geraniums,  varie- 
gated ivies  and  grasses,  loose-strife  (Lysimachia), 
Peristrophe,  Sanchezia  nobilis,  Vinca  major,  etc.  Of 
course,  for  full  descriptions  of  varieties  and  many 
peculiarities  of  cultivation  and  propapation,  one  must 
consult  the  catalogues  of  florists,  which  can  be  ob- 
tained free.  All  the  above  mentioned  can  be  raised 
from  slips  or  cuttings  taken  from  plants  (or  by  seeds 
where  noted  in  the  catalogues),  during  the  winter  or 
early  spring  months,  or  from  large  plants  which  have 
been  preserved  for  the  purpose.  One  of  the  most 
common  mistakes  made  by  purchasers  of  plants  in  our 
city  markets,  is  that  of  almost  invariably  choosing 
large  plants  forced  into  flower.  Of  course  these 
plants  are  raised  for  market,  and  the  raiser  of  them  is 
not  responsible  for  the  drooping  of  the  leaves  and 
flowers,  or  entire  death  of  the  plant,  soon  after  it  is 
removed  to  its  new  home,  where  the  temperature  and 
other  conditions  are  different.  Nothing  is  more  satis- 
factory to  the  lover  of  flowers  than  the  raising  of  his 
own  plants. 


FLORICUL  TURE. 


493 


Window  Gardening  is  very  popular,  and  would  be 
far  more  to  if  our  climate  were  as  favorable  as  that  of 
some  other  countries.  The  principles  of  this  art  are 
about  the  same  as  those  already  inculcated,  except 
that  it  is  more  imixDrtant  to  turn  the  plants  frequently 
so  that  every  part  may  receive  plenty  of  sunshine. 
Cleanliness  is  as  essential  to  health  in  the  vegetable 
as  in  the  animal  kingdom,  and  in  some  respects,  per- 
haps, more  so.  Every  plant  being  an  organized  ex- 
istence, its  health  largely  depends  on  its  ability  to 
perform  its  natural  functions — analogous  to  perspira- 
tion, respiration,  and  digestion,  in  the  animal  economy. 
Remembering  this,  we  see  at  once  how  much  they 
suffer  when  covered  with  dust  and  the  excretions  of 
insects.  As  frequent  washings  are  thus  promotive  of 
health,  so  frequent  sprinklings  over  the  foliage  of  most 
plants  will  act  as  the  great  antidote  to  disease,  insects 
and  decay.  The  insects  and  disease  that  infest  and 
not  unfrequently  destroy  plants,  may  be  kept  at  bay 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  good  cultivation,  which 
consists  in  providing  at  every  stage  in  the  life  of  a 
plant  conditions  favorable  to  its  full  development  in 
any  form  desired.  As  arule,  the  appearance  of  insects, 
or  mildew,  is  an  evidence  of  debility  in  the  plant,  in- 
duced very  frequently  by  neglect  of  the  ordinary  rules 
of  cultivation.  The  best  remedial  agents  are  air, 
water  and  light ;  but  in  aid  of  these  we  are  sometimes 
compelled  to  employ  tobacco,  soap,  sulphur,  or  patent 
preparations,  made  of  no  one  knows  what. 

Whatever  plants  we  cultivate,  the  more  healthy  they 
will  be  in  proportion  to  the  fresh  air  they  receive. 
Those  are  the  most  dependent  on  this  change  of  air 
which  receive  least  sunshine,  because  in  sunshine  the 
plant,  to  a  certain  extent,  purifies  its  own  atmosphere. 
Air-giving,  however,  must  be  dependent  on  human 
comfort,  as  well  as  the  welfare  of  ))lints,  and  should 
only  be  given  when  air  above  freezing  can  be  admitted, 
and  be  careful  to  avoid  draughts.  When  people  talk 
of  dry  air  being  injurious  to  plants,  they  really  mean 
impure  air;  air  is  seldom  too  dry.  A  temperature  of 
55°  gives  more  flowers  than  any  other. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  shade  a  plant  out  of  doors, 
but  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  shade  plants  in  win- 
dows. There,  for  instance,  is  a  fresh  potted  plant, 
perhaps  partially  disrooted  a  week  ago ;  the  weather 
has  been  dull  ever  since;  but  to-day  the  sun  shines 
brightly,  and  water  as  you  will,  every  leaf  wilts ;  there 
are  greater  demands  made  uixan  the  leaves  than  the 
roots  can,  in  their  torpid  state,  properly  meet;  and  in 
such  a  case,  when  the  soil  is  wet  enough,  instead  of 
deluging  it  with  more  water,  the  proper  plan  to  adopt 
is  shading,  and  sprinkling  the  foHage  with  water  until 
the  reciprocal  action  between  roots  and  leaves  is  re- 
stored. But  another  evil  is  sometimes  induced  by 
continuing  the  shade  longer  than  is  necessary.  Plants 
lengthen  in  heat,  but  increase  only  in  unobstructed 
light ;  so  that  too  much  shade  has  the  tendency  to 
spindle  out  what  previously  existed.  Use  it,  there- 
fore, but  do  not  abuse  it. 

A  south  window  is  the   best   position   for   plants 


during  the  winter  and  spring  months.     For  the  sum- 
mer months,  north  or  east  is  preferable. 

Watering  Plants.  There  is  no  subject  more 
perplexing  to  beginners  than  this.  When  to  water 
plants  is  governed  by  the  circumstances  of  the  plant 
at  the  time,  whether  growing,  at  rest,  or  approaching 
a  state  of  repose,  and  on  its  position  as  respects  sun- 
shine or   shade,  and  a  high  or   low  temperature ;  so 


Fig.  I. — Spiraa  Eximia. 

that  judicious  watering  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of 
regular  routine,  as  of  thought,  intelligence,  and  adapta- 
tion to  circumstances.  Watch  the  first  signs  of  dis- 
tress, and  there  and  then  apply  the  relief.  Do  not 
wait  for  the  proofs  of  suffering  in  the  plants  wilting 
and  hanging  their  heads  in  festoons  around  the  ]X)ts. 
As  a  general  principle,  the  same  rule  holds  good  in 
respect  to  a  cutting.  Here  is  a  Cactus;  water  it 
regularly,  and  you  will  kill  it  with  juices  it  cannot  get 


494 


FLORICULTURE. 


rid  of.  There  is  a  bulb  which  requires  a  season  t» 
ripen  and  another  season  to  rest;  continue  to  water 
it,  and  if  you  do  not  kill  it,  you  will  look  in  vain  for 
flowers  another  year.  Plants  may  wilt  from  weakness, 
or  excess  of  sap  in  the  tissues,  or  from  sunshine  on 
their  leaves  and  stems,  especially  after  dull  weather, 
and  yet  not  need  watering.  No  doubt,  during  the 
summer  months  the  evening  is  the  best  time,  as  at 
night  every  part  of  the  plant  is  filled  up  with  moisture, 
and  the  morning  finds  it  enlarged  in  stature,  or  in 
size,  and  much  renewed  in  health  and  vigor.  Though 
many  of  the  objections  to  watering  in  sunshine  are 
largely  theoretical,  and  appear  only  in  the  writings  of 
those  who  have  had  but  little  actual  experience,  the 
real  objection  to  watering  in  sunshine  is,  that  the 
water  is  rapidly  dissipated,  and  this  prompt  evapora- 
tion induces  such  an  amount  of  cold  that  retards 
rather  than  stimulates  growth.  Whether  plants  grow 
most  by  day  or  night,  may  still  be  a  doubtful  question, 
though  cultivators  believe  they  grow  most  at 
night;  certainly  night  growth  would  be  still 
more  effective  were  plants  watered  near  sun- 
down, as  evapwration  is  so  much  less  rapid  at 
night,  and  this  loss  of  heat  is  avoided.  When 
water  is  given  to  the  soil,  let  it  be  in  such 
quantity  as  to  reach  every  root,  and  then  wait 
until  the  soil  becomes  dry  again.  Mere  surface 
watering  leaves  you  in  ignorance  as  to  the 
state  of  the  bulk  of  the  soil.  To  a  great  extent 
the  same  rule  applies  out  of  doors,  encourag- 
ing surface  roots  at  one  time  to  render  them 
liable  to  be  scorched  at  another,  while  the  mass 
of  roots  below  is  rendered  torpid  and  inact- 
ive. Rainwater  is  best,  as  nothing  is  more 
certain  than  that  hard  water  will  kill  hard- 
wooded,  fine-rooted  plants.  It  should  be  used 
at  a  temperature  somewhat  near  that  of  the 
room,  and  is  improved  by  exposure  to  sun  and 
air.  When  kept  in  tanks  below  ground,  it  is 
frequently  rendered  as  hard  as  spring  water 
from  its  absorbing  magnesia  or  lime  from  the 
materials  of  which  the  walls  of  the  cistern  are 
composed.  Stronger  licjuids,  containing  some 
manurial  matter  in  solution,  if  given,  should  gener- 
ally be  done  at  the  period  of  flowering.  Such  solu- 
tion should  be  weak  and  clear.  All  over-stimulation 
of  the  plant-system  should  be  avoided:  some  plants 
bear  it,  but  in  others,  as  the  carnation  and  rose,  a 
distortion  of  the  flower  may  ensue.  The  stamens 
may  change  into  petals,  petals  into  leaves,  or  the 
flower  may  become  altogether  double  if  the  soil  is 
too  rich. 

Manuring  Flowers.  Litde  or  no  crude  manure 
should  be  used,  as  it  induces  a  too  luxuriant  growth 
of  foliage  and  wood,  at  the  exi^ense  of  the  flowers. 
The  liquid  form  is  the  best.  It  should  be  made  very 
weak.  One  bushel  of  horse  droppings,  or  two  bushels 
of  cow  or  sheep  droppings,  or  a  half  bushel  of  hen 
manure  or  soot,  or  six  pounds  of  guano,  to  one  hogs- 
head (60  gallons)  of  water,  applied  every  two  weeks. 


is  about  the  pro[X)rtion.  Allow  the  liquid  to  stand 
two  or  three  days  before  using,  stirring  dajjy.  Use 
the  clear  liquid.  For  house  plants,  take  a  quantity  of 
soot  from  a  stove  or  chimney  where  wood  is  burned ; 
pour  hot  water  upon  it,  and  when  cool,  apply.  Com- 
mon glue,  one  ounce  to  the  gallon  of  water,  is  a  good 
fertilizer.  A  few  drops  of  ammonia  to  a  quart  of  water, 
too,  are  excellent.  If  wood  and  foliage  are  desired, 
apply  manure  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell  in 
tile  spring.  Apply  at  intervals  up  to  August,  then 
stop.  Plants  over-urged  after  that  date  are  apt  to 
winter  kill,  for  it  is  then  the  wood  naturally  begins  to 
harden  preparatory  to  its  winter  rest.  When  fine 
flowers  are  desired,  do  not  apply  manure  until  the 
flower-buds  begin  to  swell.  This  causes  a  larger  de- 
velopment of  petals  and  enhances  the  colors.  A 
good  method  of  manuring  or  watering  plants  is  to 
make  holes  12  to  18  inches  deep  with  a  crowbar  or 
stake,  one  to  each  square  foot,  near  the  plants.     Fill 


Fig.  a. — Chinese    Wistaria, 


these  with  the  liquid  and  nothing  is  lost  by  evaix)ra- 
tion ;  it  soaks  away  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
roots,  and  there  is  no  waste  of  material.  Previous  to 
planting  the  ground  to  flowers,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
drained  and  made  rich  with  barnyard  manure,  or  com- 
post. A  portion  of  it  should  be  shaded  by  fence, 
hedge,  screen  or  wall,  for  such  flowers  as  delight  in 
shade  and  moisture. 

Table.  Plants  in  rooms  are  best  grown  in  hollow 
tables  lined  with  zinc,  and  deep  enough  so  that  the 
tops  of  the  pots  may  be  covered  with  moss. 

What  we  will  now  discuss  has  reference  chiefly  to 
those  operations  necessary  to  keeping  plants  from 
season  to  season,  and  to  providing  ourselves  with 
young  plants  from  seeds  or  cuttings,  a  matter  of  no 
small  moment  to  window  gardeners,  as  it  is  seldom 
desirable  that  such  plants  should  be  very  large. 


FLORICULTURE. 


495 


Potting  Plants.  Many  of  the  plants  we  have 
tended  with  so  much  care  are  now  demanding  more 
pot  room,  or  fresh  earth,  in  similar  or  smaller  sized 
pots,  by  getting  rid  of  a  part  of  the  old  soil.  As  a 
j^cneral  rule,  pots  ranging  from  three  to  six  inches  in 
diauieter  are  large  enough  for  windows,  increasing  the 
size  of  the  jxjt  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  No  plant  should  be  transferred  to  a  larger 
lX)t  while  its  ball  of  earth  is  dry,  as  no  ordinary  water- 
ing would  ever  afterwards  moisten  it,  nor  should  it 
stand  deeper  in  the  new  pot  than  it  did  in  the  old 
one.  In  every  case  it  is  well  to  wait  until  a  plant  has 
filled  with  its  roots  every  part  of  the  pot  it  occupies 
before  changing  it  into  one  of  a  larger  size,  and  in  all 
cases  the  com- 
jx)st  must  be 
pressed  firm 
and  to  an  eciual 
degree  of  firm- 
ness all  around 
the  ball;  for  if 
less  firm  on  one 
side  than  the 
other  the  water 
will  drain  away 
down  that  side, 
and  the  other 
side  will  be 
only  partially 
moi  s  t  e  n  ed. 
When  new  ix)ts 
are  to  be  used, 
place  them  in 
a  tub  of  water 
for  several 
hours,  allowing 
them   to   dry 

thoroughly    be-f.,^     ^'LoeuHia     Crenata. 
foreUSmg.    The  Rochester. 

reason  for  this  is,  that  in  proportion  to  the  jxjrosity  of 
new  pots  would  they  extract  moisture  from  the  soil, 
forming  a  vacuum  between  the  ix)t  and  the  soil, 
which  might  deceive  you  very  much  in  future  water- 
ings. Old  pots  are  as  good  as  new,  only  they  should 
be  clean  inside  as  well  as  outside.  Put  a  plant  in  a 
clean  [wt,  and  in  time  it  will  become  well  rooted.  If 
you  wish  to  re-pot  it,  the  ball  of  earth  will  come  away 
from  the  ix)t  as  clean  as  possible,  but  if  the  [xst  had 
been  dirty  or  wet  when  used  tlie  ball  will  be  broken 
and  the  roots  very  much  injured.  For  house  culture 
in  general  we  would  prefer  hard-burned  pots  and  of 
a  light  color,  as  the  soil  would  then  have  a  more  even 
temperature  and  there  would  be  less  absorption  and 
radiation  of  heat.  Neat,  strong  pots  might  be  made 
of  zinc,  and  the  outside  painted  so  as  to  look  very 
orn:!  mental. 

Soil  and  Drainage.  Loamy  soils  taken  after  re- 
moving the  grass  sod,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  leaf 
mold,  will  grow  almost  any  plant  that  would  be  a 
real  ornament  to  a  window.  Leaf  mold  not  only 
keeps  other  soils  open,  but  from  the  vegetable  matter 


it  contains  acts  as  the  best  assistant  to  plants.  In 
practice  it  will  be  found  that  young  plants  of  all 
kinds,  and  especially  soft-wooded  plants,  thrive  best 
in  a  light  soil  containing  a  large  proportion  of  sand 
and  leaf  mold ;  whereas,  plants  that  are  advanced 
beyond  the  stage  of  infancy,  and  all  plants  of  woody 
texture,  require  a  firmer  compost.  The  vigorous  cir- 
culation induced  by  too  rich  soils  should  be  avoided, 
as  with  abundant  moisture  they  give  us  strong  shoots 
and  great  luxuriance  generally,  but  few  flowers ;  to 
get  these  less  water  is  needed,  and  more  of  the  solid 
matter  it  contains.  We  see  this  in  the  well-ripened 
wood  of  the  peach  or  grapevine,  so  necessary  to  good 
bearing,  and  generally  in  the  fact  of  plants  flowering, 
not  on  sappy  shoots,  but  oa  the  matured  wood  of  the 
present  or  previous  season.  As  a  general  rule,  every 
plant  in  a  jx)t  over  four  inches  in  diameter  should 
have  one  inch  of  drainage,  over  which  place  a  layer 
of  moss  ;  it  is  valuable  as  a  moisture  equalizer,  and 
will  prevent  the  drainage  clogging  up. 

Raising  and  Propagation.  The  essential  con- 
ditions necessary  for  raising  plants  from  seeds  are 
warmth,  moisture,  comjjarative  darkness,  access  to  at- 
mospheric air,  and  a  light,  sandy  soil.  Whatever  be 
the  temperature  in  which  a  plant  rejoices,  a  little 
more  heat  may  be  given  to  promote  the  germination 
of  its  seeds.  Even  the  seeds  of  the  most  hardy  plants 
will  bear  a  strong  heat  with  impunity,  if,  as  soon  as 
they  are  up  they  are  gradually  hardened  off".  Some 
seeds  are  so  hard  that  we  may  bury  them  for  months 
before  the  shell  will  be  burst  by  the  embryo,  because 
moisture  can  not  reach  them;  these  may  be  soaked 
in  water  of  a  temperature  of  130°  for  a  couple  of  dajs. 
In  sowing  seeds,  a  good,  general  rule  is  to  cover  only 
to  the  thickness  of  their  own  diameter,  and  small, 
dust-like  seeds  should  be  sown  on  a  damp  surface, 
without  ail^'  covering  of  soil  whatever. 

A  box,  a  foot  or  so  square  and  three  or  four  inches 
deep,  is  better  to  sow  seed  in  than  a  pot,  as  it  retains 
moisture  longer;  and  this  is  one  of  the  secrets  of 
raising  plants  from  seed,  as  they  are  apt  to  perish  if 
frequently  watered  before  they  have  gained  some 
strength.  Fill  the  box  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top 
with  light  porous  soil  and  press  smoothly  with  a  piece 
of  board,  after  which  give  a  good  watering  with  a  fine 
sprinkler,  then  sow  the  seed  and  press  gently  into  the 
soil.  Cover  the  box  with  a  piece  of  glass,  and  on 
that  place  any  opaque  substance,  such  as  a  piece  of 
paper  or  a  little  moss,  and  stand  the  box  in  a  shady 
corner.  The  glass  will  check  evaporation  from  the 
soil  and  yet  allow  of  the  admission  of  air,  while  the 
box  will  absorb  quite  as  much  moisture  as  it  parts 
with,  and  thus  the  soil  will  hold  just  enough  moisture 
to  slowly  expand  the  integuments  of  the  seed.  Fail- 
ures in  raising  plants  from  seeds  are  chiefly  due  to 
getring  the  seeds  too  deep,  or  from  filling  the  pot  or 
box  too  full  of  soil  and  sowing  so  near  the  surface 
that  the  seeds  are  dried  up  or  washed  away  in 
watering. 

Success  in  rooring  cuttings  will,  in  general,  be  in 
proportion  to  our  skill  in  preventing  the  cutting  feel- 


496 


FLORICULTURE. 


ing  its  removal  from  the  parent  plant.  Hence,  other 
things  being  equal,  well-ripened  shoots  of  deciduous 
plants  are  more  easily  rooted  than  those  in  a  less 
mature  condition,  though  if  proper  conditions  were  at 
hand  the  latter  would  root  the  soonest.  Suppose  you 
have  a  nice  growing  plant  in  your  window  early  in 
May,  and  it  has  many  young  shoots  on  it  two  or  three 
inches  long,  slip  them  off  close  to  the  stem,  cut  off  a 
few  of  the  lower  leaves  and  insert  a  pot  of  sand,  ex- 
pose them  to  the  sun  and  air  in  your  window,  and 
most  likely  your  labor  will  be  in  vain;  but  cover  the 
pot  with  a  piece  of  glass,  to  keep  the  atmosphere  about 
them  moist,  and  shade  from  sunshine  until  they  can 
bear  it  without  wilting,  and  you  will  have  rooted  plants 
in  as  many  days  as  you  would  have  in  weeks  from  de- 
ciduous cuttings.  In  general  it  is  best  to  have  a  cut- 
ting cut  off  at  a  bud,  as  the  vital  forces  are  stronger 
there,  and  there  is  less  danger  of  their  decaying  from 
extra  absorption  of  water.  Sand  aS'  a  medium  in 
which  to  root  cuttings  is  preferable  to  anything  else  ; 
because  it  prevents  too  much  water  collecting  about 
the  base  of  the  cutting,  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other  the  entrance  of  too  much  air  to  dry  it  up.  Other 
methods  of  propagation  are  chiefly  the  separating  of 
tuberous  and  bulbous  plants  and  the  dividing  of  the 
roots  of  herbaceous  plants.  Whenever  plants  get 
frozen  they  should  be  thawed  out  gradually,  by  put- 
ting them  in  a  cool,  dark  place  and  sprinkling  with 
cold  water.  When  the  frost  has  thawed  out,  restore 
them  to  the  light.  Lime  water  will  remove  the  or- 
dinary worms  from  plant  pots ;  the  strength  is  of  no 
particular  consequence,  so  long  as  the  water  is  per- 
fectly clear;  but  to  kill  wire-worms  you  must  use  salt, 
or  some  chemical  stuff  equally  strong.  The  most 
effective  plan  to  get  rid  of  worms  is  to  heat  the  soil. 

Plants  to  Bloom  in  Winter.     About  the  latter 
end  of  May  plants  intended  to   flower  in  winter   may 


Fig.   ^.—Utatict. 


be  placed  in  the  ground  up  to  the  rim  of  the  pot; 
they  should  be  turned  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer,  to  prevent  rooting  in  the  ground,  and  liberally 
watered:    though  if  well  rooted  in  their  pots,  most 


plants  will  do  better  turned  out  of  their  ix)ts  and 
planted  in  the  ground.  If  treated  in  this  manner, 
they  should  be  jetted  early  in  September,  and  stood 
in  a  shady  place  until  they  become  rooted  in  their 
new  quarters.  While  in  the  ground  during  summer, 
they  must  not  be  allowed  to  flower,  because  the  plant 
we  wish  to  flower  at  an  unnatural  time  of  year 
must  not  have  exhausted  its  flowering  powers  during 

summer.  A  plant 
well  prepared  for 
winter  flowering 
sho  u  Id  be  well  . 
rooted  in  its  pot, 
with  plenty  of 
flowering  wood, 
ready,  when  prop- 
erly supplied  with 
the  stimulusof 
heat  and  moisture, 
to  burst  into 
bloom;  but  plants 
taken  from  the 
ground  after  flow- 
ering all  summer, 
potted,  and  placed 
in  heat  at  once, 
meet  every  diffi- 
culty unprepared, 
and  will  generally 
fail,  t  h  e  St  e  a  d  y 
high  temperature 
allowing  the  form- 
ation of  blossoms 

T^c.i.-S^,ira■ala»ceolaia.  only    tO     a    limited 

extent,  and  by  spring  such  plants  are  worthless.  On 
the  contrary,  if  the  plants  when  brought  indoors  in 
the  fall  were  placed  in  a  cool,  airy  room,  they  would 
ripen  theirwood,  become  strong  and  vigorous,  storing 
up  strength  against  the  demand  that  will  be  made 
upon  them  in  the  future  ;  and  when  brought  into  the 
warmer  air  of  another  room  and  carefully  treated, 
flower  as  liberally  and  as  beautifully  as  the  average 
of  greenhouse  plants. 

Some  of  the  mistakes  most  commonly  made  by  the 
inexperienced  are,  letting  too  loosely,  filling  the  pots 
too  full  of  soil,  and  making  no  provision  for  drainage. 
These  matters  seem  small,  but  it  is  usually  the  atten- 
tion to  small  matters  that  makes  the  diff'erence  be- 
tween success  and  failure.  It  should  be  thoroughly 
understood  that  no  amount  of  instruction  can  com- 
pensate for  any  lack  of  personal  attention,  as  the  art 
of  plant-growing  cannot  be  acquired  from  books; 
books  are  useful  to  give  the  impetus  and  to  direct  our 
energies  aright;  but  proficiency  is  only  attained  by 
attention  to  causes  and  effects ;  if  there  is  an  interest 
in  the  work  at  its  commencement,  that  interest  will 
increase  as  skill  and  dexterity  are  acquired.  The 
plants  suitable  for  house  culture  are  far  more  numerous 
.than  is  generally  supix)sed ;  we  can  therefore  mention 
but  a  few,  and  those  such  as  are  more  generally  known  ; 
and  first,  there  is  no  plant  with  which  success  is  more 


FLORICULTURE. 


497 


certain  than  the  Chinese  primrose,  as  it  readily  ac- 
commodates itself  to  all  conditions,  and  is  in  bloom 
from  December  to  May.  In  the  latter  month  place 
them  out  of  doors,  where  they  get  but  little  sun,  and 
during  the  summer  pick  off  all  flower  buds  as  they 
appear.  They  should  be  re[X)tted  in  spring.  The 
Calla  lily  should  be  in  every  collection.  It  is  not  a 
lily,  but  popularly  it  is  so.  To  have  it  flower  in 
winter,  it  should  be  exposed  to  the  full  summer  sun 
without  water.  Re-|«t  in  August,  shaking  off  the  old 
soil,  and  place  the  pots  in  an  exposed  iX)sition  until 
they  are  taken  indoors  at  the  approach  of  frost.  The 
Calla  likes  an  abundance  of  water  and  light.  If  it  is 
of  the  spotted-leaf  variety,  they  die  down  and  rest 
every  fall  and  start  again  every  January  or  February. 
Give  them  plenty  of  hot  water — on  the  earth,  not  on 
the  plant.  AH  Callas  need  plenty  of  water.  When 
at  rest,  no  water.  The  Cyclamen  thrives  well  in  an 
atmosphere  where  other  [jlants  suffer,  as  it  seems  to  be 
but  little  affected  by  the  impure  air  of  our  rooms. 
Re-[X)t  the  bulbs  in  September  or  October,  placing 
them  in  their  jxjts  so  that  the  crown  of  the  bulb  will 
be  just  above  the  surface  of  the  soil ;  stand  in  a 
sunny  window  and  water  while  the  plant  is  in  bloom 
and  the  leaves  green.  After  the  flowers  have  faded, 
and  the  leaves  show  a  yellowish  tinge,  gradually  with- 
hold water  and  place  the  pot  in  a  shady  position  out 
of  doors  for  the  summer,  but  never  allow  the  bulbs  to 
shrivel. 

The  Lady  Washington  geranium,  after  flowering, 
should  be  placed  out  of  doors  for  some  weeks  to  ripen 
its  wood,  giving  no  more  water  than  will  keep  its 
leaves  from  wilting ;  you  must  then  prune  back  to  two 
or  three  buds  of  the  old  wood,  keeping  rather  dry  for  a 
week  or  so,  when  they  may  be  watered ;  re-iX3t  into 
small  sized  ix>ts ;  when  the  young  shoots  have  grown 
one  inch,  trim  back  any  straggling  roots,  and  in 
February  transfer  to  a  large  pot  in  which  it  will  flower. 
All  varieties  of  the  Pelargonium  are  readily  grown  from 
cuttings  planted  in  July  or  August,  or  from  seed  sown 
in  spring.  The  variegated,  scented  zonales  and  ivy- 
leaf  geraniums  are  all  desirable,  especially  the  zonales, 
which  are  valuable  for  winter  blooming.  Fuchsias 
should  be  brought  from  the  cellar  in  Febniary  or 
March,  and  pruned  back  closely ;  water  sparingly 
until  growth  begins,  then  transfer  into  smaller  pots — 
using  larger  ones  until  it  is  desired  to  have  them 
flower;  after  flowering,  withhold  water  and  return 
them  to  the  cellar  during  winter.  The  Fuchsia  likes 
partial  shade,  rich  soil,  and  jjlenty  of  water.  Carna- 
tions of  the  tree  kind  bloom  freely  in  the  window. 
Cuttings  may  be  rooted  at  any  time  during  winter; 
pinch  out  the  center  of  the  young  plant,  and  plant  in 
good  soil  out  of  doors  in  spring ;  pot  in  September, 
before  severe  frost.  It  is  necessary  to  start  with 
young  plants  every  spring.  Oleanders  are  readily 
grown  from  cuttings  in  a  phial  of  water.  We  must 
prune  and  treat  this  plant  as  we  wish  some  of  the 
shoots  to  flower  this  year,  and  some  the  next ;  or  all 
this  year  and  none  the  next.  Whether  a  plant  blooms 
every  year,  or  every  second  year,  the  flowers  can  only 

■A-: 


be  produced  one  spring  and  summer  at  the  ends  of 
shoots  grown  and  matured  last  season.  Here  in  May 
is  a  plant  with  two  shoots :  one  shows  signs  of  flower- 
ing, the  other  not;  cut  the  flowerless  shoot  down 
to  near  its  base ;  from  thence  you  get  two  or  three 
shoots  for  next  year;  when  done  flowering,  cut  that 
shoot  down  also,  so  as  to  obtain  a  further  succession 
of  shoots;  these  are  induced  to  grow  as  much  as 
[xjssible  until  September,  after  which  keep  in  a  low 
temperature,  and  give  but  little  water  until  growth 
recommences  in  April. 

Of  the  roses,  the  everblooming  class  are  the  best 
for  house  culture.  Roses  for  winter  blooming  are 
usually  grown  in  jxsts  all  summer ;  but  two  or  three 
year  old  plants  may  be  grown  and  flowered  in  the 
ground  all  summer,  and  if  jx)tted  early  in  September, 
and  kept  from  wilting,  they  will  fill  their  pots  with 
healthy  fibers  by  October,  and  flower  abundantly  all 
winter.  The  case  is  different,  however,  with  younger 
plants  grown  in  the  ground ;  these  having  few  if  any 
feeding  roots,  must  be  kept  at  a  low  temperature  for 
some  time  until  nature  has  restored  the  loss  incurred 
in  digging  them  up.  These  roses  should  be  potted  in 
October,  and  placed  in  a  cool,  light  cellar  until 
February,  then  placed  in  a  sunny  window  where  they 
will  flower  .the  remainder  of  the  winter  and  spring 
months.  If  you  want  oleanders  to  grow  all  the  time 
give  them  warmth  and  water,  in  a  rich  soil  mixed 
with  sand ;  but  they  will  do  very  well  to  grow  out  all 
summer,  and  set  in  the  cellar  in  winter  with  water 
occasionally  while  in  a  state  of  rest.  Take  up  tuber- 
oses, keep  in  a  warm,  dry  place  till  spring ;  let  the 
tops  be  on,  as  the  substance  in  them  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  root.  When  you  set  it  out,  take  off  the  off- 
shoots, if  any,  and  plant  by  themselves  for  bloomers 
another  year,  as  the  old  root  never  blooms  but  once, 
and  must  be  three  years  old  to  do  that. 

All  of  the  cactus  tribe  should  be  treated  somewhat 
alike.  Use  sandy  loam  and  lime  rubbish,  with  a 
little  leaf  mold,  for  potting.  They  bloom  chiefly 
during  the  summer  months.  Water  liberally  until  the 
middle  of  September;  from  this  time  until  March  they 
will  hardly  need  a  drop,  unless  the  stems  get  very 
brown  and  shriveled.  Commence  watering  them  in 
the  spring  very  gradually. 

Plants  with  slender  drooping  foliage  are  most  suit- 
able for  baskets,  such  as  the  Smilax  and  Maurandia. 
The  former  has  a  tuberous  root,  and  should  be  dried 
up  in  summer.  The  nasturtion,  especially  the  dwarf, 
dark  varieties,  climbing  and  drooping,  are  very  desira- 
ble. The  German  and  English  ivies  are  graceful  and 
of  very  easy  growth,  as  are  also  the  well-named  rat- 
tailed  cactus  and  the  so-called  ice  plants.  All  of 
these  are  good,  and  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  avail- 
able for  this  purjxjse. 

Fern  cases  are  a  never  failing  source  of  pleasure 
when  properly  managed,  the  soil  for  which  should  be 
a  sandy  loam  and  leaf  mold.  Give  water  sparingly 
in  winter  and  more  abundantly  in  summer.  Oc- 
casionally admit  a  little  air,  and  when  not  too  ]X)wer- 
ful,  exix)se  the  case  to  the  influence  of  the  sun.     No^ 


498 


FLORICULTURE. 


doubt  nine-tenths  of  the  cases  in  use  are  supplied  with 
an  excess  of  moisture.  Drainage  and  having  double 
bottom  attached  to  the  case  to  catch  the  surplus 
water  would  remedy  this.  To  plant  a  fern  case  it 
isn't  absolutely  necessary  to  purchase  expensive 
plants,  unless  you  prefer  to  do  so;  for  if  we  go  out 
into  our  woods  and  marshes  we  shall  there  find  plants 
and  flowers  that  are  the  admiration  of  thousands  on 


Fig.  6. — Hydrangea. 

another  continent.  Almost  every  house  has  a  cellar, 
which,  if  dry  and  frost-proof  and  has  good  light 
from  windows  on  the  south,  east,  or  west  side,  but  no 
openings  to  the  north,  would  be  a  suitable  place  to 
keep  many  plants  in  wmter.  Let  it  be  remembered 
that  the  great  essential  to  their  preservation  is  dryness. 
A  plant  will  exist  during  winter  and  at  its  period  of 
rest,  even  if  very  dry,  though  the  extreme  of  dryness 
sometimes  causes  decay.  When  obliged  to  water, 
let  it  be  given  in  mild  weather  and  just  sufficient  to 
maintain  life.  Geraniums,  Fuchsias,  the  Agapanthus, 
hydrangeas,  and  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  a  few  of 
the  many  plants  that  may  be  kept  in  this  way.  The 
care  that  they  require  is  but  trifling  and  is  amply  re- 
paid by  the  increased  vigor  of  such  plants  in  summer. 
As  to  dahlias  and  everlastings,  the  greatest  object 
is  not  to  plant  them  out  before  all  danger  of  frost  is 
is  over.  Put  your  roots  in  a  lx)x  and  cover  them 
with  ground,  rich  garden  soil,  about  the  middle  of 
March,  and  keep  them  in  a  warm  place  to  sprout. 
\Vhen  you  want  to  plant  them,  take  them  out  and  di- 
vide the  roots,  never  allowing  more  than  one  or  two 
to  grow  in  one  place.  If  you  wish  to  get  new 
varieties  without  going  to  the  expense  of  purchasing 
them  of  the  florists,  you  can  sow  the  seed.  Sow  them 
only  in  the  spring  in  a  sunny  window.  They  will 
bloom  the  first  season,  but  you  must  not  be  dis- 
couraged if  the  flowers  are  only  single.  They  will 
double  themselves  the  next  season  provided  the  roots 


are  dug  up  after  the  first  hard  frost  in  the  fall,  and 
dried  in  the  air  a  day  or  two,  and  then  kept  where 
they  will  neither  freeze,  rot,  nor  dry  up. 

Hanging  Baskets,  Hanging  Pots,  Pots  on 
Stumps,  or  on  imitations  of  stumps,  and  many  other 
rustic  designs,  and  plant  stands,  VVardian  cases,  fern- 
eries, etc.,  are  common  in  floral  culture.  A  glance  at 
illustrative  cuts  will  give  any  amateur  a  start  in  his 
imaginations,  enabling  him  to  originate  others  accord- 
ing to  his  own  fancy.  The  best  way  to  water  a  jjlant 
in  a  hanging  basket  is  to  submerge  the  whole  in  water 
until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated ;  but  this  should  never 
be  done  except  when  the  earth  is  dry  in  which  the 
plant  is  growing.  To  ascertain  when  it  is  dry  enough 
for  the  process  (for  the  earth  should  not  be  watered 
little  and  often,  as  some  people  feed  babies),  dig  out 
a  little  from  toward  the  center  and  pinch  it  between 
the  fingers;  if  it  sticks  together  like  putty  it  is  not  dry 
enough  to  be  watered.  It  is  often  a  good  plan  to 
grow  moss  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  around  the 
plant  when  in  the  shade.  This  is  impracticable  in 
the  sunshine,  where  plants  are  put  in  order  to  make 
them  bloom.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  dead  moss 
is  the  best  mulching. 

Greenhouses  should  be  built  with  their  gable  ends 
north  and  south,  so  that  sunlight  will  be  equally  dis- 
tributed to  the  plants;  or,  if  attached  to  a  house,  they 
should  be  on  the  east  or  south  side,  or  the  southwest 
side.  If  a  detached  greenhouse  is  made  on  the  shed- 
roof  plan,  that  is,  with  the  whole  roof  slanting  one 
way,  of  course  that  roof  (of  glass)  must  face  the  south 
and  the  gable  ends  of  the  greenery  would  be  east  and 
west.  The  walls  below  the  glass  should  be  of  wood, 
as  the  heat  inside  during  the  winter,  when  it  is  verj' 
cold  outside,  will  destroy  any  stone  or  brick  wall. 
Use  roofing  paper  with  the  frame  wall,  and  a  good 
cheap  structure  can  be  had.     A  hot-house  is  so  made 

by  putting  a 
heating  appa- 
ratus into  the 
green  house. 
Of  course  no 
(One  will  under- 
take to  build 
these  struc- 
tures without 
carefully  i  n  - 
spectingagood 
one  or  two. 
V  e  ry  good 
cheap,       neat 

Flu.  T.—Moss  Pink.  grCCU  h  OU  S  C  S 

for  many]ilants  can  bearrangedby  altering  the  cellar. 
See  Greenhouse. 

As  sunshine  is  necessary  for  the  development  of 
flowers,  shady  places  should  be  utilized  by  putting  in 
them  such  plants  as  Calceolarias,  Fuchsias,  lobelias, 
herbaceous  phloxes,  pansies,  forget-me-iwts,  lily  of 
the  valley,  etc.,  whose  native  habitat  is  shady  woods; 
or  foliage  plants,  as  Coleuses,  amaranths,  Achyranthes, 


FLORICUL  TURE. 


499 


Caladiums,  Cannas,  Centaureas,  Cinerarias,  Gnapha- 
liums,  etc. 

The  seeds  of  all  trees  and  all  those  plants  whose 
native  habitat  is  deep,  shady  woods,  must  be  ger- 
minated in  cold  frames,  covered  with  lattice  work  or 
shaded  with  twigs  of  evergreens ;  and  all  plants  started 
in  the  shade  must  continue  to  have  shade  provided 
for  them  when  they  are  transplanted  to  the  open  bor- 
der, until  they  have  become  hardened  to  the  new  sit- 
uation. 

Plants  kept  in  the  windows  during  the  summer 
months  will,  if  in  a  sunny  exiwsure,  renuire  some  kind 
of  a  shade  ;  and  if  the  one  provided  to  keep  the  sun 
from  the  room  shuts  out  too  much  light,  or  excludes 
air  as  well  as  the  sun,  something  must  be  provided 
which  will  give  protection  during  the  heat  of  the  day 
and  still  allow  sufricient  light  and  circulation  of  air. 
Any  one  with  ingenuity  can  arrange  a  screen  of  white 
cotton  cloth  to  answer  the  purpose. 

The  old  practice  of  stripping  the  greenhouse  in 
the  summer  is  falling  into  disuse,  and  by  proper  selec- 
tion of  plants  and  sufficient  shade,  it  is  made  as  at- 
tractive then  as  at  any  other  season;  but,  even  for 
tropical  plants,  it  must  be  shaded.  For  a  small  lean- 
to,  a  screen  of  light  canvas  or  muslin  arranged  \\\yox\. 
the  outside,  so  that  it  may  be  wound  up  on  a  roller 
when  not  wanted,  will  answer;  and  if  it  be  desired 
to  keep  the  house  as  cool  as  possible,  this  should  be 
so  contrived  that  there  will  be  a  space  of  six  inches 
or  so  between  that  and  the  glass.  The  roof  of  a 
large  greenhouse,  however,  of  the  curvilinear  form  is 
generally  whitewashed.  The  whitewash  is  gradually 
washed  off  by  the  rains  during  the  summer,  so  that 
by  fall  tiiere  will  be  but  little  to  do  to  finish  the  task. 
Later  in  the  summer  the  plants  can  receive  about 
as  much  more  light  as  such  an  arrangement  will 
furnish.  By  spattering  the  wash  uixm  the  glass,  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  house  can  be  shaded  heavier  or 
lighter,  as  may  be  needed. 

Flower  Gardens  for  Children.  Children  love 
flowers  quite  as  much  as  older  people,  and  if  they 
are  permitted  to  have  a  small  garden  of  their  own,  in 
which  they  can  plant  and  dig  and  weed  and  hoe  and 
use  the  tiny  little  implements  that  are  made  so  cheap- 
ly for  the  flower  garden,  they  will  not  only  take  the 
greatest  delight  in  its  possession,  and  in  the  Ituds 
and  flowers,  but  will  also  gain  a  large  amount  of  health 
and  muscular  development.  Their  love  of  the  beau- 
tiful will  also  be  largely  cultivated,  and  they  can  be 
taught  to  give  flowers  to  the  sick  and  the  poor  chil- 
dren, and  learn  that  to  give  pleasure  to  others  is  the 
surest  w^y  of  receiving  it  themselves.  But  of  all  the 
lessons  <,o  be  taught  to  children  by  working  in  a  gar- 
den, the  most  valuable  is  the  art  of  observation.  So 
minute,  so  varied  and  so  delicate,  and  yet  so  unerring 
are  the  operations  of  natute,  that,  although  the  closest 
study  may  fail  to  divulge  her  secrets,  the  rewards  of 
such  study  are  so  rich  and  so  surprising  that  they  are 
stimulated  to  fresh  researches.  Let  the  child  plant 
morning-glories  to  run  over   a  bean-pole  or  strings 


whieh  bloom  so  brightly  every  morning,  mignonette 
and  sweet  alyssum  and  forget-me-nots  to  make  tiny, 
sweet  bouquets.  Then  give  a  monthly  rosebush,  a 
geranium,  feverfew,  and  some  verbenas  and  pansies, 
and  there  will  be  an  amount  of  flowers  that  will  glad- 
den the  hearts  of  a  shopful  of  children.  If  the  kind 
mother  will  attend  to  it  and  have  the  beds  laid  out, 
and  teach  her  darlings  how  to  plant  the  seeds  and 
plants,  she  will  give  them  an  occupation  that  they  will 
not  weary  of  while  life  lasts. 

Species  and  Varieties.  There  is  no  end  to  the 
number  of  these.  It  can  even  be  said  that  the  origi- 
nation of  new  varieties  is  an  annual  business  with 
many  florists,  as  the  devising  of  new  styles  is  that  of 
the  manufacturers  of  fancy  articles.  Indeed,  the 
choice  of  flowers,  like  dress,  is  subject  to  the  vicissi-  ^ 
tudes  of  fashion  Everybody  nowadays  regards  as  "out 
of  fashion"  the  hollyhocks,  marigolds,  sweet  pinks 
and  poppies  of  fifty  years  ago;  while  heliotropes, 
Deutzia,  wax  plant,  fuchsias,  lily  of  the  valley,  hya- 
cinths, geraniums,  verbenas,  etc.,  are  now  in  fashion. 
Whatever  is  intended  to  please  the  fancy  must  be, 
in  the  nature  of  things,  unlimited  in  its  varieties  ;  for 
'■  ever  the  soul  wants  something  new."  It  would 
therefore  be  useless  for  us  to  attempt  to  give  here  a 
list  of  the  varieties  of  flowers  and  other  ornamental 
plants  in  cuUivation,  or  even  of  the  species.  Every 
one  is  hereby  entreated  to  send  to  some  floriculturist 
for  his  catalogue,  as  the  best  guide  to  the  selection 
of  the  plants  he  desires.  Nearly  or  quite  all  floricul- 
turists who  advertise  in  the  agricultural  and  similar 
papers,  are  honest  and  will  give  proper  advice  and 
send  good  seed,  bulbs,  etc..  to  those  ordering  them. 
With  nearly  all  the  common  flowers,  almost  any 
color  or  degree  of  variation  desired  can  be  produced 
by  the  art  of  hybridizing,  etc.  Besides,  there  are 
"  foliage  '  plants,  as  Coleuses,  Bignonias,  etc.,  of 
nearly  all  colors,  which  are  best  and  cheapest  for 
permanent  kaleidoscopic  views. 

Flour,  the  farina  of  the  grain  of  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
or  other  grain  separated  from  the  husk  and  reduced 
to  a  state  of  fine  powder.  Flour  of  wheat  is  now 
divided  into  many  grades,  fine,  superfine,  family  flour 
and  exira  being  the  principal  grades.  Formerly  the 
word  "  flour"  applied  only  to  the  flour  of  wheat,  that 
of  lye  and  buckwheat  being  denominated  meal,  but 
now  the  word  is  used  for  all  the  better  grades  of 
ground  bread  grains,  except  Indian  corn.  Good  white 
flour  has  the  following  characteristics:  It  is  white, 
with  rather  a  yellowish,  instead  of  bluish,  dnt;  ab- 
sorbs a  good  deal  of  water,  and  when  wet  a  litde  and 
worked  between  the  fingers  it  does  not  grow  sticky ;  a 
little  of  the  dry  flour  thrown  against  a  smooth  surface 
tends  to  remain  in  a  little  heap,  while  poor  flour  com- 
pletely scatters  out  like  powder;  or,  squeezed  together 
between  the  finger  and  thumb,  it  tends  to  retain  the 
shape  given  it,  instead  of  falling  away  like  dry  i»wder. 
Very  litde  adulteration  of  flour  is  carried  on  in  this 
country,  and  when  one  is  so  unprincipled  as  to  under- 
take it,  he  generally  uses  the  flour  of  the  cheaper 
grains,  and  of  peas,  beans,  and  bones,  and  terra  alba, 


Soo 


FLO  WER. 


China  clay,  silicate  of  alumina,  mineral  white,  or  hy- 
drated  sulphate  of  lime,  alum  and  carbonate  of  soda. 
"  Self-raising  "  flour  is  coming  into  use.  Of  course  this 
is  necessarily  drugged  to  some  extent,  and  advantage 
is  taken  of  the  occasion  to  doctor  up  poor  flour. 
Knowing  the  penchant  of  the  people  for  white  flour,  the 
dealers,  and  especially  the  bakers,  do  not  hesitate  to 
make  it  "  white "  for  them,  while  it  is  well  known 
among  manufacturers  and  physiologists  that  the  most 
healthful  is  necessarily  a  little  dark,  from  the  gluten 
next  the  bran. 

Graham  Flour  at  the  present  day,is  not  understood 
to  be  merely  branny  flour,  but  that  which  contains  the 
rich,  glutinous  portion  of  the  grain,  and  hence  is  of  a 
dark  color.  While  it  is  difficult  for  millers  to  disguise 
•  the  bad  quality  of  poor  wheat  in  graham  flour,  cracked 
wheat,  etc.,  it  is  also  difficult  to  obtain  a  good  article 
in  this  line,  as  very  few  have  learned  how  to  make  it 
well.  Nor  will  it  keep  as  long  as  the  less  highly  or- 
ganized white  flour.  To  manufacture  graham  flour  it 
requires  sharper  stones  and  a  lower  degree  of  temper- 
ature; and  any  dirt  or  mustiness  in  the  grain  ground 
is  more  perceptible  in  the  product  than  in  the  "bolted," 
"  fine,"  or  "  white  "  flour.  The  extra  patience  and  skill 
required  for  this  manufacture  deters  millers  from  the 
undertaking  unless  they  can  obtain  a  correspond- 
ingly greater  price  for  their  work.  This  flour  is  more 
popular  in  cities,  especially  among  the  wealthy  and 
those  of  sedentary  habits,  than  in  the  country ;  and 
when  the  world  shall  have  paid  as  much  attention  to 
the  preparation  of  palatable  and  healthful  graham 
bread,  cakes,  puddings,  etc.,  as  it  has  to  white  flour, 
the  latter  will  probably  go  out  of  use. 

Self-raising  Flour  is  made  thus:  Mix" well  to- 
gether 3  pounds  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  28  pounds 
of  tartaric  acid,  1 1 2  pounds  of  potato  flour  and  1 2 
ounces  of  turmeric,  all  perfectly  dry ;  add  4  pounds  of 
this  mixture  to  every  100  pounds  of  the  flour,  stirring 
thoroughly.  Keep  perfectly  dry,  and  when  wetted  for 
use  it  must  be  baked  immediately.     Or, — 

Prepared  Flour.  Take  i  package  of  Horsford's 
Bread  Preparation  and  sift  it  into  25  pounds  of  flour, 
and  set  it  aside  in  a  covered  box,  to  use  for  biscuit, 
cake,  fruit-roll,  pot-pies,  fruit  short-cakes,  and  pud- 
dings. Can  be  mixed  with  either  water  or  sweet  or 
sour  milk. 

To  Prevent  Flour  from  Souring.  Take  out 
from  the  barrel  or  sack  a  small  quantity  of  the  flour, 
say  25  or  30  pounds,  or  a  Uttle  more  if  you  can  con- 
veniently do  so,  loosen  the  remaining  portion  so  as  to 
make  it  quite  Hght  in  the  barrel  or  sack,  and  keep  in 
a  dry  apartment.  Compactness  and  moisture  are  the 
only  causes  of  souring. 

To  Brown  Flour.  Put  some  flour  in  a  pan  or  dish 
and  set  it  in  the  oven  or  over  the  fire.  Stir  it  about 
that  it  may  not  burn ;  but  let  it  brown  well.  Keep  it 
in  a  dredging  box  for  browning  ordinary  gravies. 

Flower,  the  reproductive  organ  of  a  flowering 
plant.  All  flowers  are  temporary,  and  some  are  ex- 
ceedingly short-lived ;  yet  they  aggregately  constitute 


the  chief  glory  of  the  vegetable  creation;  and  multi- 
tudes are  superlatively  interesting  for  the  delicacy  of 
their  organization,  the  elegance  of  their  forms  and  the 
brilliancy  or  beauty  of  their  tints.  They  are  by  far 
the  most  refined  portion  of  plants,  and  possess  a 
mighty  power  to  arouse  the  curiosity,  to  excite  the  ad- 
miration, to  charm  the  fancy,  and  to  thrill  and  to 
fascinate  our  sense  of  the  beautiful ;  and  so  completely 
do  many  of  them  fill  the  imagination  of  all  behold- 
ers as  popularly  to  give  their  names  to  the  entire 
plants  on  which  they  grow.  "A  love  of  these  beau- 
tiful things  of  nature,"  says  the  most  distinguished 
female  poet  of  America,  "  has  been  sometimes  as- 
sumed as  a  criterion  of  the  health  of  the  mind. 
Those  who  are  under  the  habitual  influence  of  evil 
tempers  do  not  approximate  to  the  spirit  and  lan- 
guage of  flowers.  In  vain  do  they  reach  forth  their 
sweet,  clustering  blossoms ;  envy,  haired,  and  malice 
are  beyond  the  reach  of  such  charmers,  '  charm  they 
never  so  wisely.'  But  he  who,  amid  the  care  and 
weariness  of  life,  finds  daily  an  interval  or  a  disposi- 
tion to  commune  with  the  dew-fed  children  of  heaven, 
to  devise  their  welfare,  and  shelter  their  purity,  has 
not  yet  been  injured  by  the  fever  of  political  life,  the 
palsy  of  the  heart  or  the  eating  gangrene  of  the  inor- 
dinate desire  of  riches.  Err  they  not,  therefore,  who 
consider  a  taste  for  the  charms  of  nature  a  waste  of 
time .'  The  railroad  machinery  of  a  jarring  world, 
bridging  its  abysses,  and  tunneling  the  rocks  of  polit- 
ical ambition,  her  steamboats,  rushing  to  the  thousand 
marts  of  wealth,  silence,  with  their  roaring  funnels,  its 
still,  small  voice.  But  let  it  be  heard  by  those  who 
meditate  at  eventide,  when  the  rose  closes  its  sweet 
lips,  and  the  tired  babe  is  lulled  on  the  breast 
of  its  mother.  Let  it  be  a  companion  to  those  who, 
in  the  morning  prime,  walk  forth  amid  the  dewy  fields 
loving  the  beauty  of  the  lily  which  Omnipotence 
stooped  to  clothe,  and  from  whose  bosom,  as  from  the 
scroll  of  heaven,  the  Redeemer  of  man  taught  listen- 
ing multitudes  the  lesson  of  a  livuig  light." 

Some  flowers  issue  from  the  roots  of  the  plants 
which  produce  them  ;  some  from  the  stem;  and  some 
from  the  leaves ;  but  the  majority  issue  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  branches. 

The  colors  of  some  species  of  flowers  are  uniform  and 
unalterable ,  those  of  others  usually  possess  two  or  more 
invariable  tints,  or  sets  of  tints,  constituting  so  many  va- 
rieties of  the  species;  and  those  of  a  few,  particularly  of 
some  species  of  the  brilliant  and  pet  beauties  techni- 
nically  called  florists'  flowers,  are  exceedingly  numer- 
ous, and  often  wonderfully  variable  and  sportive.  Spe- 
cies of  different  colors,  even  when  all  are  invariable, 
occur,  in  multitudes  of  instances,  in  the  same  genus. 
The  mere  color  of  flowers,  therefore,  seldom  [wssesses 
the  rank  of  a  botanical  character,  so  as  to  afford  to 
the  learner  any  criterion  of-  genera  or  species.  The 
elaboration  of  the  various  colors  and  tints  must  con- 
stitute one  of  the  most  complex  and  beautiful  of  the 
processes  of  natural  chemistry;  but  it  proceeds  on 
too  filmy  a  scale,  and  under  too  recondite  conditions, 
to  have  been  hitherto  detected  by  the  researches  of 


FLO  WERS. 


SOI 


chemical  phytology-  The  tints  of  some  flowers,  as 
may  be  famiharly  seen  in  many  hybrid  violets,  fade  or 
change  on  the  plant  under  the  play  of  sunshine;  and 
those  of  many  either  pass  into  other  tints  or  wholly 
perish,  soon  after  the  llowers  are  cut  or  gathered. 

Double  flowers  are  such  as  have  a  duplicature,  trip- 
licature,  or  multiplicity  of  their  normal  petals;  and 
thoroughly  double  flowers,  such  as  those  of  the  best 
kinds  of  dahlias,  roses,  camellias,  ranunculuses,  car- 
nations, pinks,  stocks,  wallflowers,  hepaticas,  rockets, 
polyanthuses,  and  other  species  of  the  choicest  flow- 
ers, possess  an  absolute  profusion  of  petals,  and  ex- 
hibit them  from  center  to  circumference  of  all  their 
natural  space.  All  doubleness  is  supposed  to  result 
from  an  excess  of  nourishment  and  warmth,  or  from  a 
profuse  luxuriance  and  plethoric  energy  of  growth  in 
the  plants  at  the  time  of  flowering,  and  it  is  always 
accompanied,  in  its  fullest  and  middle-rate  forms,  with 
a  want  of  pistils  and  stamens,  the  parts  of  the  flower 
essential  to  natural  or  seminal  reproduction,  and  is, 
therefore,  regarded  by  botanists  as  a  monstrosity.  In 
all  such  perennial  plants  as  are  propagable  by  offsets, 
division  of  the  roots,  tubers,  cuttings,  layers,  or  bud- 
dings, the  habit  of  double-flowering  is,  in  all  ordinary 
circtimstances,  conveyed  into  the  young  plants  by 
these  methods,  so  as  to  be  quite  certain  of  develop- 
ment, but  in  plants  which  are  propagated  by  seeds, 
whether  they  be  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial,  it  is 
conveyed  only  by  the  same  kind  of  recondite  agencies 
which  originated  it,  and  is  always  contingent  and 
doubtful  of  development. 

A  notion  prevails  that  seed  from  a  plant  which  has 
grown  by  the  side  of  a  double-flowered  plant  ixjssesses 
a  superior  power  of  producing  a  double-flowered  habit; 
but  this  is  mere  fancy.  Sound,  plump,  properly 
ripened  seed,  no  matter  how  grown,  is  no  doubt  one 
condition  of  eminent  success  in  producing  double- 
flowering  plants,  and  the  other  conditions  are  the  par- 
ticular circumstances  of  soil,  climate  and  culture,  be 
they  what  they  may,  which  induce  extraordinary  vigor 
and  luxuriance  in  vegetation,  particuhirly  at  the  period 
of  the  formation  and  development  of  the  flower  buds. 

Flowers,  Arrangement  of.  Consider,  first  the 
vase.  Bright-colored  vases  are  not  as  effective  as 
white,  brown,  Swiss  wood,  silver  or  bronze;  all  will 
"-eadily  see,  if  the  vase  is  green  or  blue,  the  color  con- 
flicts with  the  foliage  in  the  bouquet;  if  pink  or  red, 
with  the  flowers.  A  bowl  or  broad  open  vase  seems 
the  most  appropriate  shape  for  roses.  A  tall,  spread- 
ing vase,  for  gladiolus,  ferns, tuberoses,  etc.;  flat  glass 
dishes,  or  cups,  for  violets  and  early  wild  flowers.  A 
flower  lover  will  in  time  collect  shapes  and  sizes  to 
suit  each  group.  Assort  your  flowers  according  to 
size  and  color,  and  arrange  them  mentally.  Before 
beginning,  put  the  whole  mind  upon  the  work  and 
harmonize  the  colors  perfectly,  using  green  to  separate 
the  flowers. 

In  arranging  flowers  in  a  bouquet,  do  not  crowd 
them;  let  each  flower  show  its  individual  beauty,  and 
z.  fine  effect  can  be  produced  with  comparatively  few 


flowers.  We  often  see  bouquets  where  fine  flowers 
are  used  extravagantly,  that  are  not  pleasing  because 
of  their  crowded  appearance.  The  art  of  arranging 
bouquets  is  very  simple,  if  any  one  jwssesses  a  good 
eye  for  color,  and  has  some  idea  of  tasteful  combina- 
tion. Care  should  be  taken  to  harmonize  and  blend 
the  colors  together,  using  white,  neutral  tints  and 
green ;  nature  says  plenty  of  green.  Each  flower  is 
beautiful  in  itself,  but  when  you  group  sun-flowers 
and  roses,  pansies  and  marigolds  together,  the  charm 
of  each  blossom  is  lost.  We  often  see  at  our  agricul- 
tural fairs,  bouquets  of  this  kind  utterly  devoid  of 
beauty,  that  are  literally  packed  with  beautiful  flowers. 
We  long  to  see  in  their  places  something  simple,  like 
a  handful  of  nasturtiums,  pinks,  or  a  single  flower  with 
its  buds  and  leaves.  In  arranging  flowers,  avoid  stiff- 
ness ;  let  the  bright  fern  or  fresh,  fine  grass  break 
forth  now  and  then,  and  the  delicate  vine  wander 
about  in  its  pristine  beauty. 

In  arranging  hand  bouquets,  begin  at  the  center 
with  roses  or  something  rare  and  beautiful,  always 
placing  the  brightest  colors  in  the  center  of  your 
bouquet,  and  gradually  decreasing  the  intensity  of  the 
tints  as  you  approach  the  exterior;  mingle  shades  and 
colors,  but  do  not  put  one  where  it  can  detract  from 
another,  for  instance,  crimson  and  scarlet,  unless 
flowers  are  very  scarce;  but  if  obliged  to  use  them  to- 
gether, put  plenty  of  white  and  green  between  them. 
Blue  and  yellow  will  not  satisfy  the  eye,  unless  bright- 
ened by  red  or  pink ;  pink,  pale  blue,  or  light  pur[)le 
harmonize  well.  The  color  and  shape  of  the  green  is 
a  valuable  adjunct  in  making  all  symmetrical ;  that 
must  also  be  carefully  studied.  The  lace-figured 
paper  makes  a  fine  finish  for  hand  bouquets.  In  ar- 
ranging baskets,  begin  at  the  outer  edge.  Drooping 
flowers  and  vines,  and  nearly  all  kinds  of  garden 
flowers,  look  well  in  baskets. 

Bouquets  for  the  dining-table  are  usually  made 
rather  low.  The  custom  of  making  bouquets  as  high 
as  the  heads  of  the  guests  at  the  table,  is  happily 
passing  away.  The  custom  of  putting  a  small  fragrant 
bouquet  of  rose-buds,  pansies,  hehotrope,  geranium 
leaves,  etc.,  in  the  napkin,  is  a  charming  one.  Large 
rooms,  with  high  ceilings,  will  admit  of  very  high, 
showy  bouquets.  We  once  saw,  against  a  very  white 
wall,  upon  a  corner  bracket,  a  huge  vase  filled  with 
broad,  green  leaves,  long,  drooping  lily  or  corn-leaves, 
several  ferns  more  than  three  feet  long,  a  few  plumes 
of  grasses,  one  or  two  spikes  of  hollyhocks,  gladiolus, 
large  zinnias,  and  dahlias,  and  cut  with  very  long 
stems,  that  gave  us  great  delight.  The  foliage,  from 
a  little  distance,  reminded  one  of  the  tropics.  Bright 
green,  feathery  ferns,  and  trailing  vines,  with  a  few 
bright  flowers,  are  used  in  profusion  in  decorating  our 
houses.  Ferns  were  never  in  such  demand  as  at  the 
present  time. 

We  do  not  half  appreciate  the  importance  of  bring- 
ing flowers  into  our  school-rooms.  They  are  many 
times  to  the  mind  what  exercise  is  to  the  body ;  a 
bright  bouquet,  a  mound  of  fresh,  green  moss  from 
the  woods,  or  a  healthy,  blooming  plant,  will  refresh 


5oa 


FLO  WERS. 


the  tired  mind  of  the  student,  and  enable  him  to  re- 
new the  tedious  lesson  with  new  life  and  willing  heart; 
will  give  the  weary  teachers  rest  and  comfort.  We 
will  take  a  short  extract  from  a  note  written  by  a 
model  teacher  to  a  lady  who  occasionally  sent  her  a 
bouquet.  "  One  bouquet  you  sent  me  last  winter  will 
ever  be  fresh  in  my  memory.  There  was  nothing 
cheerful  in  the  school-room,  not  even  a  map;  the 
school  was  large;  some  very  large  pupils  to  get  along 
with,  and  thinking  I  had  such  a  large  school,  made 
it  harder.  I  went  into  school  one  day  greatly  dis- 
couraged; your  daughter  came  and  gave  me  a  bou- 
quet. 1  knew  not  what  to  say  or  how  to  thank  her. 
It  awakened  my  better  self;  the  tears  would  flow.  A 
day  never  passed  after  that  that  I  did  not  try  to  say 
something  cheerful  to  them."  Who  can  say  after 
reading  this  testimonial  that  flowers  have  no  influence 
in  the  school-room.'  And  what  influence,  too,  they 
have  in  church!  For  these  purjwses  flowers  are  used 
more  and  more  every  year. 

Bouquets  may  be  kept  a  month  in  continuous 
blooming  (of  course,  with  a  proper  selection  of  con- 
tinuous bloomers),  by  sprinkling  with  fresh  water,  and 
placing  them  in  water  containing  some  soap-suds. 
Take  them  out  each  morning  and  lay  them  in  fresh 
water  a  minute  or  two,  and  replace  them.  Change 
the  soap-suds  twice  a  week. 

Cut  Flowers.  Flowers  decay  much  sooner  when 
tied  in  bunches  than  when  arranged  loosely.  Too 
little  air  and  too  much  water  are  the  bane  of  most 
sp6cies.  The  moisture  furnished  cut  flowers  should 
be  rain-water  of  a  moderate  temperature.  When  gath- 
ering flowers  use  a  pair  of  sharp  shears,  or  a  knife  for 
woody  plants,  such  as  roses,  Camellias,  spiraeas,  Deut- 
zias.  Fuchsias  and  the  like.  It  is  far  better  to  gather 
your  flowers  than  to  let  them  fade  u]X)n  the  plants.  A 
cool  room  is  be.st  adapted  for  keeping  flowers  fresh ; 
stale  tobacco  smoke  will  wilt  flowers.  Take  away  each 
flower  as  it  fades,  or  it  will  destroy  others.  Hot  water 
will  often  restore  flowers  to  freshness,  even  when  every 
petal  is  drooping.  Place  the  stems  in  a  cup  of  boiling 
hot  water;  let  them  remain  until  each  petal  has  be- 
come smoothed  out,  then  cut  off  the  coddled  ends 
and  place  them  in  water  of  moderate  temperature. 
Ammonia  added  to  the  water  also  revives  them 
quickly.  A  good  way  to  keep  cut  flowers  fresh  is  to 
lay  them  in  wet  cloths.  Take  them  out  of  the  vases 
at  night,  sprinkle  with  cold  water,  and  then  wrap  them 
in  cloths  made  very  wet  with  cold  water.  The  weight 
of  the  cloth  will  not  crush  the  most  delicate  flower, 
while  it  keeps  out  the  air  and  prevents  their  falling  to 
pieces  or  opening  Hirther.  When  you  receive  a  bou- 
quet, sprinkle  it  lightly  with  fresh  water;  then  put  it 
into  a  vessel  containing  some  soap-suds,  which  nour- 
ish the  roots  and  keep  the  flowers  as  good  as  new. 
Take  the  bouquet  out  of  the  suds  every  morning,  and 
lay  it  sidewise  in  fresh  water,  the  stock  entering  first 
into  the  water;  keep  it  there  a  minute  or  two,  then 
take  it  out,  and  sprinkle  the  flowers  lightly  by  the 
hand  with  pure  water.  Replace  the  lx)uquet  in  the 
soap-suds  and  the   flowers    will  bloom  as  fresh  as 


when  gathered.  The  soap-suds  need  to  be  changed 
every  third  day.  A  small  quantity  of  nitrate  of 
soda  put  into  the  water  every  time  it  is  changed, 
will  preserve  cut  flowers  a  fortnight  or  more.  If  you 
wish  your  flowers  to  remain  fresh  a  long  time  (and 
who  does  not),  cut  them  early  in  the  morning  while 
the  dew  is  still  upon  them ;  cut  them  with  sharp  scis- 
sors or  knife,  and  remove  unnecessary  leaves;  as  soon 
as  cut,  drop  them  into  a  basket  or  tray.  Do  not  touch 
them  with  the  hands  more  than  is  necessary.  In  cut- 
ting roses,  cut  buds  or  half-blown  ones ;  place  them 
as  soon  as  gathered  in  shallow  tins  or  bowls  in  a  dark 
cellar  or  cool  place,  until  you  wish  to  arrange  them. 
They  should  be  arranged  two  hours,  at  least,  before 
wanted.  A  little  water  sprinkled  finely  over  them 
sometimes  improves  fresh  flowers,  but  rarely ;  it  im- 
proves flowers  beginning  to  decay.  Flowers  decay 
sooner  when  tied  in  clusters  or  bouquets  than  when 
arranged  loosely.  ^Vhen  ready  for  the  table,  place 
them  in  the  vase,  or  dish,  with  cold,  soft  water,  add  a 
few  drops  of  saltpeter,  carbonate  of  soda,  ammonia, 
salt,  camphor,  or  bits  of  charcoal ;  give  plenty  of  fresh 
air,  particularly  at  night.  Some  flowers,  like  the 
Archenia,  Azalea,  Rhododendron,  have  a  way  of  drop- 
ping their  petals  just  as  they  are  most  wanted.  Flor- 
ists let  a  drop  of  gum  Arabic  fall  into  the  center  of 
the  flower,  where  it  hardens  at  the  base  and  fastens 
them  tightly  to  the  stigma.  In  cutting  flowers,  if  you 
wish  to  avoid  cutting  unnecessary  buds,  cut  the  flower 
stem  short,  and  tie  with  yarn  to  broom-corn ;  jjut  a 
little  cotton  between  the  stems  and  splint  to  preserve 
moisture. 

Plants  in  Sleeping  Roo.ms.  So  far  from  plants 
being  injurious  when  placed  in  sleeping  rooms,  it  has 
been  proved  that  they  are  actually  conducive  to 
health;  they  are  actual  and  perfect  "atomizers,"  and 
have  a  material  influence  on  the  humidity  of  the  air 
in  which  they  are  kept.  Experiments  made  by  means 
of  the  hygrometer  show  conclusively  that  house  plants 
may  properly  be  classed  as  therapeutic  agents.  As 
to  their  unwholesomeness  because  of  giving  off  car- 
bonic acid  gas  at  night,  it  has  been  shown  by  experi- 
ment that  it  would  require  20  thrifty  plants  to  pro- 
duce an  amount  of  the  gas  equivalent  to  that  exhaled 
by  one  baby  sleejier.  A  practical  application  of  the 
data  gained  by  experiment  is  given  in  the  carefully 
prepared  fonnulu:  Given  a  room  20  feet  long,  12  feet 
wide,  and  ceiling  12  feet  high,  warmed  by  dry  air,  a 
dozen  thrifty  plants  with  soft,  thin  leaves  and  a  leaf 
surface  of  six  feet  square  each,  would,  if  well-watered 
and  so  situated  as  to  receive  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
(preferably  the  morning  sun)  for  at  least  several  hours, 
raise  the  proportion  of  aqueous  vapor  to  about  the 
health  standard.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  air  of  a 
room  is  kept  moist  by  thrifty  plants. 

Cut  flowers  are  a  fruitful  source  of  malaria  in  rooms, 
not  from  the  odor  from  the  flowers,  but  from  stagnant 
water  or  decaying  vegetable  tissues  in  the  vessels  con- 
taining the  flowers.  Putting  a  little  charcoal  in  the 
water  will  keep  it  sweet  longer;  but  the  only  sure 
remedy  for  putridity  is  frequent  changing  of  the  water. 


FL  UE~FOMENT. 


5°3 


To  Preserve  Flowers.  Gather  them  before  too 
ripe  or  ready  to  fall ;  take  the  most  perfect  and  beau- 
tiful and  dip  them  in  melted  (not  hot)  paraffine ;  move 
them  about  a  little,  so  as  to  let  the  air  escape  and  all 
parts  of  the  flower  become  coated.  They  will  soon 
diy  and  may  be  framed  under  glass.  Another  way  is 
to  crystallize  them  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of  alum 
(alum,  I  ix)und;  rain-water,  i  quart);  a  few  dippings 
will  coat  them  nicely.  For  winter  bloouiing,  select 
the  most  perfect  buds  of  such  flowers  that  are  latest  in 
in  bloom.  Just  before  they  are  ready  to  bloom,  cut 
them  off  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  leaving  the  stem  three 
or  four  inches  long.  Do  not  bruise  the  stem;  im- 
mediately seal  the  cut  end  with  Spanish  wax.  Lay 
them  in  a  cool,  dry  room.  As  soon  as  they  shrink  a 
little  wrap  each  one  separately  in  clean,  white  paper. 
Lock  them  in  a  drawer  where  nothing  can  injure  them. 
When  you  want  flowers  take  them  out,  cut  off"  the 
waxed  end,  put  in  a  vase  or  dish  of  cool  water  in 
which  a  little  niter  has  been  dissolved.  Set  them  in 
a  warmish  room  and  in  lo  or  12  hours  your  flowers 
will  open  as  nicely  as  if  on  the  bush. 

The  best  thing  to  change  the  color  of  flowers  is  a 
liberal  supply  of  charcoal  from  the  stove  ix)unded  up 
and  put  around  the  roots. 

To  Restore  Faded  Flowers,  immerse  them  half- 
way up  their  stems  in  very  hot  water,  and  let  them 
remain  there  until  the  water  cools  or  they  have  re- 
covered their  color ;  then  take  them  out,  cut  off"  the 
cooked  iwrtion  of  the  stems  and  place  the  flowers  in 
clean,  cold  water.  Some  of  the  more  delicate  kinds 
cannot  be  restored  in  this  way. 

To  Hasten  Blooming,  dissolve  together  4  ounces 
sulphate  or  nitrate  of  ammonia,  2  ounces  nitrate  of 
potash,  r  ounce  sugar,  in  i  pint  of  water.  Keep  in  a 
well-corked  bottle.  For  use,  put  8  or  10  drops  of  this 
liquid  into  the  water  of  the  jar  or  vase,  and  change 
the  water  every  10  or  12  days.  For  plants  in  pots,  a 
few  drops  must  be  added  to  the  water  employed  to 
moisten  them. 

To  Preserve  Flowers  for  Perfumery,  pack 
them  tight  with  one-fourth  their  weight  of  salt  in 
bottles,  jars,  or  casks.  In  this  way  they  may  be  pre- 
served for  two  or  three  years.  Both  flowers  and  salt 
should  be  perfectly  dry.  The  salt  should  be  dried  in 
an  oven. 

For  culture  and  variety  of  flowers,  see  Floriculture, 
page   489 

Flue,  an  air  passage,  especially  one  for  conveying 
smoke  and  flame  from  a  fire ;  a  tube  in  a  steam  boiler. 

Iluke-worm,  a  worm  sometimes  found  in  the  liv- 
ers of  sheep,  particular  when  they  are  aff"ected  with 
the  rot. 

Flush,  in  hunting,  is  to  frighten  a  bird  out  of  its 
cover  unintentionally. 

Fly-wheel,  a  wheel  with  a  heavy  rim,  for  retaining 
inertia  and  equalizing  the  motion  of  machinery.  The 
simplest  of  all  contrivances  for  regulating  machinery 
are  fly-wheels,  which  are   nothing  more   than  large 


heaVy  wheels  driven  with  great  velocity  by  the  ma- 
chinery to  which  they  are  attached. 

Foal,  a  colt  or  horse  foetus ;  also,  to  give  birth  to  a 
colt. 

Fodder,  the  bulky,  vegetable  food  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  particularly  of  cattle.  It  does  not  properly 
include  any  kind  of  food  which  contains  nutritious 
matter  in  a  concentrated  form,  but  it  includes  all  bulky 
kinds  of  food,  whether  green  or  dry,  which  either  act 
principally  as  ballast  or  nourishment.  How  to  raise 
and  take  care  of  these  various  crops  is  described  un- 
der their  respective  heads.  See  also  Ensilage  and 
Soiling. 

Fog.  There  is  a  constant  ascent  of  watery  particles 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  occasioned  by  the  evap- 
oration from  masses  of  water  and  moist  bodies.  Part 
of  the  water  which  rises  in  vajwr  is  intimately  united 
with  the  atmospheric  air,  which  holds  it  in  solution. 
This  portion  of  aqueous  matter  is  invisible,  and  exists 
in  the  greatest  quantity  in  very  warm  and  serene 
weather.  Thus,  in  the  hot  days  of  summer,  any  cold 
body  (as  a  vessel  filled  with  ice  water)  is  immediately 
covered  with  little  globules  of  water,  which  are  the 
vajx)r  of  the  atmosphere  precipitated.  But  when  the 
air  is  saturated,  the  watery  particles  which  continue  to 
rise  are  no  longer  dissolved,  but  remain  suspended  in 
vesicular  vajxjrs,  which  form  clouds  when  they  rise  to 
a  great  height,  and  fogs  when  they  hover  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth.  Fogs  are  more  frequent  in  those 
seasons  of  the  year  when  there  is  a  considerable  dif- 
ference of  temperature  in  the  diff'erent  parts  of  the 
day;  as,  for  instance,  in  autumn,  when,  in  the  warmest 
part  of  the  day,  the  air  is  capable  of  holding  a  great 
quantity  of  aqueous  matter  in  solution,  which  on  cool- 
ing, towards  evening,  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  dis- 
solving. In  hot  weather  the  air  is  not  so  easily 
saturated,  and  in  cold  weather  the  process  of  evaf)- 
oration  is  very  slow,  so  that  in  these  cases  fogs  are  less 
common.  In  low,  moist  places,  and  in  confined  places, 
as  valleys,  forests,  bays,  or  lakes,  surrounded  by  high 
lands,  they  are  much  more  prevalent  than  open  coun- 
tries, or  elevated  sjMts  where  they  are  quickly  dis- 
persed by  the  winds.  There  is  another  atmospherical 
phenomenon,  which  has  been  called  dry  fogs.  In  1783 
all  Europe  was  enveloped  with  a  dry  foir,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  a  simultaneous  volcanic  action  in  Iceland  and 
Calabria.  In  1755,  before  the  earthquake  which  de- 
stroyed Lisbon,  a  similar  fog  overspread  the  Tyrol  and 
Switzerland.  It  appeared  to  be  composed  of  earthy 
particles  reduced  to  an  extreme  degree  of  fineness. 

Foliage,  the  collective  or  aggregate  leaves  of  a  tree, 
a  shrub,  or  an  herb.  A  foliage  crop  is  one  whose 
leaves  alone  are  available,  and  which  requires  to  be 
used  green,  and  cannot  be  made  into  hay.  All  the 
cabbages  and  kale,  for  example,  are  foliage  crops. 

Folio-wing  Cattle :  said  of  hogs,  which  follow  cattle 
to  obtain  the  undigested  grains  of  corn  that  pass 
through  with  their  droppings. 

Foment,  to  apply  hot  water,  or  cloths  wrung  from 


504 


FOOD. 


hot  water,  to  a  part  of  the  body,  to  reduce  pain  and 
create  muscular  relaxation.  Many  poultices  and  other 
applications  also  foment  to  some  extent,  besides  pro- 
ducing other  effects.  Blistering  and  any  other  irrita- 
tion of  the  ski:i  have  similar  effects,  with  complications. 
India-rubber  bags  can  now  be  had  at  most  drug  stores, 
which  can  be  tilled  with  hot  water,  screwed  up  tight, 
and  safely  used  in  bed ;  one  can  lie  upon  them  with- 
out any  danger  of  bursting  them.  They  constitute  by 
far  the  most  convenient  method  of  applying  fomenta- 
tions. 

In  cases  of  sprains  or  other  affections  where  heat 
has  to  be  applied,  pieces  of  thick  flannel  are  used 
dipped  into  the  hot  liquid,  and  applied  one  after  the 
other.  In  colic,  obstinate  cases  of  constipation,  and 
other  affections  of  the  bowels,  hot  fomentations  are 
recommended.  They  are  also  used  in  cases  of  gout 
and  quinsy,  when  it  is  necessary  to  bring  the  tumor  to 
a  suppuration.  An  excellent  fomentation  to  relieve 
acute  pain  is  comix)sed  of  white  ixjppy  heads  and 
J^  an  ounce  of  elder  flowersboiled  in  ^  of  a  pint  of 
water  until  the  latter  is  reduced  to  a  quart.  In  cases 
of  dysentery,  flatulent  colic,  retchings  to  vomit,  an 
aromatic  fomentation  may  be  employed,  made  with  J^ 
an  ounce  of  black  pepper  in  red  wine.  A  strength- 
ening fomentation  for  application  to  weak  parts  may 
be  composed  of  oak  bark,  i  ounce ;  jxjmegranate  peel, 
J^  an  ounce;  alum,  2  drachms;  and  of  water  in  which 
a  red-hot  iron  has  been  thrust  until  it  gives  the  water 
a  strong  taste,  3  pints.  The  bark  and  peel  must  be 
boiled  in  the  water  until  the  quantity  has  evajxirated 
Yi,  after  which  it  must  be  strained  and  the  alum  dis- 
solved in  it.  Cold  fomentations  are  useful  in  sprains 
before  inflammation  has  subsided.  The  best  way  of 
applying  them  is  that  of  putting  a  thick  bandage  upon 
the  part,  and  continually  jxjuring  cold  water  ujxDn  it. 

Food,  substances  which  yield  nutriment  to  plant  or 
animal.  Proper  food  for  man  or  the  lower  animals 
contains  no  deleterious  substance  to  prevent  the  assim- 
ilation of  the  proximate  elements  into  tissue.  The 
digestive  system  rebels  against  the  introduction  of  arti- 
cles not  needed  for  the  welfare  of  the  body,  and  en- 
deavors to  cast  them  out ;  some  by  emesis  (vomiting), 
some  by  purgation,  some  by  the  urinary  system,  some 
by  perspiration,  and  some  by  eruptions.  Hence,  on 
these  principles,  medicines  are  "classed  as  emetics, 
purgatives,  diuretics,  diaphoretics,  etc. 

The  system,  however,  is  not  able  to  expel  all  the 
improper  elements.  A  jwrtion  of  them  is  laid  away, 
as  it  were,  on  the  shelves  of  the  vital  domain,"  that  is, 
in  the  recesses  of  the  animal  economy,  for  an  indefi- 
nite length  of  time.  If  too  ^nuch  of  such  material 
becomes  stored  up,  the  vital  forces,  on  some  exjxjsure 
to  extreme  temperature,  exhaustion  by  over-work  or 
other  intemperance,  commence  a  revolutionary  action 
to  expel  some  or  all  of  them.  This  is  the  rationale 
of  fever,  indeed  of  all  disease.  Failure  in  such  an 
effort  is  death. 

In  studying  tables  of  the  elements  of  food,  of  their 
digestibility,  etc.,  one  must  remember  that  an  article 


may  be  three-fourths  or  more  nutriment,  and  yet,  on 
account  of  iX3isonous  or  repulsive  matter  present, 
be  unusable  by  the  animal  system,  as  for  example, 
buckeye.  Not  a  particle  of  the  nutriment  in  such  sub- 
stances can  be  utilized :  nature  rejects  all.  On  the 
other  hand,  only  five  per  cent,  of  an  article  may 
be  nutriment  according  to  the  tables  (which-are  con- 
structed from  chemical  analyses),  and  yet,  there  being 
no  inimical  substance  present,  the  animal  system  ap- 
propriates the  whole  five  per  cent.;  for  example,  apples, 
turnips. 

The  digestibility  of  a  given  article  of  food  is  no  in- 
dex to  its  utility.  Beans,  for  example,  which  require 
three  or  four  hours  for  stomachic  digestion,  may  be 
better,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  for  a  person  in 
health,  than  oysters,  which  would  get  out  of  the  stom- 
ach in  one  hour.  The  stomach,  as  well  as  the  other 
organs  of  the  system,  require  a  certain  amount  of  ex- 
ercise to  keep  it  strong. 

The  foregoing  principles  are  essential  and  universal 
throughout  the  domain  of  human  and  animal  physi- 
ology. 

Nature  appears  to  be  extremely  jealous  of  admitting 
nutriment  of  baneful  qualities  into  the  blood  vessels, 
and  even  into  the  stomach.  If  food  be  putrid  or 
putrescent,  or,  in  other  words,  deficient  in  organic 
principles  (animal  or  vegetable)  the  stomach  refuses  it ; 
and  if  it  finds  its  way  there,  the  most  violent  nausea 
and  vomiting  ensue,  till  the  deleterious  matter  is 
ejected.  But  if,  notwithstanding  the  vigilance  of 
nature,  the  contaminated  food  passes  out  of  the  stom- 
ach into  the  lower  bowels,  the  gall-bladder  contracts 
and  pours  out  a  large  jxjrtion  of  the  bile,  to  facili-, 
tate  the  escape  of  pernicious  ingredients ;  and  if,  not- 
withstanding all  those  efforts  of  nature,  a  portion 
only  of  the  putrescent  food  arrives  at  the  mouths  of 
the  vessels  which  take  up  the  digested  food,  instead 
of  receiving  it,  they  become  inflamed,  swelled,  and 
consequently  shut  up  against  its  intrusion.  The 
glands  also  which  occur  in  the  course  of  these  vessels 
become  swollen  and  obstruct  the  vessels  by  their  press- 
ure. If  these  inflammations  are  not  sufficient  to  keep 
out  the  improper  nutriment,  a  general  fever   results. 

To  fully  understand  the  table  on  the  next  page, ob- 
serve the  following  facts  :  The  amount  of  water  in  a 
substance  is  found  by  thoroughly  drying  it  and  noting 
the  difference  in  weight.  About  nine-tenths  of  the 
substance  of  fruits,  melons,  roots,  and  green  foddei,  i" 
water,  but  is  such  water  as  is  more  usable  by  th* 
vital  forces  than  common  water  from  other  sources. 
Hay,  dry  fodder,  wheat,  corn,  and  all  the  other  seeds, 
consist  of  about  one-tenth  water,  unless  thoroughly 
dried  in  a  hot  oven.  To  find  the  amount  of  mineral, 
or  ash,  the  article  is  burned.  The  albuminoids,  called 
also  protein  comjxiunds,  are  flesh-formers,  and  com- 
prise the  nitrogenous  elements  termed  casein,  gluten, 
gelatin,  fibrin,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  the  non- 
nitrogenous  elements,  or  carbo-hydrates,  are  the  heat- 
formers,  namely,  fat,  starch,  sugar  and  woody  fiber 
(cellulose).  The  values  of  the  grains,  fruits  and  roots 
for  man  varies  but  little  from  the  figures  here  given. 


FOOD, 


505 


TABLE  OF  FOOD  VALUES  (STOCK  FEED). 


Articles  of  Food. 


Grains  and  Fruits. 


Apples 

Barley 

iiarley  feed 

Beans,   field 

Buckwheat 

Corn 

Corn,  New  England  yel 

low,   ground .... 

Corn,      Western      yellow 

ground 

Corn,  Southern  white. 

Corn,  sweet 

Cotton  seed 

Hemp  seed 

I.inseed  (flax-seed).... 

Oats 

Oats,  No.  I  white 

Peas   

Pears. 

Pumpkins 

Rape  seed 

Kice 

Rye 

\Vheat 


Roots  and   Tubers. 


Artichoke,  Jerusalem 

Beets,   fodder 

Beets,  sugar 

Carrots 

Parsnips 

Potatoes,  Irish 

Rutabagas 

Turnips,  common  white. 


I 


Hav. 

Clover,  Alsike  or  Swedish 
Clover,  lucerne,  medium 
Ciover,  red,  medium. .  . . 
Clover,  cut    when    ready 

to  bloom 

Clover,  cut  in  full  bloom 
Clover,  cut  nearly  ripe . . 
Clover,  white,  medium. . 
Corn.  Southern,  young. 
Corn,  Southern,  older.. 

Grass,  Italian  rye 

Grass,   upland  average.. 

Grass,  Hungarian 

Grass,     H  ungarian,      cut 

nearly  in  bloom 

Grass,  Hungarian,  cut  in 

full   bloom 

Grass,  Timothy,  medium. 
Grass,  Timothy,  cut  ready 

to  bloom 

Grass,     Timothy,    cut  in 

bloom 

Grass,  meadow,  poor 

Grass,  meadow,  medium. 

Grass,  meadow,   good 

Peas,  cut  in  bloom 

Vetch  (tares)  medium 

Rye,  cut  before  blooming. 


Green  Fodder. 

Buckwheat,  in  bloom . 
Cabbage 


Total  Organic 
Substance. 


Digestible 
Substance. 


46 


38 


Articles  of  food. 


Green  Fodder. 


Carrot  leaves 

Corn 

Corn, fermented   

Clover,  pasture,  young. .. 

Clover,  red,  when  ready 
to  bloom 

Clover,  red,  in  full  bloom 

Clover,  white,  full  bloom. 

Grass,  before  blooming . . . 

Grass,  pasture,  medium.. 

Grass,  pasture,  rich 

Grass,  Italian  rye 

Grass,  H  ungarian  (Mil- 
let), in  bloom 

Grass,  Timothy 

Grass,  upland,    average . . 

Oats 

Peas,  in  bloom 

Rye   

Rutabaga  leaves 

Sorghum 

Vetch,  at  beginning  of 
blooming 

Straw,  Stalks  and  Cobs 

Barley  straw,  spring 

Bean  straw,  field 

Corn   cobs 

Clover,  after  removal   of 

seeds 

Oat  straw 

Pea  straw 

Rye  straw,  winter 

Vetch  straw     

Wheat  straw 

Chaffs,  Hulls,  etc. 

Barley , 

Bean 

Oat 

Rye 

Wheat 

Manufacturing  and 
Waste  Products,  etc, 

Blood,  dried 

Bran,  wheat,  fine 

Bran,  wheat,  shorts. ... 

Bran,  corn 

Buttermilk 

Brewers'  grains 

Cake,  cotton-seed   

Cake,  linseed 

Cake,  sugar  beet 

Cake,  palm-nut 

Cream 

Malt  sprouts 

Middlings 

Meal,  flesh 

Meal,  linseed,  extracted.. 

Meal,  rice 

Meal,  wheat 

Milk,  cow's 

Scraps,  meat 

Rice  feed 

Potato,  starch  factory  resi- 

due 

Whey 


87 


Total  Organic 
Substance. 


« 


Digestible 
Substance. 


5o6 


FOOD— FORCING. 


Pood,  FOR  Man  :  See  article  Hygiene.  See  also 
the  same  article  for  Food  for  Children  and  Food  for 
the  Sick. 

Foors  Parsley.  A  wild  plant  growing  in  the 
Eastern  United  States,  of  the  appearance  of  parsley, 
and  poisonous.  Poison  hemlock  is  a  similar  plant 
growing  through  all  the  Northern  States.  Both  bear 
seed-tops  like  parsley,  celery  or  parsnip.  It  is  safe 
never  to  eat  or  taste  of  any  wild  plant  which  has 
this  kind  of  a  seed-top,  as  most  of  them  are  more  or 
less  [xjisonous.  When  one  is  accidentally  jxjisoned  by 
them,  he  should  be  treated  as  for  poisoning  by  Bane- 
berry,  which  see. 

Forage  (for  age) :     see  Fodder. 

Force-Meat,  meat  chopped  fine  and  highly 
seasoned,  either  served  up  alone  or  used  as  stuffing. 
Sometimes  called  "farce-meat." 

Forceps,  a  pair  of  pincers  or  tongs ;  especially  a 
finely-made  pair  for  surgeons'  or  dentists'  use. 

Force-Pump,  a  pump  which  forces  water  through 
a  tube  by  a  pushing  motion,  instead  of  a  lifting  move- 
ment, as  is  done  by  a  simple  suction  pump.  See  Pump. 

Forcing  plants,  starting  them  in  hot-beds  or 
otherwise  before  the  season  is  wann  enough  for  their 
out-door  culture.  Forcing  was  known  among  the 
ancient  Romans,  and  was  practiced  from  early  times 
in  England.  At  present  it  constitutes  a  large  part  of 
the  care  of  gardeners.  Among  them  success  in  forcing 
is  an  object  of  ambition,  and  its  honors  are  worn-  with 
a  good  deal  of  professional  pride.  Some  affect  to 
have  peculiar  modes  of  practice,  which  they  hide 
carefully  from  others,  but  which  are  often  mere  worth- 
ies.! conceits.  The  best  forcing  is  that  which  is  done 
in  an  atmosphere  most  conducive  to  the  highest  and 
strongest  development  of  the  plant,  and  not  that 
which  produces  only  a  tender,  abnormal  growth. 
The  artificial  climate  should  not  differ  from  what  is 
normal  to  the  plant,  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  should 
be  kept  somewhat  below  its  capacity.  Some  plants 
are  forced  for  use  in  winter  by  a  process  of  simple  self- 
exhaustion.  Their  strong  roots  being  transferred  in 
the  fall  to  a  cellar,  or  hot-bed  frame,  or  heated  pit,  or 
green-house,  yield  a  limited  crop  under  the  stimulus 
of  the  warmth  thus  furnished ;  this  being  obtained, 
the  roots  thus  taxed  are  either  thrown  away  or  set  out 
again  in  the  spring  to  regain  their  ordinary  strength. 
Sea  kale,  asparagus,  pie-plant,  succory,  etc.,  are  thus 
treated  where  it  is  deemed  worth  while.  The  more 
common  vegetables,  as  lettuce,  radish  and  other  salads, 
require  in  their  forced  production  in  hot-bed  frames 
but  little  if  any  more  or  different  care,  though  longer 
continued,  than  is  necessary  for  raising  early  hot-bed 
plants  of  various  vegetables  for  setting  out. 

Cucumbers  and  melons  are  often  raised  in  unfav- 
orable localities  by  a  system  of  half-forcing  sometimes 
called  "  ridging."  For  this  purjxjse  a  pit  or  trench,  of 
any  desired  length,  about  three  feet  wide  and  two  feet 
deep,  is  dug  at  the  close  of  spring,  and  filled  with 
heating  manure  in  the  manner  of  making  a  hot-bed. 


the  manure  being  covered  12  or  15  inches  deep  with 
surface  earth  well  enriched  with  garden  compost  and 
also  chopped  half-rotted  sod,  adding  sand  or  road- 
wash  if  the  soil  be  heavy.  Potted  plants,  previously 
prepared  in  a  hot  bed,  are  set  out  carefully  along  the 
center  of  this  ridge,  in  hills  from  four  to  six  feet  apart. 
Set  a  hand-glass  over  each  hill ;  give  air  and  culture 
as  needed  until  the  vines  begin  to  run  freely,  then 
raise  the  hand-glasses  upon  bricks  or  blocks,  thai  the 
vines  pass  under,  nip  or  stop  them  at  about  two  feet 
from  the  collar,  that  they  may  branch  and  blossom 
compactly ;  and  when  the  full  summer  is  upon  them, 
remove  the  hand-glasses  entirely,  and  give  them  ordi- 
nary but  careful  culture  until  the  crop  perfects.  To 
make  the  vine-growth  more  moderate,  old  seed  is 
generally  used,  or  cuttings,  if  new  seed  has  been 
sown.  The  cuttings  made  in  the  ordinary  manner 
are  set  two  or  three  in  a  pot  and  placed  in  a  hot-bed 
with  a  slight  shade,  where  they  will  root  in  a  week  or 
so,  and  form  hardy,  compact-growing  plants.  In  more 
northern  latitudes  a  closer  confinement  to  the  hot- 
house is  of  course  required.  For  this  class  of  jjlants 
the  temperature  should  range  from  60"  to  80° ;  and 
to  secure  a  uniform  limit  to  this  range,  a  lining  of 
fresh  manure  must  occasionally  be  substituted  for  the 
old  around  the  bed-frame. 

Fruits  are  forced  by  various  methods.     For  straw- 
berries, special  houses  are  often   made.     They  are 
narrow,  of  single  pitch,  with  the  glass  reaching  nearly 
to  the  ground.     From  a  furnace  sunk  a  sufficient  depth 
at  one  end,  a  single  line  of  stove-pipe  or  small  brick 
flue,  slightly  raised,  runs  along  the  middle  of  the  floor. 
The  staging  is  built  over   this.     Grapes   are   lietter 
forced  in  "  graperies,"  and  peaches  in  "peach-houses," 
madje    for  these  purposes.    Several  varieties  of  fruit 
are  sometimes  forced  together  in  "orchard-houses." 
In  all  these  structures,  of  course,  reference  is  had  to 
the  peculiar  demands  of  each  plant.     Fruits  so  forced 
require,  even-  more  than  vegetables,  constant  care  in 
respect   to   temperature,   moisture,  air,  pruning  and 
fruiting.     Forced  vegetables  are  started    at  once  in 
summer  heat ;  but  in  forcing  fruits  we  endeavor  to  im- 
itate the  progress  of  spring,  passing  from   35"  or  40° 
gradually  to  summer  heat.     During  the  period  of  the 
higher  degrees  of  heat  there  should  be  free  ventila- 
tion and  plenty  of  moisture  produced  by  syringing  and 
watering.     The  night  temperature  may   range    uni- 
formly about   10°  below  that  of  day.     To  make   the 
treatment  sure,  a  double-registering  thermometer  will 
be  required.     The  ripening  of  the  larger  fruits  will 
generally  be  effected  in  about  five  months  from  the 
first  application  of  heat.     Severe  pruning  has  to  be 
attended  to  during  the  summer,  and  many  other  nice 
points  observed,  which  are  fully  described  in  works 
devoted  especially  to  this  subject,  if  one  desires  the 
highest  possible  results.     Of  course  no  one  will  un- 
dertake this  difficult  art  unless  he  is  convenient  to  a 
city  market  where  high  prices  can  be  obtained. 

See  Hot-Bed,  Cold  Frame,  Green-House,  Garden- 
ing, and  the  various  vegetables  in  their  alphabetical 
order  throughout  this  volume. 


FOREMANIZE—FORESTR  Y. 


507 


Foremanize :  see  Timber,  Preservation  of. 

Forehand,  the  fore  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  horse, 
or  part  immediately  before  the  rider.  It  has  to  sup- 
IX)rt  and  direct  the  neck  and  head,  and  is  attached  to 
the  former  by  a  great  strength  and  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  muscles.  In  a  saddle  horse  it  should  be 
light  and  unburdened,  but  in  a  draught  horse  it  re- 
quires a  sufficient  body  of  muscle  to  combine  the 
labor  of  propelling  with  that  of  supporting.  The  ser- 
vice derived  from  extra  weight  of  the  forehand,  in 
horses  used  solely  for  the  draught  of  heavy  burdens, 
may  be  thus  illustrated.  Suppose  a  horse  in  endeav- 
oring to  make  his  way  up  hill  overloaded,  or  as  nearly 
as  ix)ssible  balanced  by  his  load :  he  uses  all  his  mus- 
cular force  in  vain,  he  can  not  advance,  and  it  is  un- 
certain which  will  obtain  the  mastery,  he  or  his  load; 
this  is  immediately  decided  by  placing  a  boy  or  other 
weight  across  his  shoulders ;  he  is  then  enabled  almost 
magically  to  proceed  with  facility,  overcoming  his  load 
by  means  of  a  few  extra  pounds  on  the  fore  part  of 
the  body. 

Forestry,  the  science  and  art  of  propagating  forest 
trees  ;  woodcraft.  In  our  language  and  in  our  coun- 
try, the  forest  usually  implies  a  considerable  extent  of 
surface,  while  a  smaller  area  covered  with  trees  is 
called  a  wood,  and  a  more  limited  number  of  trees 
constitute  a  grove.  The  portions  of  our  country  now 
occupied  by  trees  are  more  appropriately  called  wood- 
lands than  forests.  Planted  in  lines  of  one  or  of  sev- 
eral rows  of  trees,  intended  to  intercept  currents  of 
air,  they  constitute  hedge-rows,  wind-breaks,  or  shelter- 
belts.  The  coppice  or  copse  is  a  wood  that  is  intended 
to  be  cut  off  from  time  to  time,  when  comparatively 
small. 

At  firstone  would  think  that  scarcely  anything  practi- 
cal on  the  subject  of  forest  tree  planting  could  be  said 
further  than,  when  you  get  ready  to  plant  forest  trees, 
go  and  plant  them  ;  but  when  we  consider  the  dimin- 
ishing numbers  of  large  lumber  trees  in  the  United 
States,  their  value  as  wind-breaks  on  our  western 
prairies  and  the  fact  that  the  ground  denuded  of  one 
kind  of  trees  must  be  followed  by  another  kind  if  any, 
etc.,  we  perceive  that  comfort  for  our  later  years,  and 
justice  to  future  generations,  require  us  to  pay  some 
attention  to  this  matter.  We  find  here  not  only  a 
large  field  for  thought,  but  also  a  large  "field"  for  the 
actual  planting  of  trees.  As  this  enterprise  is  com- 
paratively so  slow  in  yielding  pecuniary  returns,  and 
as  it  interests  ]X)sterity  more  than  ourselves,  it  be- 
comes everybody's  business  and  therefore  nobody's 
business,  in  particular,  and  the  aid  of  National  and 
State  legislation  has  to  be  invoked.  Such  legislation 
we  have  already  obtained,  indeed,  to  some  extent,  but 
need  more  State  aid.  In  connection  with  the  general 
Government  we  have  a  National  Forestry  Association, 
with  which  every  one  ought  to  be  in  communication. 
The  address  of  the  proper  officers  can  be  obtained 
without  cost  by  asking  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
at  Washington. 

The  destruction  of  our  forest  trees  and  the  waste  of 


timber  still  go  on  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  renewal. 
Correspondence  and  statistical  compilation  have  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  at  the  present  time  (1881-2)  the 
forest  trees  are  diminished  a  little  more  than  twice  as 
rapidly  as  planting  is  carried  on.  At  a  late  meedng 
of  the  Chicago  Lumbermen's  Exchange  the  somewhat 
startling  statement  was  made,  and  substantiated  by 
conclusive  figures,  that,  owing  to  the  enormous  growth 
of  the  lumber  business  in  this  country,  it  will  take  only 
twenty  years  longer  to  exhaust  the  pine  forests  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  If  the  present  rate  of  de- 
pletion continues,  in  the  course  of  five  years  all  of  the 
black  walnut  timber  large  enough  for  logs  will  be  used 
up;  also  the  rate  our  oak  timbers  are  being  used  up 
for  railroad  ties,  cooperage  and  other  purix)ses,  in  the 
course  of  forty  years  our  forests  of  oak  will  be  con- 
sumed. Other  varieries  of  timber  are  disappearing  in 
proportion  to  the  above  named. 

The  value  of  the  annual  cutring  from  the  American 
forests  is  near  $r, 000, 000,000,  which  is  consumed  in 
1,000  different  ways.  Over  1,000,000,000  cords  are 
used  for  fuel.  In  187  i  10,000  acres  were  stripped  to 
supply  Chicago  alone.  To  supply  the  demands  of  the 
railroads  in  the  State  of  New  York  50,000  acres  of 
woodland  have  been  cleared  in  a  single  year.  Then, 
the  annual  losses  by  forest  fires  are  something  enor- 
mous. The  loss  from  the  fires  of  187  i — which  swept 
over  Wisconsin,  Michigan  and  New  York — is  estimated 
at  over  $125,000,000.  In  1876,  and  again  in  1879, 
Pennsylvania  suffered  terribly  from  these  forest  fires, 
which  in  1876  destroyed  timber  in  value  beyond  com- 
putation in  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
Wisconsin  and  New  Jersey.  In  1878  the  woods  on 
Lake  Superior  were  afire  almost  continuously  for  160 
miles.  These  figures  give  a  general  idea  of  the  im- 
ix)rtance  of  a  proper  care  being  taken  of  our  forest 
lands  and  of  the  immense  annual  demands  upon 
them. 

In  view  of  these  facts  every  philanthropist  is  ex- 
horting land-owners  throughout  the  country  to  plant 
trees,  and  scolding  all  those  who  burn  up  timber 
which  might  be  marketed ;  but,  whether  to  save  or 
burn  a  given  tree  or  log  depends  upon  the  primary 
law  of  demand  and  supply.  If  it  costs  more  to  take 
the  timber  to  market  than  can  be  obtained  for  it,  and 
it  is  not  worth  as  mi'ch  as  the  ground  it  occupies,  of 
course  it  should  be  burned.  The  reproof  for  wanton 
destruction  is  deserved  by  those  who  are  carelessly 
ignorant  of  the  value  of  timber.  Many  trees  are 
worth  more  than  their  owners  imagine.  Many  a  black 
walnut,  for  example,  in  the  Lake  region,  has  sold  for 
$1,000  to  St, 200  in  the  rough.  The  specimens  were 
about  seven  feet  in  diameter  three  feet  from  the 
ground.  Butternut,  maple  (especially  "bird's-eye"), 
hickory,  white  ash,  iron-wood,  tulip-tree,  oak  and 
cedar  are  specimens  of  the  most  valuable  species, 
much  of  which  are  either  wantonly  destroyed  or  care- 
lessly pennitted  to  go  to  waste. 

On  the  other  hand;  the  direct  profits  of  tree-plant- 
ing have  been  definitely  tested  in  this  country.  One 
experiment,  in  Massachusetts,  where  an   exact  book 


5o8 


FORESTRY. 


account  was  kept,  resulted  as  follows:  loo  acres  of 
nearly  valueless  land  was  assessed  at  $50  an  acre  by 
the  law  officers;  interest  for  20  years,  $6,000 ;  taxes, 
$5,000;  fencing,  $400;  oversight,.$50  a  year,  $1,000; 
50,000  trees  (expense),  $1,500;  planting,  $600;  total, 
$14,500.  Per  contra,  50,000  trees  at  75  cents  each, 
$37,500;  5  per  cent,  loss,  $7,300;  gross  proceeds, 
$30,200;  net  profit,  $15,700,  which  is  more  than  200 
per  cent,  of  the  capital  invested,  or  11  per  cent,  each 
year.  But  several  improvements  even  on  that  ex- 
periment can  be  made.  In  the  "West  the  European 
larch  is  found  the  most  profitable  tree.  It  is  hardy, 
of  rapid  growth,  easily  transplanted,  and  bears  close 
or  thick  setting.  At  seven  years  of  age  the  tree  may 
be  used  for  stakes.  Then  the  first  thinning  is  made. 
The  second  thinning  Is  made  at  r4  years,  when  3,600 
fence-posts  are  cut  per  acre,  valued  at  $r,ooo.  The 
third  thinning  is  made  at  2 1  years,  giving  600  trees 
per  acre,  worth  $3,000.  The  fourth  cutting,  at  30 
years,  yields  300  trees,  at  $6,000.  This  makes  a  total 
of  $10,000  from  the  acre  in  30  years,  with  300  trees 
still  left  ufxjn  the  ground,  worth  $6,000  more,  which 
will  continue  to  increase  in  value  for  half  a  century 
longer.  This  is  not  mere  paper  scheming,  but  actual 
facts,  so  far  as  reached  by  Mr.  Schofield,  of  Elgin,  111., 
by  the  Dunlap  estate,  near  Champaign,  111.,  by  Ezra 
Sherman,  Preston,  O.,  and  others. 

The  following  calculations  are  safe :  At  four  feet 
apart,  there  will  be  2,720  plants  to  the  acre.  Thinning 
out  every  alternate  tree  at  the  end  of  six  years  will 
leave  1,360  trees  on  the  ground.  At  the  end  of  12 
years  one-half  of  these  may  be  cut.  The  680  trees 
will  give  136  split  posts  first  cut,  at 

20  cents $27  2 

680  round  posts  second  cut,  at  20  cents 136 

680  round  posts  third  cut,  at  15  cents 102 

Total $510 

Were  the  whole  to  be  cut,  the  yield  would  be  double, 
or  $1,020  as  the  value  of  the  tract,  and  we  may  say, 
in  round  numbers,  that  the  crop  of  an  acre  at  the  end 
of  twelve  years  is  worth  $1,000.  Or,  taking  the  safer 
estimate  of  1,200  trees  to  the  acre  after  being  thinned, 
and  allowing  a  higher  valuation  of  the  posts,  but  still 
below  the  market  value  of  posts,  we  make  the  follow- 
'rtg  showing: 

z,4oo  split  posts  at  25  cents $600 

1,200  round  posts  at  25  cents 300 

1,000  round  posts  at  20  cents 200 

Total $1,100 

It  is  not,  however,  good  policy  to  remove  the  whole 
crop  at  this  time,  for  the  half  that  is  left  at  each  thin- 
ning will  rapidly  improve  until  the  number  is  reduced 
to  about  300  per  acre  and  then  for  half  a  century 
longer  these  will  go  on  increasing  in  value  in  a  geo- 
metrical proportion. 

But  we  are  only  beginning  to  experiment  in  this 
country.  We  want  more  statistics  on  every  point  and 
feature  of  the  subject, — the  kind  of  soil  and  exposure 


for  each  species  of  tree,  the  term  of  rotation,  the  time 
required  by  them  to  reach  their  maximum  of  profit, 
their  relative  rapidity  of  growth,  their  nature  as  to  prox- 
imity to  eachother,  their  influence  upon  climate,  health, 
farm,  garden  and  orchard  products,  money  values, 
etc.,  etc.  To  work  up  data  upon  these  ixjints  requires 
longer  study  and  more  patient  trial  than  anything  else 
in  the  whole  vegetable  or  animal  kingdom.  In  Ger- 
many they  actually  have  forestry  schools,  where  one 
may  attend  and  learn  what  is  to  be  known.  That 
country  is  far  in  advance  of  any  other  Christian 
nation  in  forestry  science,  having  several  million  acres 
under  the  supervision  of  the  government,  with  officers 
to  distinguish  what  trees  to  plant,  in  what  situations, 
what  trees  to  cut,  etc.  In  this  country  every  fanner 
should  have  a  moral  and  educational,  as  well  as  a 
pecuniary  interest  in  making  the  study  of  the  woods 
attractive,  both  to  himself  and  to  his  children.  Sun- 
day afternoons  the  whole  family  should  take  a  stroll 
in  the  wildwood,  if  such  a  place  can  be  found  within 
eight  or  ten  miles  from  home.  Every  boy  should  be- 
come thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  the  trees  and 
shrubs  of  his  locality,  so  that  he  can  recognize  them 
both  summer  and  winter,  whether  standing  or  lying 
as  logs  in  any  stage  of  decay.  He  should  become 
familiar  with  the  habits  of  growth,  the  nature  and 
uses  of  the  wood,  bark,  etc.,  of  every  species  of  tree 
and  shrub  in  his  vicinity.  The  primary  products  of 
the  forest  are  logs  for  lumber  and  nuts  for  eating,  and 
the  secondary  are  the  barks,  fibers,  withes,  roots, 
pitch,  resins,  oils,  galls,  dye-stuffs,  medicines,  sugars, 
gums,  charcoal,  ashes,  etc. 

As  an  expression  of  the  general  interest  taken  in 
tree-culture  by  men  of  information,  we  here  give 
the  substance  of  the  resolutions  under  which  the  Ohio 
State  Agricultural  Society  is  working,  namely:  that 
farmers  and  land-owners  should  plant  their  hillsides, 
ravines,  and  broken  or  rocky  grounds  with  forest 
trees ;  that  at  least  one-tenth  of  each  farm  should  be 
planted  with  groves  and  shelter  belts  of  timber  trees, 
deciduous  and  evergreen;  that  agricultural  societies 
be  urged  to  offer  suitable  premiums  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  tree-planting  and  nurseries  of  trees;  that 
State  Legislatures  should  encourage  tree-plandng 
along  the  sides  of  highways  and  railroads,  and  adopt 
more  stringent  measures  for  the  protection  of  the 
present  forests  :  that  Congress,  by  grants  of  land  and 
otherwise  should  encourage  the  enterprise  of  private 
citizens  who  may  give  assurance  of  their  ability  to 
demonstrate  the  important  problem  of  planting  arti- 
ficial forests  on  the  great  Western  plains,  and  should 
require  railroad  companies  and  settlers  of  homesteads 
to  plant  a  due  proportion  of  their  land  with  useful 
Umber  trees;  and  that  the  agricultural  schools  give 
more  attention  to  the  teaching  of  the  science  and  art 
of  forestry.  There  is  a  real  objection,  however,  to 
hedging  and  shading  the  highways  with  trees,  as  it 
keeps  the  roads  muddy  and  rough  a  greater  portion  of 
the  time ;  but,  notwithstanding  this  objection,  and  in 
full  view  of  the  case  after  a  thorough  discussion,  a 
majority  of  the  societies  as  well  as  of  the  experiment- 


FORESTR  Y. 


509 


ers,  seem  to  be  in  favor  of  lining  all  roads  with  trees, 
as  the  less  of  the  two  evils  we  must  suffer. 

We  have  not  space  here  to  give  the  proofs  and  con- 
siderations pro  and  con  on  the  questions  of  the  influ- 
ence of  timber  belts  upon  the  fall  of  rain,  the  relative 
value  of  the  different  spe<:ies  of  trees,  or  even  the 
history  of  what  has  been  done  in  forest  culture  in  the 
United  States;  but  will  attempt  merely  to  give  the 
substance  of  the  practical  results,  although  there  are 
some  good  people  who  may  doubt  a  fe^  of  the  state- 
ments here  made  : 

1.  Extensive  forests  do  cause  a  more  even  dis- 
tribution of  rain-fall  throughout  the  season,  and  groves 
near  a  plantation  do  protect  it  from  high  winds  and 
much  of  the  excessive  rigor  of  climate.  When  the 
wind  is  from  the  West,  it  is  one  to  ten  degrees  warmer 
on  the  east  side  of  a  hedge  or  timber  belt  than  on  the 
west  side,  according  to  the  amount  of  sunshine  on 
either  side.  On  a  large  scale  a  heavy  forest  protects 
the  land  on  the  same  principle  that  a  heavy  stock  of 
dead  grass  protects  the  ground  on  a  small  scale. 

2.  On  most  of  the  Western  prairies  there  are  not 
timber  trees  enough  planted  yet,  although  there  are 
more  young  trees  now  coming  on  than  there  have  ever 
been  before.  Much  of  this  young  growth  will  be  cut 
off  before  it  is  large  enough  to  make  boards  or  good 
manufacturing  material. 

3.  In  the  timbered  sections  the  clearings  are  not 
followed  up  quite  closely  enough  by  the  planting  of 
other  and  more  useful  trees  to  succeed  the  old 
forests. 

4.  In  renewing  a  grove,  never  plant  on  the  ground 
the  same  kind  of  trees  which  were  upon  it  before. 

5.  In  transplanting  young  trees  from  the  forest, 
preserve  its  natural  surroundings  as  closely  as  con- 
venient as  to  kind  and  condition  of  soil,  amount  of 
shading,  etc.,  and  keep  the  same  side  to  the  north  as 
it  originally  had.  Putting  out  a  tree  with  its  north 
side  turned  to  the  south,  the  sun  will  scald  and  kill 
it.  Stake  and  tie,  or  otherwise  protect  against  the 
wind  all  those  young  trees  transplanted  from  a  pro- 
tected place  in  the  woods.  The  principles  of  root 
and  top  pruning  applicable  to  orchard  culture  of 
fruit  trees  are  also  applicable  to  forest  tree  culture. 
High  winds  shake  and  tear  the  leaves  and  tops  of 
most  of  our  wayside  trees  so  much  that  they  cannot 
perform  their  function,  and  the  trees  send  up  suck- 
ers or  sprouts  for  a  substitute. 

6.  Some  trees  are  more  rapidly  and  vigorously 
started  from  the  seeds,  and  a  few  are  better  propa- 
gated by  cions. 

7.  The  most  valuable  trees,  in  general,  are  those  of 
rather  slow  growti,  as  the  oak,  the  hard  maple,  black 
walnut  and  white  ash,  while  those  of  rapid  growth 
soonest  produce  shade,  but  have  rather  poor  wood 
and  are  more  exhaustive  of  the  soil,  as  cotton-wood, 
white  maple  and  buckeye. 

Some  trees  are  uncouth  in  their  appearance,  some 
cannot  stand  the  high  winds  characteristic  of  our 
Western  prairies,  some  are  subject  to  a  borer  which 
weakens  the  limbs,  while  others  are   sickly  in  their 


new  situations  from  some  unknown  cause.  Of  native 
species  worthy  of  planting,  the  most  valuable  tree  for 
furniture  is  evidently  the  black  walnut ;  next  are 
white  ash  and  hard  maple ;  bird's-eye  or  curled 
maple  is  a  fancy  wood  for  ornamental  work,  but  it 
cannot  be  propagated  at  will ;  the  most  valuable  wood 
for  floors  and  stairways,  handles  and  stocks  of  imple- 
ments, is  the  white  ash;  the  best  for  veneering  is  the. 
white  walnut,  or  butternut ;  for  hedge  and  wood-work 
of  wagons  and  carriages,  the  best  is  Osage  orange;  for 
railroad  ties,  the  best  are  European  larch  and  white 
oak ;  for  high  hedges  and  wind-l)reaks,  among  the 
best  are  Norway  spruce  and  white  pine;  for  fence 
posts,  the  Osage  orange  and  the  magnolia  (speciosa, 
the  Western),  are  among  the  best;  for  bordering 
sloughs  and  wet  places,  the  best  is  almost  any  kind 
of  willow. 

Culture.  There  are,  on  almost  any  farm,  some  por- 
tions that  are  more  or  less  broken  and  indifferently 
adapted  for  cultivated  crops.  On  the  most  level  farms 
there  are  knolls  and  swells,  or  ravines  and  swales,  but 
in  the  hill  country  there  are  steep  declivities,  some  of 
which  are  rocky  or  stony.  All  such  lands  may  be  made 
to  produce  great  crops  of  timber,  and  should  be  so  ap- 
propriated, to  cover  them  and  to  prevent  the  necessity 
of  cultivation  or  the  loss  and  inconvenience  of  having 
them  neglected  eye-sores  and  briar  patches,  wastes, 
secreting  vermin  and  giving  the  whole  farm  a  neg- 
lected and  untidy  appearance.  In  a  level  coun- 
try, where  the  whole  surface  is  arable  land,  and  where 
there  are  no  such  waste  sfwts  to  occupy  and  embellish 
with  timber  growth,  any  portion  of  the  property  may 
be  appropriated  to  the  grove;  but  here  it  may  be  well 
to  make  the  plantation  as  a  shelter  belt,  by  planting 
one  or  two  strips  to  the  windward,  say  the  west,  north 
or  south  sides.  These  should  be  sufficiently  wide  to 
protect  themselves  and  the  rest  of  the  farm,  or  from 
four  to  eight  rods.  Mr.  Bryant  advises  a  strip  of  eight 
rods  on  two  sides  of  every  quarter  section  of  land. 

The  land  should  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed.  In 
raw  prairies,  the  trench  plow  will  be  the  best  means 
of  preparation  ;  if  old  ground,  any  good  plowing  will 
answer.  Like  any  other  crops,  the  timber  planting 
will  be  aided  by  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil 
for  the  seeds,  cuttings  or  plants.  Large  seeds  should 
be  set  at  once  in  the  field ;  cuttings  and  delicately 
growing  seedlings  had  better  be  started  in  a  nursery. 
If  the  land  be  very  broken  or  rocky,  this  thorough  prep- 
aration of  the  soil  cannot  be  given  to  it,  and  all  that 
can  be  done  will  be  to  clean  it  up,  by  grubbing  and 
removing  the  weeds  and  briars,  digging  holes  for 
the  trees. 

The  usual  method  of  renewing  the  forest  is  either 
pitting,  notching,  seeding  and  self-seeding  or  natural 
reproduction,  which  last,  when  not  entirely  satisfac- 
tory in  its  results,  is  complemented  by  filling  in  the 
gaps  with  useful  and  desirable  species,  planted  by  tlie 
first  named  process  ;  this  is  particularly  practiced  with 
the  oaks,  and  these  are  usually  planted  of  large  size. 
Pitting  consists  in  digging  holes,  at  suitable  intervals, 
in  which  the  young  trees  are  planted.     Notching  is  a 


S'o 


FORESTRY. 


very  simple  process,  cheap  and  primitive.  The  tool 
used  is  a  peculiar,  naiTow  and  thick  spade,  which  is 
thrust  down  into  the  sod,  withdrawn  and  again  inserted 
so  that  the  two  cuts  shall  be  at  right  angles,  and  be- 
fore withdrawing  the  tool  the  cleft  is  opened,  and  the 
plant  is  inserted  by  an  assistant  and  held  in  the  angle 
thus  foniied  until  the  spade  is  withdrawn,  when  the 
earth  is  pressed  against  it  with  the  foot,  and  the  little 
tree  is  left  to  take  care  of  itself.  Attempts  to  plant  in 
this  way  have  not  been  very  satisfactory  in  our  coun- 
try, especially  where  blue  grass  abounds. 

For  the  larger  seeds  or  nuts,  the  ground  should  be 
marked  off  with  a  light  furrow,  into  which  they  are 
droiJ()ed  and  then  covered  with  a  plow  or  harrow. 
Tliey  may  be  put  in  hills  or  squares,  like  com.  If 
yoang  trees  are  set  out,  it  will  be  necessary  to  open 
holes  for  them  with  the  spade,  and  in  planting  them  it 
will  be  advisable  to  pack  the  earth  very  firmly  about 
the  roots.  This  is  particularly  necessary  with  young 
conifers,  such  as  larch  and  cedar,  and  other  evergreens. 
The  planting  should  also  be  done  very  early  in  the 
spring,  or  as  soon  as  the  labor  can  be  done  after  the 
soil  is  dry  enough  to  work  pleasantly.  It  has  been  rec- 
ommended to  plant  a  crop  of  corn  on  the  land  pre- 
paratory to  setting  out  the  trees,  in  which  case  the 
work  may  be  done  in  the  fall,  planting  a  tree  beside 
each  hill ;  the  cornstalk  or  stubble  will  afford  protec- 
tion to  the  young  tree,  and  guide  the  planter.  In 
meadow  soil  properly  prepared,  the  planting  of  young 
trees  is  a  very  simple  affair.  The  spade  is  thrust 
deeply  into  the  ground,  a  cleft  is  opened  into  which 
the  tree  is  planted,  and  by  inverting  the  spade  the  soil 
is  pressed  against  the  roots  firmly.  When  we  have  to 
deal  with  the  more  valuable  and  costly  tree,  or  with 
those  of  larger  growth,  more  care  is  requisite.  The 
hole  must  be  dug  and  the  plants  set  by  hand,  bring- 
ing the  earth  among  the  roots  and  upon  them,  and 
then  stamping  it  closely  about  them.  When  hand- 
ling the  plants,  be  very  careful  to  prevent  the  drying 
of  the  roots.  This  is  especially  requisite  with  resinous 
trees  and  with  some  other  kinds,  such  as  the  tulip 
poplar.  With  some  of  the  hardy  sorts,  such  as  the 
cotton-wood  and  soft  maple,  a  very  primitive  process 
is  often  employed.  The  little  trees  are  simply  laid 
along,  with  their  roots  in  the  furrows  and  covered  with 
the  plow,  after  which  the  land  may  be  rolled.  Some 
of  the  soft- wooded  or  marsh  trees  will  grow  from,  cut- 
tings as  readily  as  the  grape.  Oaks,  if  removed  when 
two  years  old,  cutting  off  the  tap  root,  and  again  after- 
ward when  the  roots  run  downward,  will  do  well. 
Hundreds  have  been  transplanted  when  12  feet  high 
and  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  with  little  or  no 
loss. 

There  has  been  a  great  difference  of  practice  among 
farmers  as  to  the  ])roper  distance  to  set  trees  in  tim- 
ber plantations.  Many  have  erred  by  planting  too 
wide,  few  by  setting  too  closely.  Both  extremes  may 
seem  to  follow  nature.  In  the  matured  forest,  the 
trees  are  widely  separated,  it  is  true,  but  in  the  young 
forest  growth  they  are  closely  crowded  together,  and 
where  so  crowded  the  finest  timber  trees  are  the  result. 


The  widely  planted  trees  will  require  much  labor  to 
train  them  into  shape,  all  of  which  may  be  avoided 
by  close  planting.  Many  plantations  have  been  made 
8  by  8  feet,  some  wider,  but  the  best  practice  with  al- 
most all  tree-planting  is  to  set  closely.  Five  feet  and 
5  X  6  is  still  recommended,  but  4  x  4  is  much  better,  and 
some  advise  3x3.  Mr.  Edwards,  of  Illinois,  says  he 
would  set  larches  3  x  3  as  nurses  for  pines  and  spruces 
planted  among  them  every  1 2  feet.  Hickories,  chest- 
nuts, elms,  and  all  such  trees  as  may  be  used  for 
hoop-poles,  when  these  are  in  demand,  can  be  planted 
in  close  drills,  thickly,  so  that  in  four  or  five  years  a 
crop  may  be  removed,  leaving  the  thinned  trees  to  de- 
velop themselves. 

The  young  trees  should  be  thoroughly  cultivated 
for  a  few  years.  The  first  summer  the  two-horse  cul- 
tivator maybe  used  ;  after  this  the  double  shovel  must 
be  taken.  In  the  fall  after  planting,  it  may  be  well  to 
bank  them  with  a  turning  plow  as  a  protection,  in 
winter.  In  most  cases  the  hoe  will  be  needed  while 
the  trees  are  small,  but  in  after  years  the  shade  will 
keep  down  the  weeds. 

When  planted  thickly  there  will  be  little  need  for 
trimming  the  trees.  Nature  will  effect  this  unaided 
by  her  own  process  of  smothering.  It  may  often  hap- 
pen, however,  that  some  species  will  produce  double 
headers,  one  of  which  should  be  shortened  at  once  or  re- 
moved. The  side  branches  will  soon  die  and  fall  off 
when  the  tops  form  a  canopy.  This  is  not  the  case  in 
wide  planting;  if  they  have  room  to  spread,  the  trees 
will  be  branched,  and  it  often  happens  that  several  of 
these  branches  will  strive  for  the  mastery.  When  this 
occurs  all  but  one  should  be  shortened,  or,  if  small, 
removed.  If  a  tree  here  and  there  appears  stunted,  or 
injured  by  accident  or  insect,  cut  it  off  at  the  ground 
in  the  winter,  and  it  will  be  reproduced  by  a  strong, 
clean  shoot.  In  this  case  the  smaller  sprouts  must 
be  kept  away,  in  order  to  concentrate  the  forces  of 
all  the  roots  uixin  one  shoot,  which  will  thus  often  be 
able  to  overtake  the  older  trees  in  its  vicinity.  The 
extra  care,  however,  required  for  this  procedure,  is 
scarcely  ever  remunerative. 

Trimming  will  require  the  exercise  of  sound  judg- 
ment ;  nor  can  it  be  directed  by  a  set  of  rules  indicat- 
ing the  days  and  years  when  it  should  l)e  done.  The 
object  of  close  planting  is  to  give  the  trees  an  upward 
growth  without  side  branches,  but  when  this  has  been 
attained,  we  must  watch  lest  the  plants  become 
crowded  and  chafe  one  another.  The  period  when 
thinning  may  become  necessary,  will  depend  upon  the 
variety  planted  and  the  rapidity  of  their  growth.  Some 
will  need  it  sooner  than  others,  but  as  a  general  rale, 
the  plantations  should  be  thinned  before  the  trees  are 
too  much  grown.  If  in  drills  closely  planted  the 
supernumeraries  must  be  cut  out,  taking  always  the 
poorer  trees,  and  leaving  the  stronger  with  sufficient 
room  for  development.  If  the  planting  has  been 
done  in  squares,  every  alternate  tree,  or  if  in  close 
rows,  every  alternate  row  may  be  taken  away  at  the 
first  cutting.     In  a  few  years  the  same  process  will  be 


FORESTRY. 


5" 


Fig, 


needed  as  the  trees   continue  to   grow   and   crowd. 

Every  alternate  tree  may  now  be  taken  away. 

Trees  can  be  trans- 
planted safely  at  any  age, 
but,  unless  at  the  best 
time,  extraordinary  care 
may  be  required.  The 
old  practice  of  digging  a 
trench  around  the  tree  late 
in  autumn,  leaving  it  to 
freeze,  and  then  remov- 
ing the  whole  mass  as  a 
frozen  ball  of  earth  some 
time  during  the  winter,  is 
generally  abandoned  as 
being  more  expensive 
than  is  necessary.  Trees, 
both  deciduous  and  ever- 
green, can  be  removed  in 
mid-summer  after  the 
growth  of  the  season  has 
^^  somewhat  ripened,  in 

Tra,uplantinffLarg,  Trees.^^^-^^^^^^  ^^^^^   ^j^g  foliagC  of 

the  deciduous  tree  should  be  clipped  off  up  to  the 
middle  leaf  of  the  stem,  and  the  present  year's  growth 
of  the  evergreens  all  cut  off  except  one  bud. 

Figure     i     represents     an     apparatus    for   trans- 
planting large  fruit  or  forest  trees. 
It  is  merely  a  pair  of  large  wheels 
and  an  axle.     A  piece  of  4  x  4  inch 
studding  is  tied   to  the  tree  with 
cloths,  straw,  or  something  to  pre- 
vent bruising  the  bark  of  the  tree, 
and  a  rope  at  the  upper  end.     A 
trench    has   previously  been   dug 
around  the  tree.     When  ready  to 
move  It,  fasten  the  axle  firmly  to       Treutthe  Root^. 
the  studding  or  timber,  seize  the  rope  and  pull  the 
tree  into  a  horizontal  position,  when  it  is  ready  for 
transportation. 

Tlie  holes  into  which  the  trees  are  set  should  be 
four  inches  greater  in  diam- 
eter than  the  mass  of  roots, 
and  the  base  of  the  center 
should  be  a  little  mound  of 
earth,  on  which  the  roots 
should  be  spread  out  as  in 
Fig.  3,  and  not  as  in  Fig.  2. 
Fine  rich  soil  should  then  be 
pressed  carefully  under  and 
around  the  roots  with  the 
hands,  and  notstamped  down 
with  the  feet,  except  a  little 
at  the  finishing.  The  up- 
per tier  of  roots  should  be 
covered  about  four  inches, 
and  the  whole  setting  so  doie  that  after  the  earth  has 
settled  the  tree  will  be  at  the  same  level  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  that  it  originally  had.  Then 
mulch  for  six  feet  around,  more  as  illustrated  by  Fig. 


Fig. 


-j^Rf'^ht  IVay  to    Spread 
the  Roots. 


4  than  by  Fig.  5,  for  several  very  obvious  reasons. 
The  best  age  for  transplanting  apples,  pears,  and 
plums  as  standards  is  at  two  years  from  the  growth  of 
the  bud  or  graft.  The  pear  grown  upon  the  quince, 
the  apple  u[X)n  the  Doucain  or 
Paradise  stocks,  the  peach  up- 
on the  plum,  the  apricot  and 
nectarine  upon  the  plum, 
should  be  planted  at  one  year 
from  the  bud  or  graft.  If  the 
trees  come  from  a  nursery 
not  cultivated  by  yourself,  first 
wet  the  package  on  the  receipt 
Fig.  ^.-Proper  Muichi.,,^.  of  it,  before  opening,  and  then 
dig  a  trench  in  some  light  dry  soil,  and  heel  the  plants 
in.  If  in  autumn  too  late  for  planting,  throw  also  some 
brush  over  them. 

Seeds  of  fruit  trees  should  never  be  permitted  to 
become  perfectly  dry.  Bury  them 
in  a  moist,  cold  place,  but  not 
wet,  say  under  three  or  four  inches 
of  earth  on  the  north  side  of  a 
building,  until  planting  time. 
Peach  and  plum  stones  should 
be  carefully  cracked  ;  but  cheriy 
stones  will  open  of  themselves 
and  should  be  first  planted  in ' 
spring,  which  will  allow  sufficient  Yii^. i.-\Vrong MuUking. 
room  for  those  remaining  to  go  on  growing  for  an- 
other term  of  years.  By  systematic  removal  of  the 
surplus  trees,  always  taking  the  weakest,  the  rem- 
nant may  be  left  at  the  last  thinning,  at  an  average 
of  twelve  feet  apart,  at  which  distance  many  kinds 
may  remain  for  a  long  time.  Valuable  trees  that  you 
wish  to  propagate  should  be  cut  in  the  spring.  Those 
that  you  wish  to  exterminate  should  be  cut  in  August. 
Whether  natural  or  artificial,  the  forest  must  always 
be  kept  carefully  inclosed  so  as  to  exclude  all  kinds  of 
stock.  Young  trees  especially  need  this  protection 
from  the  trampling  of  cattle;  but  even  large  trees  in 
the  more  matured  forests  are  often  seriously  injured  by 
intruders  of  this  class. 

The  preservation  of  our  native  forest  growths  is  a 
matter  of  equal  importance  with  the  planting  of  groves 
and  coppices  where  the  former  does  not  exist.  For 
this  purjxjse  the  first  requisite  is  their  inclosure,  so  as 
to  preserve  them  from  the  depredations  of  domestic 
animals.  Next  in  importance  is  the  prevention  of 
fires,  which  are  often  allowed  to  destroy  vast  tracts  of 
the  most  beautiful  trees,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
burn  up  infinite  numbers  of  young  trees,  that,  if  not 
so  destroyed  or  browsed  off  liy  cattle,  would  be  ready 
to  spring  up  into  new  forest  growths  wherever  the 
trees  already  matured  should  be  cut  away. 

An  earnest  appeal  is  made  to  wait  no  longer,  but  to 
begin  at  once  to  plant  forest  trees, — plant  them  for 
their  beauty;  to  plant  them  for  the  shelter  they  afford; 
to  plant  them  for  their  happy  effects  in  modifying  and 
equalizing  the  climate,  in  checking  the  force  of  the 
winds,  thus  preventing  excessive  evajx)rations  and 
cold ;  to  plant  them  for  their  utility  upon  the  farm ;  to 


5>2 


FORESTRY. 


plant  them  for  patriotic  motives;  and  finally,  if  you 
can  be  touched  by  no  more  refined  sentiment,  to  plant 
timber  trees  as  a  farm  crop,  for  x!smt  profit,  which  is  a 
demonstrable  proposition,  as  already  set  forth. 

Species.  Following  is  a  tolerably  complete  list  of 
the  trees  recommended  for  propagation,  with  such 
notes  as  will  enable  the  reader  to  compile  lists  for  his 
own  locality.  The  confusion  in  names  of  trees,  and 
especially  of  shrubs,  as  used  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  is  often  quite  bewildering.  This  arises  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways  among  those  who  have  little 
observation  or  no  knowledge  of  botany.  For  in- 
stance, one  is  called  by  some  "whitewood"  and  "tulip- 
tree,"  by  others  "poplar."  The  latter  name  is  also 
used  for  several  other  species  of  trees.  Two  species 
of  trees  are  indiscriminately  six)ken  of  as  the  "soft 
maple."  The  names  of  our  oaks  are  a  good  deal 
mixed  up.  This  is  true  of  the  scientific  descriptions 
as  well  as  of  the  common  names.  We  have  seven 
species  of  birch,  five  of  which  are  trees.  Two  or  three 
of  them  are  known  as  "yellow  birch"  in  different 
sections  of  the  country.  Two  others  are  indiscrimin- 
ately called  the  "white  birch."  Hardly  any  one,  unless 
a  botanist,  pretends  to  know  the  species  of  our  willows 
and  poplars  and  cottonwoods.  Two  or  three  different 
species  of  pine  are  known  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  as  "scrub  pine,"  "gray  pine,"  "buckwheat 
pine,"  "black  pine,"  "jack  pine.'  Of  course  there  is 
still  greater  confusion  of  names  and  want  of  any 
common  name  among  some  of  the  shrubs  and  the 
rare  trees. 

Arbor-Vitge,  American.  The  most  valuable  of  the 
Thuyas;  wood  light-colored,  compact,  light,  very 
durable  and  largely  employed  for  posts,  railway  ties, 
fencing,  etc.  The  western  spe  ies  is  liable  to  split 
and  warp  in  the  sun. 

Ash,  White.  The  most  valuable  of  the  family,  as 
its  wood  is  the  best  for  tool  and  implement  handles, 
for  portions  of  carriages,  cabinet-work,  cars,  stair-steps, 
etc.;  first-rate  for  fuel  also.  The  black  ash  is  em- 
ployed in  basket-making,  etc. 

Bass-wood,  1  Jn,  Linden,  Lime,  Teal,  White-wood. 
Well  known;  wood  largely  employed  in  turnery,  in- 
terior work  and  manufacture  of  wooden  ware ; 
excellently  adapted  to  our  western,  black  prairie  soil. 
Bark  good  for  cordage,  matting,  etc. 

Birch.  The  white  birch  is  manufactured  into  sjxxils, 
shoe-pegs,  etc. ;  the  sweet  or  mahogany  birch  (Betula 
lenta)  is  valuable  in  cabinet-making  and  for  fuel;  the 
red  birch  is  commpn  along  our  western  streams,  and 
the  canoe  or  paper  birch  is  good  for  fuel,  for  the 
manufacture  of  spools,  shoe-lasts,  pegs,  etc. 

Box-Elder,  or  Ash-Leaved  Maple.  Well  known  as 
a  fair  shade  tree,  but  not  very  ornamental;  propagates 
itself  like  weeds,  and  is  very  tough. 

Buck-Eye.  A  rather  low  tree,  with  beauriful  and 
luxuriant  foliage ;  common  in  the  bottom  lands  along 
our  larger  water-courses. 

California  Laurel.     See  Laurel. 

Catalpa.  The  best  catalpa  for  planting  in  the 
Northwest  is  what  is  called  the  Western ;  when  full- 


grown  it  is  80  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  4  feet  in  diameter; 
one  of  the  best  for  railway  ties,  fence-iX)Sts,  etc.,  and  is 
good  for  cabinet  work.  Its  flowers  are  earlier,  larger 
and  whiter  than  those  of  the  other  kind. 

Cedar,  Red.     The  most  valuable  of  the  cedars. 

Chestnut.  Valuable  nut-bearing  tree  in  the  older 
States. 

Coffee-Tree  or  Cofiee  Bean.  See  Kentucky  Coffee- 
tree. 

Cucumber  Tree.     See  Magnolia. 

Elm.  The  white  elm  is  the  most  common  and  is 
being  extensively  planted  as  a  way-side  tree;  the 
wood  is  used  in  making  hubs,  water  pipes,  etc.  The 
cork  or  rock  elm  yields  a  first-rate  wood  for  heavy 
agricultural  implements,  furniture,  and  all  purposes 
requiring  a  combination  of  strength,  toughness  and 
solidity. 

Fir.  The  most  valuable  is  the  Norway  spruce. 
The  black  spruce  is  valuable  for  paper  and  for  lumber. 

Holly,  American.  A  small  tree,  rarely  40  feet  in 
height;  wood  white,  heart-wood  brown,  close-grained, 
heavy ;  used  in  cabinet-work,  turnery,  etc. 

Honey  Locust.  Sometimes  planted  in  the  North 
where  it  is  not  found  native;  good  for  hedges. 

June-Berry.     See  Shad-bush. 

Kentucky  Coffee-Tree,  or  Coffee  Bean.  Produces 
beautiful  foliage  and  beans;  of  little  account  for  any- 
thing else. 

Larch,  American,  or  Blade;  Tamarack;  Hackmatack. 
These  several  names  are  applied  to  a  well  known 
deciduous  tree  with  pine-like  leaves,  so  valuable  for 
posts,  telegraph-jxiles,  railway  ties,  upper  knees  of 
ships,  etc.  The  European  variety  is  more  profitable, 
probably  the  most  profitable  of  all. 

Laurel,  Mountain,  California  Laurel,  etc.  A  tree 
from  the  Pacific  coast  of  full  forest  height,  whose 
roots  yield  a  volatile  oil ;  the  wood  is  brownish,  close- 
grained,  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish,  and  is  highly 
esteemed,  especially  that  of  the  roots,  for  cabinet- 
making. 

Lin.     See  Basswood. 

Locust,  Common.  Well  known;  too  tender  for 
the  latitude  of  Northern  Illinois. 

Magnolia,  or  Cucumber  Tree.  A  large  tree,  60  to 
80  feet  high  and  2  to  4  feet  in  diameter;  wood  soft, 
close-grained ;  preferred  for  pump  logs. 

Maple,  Sugar.  Hard  or  Rock.  Well  known  as  the 
best  shade  and  ornamental  tree,  whose  wood  is  good 
for  manufacturing  purposes,  and  sap  the  best  for  sugar. 

Maple,  White  or  Silver.  Well  known  as  a  beautiful 
tree,  except  that  it  is  subject  to  the  borer  and  to 
breaking  down  by  wind. 

Maple,  Ash-leaved.     See  Box  Elder. 

Mountain  Laurel.     See  Laurel. 

Mulberry.  A  small  tree,  sometimes  70  feet  high, 
with  a  trunk  two  feet  in  diameter,  bearing  edible,  sweet 
fruit;  wood  yellowish,  heavy,  exceedingly  durable, 
valuable  for  posts,  tunnels,  etc. 

Osage  Orange.  The  best  for  fann  hedges,  if  not 
too  far  north. 


FORK—FO  WLS. 


513 


Pine.  The  white  is  best  for  general  utility;  next 
the  Scotch,  Austrian,  red,  etc. 

Red-Bud,  or  Judas  Tree.     Good  only  for  ornament. 

Service-Berry.     See  Shad-bush. 

Shad -bush,  June-berry,  Service-berry,  etc.  Recom- 
mended for  planting  by  some  horticulturists  as  a  kind 
of  ornamental  tree ;  it  bears  edible  fruit ;  on  the 
whole  it  is  comparatively  unimportant. 

Spruce.    Fir. 

Sweet  or  White  Bay.  A  small  tree  in  swamps ; 
roots  yield  a  yellow  dye. 

Tulip-tree,  Yellow  Poplar,  White  Wood.  A  large 
tree  70  to  100  feet  high,  4  to  7  feet  in  diameter; 
wood  light,  close-grained,  string,  easily  worked,  ex- 
tensively used  in  building,  interior  work,  shingles, 
panels,  boxes,  etc. 

Walnut.  The  black  walnut  is  probably  the  most 
profitable  tree  to  plant  for  future  generations,  as  its 
wood  is  so  valuable  in  cabinet-ware,  saying  nothing  of 
the  nuts  and  the  bark,  which  latter  yields  a  very  good 
dyeing  material ;  becoming  very  scarce  in  the  forests. 
The  white  walnut,  or  butternut,  is  now  used  extens- 
ively in  veneering,  in  cabinet-making,  its  bark  yields 
a  valuable  dye,  and  the  nuts  it  bears  are  very  {X)pu- 
lar.     This  species  is  also  becoming  scarce. 

White  Bay.    See  Sweet  Bay. 

White  Wood.     See  Tulip-tree. 

Wild  Black  Cherry.  Too  plentiful  in  the  forest  to 
want  propagation  elsewhere. 

Willow.  Almost  any  species  is  valuable  for  plant- 
ing in  wet  places  and  along  the  banks  of  streams. 

Yellow  Poplar.     See  Tulip-tree. 

The  best  trees  to  raise  for  timber  in  Michigan  are 
white  ash,  hickory,  black  walnut,  white  pine,  white 
oak,  European  larch  and  chestnut.  The  five  best  for 
Iowa  are  said  to  be  black  walnut,  chestnut,  white  ash, 
silver  maple  and  European  larch. 

Fork :  for  Hay  Fork,  see  Hay. 

rounder,  to  cause  internal  inflammation  and  sore 
feet  and  limbs — of  a  horse;  also,  general  fever  or 
acute  rheumatism,  as  "chest  founder." 

rountain.  Artificial  fountains  for  both  parlor  and 
lawn  can  be  obtained  at  many  hardware  stores.  A 
parlor  fountain  has  been  invented  which  is  renewed 
every  hour  by  simple  inversion  of  the  frame  on  a  ro- 
tating bar.  Where  a  residence  is  situated  below  the 
brow  of  a  hill,  or  where  wind-mill  pumps  are  in  opera- 
tion, it  is  easy  and  inexpensive  to  keep  a  lawn  fountain 
in  continual  play.  A  fountain  is  easily  made  at  home, 
but  those  in  market  are  generally  far  more  ornamental. 
There  is  nothing  so  refreshing  to  the  view  in  sultry 
weather  as  a  fountain  or  a  cataract. 

Fowl,  Domestic.  In  a  restricted  sense  this  term 
is  used  to  designate  the  cock  and  hen,  or  the  genus 
Gallus  in  the  order  of  Gallinaceous  birds;  and  in 
poultry  vernacular  even  the  word  "  fowl "  itself  is  used 
to  designate  this  otherwise  nameless  species.  Other 
terms  are  also  employed,  as  "barnyard  fowl,"  "barn- 
door fowl,"  "chicken,"  "  hen,"  etc.     But  in  the  broader 

83 


sense  the  term  "domestic  fowls"  includes  the  turkey, 
goose,  duck,  Guinea-hen,  etc. 

There  is  no  more  profitable  or  interestmg  subject  to 
which  the  farmer  can  give  heed  than  that  of  raising 
the  domestic  fowl.  No  animal  or  fowl  has  a  record 
that  excels  it,  and  for  its  antiquity  and  universality  it 
has  no  peer.  The  cock  is  the  well-known  chieftain  of 
the  poultry-yard,  and  rural  announcer  of  the  passage 
of  time.  His  shrill  clarion,  heard  in  the  still  watches 
of  the  night,  inspires  the  invalid  with  cheering  hopes 
of  the  coming  dawn,  and  informs  the  way-worn  trav- 
eler of  his  approach  to  the  habitations  of  his  kind. 
He  is  the  appropriate  emblem  of  vigilance,  virihty, 
warlike  daring  and  gallantry ;  domesticated,  but  not 
subdued,  he  marches  at  the  head  of' his  train  of  wives 
and  offspring  with  a  bearing  of  proud  defiance,  not 
less  ready  to  punish  aggression  against  his  dependents 
than  to  assert  his  superiority  ujwn  the  challenge  of 
any  rival.  At  what  time  this  valuable  species  of 
pheasant  was  brought  under  the  immediate  control  of 
man,  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine;  but  as  the 
forests  of  many  parts  of  India  still  abound  with  sev- 
eral varieties  of  the  cock  in  the  wild  or  natural  con- 
dition, it  is  quite  reasonable  to  supjx)se  that  the  race 
was  first  domesticated  in  the  Eastern  countries,  and 
gradually  extended  thence  to  the  rest  of  the  world. 
It  is  stated  that  the  cock  was  first  introduced  into 
Europe  from  Persia ;  nevertheless  it  has  been  so  long 
established  throughout  Europe  as  to  render  it  impos- 
sible to  trace  its  progress  from  its  native  wilds.  In 
the  palmiest  days  of  Greece  and  Rome  he  occupied  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  public  shows  which  amused 
the  masses  of  the  people.  He  was  dedicated  to  the 
worship  of  the  pagan  deities,  and  was  connected  with 
the  worship  of  Aix>llo,  Mercury,  Mars,  and  particularly 
Esculapius. 

The  practice  of  cock-fighting,  barbarous  as  it  is, 
originated  in  classic  times,  and  among  the  most  pol- 
ished and  civilized  people  of  antiquity. 

The  cock  has  head  surrounded  by  a  notched,  crim- 
son, fleshy  substance,  called  comb;  two  pendulous, 
fleshy  bodies  of  the  same  color,  termed  wattles,  hung 
under  his  throat.  The  hen  has  also  a  similar,  but  not 
so  large  or  so  vividly  colored  excrescence  on  her  head. 
The  cock  is  provided  with  a  sharp  horn  or  spur  on  the 
inside  [of  his  leg,  with  which  he  inflicts  severe 
wounds;  the  hen^iijstead  of  the  spur  has  a  mere  knot 
or  tubercle.  There  is  in  both  sexes,  below  the  ear,  an 
oblong  six)t,  the  anterior  edge  of  which  is  reddish  and 
the  remainder  white.  The  feathers  arise  in  pairs  from 
each  sheath,  touching  by  their  points  within  the  skin, 
but  diverging  in  their  course  outwards.  On  the  neck 
they  are  long,  narrow,  and  floaring  on  the  rump  they 
are  of  the  same  form,  but  drooping  latterly  over  the 
extremity  of  the  wings,  which  are  quite  short,  and  ter- 
minate at  the  origin  of  the  tail,  the  plumes  of  which 
are  vertical.  In  the  center  of  the  cock's  tail  are  two 
long  feathers,  which  fall  backwards  in  a  graceful  arch 
and  add  great  beauty  to  the  whole  aspect  of  the  fowl. 
It  is  in  vain  to  offer  any  description  of  the  color  of  the 
plumage,  as  it  is  indefinitely  varied,  beiny  in  some 


5U 


FO  WLS. 


breeds  of  the  greatest  richness  and  elegance,  and  in 
others  of  the  simplest  and  plainest  hue.  Except  in 
the-  pure  white  breeds,  the  plumage  of  the  cock  is 
always  more  splendid  than  that  of  the  hen.  We  can- 
not contemplate  the  cock,  when  in  good  health  and 
full  plumage,  without  being  struck  with  his  apparent 
consciousness  of  personal  beauty  and  courage;  his 
movements  and  gestures  seem  all  to  be  influenced  by 


Fiij.  1. — OurJe  Brahmas, 

such  feelings,  and  his  stately  march  and  frequent  tri- 
umphant crowing  express  confidence  in  his  strength 
and  bravery.  The  sagacity  of  the  cock  is  excessive, 
and  one  is  known  as  to  be  quite  sufficient  for  the 
fecundation  of  lo  or  15  hens.  His  sexual  powers  are 
matured  when  he  is  about  six  months  old,  and  his  full 
vigor  lasts  for  about  three  years,  varying  with  earliness 


of  maturity  and  with  his  size  and  even  the  climate. 
The  hen  is  deservedly  the  acknowledged  pattern  of 
maternal  love.  When  her  passion  of  philoprogenitive- 
ness  is  disap]X)inted  by  the  failure  or  subtraction  of 
her  own  brood,  she  will  either  continue  incubating  till 
her  natural  jx)wers  fail,  or  will  violently  kidnap  the 
young  of  other  fowls  and  insist  ujwn  adopting  them. 
She  is  ready  to  commence  laying  after  she  has  moulted 

or  changed  her  plum- 
age, and  is  not  at  the 
*  '        trouble  of  making   a 

regular  nest.  A  sim- 
ple hole  scratched  in 
the  ground  in  some 
retired  place  serves 
the  purpose,  and  she 
generally  lays  from  1 2 
to  15  eggs  before  she 
begins  to  sit  upon 
them  for  the  purpose 
of  hatching.  Having 
thus  taken  possession 
of  her  nest,  she  be- 
comes a  model  of  en- 
during patience,  re- 
maining fixed  in  her 
place  until  the  ur- 
gency of  hunger  forces 
her  to  go  in  search  of 
food.  A  short  time 
suffices;  she  runs  eag- 
erly about  in  quest  of 
sustenance,  and  soon 
resumes  her  charge. 
Her  eggs  are  dili- 
gently turned  and 
shifted  from  the  cen- 
ter to  the  edge  of  the 
nest,  so  that  each 
may  receive  a  due  de- 
gree of  genial  warmth, 
and  it  is  not  until 
about  2 1  days  have 
elapsed  that  the  in- 
cubation is  complete. 
The  strongest  of  the 
progeny  then  begin 
to  chip  the  shell  with 
the  bill,  and  are  suc- 
cessively enabled  to 
burst  their  brittle 
prisons.  She  contin- 
ues upon  the  nest  un- 
til the  whole  are 
hatched  and  dry,  then  leads  them  forth  for  food.  The 
hen,  except  when  accompanied  by  a  young  brood,  is 
always  timid,  and  ready  to  fly  from  disturbance,  but 
when  she  engages  in  discharging  the  duties  of  mater- 
nity her  whole  nature  is  changed.  She  fiercely  and 
vigorously  attacks  all  aggressors;  watches  over  the 
safety  of  her  young  with  the  utmost  jealousy,  neglects 


FO  WLS. 


515 


the  demands  of  her  own  appetite  to  divide  the  food 
she  may  obtain  aniong  her  nurshngs,  and  labors  with 
untiring  diligence  to  provide  them  sufficient  suste- 
nance. 

The  limits  within  which  we  are  restricted  forbid  the 
attempt  to  gi\'e  r.  complete  history  of  this  valuable 
species,  which  is,  in  every  jxiint  of  view,  interesting. 
To  detail  all  that  would  be  necessary  to  illustrate  it 
as  an  object  of  natural  history  and  domestic  economy, 
would  require  a  volume.  We  will,  however,  in  a  prac- 
tical way,  treat  the  modes  of  breeding  and  rearing,  the 
best  breeds,  with  en- 
gravings of  same,  and 
the  manner  of  prepar- 
ing for  the  market  and 
the  table. 
Varieties   of    Fowls. 

Bantams.  Some  au- 
thorities claim  that  the 
original  of  the  Bantams 
is  the  Bankiva  fowl,  of 
the  East  Indies  ;  others 
claim  that  the  immer- 
ous  diminutive  fowls 
known  as  Bantams  have 
no  ancestry  in  original 
stock,  l)ui  are"  artiticial 
fowls,"  inasmuch  as 
they  have  been  carefully 
dwarfjd  and  perfected 
by  .ne  art  of  man.  The 
smaller  varieties  of 
poultry  are  generally 
knowa  under  this  name. 
They  are  not  especial- 
ly valuable,  being  kept 
entirely  as  pets  for  orna- 
ment. 

These  little  creatures 
exhibit  some  peculiar 
habits  and  traits  of  dis- 
position. Amongst 
others,  the  cocks  are  so 
fond  of  sacking  the  eggs 
laid  by  the  lien  that 
they  will  often  drive  her 
from  the  nest  in  order  to 

obtain  them;  they  have  been  even  known  to  attack  her, 
tear  open  the  ovarium,  and  devour  its  shell-less  con- 
tents. To  prevent  this,  first  a  hard-boiled,  and  then 
a  marble  egg  may  be  given  them  to  fight  with,  taking 
care,  at  the  same  time,  to  prevent  their  access  either 
to  tire  hen  or  to  any  real  eggs.  Another  strange  pro- 
pensity is  a  passion  for  sucking  each  other's  blood, 
which  is  chiefly  exhibited  when  they  are  moulting, 
when  they  have  l)een  known  I0  peck  each  other 
naked,  by  pulling  out  the  new  feathers  as  they  appear, 
and  squeezing  with  their  beaks  the  blood  from  the 
bulbs  at  the  base.  These  fowls  being  subject  to  a 
great  heat  of  the    skin,  its   surface   occasionally  be- 


comes hardened  and  tightened ;  in  which  cases  the 
hard  roots  of  the  feathers  are  drawn  into  a  position 
more  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  body  than  at 
ordinary  times,  and  the  skin  and  superficial  muscles 
are  thus  subjected  to  an  unusual  degree  of  painful 
irritation.  The  disagreeable  habit  is,  therefore,  simply 
a  provision  of  Nature  for  their  relief,  which  may  be 
successfully  accomplished  by  washing  with  warm 
water,  and  the  subsequent  application  of  jxsmatum  to 
the  skin. 

Bantams,  in  general,  are  greedy  devourers  of  some 


Fig.  2. — Light  Braktnas, 

of  the  most  destructive  of  our  insects,  the  grub  of 
the  cock-chafer  and  the  crane-fly  being  especial 
favorites  with  them.  Their  chickens  can  hardly  be 
raised  so  well  as  by  allowing  them  free  access  to 
minute  insect  dainties;  hence  the  suitableness  of  a 
worn-out  hot-bed  for  them  during  the  first  month  or 
six  weeks.  They  are  thus  jxasitively  serviceable 
creatures  to  the  fanners,  as  far  as  their  limited  range 
extends. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  beautiful  species  of 
Bantams  is  the  Sebrights,  of  which  there  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  Golden  and  Silver  Sebrights.  In  the  for- 
mer, of  which  we  give  a  fine  pair  on  page  526,  the  ground 


5^6 


FO  WLS. 


color  is  a  rich  golden  yellow  ;  in  the  latter  it  is  pure 
white.  The  carriage  of  the  cock  is  the  most  conceitedit  is 
possible  to  conceive  of;  head  thrown  back  till  it  touches 
the  nearly  upright  tail;  wings  drooping  half  way 
dowa  thelegs;  motion  restless  and  lively,  always  strut- 
ting about  as  if  seeking  for  antagonists.  The  bird  is, 
in  fact,  "  game  to  the  back-bone,"  and  will  attack  the 
largest  fowl  with  the  utmost  impudence. 

Among  the  numerous  varieties  of  these  beautiful 
birds,  besides   the   Sebrights,   are  the  Game,  Black, 


F:g.  i.—  Buff  Cochins. 


White,  Nankin,  Pekin  or  Cochin,  Cuckoo,  and  Japan- 
ese Bantams. 

The  Gahie  Bantams  are,  without  doubt,  the  finest 
specimens  of  Bantams,  as  they  are  the  smallest;  yet  a 
cockerel,  not  larger  than  a  pigeon,  will  drive  one  of 
the  large  Asiatic  breeds.  The  Game  Bantams  should 
be  exact  and  diminutive  representatives  of  the  large 
breed  of  Games  they  are  to  represent,  whether  Black- 
Red.  Brown-Red,  Duckwings  or  Pile  Game  Bantams. 


The  smaller  these  are  the  better,  and  to  reduce  the 
size  it  is  usual  to  rear  chickens  from  late  fall  broods. 
For  competition,  cocks  must  weigh  less  than  24  ounces, 
and  hens  less  than  20  ounces  each.  The  plumage  of 
the  Game  Bantams  is  precisely  similar  to  the  corre- 
sponding varieties  of  the  Game  Fowl,  from  which  they 
are  undoubtedly  obtained  by  long  inter-breeding,  and 
continually  selecting  the  smallest  specimens. 

The  plumage  of  the  Black  variety  is  uniform  black, 
and  in  the  cock  has  a  bright  luster  like  that  of  the  Span- 
ish fowl. 

The  White  are  similar 
to  the  Black  Bantams, 
except  that  the  legs  are 
white  and  delicate,  and 
the  plumage  sjxjtless 
white. 

Nankin  Bantam  is  of 
a  pale  orange  yellow 
color,  with  slight  pencil- 
ing on  the  hackle.  It 
is  a  very  old  breed,  but 
not  common. 

The  Pekin  or  Cochin 
Bantams  were  introduc- 
ed i  n  England  from 
China  not  many  years 
ago,  having  been  stolen 
from  the  Summer  Palace 
at  Pekin  during  the 
Chinese  war.  They  ex- 
a  c  1 1  y  resemble  B  u  ff 
Cochins  in  color  and 
form,  possessing  the 
feather-legs,  abundant 
fluff,  and  all  other  char- 
acteristics of  the  parent 
breed  in  full  perfection, 
and  presenting  a  most 
singular  appearance. 

The    Japanese   Ban- 
tam is  the  most   curious 
^  of  all  the  different  varie- 
^^  ties.     It   is   very  short- 
^^s  legged  and  differs  from 
most  other   varieties  in 
having  a  very  large,  sin- 
gle comb. 

Brahmas.  TheBrah- 
mas  have  long  been 
favorite  fowls,  from  their 
quiet  habits,  large 
size,  and  the  quickness  with  which  they  grow  to  a  re- 
markable size  for  frying.  In  all  the  original  breeds 
the  deaf  ears  fell  below  the  wattles,  and  this  character- 
istic has  constantly  been  sought  to  be  j^erpetuated. 
The  hackles  should  be  full  and  spread  well  and 
evenly  over  the  back  and  shoulders.  Vulture  hocks, 
especially,  should  be  well  avoided.  The  backs 
should  be  well  furnished  with  soft,  curling  feathers, 
and  the  legs  booted  (feathered)  quite  down  to  the 


FO  WLS. 


517 


toes.  This  to  apply  to  pure-bred  birds.  In  the  farm- 
yard, where  birds  are  grown  simply  for  market,  nice 
qualifications  are  not  essential,  nevertheless  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  should  be  preserved. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Brahmas,  known  as 
"  Light  "  and  "  Dark  "  or  "  Pencilled  "  Brahmas ;  and 
on  no  account  should  they  ever  be  crossed,  the  result 
being  according  to  Mr.  Teebay,  who  was  formerly  the 
most  successful  and  extensive  breeder  of  Brahmas  in 
England,  always  unsatisfactory.  The  following  de- 
scription of  Light  Brahams  have  been  carefully  drawn 
up  under  the  supervision  of  John  Pares,  of  England. 

"  Light  Brahmas  are  chiefly  white  in  the  color  of 
the  plumage,  but  if  the  feathers  be  parted,  the  bottom 
color  will  often  be  found  of  a  bluish  gray,  showing  an 
imix)rtant  distinction  between  them  and  the  white 
Cochins,  in  which  the  feathers  are  always  white  down 
to  the  skin.  The  neck  hackles  should  be  distinctly 
strijxid  with  black  down  the  center  of  each  feather. 
That  of  the  cock  is,  however,  often  lighter  than  in 
the  case  of  the  hen.  The 
back  should  be  quite  white  in 
both  sexes.  The  wings  should 
appear  white  when  folded,  but 
the  flight  feathers  are  black. 
The  tail  should  be  black  in 
both  sexes.  In  the  cock  it  is 
well  developed,  and  the 
coverts  show  splendid  green 
reflection  in  light.  It  should 
stand  tolerably  upright  and 
open  well  out  laterally,  like  a 
fan.  The  legs  ought  to  be  yel- 
low, and  well  covered  with 
white  feathers,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  very  slightly  mot- 
tled with  black;  the  vulture 
hocks  are  a  great  defect.  The 
ear-lobes  must  be  pure  red, 
and  every  bird  should,  of 
course,  have  a  perfect  pea- 
comb,  though  good  birds  with 
a  single  comb  have  been 
shown  with  success." 

The  dark  or  i)encilled  Brah- 
mas are  similar  to  the  above 
in  comb,  form,  symmetry,  etc., 
but  as  different  in  color  as  can 
well  be. 

Th(^  following  description  of  "  Dark  Brahmas"  is  by 
Mr.  R.  VV.  Boyle,  of  Bray,  Ireland,  who  has  for  some 
years  been  known  as  the  most  eminent  breeder  of 
Dark  Brahmas  in  Great  Britain. 

The  head  of  a  perfect  Brahma  cock  should  be  sur- 
mounted by  a  good  "pea-comb,"  which  resembles 
three  small  combs  running  parallel  the  length  of  the 
head,  the  center  one  slightly  tho  highest,  but  all 
evenly  serrated  and  straight,  and  the  whole  low  and 
set  firm  on  the  head.  Beak  strong,  well  curved,  and 
the  color  of  horn.  Wattles  full ;  ear  lobes  perfectly 
red,  well  rounded,  and  falling  below  the  wattles.     His 


neck  should  be  rather  short,  but  well  curved,  with  a 
full  hackle,  which  is  silvery  white  striped  with  black, 
and  ought  to  flow  well  over  the  back  and  sides  of  the 
breast.  At  the  head,  the  feathers  should  be  white. 
Back,  very  short,  wide  and  flat,  rather  rising  into  a 
nice,  soft,  small  tail,  carried  rather  upright.  The  back 
almost  white.  The  saddle  feathers  white,  striped  with 
black,  as  in  the  neck,  and  the  longer  they  are  the 
better.  The  soft  rise  from  the  saddle  to  the  tail,  and 
the  side  feathers  of  the  tail,  to  be  pure  lustrous  green 
black,  exce])t  a  few  next  the  saddle,  which  may  be 
slightly  ticked  with  white ;  the  tail  feathers  themselves 
pure  black.  The  breast  should  either  be  black,  or 
black  with  each  feather  slightly  and  evenly  tipped 
with  white,  but  on  no  account  splashes  of  white ;  it 
should  be  well  carried  forward,  full  and  broad.  Wings 
small  and  well  tucked  up  under  the  saddle  feathers, 
and  thigh  fluff  "  A  good  sharply  denned  black  bar 
across  the  wings  is  very  important.  The  fluff  on  the 
thighs  and  hinder  parts  ought  to  be  black  or  very  dark 


Fig.   \,-^Wkite  Cochins. 

gray.  The  lower  part  of  the  thighs  should  have  plenty 
of  nice  soft  feathers,  almost  black,  rounding  off  about 
the  joint  and  hiding  it,  but  on  no  account  running 
into  'vulture  hocks,'  which  I  consider  a  great  eye- 
sore. The  cock  should  carry  himself  upright  and 
sprightly,  and  great  width  and  depth  are  important 
points ;  a  good  bird  should  show  great  size  and  look  big. 
"The  hen's  head  should  be  small,  with  a  perfect 
pea-comb,  as  in  the  cock,  but  smaller;  and  the  beak 
also  resembling  his  in  the  decided  curve  and  color. 
Wattles  quite  small  and  neatly  rounded,  the  red  ears 
hanging  below  them.     Neck  short,  and  gradually  en- 


5i8 


FO  WLS. 


larging  from  head  to  shoulders.  Feathers  about  the 
head  grayish,  verging  to  white,  and  the  hackle  more 
striped  with  black  than  in  the  cock.  General  make 
of  the  back,  tail,  thighs,  wings,  and  breast  the  same  as 
in  the  cock,  but,  of  course,  in  proix)rtion. 

"The  color  of  the  hen,  except  the  neck  and  tail,  is 
the  same  all  over,  each  feather,  even  up  to  the  throat 
on  the  breast,  having  a  dingy  white  ground  very  much 
and  closely  pencilled  with  dark  steel  gray.  The  pen- 
cilling on  the  throat  and  breast  is  very  imprtant, 
and  is  one  of  the  first  jxjints  looked  at  in  a  prize  hen. 


Light  Brahmas  by  Figs,  i  and  2,  pages  5  14  and  515. 
Blue  Uun.  The  variety  known  under  this  name 
originated  in  Dorsetshire,  England.  They  are  under 
the  average  size,  rather  slenderly  made,  of  a  soft  and 
pleasing  bluish-dun  color,  the  neck  being  darker,  with 
high,  single  combs,  deeply  serrated.  The  cock  is  of 
the  same  color  as  the  hen,  but  has,  in  addition,  some 
handsome  dark  stripes  in  the  long  feathers  of  the  tail, 
and  sometimes  a  few  golden,  or  even  scarlet  marks, 
on  the  wings.  They  are  exceedingly  impudent, 
familiar  and  pugnacious. 


Fig.  ^.—Partridge    Cochin?.. 


The  hen's  legs  are  short  and  thick,  not  quite  so  yellow 
as  the  cock's,  and  profusely  feathered  on  the  outside 
with  feathers  the  same  color  as  the  body.  Her  car- 
riage is  scarcely  so  upright  as  that  of  the  male  bird. 

"With  regard  to  the  economic  merits  of  the  Brah- 
mas, the  ]iullets  lay  when  six  months  old,  and  usually 
lay  from  30  to  40  eggs  before  they  seek  to  hatch. 
They  have  been  known  to  begin  to  lay  in  autumn,  and 
never  stop, — let  it  be  hail,  rain,  snow  or  storm — for  a 
single  day  till  the  next  spring." 

We  present  excellent  specimens  of  the  Dark  and 


The  hens  are  good  layers,  wanting  to  sit  after  laying 
a  moderate  number  of  eggs,  and  proving  attentive  and 
careful  rearers  of  their  own  chickens,  but  rather  sav- 
age to  those  of  other  hens.  The  eggs  are  small  and 
short,  tapering  slightly  at  one  end,  and  perfectly  white. 

Some  authorities  class  these  birds  with  the  Game 
fowls,  not  recognizing  them  as  a  distinct  breed,  ufxin 
the  ground  that,  as  there  are  Blue  Dun  families  be- 
longing to  several  breeds,  such  as  the  Polish,  Spanish, 
Game  and  Hamburgs,  it  is  more  proper  to  refer  each 
Blue  Dun  to  its  own  proper  ancestry. 


FO  WLS. 


519 


Chittagong.  The  Chittagong  is  an  Indian  breed 
and  the  largest  variety.  It  is  a  very  superior  bird, 
showy  in  plumage,  exceedingly  hardy,  and  of  various 
colors.  In  some  the  gray  predominates,  interspersed 
with  lightish  yellow  and  white  feathers  uixjn  the  pul- 
lets. The  legs  are  of  a  reddish  flesh-color;  the  meat 
is  delicately  white,  the  comb  large  and  single,  wattJes 
very  full,  wings  good  size.  The  legs  are  more  or  less 
feathered ;  the  model  is  gracefnl,  carriage  proud  and 
easy,  and  action  prompt  and  determined. 

This  breed  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  pullets 
usually  weighing  from  eight  to  nine  pounds  when  they 
begin  to  lay,  and  the  cocks  from  nine  to  ten  pounds 
at  the  same  age.  They  do  not  lay  as  many  eggs  in  a 
year  as  smaller  hens;  but  they  lay  as  many  pounds 
of  eggs  as  the  best 
breeds.  This  breed 
has  been,  by  some, 
confounded  with  the 
great  Malay,  but  the 
points  of  difference 
are  very  noticeable. 
There  is  less  offal  ^  the 
flesh  is  finer,  although 
the  size  is  greatly  in- 
creased ;  their  fecundi- 
ty is  greater;  and  the 
offspring  arrive  at 
earlier  maturity  than 
in  the  common  Malay 
variety. 

There  is  also  a  red 
variety  of  the  Chitta- 
gong, which  is  rather 
smaller  than  the  gray. 
These  have  legs  some- 
times yellow  and 
sometimes  blue, — the 
latter  color  perhaps 
from  some  mixture 
with  the  dark  variety; 
the  wings  and  tail  are 
short.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  rose-colored 
comb,  and  a  top-knot, 
through  crossing.  This 

variety  may  weigh  sixteen  ix)unds  a  pair,  as  ordinarily 
bred.  The  eggs  are  large  and  rich,  but  not  very 
abundant,  and  they  do  not  hatch  remarkably  well. 

The  Chittagongs  are  generally  quite  leggy,  standing 
some  26  inches  high;  and  the  hens  22  inches.  A 
first  cross  with  the  Shanghae  makes  a  very  large  and 
valuable  bird  for  the  table,  but  not  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. 

Cochin  China  Fowls.  This  breed  of  fowls  was 
introduced  into  England  from  the  East  Indies  in  1843, 
when  they  are  said  to  have  been  presented  to  Queen 
Victoria.  It  was  introduced  into  this  country  about 
the  year  1847,  and  to  this  is  mainly  due  the  celebrated 
"  poultry  mania  "  long  to  be  remembered  Ijy  breeders 


of  domestic  fowls.  Men  became  almost  wild  after 
Cochins,  and  were  willing  to  spend  a  small  fortune  for 
a  trio  of  fine  birds. 

They  differ  very  little  in  their  qualides,  habits  and 
general  appearance  from  the  Shanghaes,  to  which  they 
are  undoubtedly  nearly  related.  The  cock  has  a  large, 
upright,  single,  deejily-indented  comb,  very  much  re- 
sembling that  of  the  Black  Spanish,  and,  when  in  high 
condition,  of  quite  as  brilliant  a  scarlet;  like  him,  also, 
he  has  sometimes  a  very  large  white  ear-hole  on  each 
cheek,  which,  if  not  an  indispensable  or  even  a  re- 
quired qualification,  is,  however,  to  be  preferred,  for 
beauty  at  least.  The  wattles  are  large,  wide,  and  pend- 
ent. The  legs  are  of  a  pale  flesh  color;  some  speci- 
mens have  them  yellow,  which  is  objectionable.     The 


Fig.  b.—  Riack-Rrt-iisted  Red  Game. 

feathers  on  the  breast  and  sides  are  of  a  bright  chest- 
nut brown,  large  and  well-defined,  giving  a  scaly  or 
imbricated  appearance  to  those  parts.  The  hackle  of 
the  neck  is  of  a  light  yellowish  brown ;  the  lower 
feathers  being  tipped  with  dark  brown,  so  as  to  give  a 
spotted  appearance  to  the  neck.  The  tail  feathers 
are  black,  and  darkly  iridescent ;  back,  scarlet-orange ; 
back  hackle,  yellow-orange.  It  is,  in  short,  altogether 
a  flame-colored  bird.  Both  sexes  are  lower  in  the  leg 
than  either  the  Black  Spanish  or  the  Malay. 

The  hen  approaches  in  her  build  more  nearly  to  the 
Dorking  than  to  any  other  breed,  except  that  the  tail 
is  very  small  and  proportionately  depressed ;  it  is 
smaller  and  more  horizontal  than  in  any  other  fowl. 


520 


FO  WLS: 


Her  comb  is  of  moderate  size,  almost  small ;  she  has 
also  a  small,  white  ear-hole.  Her  coloring  is  flat, 
being  composed  of  various  shades  of  very  light  brown 
■with  light  yellow  on  the  neck.  Her  appearance  is 
quiet,  and  attracts  attention  only  by  its  extreme  neat- 
ness, cleanliness  and  compactness. 

The  eggs  average  alx)ut  two  ounces  each.  They 
are  smooth,  of  an  oval  shape,  esiLially  rounded  at  each 
end,  and  of  a  rich  buff  color.  The  newly-hatched 
chickens  appear  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  egg.  They  have  light,  flesh-colored  bills,  feet  and 
legs,  and  are  thickly  covered  with  down.  It  is  most 
desirable  to  hatch  these,  as  well  as  other  large-grow- 
ing varieties,  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible,  even 
as  soon  as  the  end  of  February.  A  peculiarity  in  the 
cockerels  is,  that  they  do  not  show  even  the  rudiments 


Fig.  7. — Hamburgs. 

of  their  tail-feathers  till  they  are  entirely  full-grown. 
The  principal  sub-varieties  of  the  Cochins  are  the 
White,  Buff,  Black  and  Partridge;  which  we  most  per- 
fectly illustrate.  On  page  516  we  show  a  fine  pair 
of  the  Buff  Cochins;  on  page  517  is  the  White  and  on 
page  518  we  illustrate  fine  specimens  of  the  Part- 
ridge Cochins.  With  those  who  breed  the  White 
variety,  every  feather  must  be  pure;  otherwise  the  fowl 
is  looked  upon  with  disfavor.  The  Buff  Cochins  may 
be  of  any  shade,  but  the  birds  in  a  flock  must  corre- 
spond in  color.  Among  the  most  admired  of  the 
Cochins  is  the  "  Partridge  "  variety.  The  neck  hack- 
les of  the  hens  are  bright  gold,  striped  with  black,  the 
rest  of  the  body  being  light  brown,  pencilled  with  a 
<iarker  shade  of  the  same  color.     The  hackles  of  the 


Partridge  Cochin  cock  are  bright  red,  striped  with 
black,  the  back  being  dark  red,  with  a  bar  of  metallic 
green  upon  the  wings.  The  breast  and  under  part  of 
the  body  are  pure  black.  Some  of  the  [xsintsof  merit, 
as  claimed  by  the  breeders  of  these  fowls,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  They  are  hardier  than  other  breeds  except  the 
Brahmas,  and  will  thrive  under  conditions  where  most 
others  would  perish.  They  are  of  large  size,  with  a 
very  gentle  disposition,  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
Cochins  are  kept  in  confinement  makes  them  favorites 
with  many  poultry  raisers.  When  full  grown  the 
weight  ranges  from  10  to  15  pounds;  they  are  too 
heavy  to  fly,  and  a  fence  two  feet  high  will  confine 
them.  As  sitters  and  mothers  the  hens  are  not  sur- 
passed, and  are  prolific  layers,  especially  in  winter 
when  eggs  are  scarce.  The  chickens  grow  rapidly, 
and  at  three  months  are  large  enough  for 
eating. 

It  is  true  they  have  many  defects.  The 
flesh  is  inferior,  especially  of  old  birds. 
The  inclination  to  sit  sometimes  inter- 
feres with  their  greatest  usefulness.  This 
tendency  is  developed  by  over-feeding. 
As  a  breed  the  Cochins  are  most  useful 
to  supply  the  demands  of  a  family  for 
early  chickens  and  a  plenty  of  large,  rich 
eggs. 

On  the  farm  the  White  Cochins  are 
sturdy  birds,  and  will  forage,  if  allowed, 
long  distances  in  search  of  insects.  If 
kept  in  confinement  they  must  have  ani- 
mal food,  and  also  green  food,  daily,  and 
if  jxDssible  they  should  be  allowed  a 
short  ramble  late  in  the  afternoon,  when 
they  will  not  trespass  much.  As  winter 
layers  of  eggs  the  hens  are  among  the 
best  of  all  breeds  of  Gallinaceous  fowls. 
They  also  cross  kindly  with  other  barn- 
yard fowls,  and  live  contentedly  with 
other  breeds.  The  objection  to  them  is 
that  they  are  rather  coarse-boned  and  in-, 
clined  to  undue  accumulation  of  fat. 

Among  the  other  principal  varieties  of 
the  Cochin  breed  are  Cinnamon,  Lemon, 
Silver  Buff,  Silver  Cinnamon,  Black  Co- 
chin, Cuckoo, and  Silky-Feathered  Cochins. 
Creve-coeurs.  This  breed  has  been  the  longest 
known  in  England,  and  is  one  of  the  most  preferred 
in  France  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  flesh. 
The  full-grown  cock  will  not  unfrequently  weigh  10 
pounds,  but  7  ^  to  8  pounds  is  a  good  average. 

In  form  the  Creve  is  very  full  and  compact,  and  the 
legs  are  exceedingly  short,  especially  in  the  hens,  which 
appear  almost  as  if  they  were  creeping  along  on  the 
ground.  In  accordance  with  this  conformation,  their 
motions  are  very  quiet  and  deliberate,  and  they  appear 
the  most  contented  in  confinement  of  any  fowls  we 
know.  They  do  not  sit,  or  very  rarely,  and  are 
tolerable  layers  of  very  large  white  eggs.  The  comb 
is  in  the  form  of  two  well  developed  horns,  surmounted 
by  a  large,  black  crest,  and  giving  the  bird  a  decidedly 


EO  WLS. 


52» 


"diabolical"  appearance.  Wattles  full,  and,  like  the 
comb,  a  very  dark  red.  The  throat  is  also  furnished 
with  ample  whiskers  and  beard.  Plumage  mostly 
black,  but  in  the  largest  and  finest  birds  not  unfre- 
quently  mixed  with  gold  or  straw  on  the  hackle  and 
saddle.  The  merits  of  the  Creve  consist  in  its  edible 
qualities,  early  maturity,  the  facility  with  which  it  can 
be  both  kept  and  reared  in  confinement,  and  the  fine, 
large  size  of  its  eggs. 

DoMiNiQUEs  are  probably  one  of  the  oldest  varieties, 
being  only  a  fixed  type  of  those  "cuckoo"  fowls  which 
have  always  been  such  favorites.  They  resemble,  in 
fact,  the  cuckoo-colored  fowls  known  as  Scotch  Grays, 
with  the  exception  of  having  rose  combs  and  yellow 
legs.  Their  combs  are  generally 
double,  or  rose,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  and  the  wattles  small.  Their 
plumage  presents,  all  over,  a  sort  of 
greenish  appearance,  from  a  pecul- 
iar arrangement  of  blue  and  white 
feathers,  which  is  the  chief  character- 
istic of  the  variety,  although,  in  some 
specimens,  the  plumage  is  inevitably 
gray  in  both  cock  and  hen.  They 
are  very  hardy,  healthy,  excellent 
layers,  and  capital  incubators.  No 
fowl  has  better  stood  the  test  of 
mixing  without  deteriorating  than 
the  pure  Dominique. 

The  name  is  taken  from  the  isl- 
and of  Dominica,  from  which  they 
are  said  to  have  been  imported. 
Take  all  in  all,  they  are  one  of  the 
v^iry  best  breeds  of  fowl  which  we 
have;  and  although  they  do  not  come 
into  laying  so  young  as  the  Spanish, 
they  are  far  better  setters  and  nursers. 

Dorkings.  This  is  a  pre-emin- 
ently English  breed  of  fowls,  and  is, 
as  it  always  will  be,  a  general  favor- 
ite— especially  with  lady  fanciers. 
Its  flesh  is  extremely  delicate,  espe- 
cially after  caix)nization;  and  it  has 
the  advantage  over  some  other 
fowls  of  feeding  rapidly  and  grow- 
ing to  a  very  respectable  size,  when 
properly  managed. 

The  varieties  of  Dorkings  usually  recognized  are  the 
Gray  or  Colored,  Speckled,  Silver  Gray,  and  White. 
For  those  who  wish  to  stock  their  jx)ultry  yards  with 
fowls  of  the  most  desirable  shape  and  size,  clothed  in 
rich  and  variegated  plumage,  and,  not  expecting  per- 
fection, are  willing  to  overlook  one  or  two  other  points, 
the  Speckled  Dorkings  should  be  selected.  Dorkings 
are  peculiarly  subjected  to  "  bumble  foot,"  a  chronic 
gathering,  or  abscess,  probably  first  produced  by  the 
heavy  birds  descending  to  the  ground  from  too  high 
perches ;  but  now  it  appears  more  or  less  hereditary  in 
the  breed;  at  least  we  have  seen  it  repeatedly  in 
fowls  never  allowed  to  roost  high  enough  to  cause  it 


in  this  way,  and  which  had  the  unrestricted  run  of  a 
spacious  park.  We  believe  there  is  no  remedy  but  to 
let  the  abcess  grow  to  maturity  and  then  remove  it 
surgically.  The  operation  will  be  successful  about 
once  out  of  three  times. 

The  great  merit  of  Dorkings  has  already  been  hinted 
at  and  consists  in  their  unrivaled  excellence  as  table 
fowls.  In  this  respect  we  never  expect  to  see  them 
surpassed.  The  meat  is  not  only  abundant  and  of 
good  quality,  but  is  produced  in  greatest  quantity  in 
the  choicest  parts.  The  hens,  in  addition  to  their  gay 
colors,  have  a  large,  vertically  flat  comb,  which,  when 
they  are  in  high  health,  adds  very  much  to  their  bril- 
liant appearance,  particularly  if  seen  in  bright  sun- 


Haudans, 


shine.  The  cocks  are  magnificent.  The  most  gorgeous 
hues  are  lavished  \x\x>n  them,  which  their  great  size 
and  peculiarly  square-built  form  display  to  the  great- 
est advantage.  Their  legs  are  short,  their  breast 
broad,  there  is  but  a  small  proportion  of  offal,  and 
the  good,  profitable  flesh  is  abundant.  The  cocks  may 
be  brought  to  considerable  weight,  and  the  flavor  and 
appearance  of  their  meat  are  inferior  to  none.  The 
eggs  are  produced  in  reasonable  abundance,  yet  the 
Dorking  is  not  a  good  layer,  except  when  very  young, 
and  in  winter  is  even  decidedly  bad  in  this  respect. 
Though  not  equal  in  size  to  Spanish  hens,  they  may 
fairly  be  called  large. 

The  Fawn-colored  Dorking  is  a  cross  between  the 


FO  WLS. 


White  Dorking  and  the  Fawn-colored  Turkish  fowl. 
They  are  of  lofty  carriage,  handsome  and  healthy. 

The  Black  Dorkings  are  of  a  large  size  with  the 
usual  projxjrtions  of  the  race,  and  of  a  jet  black  color. 
The  neck  feathers  of  some  of  the  cocks  are  tinged 
with  a  bright  gold  color,  and  those  of  some  of  the 
hens  bear  a  silvery  complexion. 

Dunghill  Fowl.  This  is  also  known  as  the  barn- 
door fowl.  It  is  a  mongrel  breed  and  may  be  found 
of  all  colors.  It  is  known  by  having  a  thin,  serrated, 
upright  comb,  and  wattles  hanging  from  each  side  of 
the  lower  mandible.  The  tail  rises  in  an  arch  above 
the  level  of  the  rump.  The  female's  comb  and  wattles 


Fig.  9. —  White  Leghorns. 

are  smaller  than  those  of  the  cock ;  she  is   less  in 
size  and  her  colors  more  dull  and  somber. 

Ga.me  Fowl.  The  flesh  of  this  fowl  is  beautifully 
white,  and  superior  to  that  of  any  other  variety  in 
richness  and  flavor.  They  are  also  the  most  elegant 
and  intelligent  of  the  gallinaceous  tribe  of  barnyard 
fowls.  The  hens  are  excellent  layers,  and  although 
the  eggs  are  under  the  average  size,  they  are  not  sur- 
passed in  excellence  of  flavor.  Such  are  the  excel- 
lent characteristics  of  this  fowl ;  yet  it  is  not  a 
desirable  breed  for  the  farmer  on  account  of  its 
pugnacious  disix>sition  and  the  smallness  of  the  size 
of  both  birds  and  eggs.  The  pugnacious  disposition 
of  these  little  birds  often  manifests  itself  as  soon  as 


they  are  freed  from  their  shell.  Their  one  great 
mission  of  life  seems  to  be  to  fight,  and  they  take  to 
it  as  readily  and  with  as  much  relish  as  they  do  to 
the  little  morsels  of  meal  given  them.  A  brood  is 
scarcely  feathered  before  at  least  one-half  are  killed 
or  blinded  by  fighting. 

It  is  probable  that  these  fowls,  like  other  choice 
varieties,  are  natives  of  India.  It  is  certain  that  in 
that  country  an  original  race  of  some  fowl  exists  at 
the  present  day,  bearing  in  full  perfection  all  the 
peculiar  characteristics  of  the  species.  In  India,  as 
is  well  known,  the  natives  are  infected  with  a  passion 
for  cock-fighting.     These  fowls     are   carefully   bred 

for  this  barbarous  amuse- 
.  ment,  and  the  finest  birds 

become  articles  of  great 
value.  In  Sumatra  the 
inhabitants  are  so  much 
addicted  to  the  cruel 
sports  to  which  these 
fowls  are  devoted,  that 
instances  are  recorded  of 
men  .-.taking  not  only 
their  property  upon  the 
issue  of  a  fight,  but  even 
their  wives  and  children. 
The  Chinese  are  like- 
wise passionately  fond  of 
this  pastime ;  as,  indeed, 
are  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Indian  countries  pro- 
fessing the  Mussulman 
creed. 

The  Romans  intro- 
duced the  practice  into 
Britain,  in  which  country 
the  earliest  recorded  cock- 
fight dates  back  to  about 
the  year  11 00.  In  Mex- 
ico and  the  South  Amer- 
ican countries  it  is  still 
a  national    amusement. 

The  varieties  are  num- 
erous and  there  are  many 
sub-varieties,  often  hav- 
ing but  a  local  celebrity. 
So  the  English,Irish,Malta,  Cuban,  Mexican,  Spanish, 
all  claim  special  celebrity,  while  in  the  South  the 
Georgian  are  held  to  be  the  most  superior  in  point  of 
plumage,  shape,  carriage,  hardiness  and  courage,  as 
they  are  generally  admitted  to  be  superior  in  the 
quality  of  the  eggs  and  flesh.  Among  fanciers  for  the 
pit  the  Derby  and  Duck-wing  Games  are  regarded  as 
among  the  best  of  the  Games. 

The  Brown-Reds  have  long  been  most  perfect  in 
outline ;  but  the  following  description  will  apply  to  a 
perfect  bird  of  any  breed  : 

The  beak  should  be  strong,  curved,  long  and  sharp; 
the  comb  single,  small,  and  thin,  low  in  front,  erect 
and  evenly  serrated  :  it. is  usually  red,  but  sometimes 


FO  WLS. 


523 


darkish  red  ;  head  long  and  sharp,  with  the  face  and 
throat  lean  and  thin ;  ear-lobes  small  and  red,  never 
whitish;  neck  long,  strong  and  well  arched;  the 
hackle  short,  hard,  close,  firm,  and  broad  in  the 
feather ;  back  short,  and  very  hard  both  in  flesh  and 
feather ;  broad  at  shoulders,  narrow  at  tail,  and 
round  at  the  sides;  breast  broad  and  very  hard,  but 
by  no  means  too  lean  or  too  full, — the  last  would  be 
useless  weight ;  a  good,  hard  breast  is  most  essential, 
as  it  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  bird;  wings  very 
strong,  and  of  a  just  medium  length,  well  rounded  to 
the  body,  and  carried  neither  low  nor  high,  but  so  as 
to  protect  the  thighs.  Very  long-winged  birds  are 
usually  too  long  in  the  body,  and  short-winged  birds 
are  too  short  in  the  stern.  Tail  neither  long  nor  short 
but  medium  length,  and 
carried  erect  to  show  good 
spirit,  but  not  "squirrel 
fashion  "  over  the  back ; 
it  should  be  well"  fanned  " 
or  spreading,  and  the 
sickle  feathers  of  a  good, 
round,  full  curve,  and 
standing  clearly  above  the 
jxjints  of  the  quill  tail- 
feathers.  Very  long-tailed 
birds  are  soft  and  long- 
bodied,  and  short-tailed 
birds  are  too  short-winged, 
and  often  have  broad 
rirtnps.  Thighs  short  and 
very  muscular,  hard  and 
firm;  placed  well  wide 
apart  and  well  iqj  to  the 
shoidders,  in  order  to  give 
a  fine  forehand  and  make 
the  bird  stand  firm  on  his 
legs, — which  latter  should 
be  sufficiently  long,  but 
not  too  much  so,  and  be 
placed  wide  apart  as  the  S| 
thighs.  Spurs  low  down, 
long,  sharp,  and  rather 
thin;  a  little  curved  up- 
wards, and  not  turned 
in   too   much;    feet    flat, 

broad,  spreading,  and  thin;  the  claws  and  nails 
long  and  strong;  the  back  claw  especially  long  and 
flat  to  the  ground,  to  give  a  firm  footing.  The  whole 
plumage  should  be  very  close,  short,  and  hard,  with 
glossy  reflections,  and  the  quills  or  stems  strong  and 
elastic.  Body  in  hand-  short  and  very  hard,  and 
the  general  carriage  upright,  quick,  fierce  and  sharp. 

The  back  is  best  rather  curved,  provided  it  be 
flat  crosswise  and  not  hump-backed  or  lop-sided. 
Weight  for  exhibition  4^  to  5^  pounds;  for  the  pit 
not  over  4  Y^,  pounds. 

The  hen  should  correspond  in  form,  but  of  course 
in  proixirtion,  hardness  of  flesh  and  feather,  with 
shortness  of  body,  being  main  points.     Good  hens 


generally  become  spurred,  and  such  breed  the  hard- 
iest and  best  cocks.  The  proper  weight  of  the  hen 
is  from  3  to  3^^  [)ounds.  This  breed  is  illustrated 
with  beautiful  specimens  of  the  Black-breasted  Red 
Game  on  page  5  19. 

GuELDERLAND.  The  Gueldcrland  fowls  were  origi- 
nally imported  into  this  country  from  the  north  of 
Holland,  where  they  are  supixjsed  to  have  originated. 
They  are  very  symmetrical  in  form,  and  graceful 
in  their  motions.  They  have  one  noticeable  peculiarity, 
which  consists  in  the  absence  of  a  comb  in  either  sex. 
This  is  replaced  by  an  indentation  on  the  top  of  the 
head  ;  and  from  the  extreme  end  of  this,  at  the  back, 
a  small  spike  of  feathers  rises.  This  adds  greatly  to 
the  beauty  of  the  fowl.     The  presence  of  the  male  is 


Fi'"..    10. —  Broivn   Li'^korns. 

especially  dignified,  and  the  female  is  little  inferior  in 
carriage. 

The  plumage  is  of  a  beautiful  black,  tinged  with 
blue,  of  very  rich  appearance,  and  bearing  a  brilliant 
gloss.  The  legs  are  black,  and,  in  some  few  instances, 
slightly  feathered.  Crosses  with  the  Shanghae  have 
heavily  feathered  legs.  The  wattles  are  of  good  size 
in  the  cock,  while  those  of  the  hen  are  slightly  less. 
Flesh  is  fine,  of  white  color,  and  of  excellent  flavor. 
The  eggs  are  large  and  deHcate — the  shell  being 
thicker  than  in  those  of  most  other  fowls — and  are 
much  prized  for  their  good  qualiries.  The  hens  are 
great  layers,  seldom  inclining  to  sit,  Their  weight  is 
from  five  jxiunds  for  the  pullets  to  seven  pounds  for 
the  cocks. 


524 


FO  WLS. 


Hamburg.  Under  the  name  of  Hamburgs,  which 
are  also  called  Bolton  Grays,  Dutch  Every-day 
Layers,  Penciled  Dutch  Fowls,  Chittaprats  and  Creoles, 
are  now  collected  several  varieties  of  fowls,  presenting 
the  general  characteristics  of  rather  small  size,  bril- 
liant rose  combs,  ending  in  a  spike  behind,  projecting 
upwards,  blue  legs,  and  beautifully  penciled  or 
spangled  plumage.  None  of  the  Hamburgs  ever 
show  any  disposition  to  sit  unless  in  a  state  of  great 
freedom,  but  lay  nearly  every  day  all  through  the  year 
except  during  the  molting  season ;  whence  they  are 


FjG.  11.— White-faced  Black  SpaKish. 


called  Dutch  Every-day  Layers.  They  are  small-sized, 
short  in  the  leg,  and  plump  in  the  make ;  color,  of  the 
genuine  kind,  invariably  pure  white  in  the  whole 
cappel  of  the  neck ;  the  body  white,  thickly  spotted 
with  black,  sometimes  running  into  a  grizzle,  with 
one  or  more  black  bars  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail. 
A  good  cock  of  this  breed  may  weigh  from  4  to  45^ 
pounds;  and  a  hen  from  3  to  3^^  ix)unds.  The 
general  contour  of  the  body  of  this  bird  is  well  illus- 
trated by  the  specimens  shown  on  page  520. 


The  superiority  of  a  hen  of  this  breed  does  not  con- 
sist so  much  in  rapid  as  in  continued  laying.  She 
may  not  produce  as  many  eggs  in  a  month  as  some 
other  kinds,  but  she  will,  it  is  claimed,  lay  more 
months  in  the  year  than  probably  any  other  variety. 
They  are  said  to  be  very  hardy ;  but  their  eggs,  in  the 
judgment  of  some,  are  rather  watery  and  innutritions. 
HouDANS.  This  is  one  of  the  French  breeds  that 
have  been  introduced  into  the  United  States.  In 
France,  the  Houdans  are  bred  in  as  high  estimation 
as  are  the  Dorkings  in  England,  being  noted  there 

for  the  excellence  and 
quantity  of  eggs  laid, 
and  as  excellent  in  their 
flesh.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  descend- 
ed from  the  Dorking 
and  Padone  fowls,  and, 
like  the  Dorkings,  they 
should  have  the  fifth 
toe.  This  characteristic 
is  not  constant,  but  is 
required  in  all  fowls  for 
exhibition  purposes. 
The  color  is  white  and 
black,  evenly  mixed. 
Occasionally  stained 
feathers  will  appear,  but 
red  ones  should  never 
be  tolerated.  The  head 
is  crested,  the  conlb 
double-leafed,  giving 
the  birds  a  rather  fierce 
look,  which  is  height- 
ened by  the  whiskers 
and  beard,  growing  well 
up  on  the  face  of  both 
cock  and  hen.  The 
legs  are  spotted  leaden 
gray,  and  the  weight  of 
the  fowls  medium.  Al- 
together, there  are 
many  inferior  breeds  to 
this  one,  and  they  are 
certainly  as  handsome 
as  they  are  agile  and 
able  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  They  are 
represented  by  a  fine 
engraving  on  page  521. 
In  appearance  this  breed  resembles 
It  excels  that  breed,  however,  in  size, 
from    eight  to  even  ten  pounds. 


La  Fleche 
the  Spanish, 
the  cock  weighing 

Both  sexes  have  a  large,  long  body,  standing  on  long 
and  powerful  legs,  and  always  weighing  more  than  it 
appears,  on  account  of  the  dense  and  close  fitting 
plumage.  The  legs  are  slate  color,  turning  with  age  to 
a  leaden  gray.  The  plumage  resembles  the  Spanish, 
being  a  dense  black  with  green  reflections.  The  look 
of  the  head  is  peculiar,  the  comb  being  not  only  two- 


FO  WLS. 


525 


horned  much  like  the  Creve,  near  the  top  of  the  head, 
but  also  appearing  in  the  form  of  two  little  studs  or 
points  just  in  front  of  the  nostrils.  The  ear-lobes  are 
dead  white,  like  the  Spanish,  and  exceedingly  devel- 
oped, meeting  under  the  neck  in  good  specimens.  In 
fact,  no  breed  could  show  stronger  traces  of  its  Span- 
ish origin.  The  hen  is  an  excellent  layer  of  very 
large  white  eggs,  and  does  not  sit.  The  flesh  is  ex- 
cellent. The  breed  is,  however,  very  delicate,  and 
does  not  lay  well  in  winter. 

Langshans.     This  is  a  breed  but  recently  intro- 
duced into  this  country.     Those  who  have  bred  them 


They  are  bred  of  various  colors,  except  black,  but  the 
White  and  the  Brown  are  the  most  fashionable.  The 
White  variety  much  resembles  the  Spanish  in  size  and 
plumage,  but  are  their  direct  opposite  in  color.  They 
are  precisely  like  the  Brown  Leghorns  except  in  color. 
The  Brown  Leghorn,  p.  5  23,  is  the  product  of  Italy, but 
at  present  has  the  colors  and  markings  of  the  Black- 
breasted  Red  Game  and  the  non-sitting  traits  of  the 
Leghorn.  The  form  and  style  of  comb,  wattles  and 
other  features  were  long  ago  fixed,  but  it  is  due  to 
American  breeders  to  have  accomplished  uniformity 
in  the  breed,  while  possessing  gay  plumage  and  lively 


Fig.    12. — Plymouth  Rocks. 


are  enthusastic  in  their  praise,  claiming  that  for  egg 
production,  for  table  and  for  hardihood,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  their  magnificent  plumage  and  large  size,  they 
are  unequaled  by  any  of  the  Asiatic  or  large  breeds. 
Leghorns.  Those  who  breed  fowls  principally  for 
eggs  must  not  expect  to  have  an  abundance  of  eggs 
and  flesh  combined  in  one  fowl.  The  specialty  the 
Xeghorns  are  noted  for  is  mainly  eggs  ;  it  is  not  supe- 
rior as  a  table  fowl ;  neither  are  they  inferior  in  this  par- 
ticular. We  look  to  the  French,  whom  we  have  al- 
ways credited  with  fine  taste  in  such  matters,  and  find 
they  consume  thousands  of  Leghorns  every  week,  be- 
ing shipped  from  the  port  of  Leghorn  to  Marseilles. 


appearance,  which  are  both  pleasing  and    attractive. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  Leghorn  family  should  pos- 
sess combs,  wattles  and  ear-lobes  of  the  same  shape 
and  color.  Preference  is  given  to  a  comb  the  tips  of 
which  describe  a  perfect  arch.  The  wattles  should 
be  pendulous,  and  if  one  edge  folds  over  a  little  all  the 
better.  The  ear  lobes  should  be  smooth  and  even 
and  be  flat  on  the  face,  the  lower  end  should  not  be 
too  pointed  but  maintain  its  width  toward  the  bottom 
pretty  well. 

If  the  Leghorns  have  warm,  comfortable  houses  in 
which  to  put  them  early  in  the  evening,  and  not  per- 
mitted to  go  out  in  very  cold,  freezing  weather,  but 


Sa6 


FO  WLS. 


little  trouble  need  be  feared  in  wintering  them  suc- 
cessfully. They  love  freedom,  it  is  true,  and  are  rovers 
and  free-boolers  by  nature.  It  is  their  activity,  nec- 
essarily the  healthy  exercise  they  take  while  on  the 
move  in  quest  of  worms,  grubs  and  whatever  they 
fancy,  that  develops  their  great  productiveness.  The 
pullets  mature  early ;  some  often  lay  between  four  and 
five  months  old.  The  chicks  feather  out  when  very 
young,  looking  like  Bantams,  so  neat  in  feathering, 
lively  and  precocious.  Those  who  have  had  experi- 
ence with  Leghorns  claim  that  the  little  brown  hen 
excels  all  others  in  egg  productions,  coquettish  style, 
and  lively  carriage. 

Plymouth  Rock  is  one  of  the  most,  if  not  the 
most,  popular  breeds  of  the  present  day.  It  combines 
within  itself  all  of 
the  essential  prop- 
erties that  con- 
tribute to  make  a 
breed  pre-eminent, 
and  which  are  justly 
sought  by  both  the 
fancier  and  the 
farmer.  As  to  the  or- 
igin of  the  breed, 
nothing  definite  can 
positively  be  said. 
Much  discussion  has 
been  engaged  in  on 
this  point.  As  a 
breed  they  are  very 
hardy  and  vigorous; 
as  rapid  growers,  or 
early  maturity,  they 
are  perhaps  without 
a  rival,  when  we  con- 
sider its  size  and 
quality  of  flesh. 
Another  excellent  characteristic  is  productiveness; 
and  as  for  table  quality  they  rank  high.  At  a  lit- 
tle more  than  a  year  old  the  cocks  stand  from 
32  to  35  inches  high,  and  weigh  about  10  jwunds; 
and  the  pullets  from  6^/^  to  7  pounds  each.  The 
latter  commence  laying  when  five  months  old.  Their 
eggs  are  medium  in  size,  and  of  a  rich,  reddish-yellow 
color.  In  plumage  they  are  rich  and  variegated.  The 
Plymouth  Rock  for  an  all-purpose  fowl  occupies 
the  front  rank.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  other  breed 
that  has  so  many  merits  and  so  few  faults.  While 
they  are  decidedly  the  farmer's  fowls,  Plymouth 
Rocks  have  more  admirers  among  poultry-fanciers 
than  any  other  breed.  The  popularity  of  this  grand 
bird  promises  to  be  lasting.  In  the  accompanving 
tabulated  statement  of  the  chief  qualities  of  poultry, 
the  relative  position  among  fowls  occupied  by  Plym- 
outh Rocks  may  be  easily  seen. 

The  mating  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  to  produce 
that  uniformity  of  coloring  desired  for  exhibition  pur- 
poses is  a  vexed  point  with  the  average  fancier  of  this 
breed.  The  points  most  desirable  to  perpetuate  and 
for  which  all  Plymouth  Rock  breeders  are  striving  to 


Fig.   13.—  Golden  Storigkt  Bantat. 


attain  are  the  evenly  barred  plumage,  the  yellow  legs 
and  beak,  the  fine  single  comb,  and  the  size  and 
weight. 

The  uniform  shade  of  color  in  both  sexes  is  difficult 
to  obtain.  The  strong  Indian  blood  which  makes  the 
hens  so  dark  must  have  a  share  in  determining  the 
shade  of  the  plumage.  This  must  be  looked  for  at 
present  in  the  Plymouth  Rock  pullets,  as  the  tendency 
to  reversion  to  the  original  color  comes  through  one 
sex,  and  tend  to  persist  in  that  sex  alone. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  blot  out  entirely  the  dark 
feathering  or  shading  of  plumage  which  comes  from  a 
union  between  a  hawk-colored  blue  or  bluish-gray 
cock,  and  a  black  hen  of  tropical  origin.  Fowls  of 
the  Dominique  plumage  have  already  "  black  blood  " 

in  their  make-up; 
and  as  the  tendency 
to  variation  in  color 
is  always  greater  in 
the  male  bird,  all 
breeds  whose  plum- 
age contains  an  ad- 
mixture of  light  and 
dark  markings  will 
naturally  produce 
males  whose  color 
will  average  lighter 
than  the  females. 

.Southern  Asiatic 
fowls  of  black  plum- 
age, mated  with  any 
light-colored  cock, 
will  usually  show  the 
dark  pigment  in  the 
pullets,  while  the 
cockerels  may  be 
comparatively  free 
from   this    coloring. 


The  Southern  Asiatic  fowls  have  sprung  from  the 
old  Malabar  stock,  and  always  had  Malay  or  Papuan 
influence  at  work  in  fixing  their  characteristic  traits 
and  features.  Yellow  legs  and  beaks  on  black  or 
dark  fowls  are  rare,  and  we  assert  without  fear  of  con- 
tradiction that  in  the  whole  Malay  Peninsula,  excepting 
perhaps  one  or  two  varieties  in  the  island  of  SingajMre 
(of  Chinese  origin),  not  one  fowl  in  a  hundred  has 
bright  yellow  legs  and  beaks. 

The  majority  of  Plymouth  Rock  pullets  have  more 
or  less  sjx)ts  or  specks  on  their  legs,  and  many  have 
been  exhibited  the  past  two  years  that  had  these 
blemishes,  being  good  or  above  the  ordinary  average 
in  color,  size  and  markings.  When  the  pullets  come 
handsome  in  color  their  legs  usually  incline  to  dusky 
yellow  or  greenish  where  the  dark  specks  occur,  and 
the  beaks  are  similar  in  shade.  The  cockerels  tend  to 
light  plumage  from  the  same  mating  but  usually  with 
a  more  desirable  color  of  limb  and  beak  clearly  and 
cleanly  defined. 

Now,  what  would  be  the  natural  course  to  pursue  in 
mating  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  to  conform  to  Standard 
requirements.'     The    Standard    calls    explicitly    for 


I 


FO  WLS. 


527 


yellow  legs ;  yet  it  is  well  known  that  but  few  of  the 
many  pullets  reared  from  this  stock  show  this  desirable 
color.  The  Standard  also  calls  for  a  plumage  of 
bluish  gray,  penciled  across  with  bars  of  darker  blue. 
We  find  in  matching  them  in  the  show  coop  that  the 
cock  and  hen  must  be  of  the  same,  or  very  near  the 
same,  shade  of  color  to  comply  with  its  requirements. 
But  the  general  experience  of  Plymouth  Rock  breed- 
ers is,  that  matching  them  for  the  exhibition  room  and 
mating  them  for  breeding  to  produce  the  "happy 
niedium  "  in  color  and  other  desired  jxjints  are  two 
different  things. 

The  Plymouth  Rocks  are  domestic  in  their  habits 
and  not  so  destructive  to  gardens  as  smaller  fowls. 

Por.ANDS.  Under 
the  title  of  Rolands, 
or  Polish  fowls,  should 
be  collected  all  varie- 
ties which  are  distin- 
guished by  a  well-de- 
veloped crest,  or  tuft 
of  feathers  on  the  top 
of  the  head. 

l]'hite-crested  Black. 
This  is  the  most  gen- 
erally  known   of  all 
the    varieties.       The 
carriage  of  the  cock, 
as  in  all  Rolands,  is 
graceful    and     bold, 
with  the  neck  thrown 
rather  back   towards 
the  tail ;   body  short, 
round    and    plump  ; 
legs  rather  short,  and 
in  color  rather  black 
orleadenblue.  There 
should    be  no  comb, 
but  full  wattles  of  a 
bright  red  ;  ear-lobes 
a  pure  white.    Plum- 
age black  all  over  the 
body,  with  bright   re- 
flections   on    the 
hackle,    saddle    and 
tail.  Crest  large,  reg- 
ular and  full,  even  in  the  center,  and  each  feather  in  a 
perfect  bird  we  suppose  of  a  pure  white;  but  there  are 
always  a  few  black  feathers  in  front,  and  no  bird  is 
therefore  to  be  disqualified  on  that  account,  though 
the  fewer  the  better.     Weight  from  five  to  si.x  pounds. 
Hen  very  compact  and  plump  in  form.     Plumage  a 
deep,  rich  black.     Crest  almost  globular  in  shape  and 
in  color  like  the  cocks.   See  above  engraving. 

White-crested  White.  This  breed,  and  those 
which  follow,  differ  from  the  White-erested  Black 
Polands  not  only  in  greater  hardihood,  but  in  having 
a  well-developed  beard  under  the  chin,  in  lieu  of 
wattles.  They  are  large,  fine  birds,  and  the  crest  is 
finer  and    more   perfect   than  in  most  other  colors. 


They  are  also  among  the  best  in  point  of  laying.  The 
plumage  needs  no  description,  being  pure  white 
throughout. 

Silver  Spangled.  In  this  variety  the  ground  color 
of  the  plumage  is  a  silver  white,  with  well-defined, 
moon-shaped  black  spangles. 

Golden  Spangled.  This  breed  is  similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding in  the  black  markings,  substituting  a  rich  golden 
ground  for  the  silver  white. 

Polands  have  certainly  solid  merits.  They  improve 
in  appearance,  at  least  up  to  the  third  year.  In  a 
favorable  locality  they  are  most  prolific  layers,  never 
wanting  to  sit,  and  the  flesh  is  remarkably  susceptible 
of  attachment  to  their  feeders.     Their  great  fault  is  a 


Fig.    14. — White-crested  Black   Polands. 

peculiar  tendency  to  cold  and  roup — the  White-crested 
Black  being  the  most  delicate  of  all.  The  dense  crest 
becomes,  during  a  shower,  saturated  with  water,  and 
the  fowls  are  thus  attacked  in  the  most  vital  part.  No 
birds  are  so  affected  by  bad  weather.  In  exposed  or 
damp  situations  they  will  die  off  like  rotring  sheep, 
and  it  is  hopeless  to  expect  any  return.  They  can 
only  be  kept  successfully  in  warm,  genial  situations, 
on  well  drained  ground,  with  a  chalk  or  sand  sub-soil, 
and  with  ample  shelter  to  which  they  can  resort  dur- 
ing showers.  In  such  circumstances  they  will  do 
well  and  repay  the  owners  by  an  ample  supply  of 
eggs. 

Shanghae.     For  all  the  purposes  of  a  really  good 


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FO  WLS. 


529 


fowl,  for  beauty  of  model,  good  size  ar.d  laying  quali- 
ties, the  thorough-bred  Shaiighae  is  among  the  best, 
and  naturally  the  most  profitable  of  domestic  birds. 
The  cock,  when  full  grown,  stands  about  28  inches 
high,  if  he  is  a  good  specimen;  the  female  about  22 
or  23  inches. 

The  color  is  usually  reddish-white,  flesh-color,  or 
reddish-yellow,  mostly  covered  down  the  outside,  even 
to  the  ends  of  his  toes,  with  feathers.  This  last,  how- 
ever, is  not  always  the  case.  The  plumage  of  the 
thorough-bred  is  remarkably  soft  and  silky,  or  rather 
downy,  and  is,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  fully  as  good 
for  domestic  purposes  as  that  of  the  goose.  The 
feathers  are  certainly  quite  as  fine  and  soft  if  not  as 
abundant. 

In  laying  qualities  the  pure  Slianghae  equals,  if  it 
does  not  excel,  any  other  fowl.  The  Black  Poland,  or 
the  Bolton  Gray,  may  perhaps  lay  a  few  more  eggs  in 
the  course  of  a  year,  in  consequence  of  not  so  fre- 
quently inclining  to  sit;  but  their  eggs  are  not  so  rich 
or  nutritious.  The  eggs  are  generally  of  a  pale  yel- 
low, not  remarkably  large  compared  with  the  size  of 
the  fowl,  and  generally  blunt  at  the  ends. 

The  flesh  of  the  fowl  is  tender,  juicy  and  unexcep- 
tionable in  every  respect.  Taking  into  consideration 
the  goodly  size  of  the  Shanghae,  weighing,  as  the  males 
do,  at  maturity,  from  10  to  12  pounds,  and  the  females 
from  lY^  to  Sl4,  and  the  males  and  females  of  six 
months  eight  and  six  jxjunds  respectively,  the  econom- 
ical uses  to  which  its  soft,  downy  feathers  may  be  ap- 
plied, its  productiveness,  hardiness,  and  quiet  and 
docile  temper,  this  variety  must  occupy,  and.  deserv- 
edly so,  a  high  rank  among  our  domestic  fowls,  and 
the  more  it  is  known  the  better  will  it  be  appreciated. 

The  White  Shanghae.  This  variety  is  entirely 
white,  with  the  legs  usually  feathered,  and  differ  in  no 
material  respect  from  the  Red,  Yellow,  and  Dominique 
except  in  color. 

Spanish  Fowl  is  a  noble  race  of  fowls,  possessing 
many  merits :  of  spirited  and  animated  appearance ; 
of  considerable  size ;  excellent  for  the  table,  both  in 
whiteness  of  flesh  and  skin  and  also  in  flavor;  and 
laying  exceedingly  large  eggs  in  considerable  numbers. 

The  thorough-bred  birds  should  be  entirely  black, 
as  far  as  feathers  are  concerned ;  and  when  in  high 
condition,  display  a  greenish,  metallic  luster. 

The  combs  of  both  cock  and  hen  are  exceedingly 
large,  of  a  vivid  and  most  brilliant  scarlet ;  that  of  the 
hen  droops  over  ujwn  one  side.  Their  most  singular 
feature  is  a  large  white  patch,  or  ear-hole,  on  the 
cheek — in  some  specimens  extending  over  a  great 
part  of  the  face — of  a  fleshy  substance,  similar  to  the 
wattle;  it  is  small  in  the  female,  but  large  and  very 
conspicuous  in  the  male.  This  marked  contrast  of 
black,  bright  red,  and  white,  makes  the  breed  of  the 
Spanish  cock  very  handsome. 

The  merit  of  Spanish  fowls   is  their   production  of 

large  white  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  great   abundance 

in  moderate   weather.     They  are  also  of  very   good 

quality  as  table  birds.     But   they  cannot   be   called 

34 


good  winter  layers,  unless  with  the  aid  of  artificial 
heat;  and  their  delicacy  of  constitution  is  a  great 
drawback  to  their  otherwise  many  merits. 

Table.  In  the  further  treatment  of  the  domestic 
fowl,  so  much  depends  on  the  kind,  or  variety,  that 
we  give  on  the  preceding  page  a  condensed  statement 
of  their  chief  qualities.  Only  an  average  is  at- 
tempted in  that  chart  or  table,  for  the  whole  country. 
Different  circumstances  in  the  various  localities  will  of 
course  produce  various  results.  The  cost  of  raising 
and  keeping  are  calculated  for  large  lots  of  fowls, 
where  all  the  food  and  care  has  to  be  paid  for.  It  will 
be  observed  that  for  all  purposes  combined,  the  Plym- 
outh Rock  variety  leads,  especially  in  the  country, 
while  the  Brahma  is  best  for  the  city,  where  space  is 
limited.  Some  prefer  the  Game ;  the  Light  Brahmas, 
Dominiques  and  White  Leghorns,  are  next  in  profit- 
ableness. For  laying  alone,  the  Leghorns  and  Ham- 
burgs  take  the  lead;  for  sitting,  the  Cochins ;  for  large 
eggs,  the  Black  Spanish,  Houdans,  Creve-coeurs; 
for  flesh,  the  Creve-coeurs  and  Dorkings ;  for  hardi- 
ness, the  Brahmas,  Houdans,  Hamburgs,  Creve- 
coeurs,  Spanish  and  Leghorns  ;  for  quietude,  Brahmas 
and  Cochins;  and  for  size  of  birds,  Brahmas,  Cochins, 
Houdans,  etc. 

Feeding.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  without 
the  grinding  action  of  the  gizzard  what  is  termed 
the  gastric  juice  in  fowls  is  unable  to  dissolve  the  food 
they  eat.  Therefore,  before  the  food  is  prepared  for 
digestion  it  must  be  subjected  to  a  grinding  process, 
the  gizzard  serving  as  the  mill.  It  is  then  pressed  by 
the  action  of  the  muscles  into  the  intestines.  The 
power  of  the  gizzard  to  pulverize  substances  is  re- 
markable. It  is  sufficient  to  pulverize  hollow  globules 
of  glass  in  a  very  short  time ;  and  solid  masses  of  glass 
within  a  few  weeks  are  dissolved.  Needles,  and  even 
lancets,  given  to  turkeys,  have  been  broken  in  pieces 
and  voided,  without  apparent  injury  to  the  stomach.  It 
is  the  prevailing  idea  that  fowls,  through  some  de- 
ficiency in  the  digestive  apparatus,  are  obliged  to  re- 
sort to  the  use  of  stones  and  gravel  in  order  that  they 
may  disix)se  of  the  food  they  eat.  Some  regard  the 
use  of  these  pebbles  is  to  sheath  the  gizzard  in  order 
to  prepare  it  to  break  up  the  hard  substances  which 
might  be  swallowed.  Some  have  supposed  the  action 
of  these  to  be  of  a  medicinal  nature ;  others  that  they 
act  as  absorbents  for  undue  quantities  of  acid  in  the 
stomach,  or  as  stimulants  to  digestion,  while  some 
have  even  regarded  them  as  furnishing  nutrition.  It 
has,  however,  been  established  by  repeated  experi- 
ments that  they  are  not  at  all  necessary  to  the  tritu- 
ration of  the  hardest  substances  they  may  eat,  and  of 
course  the  ordinary  food  does  not  reciuire  their  aid  to 
bruise  it.  These  stones,  however,  do  serve  a  useful 
purjxjse.  When  put  in  motion  by  the  muscles,  they 
produce  some  effects  upon  the  contents  of  the  stom- 
ach ;  thus  assisting  to  grind  the  grain,  separating  its 
parts,  it  is  more  easily  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice. 

A  judicious  system  of  feeding  is  necessary  for  the 
welfare  of  poultry ;  fowls  will  not  pay  if  starved,  and  if 


53° 


FO  WLS. 


over-fed  they  will  become  fat,  lazy  and  useless  both 
for  breeding  and  laying;  besides,  when  in  the  latter 
condition  they  are  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

Kinds  of  Fi'Od.  There  are  many  kinds  of  grain 
used  as  food  for  jwultry,  but  in  the  main,  corn  seems 
to  be  the  staple  diet  used  in  this  country.  Through 
the  influence  and  diffusion  of  jwultry  literature,  we 
are  taught  to  regard  dietary  influences  as  a  matter  of 
real  imiwrtance,  as  they  affect  the  health  of  fowls  and 
also  their  productiveness.  All  kinds  of  grain,  if  sound, 
have  certain  constituent  properties,  but  they  differ  in 
nutritive  value,  which  varies  with  their  chemical  com- 
position; some  tend  to  growth,  some  to  fattening,  and 
some  to  egg  production.  Oats  and  barley,  which  are 
rich  in  protem  compounds,  are  best  adapted  to  de- 
velop muscular  tissue  and  growth  in  young  fowls. 
Corn,  which  is  specially  rich  in  oils,  is  best  adapted 
for  heating  and  fattening,  and  for  this  purpose  has  no 
equal  among  all  our  grains.  Wheat  and  buckwheat, 
being  rich  in  gluten  and  albumen,  are  best  adapted 
for  egg  production.  K.ye,  although  a  wholesome 
grain,  is  not  much  relished  by  either  young  or  old 
fowls,  and  if  used  at  all,  should  be  ground  and  com- 
bined with  other  grain.  Bran  and  middlings  are 
largely  used  as  food,  but  middlings  alone  is  too  sticky, 
and  fowls  do  not  like  it.  Good  middlings  and  wheat 
bran  mi.xed  with  oatmeal  or  corn-meal  added,  and 
scalded  with  boiling  water  or  milk,  makes  an  excel- 
lent food,  and  may  be  given  once  a  day  with  good 
advantage  the  year  through.  Milk  in  any  form  is 
good  for  young  or  old  fowls,  and  no  better  use  could 
be  made  of  this  valuable  article  than  by  feeding  it  to 
the  young  chicks. 

The  amount  fed  should  be  just  as  much  as  they 
will  eat  up  promptly,  and  no  more.  The  mid-day 
meals  of  those  which  are  pent  up  should  be  rather 
light.  Their  diet,  like  man's,  needs  to  be  constantly 
varied.  The  morning  meal  should  generally  be  meal 
or  middlings  and  bran,  in  equal  proportions,  especi- 
ally when  eggs  are  wanted.  This  material  should  be 
be  barely  moistened,  so  that  it 
will  readily  crumble  as  it  falls. 
In  winter  it  should  be  warm.  In 
the  evening  the  dry  grain  is  gen- 
erally fed.  Soft  food  is  best 
dealt  out  in  troughs  that  are  pro- 
tected by  cages,  the  slats  being 
just  far  enough  apart  to  let  their 
heads  through.  This  measure  is 
to  keep  the  food  clean.  Feed- 
ing from  the  hand  develops  affec- 
tion toward  the  keeper,  but  it  is 

thought    that    the     practice    leads  Fig.   i^.—Ckkken  Feedrr. 

the  fowls  to  over-eat.  Feed  young  chicks  every  two 
or  three  hours,  and  at  longer  intervals  as  they  grow 
older.  Do  not  feed  them  meat  more  than  two  or 
three  times  a  week,  and  this  in  lieu  of  insects.  More 
flesh  than  this  is  said  to  make  them  weak.  Hard- 
boiled  eggs  are  good  for  chicks. 

Automatic  chicken-feeders  are  in  use,  an  example 
of   which  is   illustrated    by  the  above    cut.      Aper- 


tures for  the  outlet  of  the  grain  can  be  made  on  all 
four  sides  of  the  box.  Inclined  false  bottoms  or  a 
pyramid  should  be  placed  in  the  box,  so  that  all  the 
grain  put  in  at  one  time  may  be  eaten  up  before  re- 
plenishment. 

Feeding  for  Rapid  Growth.  In  order  to  secure 
rapid  growth  in  the  young  chicks,  it  is  the  common 
experience  of  all  successful  breeders  to  feed  them 
often,  say  every  two  or  three  hours,  until  they  are 
three  or  four  weeks  old,  and  at  longer  intervals  as 
they  grow  older.  Very  young  chicks  cannot  consume 
enough  at  one  time  to  last  them  a  half  day,  as  their 
crops  are  small ;  their  rapid  growth  of  flesh,  bone  and 
feathers,  and  habitual  exercise  demand  material  pro- 
portionably  nourishing  and  active  to  develop  a  vigor- 
ous constitution.  The  feed  should  be  of  the  very  best, 
not  necessarily  strong  and  highly  stimulating,  but 
of  a  kind  and  quality  that  will  cause  a  healthy  growth. 
Some  breeders  feed  chopped  meat  to  their  chicks  very 
profusely  from  the  shell  upward.  But  this  practice 
has  its  attending  evils.  A  little  flesh  meat  a  few 
times  a  week,  in  the  absence  of  insect  food,  is  good ; 
but  if  fed  too  freely  to  the  tender  birds  when  young, 
it  often  brings  on  weakness  of  the  limbs,  etc.  In  ad- 
dition to  their  regular  diet  of  grain,  green  onion  tops 
chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  their  food  is  highly 
relished  and  will  be  found  conducive  to  their  health. 
Thick  sour  milk  and  curds  of  milk  make  an  excellent 
food.  Pepper  and  ginger  with  a  little  salt  occasion- 
ally in  their  soft  feed  will  give  to  the  chicks  a  relish 
for  their  food,  variety  being  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  highest  state  of  health  and  the  most  rapid  growth. 
Chickens,  when  confined  in  coops  or  limited  runs,  so 
that  they  can  get  no  food  except  what  is  furnished 
them,  must  be  supplied  with  good  food,  scraps  from 
the  table,  bone  meal  and  vegetables  in  variety,  as  this 
is  a  law  of  their  nature,  and  should  not  be  forgotten 
by  those  who  expect  to  be  successful  in  rearing 
jx)ultry. 

Fattening  Fowls.  The  best  food  for  fattening 
poultry  is  sweet,  fresh  oatmeal  or  barley  meal,  mixed 
either  with  scalding  milk  or  water.  Cooped  fowls 
should  be  supplied  with  fresh  food  three  times  a  day, 
namely:  at  daybreak,  or  as  soon  after  as  possible,  at 
mid-day,  and  again  before  dusk;  as  much  as  they 
can  eat  should  be  given  to  the  fowls  on  each  occasion, 
but  no  more  than  can  be  devoured  with  promptness; 
should  any  he  left,  it  should  be  removed,  and  given 
to  the  other  fowls,  as  if  kept  it  is  apt  to  become  sour, 
when  the  birds  will  not  eat  it  freely.  Should  the  birds 
be  required  very  fat,  some  mutton  suet  or  trimmings 
of  the  loins  may  be  chopped  up  and  scalded  with  the 
meal,  or  they  may  be  boiled  in  the  milk  or  water  pre- 
paratory to  its  being  ]X)ured  over  the  food,  and  the  fat 
of  fowls  so  fattened  will  be  found  e.\ceedingly  firm. 
In  the  course  of  about  a  fortnight  to  three  weeks  at 
the  utmost,  a  fowl  will  have  attained,  under  this  sys- 
tem of  feeding,  the  highest  degree  of  fatness  of  which 
it  is  capable,  and  it  must  then  be  killed;  for  if  the  at- 
tempt be  made  to  keep  it  any  longer  in  that  state,  it 
becomes  diseased  from  an  inflammatory  action  being 


FO  WLS. 


531 


established,  which  renders  the  flesh  hard  and  even  un- 
wholesome. When  the  fowls  have  arrived  at  a  state 
fit  for  killing,  they  should  be  kept  for  twelve  or  fifteen 
hours  without  food  or  water,  in  order  that  the  intes- 
tines may  be  as  empty  as  jxissible;  otherwise  the  bird 
turns  green  and  useless  in  a  short  time. 

ll'a/er.  It  is  as  necessary  for  fowls  to  have  water 
constantly  as  for  any  other  animal.  It  should  be  ab- 
solutely clean  and  fresh,  and  in  the  winter  it  should 
also  be  warm,  say  between  80°  and  100°.  In  the 
winter  and  early  spring  it  is 
well  to  give  them  copperas 
water,  that  is,  water  with  just 
enough  copperas  in  it  to  give 
it  a  slight  mineral  taste ;  or 
there  may  be  given  them  the 
"  Douglas  Mixture,"  a  tea- 
FiG.  i6,—c/u:/.-,  /.-/•.■  rf.r.  spoonful  to  each  pint  of  water 
in  the  foaatain.  I'nis  mixture  consists  of  i  ix)und 
of  copperas  and  i  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid  to  2  gal- 
lons of  water.  This  is  especially  good  during  the 
moulting  season,  and  is  good  to  keep  off  the  roup  and 
to  act  as  a  general  tonic.  Or,  instead  of  the  above, 
in  the  spring,  one-fourth  of  a  pound  of  sulphur  may 
be  mixed  in  a  pail  of  feed,  and  fed  once  a  week. 

Variety  of  Food.  In  either  the  natural  or  domes- 
ticated state,  gallinaceous  birds  like  a  variety  of  food, 
as  it  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  body,  bone,  and 
feathers,  and  also  for  enriching  the  blood  and  devel- 
oping the  organs  of  production.  The  habits  of  fowls 
in  a  state  of  nature  are  without  doubt  the  best  guide. 
By  watching  them  one  can  see  how  industriously  they 
pick  up  the  creeping  worm  or  grub,  the  flying  insect 
or  bug,  the  tender  blades  of  grass,  the  seeds  arid  tares, 
the  various  kinds  of  grain  or  carrion  if  they  can  pro- 
cure them.  The  constituent  properties  of  the  egg,  the 
framework  of  the  body,  the  mechanical  action  of  the 
gizzard,  the  vital  organs,  etc.,  are  made  up  and  sus- 
tained not  alone  from  the  nutritious  parts  of  corn,  bar- 
ley, wheat,  or  oats,  but  also  from  other  things  which 
we  might  consider  to  be  trifles.  In  winter  fowls  re- 
quire a  varied  diet  to  do  well.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten if  we  expect  them  in  early  spring  to  have  full 
vigor  and  be  productive,  that  the  necessary  articles 
must  be  provided.  The  common  practice  of  feeding 
corn  day  after  day  through  the  winter  without  its  being 
supplemented  with  vegetable  and  other  kinds  of  food 
is  a  very  injudicious  course  to  pursue.  Corn  is  a  cheap 
and  good  grain  for  fattening  and  keeping  up  the 
animal  heat,  but  in  other  respects  it  is  inferior  to  good 
oats,  wheat  and  barley  for  laying  and  breeding  fowls. 
Any  one  kind  of  grain  will  not  satisfy  or  fulfill  the  re- 
quirements of  the  animal  economy,  and  [xjulterers 
should  strive  to  procure  a  liberal  supply  of  different 
kinds  for  their  fowls,  and  feed  in  rotation  as  they  need 
them. 

In  addition  to  their  regular  food  it  will  be  needful 
that  the  fowls  have  a  supply  of  lime  in  some  shape 
or  other  to  form  the  shells  of  their  eggs.  Old  mortar 
pounded  is  excellent;  so  are  oyster-shells  well-burnt 
in  the  fire  and  pulverized;  of  the  latter  they  are  very 


fond,  and  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  keep  a  "  tree- 
saucer"  full  of  it  in  their  yard.  If  this  matter  has 
been  neglected,  and  soft,  shell-less  eggs  have  resulted, 
the  quickest  way  of  getting  matters  right  again  is  to 
add  a  little  lime  to  the  drinking  water. 

Dust  Baths.  Fresh  earth  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
all  natural  aids  in  healing  stings,  venomous  bites  and 
cuts,  and  is  known  to  have  a  wonderfully  purifying 
effect,  and  often  dispels,  absorbs  or  allays  decaying 
vegetable  matter  and  the  formation  and  emanation  of 
noxious  gases  which  cause  sickness  and  disease. 

Fresh  earth  in  the  hennery  and  dust  box  is  indis- 
pensable for  fowls..  It  will  cleanse  their  feathers  and 
skin  from  vermin  and  impurities,  promote  the  skin 
secretions  and  is  materially  instrumental  in  preserving 
their  health.  During  the  fine  days  of  autumn  there 
is  no  excuse  for  neglecting  to  store  up  a  heap  of  fresh 
loam  for  the  floor  and  under  the  perches  to  prevent 
liberation  of  the  ammonia  from  the  droppings,  and 
road  dust  for  the  boxes  with  which  to  renew  them  at 
regular  and  short  intervals  when  they  become  unclean 
and  effete. 

In  winter,  when  fowls  are  confined,  a  good  dust  bath 
before  the  rays  of  the  sun  is  as  enjoyable  and  bene- 
ficial to  them  as  is  a  weather  bath  to  the  genus  homo. 
A  quantity  of  sulphur  or  carbolic  jx)wder  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  dry  dust  will  make  it  more 
effective  in  dislodging  vermin. 

Mating  and  Breeding.  With  the  fancier  this  is 
one  of  the  most  difticult,  and  at  the  same  time  most 
interesting,  operations  in  [xiultry  culture.  In  mating 
fowls  man  seeks  to  guide  and  control  nature's  laws  to 
the  elevation  of  the  standard  of  the  breed  or  to  its 
maintenance.  The  first  requisite  in  mating  fowls  for 
any  puqwse  is  to  secure  birds  possessing  strength, 
vigor  and  stamina.  Select  stock  noted  for  these  char- 
acteristics and  you  can  rely  upon  strong,  hardy  chicks. 
Not  only  should  the  birds  be  strong  and  hardy  at  the 
time  of  maturity,  but  they  should  have  always  been 
so.  In  breeding  for  utility  the  four  main  \x)ints  to  be 
desired  are  hardiness,  early  maturity,  productiveness 
and  table  quality.  These  are  of  importance  in  the 
order  named.  Breeders  disagree  as  to' the  age  for 
breeding  birds,  but  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
cockerels  nearly  or  quite  a  year  old,  mated  to  two- 
year  old  hens,  give  the  best  results.  A  cock  two  years 
of  age  mated  to  early  pullets  will  also  be  found  satis- 
factory. The  age  of  the  males  and  females  should 
vary,  and  for  this  reason  cockerels  and  pullets  should 
seldom  be  mated  together.  If  the  cock  and  hen  have 
been  entirely  separated  during  the  several  months 
preceding  the  mating,  so  much  the  better,  as  the  added 
amount  of  vigor  is  very  beneficial.  In  breeding  for 
"fancy  points"  one  should  understand  exactly  the  ob- 
ject sought,  and  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  means  em- 
ployed in  obtaining  that  object.  If  there  is  a  defect 
in  cock  or  hen  it  should  be  counterbalanced  by  per- 
fection on  that  particular  jjoint  in  the  other^  For 
instance,  should  the  cock's  comb  be  defective  in  any 
way,  as  lop-combed,  the  hen's  comb  should  stand  per 
fectly  erect,  and  be  fine  in  other  respects,  in  order  to 


53* 


FOWLS. 


breed  out  the  defect  arising  from  the  comb  of  the 
cock.  No  over-fattened  birds  should  be  used  in  the 
breeding-pen,  as  non-fertile  eggs  will  abound  there  if 
they  are. 

The  respective  influence  of  the  cock  and  the  hen 
has  been  a  fruitful  topic  of  discussion.  It  has  been 
held  by  many  writers  that  the  cock  possesses  greater 
influence  over  external,  and  the  hen  over  the  interior 
and  living  qualities. 

In  most  forms  of  animal  life  the  proportion  of  sexes 
is  about  even,  but  in  the  feathered  tribe,  when  the 
cock  necessarily  requires  several  hens,  much  culling 
must  be  done,  and  it  is  certain  to  be  accomplished. 
No  sooner  do  the  cockerels  arrive  at  a  suitable  age  for 
mating  than  the  question  as  to  who  shall  be  lord  of 
the  harem  arises.  Frequently  the  battles  to  determine 
this  question  are  long  and  bloody,  extending  over  a 
period  of  several  days;  the  result,  however,  being  cer- 
tain from  the  beginning.  The  one  possessed  of  the 
most  vigor  and  the  greatest  amount  of  staying  power 
will  win,  while  the  weaker  and  inferior  specimens  will 
either  be  killed  or  driven  into  obscurity.  The  number 
of  hens  allowed  with  one  cock  should  vary  with  the 
object  in  view.  An  error  is  often  committed  by  as- 
signing too  many  hens  to  one  cock.  Not  more  than 
five  hens  should  be  allowed  to  associate  with  one  cock 
when  the  quality  of  the  breed  is  a  matter  of  interest. 
If  profit  is  sought  for  in  the  production  of  eggs  alone, 
one  cock,  if  a  stout,  young  and  lively  bird,  may  have 
as  many  as  24  hens. 

In  perfect  mating,  the  sire  should  possess  beautiful 
plumage,  perfectly  marked,  fine  symmetry,  and  as 
large  size  as  is  compatible  with  full  vigor.  The  dam 
should  excel  in  productiveness  and  size,  while  the 
shape  and  plumage  must  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

Incubation  OR  Sitting.  In  the  selection  of  eggs 
for  hatching,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  procure 
fresh  and  fertilized  eggs,  They  should  be  laid  by 
hens  which  have  been  running  with  a  cock  of  the 
proper  breed,  ar.d  for  this  purjwse  the  cock  should  not 
be  allowed  more  than  six  or  eight  hens.  In  short, 
every  condition  should  be  observed  to  produce  healthy 
and  strong  stock.  Eggs  intended  for  hatching  should 
be  dotted  with  a  lead  pencil,  and  those  of  the  same 
age  as  nearly  as  [wssible  selected  for  a  brood.  Eggs 
that  have  been  laid  a  month  or  more  are  altogether 
too  old  to  be  relied  uixjn,  although  they  sometimes  do 
fairly  well  at  four,  five,  or  six  weeks  old.  Until  the 
eggs  selected  are  put  under  a  hen,  keep  them  in  bran, 
with  the  larger  end  down,  and  never  jar  them.  It  is 
impossible  to  tell  beforehand  what  sex  the  eggs  are, 
but  the  latest  theory  is  that  those  which  are  the  most 
wrinkled  at  the  smaller  end  \vill  produce  males. 

The  hen  manifests  the  desire  ofincubation  in  a 
manner  different  from  that  of  any  other  known  bird. 
Nature  having  been  sufficiently  tasked  in  one  direc- 
tion, she  becomes  feverish  and  loses  flesh  ;  her  comb 
is  livi*^  her  eyes  are  dull;  she  bristles  her  feathers  to 
intimidate  an  imaginary  enemy;  and  as  if  her  chick- 
ens were  already  around  her  utters  the  maternal 
•'cluck."    At  this  period  first,  by  a  two  or  three  days' 


trial  with  an  egg  or  two,  see  whether  the  sitting  fever 
is  coming  ujxjn  her  in  real  earnest  before  you  put  the 
eggs  under  her,  lest  she  sit  upon  them  for  a  day  or 
two,  and  abandon  them,  thus  spoiling  eggs  that  may 
have  cost  you  a  considerable  sum.  Set  the  hen  out 
of  reach  of  danger  but  near  to  the  other  fowls  of  the 
yard,  and  place  under  her  13  to  15  eggs,  according  to 
her  size.  Make  her  nest  as  hereafter  described,  or  in  a 
box  open  on  one  side,  at  one  end  of  a  run-way.  An 
empty  flour  barrel  with  the  mouth  a  little  lower  than 
the  bottom,  so  the  water  of  rains  will  not  run  in,  is  a 
cheap  and  good  thing.  The  run-way  should  not  be 
more  than  four  or  five  feet  by  eight  or  ten,  enclosed  by 
a  lath  fence  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  high.  Of 
course  this  should  be  on  clean  ground,  but  in  a  moist 
place ;  and  her  premises  should  be  kept  clean.  The 
run-way  may  be  on  grass  or  gravel,  ^\'hen  her  nest 
is  made  in  a  box  or  barrel,  it  is  strongly  urged  that 
four  or  five  inches  of  moist  earth  should  be  the  bed- 
ding upon  which  the  straw  is  laid;  and  during  the  whole 
period  of  incubation  the  eggs  should  be  kept  moist, 
either  by  the  rising  vapors  of  the  earth  underneath,  or 
by  daily  sprinkling  them  with  warm  water.  In  lieu  of 
this  trouble,  some  take  the  eggs  two  or  three  days  be- 
fore they  are  hatched  and  soak  them  half  an  hour  in 
warm  water,  so  as  to  soften  the  shell  for  the  little  ones 
to  pick  their  way  more  easily  out. 

About  the  eighth  evening  of  sitting,  examine  the 
eggs  by  holding  them  between  your  eyes  and  a  lighted 
candle,  and  take  away  all  those  that  still  look  clear, 
for  they  are  either  not  fertilized  or  are  otherwise  good 
for  nothing. 

The  hen  should  be  fed  regularly  and  carefully ;  aiid 
if  she  sometimes  remains  off"  her  nest  for  hours,  do 
not  be  alanned,  as  a  cooling  of  the  eggs  occasionally 
will  not  hurt  them  in  the  least.  Treat  lousy  sitting 
hens  with  sulphur  or  pyrethrum,  not  kerosene.  When 
the  chicks  are  hatched  unevenly  as  to  time,  it  is  a  mis- 
fortune. Take  the  first  hatched  away  from  the  nest 
and  wait  a  few  hours,  and  when  a  majority  are  out  of 
the  shell,  destroy  the  rest,  for  they  would  be  only  weak- 
lings any  way. 

Cochins  and  Brahmas  make  the  best  mothers,  and 
the  former  are  good  for  early  eggs  and  chicks.  These 
early  chicks,  if  well  taken  care  of,  will  be  good  for 
producing  eggs  the  following  winter. 

The  chicks  should  not  be  handled  more  than  need 
be.  If  it  is  necessary  to  help  them  from  the  shell,  do 
so  very  carefully.  Do  not  remove  them  from  the  nest 
until  24  hours  old.  They  need  no  food  during  this 
time,  as  they  are  digesting  the  yolk  from  which  they 
were  hatched.  Have  their  coop  in  a  place  well  pro- 
tected from  the  wind,  and  where  they  will  get  the  ben- 
efit of  the  sun.  When  taken  from  the  nest,  give  the 
hen  water,  and  all  the  corn  she  will  eat.  Feed  the 
chicks  hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine  for  at  least  a 
week.  After  they  are  a  week  old,  a  little  cracked  com 
and  wheat  screenings  may  be  fed  in  connection  with 
the  egg.  Young  chicks  should  be  fed  five  times  a  day 
until  ten  weeks  old.  Green  food  (onion  tops  chopped 
fine  or  lettuce)  is  excellent  for  chicks.     Never  allow 


FO  WLS. 


533 


chicks  to  perch  until  three  or  four  months  old.  Let  them 
sit  on  straw  on  the  floor,  or  a  board  ten  inches  wide 
about  a  foot  from  the  floor,  thus  avoiding  crooked 
breast  bones.  Do  not  house  them  with  old  fowls,  as 
they  peck  and  worr)'  them,  and  never,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, feed  very  young  fowls  with  the  old  birds. 


Fig.   '7- — C'U^p/or  Hen  with   Chicks. 

For  their  home  a  cheap  and  good  method  is  to  get 
a  large  box,  such  as  merchants  pack  goods  in  for  trans- 
portation. Knock  one  board  off  the  end  and  place 
on  the  top  a  sash  of  glass,  such  as  gardeners  use  to 
cover  over  hot-beds  ;  one  end  will  be  higher  than  the 
other ;  place  the  lowest  end  to  the  south,  so  that  the 
sun  may  fall  directly  in  the  box  through  the  glass,  be- 
neath which  will  be  placed  your  chicks.  Next  cut  a 
small  opening  at  the  side  or  end  and  place  a  small 
box,  minus  the  end,  close  against  the  hole.  This  is 
for  the  mother  hen  to  cover  her  chicks  in  during  the 
night.  Or  place  the  small  box  inside  the  large  one  in 
one  corner,  which  can  be  taken  out  every  day  and 
cleaned ;  though  if  placed  outside  as  first  mentioned, 
it  can  be  easier  cleaned,  and  it  will  be  more  likely  to 
be  done.  By  Figs.  17  and  1 8  we  ill  istrate  two  different 
coops,  and,  although  common  and  easily  made,  for  all 
practical  purixises  doubtless  surpass  all  others. 


I-'io.   18. — Coop /or  Hen   with    Chtiks, 

As  a  general  thing,  young  chicks  are  quite  strong 
and  healthy  when  the  hen  first  comes  off  the  nest 
with  them,  and  if  left  entirely  to  themselves  (that  is, 


to  seek  their  own  living),  they  will  thrive  and  grow 
much  faster  and  be  stronger  and  healthier  than  when 
artificial  means  steps  in  and  deprives  them  of  their 
natural  instincts  by  confining  them  in  too  small  a 
space  and  by  giving  improper  food.  Plenty  of  range 
and  exercise  are  the  first  requisites  to  health  and 
strength.  When  hens  are  determined  to  sit  at  sea- 
sons of  the  year  in  which  there  is  little  chance  of 
bringing  up  chickens,  the  eggs  of  ducks  or  geese  may 
be  furnished  her.  The  young  of  these  may  be  reared 
without  mucii  difficulty  at  almost  any  time  of  the  year. 
Where,  however,  it  is  inconvenient  to  gratify  the  desire, 
one  or  two  doses  of  jalap  will  often  entirely  remove 
the  fever,  or  shut  her  up  in  close  confinement  with  a 
cockerel  for  a  few  days,  or  in  a  coop  to  herself,  but  in 
sight  of  the  other  fowls,  and  have  pegs  about  four 
inches  apart  all  over  the  ground  under  her,  so  that  she 
cannot  sit  down.  At  night  let  her  roost  with  the  other 
fowls. 

The  period  of  incubation  is  three  weeks,  although 
chicks  are  often  hatched  in  18  days.  Should  the  hen 
fail  to  sit  closely,  during  the  first  few  days,  or  in  early 
spring,  it  will  occasioi.ally  beafewhours  longer.  Dur- 
ing the  hot  months  and  when  the  hen  is  assiduous  the 
time  will  be  a  few  hours  less.  Chickens  have  been 
known  to  come  out  as  late  as  the  27th  day. 

Feeding  Chicks.  In  the  early  stages  of  chicken- 
hood  hard-boiled  eggs  seem  to  be  the  most  natural 
food  for  the  first  week  or  so,  until  they  become  grad- 
ually weaned  to  take  to  bread  crumbs  dry  or  soaked 
in  milk.  But  although  wholesome  and  nourishing  in 
every  way  it  is  not  at  all  indispensable.  A  cheaper 
food,  alternating  with  the  first  week's  feeding  of  eggs 
and  bread  crumbs,  will  answer  very  well ;  some  breed- 
ers make  a  staple  diet  of  equal  parts  of  coarse  corn 
meal  and  wheat  bran,  mixed  with  milk.  But  for  the 
first  few  weeks  it  is  better  to  have  it  cooked  or  baked 
and  fed  to  them  in  a  crumbly  state.  When  the  chicks 
have  i)assed  the  first  stage,  cooked  meal, meat,  scraps 
from  the  table,  boiled  potatoes  and  chopped  cabbage, 
fed  warm  two  or  three  times  a  day,  will  help  them  to 
grow.  This  variety  is  more  essential  in  early  spring 
when  there  is  no  preen  or  insect  food.  In  cold,  wet 
weather  a  dash  of  pepper  maybe  used  in  the  morning 
meal  with  good  advantage.  Good  results  have  come 
from  feeding  a  thick  mush  of  oatmeal,  cracked  wheat 
and  bits  of  meat  during  the  first  month  with  those 
already  mentioned.  Chicks  should  be  fed  liberally 
and  often,  yet  only  what  is  readily  picked  up  clean. 
Fix  a  place  where  they  can  have  ready  access  to,  and 
where  they  can  get,  their  food  without  being  troubled 
by  the  hens.  A  box  with  laths  covered  on  the  top  and 
space  between  the  sides  for  the  chicks  to  run  in  and 
out  will  do.  Give  them  their  feed  inside  this  box  and 
they  will  soon  learn  to  go  there  when  they  are  in  need 
of  something  to  eat. 

Incubators,  apparatus  for  the  artificial  hatching  of 
eggs.  The  ))rocess  has  been  in  vogue  in  Egypt  for  many 
centuries,  with  success,  but  in  Europe  and  America  the 
climate  is  so  changeable  that  it  is  difficult  to  compete 
with  Egypt  in  this  line.     With  the  most  modern  appa- 


534 


FO  WLS. 


ratus  a  skilled  hand  can  succeed  tolerably  well,  but  to 
use  it  requires  constant  attention.  Absolutely  fresh 
eggs  must  be  selected,  the  temjjerature  must  be  kept 
strictly  at  103°,  with  an  allowance  of  an  occasional 
variation  of  two  or  three  degrees  from  this,  and  moist- 
ure must  also  be  very  carefully  supplied.  Artifi- 
cial hatching,  therefore,  should  never  be  resorted  to 
except  in  case  of  great  necessity,  and  then  by  the  best 
modern  apparatus  and  under  the  supervision  of  a 
skillful  hand.  It  is  claimed  that  chicks  hatched  by 
an  incubator  excel  in  growth  and  development. 

Artificial  Re\ring.  An  artificial  ''mother"  may 
be  made  of  a  board  about  a  foot  square,  elevated 
above  the  ground  about  four  inches  on  one  side  and 
only  two  on  the  other,  on  stakes.  The  lower  side 
should  be  lined  with  clean  wool ;  generally  a  lambskin 
tacked  on  is  the  most  practicable.  The  front  side 
should  be  curtained,  the  lower  edges  of  the  curtain 
just  touching  the  ground,  so  the  chicks  can  go  in  and 
out  at  leisure.  In  short,  the  whole  apparatus  should 
be  a  substitute  for  the  real  hen  as  nearly  as  practic- 
able. A  few  small  gimlet  holes  should  be  bored  through 
the  board,  for  ventilation.  The  floor,  ordinarily, 
should  be  the  ground ;  but  sometimes  in  stormy  weath- 
er it  is  a  great  convenience  to  have  a  floor,  for  the  sud- 
den removal  of  the  brood  to  a  place  of  safety.  This 
contrivance  should  be  set  on  a  clean,  new  place,  near 
by,  every  day.  In  front  should  be  a  "  run,"  as  de- 
scribed on  a  preceding  page.  Part  of  it  should  be 
covered  with  wire  gauze,  to  protect  the  young  fowls 
from  seizure  by  larger  animals.  The  feathers  are  liable 
to  be  infested  with  vermin,  and  should  occasionally  be 
well  dusted  with  sulphur  or  pyrethrum  and  smeared 
in  places  with  a  little  paraffine.  The  artificial  rearing 
of  chickens  in  winter  is  too  arduous  to  be  remunerative 
except  in  case  of  very  rare  breeds.  When  a  chick 
does  not  at  first  take  food,  tap  on  the  floor  where  the 
food  is,  at  the  same  time  clucking  like  a  hen ;  this 
method  will  usually  succeed.  Nearly  all  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  successful  rearing  of  fowls  are 
summed  up  in  the  three  words,  warmth,  cleanliness 
and  regular  feeding. 

Poultry  House.  Every  farmer  should  have  a 
good,  convenient  [Xjultry  house,  properly  constructed, 
sufficiently  large  to  contain  the  number  of  birds  he 
desires.  It  should  be  warm  and  dry  in  the  winter, 
well  ventilated  and  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The 
house  should  not  be  over-crowded,  but  just  large 
enough.  Nothing  is  made  by  over-crowding  the 
hennery;  on  the  contrary  it  will  prove  detrimental. 
The  fowls  must  be  fed  regularly  and  at  stated  periods. 
They  must  have  plenty  of  pure  water  at  all  times; 
this  is  of  as  much  importance  to  the  health  of  the 
brood  as  proper  food.  If  possible,  they  should  also 
be  given,  in  addition,  a  plat  of  grass  for  a  run. 

A  poultry  house  need  not  necessarily  be  expensive, 
but  should  be  arranged  with  special  reference  to  con- 
venience in  caring  for  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
fowls.  In  all  the  planning  of  the  house  and  its  furn- 
ishings, have  an  eye  constantly  on  the  conveniences 
of  cleaning  whenever  filth  accumulates ;  for  whatever 


is  inconvenient  to  be  done  is  sure  to  be  neglected. 
By  having  plastered  walls  and  perfect  connections  at 
all  joints,  the  house  can  be  made  vermin-proof 

In  selecting  a  site  for  your  poultry  house  and  yard, 
choose  a  dry  location  with  a  southern  or  eastern 
exix)sure,  if  possible,  higher  than  the  surrounding 
ground,  that  the  water  may  run  off"  rapidly.  A  damp 
location  will  never  do.  The  soil  should  be  of  a 
porous  nature,  either  sand  or  gravel  predominating. 
A  level  clay  surface  is  worse  than  nothing.  If  the 
right  location  can  be  had  at  the  south  side  of  some 
building  that  will  give  it  protection  from  cold  winds, 
so  much  the  better.  Be  the  site  where  it  may,  be 
sure  that  the  floor  of  your  house  is  higher  than  the 
ground  outside.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  frequently 
seen  of  digging  down  a  foot  or  so  in  order  to  make  it 
wamier.  Better  by  far  bank  it  up  when  the  weather 
requires  it.  The  floor  of  your  house  may  be  dry  earth 
or  gravel,  or,  if  economy  is  not  to  be  studied,  concrete 
is  still  better.  Of  whatever  material  it  may  be  made, 
the  floor  should  be  kept  covered  with  dry  earth, 
renewed  weekly,  or  oftener,  as  strict  cleanliness  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  profit  and  the  well  being  of 
the  fowls. 

A  house  to  accommodate,  say  30  fowls — which  is 
about  the  average  usually  kept  by  farmers — should 
contain  at  least  150  square  feet,  or  five  square  feet  to 
each  fowl.  It  has  been  the  experience  of  every  one 
that  has  entered  into  the  raising  of  poultry  extensively, 
that  fowls  will  do  much  better  if  in  small  flocks.  Two 
flocks  of  twenty-five  fowls  each  will  prove  more 
profitable  than  when  allowed  to  mingle  as  one.  The 
following  plans  in  this  article  will  be  found  very 
convenient,  economical  and  every  way  desirable. 
They  are  susceptible  of  various  modifications  to  suit 
location  and  requirements. 

The  nest  boxes  should  be  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
square,  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  deep;  they  should 
be  open  at  the  top  and  at  one  end,  except  a  strip 
three  inches  high  across  the  bottom  end  to  keep  the 
eggs  from  rolling  out. 

The  roosting  bars  should  be  horizontal  and  movable ; 
placed  fifteen  inches  or  more  from  the  wall,  and  ought 
to  be  at  least  four  inches  in  diameter.  Large  bars 
add  much  to  the  comfort  of  fowls  while  at  rest,  and 
prevent  in  a  great  measure  crooked  breasts  and  frozen 
toes.  Under  all  roosting  bars  place  a  movable  shelf 
of  sufficient  width,  and  keep  it  constantly  covered 
with  dry  earth,  muck  or  plaster.  The  droppings 
should  be  removed  every  week,  at  least,  and  stored 
under  cover  outside  of  the  hen-house.  Be  sure  and 
save  them  all,  as  their  value  often  equals  a  fifth  of  the 
whole  ]X)ultry  business.  The  amount  of  the  accumu- 
lation during  the  year,  if  properly  saved,  will  astonish 
you,  and  in  value  is  nearly  equal  to  the  best  imported 
guano.  When  comix)sted  with  muck  and  ashes,  and 
applied  to  the  corn  hill  at  planting  time,  the  increase 
of  the  crop  will  go  far  towards  supplying  your  fowls 
with  the  corn  they  will  require  to  carry  them  through 
the  winter. 

In  a  poultry  house  there  may  be  an  upper  apart- 


J 


FO IVLS. 


535 


ment,  which  would  be  admirable  for  the  rearing  of 
chicks,  especially  those  of  delicate  breeds,  as  it  is  dry 
and  airy,  the  yard  affording  sufficient  run  on  hot  days, 
when  the  heat  in  the  closed  house  is  beyond 
endurance.  With  very  early  chickens  this 
is  seldom  the  case.  It  is  well  where  chick- 
ens are  thus  reared  in  numbers  to  accustom 
them  to  the  outside  air  by  degrees,  in  order 
that  they  may  acquire  strength  and  hardi- 
ness with  their  growth.  Chicks  that  are 
so  reared  learn  to  roost  under  cover,  and 
thus  one  great  difficulty  is  obviated.  It  is 
quite  necessary  that  young  fowls  are  first  led  _ 

to  roost  in  the  place  where  they  are  to  remain, 
and  thus  good  habits  are  not  broken  up.  In 
tlie  upper  story  is  kept  a  large,  shallow  box, 
filled  with  dry,  pulverized  earth,  intermixed 
with  wood  ashes,  for  the  fowls  to  wallow  in. 
Broken  clam  and  oyster  shells  and  gravel 
are  provided  in  abundance,  as  well  as  green 
food  and  fresh  water. 

Fresh  air  and  cleanliness  are  of  the  first 
importance.  The  droppings  may  be  re- 
ceived on  boards  covered  with  dust  and 
carried  out  at  least  once  a  day,  and  every 
August  the  roosts  and  nest  boxes  should  be 
taken  out  and  scalded  by  pouring  boiling  water  on 
them;  then  whitewash  the  house  inside,  also  the 
nest  boxes  and  roosts ;  add  an  ounce  of  carbolic  acid 
to  a  gallon  of  whitewash.  This  will  rid  the  house  of 
lice  if  there  be  any  in  it.  The  dusted  board  should 
be  so  pegged  that  the  fowls  will  not  wallow  on  it  and 


can  spare  the  ground  for.  One  side  should  have  a 
shed  with  roosts,  and  furnished  with  a  heap  of  dry 
dust  or  sifted  ashes  for  the  fowls  to  wallow  in,  and 


Fig.  iq.—Planyor  Fig,  20. 

throw  the  dust  off.  The  covered  run  should  be  raked 
over  two  or  three  times  a  week,  and  dug  over  when- 
ever it  shows  signs  of  stagnation.  In  fact,  three  or 
four  times  a  year  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three 
inches  should  be  removed  and  new  put  in  its  place. 
The  "  run,"  or  open  yard,  should  be  as  large  as  you 


Fig.  ho.— Poultry  HruKe. 

s'Miuld  be  renewed  wherever  it  becomes  damp  or 
filtliy  from  use.  A  walk  in  front  of  the  sheds  should 
be  graveled,  and  the  rest  of  the  open  yard  kept  in 
grass,  whic  h,  if  well  rooted  first,  will  bear  small  fowls 
upon  it  several  hours  a  day,  but  should  be  renewed 
in  the  spring  by  re-=owing,  wherever  needed.  The 
runs  should  be  enclosed  with  wire  netting,  two-inch 
mesh,  which  may  be  conveniently  stretched 
on  poles  I  y^  inches  square,  driven  two  feet 
into  the  ground  and  set  five  feet  apart. 
The  height  of  the  fence  depends  uixsa  the 
breed  to  lie  protected.  C'ochins  and  Brah- 
mas  are  easily  retained  by  a  netting  a  yard 
high;  for  moderate-sized  fowls  six  feet  high 
will  do;  wliile  (iaroe,  Hamburgs  and  Ban- 
tams require  a  fence  eight  or  nine  feet  high. 
There  should  be  no  rail  along  the  top,  as 
that  would  be  a  temptation  to  the  fowls  to 
fly  over,  as  they  would  see  a  rest  there. 

We  present  two  excellent  designs  for  jxjultry 
houses,  both  combining  all  the  modern  con- 
veniences, one,  however,  less  pretentious  in 
its  projxDrtions    and    finish    than    the    other, 
but  both  susceprible  to  various  modifications. 
By  Fig.   19  we  illustrate  the  design   of  a 
cheap  but  convenient  house.  It  can  be  made 
of  cheap  material  and  will  cost  not  more  than 
$25.     Fig.   20  shows  view  of  south  side  and 
east  end,  showing  glass  covering  to  pit  and 
outlet  to  yard;  also  two  doors  in  the  end  of 
house,  one  opening  into  feeding  hall,  and  the  other 
in  front  of  roosts. 

Fig.  ig.  A  cross  section,  showing  feeding  hall  (a), 
two  feet  wide,  whole  length  of  the  house;  feeding 
trough  (b)  with  narrow  slats  (c)  from  inside  edge  to 
bottom  of  partition  (p),  slats  two  and  one-half  inches 


536 


FO  WLS. 


apart,  one  foot  long.  Nest  boxes  (d)  one  foot  four 
inches  deep,  on  shelf  i8  wide;  with  doors  into  feed- 
ing hall  at  (1) ;  roosts  (f )  with  slanting  door  (e)  to  be 
scraped  into  trough  (h)  and  carried  out  through  door 
in  end  of  house ;  ventilator  (g) ;  pit  (i)  two  feet  deep, 
extending  half  way  under  house  and  five  feet  in  front, 
with  glass  roof  (j)  of  common  hot-bed  sash  three  by 
six  feet;  lx)ttom  covered  with  dry  sand.  Gravel  box 
{k);  water  (n),  four  feet  long,  one  foot  wide,  three 
inches  deep,  extending  into  pit  three  inches,  filled 
through  trap-door  in  feeding  hall. 

The  water  trough  is  placed  about  midway  of  the 
building  and  below  ground  to  prevent  freezing. 


Tig.  21. — PouUry  and  Pigeon  House, 

The  house  shown  is  eight  feet  wide,  nine  feet  long 
and  six  feet  high  to  eaves.  Sides  of  one-inch  boards, 
battened.  Roof,  floor  and  slanting  floor  to  roosts,  of 
matched  flooring.  Walls  or  pit  of  brick  or  boards, 
■cement  or  asphalt  bottom;  or  in  dry  soil  no  floor 
needed. 

The  house  can  be  made  longer  and  divided  by  cross 
partitions,  all  being  fed,  watered,  etc.,  from  the  same 
hall.  The  yards  are  not  shown,  but  may  be  added  to 
suit  the  convenience  of  the  proprietor. 

Poultry  and  Pigeon  House,  represented  above, 
consists  of  a  center  room  8x  14  feet  with  two  wings  of 
■0x14  feet,  and  can  be  enlarged  so  as  to  make  it  any 


desired  size,  and  with  good  light  and  ventilation.  The 
entire  building  may  be  under  the  control  of  the  at- 
tendant, the  fowls  fed,  watered,  and  eggs  gathered 
from  the  hall  D  (Fig.  23)  without  disturbing  the  fowls. 
The  entire  house,  including  the  pigeon  loft,  may  be 
heated  from  the  center  room  if  desired.  The  par- 
titions are  of  lattice  work  made  of  netting,  allowing 
free  ventilation  and  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  fowls. 
The  nests  I  are  28  in  number,  and  are  16x20  inches 
in  size.  They  are  so  arranged  that  hens  may  enter 
them  from  the  runs.  When  you  wish  to  collect  eggs 
from  the  nests,  you  draw  out  the  drawer,  and  when 
you  have  collected  the  eggs,  you  push  it  back  to  its 
place.  When  hens  wish  to 
sit,  you  draw  out  the  drawer 
and  leave  it  in  the  hall  D  as 
represented  on  ground  plan, 
where  they  can  feed  and  water 
at  pleasure,  and  prevent  other 
hens  from  laying  in  their  nests, 
in  case  you  are  short  of  nests. 
Then,  when  your  hen  goes  to 
sit,  take  the  drawer  and  hen 
and  place  her  in  the  center 
room  and  replace  the  addi- 
tional drawer.  The  roosts  C 
are  made  of  i  x  6  boards  and 
two  feet  from  the  floor,  and  a 
sufficient  distance  from  the 
wall  so  as  to  protect  the  plum- 
age. The  yards  B  may  be 
used  for  young  chicks.  The 
yards  A  can  be  enlarged  if  the 
grounds  will  admit.  The  sec- 
ond floor  is  intended  for  pig- 
eons, and  can  be  reached  by 
a  step-ladder,  which  may  be 
dispensed  with  at  pleasure. 

The  building  is  made  of  one- 
inch  boards,  sheeted  up  and 
down  with  batten  joints,  and 
lined  on  the  inside  with  heavy 
tarred  paper  to  prevent  all 
draught  and  cold  in  winter,  and 
prevent  vennin,  in  summer, 
from  collecting.  The  entire 
building  should  have  a  smooth 
floor  and  kept  well  covered  with  dry  earth  or  sand. 
Diseases.  Fowls  properly  taken  care  of  will  scarcely 
ever  be  sick,  and  when  one  does  become  afllicted  it  is 
often  best  to  kill  it  immediately,  to  avoid  further  in- 
fection of  the  flock,  as  well  as  many  other  troubles. 
Only  in  the  case  of  valuable  l)irds  do  we  recommend 
much  attempt  at  cure,  and  then  only  when  success  is 
pretty  certain.  In  the  treatment  of  fowls  one  disease 
must  not  be  mistaken  for  another.  For  instance,  the 
name  of  "chicken  cholera"  is  quite  frequently  applied 
to  many  ailments  that  are  simple,  or  merely  disar- 
rangements of  the  internal  organs  that  may  be  easily 
remedied  by  a  change  of  diet  or  place. 


FO  WLS. 


537 


It  is  easy  to  tell  when  fowls  are  ill.  The  comb  of 
eaeh  fowl  is  a  true  index  to  the  workings  of  their  sys- 
tems.    If  they  be  in  ill-health  the  comb  will  lose  color, 


Fig.  22. — Plan/or  Fij.   21. 
A.  Outside  yards  or  runs.    B.     Outside  yards  or   runs  for    young   chicks, 
room   for  feeding,   etc.     D.     Halls   or   passage   ways    for  sitting    hens,     e 
or  windows  as  preferred.    /.     Lattice   door.     g.     Roosts.     Ii.      Windows, 
Partitions  are  all  lattice, 

and  will  become  far  less  firm  in  texture  as  the  malady 
increases,  the  comb  being  of  a  livid  dull  crimson,  or 
else  pale  or  ashy  in  appearance.     Look  at  the  comb 
of  a  laying  hen  or  pullet.     She  is  in  the  height  of 
health  and  strength,  and  carries  her  unfailing 
sign  of  healthfulness  on  her  head  in  the  shaj  e 
of  a  blood-red,  bright  and  full  comb.     A   vig- 
orous cockerel  will  carry  the  same  sign,  though 
not,  perhaps,  in  so  eminent  a  degree   as    his 
harem. 


If  the  cholera  or  any  disease  should  come 
into  the  flock,  carefully  examine  the  comb  of 
each  bird,  morning  and  night,  and  all  those 
which  are  wanting  in  that  bright,  rich  color 
which  denotes  jierfect  health,  remove  at  once 
from  the  flock  to  a  place  remote,  where  they 
should  be  at  once  put  under  medical  treat- 
ment. 

Apoplexy  occurs  from  over-feeding,  and  can  seldom 
be  treated  in  time  to  be  of  service.  Bleed  the  bird 
from  a  vein  visible  on  the  lower  side  of  the  wing  near 


the  body  and  apply  cold  water  to  the  head.     This 
may  recover  the  case. 

Bad  Fledging  of  chicks  may  be  remedied  by  a  diet 
of  meat,  and  bread  sopped  in  ale. 

Bad  Moulting.  Give  stimulating  food- 
warm,  every  morning,  and  well  peppered, 
with  meat  and  ale  every  day,  and  keep 
under  cover  in  wet  weather.  Give  also 
the  Douglas  mixture  (see  page  531),  and 
some  hemp-seed  with  the  grain  every 
evening. 

Bumble  Foot.  A  bruised  and  pus-puffed 
condition  of  the  foot,  resulting  in  lameness. 
Caused  by  heavy  fowls  jumping  and  fly- 
ing from  roosts  upon  gravel,  stones,  etc. 
Treatment:  If  discovered  before  the  pus 
congeals,  lance  the  swelling  at  the  front 
and  rear  of  the  foot,  press  out  the  pus  and 
inject  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  water. 
When  the  pus  has  congealed,  use  a  strong 
liniment  and  let  the  inflammation  settl' 
down  into  a  corner. 

Chicken     Cholera.      The    first     symp- 
toms in  the  cholera  are  a  drooping  of  the 
wings,  a   sticky  slime   in   the   mouth  and 
throat.  The  fated  chicken  loses  its  strength 
and    refuses   to  eat ;  the  wings  droop,  the 
feathers  rise  undl    the   bird   resembles   a 
ball,  and  the  feet  grow  feeble  and   totter- 
ing.    An  uncontrollable  sleepiness  comes 
over  it,  and  it  appears  as  if  narcotized ;    no 
sound  escapes  it,  and  still  drowsy  it   dies 
in  mute  agony.     The    poisonous    excreta 
has   corroded   the  rump,  and  the  flesh  of 
the  bird  is  one  mass  of  raw  sore.     There 
are  a  host  of  minor  symptoms,  not  always 
noticeable   to     the    superficial    observer. 
Among  these  are  a  high  rise   of  tempera- 
Outside  doors  xyxKQ,  and  a  Condition  of  intense  fever;  an 
assumption  of  a  violet  color  by  the  comb, 
in  consequence     of  a    perturbed   condition    of    the 
circulation ;  rapid  progress  of  the  disease ;  contagious- 
ness shown  by  spreading  of  the  disease;  and  more 
imjwrtant   than    all,    the   apparently   highly   painful 

L 


C.      Center 


.ii 


<§ 


s 


fti 


Fig.    23. — Plan  0/  Ro(*/ /or  Fig  :i-L. 

death.  In  some  instances  the  diseased  fowl  dies  in 
less  than  one  hour  after  the  attack.  Dissolve  in  one 
gallon  of  the  drinking  water  half  a   teasjxwnful  of 


k 


538 


FO  WLS. 


alum  and  the  same  of  copperas ;  at  the  same  time 
give  daily  in  the  soft  feed  a  little  sharp  sand  at  the 
rate  of  one  teaspoonful  to  a  fowl.  In  severe  cases 
give  at  once  by  hand  a  piece  of  alum  and  a  piece  of 
copperas,  each  the  size  of  a  pea,  mixed  in  a  dough, 
with  one  teasixxinful  of  sand  and  a  little  meal  and 
water.  Gjntinue  the  medicated  water  and  sanded 
feed  till  all  signs  of  disease  disappear.  As  a  prevent- 
ive, make  a  paste,  as  follows :  Cayenne  pepper  one  part, 
prepared  chalk  one  part,  pulverized  gentian  two 
parts,  charcoal  two  parts,  by  measurement, 
mixed  with  lard.  If  the  disease  is  in  your  vicinity, 
give,  once  a  week,  all  your  fowls  an  ordinary-sized 
pill.  'If  a  chicken  is  taken  with  cholera  it  should  be 
at  once  killed,  and  the  rest  of  the  flock  taken  from  the 
yard  where  the  case  occurred.  Strict  watch  should  be 
kept  over  the  flock,  lest  others  become  attacked. 
Meantime  the  yard  should  be  thorougly  cleansed ;  the 
manure  should  be  removed,  and  the  roosts,  etc., 
washed  in  a  si.x-drachm  solution  of  sulphuric  acid. 
After  ten  days,  if  no  further  cases  have  occurred,  the 
birds  may  be  returned  to  the  yard.  This  is  the  only 
treatment  admissible,  but  it  is  effectual. 

Chicken  Pox.  An  extremely  contagious,  watery 
eruption  of  the  comb,  face  and  wattles.  Symptoms : 
Yellowish-white  rash,  appearing  as  above,  bleeding 
profusely  when  the  crests  are  removed.  It  takes 
from  five  to  seven  days  to  run  its  course.  Treatment: 
Remove  the  crests  and  bathe  in  hot  water  and  carbolic 
acid.  When  the  bleeding  ceases,  apply  citrine  oint- 
ment ;  take  off  the  scales  after  sixty  or  seventy-two 
hours.  Each  morning  give  a  pill  made  as  follows: 
Tablespoonful  each  of  common  flour  and  flour  of 
sulphur,  teasjx)onful  cayenne  pepper,  sixty  grains 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  milk  enough  to  mould  into 
twenty  pills.  Dissolve  four  grains  quinine  in  two- 
thirds  of  a  pint  of  milk,  and  give  in  three  equal  doses 
during  the  day.  Feed-  boiled  onions  and  rice  mixed 
with  oat-meal. 

Diarrhea,  a  morbidly  frequent  evacuation  of  the 
intestines,  the  scourge  of  young  chicks  in  early  spring. 
It  is  caused  by  improper  food  and  lack  of  com.  Give 
chicks  nothing  but  scalded  milk  for  drink,  and  none 
but  cooked  food.  For  older  fowls,  a  tablespoonful 
of  castor  oil,  and  ten  drops  of  laudanum  are  effectual. 
Feed  bread  soaked  in  scorched  milk  and  black  pepper, 
and  supply  plenty  of  burned  bones  and  charcoal. 

Diphtheria  or  Canker.  Take  tincture  of  aconite,  six 
drops;  bichromate  of  potassa  the  size  of  a  large  pea; 
the  same  amount  of  iodide  of  mercury ;  put  into  six 
drops  of  water.  Put  six  drops  of  this  mixture  into  one 
quart  of  water  and  stir  into  it  meal  and  feed. 

Diseased  Feet.  We  frequently  see  fowls  which  are 
troubled  more  or  less  with  their  feet,  especially  after 
arriving  at  maturity.  The  feet  and  legs  of  birds  are 
extremely  sensitive,  and  this  is  manifested  in  many 
ways.  Sometimes  a  bird  wrenches  a  nail  from  the 
toe.  This  is  often  the  case  with  turkeys  in  cold  weather 
when  the  ground  is  frozen.  The  blood  flows  profusely, 
and  a  slight  lameness  is  occasioned.  Indeed,  if  it  be 
a  middle  toe,  the  fowl  will  always  limp  more  or  less. 


Turkeys  usually  seek  a  high  roosting  place  in  the  fall 
of  the  year,  and  alighting  therefrom  when  the  ground 
is  frozen  they  injure  the  feet.  Common  fowls  in 
alighting  strike  more  on  the  soles  or  heels.  Hence 
come  so  many  "bumble  feet"  among  the  barnyard 
fowls,  which,  if  it  does  not  effect  or  injure  the  fowl  to 
any  great  extent,  is  unsightly.  When  fowls  are  con- 
fined in  filthy  places  and  obliged  to  tread  over  ground 
covered  with  their  own  droppings,  more  or  less  disease 
of  the  feet  is  occasioned  from  the  dirt  remaining  in 
the  wrinkles  on  the  toes.  They  need  a  run  over  the 
grass  at  least  once  a  day  to  clean  the  feet.  Fowls 
do  not  want  wet  or  damp  standing  or  walking  places. 
The  moisture  soaks  the  feet  and  makes  them  tender. 
Where  fowls  run  daily  on  sand  or  gravel  there  will 
often  be  found  bunches  on  the  feet  or  toes.  Some- 
time§  the  gravel  or  dirt  works  under  the  skin  and 
forms  a  hard  lump  that  increases  in  size  until  suppur- 
ation sets  in,  and  the  fowl  gets  relief  by  opening  it. 
Sometimes  the  lump  cannot  be  removed.  Either  of 
these  cases  is  unsightly,  and  hurts  the  looks  of  the 
bird.  During  the  moulting  season  the  legs  undergo 
the  same  process  of  change,  and  a  new  skin  grows, 
which,  if  the  legs  be  without  scurf,  will  appear  bright 
and  fresh  like  a  chick's.  There  is  nothing  more 
unsightly  than  scurfy  legs.  This  is  in  part  hereditary, 
and  in  ])art  brought  on  by  filth.  None  but  white  and 
yellow-legged  birds  are  affected  with  it  to  any  extent. 
Although  scurfy  legs  may  be  cured  by  the  use  of 
carbolic  soap  and  an  ointment  prepared  of  lard  and 
sulphur,  it  is  better,  if  possible,  to  avoid  the  trouble  by 
breeding  and  careful  cleanliness.  To  shun  bumble- 
footedness  and  bunchy  toes,  or  lumps  on  the  web, 
train  the  birds  to  low  roosting  poles,  and  keep  their 
walks  comparatively  clean. 

Distemper,  an  affection  of  the  head  and  throat  of 
young  fowls;  a  cold;  incipient  roup.  Symptoms: 
Fowl  hstless  and  quiet,  remaining  on  the  roost  in  the 
day-time ;  face  and  comb  quite  red,  and  puffy  under 
the  eyes ;  no  appetite.  A  white  froth  appears  in  the 
corner  of  the  eye  the  second  day.  Treatment :  Wash 
the  head  and  beak  clean,  and  clear  the  tear  tube  by 
blowing  down  through  the  nose  into  the  throat;  then 
bathe  the  head  and  wash  the  throat  with  a  solution  of 
carbolic  acid — one  part  of  acid  to  ten  of  water.  Keep 
quiet  and  allow  nothing  but  water  for  a  day  or  so. 
In  aggravated  cases,  steam  the  head  and  throat,  give 
a  dessert-spoonful  of  castor  oil,  and  repeat  the  carboUc 
acid  treatment  at  short  intervals. 

Soft  Eggs  are  generally  caused  by  over-feeding, 
the  lack  of  limy  food,  or  fright. 

Dropping  Good  Eggs  on  the  ground  away  from 
the  nest  is  probably  due  to  filth  or  vermin  in  the  nest. 

Egg-Eating.  Some  hens  will  eat  eggs  most  per- 
sistently. Have  their  nests  small  and  in  a  remote, 
dark  place,  feed  soft  food  and  cut  off  the  tip  of  the 
beak,  just  touching  the  "quick." 

Feather-Eating.  Change  the  diet  and  give  them 
larger  liberty.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  cut  off  the 
tip  of  the  beak,  as  for  egg-eating. 

Gapes  are  thought  by  some  to  be  infectious      At 


FO IVLS. 


539 


least  they  are  epidemic.  The  disease  is  usually  the 
result  of  drinking  foul  water,  exposure  to  wet  or  want 
of  nourishing  food.  It  consists  of  small  worms  which 
infest  the  windpipe  and  cause  the  chicken  to  gasp 
for  breath.  To  cure  gapes  put  camphor  in  the  drink- 
ing water,  and  give  the  chicken  a  piece  of  camphor 
about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  ever)-  day,  or  a  very 
small  quantity  of  turpentine  may  be  given  daily  in 
meal.  Of  course  the  chicken  must  be  well  taken 
care  of,  and  if  it  has  been  neglected  in  the  least,  the 
neglect  must  not  continue.  If  the  case  has  been 
allowed  to  progress  until  it  has  become  fully  developed, 
the  worms  must  be  removed,  which  is  done  by  intro- 
ducing a  loop  of  horse  hair  into  the  trachea,  and 
turning  it  around  while  introducing  it.  This  opera- 
tion should  be  continued  until  all  the  worms  are 
extracted.  Sometimes  a  feather  stripped  almost  to 
the  top  may  be  used  instead  of  the  horse  hair. 

Z^g  Weakness  is  due  to  too  rapid  growth  of  the 
body.  Give  a  greater  proportion  of  meat,  and  daily 
three  or  four  grains  of  ammonium  citrate  dissolved  in 
water.  If  the  weather  is  warm,  the  legs  may  be 
dipped  daily  for  a  few  minutes  in  cold  water. 

Loss  of  Feathers  is  almost  always  caused  by  want 
of  green  food  or  of  a  dust  bath.  Anoint  with  sulphur 
and  creosote ;  but  you  will  have  to  wait  until  after  the 
ne.xt  moulting  for  good  feathers. 

Ftp  is  a  foul,  thickened  tongue,  indicating  bad 
digestion,  roup  or  some  other  evil. 

Roup,  a  kind  of  contagious  influenza,  the  chief 
symptoms  of  which  are  lassitude  and  an  offensive  dis- 
charge from  the  nostrils  and  eyes.  It  is  more  to  be 
dreaded  than  all  other  diseases,  and  is  generally  in- 
duced by  damp  drafts,  and  confinement  in  filthy,  badly 
ventilated  coops  or  small  yards.  Musty,  moldy,  and 
poor  food,  together  with  impure  and  stagnant  water  to 
drink,  are  also  among  the  causes.  As  it  is  a  contagi- 
ous disease,  such  as  are  apparently  healthy  should 
be  removed  to  a  distant  and  clean  place,  and  be  pre- 
vented from  again  having  access  to  their  usual  habita- 
tion. When  the  disease  is  far  advanced,  treatment  is 
out  of  the  question.  Such  animals  should  be  de- 
stroyed and  immediately  buried  deeply  in  some  se- 
cluded place.  When  taken  in  hand  in  the  beginning 
of  the  disease,  dry  and  comfortable  lodging  and  stim- 
ulating, nutritious  food,  are  the  first  essentials  to 
recovery.  The  eyes  and  head  should  be  frequently 
bathed  with  warm  water,  and  remedial  agents  applied 
to  the  diseased  membrane.  This  is  somewhat  diffi- 
cult on  account  of  the  nostrils  being  closed  up,  but 
may  be  overcome  by  inserting  the  point  of  a  small 
syringe  into  the  slit  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  turn- 
ing it  rather  to  the  outside  for  each  nostril.  A  small 
portion  of  a  solution  of  lo  grains  of  sulphate  of  copper 
to  each  ounce  of  water,  may  thus  be  brought  into  the 
nasal  cavity.  As  an  internal  remedy,  may  be  used 
half  a  teasjxwnful  of  castor  oil ;  thereafter,  give  every 
morning  and  evening  a  pill  of  the  following  comjx)- 
sition:  Take  i  ounce  of  balsam  copaiba,  ^  ounce  of 
powdered  liquorice,  i  drachm  of  piperine,  and  enough 
of  magnesia  to  make  a  mass  which  will  divide  into 


60  pills.  Fresh  drinking  water  should  be  provided 
twice  daily,  in  previously  cleaned  vessels,  and  to  the  1 
water  may  be  added  a  few  drops  of  tincture  of  iron. 
Good,  clean  and  well  vendlated  quarters,  free  from 
drafts,  ample  range  of  liberty,  good  nutritious  food, 
ashes  and  sand  to  roll  in,  a  little  tincture  of  iron  oc- 
casionally added  to  their  drinking  water,  and  a  little 
flour  of  sulphur  added  to  soft  food,  once  or  twice  a 
week,  will  be  found  of  great  benefit,  and  go  far  towards 
preventing  the  appearance  of  this  scourge  of  jxjultry. 

Lice.  The  whole  feathered  tribe  seem  to  be 
peculiarly  liable  to  be  infested  with  lice;  and  there  have 
been  instances  when  fowls  have  been  so  covered  in  this 
loathsome  manner  that  the  natural  color  of  the  feathers 
has  been  undistinguishable.  The  presence  of  vermin 
is  not  only  annoying  to  poultry,  but  materially  inter- 
feres with  their  growth  and  prevents  their  fattening. 
They  are,  indeed,  the  greatest  drawback  to  the  success 
and  pleasure  of  the  jwultry  fancier;  and  nothing  but 
unremitting  vigilance  will  exterminate  them,  and  keep 
them  exterminated.  Therefore,  whitewash  frequently 
all  the  parts  adjacent  to  the  roosting-pole,  take  the 
ix)les  down  and  run  them  slowly  through  a  fire  made 
of  wood  shavings,  dry  weeds,  or  other  light,  waste 
combustibles.  Flour  of  sulphur,  placed  in  a  vessel 
and  set  on  fire  in  a  close  poultry-house,  will  penetrate 
every  crevice  and  effectually  exterminate  the  vermin. 
When  a  hen  comes  off  with  her  brood,  the  old  nest 
should  be  taken  out  and  a  new  one  placed ;  and  dry 
tobacco-leaves,  rubbed  to  a  ix)wder  between  the  hands, 
and  mixed  with  the  hay  of  the  nest,  will  add  much  to 
the  health  of  the  poultry. 

Flour  of  sulphur  may  also  be  mixed  with  Indian 
meal  and  water,  and  fed  in  the  proiwrtion  of  one 
TOund  of  sulphur  to  two  dozen  fowls,  in  two  parcels, 
two  days  apart.  Almost  any  kind  of  grease,  or  unctu- 
ous matter,  is  also  certain  death  to  the  vermin  of 
domestic  ixsultry.  In  the  case  of  very  young  chickens 
it  should  be  used  only  on  a  warm,  sunny  day,  when 
they  should  be  put  into  a  coop  with  their  mother,  the 
coop  darkened  for  an  hour  or  two,  and  every  thing 
made  quiet,  that  they  may  secure  a  good  rest  and 
nap  after  the  fatigue  of  greasing  them.  They  should 
be  handled  with  geat  care  and  greased  thoroughly; 
the  hen,  also.  After  resting,  they  may  be  pemiitted 
to  come  out  and  bask  in  the  sun,  and  in  a  few  days 
they  will  look  sprightly  enough. 

Carbolic  acid  and  kerosene  are  the  two  most 
effectual  antidotes  to  all  sorts  of  vermin.  The  acid 
should  be  one  to  two  per  cent,  in  strength,  and 
sprinkled  occasionally  on  all  the  wood-work  around 
the  roosts  with  a  brush  or  broom.  The  kerosene  is  to 
be  rubbed  on  those  parts  of  the  fowls  which  are  most 
liable  to  be  attacked  with  lice;  but  sitting  hens  should 
not  be  treated  with  it,  as  it  would  be  likely  to  get  on 
the  eggs  and  ruin  them. 

To  guard  against  vermin,  however,  it  should  not  be 
forgotten  that  cleanliness  is  of  vital  importance;  and 
there  must  always  be  plenty  of  slacked  lime,  dry  ashes 
and  sand,  easy  of  access  to  the  fowls,  in  which  they 
can  roll  and  dust  themselves. 


I 


540 


FO  JVLS. 


We  wish  to  speak  in  particular  of  two  varieties  of 
lice  tliat  infest  fowls,  and  of  which  we  give  very  fine 
and  accurate  illustrations. 

Gutschcr\  Cholera  Louse.  We  give  by  Fig.  25  an 
enlarged  view  of  a  parasite,  almost  microscopic,  that 
infests  fowls.  This  is  so  small  that  many  would  deny 
that  there  were  any  lice  on  their  fowls   or  in  their 

houses,  when  in 
fact  there  might 
be  millions, 
both  on  the 
fowls  and  in  the 
houses.  The 
engraving 
shows  the  louse 
magnified  1,200 
diameters,  o  r 
1,440,000  times 
larger  than 
it  really  is.  It  is 
so  small  that  it 
takes  good  eyes 
to  see  it  unless 
it  is  in  motion. 

Fig.  2y'Guttchir^s  Cholera  Louse.  It    is    thc    Opin- 

ion of  sonie  eminent  scientists  that  it  is  not,  as  Mr. 
Gutscher  says,  the  cause  of  cholera  in  fowls.  These 
parasites  are  easily  got  rid  of  by  the  application  of 
Persian  Insect  Powder  and  coal  oil. 

Probably  no  subject  is  of  more  interest  to  the  stu- 
dent of  natural  history  than  that  of  the  parasites. 
They  are  omnipresent,  in  some  form  or  another;  we 
find  them  on  every  hand.  Man  harbors  a  great  num- 
ber of  them,  as 
the  tape-worm 
and  the  thread- 
worm. The  little 
black  spots  o  n 
the  face  indicate 
the  presence  of  a 
parasite  that  lives 
in  the  sebaceous 
follicles  o  f  t  h  e 
skin.  The  dis- 
gusting disease 
known  as  "the 
itch  "is caused  by 
an  acarus  closely 
allied  to  this 
louse.  This  para- 
site is  one  of  a 
few  which  infest 
poultry.  You  will 
notice  that  it  has 
four  pairs  of  legs  ; 
this  distinguishes 
it  from  the  insects 
and  gives  it  a 
closer  relation   to 


Fig.  ^-Female  Louie. 


the  spider  family.  In  common  parlance  it  is 


mite. 


In  size  the  body  is  about  one-fiftieth  of  one  inch  in 
length.  As  seen  on  the  fowl  it  appears  as  a  minute 
speck  ;  and  were  it  not  for  its  moving  it  would  escape 
the  keenest  eye.  It  has  no  brains  or  eyes,  though  it 
does  possess  a  nervous  system.  At  the  end  of  each 
leg  is  a  sucker  with  two  minute  hooks  attached  to  it. 
This  enables  the  mite  to  walk  on  a  smooth  surface 
and  to  cling  with  great  tenacity.  In  front  between  the 
palpi  you  will  notice  a  minute  sharp  organ.  This  is  at 
once  a  lancet  and  a  sucker  and  comprises  his  arm- 
ament of  torture. 
They  are  e  x  - 
tremely  prolific 
and  multiply  with 
great  rapidity,  in 
some  species  the 
female  laying  fer- 
tile eggs  without 
the  interposition 
of  the  males ;  this 
parthenogenesis, 
according  to  Par- 
ker, having  been 
noticed  in  several 
species.  They 
are  very  tenaci- 
ous of  life.  The 
one  from  which 
the  drawing  was 

Fig.  it.— Male  ami  Female  Chicken  Lice.        made     S  h  O  W  cd 

Signs  of  life  after  having  been  submerged  for  over  an 
hour  in  camphor  water. 

As  these  are  most  generally  found  in  cholera-infedt- 
ed  fowls,  the  question  has  been  mooted  as  to  whether 
they  have  anything  to  do  with  the  case  of  the  disease. 
Prof.  Atwood  thinks  not,  but  thinks  their  presence  a 
concomitant  rather  than  a  cause  of  the  disease.  When 
the  fowl  is  filthy  and  diseased  the  parasite  flourishes 
and  with  no  resistance  from  the  languid  fowl. 

Chicken  Louse  {Goniocotes  Burnetii).  The  follow- 
ing arricle  on  the  chicken 
louse  was  prepared  by  Prof. 
H.  F.  Atwood,  and  appeared 
in  the  American  Poultry 
Journal,  November,  1878. 
By  all  scientists  and  micros- 
copists  it  is  regarded  as  a 
fine  article  and  the  cuts  as 
exceptionally  accurate. 

"  In  complying  with  my 
promise  to  give  some  cuts 
and  a  short  description  of  the 
louse, — the  parasite  found  on 
poultry, — I  am  able  to  present 
cuts  from  three  diffeient  va- 
rieties of  fowls.  Fig.  26  is 
from  a  Black  Spanish  chick. 
This  and  the  two  following,  which  are  from  some  Light 
Brahma  chicks— were  from  the  heads  of  chickens  and 
are  I  believe  called  by  fanciers  '  ticks. '    Fig.  28  is  from  a 


—Louse   From 
Brahma  Foivl. 


Light , 


FO  WLS. 


541 


native  fowl  of  tlie  Light  Brahma  breed.  The  male 
and  female  are  both  shown  in  Fig.  27.  They  belong 
to  what  is  called  the"  skin-biting  lice," or  Mallophaga, 
and  are  of  this  family  the  most  closely  allied  to  the 
Pediculus,  to  which  family  belong  the  various  kinds  of 
human  lice.  They  are  called  the  Goniocotes  Bur- 
netii, Pack.  That  they  are  terribly  in  earnest  about 
picking  up  a  living,  any  one  who  has  attempted  to 
dislodge  them  from  the  head  of  a  young  chick  can  tes- 
tify, their  entire  head  sometimes  being  buried  in  the 
tender  skin  of  their  victim.  Rather  than  to  take  the 
trouble  of  picking  them  off  when  so  intent  on  their 
Work,  it  is  j  List  as  effective  and  far  less  work  to  use 
lard  as  ointment,  and  rub  it  well  over  the  head  and 
neck  of  the  affected  chicks.  This,  while  being  no  in- 
convenience to  the  chicks,  is  a  very  serious  matter  to 
the  parasite,  as  we  shall  presently  see. 

"  No  doubt  many  fanciers,  not  well  versed  on  the 
subject,  may  wonder  why  an  application  of  lard  should 
tend  to  rid  their  fowls  of  lice.  An  elementary  lesson 
in  this  branch  of  natural  history  may  not  be  amiss,  and 
I  will  endeavor  to  discribe  why  so  harmless  an  article 
should  prove  so  deadly  to  the  louse. 

"The  system  of  breathing  in  an  insect  is  carried  on 
in  a  peculiar  manner;  the  air  enters  through  little  ap- 
ertures on  either  side  of  the  abdomen ;  these  are 
called  spiracles,  and  connected  with  them  are  the 
trachea  or  tubes  which  by  their  intricate  and  exhaust- 
tive  ramifications  convey  the  air  to  every  part  of  the 
body  where  needed.  The  action  of  the  lard  is  to  close 
these  spiracles  of  an  insect  and  the  result  of  this  is  of 
course  fatal. 

''  By  referring  to  the  cuts  we  see  a  vast  difference  in 
the  morphological  characteristics  of  the  three  speci- 
mens. The  one  from  the  Black  Spanish  is  much 
larger  and  darker  than  the  matronly  appearing  one 
from  the  Light  Brahma.  It  is  not  fair  tosupiX)se  that 
we  have  here  an  exemplification  of  what  Darwin 
terms  incipient  species  ?  Has  not  the  principle  of 
natural  selection  tended  toward  the  development,  say 
of  the  darker  color  of  the  specimen  from  the  Black 
Spanish?  Being  nearer  to  the  color  to  the  feathers  of 
the  fowl  on  which  it  lives,  it  has  an  advantage  in  the 
great  struggle  of  existence.  The  specimen  from  the 
Light  Brahma,  on  the  contrary,  is  of  a  light  color  cor- 
responding closely  to  the  prevailing  color  of  this  ])ar- 
ticuarfowl. 

"The  cuts  show  the  insects  magnified  a  little  more 
than  30  diameters,  or,  in  [xjpular  language,  they  are 
shown  a  thousand  times  larger  than  they  really  are." 

General  Remarks  and  Practical  Suggestions. 
In  preparing  fowls  for  exhibition,  it  is  a  common  but 
a  reprehensible  practice  to  over-fatten  them  with  a 
soft,  starchy  diet,  in  confinement.  Such  a  condition 
of  the  birds  misleads  ignorant  judges  at  fairs,  and  ren- 
ders the  fowls  of  but  little  value  afterward.  Li  pre- 
paring for  exhibition,  it  is  well  to  shut  up  together  for 
a  few  days  beforehand  those  that  are  to  be  shown  in 
one  coop,  so  that  they  will  get  used  to  each  other; 
else,  on  the  journey  they  will  pick  and  disarrange 
one  another's  feathers.    Away  from  their  rural  haunts, 


also,  they  get  homesick,  which  fact  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  at  the  fair. 

Fowls  do  not  look  well  with  their  wings  cut,  and 
their  flying  power  can  be  fully  crippled  by  simply 
plucking  out  the  first  or  flight  feathers,  which  opera- 
tion is  not  visible  when  the  wings  are  closed.  Trap- 
doors between  all  departments  should  be  supplied,  so 
that  the  birds  can  all  be  kept  in  one  while  another  is 
being  renewed  or  repaired. 

Eggs  should  be  collected  regularly  if  possible  twice 
every  day,  and  if  any  chickens  are  to  be  reared  from 
the  home  stock,  the  owner  or  attendant  should  learn 
to  recognize  the  egg  of  such  particular  hen.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  this,  even  with  a  considerable  number; 
nearly  every  egg,  to  the  accustomed  eye,  has  a  well- 
marked  individual  character;  and  if  there  be  any  hens 
of  value,  it  may  save  much  disappointment  in  the 
character  of  the  brood  to  know  the  parentage  of  those 
selected  for  hatching. 

Where  a  considerable  number  of  fowls  are  killed 
annually,  the  feathers  also  become  of  value,  and 
should  be  preserved.  They  are  very  easily  dressed  at 
home.  Strip  the  plumage  from  the  quills  of  the  larger 
feathers  and  mix  with  the  smaller  ones,  putting  the 
whole  loosely  in  paper  bags,  which  should  be  hung 
up  in  the  kitchen  or  some  other  warm  place  for  a  few 
days  to  dry.  Then  let  the  bags  be  baked  three  or 
four  times,  for  half  an  hour  each  time,  in  a  cool  oven, 
drying  for  two  days  between  each  baking,  and  the 
jjrocess  will  be  complete.  Less  trouble  than  this  will 
do,  and  is  often  made  to  suffice;  but  the  feathers  are 
inferior  in  crispness  to  those  so  treated,  and  may  oc- 
casionally become  offensive. 

In  raising  jxDultry  or  stock  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  one  to  keep  it  healthy  and  improve  it.  You 
can  do  it  very  easily  by  adopting  some  systematic 
rules.  These  may  be  summed  up  in  brief,  as  fol- 
lows : 

Construct  your  house  good  and  warm,  so  as  to  avoid 
damp  floors,  and  afford  a  flood  of  sunlight.  Sunshine 
is  better  than  medicine. 

Provide  a  dusting  and  scratching  place  where  you 
can  bury  wheat  and  com,  and  thus  induce  the  fowls 
to  take  needful  exercise. 

Provide  yourself  with  some  good  healthy  chickens, 
none  to  be  over  three  or  four  years  old,  giving  one 
cock  to  every  1 2  hens. 

Give  plenty  of  fresh  air  at  all  times  of  the  year, 
especially  in  summer. 

Give  i^lenty  of  fresh  water  daily,  and  never  allow 
the  fowls  to  go  thirsty. 

Feed  them  systematically  two  or  three  times  a  day, 
and  scatter  the  food  so  they  can't  eat  too  fast  or  with- 
out proper  exercise.  Do  not  feed  more  than  they  will 
eat  up  clean,  or  they  will  get  tired  of  that  kind  of 
feed. 

Give  them  a  variety  of  both  dry  and  cooked  food ; 
a  mixture  of  cooked  meal  and  vegetables  is  an  excel- 
lent thing  for  their  morning  meal. 

Give  soft  feed  in  the  morning,  and  the  whole  grain 
at  night,  except  a  little  wheat  or  cracked  corn  placed 


542 


FO  WLING— FREE-MARTIN. 


in  the  scratching  place  to  give  them  exercise  during 
the  day. 

Above  all  things  keep  the  hen-house  clean  and  ven- 
tilated. 

Do  not  crowd  too  manj^in  one  house.  If  you  do, 
look  out  for  disease. 

Use  carbolic  jwwder  in  the  dusting  bins  occasion- 
ally to  destroy  lice. 

Wash  your  loosts  and  bottom  of  laying  nests  and 
whitewash  once  a  month  in  winter. 

Let  the  old  and  young  have  as  large  a  range  as 
possible,  the  larger  the  better. 

Don't  breed  too  many  kinds  of  fowls  at  the  same 
time,  unless  you  are  going  into  the  business.  Three 
or  four  will  give  your  hands  full. 

Introduce  new  blood  into  your  stock  every  year  or 
so,  by  either  buying  a  cockerel  or  sittings  of  eggs  from 
some  reliable  breeder. 

In  buying  birds  or  eggs,  go  to  some  reliable  breeder 
who  has  his  reputation  at  stake.  You  may  have  to 
pay  a  little  more  for  birds,  but  you  can  depend  on 
what  you  get.     Culls  are  not  cheap  at  any  price. 

Save  the  birds  for  next  year's  breeding  and  send 
the  older  to  market.  In  shipping  fancy  poultry  to 
market,  send  it  dressed. 

For  the  manner  of  killing,  packing,  shipping,  etc., 
of  fowls,  see  Poultry.  For  mode  of  Caponizing,  see 
article  on  that  subject. 

To  Cook  Fowl.  To  Boil.  They  should  be  cleaned 
and  stuffed  as  for  roasting.  A  young  fowl  requires  an 
hour;  if  tough  and  old,  three  hours.  A  chicken  will 
boil  in  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  They  may  be  served 
with  oyster,  caper  or  egg  sauce. 
_  Roast  Fotvl.  It  is  picked,  nicely  cleaned  and 
singed,  the  neck  is  cut  off,  the  fowl  washed.  It  is 
trussed,  and  dredged  with  flour,  and  when  put  down 
to  roast,  basted  with  butter.  A  good-sized  fowl  will  re- 
quire above  an  hour  to  roast.  Make  a  rich  gravy 
from  the  drippings,  add  butter,  a  little  thickening,  and 
the  inwards  nicely  chopped,  after  you  have  boiled  them 
soft.  An  hour  is  enough  for  common-sized  chickens 
to  roast.  A  smart  fire  is  better  than  a  slow  one ;  but 
it  must  be  attended  closely.  Slices  of  bread,  but- 
tered, salted  and  peppered,  make  excellent  filling. 

Stewed  Chicken.  Divide  a  chicken  into  pieces  by 
the  joints,  and  put  into  a  stewpan  with  salt,  pepper, 
little  parsley  and  thyme ;  pour  in  a  quart  of  water, 
with  a  piece  of  butter ;  and  when  it  has  stewed  an 
hour  and  a  half,  take  the  chicken  out  of  the  pan.  If 
there  is  no  gravy,  put  in  another  piece  of  butter,  add 
some  water  and  flour  and  let  it  boil  a  few  minutes. 
When  done,  it  should  not  be  quite  as  thick  as  drawn 
butter.  For  dumplings,  take  i  quart  of  sifted  flour,  i 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  2  of  cream  tartar  and  i  of  soda; 
mix  well  with  milk  and  form  into  biscuit ;  place  them 
upon  a  tin  in  a  steafner  over  the  kettle  where  the 
chicken  is  Iwiling.  They  will  steam  in  20  minutes. 
You  can  rub  a  little  butter  in  the  flour  if  you  wish 
them  very  nice. 

Chicken  Fricassee.  After  preparing  a  couple  of  nice 
chickens,  joint  them,  dividing  the  wings,  side,  breast   I 


and  back-bone,  a,nd  let  them  lie  in  salt  and  water  J^ 
an  hour;  remove  them  then  to  a  stewpan,  with  y^  a 
pound  of  good,  sweet,  salt  pork,  cut  up  in  pieces; 
barely  cover  with  water  and  simmer  on  the  top  of  the 
stove  or  range  for  3  hours ;  when  sufficiently  tender, 
take  out  the  chicken,  mix  a  tablespoonful  of  flour 
smoothly  with  cold  milk,  and  add  a  little  fine  dried  or 
chopped  parsley,  sage  and  thyme,  or  summer  savory 
and  stir  gradually  into  the  liquor;  keep  stirring  till  it 
boils ;  season  with  pepper  and  salt  to  taste ;  and  then 
put  back  the  chicken  and  let  it  boil  up  for  a  few  mo- 
ments in  the  gravy;  garnish  with  the  green  tops  of 
celery. 

Chicken  Pot  Pic.  Divide  the  chicken  into  pieces 
at  the  joints;  boil  until  part  done,  or  about  20  min- 
utes, then  take  it  out.  Fry  2  or  3  slices  of  fat  salt 
pork,  and  put  in  the  bottom,  then  place  the  chicken 
on  it  with  3  pints  of  water,  2  ounces  of  butter,  a  table- 
spoonful  of  pepper,  and  cover  over  the  top  with  a  light 
crust,  made  the  same  as  for  biscuit. 

Fowling,  the  killing  or  taking  of  birds  for  the  sake 
of  their  flesh,  feathers,  etc. 

Fowling  Piece,  a  light  gun  for  shooting  fowls  or 
birds. 

Foxed,  discolored  or  stained :  said  of  timber  and 
of  paper  in  printed  books. 

Fox  Evil,  a  kind  of  disease  in  which  the  hair  falls 
off.     See  Hair  and  Baldness. 

Fracture,  a  break  or  separation  in  the  bone  of  an 
animal,  from  external  violence.  When  the  impaired 
bone  is  simply  cracked  or  broken  through,  the  fracture 
is  simple;  where  the  bone  is  bruised,  crushed,  or 
broken  into  splinter  or  fragments,  the  fracture  is  com- 
pound ;  and  when  the  bone  is  merely  pushed  out  of 
its  socket,  without  being  cracked  or  splintered,  the  in- 
jury is  a  dislocation.  When  a  simple  fracture  occurs 
near  a  joint,  it  is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  a  disloca- 
tion. The  chief  cure  for  a  simple  fracture  is  to  adjust 
the  broken  parts  accurately  to  each  other,  and  fix  them 
in  their  position  by  means  of  wooden  splints  and 
strong  bandages ;  the  chief  cure  for  a  compound  frac- 
ture is  to  saw  away  projecting  splinters,  clean  and 
close  the  wound,  adjust  the  chief  parts  of  the  broken 
bone,  soothe  with  fomentations  and  supjxjrt  with  soft 
bandages  till  cicatrization  be  effected,  and  then  pro- 
ceed as  in  simple  fracture ;  and  the  chief  care  of  a 
dislocation,  unattended  by  crack  or  splinter,  is  to  bring 
back  the  displaced  bone  into  the  socket,  and  apply 
either  plaster  or  bandage. 

The  reduction  of  a  fracture  in  any  important  bone 
of  the  horse  is  so  very  difficult  to  be  effected,  and  so 
uncertain  in  its  restorative  effects,  and  would  be  fol- 
lowed by  so  long  a  period  of  inactive  and  expensive 
feeding,  that  horse-owners  scarcely  ever  think  of  at- 
tempting it,  but  consign  the  animal  to  destruction. 
Yet  many  a  fracture  which  condemns  a  horse  to  death 
would  be  cured  if  the  proper  surgical  skill  could  be 
obtained.     See  Horse. 

Free-Martin,  the  seemingly  female  twin  of  a  bull 


FREEZING  MIXTURE— FRITTER. 


543 


calf.  The  majority  of  apparent  heifers  which  have 
been  produced  as  twins  of  bull  calves  are  more 
or  less  hermaphrodites ;  and  some  possess  an  almost 
equal  balance  of  the  peculiar  organisms  of  male 
and  female;  and  all  these  are  necessarily  and  irre- 
mediably barren ;  but  a  few  have  a  sufficiently  dis- 
tinct and  full  development  of  all  the  female  organs 
to  be  true  heifers  and  fully  capable  of  becoming  pro- 
ductive cows.  Thoroughly  hermaphrodite  free-martins 
have  a  lumpish  appearance  proper  to  neither  cow  nor 
bull ;  and  if  they  belong  to  a  good  breed,  they  are  ex- 
cellent fattening  animals  for  the  market. 

Freezing  Mixture,  with  Ice  or  Snow.  Mix  ^ 
snow  or  ix)unded  ice  with  y^,  muriate  of  soda.  This 
will  reduce  temperature  to  5*^  below  zero.  A  mixture 
of  12  parts  of  snow  or  pounded  ice  with  5  each  of 
muriate  of  soda  and  nitrate  of  ammonia  will  reduce  to 
25 '^  below  zero.  Snow  or  ice  with  common  table  salt 
reduces  to  4"  below  zero. 

Without  Ice  or  Snow.  Equal  parts  of  water  and 
nitrate  of  ammonia  reduce  the  thermometer  to  4° 
above  zero.  Five  each  of  nitrate  of  ammonia  and 
nitrate  of  ix)tash  with  16  of  water  lowers-the  temper- 
ature to  10°  above  zero.  Muriate  of  ammonia  and 
nitrate  of  potash,  5  parts  each,  sulphate  of  soda,  8 
parts,  with  16  of  water,  reduces  to  4*^  above  zero. 
Sulphate  of  soda,  8  parts,  to  5  of  muriatic  acid,  reduces 
to  zero. 

freezing  Point,  denotes  the  jxiint  or  degree  of 
cold  shown  by  a  mercurial  thermometer,  at  which  cer- 
tain fluids  begin  to  freeze,  or,  when  frozen,  at  which 
they  begin  to  thaw  again.  On  Fahrenheit's  thermom- 
eter, the  one  generally  used  in  this  country,  this  point 
is  at  32°  above  its  zero  point,  for  water,  and  at  40° 
below  for  quicksilver,  these  fluids  freezing  at  those  two 
points,  the  process  of  freezing  being  due  to  the  cold  air 
absorbing  its  warmth.  Water,  therefore,  freezes  from 
the  surface  downward.  The  property  of  nearly  all 
liquids  is  to  contract  as  they  grow  cold ;  but  amongst 
the  exceptions  to  this  rule  is  water,  which  contracts 
only  until  it  reaches  the  temperature  of  40°  Fahren- 
heit, below  which  it  expands  or  becomes  lighter,  being 
converted  into  crystals  which  pack  less  closely  than 
the  particles  of  water  do.  It  is  by  virtue  of  this  most 
important  quality  that  a  day's  frost  does  not  suffice  to 
turn  all  our  river  and  lake  water  into  vast  masses  of 
ice,  which  could  never  be  dissolved.  At  a  small 
depth  water  always  retains  a  temperature  of  40",  be- 
cause when  its  temperature  sinks  below  this  point,  it 
ascends  to  the  surface,  and  there  freezing  remains  un- 
til it  is  melted.  A  piece  of  ice — frozen  water — is 
lighter  than  the  same  bulk  of  water  in  a  liquid  state, 
because  of  its  expansion  by  freezing.  It  is  to  this  ex- 
pansion of  water  that  we  owe  the  bursting  of  water- 
pipes,  water  sewers,  and  the  splitting  of  tiles,  stones 
and  rocks.  To  it  is  also  due  the  refreshment  of  the 
earth  by  the  admission  of  dew,  rain,  and  gases  favor- 
able to  vegetation.  Extreme  cold  causes  water  to  ex- 
pand, as  we  have  already  explained  that  extreme  heat 
does.     Running  water  freezes  more  slowly  than  still 


water,  and  shallow  water  freezes  more  readily  than 
deep  water.  Salt  water  never  freezes  until  it  is  four 
or  five  degrees  below  the  freezing-point  of  fresh  water; 
for  which  reason  salt  dissolves  ice.  Some  lakes  rarely 
freeze,  because  their  water  is  supplied  from  the  bottom 
by  springs.  Water  may  be  frozen  artificially  by  wrap- 
ping a  bottle  of  it  in  cloths  kept  constantly  saturated 
with  ether.  There  are  various  ways  of  freezing  water, 
however,  the  most  curious  of  which  is  perhaps  that  by 
which  it  may  be  frozen  even  in  a  red-hot  vessel.  This 
vessel  should  be  of  platinum.  When  it  has  been 
made  red-hot,  iX)urintoit  first  a  little  water,  and  then 
some  liquid  sulphurous  acid.  Turn  the  vessel  over 
and  the  ice  \vill  fall  out. 

Melting  Points^  Mercury  melts  at  t,^°  \  ice  at 
32°;  tin,  421°;  lead,  594";  zinc,  740°;  silver, 
1,850°;  brass,  1,900";  gold,  1,980";  copper,  2,160'; 
cast-iron,  2,700°. 

Freezing  and  BoiLrNO  Points.  Brandy  freezes  at 
7°;  ether  boils  at  98"  ;  alcohol  boils  at  174°;  linseed 
oil  boils  at  600" ;  mercury  boils  at  630°.  Iron  is 
bright  red  in  the  dark  at  750",  and  at  twihght,  850"; 
red-hot  by  day,  1,050°. 

Fresco,  a  method  of  painting  on  walls,  with  min- 
eral and  earthy  pigments  on  a  freshly  laid  stucco 
ground  of  lime  or  gypsum.  The  pigments  unite  with 
the  ground  and  become  durable.  The  fancy  figure 
work  requires  more  skill  than  any  one  except  a  painter 
could  exercise,  and  therefore  the  average  farmer  would 
rather  employ  a  professional  painter  to  do  this  kind  of 
work  than  to  tmdertake  it  himself.  Frescoing  is  gen- 
erally done  on  the  lower  portion  of  walls,  and  around 
the  edge  and  in  the  center  of  the  ceiling. 

Fricassee  (frik-a-see),  a  dish  of  fowls  or  other  small 
animals  cut  into  pieces  and  dressed  or  fried ;  also,  to 
dress  such  meats  in  this  style. 

Fritter,  a  small  pancake  of  fried  batter,  or  a  piece 
of  meat  fried. 

Batter  for  Fritters.  Mix  8  ounces  of  fine  flour 
with  about  y^  pint  of  water  into  a  smooth  batter,  dis- 
solve the  butter  over  a  slow  fire,  and  then  stir  it  by 
degrees  into  the  flour.  Then  add  the  white  of  2  eggs 
whisked  to  a  stiff  froth,  and  stir  them  lightly  in. 

Arrow-root  Fritters.  Put  2  pints  of  milk,  in  a 
good-sized  stew-pan,  over  the  fire  until  it  boils  ;  have 
10  ounces  of  arrow-root  ready  mixed,  and  stir  it  into 
the  milk  as  quickly  as  possible;  add  a  little  vanilla  and 
yolks  of  8  eggs;  the  sugar  the  last.  Stir  it  for  about  20 
minutes  over  a  (piick  fire,  then  put  it  into  a  deep  cut- 
let pan,  and  bake  it  about  10  minutes  in  a  quick  oven. 
When  it  is  ciuite  cold,  cut  out  the  fritters  with  a  round 
cutter,  and  egg  and  bread  crumb  them,  glaze  and  send 
them  iq)  quite  hot. 

Apple  Fritters.  Beat  and  strain  the  yolks  of  7 
eggs,  and  the  whites  of  3;  mix  into  them  a  pint  of  new 
milk,  a  little  grated  nutmeg,  a  pinch  of  salt,  and  a  glass 
of  brandy.  Well  beat  the  mixture,  and  then  add  grad- 
ually sufficient  flour  to  make  them  a  thick  batter. 
Pare  and  core  6  large  apples,  cut  them  in  slices  about 
^/i  of  an  inch  thick,  sprinkle  pounded  sugar  over  them, 


544 


FROG— FRUITS. 


and  set  them  by  for  an  hour  or  more ;  dip  each  piece 
of  apple  in  the  batter,  and  fry  them  in  hot  lard  about 
6  minutes ;  the  lard  should  not  be  made  too  hot  at 
first,  but  must  become  hotter  as  they  are  fr>'ing. 
Serve  wth  sifted  sugar  over  them. 

Cake  Fritters.  Cut  a  stale  cake  into  slices  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  thickness,  jwur  over  them  a  little 
good  cream,  and  fry  them  lightly  in  fresh  butter,  and 
when  done  place  over  each  slice  of  cake  a  layer  of 
preserves. 

Br  EAD  Fritters.  To  a  quart-basinful  of  stale  bread 
broken  small,  put  a  quart  of  boiling  milk;  cover  it  for 
lo  or  15  minutes.  When  quite  soft  beat  it  with  a 
spoon  until  it  is  smooth,  add  2  well  beaten  eggs,  %  a 
nutmeg  grated,  a  tablespoonful  of  brandy,  i  of  butter 
and  a  little  salt.  Beat  it  light ;  'make  an  omelet-pan 
!jot,  put  in  a  small  piece  of  butter  and  when  dissolved 
pour  in  sufficient  batter  to  run  over  the  pan;  let  it  fry 
gently.  When  one  side  is  a  fine  brown,  turn  the  other, 
put  butter  and  sugar  with  a  little  grated  nutmeg  over, 
lay  on  the  other,  cut  them  through  in  quarters,  and 
serve  them  hot. 

Blackberry  Fritters  are  made  by  mixing  a 
thick  batter  of  flour  and  sour  milk,  or  cream,  as  for 
pancakes,  only  quite  stiff.  If  cream  is  used  allow  one 
more  egg  than  for  sour  milk,  then  stir  thick  with  ber- 
ries. Have  ready  a  kettle  of  hot  lard,  dip  a  table- 
spoon into  the  lard,  then  take  a  sjxionful  of  batter  and 
drop  it  into  the  boiling  lard;  the  grease  will  prevent 
the  batter  from  sticking  to  the  spoon  and  will  let  it 
drop  off"  in  nice  oval  shape.     Eat  with  syrup. 

Corn  Fritters.  To  a  dozen  ears  of  corn,  grated, 
add  two  eggs  and  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  (If  the  corn 
is  old  add  a  little  milk.)  Fry  in  hot  butter  and  lard, 
half  cf  each. 

Hominy  Fritters.  Two  teacupfuls  of  cold  boiled 
hominy;  add  to  it  i  teacupful  of  sweet  milk  and  a  little 
salt;  stir  till  smooth,  then  add  4  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
and  I  egg ;  beat  the  yolk  and  white  separately,  adding 
the  white  last.  Have  ready  a  pan  with  hot  butter  and 
lard  (half  of  each),  drop  the  batter  in  by  sjxwnfuls  and 
fry  a  light  brown. 

Oyster  Fritters.  Bread  some  good-sized  oysters, 
make  a  thick  omelet  batter  with  4  eggs  and  a  table- 
spoonful  of  milk,  dip  each  oyster  into  the  batter,  and 
then  into  grated  bread,  fry  them  a  nice  color,  and  use 
them  to  garnish  fried  fish. 

Parsnip  Fritters.  Boil  4  or  5  parsnips  until  ten- 
der, take  off  the  skins  and  mash  them  very  fine,  add 
to  them  a  teasjxwnful  of  flour,  i  egg,  well  beaten,  and 
a  seasoning  of  salt.  Make  the  mixture  into  small 
cakes  with  a  sixwn,  and  fry  them  on  both  sides  a  del- 
icate brown  in  boihng  butter  or  beef  dripping.  When 
both  sides  are  done,  serve  them  up  very  hot. 

Rice  Fritters.  Take  i  cup  of  cold  rice,  i  pint  of 
flour,  I  teaspoonful  of  salt,  2  eggs  beaten  lightly,  and 
milk  enough  to  make  this  a  thick  batter ;  beat  all  to- 
gether well  and  bake  on  a  griddle. 

Frog,  IN  farriery,  an  elastic,  horny  substance 
growing  in  the  middle  of  the  sole  of  a  horse's  foot,  at 
some  distance  from  the  toe,  dividing  into  two  branches 


and  running  toward  the  heal  in   the   form  of  a  iork. 

Frost,  frozen  dew ;  the  act  of  freezing ;  ice  frozen 
throughout  a  iX)rous  substance.  "Black  frost,"  cold 
so  intense  as  to  freeze  vegetation  and  cause  it  to  turn 
black  without  the  formation  of  white  or  hoar  frost. 

Frozen  limbs  or  parts ;  Frost-Bite.  When  the 
part  is  frozen,  hold  snow,  ice  or  cold  water  to  it  until 
it  is  thawed  out,  keeping  the  patier.t  in  a  cold  room. 
Give  no  intoxicating  liquors,  for  while  such  stimulants 
seem  generally  to  hasten  the  wanning  up  of  the  sys- 
tem and  all  the  parts,  it  is  at  too  great  exj^ense  to  the 
vital  forces  of  the  body.  When,  however,  the  whole 
body  is  simply  chilled  and  no  part  really  frozen,  the 
sooner  the  sufferer  can  be  put  into  a  full  warm  bath 
the  better.  Else  warm  him  up  by  a  fire  and  much 
severe  hand-rubbing.  Free  the  bowels  by  a  warm  in- 
lection,  and  give  a  bowl  of  warm  gruel  to  drink. 

Fruits.  The  earliest  fruits  mentioned  in  history 
are  the  grape,  the  apple  and  the  fig,  the  former  being 
cultivated  about  the  time  of  the  Deluge.  The  almond 
is  mentioned  repeatedly  in  the  sacred  records,  nearly 
4,000  years  ago ;  and  Theophrastus,  who  lived  about 
300  years  before  the  Christian  era,  remarks  "  that  it 
was  the  only  tree  in  Greece  that  produced  blossoms 
before  the  leaves;"  hence  we  may  safely  infer  the 
peach  was  then  unknown.  The  fact  that  the  Jewish 
history  nowhere  speaks  of  the  peach,  indicates  that  it 
was  not  a  native  of  Persia,  a  country  long  inhabited 
by  that  people.  It  was  known  to  the  Romans,  at  the 
height  of  their  power,  and  the  nectarine  was  sjwken 
of  by  Columella  and  by  Pliny  as  an  admired  fruit  of 
their  time.  The  apple  and  pear  were  well  known  in 
the  days  of  Pliny,  who  speaks  of  22  varieties  of  the 
former  and  36  of  the  latter.  The  cherry,  a  native  of 
Pontus  and  some  parts  of  Europe,  was  introduced 
among  the  Romans  at  the  time  of  the  Mithridatic 
war.  The  plum  was  known  both  to  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans ;  and  Pliny  asserts  "  that  they  were 
grafted  upon  apple-stocks,  producing  what  were  called 
apple-plums,  and  ujxsn  almond-stocks,  yielding  both 
fruits,  the  stone  being  like  that  of  an  almond."  And 
Virgil,  with  equal  absurdity,  speaks  of  grafting  apples 
on  plums,  of  adorning  the  wild  ash  with  the  blos- 
soms of  the  pear,  and  represents  swine  crunching 
acorns  under  elms ;  nor  is  it  very  long  since  a  few 
equally  singular  notions  were  held  by  a  few  moderns. 

The  cultivation  of  fruit  in  Great  Britain  began  to 
receive  attention  with  other  rural  improvements.  The 
earliest  British  writer  on  this  subject  was  Richard 
Arnold,  who  published  a  chapter  in  his  "Chronicles," 
in  r502,  onthe  craft  of  grafting,  planting  and  alter- 
ing of  fruits  as  well  in  color  as  in  taste.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded about  1538  by  Tussier;  in  1559  by  Gerard;  in 
1629  by  Parkinson;  in  1658  by  Evelyn;  in  1724  by 
Miller;  in  1791  by  Forsythe;  soon  after  which  the 
great  improvements  introduced  by  Mr.  Knight  and 
followed  by  Lindley,  Thompson,  and  others,  formed  a 
new  era  in  the  cultivation  of  fruit  in  England. 

In  the  United  States  the  grovring  of  fruit  has  kept 
pace  with  the  rapid  progress  in  other  branches  of  in- 


FRUITS. 


545 


•dustry.  The  cultivation  of  almost  all  the  fruits  are 
as  universal  as  husbandry  itself.  Nearly  ever)'  farm, 
however  small,  has  its  orchard  and  fruit  garden,  while 
many  large  farms  are  devoted  exclusively  to  fruit. 
Within  the  last  40  years  in  this  country  more  excel- 
lent varieties  have  been  given  to  the  world  than  in 
all  ages  before.  Varieties  are  now  propagated  adapted 
to  early  and  late  ripening,  etc.  One  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  yet  remaining,  is  the  confusion  in  the 
names  of  varieties.  The  very  slight  shades  of  differ- 
ence in  many;  the  impossibility  of  accurately  defining 
these  shades  in  written  descriptions,  and  the  change 
produced  in  them  by  soil,  situation,  climate  and  cul- 
ture have  largely  contributed  to  this  difficulty.  It 
has  also  been  increased  by  looseness,  carelessness, 
and  want  of  precision  in  descriptions,  and  especially 
the  almost  total  neglect  of  a  classification  of  flavors, 
usually  the  most  unvarying  and  great  decisive  jwint 
of  distinction  in  varieties.  Some  individuals  who 
have  cultivated  fruit,  or  studied  extensive  collections 
of  pears  and  plums,  may  know  at  sight  a  considerable 
number  of  varieties,  but  in  general  very  few  sorts  are 
known  by  one  individual ;  and  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  a  professional  gardener  can  speak  with  con- 
fidence regarding  those  sorts  only  which  are  under  his 
care.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the  shades  which  dis- 
tinguish varieties  are  so  fleeting  as  not  to  be  retained 
in  memory,  or  retained  only  to  a  very  limited  extent. 
An  apple  may  be  distinguished  from  20  other  apples  all 
very  much  alike,  when  the  whole  20  are  placed  to- 
gether before  the  eye;  but  any  one  of  the  20,  taken 
apart,  and  delineated  and  described,  iiowever  per- 
fectly, will  hardly  present  any  marks  sufficiently 
distinct  to  be  remembered,  and  by  which  it  may  be 
recogniz^id  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  The,  great 
number  of  names  given  to  one  fruit  either  from  ignor- 
ance or  to  promote  its  sale  have  added  to  the  con- 
fusion. "^ 

Fruits  ripen  by  absorbing  oxygen  and  evolving  car- 
bonic acid,  a  process  chemically  op]X)site  to  that  per- 
formed by  leaves,  and  strictly  analogous  to  that  of 
animal  respiration ;  they  generally  conduct  this  proc- 
ess with  a  vigor  and  amplitude  proportioned  to  the 
play  of  sunshine  which  they  enjoy;  and  during  the 
whole  of  its  progress  they  acquire  grape  sugar  either 
from  the  transmutation  of  a  ]x>rtion  of  their  acid  or 
from  other  sources.  Their  rijiening,  therefore,  com- 
prises a  change  from  a  sour  to  a  sweet  condition ;  and 
this  change  is  always  more  complete  in  sunny  than  in 
cloudy  seasons. 

The  chemical  nature  of  the  process  of  ripening  sug- 
gests how  that  process  may  be  either  accelerated  or 
retarded,  how  the  fresh  state  of  delicate  fruits  may  be 
prolonged,  and  how  the  air  operates  on  mature  fruits 
to  make  them  decay  and  rot.  The  grand  art  of  pre- 
serving freshness  is  to  pull  the  fruit  before  they  are 
quite  ripe,  and  close  them  up  from  the  pressure  of 
free  or  atmospheric  oxygen.  In  some  cases,  simple 
immersion  in  carbonic  acid  is  sufficient;  and  in  all, 
the  laying  of  a  paste  of  lime,  copperas  and  water,  at 
the  bottom  of  jars  to  absorb  oxygen,  the  placing  of  the 
S5 


fruit  in  the  interior  of  the  jars,  but  out  of  contact  with 
the  paste,  and  the  thorough  covering  or  cementing  of 
the  jars  so  as  to  exclude  the  air  from  without,  are  emi- 
nently successful.  In  this  latter  way,  peaches,  apri- 
cots, prunes,  and  several  kinds  of  plums  will  keep 
quite  fresh  from  20  to  30  days;  and  pears  and 
apples  will  keep  quite  fresh  for  three  months  and 
more.  The  process  of  decay,  like  that  of  ripening,  ab- 
sorb oxygen  and  evolves  carbonic  acid,  but  instead  of 
adding  to  the  sugar,  it  destroys  and  dissipates  all 
which  previously  existed. 

The  most  profitab  le  market  varieties  of  fruit. 
The  chief  requisites  in  all  fruits  for  market  purposes 
are  firmness,  color,  quality  and  size,  in  the  order 
named.  Take  for  instance  the  apple ;  a  bright  red  is 
the  most  jxjpular  color ;  hence  Steele's  Red,  Wine- 
sap,  Willow-Twig,  Jonathan,  Baldwin  and  even  the 
Ben  Davis  are  preferred  toabetter  appleof  a  jxsor,  dull, 
or  rusty  color.  Take  the  Baldwin  when  it  is  of  a  bright 
color,  it  will  sell  at  fifty  per  cent,  better  price  on  the 
same  date  than  when  it  is  shown  of  a  dull  color. 
There  are  many  jxjints  to  be  considered  in  relation  to 
the  profitableness  of  certain  varieties,  even  when  the 
best  qualities  in  their  best  color  are  presented  on  the 
market,  which  fruit-growers  should  consider.  Among 
the  varieties  for  profitable  planting  are  the  Baldwin, 
Steele's  Red,  Willow-Twig,  Spitzenberg,  Wagner,  New- 
town Pippin,  Jonathan.  Next  in  order  would  be  the 
Pennock,  Greening,  Spy,  Bellflower,  Maiden's  Blush, 
Red  Astrachan,  Ben  Davis,  Seek-no-further,  Snow, 
Golden  and  Rox.  Russets.  Let  it  not  be  understood 
that  the  list  should  be  limited  as  above.  Those  serve 
rather  as  types  of  the  most  profitable  varieties.  The 
apple  list  would  not  be  complete  without  naming  at 
least  two  crabs.  The  Hyslop  and  Transcendent  are 
at  the  present  time  most  salable  of  all  the  crabs,  the 
Hyslop  proving  the  most  salable  from  the  fact  that 
Transcendent  comes  on  our  market  too  early  for  the 
demand ;  hence  the  Hyslop  proves  more  profitable. 
See  Apple. 

Among  pears,  at  jiresent,  and  probably  for  the  next 
generation,  the  Bartlett  takes  the  highest  rank  as  a 
market  pear,  and  more  of  that  variety  can  be  profitably 
disposed  of  than  all  the  other  varieties  put  together. 
Clapp's  Favorite,  Flemish  Beauty,  Seckel,  Louise 
Bonne,  and  Duchessed'Angouleme  are  among  the  most 
salable  on  the  long  list  of  pears. 

Cherries.  The  Black  Tartarian  is  the  most  salable 
of  all  sweet  cherries,  with  the  Early  Purple  Guigne, 
Gov.  Wood,  and  Napoleon  Bigarreau  following  closely, 
with  Early  Richmond  and  May  Duke  as  the  leading 
sour  or  cooking  cherries. 

Plums.  The  Lumbard,  Washington,  and  Green 
Gage  for  dessert,  with  Wild  Goose  for  cooking. 

Peaches.  The  yellow-fleshed  varieties  have  the 
preference  over  the  white,  such  as  Crawfords,  Jaques' 
Rareripe  and  Smock's  Free,  with  a  notable  exception 
in  favor  of  the  Old  Mixon,  one  of  our  best  shippers. 

Grapes.  The  Concord  and  the  Delaware  are  the 
market  grapes  par  excellence. 

Currants.     The  Cherry  takes  the  lead. 


546 


FRUITS. 


Red  Raspberries.  The  Brandywine  is  the  best  at 
this  date,  for  late,  among  new  berries.  Reeder's  Seed- 
ling for  early.  Next  comes  the  Kirkland  or  Highland 
Hardy,  with  the  Herstine  and  Turner,  the  latter  prov- 
ing not  of  sufficient  firmness  for  reshipment. 

Black  Raspberries  Doolittle,  Miami  and  Mam- 
moth Cluster. 

The  Strawberry  being  produced  in  the  largest 
quantities  of  all  our  market  berries,  it  is  proper  to 
occupy  more  time  on  this  fruit.  Therefore  we  give 
a  list  of  varieries  and  pronounce  on  their  merits 
solely  in  their  relation  as  shippers  to  the  markets. 
We  name  them  in  their  alphabedcal  order  : 


Varieties. 


Agriculturist 

Boydcn  (Sclh) 

B.  Scarlet 

Capt.  Jack 

Chas.  Downing 

Champion 

Crescent  Seedling 

Col.  Cheeney 

Cumberland  Triumph. 

Duchess 

Endicott  No.  3 

Forest  Rose 

Glendale 

Gieen  Prolific 

Great  American 

lucunda 

Kentucky 

Lennings  White 

Monarch  of  the  West.. 

Pres.  Wilder 

Sharpless 

Triomphe  de  Gand 

Wilson's  Albany 


Colo 


Crimson 
Dark  Red 
Scarlet 

Light 

Dark  Crimson 
Bright  scarlet 
Light  scarlet 


Dark  red 

Bright  red 
Dull  red 
Scarlet 

Dark  crimson 
Glossy    " 
Scarlet 
Light 
Light  scarlet 

Glossy  red 
Glossy  Scarlet 
Scarlet 


Flavor.     Shipping  Qualities. 


Good 
Sweet 
Good 

Medium 

Good 

Poor 

Medium 


Good 
Poor 

Medium 

Good 

Fair 

Best 

Good 

Best 

Good 


lear  market. 

Worthless. 
Good. 
Poor. 

Home  market- 
Worthless. 
Near  market. 


Worthless  shippers. 
Near  market. 


Too  light  in  color. 
Near  market. 


Good. 


The  last  two  named  on  the  list  should  be  placed 
first  as  to  order  of  merit  when  viewed  in  the  light  of 
market  berries,  for  the  following  reasons  :  First,  the 
Triomphe  de  Gand  is  the  best  of  all  the  large  varieties 
in  combining  all  the  requisites  of  a  good  shipping 
berry — size,  color,  flavor  and  firmness.  Last,  but  not 
least,  the  Wilson's  Albany,  our  old  reliable  and  well- 
tried  friend. 

Keeping  Fruit.  If  the  following  simple  rules 
are  observed  fruit  may  be  kept  in  a  good  condition  for 
a  long  time. 

1.  As  the  flavor  of  fruit  is  so  easily  affected  by  het- 
erogeneous odors,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  apple 
and  pear  room  should  be  distinct. 

2.  The  *alls  and  the  floor  should  be  annually 
washed  with  a  solution  of  quicklime. 

3.  The  room  should  be  perfectly  dry,  kept  at  as  uni- 
form temperature  as  practicable,  and  be  well  venti- 
lated, but  there  should  not  be  a  through  draught.' 

4.  The  utmost  care  should  be  taken  in  gathering 
the  fruit,  which  should  be  handled  as  little  as  possible. 

5.  For  present  use,  the  fruit  should  be  well  ripened; 
but  if  for  long  keeping,  it  is  better,  especially  with 
pears,  that  it  should  not  have  arrived  at  complete  ma- 
turity. This  point,  however,  requires  considerable 
judgment. 

6.  No  imperfect  fruit  should  be  stored  with  that 
which  is  sound,  and  every  more  or  less  decayed  spec- 
imen should  be  immediately  removed. 

7.  If  placed  on  shelves,  the  fruit  should  not  lie 
more  than  two  deep,  and  no  straw  should  be  used. 


For  the  growing,  varieties,  marketing,  keeping,  etc., 
of  the  various  fruits,  see  under  their  respective  heads, 
and  Orchard.  See  also  Canning,  Drying,  Preserving, 
Pickling,  etc. 

Dessert  Fruits.  In  America  we  have  some  wild 
fruits  which  are  excellent  for  dessert,  as  the  black- 
berry, raspberry,  strawberry,  huckleberry,  cranberry, 
etc.;  but  we  are  mainly  dependent  upon  cultivated 
fruits  for  our  fancy  or  dessert  dishes.  We  will  here 
notice  each  in  its  alphabetical  order,  with  remarks 
on  their  dietetical  qualities  and  manner  of  using  them, 
premising  that  all  fruits  consist  mainly  of  water, 
and  dietetically  are  but  little  more  than  a  drink.  They 
all  contain  also  sugar,  acid  and  mucilage.  The  differ- 
ent berries,  as  a  general  rule,  contain  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  free  acid  than  stone-fruit  or  apples  and 
pears ;  and  their  acidity  is  the  more  obvious  to  the 
taste  from  their  containing  relatively  small  quantities 
of  gum  and  pectine. 

Those  persons  who  use  little  or  no  salt  in  their  food 
prefer  sweeter  fruits  than  others  do,  and  those  who  use 
an  excess  of  salt  can  scarcely  satisfy  themselves  with 
fruit  acid.  To  digest  and  assimilate  the  more  abund- 
ant nutrition,  therefore,  from  sweet  fruits,  without  salt 
or  cream,  belabors  the  system  much  less  than  the 
method  most  in  vogue  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  This,  more  than  anything  else,  controls  the 
matter  of  taste  with  reference  to  fruit-eating. 

Apple.  Apples  of  the  very  best  variety  are  some- 
times of  poor  quality,  owing  to  adverse  circumstances 
connected  with  their  growth  and  ripening.  For  exam- 
ple, one  eats  a  good  apple  of  the  ^sopus  Spitzenberg 
variety,  likes  it,  and  afterward  he  is  on  the  look  out  for 
more  fruit  of  that  kind.  In  the  course  of  time  some 
apples  are  offered  him  as  ^2sopus  Spitzepberg,  he 
eagerly  seizes  one,  anticipating  a  rare  treat;  but  alas! 
it  tastes  somewhat  different  in  nearly  all  respects  and 
very  poorly  in  one  or  two,  and  he  suspects  they  are 
not  of  the  variety  represented.  In  regard  to  nearly 
all  fruits  we  are  subject  to  such  disappointments. 
Hence  we  are  under  the  necessity  of  "  sampling  "  a 
lot  before  purchasing  or  selecting,  and  even  then,  in 
filling  a  dish  for  the  table  we  incur  the  risk  of  throw- 
ing in  some  poor  apples.  It  appears  that  the  "  variety" 
brand  of  an  apple  is  no  more  a  guaranty  of  its  in- 
trinsic quality  than  the  trade  brand  of  manufactured 
products  is  a  guaranty  of  them. 

Previous  to  cooking,  the  apple  consists  of  a  large 
number  of  minute  cells  and  vessels,  which  hold  the 
pulp  and  the  acid,  which  we  term  the  juice.  The  ap- 
plication of  heat  causes  these  cells  to  expand  and 
burst,  and  as  the  temperature  increases  the  water 
partly  evaporates  in  the  form  of  steam.  In  this  con- 
dition they  are  most  wholesome,  and  therefore  apple 
pie,  if  not  over-spiced,  is  rightly  regarded  as  highly 
nutritive,  and  at  the  same  time  easy  of  digestion.  The 
aroma  of  apples,  to  which  their  various  kinds  of  flavor 
seem  intimately  allied,  is  supposed  to  act  as  a  mild 
stimulant  and  to  aid  digestion,  and  therefore  those 
apples  which  have  the  finest  flavor  are  esteemed  best. 
The  harder  varieties,  such  as  the  pippins,  having  in  a 


FRUITS. 


547 


greater  degree  the  woody-fiber  element,  are  less  desir- 
able as  food.  The  dry,  mealy  kind  of  apples  are 
highly  nutritive.  The  watery  apples  are  generally 
crude,  cold,  and  ill  adapted  to  weak  stomachs  till 
cooked,  when  all  apples  become  wholesome  and  good 
for  food.  By  the  process  of  cooking  the  freed  acid 
and  pulp  appear  to  enter  into  union,  and  the  pulp 
containing  saccharine,  also  disengaged  by  the  heat, 
mixes  with  and  modifies  the  acid.  Ripe,  sweet,  mealy 
apples  have  a  laxative  effect  on  the  bowels,  but  the 
sour,  astringent  fruit  is  to  be  avoided,  especially  by 
those  who  follow  sedentary  pursuits,  or  those  who  in- 
dulge freely  in  wine  or  spirits.  Costiveness,  griping, 
and  flatulency  are  then  likely  to  result  from  eating 
them. 

Banana.  This  has  more  available  nutriment  than 
any  other  fruit  in  the  world,  and  more  nutrition  per 
acre  can  be  raised  in  bananas  or  plantains  than  in 
any  other  vegetable  product,  either  fruit,  grain  or  veg- 
etable. But  as  many  persons  do  not  like  them  it  is 
scarcely  proper  to  serve  them  as  dessert  at  a  fash- 
ionable meal.  Their  quality  is  never  so  good  after 
they  are  shipped  to  distant  countries.  The  papaw  of 
the  United  States  is  similar  to  the  banana  in  odor, 
taste  and  other  qualities,  but  they  are  far  inferior  as 
an  article  of  diet.  A  taste  for  these  two  fruits,  hke 
that  for  tomatoes,  is  seldom  inherited,  but  has  to  be 
cultivated. 

Blackberry.  This  is  a  first-class  fruit  for  dessert. 
Being  somewhat  astringent,  many  persons  cannot  eat 
many  of  them  \vith  perfect  impunity.  They  are  in 
their  best  edible  condition  when  they  have  hung  upon 
the  bush  about  as  long  as  they  will,  and  are  soft  and 
mellow.  Like  black  grapes,  they  are  too  liable  to  be 
picked  as  soon  as  they  turn  black,  and  long  before 
they  are  sufficiently  mellow.  The  flavor  of  the  black- 
berry in  pies  is  unsurpassed,  if  the  cook  is  not  so  un- 
skilled as  to  injure  it  in  some  way. 

Cherry.  Those  kinds  which  contain  the  largest 
proportions  of  water  and  sugar,  fermenting  easily,  are 
apt  to  produce  flatulence  and  colic  ;  but  others,  which 
contain  a  large  portion  of  water  and  acid,  being  slight- 
ly stimulating,  are  more  wholesome  and  digestible ; 
but  the  best  are  the  pulpy,  mucilaginous  kind.  Cher- 
ries may  be  eaten  without  fear  when  they  are  quite 
ripe.  The  kernels  of  cherries  contain  a  small  propor- 
tion of  prussic  acid.  Care  should  be  taken  to  guard 
against  the  accidental  swallowing  of  cherry  stones,  as 
they  sometimes  lodge  in  the  bowels  and  produce  ob- 
structions. 

Cranberry.  This  fruit,  though  unfit  to  be  eaten 
raw,  is,  when  cooked  and  thoroughly  sweetened,  one 
of  the  most  popular  desserts  in  existence,  on  account 
of  its  fancy  flavor.  The  main  objection  to  them  is, 
they,  like  gooseberries  and  currants,  require  a  great 
deal  of  sugar  to  render  them  eatable.  Cranberry 
sauce  is  generally  eaten  with  roast  fowl. 

Currant.  The  black  variety  is  the  most  bland  and 
nutritious,  but  is  not  so  universally  liked  as  other 
kinds.  The  red  Dutch  is  the  most  popular  as  to  flavor, 
and  both  this  and   the  white  Dutch  are  the  best  to 


raise  in  the  United  States.  The  white  is  not  so  acid 
as  the  red,  nor  indeed  so  rich;  both  are  beautiful 
enough.  In  cooking  them  they  require  an  immense 
amount  of  sugar.  Either  cooked  or  uncooked  they 
are  appropriate  as  dessert.  The  cherry  currant  is  the 
largest,  but  most  difficult  to  raise.  The  acid  of  the 
currant  and  gooseberry  is  said  by  the  physicians  of 
the  day  to  be  somewhat  injurious  to  those  who  are 
given  to  weakness  in  the  urinary  system. 

Date.  Dates  constitute  an  appropriate  dessert 
fruit,  both  stewed  and  unstewed.  They'  are  fine 
when  cooked  with  tart  apples.  They  vary  in  quality, 
as  found  in  the  American  markets,  according  to  their 
price,  all  the  way  from  five  to  forty  cents  a  ix)und,  the 
cheaper  kinds  being  wormy  and  dirty. 

Fig.  Excellent,  both  raw  and  cooked;  are  very 
fine  when  fresh  from  the  tree.  They  are  nutritious, 
and  contain  a  large  portion  of  sugar  without  acidity 
or  oiliness,  but  require  a  longer  time  for  digestion  than 
most  fruits  do. 

Gooseberry.  About  like  currants.  The  skins  are 
indigestible  and  should  not  be  eaten.  Ripe  goose- 
berries are  far  more  bland  and  wholesome  than  green. 

Grapes  and  Raisins.  The  pulp  of  grapes  consti- 
tutes the  best  sauce  for  invalids  in  the  world.  The 
"grape  cure,"  so  called,  is  increasing  in  jx)pularity. 
This  fruit,  in  its  fresh  state,  is  also  fine  for  dessert  at 
the  most  fashionable  tables.  It  exceeds  all  other 
fruit  in  its  amount  of  sugar,  which  is  seldom  less  than 
12  and  sometimes  reaches  26  per  cent.  In  good 
kinds  and  in  favorable  seasons,  the  ratio  of  the  sugar 
to  the  acid  is  as  29  to  r.  When  the  ratio  falls  to  10 
to  I  the  grapes  are  unripe  and  acid.  In  other  fruits 
this  would  be  a  high  ratio  and  they  would  be 
called  sweet.  The  anomaly  may  be  thus  explained : 
In  unripe  grapes  the  skins  are  very  thick,  and  con- 
tain an  extremly  acid  juice,  which  overcomes  the 
sugar  contained  in  the  interior  of  the  berry.  The 
peculiar  acid  of  grapes  is  denominated  "tartaric," 
which,  combined  with  {X)tash,  forms  "cream  of  tartar.' 
Raisins  are  certain  semi-tropical  varieties  of  grapes, 
dried  in  a  peculiar  manner.  The  skins  and  seeds 
are  indigestible,  and  the  seeds,  particularly,  should 
not  be  eaten  at  all.  It  is  not  fashionable  to  pass 
raisins  around  as  dessert  except  with  nut  kernels. 

Huckleberry  (or  whortleberry).  This  fruit,  stewed, 
makes  a  good  dessert.  It  is  also  excellent  for  pies 
and  to  eat  uncooked.  Very  digestible.  The  blue- 
berry variety  is  the  largest  and  generally  preferred. 
It  is  a  botanical  curiosity  that  the  blueberry  and  the 
cranberry  are  set  down  by  scientists  as  belonging  to 
one  genus,  while  the  huckleberry  is  placed  in  another. 
These  fruits  are  easily  shipped  to  great  distances,  and 
all  the  farmers  in  the  West  can  have  them  in  per- 
fection. 

Lemon.     This  is  too  well  known  to  need  description. 

Although  it  is  not  strictly  a  dessert  fruit,  its  juice  and 

its  rind  are  the  most  popular  flavoring  elements  in 

fancy  dishes.     The  acid  of  lemons  and  oranges  is 

.  regarded   as   not  only   wholesome   but   also    highly 


548 


FRUIT  HOUSE— FRUIT  PRESS. 


corrective  of  vitiated  conditions  of  the  stomach  and 
even  of  the  whole  system. 

Melon.  Muskmelons  and  watennelons  are  strictly 
dessert  fruits,  and  in  their  season  are  proper  at 
fashionable  tables.    The  neatest  way  to  eat  them  is 


Fig. 


-Fruit  Press. 


with  a  teaspoon,  from  the  rind,  their  natural  dish,  but 
this  is  not  in  accordance  with  etiquette  at  the  present 
day.  About  95  per  cent,  of  the  watermelon  is  water, 
and  the  largest  portion  of  the  remainder  sugar.  On 
account  of  the  organic  character  and  dietetic  purity 
of  the  water,  the  lacteals  absorb  more  of  it  than  the 
system  needs,  and  the  surplus  passes  off  by  the  urinary 
organs.     Hence  it  is  called  a  "diuretic." 

Orange.  A  first-class  dessert  fruit.  The  peel  (rind) 
is  excellent  for  flavoring,  but  the  oil  which  it  contains 
is  strictly  an  unassimilable  drug,  like  any  other  spice. 
Both  the  outer  and  the  inner  (the  white)  rinds  should 
be  removed  before  eating.  Orange  juice,  without  the 
fiber,  is  particularly  excellent  for  invalids  as  a  substi- 
tute for  the  usual  beverages. 

Peach.  This  fruit  is  esteemed  both  for  its  tender 
flesh  and  its  jwwerful  but  delicate  aroma,  although  it 
requires  longer  time  for  digestion  than  most  fruits. 
It  is  characterized,  chemically  speaking,  by  prussic 
acid,  which  abounds  in  its  congener,  the  almond;  but, 
as  with  all  chemical  elements,  when  organized  in  a 
first-class  article  of  food,  it  is  as  different,  dietetically, 
as  air  is  from  nitric  acid,  these  two  substances  being 
comixjsed  of  the  same  elements.  Peaches,  like  apri- 
cots, consist  almost  entirely  of  juice,  their  solid 
constituents,  after  the  removal  of  the  stone,  being 
only  one  or  two  per  cent. 

Pear.  This  is  one  of  the  sweetest  of  fruits  and 
very  nutritious,  but  is  not  so  digestible  as  the  apple. 
Unlike  most  other  fruits,  autumn  and  vrinter  pears 


should  be  gathered  from  the  tree  before  they  are  fully 
ripe  and  kept  in  the  house  until  they  are  soft  or 
mellow.  They  must,  however,  be  kept  warm,  as  cold 
destroys  all  their  best  qualities  and  renders  them  hard 
and  tough. 

Pine-apple.  Although  the  acid  and 
pepper)'  qualities  of  this  finely  flavored 
fruit  render  it  difficult  of  management 
by  weak  stomachs,  it  constitutes,  when 
pared,  sliced  and  saturated  with  the 
best  sugar,  a  fancy  dessert.  It  is  not 
the  fruit  of  a  tree,  but  of  a  moss-like 
plant. 

Plums  and  Prufies.  Perfectly  ripe 
plums  are  good  to  eat  in  considerable 
quantities,  are  very  digestible  and  some- 
what laxative.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  nectarines  and  apricots.  Sometimes 
these  stone  fruits  are  ripe  on  the  side 
exix)sed  to  the  sun  while  unripe  on  the 
other,  in  which  case  only  the  ripened 
side  should  be  eaten.  Prunes  bear  the 
same  relation  to  plums  that  raisins  do 
to  grapes,  and  are  probably  the  most 
digestible  of  all  dried  fruits,  while  they 
are  as  wholesome  as  any. 

Strawberry.     The   acme  of  dessert 
|J  fruits.     It  is  the  aroma  that  we  chiefly 

J*  prize.  The  sweeter  the  more  wholesome, 

as  cream  and  fruit  acid  together  form  a 
kind  of  indigestible  cheese  in  the  stomach.  Special 
pains  are  required  to  furnish  them  free  from  sand  and 
dirt. 

Waiermelon.    See  Melon,  above. 

Pi'uit  House,  a  house  for  the  preservation  of 
fruit  in  its  natural  state.  It  is  either  the  ice-house 
itself,  with  a  room  underneath  for  fruit,  or  a  conserva- 
tory built  upon  the  principle  of  the  ice-house,  to  pre- 
serve fruit  during  the  winter  season.  These  are 
eminently  profitable,  and  those  who  are  raising  fruit 


Fig.  2— Fruit  Press  Taken  Apart. 

in  large  quantities  should  provide  themselves  with  a 
house  especially  adapted  for  their  preservation. 
Fruit  Press,  an  apparatus  for  pressing  out  the 


FUEL. 


549 


juice  of  fruits.  Every  family  should  have  one.  Fig. 
I  represents  the  kind  made  by  the  Enterprise  Manu- 
facturing Company,  of  Philadelphia.  Fig.  2  represents 
the  same  taken  part.  It  is  easily  taken  to  pieces,  for 
the  purjx)se  of  washing,  drying  and  oiling.  The 
apparatus  is  screwed  to  a  table  like  a  small  sewing 
machine  or  seam-holder,  the  fruit  put  into  the  hopper, 
and  as  it  is  pressed,  the  skins  and  seeds  are  neatly 
held  within  the  tube  until  they  are  passed  out  at  the 
smaller  end.  The  stone  fruits  should  first  be  pitted ; 
all  other  fruits,  as  well  as  pumpkin,  and  all  pulpy 
matter,  can  be  run  right  through  without  any  previous 
preparation. 

Fuel,  combustible  substances  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  heat.  In  this  country  fuel  is  generally 
understood  to  mean  either  coal,  wood,  charcoal  or 
coke.  Throughout  the  northern  portion  of  the 
United  States  coal  is  the  fuel  in  most  general  use.  In 
timbered  sections,  and  where  coal  is  not  a  local 
product,  wood  is  used  either  in  its  original  state  or  in 
the  form  of  charcoal. 

Coal.  There  is  no  possible  doubt  that  the  general 
origin  of  coal  must  be  referred  to  the  vegetable  king- 
dom. Some  species  of  coal  are  merely  fossil  wood 
(or  lignite)  impregnated  with  oily  or  bituminous  matter. 
The  branches,  trunks  and  roots,  although  closely 
pressed  together,  are  scarcely  altered  in  te.xture  in 
some  places,  while  in  others  they  gradually  lose  every 
vegetable  feature;  and  the  substance  in  color,  luster 
and  feature  resembles  pitch. 

Coal  is  indeed  the  vegetation  of  former  ages,  the 
product  of  their  sunshine  and  showers,  treasured  up 
for  succeeding  generations.  The  chief  difference  be- 
tween the  various  kinds  of  coal  which  are  applied  to 
economical  purposes  arises  from  the  j^roportion  of 
bitumen  they  contain.  What  is  called  bituminous 
yields  about  40  per  cent.  When  burning  it  swells, 
agglutinates,  and  emits  much  smoke  and  gas,  which 
inflame  at  a  certain  temperature.  Cannel  coal  has 
only  20  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  and  does  not  agglutinate 
or  cake.  It  burns  with  a  bright  flame  like  a  candle, 
from  which  circumstance  it  takes  its  name,  cannel 
being  the  common  pronounciation  of  candle  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  third  sort  is  called  anthracite. 
It  contains  little  or  no  bitumen.  It  neither  cakes  nor 
flames,  and  gives  out  very  little  smoke.  But  as  there 
are  several  varieties  of  coal  between  these  principal 
species,  much  confusion  has  taken  place  in  their 
names.  The  fact  is  that  almost  every  mine  affords  a 
coal  differing  in  some  respects  from  that  of  others. 
The  different  manner  in  which  coals  burn  deserves 
notice,  and  if  any  arrangement  of  the  varieties  of 
coal  is  to  be  made  this  affords  the  best  ground  for  it. 
The  difference  does  not  depend  wholly  upon  the  pro- 
(xirtion  of  bitumen,  but  partly  upon  the  kind,  whether 
it  is  more  or  less  volatile,  and  whether  it  is  more  or 
less  easily  separated  from  the  earthy  base. 

Anthracite  is  in  general,  geologically  the  oldest 
form  of  coal,  and  is  the  hardest  and  most  dense.  It 
generally  contains  upward  of  90  per  cent,  of  carbon. 


It  is  an  admirable  fuel,  but  requires  that  stoves  and 
grates  should  be  expressly  adapted  to  its  use.  This 
coal  is  not  found  west  of  the  Middle  States.  The  soft 
or  bitminous  coal  is  soft  and  friable,  which  is  there- 
fore more  wasteful.  It  is  very  rapid  in  its  com- 
bustion. 

Coal  is  said  to  be  about  twice  the  value  of  wood 
as  fuel,  weight  for  weight,  in  its  heating  power.  The 
great  value  of  all  fuel  resides  in  the  degree  of  heat  it 
gives.  The  heat-giving  constituent  of  coal,  carbon, 
varies  from  75  to  95  per  cent.  Coal  radiates  more 
heat  than  charcoal.  One  pound  of  good  pit-coal  will 
uix)n  an  average  heat  60  pounds  of  water.  Small 
coal  gives  out  three-fourths  of  the  heat  afforded  by 
large  coal. 

Ch.\rcoal.  Different  charcoals  afford  under  equal 
weights  equal  quantities  of  heat.  One  jx)und  of  char- 
coal will,  on  an  average,  raise  73  pounds  of  water  from 
the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point.  If  exposed  to  the 
air,  charcoals  acquire  moisture,  and  are  then  inferior 
in  the  heat-giving  property.  Such  charcoal  may  be 
known  by  its  burning  with  flame,  as  pure  charcoal  does 
not.  Charcoal  radiates  heat  in  the  degree  of  one- 
third  to  the  whole  of  the  heat  it  emits. 

Coke.  The  heating  jxiwer  of  good  coke  is  to  that 
of  pit-coal  as  75  to  69,  and  is  equal  to  nine-tenths  of 
that  of  wood  charcoal. 

Turf  or  Peat.  One  ix)und  of  this  fuel  will  raise 
from  25  to  30  pounds  of  water  from  the  freezing  (32" 
above)  to  the  boiling  jxsint,  212°.  Its  value  depends 
upon  its  compactness  and  freedom  from  earthy  matter. 
Its  radiating  power  is  as  one  to  three  of  the  whole  heat 
it  emits  in  burning.  Peat  is  not  common  in  the  United 
States  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  the  peculiar 
swamps  where  it  is  found.  In  northern  Indianaj~and 
in  some  portions  of  Wisconsin,  there  are  rather  ex- 
tensive bogs  of  peat. 

Woods  of  various  kinds,  if  burnt  under  the  same 
conditions  of  weight  and  dryness,  are  found  to  afford 
equal  degrees  of  heat.  The  pores  of  dry  wood  are 
filled  with  air  (oxygen).  Dr>'ness  is  an  essential  qual- 
ity of  good  fuel,  as  the  presence  of  moisture  prevents 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  from  penetrating  the  material 
burnt.  If  a  piece  of  wood  is  damp,  heat  is  wasted  in 
the  evaporation  of  the  water  it  holds,  and  the  com- 
bustion is  also  slower  and  more  imperfect.  A  piece  of 
wood  containing,  say  25  per  cent,  of  water,  contains 
only  75  per  cent,  of  fuel,  while  the  conversion  of  the 
water  into  steam  will  require  one  28th  part  of  its 
weight.  Hence,  damp  wood  is  of  less  value  as  fuel 
by  28  parts  in  100.  According  to  their  different 
natures,  wood  still  contains  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of 
water  12  months  after  it  has  been  felled  arid  cut  up. 
Even  when  it  has  been  kept  for  a  long  rime  in  a  dry 
place,  it  never  contains  less  than  ro  per  cent,  of  water, 
although  this  may,  of  course,  be  reduced  by  heat.  If 
dried  too  much,  its  value  as  fuel  suff"er9  from  another 
cause,  namely,  the  commencement  of  carbonization, 
or  loss  of  hydrogen.  It  has  been  assumed  that  i  pound 
of  artificially  dried  wood  will  raise  35  pounds  of  water 
from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling  point. 


55° 


FULCR  UM— FURNITURE. 


Taking  shellbark  hickory  as  the  highest  standard  of 
our  forest  trees,  and  calHng  that  loo,  other  trees  will 
compare  with  it  in  real  value  for  fuel  as  follows: 

Shellbark  Hickory loo 

Pignut  Hickory 95 

Black  Jack  (Oak) 97 

White  Oak 84 

White  Ash 77 

Dogwood 75 

Scrub  Oak 73 

White  Hazel 72 

Apple  Tree 70 

White  Beech 69 

Black  Birch 65 

Hard  Maple 65 

Black  Walnut 62 

Yellow  Oak 60 

White  Elm 58 

Red  Oak 56 

Red  Cedar 56 

Wild  Cherry 55 

Soft  Maple 55 

Yellow  Pine 54 

Chestnut 52 

Yellow  Po;)lar 51 

Butternut 43 

White  Birch 43 

Pitch  Pine 43 

Hackberr)' 42 

White  Pine 30 

Anthracite  Coal,  i  toa 100 

Bituminous  Coal,  i  1-5  tons 100 

The  other  sorts  of  ash,  the  elms,  butternut,  syca- 
more, willow,  basswood  and  buckeye  have  but  little 
substance,  although  they  all  burn  well  enough  when 
dry.  Green  elm  is  the  iXK)rest  of  all,  and  next  to  it 
green  water  oak  and  the  soft  woods.  By  the  fore- 
going one  can  calculate  which  is  the  cheapest  and 
best  fuel  in  his  community  from  the  price  it  brings 
there.  Sometimes,  in  the  West,  even  com  has  been 
the  cheapest  fuel;  sometimes  sunflower  stalks,  and 
other  things.  Perhaps  the  best  and  simplest  way 
of  discovering  the  respective  heating  [xjwers  of  various 
kinds  of  fuel  is  by  testing  them  with  ice,  thus :  One 
pound  of  good  coal  liquefies  90  jx)unds  of  ice;  one 
pound  of  good  coke  liquefies  95  pounds  of  ice;  one 
jx)und  of  good  wood  charcoal  liquefies  94  pounds  of 
ice;  one  ]X)und  of  wood  Hquefies  52  pounds  of  ice; 
one  pound  of  peat  liquefies  19  jwunds  of  ice;  one 
pound  of  hydrogen  gas  liquefies  370  pounds  of  ice. 

Fulcrum,  the  support  upon  which  a  lever  is 
rested. 

Fumigation,  or  disinfecting  the  air,  the  arti- 
ficial diffusion  of  medicated  smoke  or  pungent  gas 
through  a  house  or  apartment  for  the  neutralizing  of 
infection  or  destroying  insects.  There  is  no  doubt 
that,  in  limited  spaces,  as  in  crowded  ships,  jails  and 
hospitals,  and  particularly  where  cleanliness  is  neg- 
lected, or  in  confined   apartments  where  infectious 


fevers  exist,  the  atmosphere  is  loaded  with  certain  ex- 
halations, germs,  fumes  or  vafx^rs  which  are  the  cause 
of  contagion.  For  rooms,  etc.,  muriatic  acid  and 
nitric  acid  fumes  have  been  used  with  success.  To 
emjjloy  muriatic  acid,  put  some  common  salt  into  an 
earthen  dish  and  ix)ur  uix)n  it  some  sulphuric  acid; 
immediately  whitish  fumes  will  arise,  which  consist 
of  muriatic  gas;  they  will  blend  with  the  air  and  be- 
come invisible,  but  their  presence  will  be  perceived 
from  their  suffocating  smell.  Place  a  two-ounce  vial 
full  of  the  fuming  nitrous  acid,  with  the  stopper  out, 
on  the  mantle-shelf  in  the  rooms  which  it  is  wished 
to  guard  from  infection.  Another  method  to  remove 
close,  unpleasant  smells  from  apartments,  is  to  put 
one  sjwonful  of  common  salt  and  a  little  ]X)wdered 
manganese  in  a  flat  earthen  saucer,  and  add  at  four 
or  five  different  times  a  wineglass  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid.  Place  this  on  the  floor  of  the  room,  retire,  and 
close  the  door. 

For  out-door  purposes,  chloride  of  lime  and  chloride 
of  soda  are  the  substances  now  used  as  the  most  con- 
venient and  effectual  remedies  for  the  purixase  of  dis- 
infecting. Tobacco  smoke,  camphor,  and  vinegar 
are  also  good.     See  also  Disinfectants. 

Fungus  (plural,  fungi),  mushroom  growth  of  any 
kind,  including  nearly  all  the  microscopic  vegetation. 

To  the  botanist  the  fungi  are  a  most  interesting 
class  of  plants.  Their  seeds  (sjMres)  and  many  of 
the  resulting  plants  are  so  small  that  they  must  be 
examined  with  the  microscope  to  bring  out  their  char- 
acter. \Vhat  are  understood  as  fungi  by  the  ordi- 
narj'  observer,  are  toad-stools  and  puff-balls.  Smut, 
mildew  and  rust  are  generally  termed  blight ;  yet  they 
all  belong  to  the  larger  class  of  fungi,  the  more  minute 
forms  below  those  of  mildew  being  largely  in  excess 
of  those  larger  than  mildew.  Fungus  attacks  all 
plants,  especially  those  in  a  more  or  less  diseased  or 
disorganized  condition.  Fungus  sometimes  does  at- 
tack apparently  healthy  trees.  It  attacks  all  living 
trees,  and  also  is  one  of  the  means  of  the  decompo- 
sition of  dead  plants.  It  is  propagated  by  spores, 
minute  grains  which  perform  the  function  of  seeds. 

Fungi  as  a  Cause  of  Disease.  Much  has  been 
said  and  written  of  late  years  of  minute  fungi  being 
the  cause  of  disease.  Dr.  Lassaure  has  made  experi- 
ments with  penicillum,  etc.,  and  concludes  from  them 
that  fungus  is  not  a  cause,  but  an  accidental  presence. 
"  In  contradiction  of  Hallier,  and, "  says  Prof  McClure, 
"I  might  truthfully  say  of  many  other  persons,  it  has 
been  shown  that  nothing  is  to  be  gained  in  the  study 
of  the  causes  of  disease  by  cultivating  microscopic 
fungi,  and  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  contagious  ele- 
ment until  we  have  succeeded  in  producing  disease 
from  art." 

Furniture,  To  Clean.  Take  a  quart  of  stale  beer 
or  vinegar,  put  a  handful  of  common  salt  and  a  table- 
spoonful  of  muriatic  acid  into  it,  and  boil  it  for  15 
minutes;  it  maybe  kept  in  a  botdeand  wanned  when 
wanted  for  use.  Having  previously  washed  the  fur- 
niture with  soft  hot  water,  to  get  the  dirt  off,  wash  it 
carefully  with  the  above  mixture. 


FURRO  W—FURS. 


551 


Very  nice  furniture,  as  a  piano,  should  be  treated 
as  follows  :  Wash  in  very  nearly  cold  water  with  a  very 
clean,  soft  rag,  and  wipe  dry ;  next,  rub  it  all  over  with 
sweet  oil  and  let  it  stand  an  hour  or  more  ;  then  rub 
off  all  the  oil  with  a  towel. 

To  Restore.  The  best  mixture  we  can  find  is,  3 
parts  linseed  oil  and  i  part  spirits  of  turpentine.  Put 
on  with  a  woolen  cloth.  It  restores  wood  to  its  origi- 
nal color  and  leaves  a  luster  upon  the  surface. 

To  T.^KE  Bruises  out  of  Furniture.  Wet  the 
bruises  with  warm  water,  place  a  brown  paper  folded 
four  or  five  times  upon  it  and  apply  a  warm  (not  hot) 
iron  to  it  and  the  bruise  will  rise  to  the  surface. 

To  Polish.  Take  2  ounces  of  beeswax  and  Y^  an 
ounce 'of  alkanet  root;  melt  them  together  in  an 
earthen  jxjt;  when  melted  take  it  off  the  fire,  and  add 
2  ounces  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  ^  a  pint  of  spirits  of 
turpentine.  Rub  it  on  with  a  woolen  cloth,  and  polish 
it  with  a  clean  silk  cloth. 

Another:  Shave  i  cent's  worth  of  beeswax  into 
thin  slices,  put  it  into  a  gallipot  and  pour  on  it  3  cents' 
worth  of  turpentine-,  melt  in  an  oven,  take  it  out  and 
let  it  stand  until  cool ;  apply  it  briskly  to  the  furniture 
with  a  piece  of  flannel,  rub  with  a  soft  duster,  and 
finally  polish  with  an  old  silk  handkerchief.  Good  also 
for  cleaning  oil-cloth. 

To  Varnish.  White  wax,  2  ounces;  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, I  gill;  melt  the  wax  and  gradually  mix  in  the 
turpentine.  Lay  on  evenly,  with  as  few  strokes  of  the 
brush  as  possible  and  with  haste,  as  varnish  "sets" 
quickly,  and  is  only  roughened  with  the  brush  after 
setting. 

Furrow,  the  long  narrow  trench  made  by  the  plow 
in  tilling  land.  It  means  sometimes  the  temporary 
trench  made  by  each  line  or  bout  of  plowing,  more 
generally  the  permanent  trench  which  divides  two 
ridges,  and  occasionally  the  narrow  surface  drain  which 
is  formed  across  the  ends  of  these,  and  which  receives 
and  carries  off  their  discharge  of  water;  and  in  the 
first  of  these  senses  it  may  be  called  the  jilow-furrow, 
in  the  second  the  ridge-furrow,  and  in  the  third  the 
cross-furrow.  The  ojieration  cf  furrow-draining  is  de- 
signed to  draw  off  surface  water  by  means  of  the  ridge- 
furrows  and  the  cross-furrows;  and  a  somewhat 
analogous  operation  draws  off  surface  water  from  tilled 
clay  lands  by  means  of  small  and  narrow  spade-cuts, 
called  water  furrows.  See  the  article  Draining.  A 
furrow-slice  is  the  strip  of  soil  cut  out  and  turned  over 
by  the  plow  in  each  bout  of  plowing.  The  rationale  of 
turning  of  furrows  by  the  plow  i;  not  understood  by 
one  farmer  in  ten,  even  by  those  who  profess  to  be 
plowmen.  Very  few  of  the  ordinary  hands  of  the 
farm  understand  how  to  turn  furrows  so  they  shall  lap 
evenly,  or  fall  beside  each  other,  in  lap-furrowing,  in 
contradistinction  to  lying  flat,  and  at  the  same  time 
close  together.  So,  in  turning  under  stubble  and  other 
trash,  sufficient  care  is  not  taken  in  cutting  the  furrows 
so  the  vegetation  will  be  distributed  evenly,  and  not  in 
lumps,  thus  allowing  the  furrow  to  be  smooth  and 
evenly  disintegrable  throughout.     The  subject  will  be 


found  treated  of  in  the  article  Plowing.  Furrows 
are  known  as  "fiat"  when  they  lie  level,  and  as  "laj)- 
ping"  when  they  partly  lie  upon  one  another. 

Furrow  Slice,  the  strip  of  earth  thrown  out  by  the 
plow  at  one  passing. 

Furs.  To  Tan  Skins  with  the  Fur  on.  Cut  off 
the  useless  parts,  soften  the  skin  by  soaking,  remove 
the  fatty  matter  from  the  inside,  and  soak  in  warm 
water  for  an  hour.  Mix  equal  parts  of  borax,  saltpeter 
and  Glauber  salts,  in  the  proiX)rtion  of  about  14  ounce 
of  each  for  each  skin,  with  sufficient  water  to  make  a 
thin  paste.  Spread  this  with  a  brush  over  the  inside 
of  the  skin,  applying  more  on  the  thicker  parts  than 
on  the  thinner;  double  the  skin  together,  flesh  side 
inwards,  and  put  it  in  a  cool  place.  After  24  hours 
wash  the  skin  clean,  and  apply  in  the  same  manner 
as  before  a  mixture  of  i  ounce  sal  soda,  ^  ounce 
borax,  and  2  ounces  hard  white  soap,  melted  slowly 
together  without  being  allowed  to  boil;  fold  together 
again  and  put  away  in  a  warm  place  for  24  hours. 
After  this  dissolve  4  ounces  alum,  8  ounces  salt,  and 
2  ounces  saleratus,  in  sufficient  hot  rain-water  to  sat- 
urate the  skin ;  when  cool  enough  not  to  scald  the 
hands,  soak  the  skin  in  it  for  1 2  hours ;  then  wring 
out  and  hang  up  to  dry.  When  dry  repeat  this  soak- 
ing and  drying  two  or  three  times,  till  the  skin  is  suf- 
ficiently soft.  Lastly,  smooth  the  inside  with  fine 
sand-paper  and  pumice  stone. 

To  Clean  Furs.  Strip  the  articles  of  their  stuffing 
and  binding,  and  lay  them  as  much  as  possible  in  a 
flat  [wsition^  Give  them  a  very  brisk  brushing  with  a 
stiff  clothes-brush.  After  this  any  moth-eaten  parts 
must  be  cut  out,  and  be  neatly  replaced  by  new  bits 
of  fur  to  match. 

To  Clean  Dark  Furs.  Sable,  chinchilla,  squirrel, 
fitch,  etc.,  should  be  treated  as  follows :  Warm  a 
quantity  of  new  bran  in  a  pan,  taking  care  that  it  does 
not  burn,  to  i)revent  which  it  must  be  actively  stirred. 
When  well  wam.ed,  rub  it  thoroughly  into  the  fur 
with  the  hand.  Repeat  this  two  or  three  times,  then 
shake  the  fur,  and  give  it  another  sharp  brushing  till 
free  from  dust. 

To  Clean  Light  Furs.  White  furs,  ermine,  etc., 
may  be  cleaned  as  follows  :  Lay  the  fur  on  a  table, 
rub  it  well  with  bran  made  moist  with  warm  water; 
rub  till  (juite  dry,  and  afterward  with  dry  bran.  The 
wet  bran  should  be  put  on  with  flannel,  and  the  dry 
with  a  piece  of  book-muslin.  The  light  furs,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  above,  should  be  well  rubbed  with  mag- 
nesia or  a  piece  of  book-muslin,  after  the  bran  process. 
Or  dry  flour  may  be  used  instead  of  wet  bran.  Er- 
mine takes  longer  to  clean  than  minever.  They 
should  be  rubbed  against  the  "lay"  of  the  fur. 

Preserving  Furs  from  Moths.  It  is  not  the 
moth,  but  the  maggot  of  the  moth,  that  does  the  mis- 
chief with  furs  and  woolens.  The  instinct  of  moths 
leads  them  to  deposit  their  eggs  at  the  root  of  the  fine 
hair  of  animals.  No  sooner  is  the  worm  hatched  than 
it  eats  its  path  through  the  fur  and  continues  increas- 
ingly destructive  until  it  arrives  at  its  full  growth,  and 


552 


FUSEL  OIL— FUSTIAN. 


forms  itself  a  silk  covering,  from  which  in  a  short  time 
it  again  emerges  a  perfect  moth.  To  effectually  pre- 
serve furs  from  these  insects  thoroughly  beat  the  furs 
with  thin  rattans,  air  them  for  several  hours,  then  care- 
fully comb  them  with  a  clean  comb,  wrap  them  up  in 
newspapers,  jierfectly  tight,  put  them  away  in  a  per- 
fectly closed  chest,  lined  with  tin  or  cedar  wood. 
Take  them  out  and  examine  in  the  sun  at  least  once 
.a  month,  thoroughly  beating  them.  This,  indeed,  is 
the  secret  of  fur  dealers  in  preserving  their  stock. 
Camphor,  which  is  so  much  used  to  preserve  furs,  im- 
pairs their  beauty  in  turning  them  light.  The  printing 
mk  on  the  newspaper  is  just  as  effectual  as  camphor, 
being  very  distasteful  to  the  moth.  Keeping  them 
in  perfect  darkness  is  considered  by  some  to  be  suf- 
ficient. Another  cause  of  the  decay  of  furs  is  the 
moisture  to  which  they  are  so  often  exposed  and  by 
allowing  the  skin  to  remain  damp,  from  which  the 
delicate  structure  of  the  fine  fur  is  sure  to  receive 
serious  damage.  This  fact  makes  the  leather  manu- 
facturer wet  his  skins  and  keep  them  in  a  damp  cellar, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  hair,  which 
can  then  be  readily  pulled  out.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  for  the  preservation  of  furs,  dryness  is  essential. 
After  exposure  to  damp  or  rain,  furs  should  be  dried 
at  a  moderate  distance  from  the  fire.  Before  putting 
fuis  by  for  the  summer  they  should  be  carefully 
combed  and  beaten  with  a  small  cane.  During  the 
summer  they  should  be  taken  out  occasionally  to  be 


dried,  if  at  all  damp,  and  again  well  shaken,  combed 
and  beaten. 

To  Improve  Furs  by  Stretching.  Furs  are  usually 
much  improved  by  stretching,  which  may  be  managed 
as  follows:  To  one  pint  of  soft  water  add  3  ounces  of 
salt;  dissolve.  .With  this  solution  sponge  the  inside 
of  the  skin  (taking  care  not  to  wet  the  fur)  until  it  be- 
comes thoroughly  saturated;  then  lay  it  carefully  on 
a  board  with  the  fur  side  downwards.  Then  stretch 
as  much  as  it  will  bear,  and  to  the  required  shape, 
and  fasten  with  small  tacks.  The  drying  may  be 
quickened  by  placing  the  skin  a  little  distance  from  a 
fire. 

Fusel  Oil,  known  also  as  potato  spirit,  is  a  fre- 
quent impurity  in  spirits  distilled  from  fermented  bar- 
ley, iX)tatoes,  rye,  corn,  etc.,  to  which  it  communicates 
a  peculiar  and  offensive  odor  and  taste,  and  an  un- 
wholesome property.  Any  spirit  which  produces  a 
milky  appearance  when  mixed  with  four  or  five  times 
its  quantity  of  water  may  be  suspected  to  contain  it. 
To  free  alcohol  from  it,  filter  the  alcohol  through  alter- 
nate layers  of  sand,  wood  charcoal,  boiled  wheat  and 
broken  oyster  shells.  This  will  remove  all  other  im- 
purities as  well.  Another  method  is  to  add  a  few 
drops  of  olive  oil,  shake  thoroughly  and  decant ;  the 
olive  oil  dissolves  and  retains  the  fusel  oil. 

Fustian  (fust'yan),  a  kind  of  coarse  twilled  cotton 
stuff,  including  corduroy,  velveteen,  etc. 


J 


G 


ABLE  (ga'bl),  the  vertical  triangular  end  of 
a  house  or  other  building,  from  the  cornice 
or  eaves  to  the  top.  A  "  gable  roof"  is  the 
ijfa^4:  sloping  roof  which  forms  a  gable.  A  "gable 
^^window  "  is  one  which  is  in  a  gable,  or  pointed 
at  the  top  like  a  gable.  The  entire  appearance 
of  a  residence,  barn  or  other  building  may  be 
beautified  by  simply  ornamenting  the  gable;  but 
care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  common  error  of 
making  such  ornamentations  too  heavy. 

Gadfly.  The  gadfly  or  bot-fly  family  belongs  to 
the  order  of  two-winged  insects,  which  have  their 
antennje  very  short  and  inserted  in  two  little  holes 
upon  the  forehead ;  head  large,  eyes  small,  with  large 
space  between  them ;  wings  large,  covering  the  bal- 
ancers, and  the  hind  body  of  the  females  with  a  coni- 
cal tube  bent  under  the  body,  and  with  which  they 
deposit  their  eggs  while  flying.  The  larva;  inhabit 
various  parts  of  the  body  of  herbivorous  animals. 
They  are  thick,  fleshy,  without  feet,  tapering  towards 
the  'head,  which  in  most  cases  is  armed  with  two 
hooks,  and  the  segments  of  the  body  are  also  armed 
with  hooks  or  prickles.  More  than  twenty  species  of 
this  family  are  known ;  and  several  are  found  in  this 
country. 

Horse  Bot-fly.  There  are  three  species  which 
infest  the  horse.  The  large  bot-fly,  which  lays  her 
eggs  upon  the  fore  legs  of  the  horse ;  the  red-tailed 
bot-fly,  which  lays  her  eggs  upon  the  lips,  and  the 
brown  farrier  bot-fly,  which  deposits  her  eggs  under 
the  throat.  By  biting  the  parts  where  the  eggs  are 
laid,  the  horse  gets  the  larvai  into  his  mouth,  swallows 
them,  and  to  the  coats  of  the  stomach  they  cling  and 
remain  until  they  have  attained  their  full  growth. 
They  then  loosen  their  hold  and  are  carried,  together 
with  the  food,  through  the  interior  of  the  animal,  fall 
to  the  ground  and  immediately  begin  to  burrow. 
They  remain  under  ground  until  they  have  undergone 
their  metamorphoses  and  then  emerge  in  the  shape 
of  the  perfect  insect. 

Ox  Bot-fly.  This  is  the  parasite  found  under  the 
skin  of  cattle  along  the  back,  and  is  also  known  as 
the  skin  bot-fly.  The  fly  is  black  and  densely  hairy, 
with  thorax  banded  with  yellow  and  white.  They 
deposit  their  eggs  in  a  place  on  the  back  of  horses, 
and  especially  cattle.  Accompanying  the  eggs  is  a 
small  quandty  of  acid.  The  eggs  hatch  and  live  on 
the  integuments  under  the  skin,  emerging  in  the 
spring.  Where  the  egg  is  deposited  a  litde  tumor  is 
formed,  which  is  kept  open  until  the  grub  or  larva 


forces  itself  through  the  aperture  during  June  or 
July  of  the  following  year.  These  tumors  are  called 
"warbles,"  and  at  first  throw  the  animal  into  a  wild 
agony,  causing  it  to  rush  for  water,  if  there  is  any 
attainable,  regardless  of  driver,  plow  or  vehicle. 
Animals  dread  these  flies,  and  the  appearance  of  a 
single  one  has  been  known  to  create  a  stampede  in  a 
herd.  These  grubs  may  be  felt  in  the  winter  as  hard 
lumps.  The  opening  should  be  slightly  enlarged 
with  a  lancet,  and  the  grub  squeezed  out  by  pressure 
on  each  side.  Then  wash  the  wounds  clean  with  a 
rincture  of  aloes  and  myrrh,  and  the  abscesses  will 
soon  heal.  The  gadfly  always  selects  the  best-con- 
ditioned animal.  The  damage  it  does  arises  from  the 
suffering  it  inflicts,  and  injury  to  the  hide  in  case  the 
animal  be  slaughtered. 

Sheep  Bot-fly.  This  genus  of  the  gadfly  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep,  and  the  larvae  crowd  into 
the  cavities  of  the  bones  of  the  forehead,  and  in  rnany, 
cases  produce  death.  It  is  composed  of  fine  rings;' 
is  tiger-colored  on  the  back  and  belly,  sprinkled  with 
spots  and  patches  of  brown,  and  has  striped  wings. 
It  most  commonly  deposits  its  eggs  in  July,  August 
and  September.  At  this  time  the  sheep  collect  in 
close  clumps,  with  their  heads  inward,  with  their 
noses  thrust  close  to  the  ground  and  into  it,  if  any 
loose  dirt  or  sand  is  within  reach.  During  the  ascent 
of  the  larvee  up  the  sinuses,  the  sheep  stamps,  tosses 
its  head  violently,  and  often  dashes  away  from  its 
companions  over  the  field.  The  larvae  remain  on  the 
sinuses,  feeding  on  the  mucus  secreted  by  the  mem- 
brane, and  apparendy  crearing  no  further  annoyance, 
unril  ready  to  assume  their/>upa  form  in  the  succeeding 
spring.  They  then  crowd  down  the  nose,  creating 
even  greater  irritation  and  excitement  than  when  they 
originally  ascended,  drop  on  the  ground  and  rapidly 
burrow  into  it.  In  a  few  hours  the  skin  of  the  larvae 
has  contracted,  become  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and  it 
has  assumed  the  form  of  a  chrysalis.  This  fly 
never  eats.  The  male,  after  impregnating  two  or 
three  females,  dies,  and  the  latter,  having  deposited 
their  ova  in  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  also  soon  perish. 
See  Sheep. 

Gaff  or  Galfle,  an  artificial  spur  put  on  cocks 
when  they  are  set  to  fight.  Also,  a  large  hook  with 
handle  for  securing  fish  after  having  been  brought  to 
hand  with  a  rod. 

Gage,  or  Gauge,  a  measure  or  standard;  also, 
to  measure 

Gaggle,  to  make  a  noise  like  a  goose ;  cackle.     In 


SS4 


GALTPO  T— GALLOP. 


hunters'  parlance  it  means  a  large  collection  of  wild 
geese,  generally  applied  to  those  gathered  on  land. 

Gktlipot  (gal'i-pct),  white  resin  from  pine  trees- 
When  purified  it  is  called  "Burgundy  pitch." 

Gall  (gaul),  a  bitter  fluid  secreted  by  the  liver  in  a 
sac  called  the  "gall-bladder;"  an  excrescence  on 
plants,  produced  by  insects  (see  Gall-fly);  to  fret  and 
wear  by  friction,  as.  to  gall  a  horse's  back;  to  harass 
and  annoy,  etc.  Wind-galls  are  little  tumors  about 
the  heels  of  horses  over-driven.  The  proper  treat- 
ment for  galls  on  horses  is  to  wash  the  galled  places 
with  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  or  to  keep  them  clean 
with  a  plaster  of  common  ointment,  or  dressing  with 
simple  cerate,  and  allowing  no  further  pressure  on  the 
part  until  healed. 

Gkill-fly,  a  fly  which  punctures  plants  and  pro- 
duces galls.  The  innumerable  and  curious  excres- 
cences which  are  seen  on  the  leaves,  branches  and 
roots  of  trees,  are  all  the  productions  of  different 
kinds  of  insects.  Some  of  these  excrescences  have 
within  a  single  cavity,  in  which  several  insects  live 
together.  Others  have  a  number  of  small  cells,  with 
communications  between  them;  others,  again,  have 
numerous  distinct  cavities.  These  productions  are  of 
various  sizes,  form  and  consistence,  some  being 
spongy,  and  others,  like  the  gall-nut,  extremely  hard. 
All  these  apparently  monstrous  productions  are 
occasioned  by  the  puncture  of  insects  when  depositing 
their  eggs.  The  ancient  opinion  concerning  the  ani- 
mals found  in  these  receptacles  was,  that  they  were 
spontaneously  produced  from  the  rotten  wood. 
Afterwards  it  was  believed  that  the  roots  of  plants  had 
the  power  of  sucking  up,  with  the  sap,  the  eggs  of 
insects,  and  that  these  were  animated  as  soon  as  they 
arrived  in  a  proper  situation.  There  are  a  multitude 
of  insects  which  form  these  excrescences,  the  principal 
of  which  is  the  Cynips.  That  which  attacks  the  oak 
is  of  a  burnished  brown  color,  with  black  antennae, 
and  chestnut-brown  legs  and  feet.  The  wings  are 
white.  It  is  small  and  hymenopterous.  The  excres- 
cences are  called  gall-nuts.  Like  others  of  the  genus, 
the  female  pierces  a  branch  and  deposits  an  egg  in 
the  interior,  around  which, in  the  course  of  a  few  days, 
the  excrescence  is  thrown  out,  affording  nourishment 
to  the  young  insect,  and  protecting  it  from  external 
injury  until  it  has  attained  its  full  size,  when,  after 
having  undergone  metamorphosis,  it  penetrates  the 
sides  of  the  excrescence  and  comes  out  into  open  air. 
The  oak,  which  bears  the  gall-nut  of  commerce,  does 
not  attain  a  greater  height  than  four  or  five  feet,  and 
usually  has  very  numerous,  straggling  branches. 
The  leaves  are  oblong,  sinuate,  and  smooth  on  both 
sides.  The  acorns  are  elongated,  and  sessile  or  sub- 
sessile.  The  galls  are  hard,  woody  and  heavy,  about 
the  size  of  a  marble,  usually  round,  and  studded  with 
protuberances.  Those  which  are  gathered  before  the 
departure. of  the  insect  are  most  esteemed,  and  have 
a  bluish  color.  The  whitish  are  cheapest  and  are 
sometimes  dyed  blue,  but  the  deception  may  be 
detected  by  the  hole  made  by  the  insect  in  its  exit. 


Gall-nuts  are  powerfully  astringent  and  are  frequently 
employed  in  medicine,  as  also  in  dyeing  or  making 
ink.  An  infusion  is  an  excellent  test  of  iron.  They 
are  imported  from  Smyrna,  Tripoli  and  other  places 
in  the  Levant,  especially  from  Aleppo,  to  which  place 
they  are  brought  by  the  Koords  from  the  western  bank 
of  the  Tigris. 

Gallon,  the  standard  unit  of  wine  measure,  which 
contains  23 r  cubic  inches.  One  gallon  of  pure  water 
weighs  nearly  eight  and  one-half  pounds  avoirdujxjis ; 
hence  a  pint  weighs  about  a  pound.  The  beer  gallon, 
which  contains  282  cubic  inches,  and  formerly  used 
in  measuring  beer,  ale  and  milk,  is  now  seldom  used. 
The  Imperial  or  British  gallon  contains  277.274  inches 
of  distilled  water  at  62*'  Fahr., — equal  to  ten  pounds. 

GaUinaeeous  Fowls.  An  order  or  very  natural 
family  of  land  birds,  represented  by  the  domestic 
cock  and  named  from  its  scientific  designation,  Gallus. 
The  gait  of  these  birds  is  heavy;  their  power  of  flying 
is  comparatively  small;  their  bill  is  of  moderate  size, 
and  has  its  upper  mandible  arched ;  their  nostrils  are 
partially  covered  by  a  soft  and  inflated  scale ;  their 
toes,  for  the  most  part,  are  indented  on  the  edges ; 
their  crop  is  ver>'  large,  and  their  gizzard  very  power- 
ful ;  their  food  in  general  is  grain  ;  and,  with  one  ex- 
ception, all  lay  and  hatch  their  eggs  on  the  ground,  or 
on  a  slight  carpeting  of  straw  or  grass.  This  order 
comprises  the  domestic  cock,  pheasant,  the  quail,  the 
pigeon,  turkey,  peacock,  guinea-fowl  and  some  others 
of  less  importance  or  not  so  well  known. 

Gallop,  the  most  rapid  pace  of  the  horse.  It  is 
sometimes,  though  improperly,  regarded  as  included 
in  the  amble  or  canter,  while  the  gallop  and  canter 
are  entirely  diff"erent  paces,  the  former  being  a  succes- 
sion of  short  leaps,  and  the  latter  a  movement  of  the 
front  and  hind  legs  successively.  The  transition  from 
one  to  the  other  is  so  gradual  that  it  would  be  difficult 
to  exactly  fix  it.  The  style  of  riding  in  both  paces  is 
very  much  the  same. 

The  gallop  is  of  two  kinds,  the  hand  gallop  and  the 
full  gallop.  The  hand  gallop  has  an  intermediate 
character  between  the  amble  and  the  full  gallop ;  and 
though  apparently  simple  in  its  progress  is  elaborate 
in  its  commencement.  The  horse  simultaneously  ele- 
vates his  fore-quarters  and  throws  forward  his  fore- 
legs ;  but  he  raises  the  right  limb  a  little  higher,  and 
carries  the  right  shoulder  a  little  further  forward  than 
the  left,  so  as  to  make  the  action,  not  the  leap,  but  a 
pace.  During  this  first  elevation,  and  in  some  in- 
stances preparatory  to  it,  the  right  or  off"-hind  foot 
moves  slightly  forward,  but  only  sufficient  to  gain  a 
true  center,  and  to  correspond  with  the  increased  for- 
wardness of  the  right  shoulder ;  the  near  hind-leg,  it 
must  be  remembered,  yet  remains  fixed.  The  fore 
extremities  now  reach  the  ground,  the  near  fore  a 
little  before  its  fellow,  the  off"  fore  doubling  over  it,  and 
placing  itself  a  little  beyond  it;  and  the  slower  is  the 
gallop,  the  more  considerable  will  be  the  distance  be- 
tween the  placing  of  the  fore-legs.  As  soon  as  the 
near  fore-leg  has  met  the  ground,  and  before  the  ofi' 


GALLO  WA  Y—GAME. 


555 


fore  has  yet  taken  its  full  bearing,  the  hinder  legs  are 
moved  in  the  following  manner :  the  near  hind  ele- 
vates itself;  and,  as  it  reaches  the  ground,  the  off  hind 
parses  it  and  becomes  placed  also.  It  is  now  that 
the  horse  begins  to  be  "all  in  the  air"  in  this  pace; 
for  on  the  next  spring  that  the  hind-quarters  make, 
the  fore-quarters  being  already  elevated  from  the  last 
impulse,  the  animal  is  of  necessity  Gompletely  de- 
tached from  the  ground. 

The  full  gallop  is  a  very  simple  affair,  and  consists 
merely  in  a  succession  of  leaps.  The  fore-legs  are 
thrown  simultaneously  forward,  the  hind-legs  are 
quickly  and  almost  simultaneously  brought  up;  and 
the  extension  of  all  the  limbs  in  the  air  during  the  in- 
terval between  one  Iwund  and  another,  occupies 
vastly  more  time  than  the  efforts  of  the  leap.  But  the 
full  gallop  requires  so  different  a  center  of  gravity  from 
walking,  and  demands  so  powerful  and  general  a  play 
of  the  muscles  at  its  comm'encement,  that  it  cannot 
be  begun  except  through  the  medium  of  the  hand  gal- 
lop, and  always  presupix)se  the  acquirement  of  a 
momentum  of  a  progressive  increase  of  speed. 

Galloway,  a  breed  of  Scotch  cattle,  and  also  a 
breed  of  small  horses.     See  Cattle  and  Horse. 

Gallstone,  a  concretion  formed  in  the  gall-bladder. 
It  causes  great  pain,  especially  while  it  is  passingout. 
Scarcely  anything  can  be  done  to  relieve  it,  although 
it  is  believed  that  some  system  of  dieting  and  hygienic 
regimen  may  prevent  its  formation. 

Galoche  (ga-losh'),  an  over-shoe  ;  a  gaiter  made  to 
cover  the  leg  and  upper  part  of  the  foot. 

Gamboge  (gam-booj'  or  gam-boje),  a  vegetable 
juice  or  gum  resin,  of  several  kinds,  from  the  East 
Indies,  used  in  paints  and  in  medicines.  It  is  of  a 
reddish-yellow  color,  and  taken  internally  it  is  a  strong 
and  harsh  emetic  and  cathartic.  Poisoningby  it  produces 
an  acid  and  bitter  taste,  a  choking  sensation,  dryness 
of  the  throat,  retching,  vomiting,  purging,  pains  in  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  difficult  breathing  and  death.  As 
antidotes,  give  emetics  of  salt  and  water  or  mustard, 
followed  by  large  draughts  of  warm  milk  or  other  bland 
fluids;  foment  the  belly,  and  give  strong  coffee. 

Gambrel,  the  hind  leg  of  a  horse ;  a  stick  crooked 
like  a  horse's  leg,  used  by  butchers  in  suspending 
slaughtered  animals  for  the  purpose  of  dressing  or 
weighing.  A  "gambrel  roof "  is  a  hipped  roof,  a  man- 
sard or  curb  roof 

Game,  wild  animals  which  are  hunted  for  food. 
To  keep  game  fresh  and  sweet  till  it  can  be  conveyed 
home  from  a  distance  or  transfwrted  to  market,  clean 
it  by  wiping  off  the  blood,  cover  the  wounded  parts  with 
absorbent  paper,  wrap  up  the  heads,  and  sprinkle 
ground  coffee  over  and  among  the  feathers  and  fur, 
as  the  case  may  be;  pack  up  carefully,  and  the  game 
will  be  preserved  fresh  and  sweet  in  the  most  unfavor- 
able weather.  Game  sent  open  and  loose  can  not  be 
treated  in  this  manner,  but  all  game  packed  in  boxes 
or  barrels  may  be  deodorized  as  described.     A  tea- 


spoonful  of  coffee  is  sufficient  for   a   brace   of  birds. 

Birds  may  be  preserved  in  a  fresh  state  for  some 
time  by  removing  the  intestines,  wiping  the  inside  out 
quite  dry  with  a  towel,  and  then  flouring  them.  A 
piece  of  blotting  paper,  on  which  one  or  two  drops 
of  creosote  has  been  placed,  is  to  be  put  inside  the 
bodies,  and  a  similarly  prepared  piece  of  paper  tied 
around  them.  They  should  then  be  hung  up  in  a 
cool,  dry  place,  and  they  will  be  found  to  keep  nicely 
for  some  time. 

Game  to  be  shipped  to  market  should  be  packed  in 
barrels  or  boxes,  clean  straw  being  the  best  packing 
material.  In  cool  weather  game  is  often  shipped  short 
distances  openly,  tied  together  in  bunches.  In  freezing 
weather  this  is  done  largely  and  safely. 

We  may  here  give  our  epicurean  friends  a  gentle 
hint  on  game-eating.  In  eating  game  those  parts  are 
the  most  tender  and  delicious  which  are  exercised  the 
least  by  the  locomotive  habits  of  the  bird.  For  instance, 
in  the  woodcock  and  snipe  the  legs,  which  are  merely 
used  as  their  supporters,  are  juicy  and  tender,  while 
their  wings  and  breast  (pectoral  muscles)  being  abun- 
dantly exercised,  are  more  tough,  dry  and  strong. 

When  birds  are  tainted,  pick  and  draw  them  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  immerse  them  in  new  milk. 
Allow  them  to  remain  in  it  till  next  day,  whe"n  they 
will  be  sweet  and  fit  for  cooking.  Throw  the  milk 
away  afterwards,  as  it  is  in  an  unfit' state  for  any  other, 
use  whatever. 

Roast  Wild  Fowls.  These  fowls  require  a  brisk 
fire,  and  should  be  roasted  till  they  are  a  light  brown, 
but  not  too  much,  otherwise  they  lose  their  flavor  by 
letting  the  gravy  run  out.  The  flavor  is  best  preserved 
without  stuffing.  Put  pepper,  salt  and  a  piece  of 
butter  into  each.  Wild  fowl  require  much  less  dressing 
than  tame.  A  rich  brown  gravy  should  be  sent  in 
the  dish ;  and  when  the  breast  is  cut  into  slices,  be- 
fore taking  off  the  bone,  a  squeeze  of  lemon,  with 
pepper  and  salt,  is  a  great  improvement  to  the  flavor. 
To  take  off  the  fleshy  taste  which  wild  fowl  sonierimes 
have,  put  an  onion,  salt,  and  hot  water  into  the  drip- 
ping-pan and  baste  them  for  the  first  ten  minutes 
with  this ;  then  take  away  the  pan  and  baste  con- 
stantly with  butter. 

Prairie  Chickens.  Skin  the  chickens,  which 
makes  them  sweeter;  cut  them  open  on  the  back  and 
through  the  breast ;  fry  them  in  butter,  with  salt  and 
pepper  to  the  taste  ;  cook  them  to  a  nice  brown. 

To  Truss  Woodcock,  Snipes,  etc.  Pluck  and 
wipe  them  very  clean  outside ;  truss  them  with  the 
legs  close  to  the  body,  and  the  feet  pressing  upon  the 
thighs;  skin  the  head  and  neck,  and  bring  the  beak 
around  under  the  wing. 

Roast  Pigeons.  When  cleaned  and  ready  for 
roasting,  fill  the  bird  with  a  stuflSng  of  bread  crumbs, 
a  spoonful  of  butter,  a  little  salt  and  nutmeg,  and  3 
oysters  to  each  bird  (some  prefer  chopped  ap])le). 
They  must  be  well  basted  with  melted  butter,  and  re- 
quire 30  minutes  careful  cooking.  In  the  autumn 
they  are  best,  and  should  be  full  grown. 

Quails  Roasted  with  Ham.     After  trussing  and 


SS6 


GAME  FOWL— GARDEN,  VEGETABLE. 


stuffing,  cover  with  slices  of  ham,  and  cover  all  with  a 
sheet  of  white  paper;  keep  well  basted  with  butter 
and  water,  and  roast  three-quarters  of  an  hour  wth  a 
good  fire  ;  remove  the  paper  and  brown  quickly.  The 
slices  of  meat  and  the  paper  must  be  fastened  down 
with  thread. 

Game  Pie.  This  may  be  made  of  any  of  the  birds 
named  in  the  foregoing  receipts.  Prairie  chicken  and 
quails  together  make  a  delightful  Christmas  pie. 
Clean  and  wash  the  birds ;  cut  the  quails  in  half,  the 
prairie  chicken  into  4  pieces ;  trim  off  bits  of  the  in- 
ferior portions,  necks,  lower  ribs,  etc.,  and  put  them 
with  the  giblets  into  a  saucepan,  with  ij^  pints  of 
water,  if  your  pie  requires  6  birds ;  while  this  is  stew- 
ing make  a  good  puff-paste  and  line  a  large  pudding- 
dish,  reserving  enough  for  a  lid  at  least  J^  an  inch 
thick;  when  the  livers  are  tender,  take  them  out, 
leaving  the  gravy  to  stew  in  the  covered  saucepan; 
lard  the  breasts  of  the  birds  with  tiny  strips  of  salt 
pork,  and  mince  a  couple  of  slices  of  the  same  with 
the  livers,  a  bunch  of  parsley,  sweet  marjoram  and 
thyme,  also  chopped  fine,  the  juice  of  a  lemon,  pep- 
per, and  a  very  small  shallot ;  make  a  force-meat  of 
this,  with  bread-crumbs  moistened  with  warm  milk ; 
put  some  thin  strips  of  cold  corned  (not  smoked)  harn 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pie,  next  to  the  crust;  lay  ujxin 
these  pieces  of  the  bird,  peppered  and  buttered,  then 
a  layer  of  the  force-meat,  and  so  on,  until  you  are 
ready  for  the  gravy ;  strain  this,  return  to  the  fire,  and 
season  with  pepper  and  a  glass  of  wine ;  heat  to  a 
boil,  pour  into  the  pie,  and  cover  with  the  upper  crust, 
cutting  a  slit  in  the  middle;  ornament  with  pastry 
leaves,  arranged  in  a  wreath  about  the  edge,  and  in 
the  middle  a  pastry  bird,  with  curled  strips  of  pastry 
about  it ;  these  last  should  be  baked  separately  and 
laid  on  when  the  pie  is  done,  to  cover  the  hole  in  the 
middle ;  bake  3  hours  if  your  pie  is  large,  covering 
with  paper  if  it  threatens  to  brown  too  fast. 

Venison  is  prepared  for  the  table  like  beef,  veal  or 
mutton,  and  rabbit  and  squirrel  like  fowls,  domestic 
and  wild.  Game  of  all  kinds  is  canned  by  various 
establishments  in  the  West;  and  although  such  goods 
are  not  yet  known  to  be  adulterated,  there  is  great 
danger  of  bad  meat  being  put  up  occasionally, 
or  of  careless  canning,  as  well  as  of  poisoning  from 
the  solder  of  the  cans. 

To  capture  game,  see  Hunting,  Guns  and  Gun- 
ning, and  Birds. 

Game  Fowl,  a  species  of  the  domestic  fowl.  See 
page  522. 

Oammon,  smoked  ham;  backgammon;  humbug. 

Gander,  the  nvale  of  the  goose. 

Gangrene,  a  putrefying  state  of  an  organ  or  part 
of  a  diseased  animal.  It  is  the  same  as  mortification. 
It  constitutes  the  last  stage  of  the  most  violent  kind 
of  local  inflammation  It  arises  from  the  rupture  of 
the  local  blood-vessels  by  the  congestive  action  of  the 
inflammation,  and  consists  in  the  decomposition  of 
the  effused  blood  and  the  ruptured  tissues.    The  dis- 


charge from  a  gangrenous  organ  is  dark-colored  and 
has  a  peculiar  and  very  offensive  smell.  The  at- 
tendant symptoms  indicate  sinking,  debility,  and  ex- 
cessive danger.  Gangrene  in  an  important  organ  is 
incurable,  but  external  gangrene,  arising  from  a  wound 
or  a  contusion,  may  in  the  case  of  a  horse  be  suc- 
cessfully scarified,  fomented  and  dressed  with 
digestive  liniment,  oil  of  turpentine,  or  camphorated 
spirit  of  wine. 

Gape  (gap),  to  open  the  mouth  wide ;  to  yawn  ;  to 
open  as  a  gap.  Gaping,  except  in  some  diseased 
conditions,  is  indicative  of  a  want  of  the  usual  amount 
of  exercise.  As  to  "gapes"  in  chickens,  see  Fowl, 
page  538.  ,  . 

Garden,  a  piece  of  ground  laid  out  for  the  culti- 
vation of  fruits,  flowers  and  kitchen  vegetables.  Fruit- 
garden  is  where  the  small  fruits  and  dwarf-trees  are 
cultivated.  A  vegetable  garden  is  where  the  various 
kitchen  vegetables  are  grown.  Although  the  term  is 
now  generally  understood  to  mean  either  of  these, — 
fruit,  flower,  or  vegetable  garden — yet  it  may  be 
properly  applied  to  other  uses,  as  landscape  garden, 
herb  garden,  etc. 

The  situation  of  the  garden  with  respect  to  the 
residence  will  be  found  discussed  in  Land- 
scape Gardening.  The  various  vegetables  and 
fruits  of  the  garden  are  treated  under  their  re- 
spective heads,  and  in  Vegetable  Garden,  while  the 
flowers  may  be  found  in  Floriculture. 

Garden,  Vegetable.  This  is  that  very  interesring 
branch  of  agriculture  where  kitchen  vegetables  are 
cultivated.  There  are  many  considerations  of  im- 
lX)rtance  to  be  weighed  in  selecting  the  location  of 
the  garden.  The  shelter,  water,  soil,  etc.,  all  have  an 
imix)rtant  bearing  upon  this  point,  and  he  who  would 
ignore  them  will  certainly  fail  of  realizing  ordinary 
success  as  a  gardener,  or  have  the  pleasure  of  gath- 
ering abundance  of  excellent  fruit  or  vegetables. 

Shelter  is,  in  our  climate,  a  primary  consideration. 
This  may  in  part  be  derived  from  the  natural  shape 
and  situation  of  the  ground.  Gentle  declivities,  as 
the  base  of  the  south  or  southwest  side  of  hills,  or  the 
sloping  banks  of  winding  rivers,  with  a  similar  exjxis- 
ure,  are  therefore  very  desirable.  It  is  a  rule  that 
there  should  be  no  tall  trees  on  the  south  side  of  the 
garden,  to  a  very  considerable  distance;  for  during 
winter  and  early  spring  they  fling  their  lengthened 
shadows  into  the  garden  at  a  time  when  every  sun- 
beam is  valuable.  On  the  east,  also,  they  should  be 
sufficiently  removed  to  admit  the  early  morning  rays. 
The  advantage  of  this  is  conspicuous  in  the  spring 
months,  when  hoar-frost  often  rests  on  the  tender  buds 
and  flowers ;  if  this  be  gradually  dissolved  no  harm 
ensues,  but  if  the  blossom  be  all  at  once  exposed  to 
the  powerful  rays  of  the  advancing  sun  when  he  over- 
tops the  trees,  the  sudden  transition  from  cold  to  heat 
often  proves  destructive.  On  the  west,  and  particu- 
larly on  the  north,  trees  may  approach  nearer  and  be 
more  crowded,  as  from  these  directions  the  most  vio- 
lent and  coldest  winds  assail  us. 


GARDEN. 


557 


The  best  general  exposure  for  a  garden  must  evi- 
dently be  toward  the  south;  and  a  gentle  declivity  in 
that  direction,  equal  perhaps  to  one  foot  in  30,  is 
deemed  very  desirable,  effectual  draining  being  in  this 
case  easily  accomplished. 

In  selecting  ground  for  a  garden  the  plants  grow- 
ing naturally  on  the  surface  should  be  noted,  as  from 
these  a  pretty  correct  opinion  may  be  formed  of  the 
quality  of  the  soil.  The  subsoil  should  also  be  exam- 
ined. If  this  be  radically  bad,  such  as  an  iron-till 
mixed  with  gravel,  no  draining,  trenching  or  manur- 
ing will  ever  prove  an  effectual  remedy ;  if, on  the  other 
hand,  the  subsoil  be  tolerably  good,  the  surface  may 
be  greatly  meliorated  by  these  means.  In  every  gar- 
den, two  varieties  of  soil  are  wanted,  a  strong  and  a 
light  one,  or  in  other  words,  a  clayey  loam  and  a  sandy 
loam,  different  plants  requiring  these  respective  kinds. 
For  the  general  soil,  a  loam  of  middling  quality,  but 
partaking  rather  of  the  sandy  than  the  clayey,  is  ac- 
counted the  best. 

The  improvement  of  the  soil  naturally  becomes  an 
object  of  great  importance  at  the  first  formation  of  a 
garden  ;  and  its  subsequent  management,  or  "keeping 
in  heart,"  as  gardeners  term  it,  is  a  matter  of  equal 
interest.  A  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  is  called  loam, 
and  according  as  the  one  or  other  of  these  earths  pre- 
dominates, the  soil  is  denominated  a  clayey  or  sandy 
loam.  When  oxide  of  iron  prevails,  and  renders  the 
clay  hard  and  of  a  dark  brown  or  red  color,  the  soil  is 
called  ferruginous  loam,  ormore  commonly  till.  Boggy 
or  heathy  soil  consists  of  ligneous  particles,  or  the  de- 
cayed roots,  stems  and  leaves  of  various  carices, 
heaths  and  sphagnums,  and  the  coaly  matter  derived 
from  these,  generally  with  a  slight  mixture  of  argil- 
laceous earth  and  sand. 

The  soil  of  a  garden  should  never  be  less  than  two 
feet  and  a  half  deep;  the  best  gardeners  prefer  having 
it  fully  three  feet.  The  natural  soil  therefore,  how- 
ever good,  is  seldom  of  sufficient  depth.  If  it  be  not 
two  feet,  a  quantity  of  earth  from  the  field  is  carried  in. 
The  cleanings  of  roads  and  grass-turf  of  any  kind 
form  valuable  additions  to  garden  soil.  In  the  course 
of  trenching,  a  portion  of  the  subsoil  is  brought  to  the 
surface,  and  gradually  meliorated,  but  to  bring  up 
much  ofit  at  once  is  very  injurious.  Soil  of  the  usual 
depth  may  be  trenched  two  spadefuls  deep;  and  if  this 
be  done  every  third  year,  it  is  evident  that  the  surface 
which  has  produced  three  crops  will  rest  for  the  next 
three  years,  thus  giving  a  much  better  chance  of  con- 
stantly producing  healthy  and  luxuriant  cro])S,  and 
with  one  half  the  manure  that  would  otherwise  be 
requisite. 

It  is  agreed  on  all  hands  that  nothing  contributes 
more  to  the  preserving  of  the  soil  of  a  garden  in  good 
condition  than  exposing  it  as  often  as  possible  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  air.  It  is  a  rule,  therefore,  that 
garden  ground,  when  not  in  cro]i,  should  regularly  be 
dug  rough,  or  if  possible  ridged  up,  and  left  in  that 
state  to  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere.  If  it  be 
allowed  both  a  winter  and  a  summer  fallow,  the  oftener 
-a  new  surface  is  exposed  the  better;  after  it  has  lain 


ridged  up  during  winter,  therefore,  repeated  diggings 
are  given  in  the  spring  and  summer  months.  Whether 
some  noxious  matter  be  exhaled,  or  some  fertilizing 
substance  be  imbibed,  or  what  may  be  the  precise  na- 
ture of  the  operation  that  goes  on,  we  do  not  here  in- 
quire. The  fact  is  certain,  that  aeration,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  of  the  greatest  advantage  to 
garden  soils.  A  common  reason  why  farmers  of 
moderate  means  have  not  had  better  kitchen  gardens 
is  that  they  have  not  learned  how  to  cultivate  them  at 
little  expense.  Going  through  once  a  week,  to  keep 
the  crops  clean,  and  in  the  best  growing  condition, 
could  not  be  performed  by  hand.  Many  are  imitating 
the  practice  of  the  large  market  gardens,  and  do  the 
work  by  horse  labor,  and  with  the  drill,  plow  and  cul- 
tivator. There  are  a  few  crops  that  need  planting  in 
beds,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  garden  may  be  de- 
voted to  these.  All  the  rest  may  be  arranged  for  horse 
work.  The  great  advantage  here  is  that  no  care  or 
skill  is  required  in  laying  out.  All  that  is  needed  is 
a  turning  ground  at  each  end,  12  feet  wide,  for  the 
horse.  This  may  be  a  smooth  grass  walk.  Rows  of 
currant,  gooseberry  and  raspberry  bushes  and  dwarf 
fruit  trees  may  occasionally  extend  across  the  garden 
parallel  with  the  rows  of  vegetables.  After  the  plants 
have  a  fair  stand  the  horse  will  do  nearly  all,  and  the 
garden  may  be  kept  cleaner  than  ever  before  at  a 
tenth  of  the  cost.  By  passing  once  a  week,  and  keep- 
ing the  ground  constantly  mellow  the  crops  will  make 
a  fine  growth. 

To  have  a  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam  on  a  slope  toward 
the  south  or  the  east,  protected  from  the  violent  winds 
of  the  southwest,  with  good  under  drainage,  seems  to 
describe  in  general  terms  about  all  the  essentials  of  a 
good  situation  for  a  vegetable  garden.  When  one  cannot 
have  such  a  situation  exactly,  the  nearer  he  can  come 
to  it  the  better.  The  two  greatest  faults  in  this  re- 
spect in  the  West  are  flat,  undrained  ground  and  a 
poor,  washed-out  hillside.  Valley  lands  are  so  low  that 
frosts  are  apt  to  injure  the  crops.  On  the  north  and 
west  sides  it  is  well  to  have  a  high  board  fence  or  a 
very  high  hedge  and  a  curtain  of  trees  outside.  As  to 
walks  and  ornamental  arrangements,  see  Landscape 
Gardening:  see  also  Drainage.  As  to  plowing,  dig- 
ging and  subsequent  cultivation,  of  course  it  is  very 
important  that  it  be  all  done  when  the  ground  is  com- 
paratively dry  and  perfectly  friable.  Ridging  on  an 
extensive  scale  is  done  by  back  furrowing  with  the 
plow;  sub-soil  plowing  is  done  by  one  plow,  longer 
geared,  following  another,  geared  short ;  trench  plow- 
ing is  done  by  having  the  second  plow  with  a  longer 
mold-board,  to  throw  the  earth  up  high;  spading  is 
generally  done  by  taking  two  thick  slices;  the  spade- 
slice  should  not  be  thicker  than  half  its  length. 

A  good  appendage  to  a  garden  is  a  small  garden 
house,  in  which  to  keep  garden  pots,  compost  for 
choice  plants,  tools  when  not  in  use,  to  do  indoor  work 
during  rain,  etc.,  etc. 

A  pit  is  a  sunken  frame-work  covered  with  glass, 
protected  by  shutters  or  mats,  for  wintering  half  hardy 
and  tender  plants,  and  for  blooming  roses  and  other 


558 


GARDEN. 


flowers  earlier  and  later  in  the  season  than  would  be 
practicable  in  the  open  ground.  It  may  be  partially 
filled  with  leaves  from  the  woods,  sawdust,  sand  or 
spent  manure  welt  pulverized.  It  should  have  light, 
and  a  Httle  air  admitted  about  noon  of  every  bright 
winter  day  that  is  not  very  cold.  Keep  mice  and 
insects  out  of  it.  It  may  be  divided  into  compart- 
ments, to  suit  different  plants. 

A  garden  frame  is  a  movable  box  having  glass  for 
the  upper  side  like  a  hot-bed  and  can  be  set  over  a 
hot-bed  or  elsewhere  as  occasion  requires;  in  the  lat- 
ter case  it  is  a  cold  bed,  and  may  be  in  the  sunshine 
or  in  the  shade.  For  the  construction  and  use  of  the 
Hot-bed  and  Cold  Frame  see  articles  on  those  subjects. 

For  the  collection  of  kitchen  slops,  etc.,  to  make 
liquid  manure,  a  hogshead  pitched  on  both  sides  and 
sunk  into  the  ground  is  the  best  thing;  it  is  called  a 
tank.     A  tight  cover  should  be  kept  upon  it. 

A  hillside  garden  can  scarcely  be  made  too  rich  by 
over-manuring ;  and  a  yellow  clay  or  very  sandy  soil 
can  receive  to  advantage  a  mixture  of  all  kinds  of 
manure,  as  decaying  animal  matter,  guano,  pou- 
drette,  stable  manure,  green  crops  or  rowen,  swamp 
muck,  leaf  mold,  plaster,  lime,  ashes,  kitchen  slops, 
and  the  fertilizers,  as  salt,  phosphites,  etc.,  etc.  A 
cold  clay  soil,  such  as  characterize  our  flat  Western 
prairies,  need  sand  and  the  fertilizers.  It  being  com- 
posed of  burnt  grass,  which  has  been  accumulating  for 
ages,  it  serves  as  a  basis  for  corn,  wheat,  hay,  and 
other  plants  of  the  grass  order,  rather  than  for  root 
crops  and  fine  garden  vegetables.  Salt  is  especially 
recommended  for  the  soil,  as  it  is  so  effectual  in 
destroying  insects. 

In  the  selection  of  varieties,  the  following  principles 
are  of  some  value :  The  globular  form  for  cabbage  heads 
and  the  turnips  are  better  than  other  forms ;  the  egg 
form  is  an  improvement  upon  the  heart-shaped  in 
roots  that  have  not  yet  been  brought  to  better  forms  ;" 
in  rutabaga,  the  obtuse  egg  form  is  considered  the 
best ;  of  cabbage,  the  heart-shaped  for  early  and  the 
cheese  form  or  globular,  for  winter  cabbages,  and  of 
lettuce  the  screw  and  the  globe  form  are  regarded  as 
the  best ;  carrots  should  be  of  an  orange  color  instead 
of  light  lemon;  beets  should  not  be  streaked  with 
white ;  and  yellow  turnips  are  richer  and  sweeter,  other 
things  being  equal,  than  white!  As  in  general  farming, 
rotation  of  crops  should  be  observed,  except  that 
onions  do  better  continued  on  the  same  ground. 
Some  crops  are  so  favorable  to  the  growth  of  weeds 
that  if  conUnued  long  upon  the  same  ground  the 
labor  of  cultivation  is  much  increased.  Crops  planted 
continually  in  the  same  soil  are  more  subject  to  the 
ravages  of  insects  peculiar  to  the  crop  planted. 
Different  plants  derive  their  principal  nourishment 
from  different  depths  of  soil.  Deep-rooted  plants,  as 
beets,  carrots,  parsnips,  etc.,  should  be  followed  by 
the  shallow-rooted — onions,  lettuce,  cabbage,  etc. 

In  the  saving  of  garden  seeds  for  next  year's  plant- 
ing, it  is  best  to  select  those  of  the  middle  part  of  the 
cropping  season;  those  which  are  earliest  matured 
tend  to  bring  forth  earlier  fruit,  but  smaller,  while  those 


latest  matured  tend  to  produce  later  and  deteriorated 
crops.  Hence,  we  are  apt  to  let  our  stock  of  beans 
and  peas  degenerate  by  saving  for  seed  only  those 
latest  ripened.  Some  of  the  products  of  planting 
improper  seeds  are  supposed  to  be  new  varieties,  but 
they  are  debased,  or  in  some  way  undesirable ;  as,  for 
example,  "early  peas,"  which  are  late  and  unprolific, 
or  "  six-weeks  beans "  that  in  sixteen  weeks  may 
possibly  ripen  a  scanty  and  scattering  crop.  Like- 
wise the  biennial  vegetables,  as  the  turnip,  cabbage, 
beet  and  carrot  are  made  sometimes  to  go  to  seed  the 
first  season,  and  thus  a  tendency  in  the  wrong 
direction  is  established.  The  climate  also  has  an 
influence  to  deteriorate  those  plants  not  natural  to  it; 
for  example,  heavy  oats  cannot  be  long  raised  in  a 
hot,  dry  climate ;  cabbages  become  leathery  and 
worthless ;  radishes  mere  sticks,  etc.  If  lettuce  seed 
is  sown  too  late  in  the  spring  the  heat  of  summer  will 
prevent  its  heading  finely. 

It  is  more  important  to  obtain  seeds  of  good  stock 
than  seeds  that  are  certain  to  grow.  There  is  also 
some  risk  in  depending  upon  seeds  raised  in  private 
or  market  gardens  from  which  vegetables  are  gathered 
for  use  or  sale ;  so  that  it  is  best  to  obtain  them  from 
seedsmen  of  reliable  character. 

To  prevent  deterioration  in  the  garden,  vegetables 
of  different  varieties  of  the  same  species  should  be 
planted  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  else  they  will 
mix,  as  cucumbers,  melons,  pumpkins,  squashes,  corn, 
etc.     See  Varieties,  Fertilization  and  Fertilizers. 

In  sowing  verj'  fine  seed,  it  is  better  to  mix  it  with 
sand  or  ashes  so  that  it  can  be  scattered  more  evenly 
over  the  ground;  a  tablespoonful  of  cabbage  seed, 
for  example,  might  be  mixed  in  a  half  bushel  or  peck 
of  sand  or  ashes.  The  time  of  sowing  and  planting 
varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  vegetable  and 
the  period  at  which  it  is  desired  to  bring  forward  the 
crop  for  use;  for  example,  we  want  early  peas  and 
later,  and  there  should  therefore  be  several  sowings 
of  them.  Those  vegetable  crops  intended  for  winter 
feeding  to  cattle,  and  those  of  the  same  kind  intended 
for  the  table,  should  not  be  sown  at  the  same  time,  a 
large  crop  being  the  main  object  in  raising  the  former, 
and  excellence  chiefly  desirable  in  the  latter.  All 
crops  for  winter  use  should  be  sown  late  enough  to 
avoid  the  summer  heat  upon  the  half  matured  crop; 
those  intended  for  feeding  to  cattle  as  early  as  jjossible, 
consistently  with  indispensable  rules ;  while  those  for 
table  use  should  be  deferred  to  as  late  a  period  as  may 
in  any  way  consist  with  the  probability  of  their  matur- 
ing before  vnnter. 

Whenever  root  vegetables,  having  attained  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  or  more  of  their  ordinary  growth, 
experience  a  check  from  any  cause,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  start  them  anew  so  as  to  obtain  either 
handsome  or  well-tasted  roots ;  they  will  in  general 
be  either  hollow  or  stringy  and  necked,  or  have  an 
alkaline  taste,  or  all  of  these  may  combine  to  render 
them  worthless  for  the  table  and  of  but  little  value 
for  any  purjx)se.  Even  if  the  check  occur  while  they 
are  quite  small  they  are  scarcely  ever  recoverable^ 


GARDEN. 


559 


It  is  therefore  necessary  so  to  time  the  sowing  the 
winter  root  crops  as  to  carry  them  clear  of  the  summer 
heat  well  into  the  autumn,  that  they  may  just  attain 
their  growth  before  freezing  weather  sets  in.  In  a 
well  cultivated  garden  it  is  generally  safe  to  allow 
about  12  weeks  for  the  growth  of  winter  vegetables, 
counting  from  the  time  that  their  third  leaves  are 
about  an  inch  long;  though  turnips,  or  bush  beans 
for  salting,  will  be  ready  for  use  in  a  shorter  time. 

As  to  the  depth  of  sowing,  the  best  general  rule  is 
just  deep  enough  to  be  in  constant  moisture,  and  the 
nearer  the  surface  this  is,  the  better.  Small  seeds 
must  always  go  on  the  surface  and  merely  raked  in 
lightly.  In  dry,  hot  summer  weather  it  is  needful  to 
plant  deeper  than  in  early  spring. 

As  to  transplanting,  of  course  one  can  raise  a  little 
larger  and  better  plants  if  he  sows  the  seed  in  the 
first  place  where  he  wishes  the  vegetables  to  grow  to 
maturity ;  but  this  method  is  altogether  too  tedious 
where  transplanting  will  do  nearly  as  well.  The  tap- 
rooted  plants,  as  beets,  parsnips,  carrots,  etc.,  cannot 
bear  transplanting  well,  and  it  is  therefore  needful  to 
sow  them  thick  in  their  final  place  and  afterward  thin 
them  out ;  but  the  fibrous-rooted  plants,  as  cabbage, 
tomatoes,  sweet  iwtatoes,  etc.,  bear  transplanting  so 
well  that  we  can  take  advantage  of  the  fact  and 
economize  both  time  and  labor  by  starting  them  in 
beds  and  transplanting  them  to  the  open  ground  at 
the  proper  time. 

The  final  transplanting  should  leave  the  plant  a 
little  deeper  in  the  ground  than  it  was  in  the  seed-bed. 
To  put  out  the  plants  rapidly  and  Avell,  it  is  advised 
to  use  the  dibber.  Holding  several  plants  in  the  left 
hand,  with  the  right  hand  make  a  hole  of  the  proper 
depth  with  the  dibber,  set  a  plant  in,  and  then  with 
the  dibber  strike  down  about  two  inches  away,  and 
directing  underneath  the  plant  as  if  to  take  it  up, 
bring  the  dibber  into  a  perpendicular  position  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  crowd  the  earth  up  to  the  plant,  from 
the  bottom  up.  After  little  practice  one  will  be  able 
to  set  out  five  to  ten  plants  to  the  minute.  Water 
the  plants  as  they  are  set  out.  Then  watch  for  cut- 
worms and  other  insects,  and  hoe  within  two  or  three 
days  after  setting  the  plants  out,  to  keep  up  a  good 
circulation  in  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Ridging  is  often  remunerative,  especially  in  wet 
grounds,  or  in  ordinary  good  ground  during  wet  sea- 
sons, if  only,  in  the  latter  case,  a  dry  enough  time  can 
be  improved  before  the  wet  weather  sets  in.  Where 
land  is  valuable  and  time  cheap,  one  can  do  many 
things  that  would  not  otherwise  pay;  and  deep  ridg- 
ing is  one  of  these  things.  What  we  mean  by  deep 
ridging,  is  a  ridge  of  earth  that  is  made  loose  and  mel- 
low down  to  a  considerable  depth.  Many  ridges  are 
carelessly  made  by  drawing  loose  earth  up  over  a 
ridge  of  unbroken  ground.  For  large  plantings  level 
cultivation  is  best.  Hilling  is  about  the  same  as  ridg- 
ing so  far  as  the  plant  is  concerned,  with  these  few 
small  advantages:  more  thorough  tillage  is  given,  more 
new  earth  brought  to  the  roo  ts,  and  in  case  of  pole 
beans,  one  pole  will  serve  for  several  vines.  With  most 


vegetables  the  hill  should  be  flat  and  low,  with  the 
earth  a  little  higher  a  few  inches  distant  from  the 
plants,  as  if  to  guide  the  rain-water  toward  the  plant. 

By  a  little  ingenuity  two  crops  in  one  season  can  be 
raised  on  the  same  ground,  sometimes  together,  as 
corn  and  pumpkins,  or  potatoes  with  corn  in  alter- 
nating rows,  or  winter  crops  of  turnips,  cabbage, 
radishes,  celery,  etc.,  on  ground  which  in  the  first  part 
of  the  season  was  occupied  by  early  peas,  beans, 
radishes,  greens,  etc.  Beets,  carrots  and  parsnips  can 
be  alternated  with  onions,  and  vegetables  of  many 
kinds  can  be  raised  between  the  rows  of  small  fruit, 
etc.  But  in  general  the  crops  will  be  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  average  unless  the  ground  is  of  ex- 
traordinary richness  and  well  managed. 

Bedding  of  plants  is  the  first  transplanting,  when 
the  young  shoots  are  set  only  two  or  three  inches 
apart,  or  at  such  distances  as  will  prevent  their  being 
drawn  up  and  weakened  by  crowding  one  another, 
as  well  as  to  afford  them  room  to  form  good  roots. 
Then,  when  the  time  for  final  transplanting  arrives, 
they  will  have  a  mass  of  small  fibrous  roots  which  will 
hold  together  a  quantity  of  earth, — a  great  advantage 
in  their  favor. 

Potting  is  a  second  removal  of  the  plant  before  set- 
ting it  in  the  open  ground.  This  process  is  followed 
especially  with  the  egg-plant,  the  tomato,  etc.  After 
they  have  grown  in  the  pot  until  the  earth  in  it  is 
about  full  of  their  roots,  they  are  taken  from  it  by 
carefully  turning  the  pot  upside  down  with  one  hand, 
catching  the  earth  with  the  other  hand,  with  the  plant 
extending  between  the  fingers. 

Grouting  is  the  drawing  of  the  roots  of  plants,  from 
which  the  earth  has  fallen,  through  soft,  thin  mud, 
made  by  mixing  good,  rich  soil  with  water,  to  which 
cow  dung  may  be  added. 

Hoe  often  and  deep,  is  the  motto  of  the  successful 
gardener;  but  refrain  from  watering,  except  in  extreme 
cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  plants  alive. 
Instead  of  watering  a  little  and  often,  water  only  in 
extreme  cases  of  dry  weather,  and  then  give  a  thorough 
soaking  every  week  or  ten  days,  in  the  evening,  with 
■  rain  or  pond  water. 

Plant  lice  are  more  apt  to  attack  sickly  or  poorly 
cultivated  vegetables ;  hence  a  cultivation  that  keeps 
the  vegetable  a  strong  grower  is  one  of  the  best  pre- 
ventives. Showering  with  tobacco  water,  or  strong 
brine,  or  sowing  dry  ashes  or  slaked  lime  or  plaster  is 
still  recommended  as  effectual  in  many  instances. 

The  striped  cucumber  bug,  the  jumping  beetle  and 
the  turnip  bug  cannot  be  certainly  exterminated  by 
any  projwsed  remedy,  but  only  temporarily  disturbed 
by  the  lime,  ashes,  dust,  sulphur,  soot,  snuff  and  sand 
so  often  recommended.  Vigorous  cultivation  of  the 
vegetable  is  the  only,  at  least  the  best,  preventive. 

The  pea  bug  or  weevil  is  avoided  to  some  extent  by 
selecting  those  varieries  of  the  pea  which  it  does  not 
greatly  infest.  Scalding  the  peas  slightly  just  before 
jslanting,  or  soaking  them  until  they  sprout,  or  plant- 
ing only  two-year-old  peas,  keeping  them  in  tight  bar- 
rels and  sifting  out  and  destroying  the  weevils  in  the 


S6o 


GARDEN  SEEDS. 


sprine  or  summer  of  the  first  season,  are  methods  for 
destroying  the  pea  bug. 

The  squash  bug  has  to  be  caught  by  hand  in  the 
cool  of  the  morning  and  killed. 

The  cucumber  borer  has  to  be  disposed  of  by  de- 
stroying him  and  the  vine  altogether,  by  scalding  or 
burning. 

The  cut-worm  must  be  hunted  up  individually  eariy 
ill  the  day,  by  his  usual  signs  of  a  cut  leaf  and  wilted 
plant,  and  dug  out  and  killed. 

The  hop  wonn  should  be  treated  to  an  occasional 
shower  bath  of  soai)-suds  or  solution  of  whale-oil  soap. 

The  root  worms  of  the  turnip,  radish  and  onion  are 
to  be  destroyed  by  scalding  or  Ijurning  of  the  diseased 
plant.     Preventive :  timely  sowing  and  good  culture. 

Moles  and  a  few  insects  not  mentioned  above  some- 
times do  a  little  harm  to  western  gardens,  but  so  little 
it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  combat  them. 

As  to  further  details  in  tlie  art  of  vegetable  garden- 
ing, see  the  articles  on  the  respective  plants  in  their 
alphabetical  order  in  this  volume.  See  also  Floricul- 
ture, Landscape  Gardening,  Transplanting,  etc. 

Garden  Seeds.  In  the  raising  of  garden  seeds, 
the  most  important /item  to  look  after  is  the  stock. 
Not  only  the  best  variety,  but  even  the  best  strain  and 
the  best  developed  in  each  should  be  selected.  The 
next  thing  is  to  keep  allied  species  and  varieties  so  far 
apart  in  the  field  that  they  cannot  mix.  Especial  care 
must  be  taken  with  vines,  as  pumpkins,  squashes, 
melons  and  cucumbers  seem  to  surpass  all  other  veg- 
etables in  mixing,  and  a  very  Httle  mixture  of  pump- 
kin six)ils  a  melon.  Cabbages,  turnips  and  radishes 
will  cross  to  some  extent  and  become  deteriorated;  so 
will  the  different  varieties  of  corn,  carrot,  onions,  cel- 
ery, lettuce  and  ix)tatoes.  Bush  beans,  peas,  parsnips 
and  tomatoes  are  not  very  susceptible  to  mixture.  A 
high,  tight  fence  between  two  varieties  is  a  pretty 
good  protection  against  crossing,  but  it  is  safer  to 
have  allied  varieties  a  quarter  or  a  half  mile  apart. 

The  vitality  of  seeds  prepared  for  keeping  is  more 
frequently  injured  by  excessive  drying  than  by  any  of 
the  ordinary  accidents  to  which  they  are  liable.  All 
dealers  in  seeds,  especially  grass  seeds,  have  to  com- 
plain of  this.  When  damp  they  will  not  keep,  and 
are  generally  put  on  the  to])  of  a  kiln  to  dry  off  the 
external  moisture ;  but  if  the  process  be  suffered  to  go 
beyond  this,  and  the  natural  moisture  of  the  seed  is 
much  trenched  on,  it  will  be  as  white  and  fine  and 
full  of  farina  as  before,  but  it  will  not  grow.  Onion 
and  other  seed  kept  over  the  year  loose  in  drawers 
or  in  paper  parcels  will  not  vegetate.  When  kept  in 
this  way,  even  for  a  few  weeks,  onion  seeds  have  laeen 
known  to  lose  in  weight  more  than  an  ounce  in  the 
pound.  Most  gardeners  have  noticed  that  after  a 
long  continuance  of  hot,  dry  weather  the  best  of  seed 
will  either  not  germinate  at  all  or  will  do  so  very  weakly. 
These  facts  prove  that  seeds  are  much  injured  by  the 
drying  action  of  the  air;  and  when  set  aside  for  pres- 
ervation in  our  cool  climate,  they  should  be  excluded 
from  the  air  as  much  as  possible,  and  not  exposed  in 


vessels  pierced  with  holes  for  the  admission  of  air,  as 
is  commonly  done. 

In  the  selection  of  seed  from  year  to  year,  the  ear- 
lier and  better  developed  are  the  best,  as  such  a  choice 
tends  in  a  general  way  to  improve  the  stock.  We 
must  give  a  short  notice  of  each  vegetable  in  detail. 

Bean.  Seek  a  thrifty  crop,  and  in  no  case  save  as 
seed  the  scattered  pods  left  from  a  croi)  used  for  the 
table.     Sort  over  and  pick  out  all  imperfect  seed. 

Beet.  Set  out  early  in  spring,  in  deep,  rich  soil, 
and  as  it  commences  to  grow,  break  off  all  seed  stalks 
but  the  main  one  from  the  center  of  the  crown.  The 
seed  does  not  ripen  evenly,  but  when  the  earliest  are 
ripe  the  stalk  may  be  cut,  and  after  curing  a  few  days 
all  is  ready  to  thresh,  which  is  very  rapidly  done  with 
a  flail.  Beet  seed  in  this  climate  is  liable  to  blast  in 
unfavorable  seasons,  and  since  sound  seed  will  re- 
main good  for  several  years,  careful  gardeners  keep  a 
two-years'  supply  on  hand.  Don't  store  it  away  till  it 
is  thoroughly  cured  and  dried. 

Cabbage.  Select  large^  hard  heads  on  short 
stumps,  with  few  loose  leaves,  and  these  should  be 
kept  over  winter  with  special  care,  free  from  frost.  As 
soon  as  the  seed-pods  turn  purple,  cut,  and  cure  by 
spreading  it  thinly  over  a  tight  floor  or  cloth;  when 
thoroughly  cured  thresh  out  and  clean. 

Cauliflower  seed  is  too  difficult  to  raise  in  this 
country. 

Carrot.  Treat  the  same  as  beets,  except  that,  as 
the  seeds  ripen  unevenly,  the  heads  must  be  cut 
from  time  to  time  as  they  ripen. 

Celery.     Same  as  carrot. 

Corn,  Sweet.  When  the  milk  of  the  kernel  be- 
gins to  thicken,  pick  the  best  ears,  braid  together  by 
their  husks,  and  hang  up  in  a  good  place  to  dry.  Do 
not  shell  until  it  is  wanted  for  use. 

Cucumber.  Unless  mere  earliness  in  the  character 
is  sought  for,  pick  off  during  the  growing  season  all 
imperfect  fruit,  so  as  to  throw  all  the  strength  of  the 
vine  into  the  few  favored  specimens  saved  for  seed. 
When  the  latter  are  dead  ripe,  but  not  quite  soft,  take 
out  the  seed  with  the  pulp,  let  it  stand  three  days, 
and  wash  them  by  stirring  them  in  cold  water  and 
ix)uring  the  water  from  one  vessel  into  another;  thus 
the  imperfect,  or  lighter,  seeds  will  be  poured  off  with 
the  pulp.  With  the  use  of  very  clean,  white  sand  the 
seeds  may  be  washed  immediately,  without  the  three 
days' fermentation.  Let  the  seeds  in  either  case  remain 
spread  out  until  dry  as  a  bone,  and  then  put  up  in 
paper  packages. 

Egg  Plant.  Peel  and  slice  the  fruit,  squeeze  the 
seed  from  each  piece  into  a  tub  of  water,  and  then 
pour  from  one  vessel  into  another,  as  with  cucumbers, 
never  allowing  them  to  ferment.  Dry  them  rapidly 
or  they  will  sprout. 

•Lettuce.  Select  seed  from  plants  which  remain 
longest  without  running  to  seed.  When  ripe  enough 
to  shell  out,  cut,  gather  upon  stout  sheets,  and  thresh 
with  a  flail,  and  winnow  by  the  wind  or  a  fan. 

Melon.  Atout  the  same  as  cucumber  seed,  only 
they  need  to  stand  but  24  to  36  hours. 


GARDENER— GARLIC. 


561 


Onion.  In  cultivation,  hill  up  the  stalks  as  high 
as  the  bulb,  which  not  only  preserves  moisture  in  time 
of  drouth,  but  also  supports  the  stalk  under  the 
v>reight  of  a  heavy  seed-head.  When  a  few  of  the 
seed  vessels  of  any  head  begin  to  crack  open,  it 
should  be  cut  with  a  few  inches  of  the  stalk  and 
spread  in  an  airy  place,  not  more  than  four  inches 
deep,  and  stirred  several  times  a  day.  Or  they  might 
be  spread  upon  lattice-work,  and  elevated  a  little,  so 
that  the  aircan  circulate  freely  underneath.  In  three 
or  four  weeks,  when  thoroughly  cured,  it  can  be  stored 
away  until  convenient  to  thresh  and  clean,  which  is 
,  easily  done  with  flail  and  fan.  When  the  fan  does 
not  clean  perfectly,  sink  the  seed  in  water,  pour  off 
the  chaff  with  the  water,  and  diy  thoroughly  the  good 
clean  seed  which  sinks  to  the  bottom. 

Parsnip.     Same  as  beets. 

Peas.  These  are  always  buggy  in  this  climate  if 
sown  early,  and  if  sown  late  they  are  inferior  in  qual- 
ity ;  hence  we  get  our  seed  from  Canada. 

Radish.  Plant  early,  so  the  seed  may  ripen 
during  the  heat  of  summer;  cull  out  the  sprouts  and 
mongrels ;  wlien  the  seed-pods  are  thoroughly  ripe 
and  dry,  cut  and  thresh  out,  and  after  a  little  more 
drying,  they  are  ready  to  put  up.  It  is  best  to  have 
seeds  from  radishes  which  have  been  for  generations 
American  grown  and  acclimated. 

Squash.  Summer  squash  may  be  treated  the  same 
as  cucumbers,  but  winter  varieties  are  better  kept 
stored  until  mid-winter. 

Spinach.     Same  as  lettuce. 

Tomato.  Start  the  plants  early,  in  a  hot-bed,  with 
room  enough  to  be  stocky,  transplant  at  least  twice 
before  removing  to  the  field,  select  for  seed  the  earliest 
and  best,  and  tlien  treat  as  cucumbers.  Only  they 
need  to  ferment  but  one  day. 

Turnip.  Store  the  roots  as  beets  and  save  the 
seed  as  of  cabbages.  American  seed  is  better  than 
English. 

Gardener,  a  person  who  performs  the  routine 
of  work  or  has  the  professional  management  of  a  gar- 
den or  of  any  piece  of  garden  scenerj'.  Gardeners 
are  as  different  in  their  qualifications  as  farmers.  A 
gardener,  at  one  extreme  of  his  profession,  may  be 
little  more  than  a  spadesman  or  a  day-laborer,  and 
at  [he  other  he  may  be  a  designer  of  parks,  boule- 
vards, landscapes  around  State  or  National  buildings, 
— indeed,  a  professional  artisan  of  high  distinction. 
One  grand  attraction  of  this  business  is  that,  while 
honorable,  delightful,  and  eminently  favorable  to  the 
highest  order  of  intellectual  enjoyments,  it  may  be 
followed  by  those  of  the  most  limited  means.  Literary 
men,  philosophers  and  nearly  all  truly  great  men 
would  rather  pass  their  leisure  hours  working  a  gar- 
den than  at  anything  else. 

Garget,  a  disease  in  the  udders  of  cows,  arising 
from  an  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands  ;  a  dis- 
ease in  hogs,  indicated  by  staggering  and  loss  of  ap- 
petite ;  a  name  of  the  poke-weed. 

36 


Gargil,  a  distemper  in  geese,  which  affects  the 
head  and  often  proves  fatal. 

Gargle,  to  wash  or  rinse,  as  the  mouth  or  throat, 
particularly  the  latter,  while  the  liquid  is  prevented 
by  an  expulsion  of  the  breath  from  descending  the 
throat;    also  the  liquid  itself. 

An  excellent  gargle  for  sore  mouth  and  throat  can 
be  made  of  sage  and  privet  leaves,  i  handful  of  each, 
about  half  as  much  golden-seal  root  and  bark  of 
sumac  root ;  boil  in  3  or  4  pints  of  water  down  to  i 
pint,  strain,  and  add  i  tablespoonful  of  powdered 
alum  and  about  y^,  a  teacupful  of  honey.  This  is  an 
excellent  gargle  for  ulcerated  sore  throat,  sore  mouth, 
and  salivation  from  mercury.  An  excellent  gargle  is 
made  by  dissolving  chlorate  of  potash  in  water;  or  take 
some  of  the  crystals  in  the  mouth  and  let  them  dis- 
solve. 

Garlic,  a  plant  of  the  .onion  family.  It  has  been 
cultivated  in  Europe  since  the  year  1551,  but  is  very 
moderately  used  in  this  country.  The  leaves  are 
grass-like,  and  differ  from  those  of  the  common  onion 
in  not  being  fistulous.  The  stem  is  about  two  feet 
high,  terminated  by  a  head  composed  principally  of 
bulbs  instead  of  flowers ;  the  flowers  are  white,  and 
furnished  with  tricuspidate  stamens;  the  root  is  a 
compound  bulb,  consisting  of  several  smaller  bulbs, 
commonly  denominated  cloves,  enveloped  by  a  com- 
mon membrane.  Garlic  has  a  strong,  penetrating 
odor  and  pungent  acrid  taste.  It  differs  from  the  onion 
only  by  being  more  powerful  in  its  effects.  In  warm 
climates,  where  garlic  is  produced  with  considerable 
less  acrimony  than  in  cold  ones,  it  is  much  used,  both 
as  a  seasoning  and  as  a  food.  When  bruised  and 
applied  to  the  skin,  it  causes  inflammation  and  raises 
blisters.  In  the  south  of  Europe,  particularly  in 
Spain,  it  is  very  much  used,  entering  into  the  compo- 
sition of  almost  every  dish,  not  only  among  the  com- 
mon people,  but  among  the  higher  classes  of  society, 
and  it  is  everywhere  prized  by  epicures.  At  all  times, 
however,  it  has  experienced  much  contrariety  of 
opinion,  and  has  been  adored  by  some  nations  and 
detested  by  others,  as  by  the  ancient  Greeks.  Its 
cultivation  is  easy,  being  a  hardy  plant,  growing  in 
almost  every  kind  of  soil,  and  it  is  produced  by  plant- 
ing the  radical  or  floral  bulbs.  Plant  the  bulbs  in 
rich  soil,  in  rows  or  in  ridges  fourteen  inches  apart, 
and  six  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Its  medicinal  virtues  have  also  been  much  cele- 
brated. It  not  only  forms  an  excellent  expectorant, 
but  has  been  administered  in  a  great  variety  of  dis- 
eases, as  hysteria,  dropsy,  croup,  worms,  nervous  and 
spasmodic  coughs,  cutaneous  eruptions,  obstructions, 
etc.  It  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  syrup,  tincture, 
or  in  substance,  but  the  best  way  to  use  it  when 
fresh,  is  to  express  the  juice  and  to  mix  it  with  syrup 
or  other  proper  substances.  The  juice  of  garlic  mixed 
with  sweet  oil,  or  stewed  in  sweet  oil  and  then  strained 
and  squeezed  out,  is  one  of  the  very  best  remedies 
for  deafness,  as  well  as  for  ear-ache.  In  cases  of  the 
latter  a  little  laudanum   should   be   added.     A   few 


S62 


GARNISH— GA  TE. 


drops  upon  a  warm  teaspoon,  and  dropped  into  the 
ear,  is  the  way  it  is  used.  The  ear  should  then  be 
stopped  with  cotton.  In  cases  of  severe  spasmodic 
croup,  a  poultice  of  garlic,  or  garlic  and  onions,  pre- 
pared by  first  roasting  them,  will  always  give  immedi- 
ate relief,  if  not  effect  a  cure.  A  little  lobelia  (tincture 
or  powder)  mixed  with  the  garlic  jxiultice  will  make 
it  more  efficacious.  The  ix)ultice  should  be  applied 
warm  on  the  throat  or  upper  part  of  the  chest. 

The  juice  of  garlic  is  a  strong  cement  for  broken 
glass  or  china.  Snails,  worms  and  the  grubs  or  larvae 
of  insects,  as  well  as  moles  and  other  vermin,  may  all 
be  driven  away  by  placing  preparations  of  garlic  in  or 
near  their  haunts.  The  virtues  of  garlic  are  most 
perfectly  and  readily  extracted  by  spirit  of  wine. 

Garnish,  to  decorate.  In  cookery  many  dishes, 
especially  of  meats,  are  garnished  with  salads,  as  celery, 
parsley,  lettuce,  onion,  horse-radish,  peppers,  jiepper- 
grass  or  cress,  mustard,  etc. 

Gas.  Sometimes  persons  from  the  country,  retiring 
for  the  night  at  hotels  or  residences  in  a  town  or  city, 
blow  out  the  gas  flame  instead  of  turning  it  off  by  a 
little  faucet,  always  fixed  near  by  for  the  purpose,  and 
endanger  their  lives.  Many  persons  have  thus 
smothered  themselves  to  death  by  such  a  mistake.  If 
the  faucet  is  not  tightly  closed,  the  gas  continues  to 
flow  out  into  the  room  unburnt,  and  in  an  hour  or  two 
smother  all  life  that  may  be  present.  A  hint  to  the 
wise  is  sufficient. 

Gasoline  (gas'o-leen),  a  most  volatile  form  of  kero- 
sene and  correspondingly  more  dangerous  to  handle 
near  a  flame.  For  light  and  heat  it  is  superior  to 
kerosene. 

Gtistric,  pertaining  to  the  stomach.  Gastric  juice 
is  the  fluid  poured  out  by  the  stomach  into  the  food 
which  is  present,  to  aid  in  digestion.  Pepsin  is  its 
chief  element.  Dys-/f/^-ia  literally  signifies  a  lack 
of  action  of  the  pepsin.  Gastric  fever,  or  gastritis,  is 
inflammarion  of  the  stomach.  The  gastric  juice  does 
not  act  indiscriminately  on  all  substances,  norisit  the 
same  in  all  animals,  nor  does  it  continue  always  of  the 
same  nature,  evenin  the  same  animal, changing  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  It  acts  with  a  chemical  energy 
in  dissolving  food,  attacking  the  surface  of  bodies 
and  uniting  to  the  particles  of  them.  It  operates  with 
more  energy  and  rapidity  the  more  the  food  is  divided, 
and  its  action  is  increased  by  a  warm  temjjerature. 
The  food  is  not  merely  reduced  to  very  minute  parts; 
its  taste  and  smell  are  quite  changed;  its  sensible 
properties  are  destroyed,  and  it  acquires  new  and 
very  different  ones.  This  fluid  does  not  act  as  a  fer- 
ment ;  it  is  a  iwwerful  antiseptic,  and  even  restores 
fiesh  already  putrified. 

Gastritis,  inflammation  of  the  stomach.  Gastritis, 
however,  does  not  include  the  effects  of  mechanical 
distension  of  the  stomach,  or  the  irritating  action  of 
poisons,  acrid  substances,  or  improper  food,  but  is 
simply  idiopathic  inflammation  of  the  stomach's 
mucous  surface.     This  disease  sometimes  occurs  in 


the  horse,  yet  is  generally  so  combined  with  enteritis 
and  so  closely  similar  to  that  disease  in  symptom, 
as  to  be  very  difficult  of  detection.  A  horse  attacked 
with  it  loathes  his  food,  is  extremely  restless,  evinces 
great  distress,  lies  down  and  suddenly  rises,  has  fits  of 
cold  perspiration,  and  seems  to  suffer  prolonged  pain 
after  swallowing  any  food;  and  he  must,  in  all  outward 
respects,  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  for  enteritis,, 
but  must  receive  no  internal  remedies  except  such  as 
are  eminently  sedative. 

Gate.  A  gate  has  the  same  relation  to  afield  or  other 
enclosure  which  a  door  has  to  a  house;  and  ought  to 
combin  e  the  properties  of  a  good  fence  with  strength, 
durability,  convenience  of  situation,  and  the  utmost 
facility  of  opening  and  shutting. 

Many  gates  are  either  so  slight  as  to  be  easily  over- 
leaped, broken  through  or  thrown  down ;  many  are  so 
ill-hung  and  ill-latched  that  some  horses  and  horned 
cattle  can  successfully  assail  or  even  readily  open 
them ;  many  are  so  ill-constructed  or  feebly  |X)ised 
that  they  soon  decay,  or  become  rickety,  or  cease  to 
be  easily  opened  and  shut ;  and  many  are  so  inconven- 
ient or  otherwise  so  exceedingly  faulty  as  to  accom- 
plish very  imperfectly,  or  scarcely  at  all,  the  designs 
of  their  erection.  Nearly  all  farmers  have  been  more 
or  less  plagued  with  bad  gates,  and  are  aware  tow 
grievously  they  occasion  injury  to  land  and  crops  from 
the  trespass  of  cattle ;  and  they  must  therefore  be 
glad  to  kncJw  that  perfectly  good  gates  differ  from 
abominably  bad  ones  far  less  in  the  costliness  of  either 
their  materials  or  their  workmanship  than  in  the 
mere  skill  with  which  they  are  constructed. 

A  gate  which  is  little  used,  or  is  commonly  kept 
locked,  or  caimot  conveniently  be  held  open  when 
wanted,  may  be  hung  upon  hooks  or  pivots  perpen- 
dicular to  each  other,  so  that  it  may  stand  at  rest  on 
any  line  whatever;  but  a  gate  which  is  merely  latched 
and  which  serves  as  a  part  of  a  fence  of  a  grass-field 
or  a  cropped  enclosure,  ought  to  be  hung  on  hooks  or 
pivots  which  give  it  one  determinate  line  of  rest  in  the 
direction  of  the  latch,  so  that,  whenever  it  is  opened, 
it  may  have  a  self-shutting  action.  The  carelessness 
of  farm-hands  and  others,  who  would  rather  leave  a 
gate  open  than  take  the  slight  trouble  of  shutting  it, 
admits  of  no  efficient  corrective  except  to  give  the 
gate  the  power  of  shutring  itself ;,  and  any  disadvan- 
tages which  might  occasionally  result  from  that  power 
can  easily  be  counteracted  by  means  of  either  a  tem- 
porary prop>-stone  or  of  a  permanently  sunk  stone  with 
a  simple  hook  or  latch  on  its  summit. 

Gate-posts  ought  to  be  so  firmly  set  in  the  ground 
as  to  resist  all  tendency  to  decline  from  their  per- 
fectly upright  position.  The  constant  weight  of  the 
gate  tends  to  pull  the  hanging-post  inward  ;  the  fall 
of  the  gate  and  its  frequent  infliction  of  blows  in  shut- 
ting, tend  to  drive  the  falling-post  outward ;  and  the 
passing  of  heavily  laden  wagons  or  other  wheeled  ve- 
hicles near  the  posts  tends  to  disturb  the  foundation 
of  toth  jxDsts.  A  slope  of  the  ground  adjacent  to  the 
gate-posts,  whether  the  slope  be  natural  or  artificial, 
tends  to  make  them  nod  in  the  direction  of  the  slope. 


GATE. 


565 


so  that  the  posts  of  a  gate  across  the  ridge  or  summit 
of  a  hill  are  liable  to  decline  outward,  the  posts  of  a 
gate  across  the  bottom  of  a  hollow  are  liable  to  de- 
cline inward,  and  the  posts  of  a  gate  across  a  terrace- 
road  upon  the  face  of  a  declivity  are  liable  to  decline, 
the  one  outward  and  the  other  inward,  both  stooping 
in  the  direction  of  the  declivity.  The  opposite  effects 
of  scorching  heat  and  intense  cold,  of  excessive  rain 
and  extreme  drouth,  aided  by  the  shaking  action  of 
vehicles  passing  along  the  road,  also  sink  the  ground 
around  the  settlings,  and  tend  to  vjfork  the  posts  to- 
ward the  natural  descent  of  the  surface.  These 
changes  from  the  original  position  of  the  post  causes 
the  gate  to  sag.  The  first  object  therefore,  in  con- 
structing a  good  gate,  is  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible 
its  sagging,  either  by  setting  in  at  the  bottom  a  brace 
from  the  hinge  jxist  to  the  latch  jxist,  which  should 
be  at  least  five  feet  in  the  ground,  and  another  with- 
in a  few  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  by 
setting  the  hinge  post  deep  and  solid,  letting  it  run 
eight  or  ten  feet  high — the  higher  the  better — and 
then  bracing  it  backward  with  a  common  fence  wire, 
doubled,  so  that  it  can  be  tightened  by  twisting.  One 
end  of  tjie  wire  is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  hinge 
post  and  the  other  to  the  bottom  of  a  fence  jxist,  or  a 
post  set  for  the  purpose,  about  20  feet  away.  The 
size  and  style  of  a  gate  should  depend  on  the  purpose 
fofwhich  it  is  designed.  Most  farm  gates,  however, 
should  be  wide  enough  to  admit  loads  of  hay  and 
grain,  and  for  this  purjx)se  12  feet  is  not  too  wide,  and 
it  will  also  permit  the  passage  of  the  wide  harvesters 
now  becoming  so  common. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  farmers  in  making  large 
gates   to   brace   them   improperly.      One   frequently 

sees  gates  braced  as 
shown  by  Figure  i. 
Neitherisit  uncommon 
to  find  them  braced  as 
in  Fig.  2,  and  occas- 
ionally one  may  be  seen 
braced  as  shown  by 

Fig.  \.— Improperly  Br,tced.  Fig.    3.        NoW,    it    may 

readily  be  seen  that  the  full  power  of  the  brace,  as  in- 
tended, is  not  obtained.  Gates  thus  constructed  will 
be  found  sagging  in  a  short  time.  Nor  can  they  ever 
,  be  patched  up  so  they  will  not  sag.  The  proper  way 
to  brace  a  gate  of  these  forms  is  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
By  these  illustrations  it  may  readily  be  seen  how  a 
gate  should  be  braced.  The  cuts  themselves,  though 
^  simple,will  forcibly  illus- 
trate the  right  and  wrong 
way  to  brace  a  gate.  A 
gate  communicating  be- 
tween a  field  and  a  pub- 
lic road  ought  to  be 
comparatively  high. 
Such  agate  may  properly 
enough  be  made  double. 


■^^K^^^^S! 


Fig.  2. — Improperly  Braced. 

in  the  manner  of  folding  doors,  and  may  have  its  sus- 
pension hooks  placed  exactly  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  so  as  to  make  either  part  of  the  double  gate  re- 


FiG.  3. — Improperly  Braced. 

them  to  push  or  force  it 


main  at  rest  in  any  one  line  whatever  of  the  great  arc 
it  describes  in  opening.  A  gate  of  communication  be- 
tween field  and  field  is  preferred  by  some  persons  to 
be  light  and  high,  and  by  others  to  be  low  and  heavy; 

and  it  is  recommended  by 
many  to  be  about  4}^ 
feet  high,  in  order  that  it 
may  serve  as  a  good  fence 
against  horses,  having  its 
top  rail  as  high  as  their 
wind-pipe,  and  allowing 
them  to  put  their  head 
over  it,  and  not  provoking 
with  either  their  breast  or 
their  rump.  When  wood  is  used  for  posts,  any  coarse 
kind,  whether  soft  or  hard  wood,  which  is  unfit  for 
other  useful  purposes,  may  in  most  instances  be  suf- 
ficiently good.  When  stone  is  used,  a  single  pillar- 
piece  of  granite,  compact  greenstone,  or  any  other 
hard  crystalline  rock  is  best,  and  if  the  gate  be  hung 

on  the  front  of  it,  the  bands 
of  the  hinges,  instead  of 


being  indented  into  the 
stone,  ought  to  be  carried 
through  to  the  opposite 
side,  and  there  fixed  by  a 
bolt  or  a  screw  nut.  When 
timber  is  used  for  the  gate 
Fig.  ^.— Properly  Braced.  itself,  spruce  is  Unsuitable 
on  account  of  its  great  liability  to  break;  larch  is  un- 
suitable on  account  of  its  powerful  tendency  to  warp, 
and  if  some  kind  of  soft  and  cheap  wood  must  be 
employed,  the  least  objectionable  is  cedar,  but  the 
best,  in  all  respects,  is  Western  catalpa  and  white  oak, 
not  too  tough  and  entirely  free  from  sap.  All  the 
mortises  of  the  gate,  and  the  parts  at  which  the  up- 
rights and  diagonals  cross  the  bars,  ought  to  be  care- 
fully coated  with  white  lead;  and  when  the  parts  of 
the  gate  are  joined  together,  the  whole  ought  after- 
wards to  receive  two  coats  of  paint. 

A  strong  farm  gate  may  be  made  by  taking  two 
pieces  of  3  x  4  scantling  5  feet  6  inches  in  length,  for 
ends,  five  boards  1x6  inches,  12  feet  long,  for  bars, 
and  a  hard-wood  piece  2x4  inches,  12  feet  long,  for  a 
top  bar,  and  a  16-foot  fence  board  to  cut  for  a  brace. 
Mortise  the  bars  into  the  end  pieces,  and  fasten  with 
pins  or  bolts,  putting  the  hard-wood  bar  on  top  with 
the  edges, or  2-inch  surfaces  outward,  to  give  strength; 
put  the  brace  diagonally  across  the  gate,  from  the 
bottom  at  the  hinge,  or  back  end  of  the  gate,  to  the 
top,  at  the  front,  cutting  it  to  fit  against  the  ends,  and 
under  the  top  bar,  and  fastening  to  the  other  bars 
with  bolts.  The  gate  will  be  strengthened  by  bolting 
a  I  x6  board  square  across  the  center.  In  "laying 
out"  the  gate,  mark  for  the  bottom  board,  leave  a  4- 
inch  space,  mark  for  the  second,  a  5-inch  space,  mark 
for  third,  a  6-inch  space,  for  fourth,  a  7 -inch  space, 
for  fifth  and  an  8-inch  space  for  the  top  bar.  Hang 
the  gate  well,  with  strong  hinges,  let  the  top  one  go 
through  the  post,  and  fasten  it  with  a  nut. 

Fig.   5    represents  a   gate   which   is  opened    and 


564 


GATE. 


closed  by  running  a  wheel  of  the  vehicle  in  which  one 
is  riding  against  a  double-crank  bar  just  above  ground, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  gate  at  the  distance  of  15  to 
20  feet.  The  gate  is  jhown  complete  with  all  its  ap- 
purtenances, and  the  method  of  gearing,  or  principle 
of  action,  is  shown  separately,  in  three  parts.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  jwpular  of  all  "  self-opening"  gates. 
Some  trouble  was  formerly  experienced  with  these  in 
times  of  deep  snow,  by  their  filling  up  with  water  and 
freezing,  etc.,  but  these  difficulties  are  now  principally 
overcome,  fig.  i  shows  the  gate  in  ix)sition.  Fig.  2. 
the  attachments  to  the  gate-post,  and  JPig.j,  the  leverj 
that  swings  the  gate,  A  and  A'  are  double  cranks,j 
against  which  a  wheel  of  the  vehicle  is  driven,  com 
ing  from  either  direction ;  this  action,  through  the 
rod  B  or  B',  is  communicated  to  the  hinge  end  of 
the  gate  at  G  and  H,  which  draws  the  gate  back, 
from  the  latch  ix)st  E  toward  the  hinge  post  F,  suffi- 


ble  crank,  reverses  the  position  so  that  the  gate  swings 
shut  and  fastens  itself  by  a  spring  latch.  Whether 
the  gate  be  opened  or  closed,  one  portion  of  each 
double  crank  projects  upward  and  the  otlier  lies  flat. 


■!  ffi    ffT  Bi  m  I 


Fig    i.—Sey-OfcHing  Gate. 

ciently  to  unlatch  it,  and  at  the  same  time  inclines  the 
gate  so  that  it  swings  open.  The  vehicle  striking  the 
elevated  portion  (shown  in  Fig.  1 1)  of  the  other  dou- 


FiG,  6. — Double  Hingeless  Gate. 

The  post  D  is  to  catch  the  gate  when  it  swings  open 
and  hold  it.  The  letters  in  the  detached  parts 
correspond  to  those  in  the  connected 
view. 

A  cheap,  hastily  constructed  and 
useful  gate  may  be  made  by  bolting 
the  end  and  middle  cross-pieces  ujxjn 
the  bars,  dispensing  with  a  brace,  and 
hanging  it  by  the  second  bar  from  the 
top,  on  a  pin  that  passes  through  and 
between  two  posts,  or  by  two  cross- 
pieces.  This  gate  has  the  advantage 
of  sliding  backwards  and  forwards, 
making  it  easy  to  operate  in  close 
quarters. 

Stock  Gate.  On  farms  where 
there  are  many  cattle  to  be  driven  to 
and  from  pastures,  a  double  hinge- 
less  gate,  as  shown  by  Fig.  6,  will  be 
found  very  convenient.  Two  high  posts 
are  set  in  the  ground  about  20  feet 
apart,  and  a  scantling  is  put  on,  which 
extends  from  the  top  of  one  jx)st  to 
that  of  the  other.  A  2-inch  hole  is 
bored  in  the  center  of  this  scantling, 
and  a  similar  hole  in  a  block  of  wood 
that  is  planted  firmly  in  the  ground  in 
tb.e  center  of  the  gateway.  The  mid- 
dle post  of  the  gate  frame  is  made 
round  at  each  end  to  fit  these  holes, 
and  this  post  is  the  pivot  on  which 
the  gate  turns.  Those  who  have 
driven  a  number  of  cows  (say  100) 
through  a  gate,  know  that  it  is  a  task 
that  takes  a  good  deal  of  rime.  With 
this  gate  one  cow  cannot  block  the 
passage  ;  besides,  there  are  no  leaning 
^  of  gate-]X)sts,  as  the  weight  of  the  gate 
is  wholly  ujx>n  the  block  iu  the  center. 
Wood  and  Wire  Gate.  Fig.  7 
represents  an  excellent  wood  and 
wire  gate.  To  make  it,  obtain  3 
uprights,  3  inches  by  i  %  inch,  5  ^  feet  long,  and  4 
strips,  3  inches  by  i  inch,  11  feet  long.  Cut  shoul- 
ders in  the  ends  of  the  strips,  and  saw  out  correspond- 


GATE. 


565 


ing  notches  in  the  uprights.  Make  these  i^  inch,  or 
half  the  width  of  the  strips.  The  bottom  notch  is 
2  %  inches  from  the  end  of  the  upright,  and  the  upper 
one  9j4  inches  from  the  top  end.  Fit  the  strips  into 
the  notches.  There  is  then  a  space  of  i  inch  between 
the  strips,  into  which  put  inch  strips,  so  as  to  make 
all  solid,  and  fasten  together  with  carriage  bolts. 
Braces  3  by  i^-inch  are  inserted,  and  held  in  place 
by  bolts  or  wrought  nails.  Bore  as  many  holes  in  the 
end  pieces  for  i^  inch  eye-bolts  as  it  is  desired  to 
have  wires.     Twist  the  wire  firmly  into  the  bolts  on 


Fig.  7. — A   Neat  Gate  of  Scantling  and   Wire, 

one  upright,  and  secure  the  other  ends  to  the  cone- 
sponding  bolts  on  the  upright  at  the  opposite  end.  In 
stretching  the  wires,  pass  them  alternately  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  center  piece,  and  fasten  in  place  by 
staples.  This  will,  in  a  measure,  prevent  warping. 
By  screwing  down  the  bolts  with  a  wrench,  the  wires 
may  be  drawn  as  tightly  as  desired.  The  hinges  are 
to  be  put  on  with  bolts,  and  any  sort  of  fastening  may 
be  used  that  is  most  convenient.  Barbed  or  smooth 
wire  may  be  used.  This  is  a  neat  gate,  and  being 
light,  does  not  sag  badly. 


™-^'V>5^  ^S^^^^iT  ;^^^ 


Fig.  8. — A   Substantial  Faryn  Gate. 

Fig.  8  represents  a  very  useful  design.  It  can  be 
constructed  entirely  of  inch  boards  (fence  boards)  and 
31^ -inch  bolts;  and  any  farmer  can  build  it.  An  ex- 
cellent method  of  fastening  the  bottom  of  the  posts  to 


keep  them  from   leaning,  is   also   shown  in  the  en- 
graving. 

Wire  Gates.  Very  beautiful  as  well  as  substantial 
gates  are  made  of  wire,  woven  or  otherwise  worked 
into  various  patterns.    Fig.  9  is  a  model  of  a  standard 


Fig. 


'Wire  Farm  Gate, 


wire  farm -gate,  and  Fig.  10  is  a  cut  of  a  yard  or  lawn- 
gate,  and  also  illustrates  the  method  of  putting  up  a 
wire  fence  from  the  roll. 

Gate-hinges  ought  generally  to  be  greased  about 
once  a  month, — which  chore  will  be  more  likely  at- 
tended to  if  some  grease  is  kept  at  hand  enclosed  in 
an  auger-hole  in  the  post. 

The  gate  represented  by  Fig.  9,  as  well  as  those  of 
Figs.  10  and  11,  are  made  by  Sedgwick  Bros., 
Richmond,  Ind.     By  Fig.  1 1  we  illustrate  one  of  the 


Fig.  10. — A  Wire  Lawn  Gate, 

latest  improved  self-opening  made  by  Ewald  Over, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Lawn  Gates.  On  the  subject  of  lawn  and  garden 
gates,  etc.,  there  is  such  diversity  of  taste  and  opinion 
that  they  are  difficult  to  treat  in  detail.  A  farmer, 
mechanic,  or  banker,  in  constructing  his  hedges, 
fences  or  fancy  gates,  can  have  his  choice  from  among 
the  hundreds  of  different  styles  that  at  the  present 
time  are  turned  out  from  the  factories,  the  same  as 
sash  and  doors,  and  at  a  much  less  cost  than  they 
can  be  obtained  elsewhere.  The  prices  of  these  place 
them  within  easy  reach,  and,  while  no  good  business 
farmer  will  dispense  with  a  sufficiency  of  well  made, 
well  kept  gales,  so  no  man  of  taste  will  allow  his 
front  yard  to  be  disgraced  by  a  slovenly  gate,  stile,  or 
bars  when  a  tasteful  and  ornamental  gate  is  so  easy 
to  get. 

For  a  gate  that  is  much  used  in  winter,  and  Hable 
to  be  blocked  with  snow,  many  varieties  of  hinges  are 
made,  one  of  the  best  being  an  inch  bar  of  iron  5  feet 
8  inches  long,  with  7  inches  of  each  end  bent  at  right 
angles  to  the  rest  of  the  bar,  which  is  straight.  Bore 
two  holes  through  the  hinge  head  of  the  gate,  from  the 


566 


GA  THERING—GELA  TIN. 


back,  4  feet  6  inches  apart,  insert  the  bent  ends  of 
the  bar,  and  draw  up  with  the  nuts  until  the  bar  is 
within  about  two  inches  of  the  head.  The  parts  of 
the  hinge  which  go  through  the  post  are  made  of  iron 
of  the  same  size,  with  a  round  hole  in  one  end  of 
each,  through  which  the  bar  will  pass  easily,  and  a 
nut  on  the  other  to  fasten  them  securely  to  the  post. 
Bore  the  top  hole  through  the  post  at  such  a  height 
that  when  the  hinge  is  inserted  the  top  angle  of  the 
bar  will  rest  on  it  and  leave  the  gate  hanging  at  the 
proper  distance  from  the  ground ;  now  bore  the  hole 
for  the  bottom  hinge  about  three  feet  below  the  top 
one.  A  sliding  iron  block  with  a  set  screw,  on  the 
bar  between  the  two  post  hinges,  and  the  apparatus 
is  complete.     The  features  which  principally  recom- 


several  other  simple  rural  operations  of  aggregating  a 
number  of  individual  objects  by  hand. 

Gauze,  a  very  thin,  slight,  transparent  stuff  of  silk 
or  linen. 

Gavel  (gav'l),  a  sheaf  of  grain  or  flax  not  bound. 

Gear,  clothing;  harness  or  trappings  of  beasts  of 
burden;  a  toothed  wheel  or  wheels,  in  machinery; 
running  gear,  the  wheels  and  axles  of  a  vehicle  and 
their  attachments,  in  distinction  from  the  body. 

Gearing,  harness;  connections  in  machinery  for 
communicating  motion.  The  terms  "  bevel-gearing," 
"  frictional  gearing,"  "  belt-gearing,"  "  spur-gearing," 
"  valve-gearing,"  etc.,  are  self-explanatory.     A  "  gear- 


KiG.  II. — Self-Opening  Gate, 


mend  this  style  of  hinge  are,  first,  its  strength  and 
durability;  secondly,  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
raised,  by  means  of  the  block  and  set  screw,  to  a 
height  of  1 8  inches  above  its  usual  position,  thus  en- 
xibling  it  to  pass  clear  of  the  accumulating  snow.  The 
best  materials  for  gate-making  are  hard  wood  for  the 
top  and  end  pieces,  and  pine  boards  i  x  6  for  the  rest, 
and  bolts  with  nuts  should  always  be  used  instead 
of  nails. 

Gathering,  the  rolling  of  grain  swaths  into  cocks; 
the  picking  of  part  or  whole  of  a  crop  of  fruit  from 
fruit-trees ;  the  collecting  and  lifting  of  unearthed 
potato  or  other  roots  in  the  drill ;  the  picking  up  of 
stones,  weeds,  or  other  injurious  substances  from  the 
surface  of  the  land;  the  pulling  of  flowers  and  the 
collecting  of  them  into  a  bouquet ;  and  any  one  of 


ing  chain"  is  an  endless  one,  with  regular  projections 
like  those  of  a  rack,  passing  like  a  belt  around  toothed 
wheels,  and  transmitting  motion  between  them. 

Gelatin  (jel'a-tin),  the  "jelly"  element  of  animal 
tissues.  It  abounds  in  many  of  the  solid  parts  of 
animal  bodies,  particularly  in  the  skin,  the  mem- 
branes, the  tendons,  the  cartilages  and  the  bones.  It 
readily  dissolves  in  boiling  water;  it  forms  a  hydrate 
or  solidifying  solution,  which,  when  passing  from  the 
solving  heat  to  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  at- 
mosphere, becomes  a  tremulous,  semi-transparent  jelly; 
and  so  great  and  diffusive  is  its  power  that  a  single 
p)ound  of  it  will  solidify  or  gelatinize  loo  pounds  of 
water.  The  presence  of  so  much  water  causes  the 
jelly  readily  to  liquefy  on  the  application  of  heat,  and 
the  gelatinizing  power  of  the  gelatin  causey  it  readily 


GELD—GENERA  TION. 


567 


to  re-solidify  on  the  return  of  cold ;  so  that  the  jelly 
may  many  times  be  alternated  between  the  liquids 
and  the  solid  conditions,  and  still  retain  its  character- 
istic properties.  But  when  the  jelly,  or  any  hydrate 
of  gelatine  of  tremulous  consistency,  is  kept  for  some 
time,  it  acidulates  and  putrefies;  while  jelly  reduced 
to  a  perfect  solid  state  by  the  expulsion  of  its  water 
by  means  of  gentle  heat,  becomes  a  hard  and  brittle 
mass,  and  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  with- 
out undergoing  decomixisition  or  change  of  properties. 
Isinglass,  which  is  made  of  the  air  bladders  of  fishes, 
when  of  the  best  quality,  is  pure,  or  nearly  pure  gela- 
tin, and  the  purest  found  in  commerce,  glue  being 
mixed  with  fatty  and  other  matter, which  are  dissolved 
in  combination  with  the  gelatine,  and  all  the  jellies  of 
cooks  and  confectioners  being  more  or  less  affected 
with  either  natural  admixtures  or  artificial  admixtures, 
or  both.  It  used  to  be  taken  as  food,  but  was  found 
to  be  too  concentrated  an  element  to  be  digestible. 

Gteld,  to  castrate,  or  deprive  of  testicles. 

Gelding,  the  act  of  castrating;  a  castrated  animal. 
A  gelded  (or  gelt)  horse  is  sometimes  distinguished  as 
a  "  gelding,"  or  simply  "  horse,"  while  an  uncastrated 
horse  is  a  "stallion,"  or  "stud-horse;"  a  castrated 
bull  is  a  "  steer"  or  "  ox ;"  a  castrated  boar  is  a  "  bar- 
row;" a  castrated  ram  is  a  "wether;"  a  castrated 
cock  (rooster)  is  a  "  cajxjn  ;"  and  a  castrated  man  is  a 
"  ennuch." 

Gems,  Graham:  see  page  135. 

Generation.  The  time  when  the  phenomena  of 
reproduction  first  exhibit  themselves  in  animals  is 
termed  puberty.  Then  the  reproductive  organs,  which 
previously  were  but  slightly  apparent,  acquire  a  re- 
markable development,  and  in  some  species  obtain 
certain  external  characters  which  remain  during  the 
whole  course  of  their  lives.  Infancy  is  the  period 
comprised  between  birth  and  puberty.  It  is  during 
the  time  preceding  puberty  that  the  growth  of  the 
body  chiefly  takes  place,  although  it  may  continue  for 
some  time  afterward.  The  length  of  the  period  of  in- 
fancy bears  to  that  of  life  a  certain  relation,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  almost  constant.  At  the  age  of 
puberty,  the  mammalia  assume  the  characters  of 
maturity.  Their  height  attains  its  greatest  hmit,  and 
the  distinctive  marks  of  each  animal  become  bold 
and  well-defined.  The  physiognomy  assumes  a  more 
animated  expression  ;  their  voice  becomes  hoarser  or 
stronger,  and  the  fur  handsomer  ;  while  the  vivacity  of 
their  movements  marks  the  impetuosity  of  those  pas- 
sions which  animate  them  at  this  epoch.  The  male 
becomes  distinguished  from  the  female  by  colors 
which  are  commonly  darker  or  browner,  and  in  many 
species  by  certain  definite  external  characters.  Thus, 
some  male  apes  acquire  a  beard  and  a  coat  of  longer 
hair ;  the  lion  obtains  a  mane ;  and  stags  and  roebucks 
are  armed  with  branching  horns,  of  which  the  females 
are  nearly  always  deprived.  He-goats  and  rams  are 
at  once  distinguished  from  the  females  by  their  horns, 
their  masculine  gait  and  combative  disposition.    This 


superiority  in  the  males  is  most  marked  among  the 
ruminantia,  which  are  commonly  polygamous,  and 
where,  each  male  having  several  of  the  other  sex  to 
keep  in  subjection,  it  becomes  necessary  to  assign 
him  a  physical  superiority,  unnecessary  in  the  mon- 
ogamous species,  where  the  sexes  are  always  more 
equal  in  strength. 

Puberty  constantly  exhibits  itself  much  sooner  in 
females  than  in  males,  although  the  reproductive 
power  remains  longer  with  the  latter  than  with  the 
former.  In  our  climates  man  attains  this  condition  at 
the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  and  woman  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  or  fifteen ;  in  warmer  climates,  it  exhibits 
itself  at  the  age  of  twelve  to  fourteen  in  the  former, 
and  ten  to  twelve  in  the  latter.  Dogs  are  capable  of 
reproducing  at  the  age  of  nine  or  ten  months ;  cats 
from  a  year  to  eighteen  months.  A  lioness  of  the 
menagerie  at  Paris  was  six  years  old  when  she  ex- 
hibited these  phenomena  for  the  first  time.  Rabbits 
can  procreate  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  months  ;  hares 
a  little  later;  and  guinea-pigs  at  five  or  six  weeks. 
Horses  produce  at  two  years  and  a  half  and  mares  a 
little  sooner.  Camels,  according  to  the  ancients,  at 
three  years ;  wolves  at  two  years ;  cows  at  eighteen 
months ;  bulls  six  months  later ;  the  she-ass  from 
eighteen  to  twenty  months,  and  the  ass  two  years.  It 
is,  however,  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  prevent  the 
domestic  animals  from  procreating  before  they  have 
attained  their  full  growth.  There  are  certain  seasons 
of  the  year  when  most  mammalia  become  susceptible 
of  the  instincts  of  reproduction.  This  is  termed  the 
rutting  season,  during  which  the  usual  character  of 
the  animals  is  totally  changed,  especially  the  males. 
The  most  timid  animals,  being  excited  by  the  abund- 
ance of  food  and  the  internal  suggestions  of  instinct, 
acquire  a  degree  of  courage  and  even  fury,  which 
urges  them  on  in  a  career  of  madness,  which  can  be 
compared  only  to  the  habitual  ferocity  of  the  most 
formidable  species.  The  females  also,  at  this  period, 
lay  aside  their  habitual  reserve,  and  are  seen  to  pro- 
voke the  males  by  biting,  teasing,  and  following  them 
everywhere. 

The  external  signs  of  the  rutting  period  vary  greatly 
with  the  several  species.  In  those  which  are  capable 
of  procreating  at  all  seasons,  such  as  man,  the  monkeys, 
dogs,  cats  and  horses,  no  particular  sign  is  observed. 
It  is  different  with  the  rodentia.  We  find,  likewise, 
that  all  those  odoriferous  mammalia  which  are  sup- 
plied with  pouches  from  which  the  .odors  emanate, 
emit  their  odors  at  this  time  with  unusual  force.  In 
the  great  number  of  animals  belonging  to  the  deer 
genus,  and  in  several  antelopes,  the  larynx  or  windpipe 
of  the  male  projects  considerably ;  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  change  of  tone  which  his  voice 
undergoes  is  owing  to  this  cause.  It  usually  happens 
that  the  female  exhibits  the  external  signs  of  the  rut- 
ting season  in  a  milder  and  more  subdued  form  than 
the  males.  Among  the  mammalia,  and  indeed  in  all 
living  beings,  the  period  of  puberty  and  reproduction 
is  one  of  energy  and  strength;  and  all  their  affections 
become    more   ardent   and   their  wants  irresistible. 


568 


GENTIAN— GESTA  TION. 


The  term  rut,  from  ruere,  to  rush  headlong,  serves  to 
illustrate  the  fury  which  transports  these  lower  animals. 
Alike  ferocious  and  untamable,  they  are  susceptible 
at  this  period  neither  of  fear  or  any  other  passion,  and 
seem  deaf  even  to  the  calls  of  hunger  or  sleep.  The 
bull  leaves  the  meadow  and  rambles  everywhere  in 
search  of  his  mate.  The  forest  resounds  with  the 
howling  of  contesting  wolves,  and  the  lion,  with  a 
deafening  roar,  defies  his  rival  to  the  combat. 

We  may  easily  perceive  the  final  cause  of  these 
contests  among  the  lower  animals  during  the  rutting 
season.  Nature  ever  sacrifices  the  interests  of 
individuals  towards  the  perfection  of  species.  The 
most  vigorous  males  always  possess  the  most  formid- 
able weapons  of  attack  and  defense,  while  the  more 
effeminate  individuals  exhibit  their  feebleness  at  once 
in  their  horns  and  their  want  of  courage.  It  is 
especially  among  the  polygamous  races  where  these 
combats  of  the  rutting  season  are  more  conspicuously 
observable,  because  each  male  fights  for  several 
females.  In  the  monagamous  species,  on  the  contrary, 
where  the  number  of  the  sexes  are  nearly  equal,  these 
battles  seldom  occur.  Again,  in  the  carnivora,  when 
the  number  of  males  surpasses  that  of  the  females, 
duels  become  both  frequent  and  sanguinary.  The 
seals  are,  perhaps,  more  polygamous  than  any  other 
of  the  mammalia.  Each  maintains  a  kind  of  seraglio 
or  family,  composed,  perhaps,  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  females,  which  he  defends  from  the  approach 
of  any  other  male  with  the  utmost  jealousy  and  rage. 
Other  species,  less  faithful  or  more  complaisant,  pass 
from  conquest  to  conquest,  and  pay  their  court  to  all 
the  beauties  of  the  neighborhood. 

The  duration  of  this  season  varies  with  different 
species,  but,  in  general,  among  the  wild  animals,  it 
ceases  as  soon  as  the  females  have  been  fecundated. 
With  most  of  the  latter,  the  external  signs  of  the  rut 
immediately  disappear;  the  females  assume  their 
usual  reserve,  and  repel  with  rudeness  the  approaches 
of  the  male.  There  are  exceptions  in  the  monkeys, 
the  mare,  and  in  our  own  species.  The  female  rabbit 
is  likewise  an  exception,  though  only  an  apparent  one; 
as  from  the  peculiar  formation  of  the  matrix,  she  is 
susceptible  of  a  two-foldimpregnationor  superfoetation. 
In  some  species  of  domesticated  animals,  especially 
in  the  dog,  copulation  is  maintained  for  a  long  time 
after  the  emission  of  the  fecundating  fluid;  whilst 
among  the  greater  part  of  the  birds,  especially  in  the 
Gallinae,  the  union  is  instantaneously  dissolved.  It  is 
always  wrong  in  the  fonner  cases  to  force  a  separation, 
which  is  sometimes  attempted,  although  opposed  by 
the  peculiar  organization  of  the  sexual  organs;  the  in- 
tention of  Nature  apparently  being,  by  this  extraordin- 
ary prolongation  of  the  union,  to  render  conception 
more  certain.  After  conception,  as  has  already  been 
observed,  the  females,  in  general,  repel  the  approaches 
of  the  male.  In  all  cases  where  the  races  are  pecul- 
iarly ferocious,  as  in  the  lion,  tiger,  panther,  and  other 
large  cats,  the  females  are  the  first  to  solicit  the 
approaches  of  the  male.  Had  this  not  been  the  case, 
it  is  difficult  to  conceive  in  what  manner  their  races 


could  have  been  continued.  In  species  of  a  milder 
disposition,  the  males  endeavor  to  please  the  other 
sex,  and  often  exhibit  a  strongly-marked  feeling  of 
jealousy  toward  their  own.  The  monkeys  remain 
attached  to  one  or  two  females,  rarely  to  more.  Their 
union  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  marriage ;  they  require 
fidelity,  are  exceedingly  jealous,  and  severely  punish 
their  female  companions,  who  are  well-disposed  to 
coquetry,  on  finding  them  in  company  with  other 
males.     See  Gestation. 

Gtentian  (jen'shen),  a  medicinal  plant  of  Europe. 
The  root  has  a  yellowish  brown  color,  a  very  bitter 
taste,  and  much  used  in  stomach  bitters,  and  to  some 
extent  in  other  medicines,  both  for  man  and  beast. 
The  several  species  of  gentian  in  this  country  are  not 
so  good  for  medical  purposes. 

Genus  (je'nus ;  plural,  gen'er-a),  the  next  natural 
grouping  above  species.  Each  genus  comprises  one 
or  more  species.     See  Species. 

Germination,  the  act  of  sprouting ;  the  beginning 
of  vegetation  in  a  seed  or  plant;  also,  the  time  in 
which  seeds  vegetate,  after  being  planted  or  sown. 

Gestation,  the  time  during  which  a  female,  who 
has  conceived,  carries  the  embryo  in  her  uterus. 
Among  birds  and  all  other  oviparous  animals,  a  real 
gestation  can  not  exist,  because  the  eggs  detach  them- 
selves from  the  ovaries  as  soon  as  they  are  grown, 
and  are  deposited.  With  these  animals,  gestation  be- 
comes superseded  by  incubation,  to  which  it  is  gener- 
ally analogous,  and  the  former  functions  may  thus  be 
considered  as  little  else  than  an  internal  incubation. 
The  apparent  design  of  nature,  in  both  cases,  is  to 
favor  the  natural  development  of  the  embryo  or  foetus, 
the  first  rudiment  of  the  new  animal  resulting  from  con- 
ception. It  is  also  observed  that  the  rapidity  of 
growth  in  the  foetus,  whether  during  the  gestation  of 
the  viviparous  animals  or  the  incubation  of  the 
oviparous,  always  diminishes  in  proportion  as  the 
foetus  approaches  the  time  appointed  by  nature  for  its 
birth.  The  length  of  the  period  of  gestation,  like  that 
of  incubation,  varies  greatly  among  the  several  genera 
and  species.  It  further  obtains  certain  accidental 
variations,  which  appear  to  depend  upon  the  age  of 
the  mother,  her  state  of  health,  an  increase  or  dimin- 
ution in  the  velocity  of  the  circulation,  the  quantity  or 
quality  of  the  food,  and  all  those  causes,  derived  from 
the  influence  of  climate,  soil,  shelter,  and  the  different 
kinds  of  treatment  which  these  animals  receive  from 
the  hand  of  man. 

The  period  of  gestation  may  also  be  either  short- 
ened or  prolonged,  according  to  the  temperature  which 
prevails  during  that  interval.  It  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon observation  among  graziers,  that  two  cows, 
though  fecundated  on  the  same  day,  will  yet  produce 
at  an  interval  of  several  weeks.  The  variation  among 
sheep  under  similar  circumstances  amounts  to  a  few 
days,  but  in  general  this  difference  among  domestic 
animals  of  the  same  species  may  extend  as  far  as 
20  days.     It  commonly  happens  in  all  those  species 


GESTATION. 


569 


where  the  individuals  take  a  long  time  in  arriving  at 
their  full  growth,  that  the  period  of  gestation  is  con- 
siderably prolonged  ;  and  the  converse  is  equally  true, 
for  in  all  those  species  which  are  very  precocious, 
the  time  of  gestation  is  extremely  short.  This  rule  is 
not,  however,  without  many  exceptions.  Thus,  the 
goat  and  sheep  are  capable  of  reproducing  at  the  age 
of  two  years,  and  haVe  commonly  attained  their  full 
growth  al  this  period,  while  their  ordinary  time  of  ges- 
tation is  about  five  months. 

The  duration  of  gestation  seems  further  to  depend 
upon  the  comparative  volume  of  the  species  ;  this  rule, 
however,  is  by  no  means  invariably  preserved.  Thus, 
the  ass  and  zebra,  though  less  in  volume  than  the 
cow  and  buffalo,  employ  less  time  in  performing  this 
function  than  the  latter  species. 

It  hence  appears  that  the  duration  of  gestation 
varies  in  different  animals,  and  the  empirical  laws  de- 
duced from  multiplied  observations  are  not  without 
many  exceptions.  By  combining,  however,  the  gen- 
eral organization  of  the  mammalia  with  the  time 
necessary  for  each  animal  to  arrive  at  its  full  growth, 
as  well  as  with  the  comparative  bulk  of  the  females, 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  general  and  definite  result; 
while  the  characteristics  thus  obtained  may,  with 
propriety,  be  added  to  those  which  commonly  serve  to 
distinguish  the  leading  groups  of  mammalia.  Thus 
in  man,  nine  months  is  the  well  known  period  of  ges- 
tation. Among  the  quadrumana  it  is  also  nine  months 
for  the  larger  species,  but  only  seven  for  the  smaller. 
In  the  carnivora,  gestation  endures  six  months  with 
the  bear;  108  days  with  the  lion;  nine  weeks  with  the 
Arctic  fox;  from  55  to  56  days  with  the  cat,  the  same 
period  with  the  martens  and  weasels  ;  from  62  to  63 
days  with  the  dog. 

Those  mammalia  which  experience  the  shortest 
term  of  gestation  are  unquestionably  the  animals 
belonging  to  the  order  marsupialia.  Among  the  large 
kangaroos,  for  example,  the  young  are  scarcely  more 
than  an  inch  in  length  when  they  first  attach  them- 
selves to  the  breasts  of  their  mother,  although  the 
full-grown  animal  is  at  least  five  feet  in  height.  Ges- 
tation is  also  of  short  duration  in  the  rodentia,  being 
only  four  months  in  the  beaver,  one  of  the  largest 
animals  of  this  order.  It  is  still  less  in  the  smaller 
rodentia,  being  from  30  to  40  days  in  the  hares  and 
rabbits,  3 1  days  in  the  dormice,  four  weeks  in  the 
squirrels  and  rats,  and  three  weeks  in  the  Guinea 
pig.  Among  the  pachydermata,  gestation  is  of  much 
longer  duration;  it  endures  with  the  elephant  from  22 
to  23  months;  it  lasts  from  rr  to  12  months  with  the 
horse  and  ass;  in  the  zebra,  for  a  year  and  some  days; 
in  the  tapir,  from  10  to  1 1  months;  in  the  hog  and 
boar,  for  four  months.  Further,  it  endures  among  the 
ruminantia,  for  1 2  months  in  the  dromedary ;  for  nine 
months  in  the  female  buffalo  and  cow;  for  eight 
months  and  some  days  in  the  females  of  the  common 
red  deer  and  the  reindeer;  five  months  and  a  half 
for  the  roebuck ;  five  months  for  the  goat,  the  sheep, 
the  moufflon,  and  several  antelopes.  According  to 
observations  of  M.  Teissier,  of  Paris,  in  582  mares. 


which  copulated  but  once,  the  shortest  period  was  287 
days,  and  the  longest  419;  making  the  extraordinary 
difference  of  32  days,  and  of  89  days  beyond  the 
usual  period  of  eleven  months.  The  proper  age  for 
reproduction  (see  Generation)  of  course  varies  in  the 
different  animals,  as  well  as  the  length  of  time  they 
carry  their  young.  The  mare  is  usually  bred  at  four 
years  of  age,  but  should  she  be  kept  as  a  breeder  it  is 
more  favorable  that  she  drop  her  first  colt  at  three 
years  old,  then  rest  one  year,  so  as  to  produce  the 
next  colt  at  five  years  of  age,  and  yearly  thereafter. 
Most  mares  will  receive  the  horse  on  the  ninth  or  tenth 
day  after  foaling,  and  this  period  should  never  be 
allowed  to  pass  over  without  her  being  shown  the 
horse.  The  sow  will  breed  at  one  year  old,  the  ewe 
at  fifteen  months,  and  the  cow  at  two  years  old.  The 
usual  period  of  gestation  with  the  cow  is  between  nine 
and  ten  months,  though  with  a  bull  calf  the  cow 
will  go  about  41  weeks,  and  a  few  days  less  with  a 
female.  Any  calf  produced  at  an  earlier  period  than 
260  days  is  considered  premature,  and  any  longer 
than  300  days  is  considered  irregular.  Sheep  usually 
bring  forth  their  young  in  five.  Swine  usually  farrow 
between  the  120th  and  140th  day,  the  variations  to 
which  they  are  liable  being  influenced  by  the  size  and 
particular  breed.  The  bitch  is  almost  universally 
regular,  whether  large  or  small,  pupping  occurring 
about  the  63d  day.  The  cat  produces  either  on  the 
55  th  or  56th  day.  For  a  valuable  table  on  this  sub- 
ject, see  breeding  calendar,  page  144. 

The  accompanying  table  will  be  found  quite  valu- 
able as  giving  the  proper  age  of  reproduction  of  all 
domestic  animals  and  fowls,  the  length  of  time  they 
continue  to  reproduce,  the  seasons,  etc.  This,  in 
connection  with  the  table  on  page  144,  will  be  found 
very  convenient  and  valuable  to  the  farmer: 


c 
0 

0 
0  i-  0 

0,0 

s « « 

0  0 

Perioc 
or 

of  Gestation 
Incubation. 

Kinds  of  Animals. 

0 

I 

rt 

1^ 

g'S 

.J  0. 

4  Y'rs 

5  " 

3  " 
3 

2     " 
2     " 
I     *' 

1  " 

2  *' 

4  " 

5  " 

Years 
lotoia 

I2tOI5 

10 
5 
6 
7 
6 
6 
6 
5 

IOtOI2 

121015 

201030 
301040 
40t05o 
6toio 
201040 

May 

Days. 
322 

Days 
347 

Days. 
419 

July 

240 

283 

321 

Hull 

Nov. 

146 

'54 

161 

Mar. 

109 

"5 

'43 

Boar 

She-Goat 

Nov. 

>50 

156 

163 

He-Goat 

May 

365 

380 

He-Ass 

Slie-Buffalo,    .    . 

281 
55 

3f 
60 

=■1' 

2     " 
2     " 

I     " 

6  Mo. 
6     " 

6     " 

Stog 

8tog 

5to6 

gtoio 

5to6 

5to6 

5to6 

Feb. 

Dnp- 

She-Cat 

■•^ 

50 

56 

He-Cat 

5to6 

30 
121015 

Nov. 

20 

28 

Riirlf  Rahhir 

Turkey  on  "]  Hen f 

J- Duck < 

Eggs  of  J  Turkey...  \ 
Hen  sitting  on  \  Duck  .  ( 

Eggs  ofthe.  \  Hen  . .  \ 

17 
24 

26 

\% 

16 

24 
27 
26 
30 
21 
30 

3? 
18 

21 

28 

30 

34 

3tos 

33 

p- 

so 

Guinea  Pig 

8  Mo. 

'.'.'.'.'.'. 

::::::  .:::.. 

57° 


GHERKIN— GILDING. 


It  is  evident  that  the  number  of  births  appropriate 
to  each  species  will  mainly  dejjend  upon  the  average 
length  of  each  period  of  gestation.     On  this  account 
the  larger  species  do  not  produce  each  year,  especially 
when  a  long  period  of  lactation  also  intervenes.     The 
smallest  species,  on  the  contrary,  multiply  most  pro- 
digiously, and  it  may  be  generally  stated  that,  if  we 
except  the  rabbit  and  hog,  both  the  number  of  births 
and  the  number  of  young  ones  at  each  birth  are  in 
general  more  considerable  in  proportion  as  the  size  of 
the  animal   is   less.      The   guinea-pig   can    produce 
every  two  months;  the  hampsters,  the  rats,  the  mice, 
the  field  mice  and  the  shrews    do  not  produce  less 
than  three  or  four  litters  in  the  course  of  the  spring, 
summer  and  autumn.     The  number  of  young  in  each 
litter  also  bears  an  immediate  reference  to  the  length 
of  gestation.     At  each  birth,  man  and  the  quadrumana 
commonly  produce  only  one,  very  rarely  two  or  more, 
and  the  cheiroptera  bear  two.     Among  the  carnivora 
the  tiger  produces  one;  the  lion  three  or  four;  the  cat 
four  or  five ;  the  arctic  fo.x  from  five  to  seven ;  the 
badger  from  three  to  four;  the  mole  from  four  to  five, 
and  the  seals  one  or  two.     Among  the  marsupialia, 
the   oixjssums    produce  from  eight   to  ten,  but  the 
kangaroos   only  one  or  two.     Of  the  rodentia,   the 
beaver  bears  two  or  three  at  a  birth;  the  rabbit  from 
four  to  eight;  the  hampster  from  five  to  six;  the  com- 
mon rat,  the  mouse,  and  the  brown  rat  or  surmulot, 
from  eight  to  ten.     The  agouti  bears  four,  according 
to    Laborde,  or  only  two  according  to   I5uffon  and 
d'Azara.     The  garden  dormouse  produces  five  or  six 
young  ones  at  a  birth;  the  common  dormouse  three 
or  four.     Among  the  edentata,  the  sloths  produce  only 
one,  as  also  the  ant-eaters,  while  the  armadilloes  bear 
four  at  each  of  their  births,  which  occur  pretty  fre- 
quently.    With  the  exception  of  the  pig  the  pachyder- 
mata  produce  but  few  young  at  a  rime;    thus  the 
elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  hipixjpotamus,  tapir,  and  all 
the  horse  genus,  have  only  one;  the  peccary  has  two, 
while  the  pig  will  bear  as  many  as  twelve,  and  even 
twenty.     All  the  ruminanria  produce  two  or  more,  ex- 
cepring  the  largest  species,  which  have  only  one.    The 
cetacea  produce,  in  general,  but  one  young  one  at 
each  birth.     It  most  commonly  happens  that  the  first 
and  last  litter  of  each  animal  are  deficient  in  number, 
and  often  also  in  strength.     It  thus  appears  that  the 
largest  and  iwost  formidable  species  are  far  less  fruit- 
ful than  the  smallest  and  weakest.     Not  only  are  the 
former  longer  in  arriving  at  their  age  of  puberty,  but 
their  periods  of  gestation  and  lactation  are  prolonged, 
and  the  number  of  young  at  each  birth  is,  in  general, 
less.     Thus,  while  the  tiger  produces  only  one  cub  at 
a  time,  the  wild-cat  will  bear  four  or  five.     In  this 
manner  the  lower  tribes  become  extremely  numerous; 
and,  but  for  this  surprising  fecundity,  from  their  nat- 
ural  weakness,   they   would  quickly   be   extirpated. 
The  breed  of  mice,  for  instance,  would  have  long  since 
been   blotted  from  the  face  of  the  earth,  were  the 
mouse  as  slow  as   the  elephant.     But  it  has  been 
wisely  provided  that  such  animals  as  can  make  but 
little  resistance,  should  at  least  have  a  means  of  re- 


pairing the  destruction,  which  they  must  often  suflTer, 
by  their  quick  reproduction ;  that  they  should  increase 
even  among  enemies,  and  multiply  under  the  hand  of 
the  destroyer.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  as  wisely 
been  ordered  by  Providence  that  the  larger  kinds 
should  produce  but  slowly;  otherwise,  as  they  require 
proportionate  supplies  from  Nature,  they  would  quickly 
consume  their  own  store,  and,  of  consequence,  many 
of  them  would  soon  perish  through  want,  so  that  life 
would  thus  be  given  without  the  necessary  means  of 
sustenance.  In  a  word,  Providence  has  most  wisely 
balanced  the  strength  of  the  great  against  the  weak- 
ness of  the  little.  Since  it  was  necessary  that  some 
should  be  great  and  others  mean,  since  it  was  expedi- 
ent that  some  should  live  upon  others,  it  has  assisted 
the  weakness  of  one  by  granting  it  fruitfulness,  and 
diminished  the  number  of  the  other  by  infecundity. 

The  young  of  nearly  all  mammalia  are  bom  with 
their  eyes  closed,  and  do  not  open  them  for  several 
days.  The  mother  cuts  the  umbilical  cord  with  her 
teeth,  and,  even  without  being  carnivorous,  devours 
the  membranes  or  after-birth,  as  in  the  cow,  the  sheep, 
and  many  others. 

Gherkin,  a  small  species  of  cucumber  used  for 
pickling. 

Giddiness,  a  well-known  symptom  of  numerous 
affections  of  the  brain  and  the  stomach  in  man  and 
the  lower  animals ;  and  thence  loosely  identified  by 
mulritudes  of  the  rural  population  with  some  specific 
diseases  of  the  animals  of  the  farm.  Ajxiplectic  affec- 
tions are  sometimes  called  giddiness.  Epileptic  affec- 
tions are  more  frequently  called  giddiness,  and  they, 
at  the  same  time,  bear  the  popular  names. 

Giddiness  is  also  very  often  symptoms  of  hysterics 
and  dyspepsia.  Very  little  danger  attends  the  com- 
plaint unless  it  be  caused  by  too  great  a  fullness  of 
blood  in  the  vessels  of  the  brain.  Should  this  be  the 
case  immediate  attention  should  be  given  it  or  it  may 
terminate  in  apoplexy  or  palsy.  When  giddiness 
arises  from  some  disease  it  will  disappear  by  the  re- 
moval of  that  disease. 

In  treating  giddiness  ascertain  its  cause  and  remove 
that.  Should  it,  however,  be  a  primary  affection, 
seated  in  the  head,  or  is  from  a  disordered  stomach,  a 
purgative  should  be  occasionally  given.  An  emetic 
should  be  given  once  in  a  while  if  the  stomach  be  out 
of  order.  If  the  brain  is  the  seat  of  the  complaint 
take  a  iX)dophyllin  purgative.  The  feet  should  be 
frequently  bathed,  and  the  circulation  equalized. 

GUding.  The  following  is  a  recipe  for  a  good  wash 
for  cleaning  gilding :  Quicklime,  r  ounce ;  slack 
with  a  sprinkling  of  hot  water;  gradually  add  i  pint 
of  boiling  water  so  as  to  form  a  milk ;  dissolve  2 
ounces  pearlash  in  i  ^  pints  boiling  water,  mix  the 
two  solutions,  cover,  agitate  occasionally  for  an  hour, 
allow  it  to  settle,  decant  the  clear,  put  it  into  flat,  half- 
pint  bottles,  and  cork  them  down  well.  It  is  used  to 
clean  gilding,  etc.,  either  alone  or  diluted  with  water. 
It  is  applied  with  a  soft  sponge,  and  then  washed  off 
with  clean  water. 


GILT— GLASS. 


571 


To  Remove  Gilding  From  Old  China.  Take  soft 
water  8  parts,  nitric  acid  8  parts,  common  salt  4  parts, 
sal  ammoniac  1  part.  Let  it  boil ;  put  the  china  into 
it,  and  rub  with  a  stiff  brush. 

To  Renew  Gilt  Frames.  Take  sufficient  flour 
of  sulphur  to  give  a  golden  tinge  to  i}^  pints  of 
water,  and  boil  it  in  five  onions,  strain,  and  when  cool 
apply  to  the  parts  that  require  restoring,  with  a  soft 
brush  ;  it  will  come  out  good  as  new,  when  dry. 

Gilt,  a  young  female  pig. 

Gin,  distilled  spirit,  flavored  with  juniper  berries. 
In  machinery,  an  arrangement  for  tearing  green-seed 
cotton  wool  from  the  seeds.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder 
closely  set  with  saws  which  pass  through  a  grating  in 
an  inclined  side-hopper,  and  thus  drag  off  jxsrtions  of 
the  wool.  It  is  also  a  machine  for  raising  great  weights, 
driving  piles,  etc.  It  usually  consists  of  three  long 
legs  or  spars,  which  support  a  pulley  at  the  top  round, 
over  which  a  rope  is  passed  for  elevating  the  weight. 

Ginger,  an  aromatic  root  from  the  East  Indies, 
popular  in  medicine  and  cookery.  It  is  a  grateful 
stimulant,  allaying  pain  by  expelling  foul  gases  from 
the  stomach,  and  is  often  given  in  dyspepsia,  flatulent 
colic  and  certain  feeble  states  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
Good  for  teas  to  produce  sweats,  or  rather  to  flavor 
hot  water  so  that  a  large  portion  can  be  drank  with- 
out nausea. 

Ginger-Bread:  see  page  171. 

Ginger  Pop.  To  make  ginger  pop,  take  2  ounces 
best  white  Jamaica  ginger  root,  bruised ;  water  six 
quarts;  boil  20  minutes;  strain  and  add  i  ounce 
cream  tartar,  i  jaound  white  sugar;  put  on  the  fire, 
and  stir  till  all  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  and  put  in  an 
earthen  jar.  Now  put  in  J^  ounce  of  tartaric  acid,  and 
the  rind  of  i  lemon.  Let  it  stand  until  the  heat  has 
attained  70°,  or  till  you  can  bear  your  hand  in  it  with 
comfort;  then  add  2  tablespoonfuls  of  yeast;  stir  well; 
botde  for  use,  and  tie  the  corks.  Make  a  few  days 
before  it  is  wanted  for  use. 

Ginseng,  a  plant  native  in  the  United  States,  the 
root  of  which  has  an  agreeable,  spirituous  and  aro- 
matic flavor,  and  has  been  used  a  little  in  medicine. 
A  few  persons  have  contracted  the  habit  of  chewing 
it,  as  tobacco.     Very  popular  in  China. 

Girder,  the  principal  piece  of  timber  in  a  floor, 
girding  or  binding  the  others  together ;  any  beam  sup- 
ported at  both  ends. 

Girdling,  the  removal  of  a  belt  of  bark  from  a 
living  tree,  with  the  design  of  arresting  the  ascent  of 
the  sap,  and  in  consequence  killing  the  tree.  This 
operation  is  a  common  method  of  effecting  clearances 
in  our  woods,  and  requires  to  be  performed  early  in 
the  spring  before  the  commencement  of  the  annual 
alburnous  deix)sition.  It  promptly  kills  most  kinds  of 
trees,  yet  is  sometimes  baffled  for  some  years  by  the 
sugar  maple  and  the  entire-leaved  tupelo. 

Girl :  see  Children. 


Girth,  the  circumference  of  the  stem  of  a  tree,  of 
the  body  of  an  animal,  or  of  any  other  member  of 
an  organized  and  living  being. 

Glanders,  a  contagious  and  very  destructive  dis- 
ease of  the  mucous  membrane  in  horses,  character- 
ized by  a  constant  discharge  of  sticky  matter  from  the 
nose,  and  an  enlargement  and  induration  of  the  glands 
beneath  and  within  the  lower  jaw.  This  has  been 
considered  the  most  formidable  disease  with  which  the 
veterinary  surgeon  is  called  to  contend,  and  been  said 
to  form  the  opprobrium  medicorum  of  the  veternarian's 
art.    It  is  communicable  to  man. 

Glass.  To  Clean  Windows  and  Mirrors.  Tie 
up  some  finely  powdered  whiting  in  a  small  piece  of 
muslin.  Dab  it  over  the  glass  thoroughly  ;  the  dirtier 
the  glass  the  more  whiting  will  adhere  to  it.  Next 
smear  it  evenly  with  a  damp  rag,  and  let  it  remain  till 
perfectly  dry;  then  rub  it  off  with  a  leather.  This  is 
an  easy,  clean  and  thorough  plan.  If  alcohol  be  used 
instead  of  water,  it  will  dry  in  much  less  time,  and 
polish  the  glass  better.  The  corners  of  the  window 
panes  should  receive  particular  attention.  Ammonia, 
in  solution,  is  popular  for  cleaning  windows,  and  soda, 
kerosene  or  turpentine  is  good  to  aid  in  cleaning 
off  paint. 

Another  recipe  for  cleaning  mirrors  is  to  take  part  of 
a  newspaper,  fold  it  small,  dip  it  in  a  basin  of  clean, 
cold  water,  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  wet  squeeze  it 
out  as  a  sponge,  and  then  rub  it  hard  over  the  face  of 
the  glass,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  so  wet  as  to  run 
down  in  streams.  After  the  glass  has  been  well 
rubbed  with  wet  paper,  let  it  rest  a  few  minutes,  and 
then  go  over  it  with  a  fresh  newspaper,  till  it  looks 
clear  and  bright,  which  it  will  do  almost  immediately. 
The  inside  of  windows  may  be  cleaned  in  this  way, 
and  they  will  look  brilliantly  clear. 

To  Restore  the  Color  of  Window  Glass.  Win- 
dow glass  constantly  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun 
and  rain  soon  deteriorates,  as  the  potash  or  soda  which 
it  contains  combine  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air. 
A  whitish  opaqueness  is  the  result  of  this  action.  To 
restore  the  pane  to  its  original  clearness,  rub  it  with 
dilute  muriatic  acid  and  then  clean  with  moistened 
whiting.  It  is  said  that  glass  in  an  extreme  state  of 
decomjwsition  may  be  restored  by  this  means. 

To  Clean  Bottles.  Chop  up  a  ]X)tato  very  fine, 
put  it  in  the  bottle  with  warm  water,  and  shake  rap- 
idly until  clean.  Some  use  shot  and  soda,  but  the 
jx)tato  is  the  most  effectual.  Castor  bottles  can  be 
washed  by  filling  them  one-third  full  of  rice  and  add- 
ing warm  water.  Shake  them  well  and  they  will  be 
cleansed  thoroughly.  Botdes  and  phials  that  have 
contained  medicine  may  be  cleansed  by  filling  each 
one  with  ashes,  and  immersing  them  in  a  pot  of  cold 
water,  then  hearing  the  water  gradually  tillit  boils. 
Afterwards  rinse  them  in  soap-suds,  then  in  clean 
water. 

Glassware  can  be  placed  in  hot  water  without  being 
broken  or  cracked,  if  it  is  put  in  edgewise  and  turned 
rapidly  over  a  few  times. 


572 


GLASS-E  YE—GL  UCOSE. 


To  Clean  Glass  Globes.  If  the  globes  are  much 
stained  on  the  outside  by  smoke,  soak  them  in  toler- 
ably hot  water  with  a  little  washing  soda  dissolved  in 
it;  then  put  a  teaspoonful  of  jxiwdered  ammonia  in  a 
pan  of  lukewarm  water,  and  with  a  tolerably  hard 
brush  wash  the  globes  till  the  smoke  stain  disappears; 
rinse  in  clean,  cold  water,  and  let  them  drain  till  dry ; 
they  will  be  quite  as  white  and  clear  as  new  globes. 

To  Mend  Broken  Glass.  Dissolve  shellac  in 
alcohol  to  about  the  consistence  of  molasses,  and 
with  a  thin  splinter  of  wood,  or  pencil  brush,  touch  the 
edges  of  the  broken  ware.  In  a  short  time  it  sets  with- 
out any  heating,  which  is  often  inconvenient.  It  will 
stand  every  contingency  but  a  heat  equal  to  boiling 
water. 

Another:  A  colorless,  transparent  cement  to  mend 
glass  can  easily  be  made  by  dissolving  isinglass  in 
spirits  of  wine.  Add  a  little  water  and  mix  gently, 
over  a  moderate  fire. 

To  Keep  Glass  from  Breaking  when  Suddenly 
Heated.  Glass  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat,  and 
when  hot  water  is  poured  suddenly  into  a  tumbler  or 
goblet,  it  is  almost  certain  to  break  unless  the  glass 
itself  is  quite  warm.  Tepid  water  should  be  first  used, 
or  a  little  cold  water  poured  into  the  glass,  on  which 
the  hot  water  may  be  poured.  Lamp  chimneys  fre- 
quently break  when  first  placed  over  the  light,  especi- 
ally if  taken  from  a  cold  room.  The  proper  remedy 
is  to  turn  up  the  lamp  by  slow  degrees ;  this  will  grad- 
ually heat  the  glass  and  prevent  breaking. 

To  Remove  Glass  Stoppers.  Rub  a  feather  dipped 
in  oil  round  the  stopper,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle ;  place  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  towards  the  fire, 
about  two  feet  from  it.  When  warm,  strike  the  bottle 
lightly  on  both  sides,  with  any  convenient  wooden  in- 
strument, and  take  out  the  stopper.  Or,  a  cloth  wet 
in  hot  water,  and  applied  to  the  neck,  will  cause  the 
glass  to  expand,  and  the  stopper  may  be  removed. 

To  Break  Glass  in  Required  Shape.  Dip  a 
piece  of  worsted  thread  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  wrap  it 
round  the  glass  in  the  direction  required  to  be  broken, 
and  then  set  fire  to  the  thread,  or  apply  a  red-hot  wire 
around  the  glass ;  if  it  does  not  immediately  crack, 
throw  cold  water  on  it  while  the  wire  remains  hot.  By 
this  means  glass  vessels  that  have  been  broken  may 
often  be  fashioned  and  rendered  useful  for  a  variety 
of  purposes. 

To  break  a  glass  bottle  or  jar  across  the  circumfer- 
ence— place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water  to  the 
height  where  it  is  designed  to  break  it;  also  fill  the 
bottle  to  the  same  level.  Pour  coal  oil  inside  and  out 
on  the  water.  Cut  a  ring  of  paper  fitting  the  bottle. 
Saturate  with  alcohol  or  benzine  so  that  it  touches  the 
oil.  Pour  also  some  inside  the  bottle.  Set  on  fire. 
The  cold  water  prevents  the  glass  from  heating  below 
its  surface,  while  the  expansion  caused  by  the  heat 
will  break  the  vessel  on  the  water  line. 

To  Cut  Without  a  Diamond.  Scratch  the  glass 
the  shape  you  desire  with  the  comer  of  a  file  or  piece 
of  hard  stone,  then,  having  bent  a  piece  of  wire  to  the 
same  shape,  heat  it  red  hot,  and  lay  it  upon  the 


scratch;  sink  the  glass  into  cold  water  just  deep 
enough  for  the  water  to  come  almost  on  a  level  with 
its  upper  surface,  and  it  will  break  smooth  at  the  line 
made.  With  care,  a  piece  of  quartz  can  be  used  as 
effectually  as  a  diamond. 

To  Drill  Glass.  Glass  is  drilled  by  the  use  of 
diamond  dust  or  by  friction.  It  is  also  done  by  wet- 
ting an  ordinary  drill  with  petroleum  or  benzine;  tur- 
pentine will  answer,  though  not  as  well ;  it  will  then 
bore  common  glass  nearly  as  rapidly  as  steel.  If  it  is 
intended  to  bore  through,  the  glass  should  first  be 
countersunk  on  each  side  with  a  very  flat  three-sided 
pyramid.  Flint  and  plate  glass  are  very  difficult  to 
bore.  It  is  stated  that  at  Berlin,  glass  castings  are 
drilled,  planed  and  bored  like  iron  ones,  and  in 
lathes,  etc.,  by  the  use  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

Glass-Eye.  This  abnormal  condition  of  the  eye 
of  the  horse  consists  in  dilatation  of  the  pupil,  unin- 
fluenced by  light  or  darkness,  and  is  occasioned  by  par- 
alysis of  the  optic  nerve  and  its   ultimate   expansion. 

Glauber's  Salt,  sulphate  of  soda;  a  very  common 
and  useful  purging  salt.     See  Epsom  Salt. 

Gleaning,  collecting  the  refuse  of  the  harvest. 

Gloves.  The  simplest  and  most  successful  method 
for  cleaning  kid  gloves  is  to  take  a  pintof  naphtha,  wash 
your  gloves  in  it  as  if  it  were  water,  rubbing  the  parts 
soiled  most.  Wash  two  or  three  times  in  clean  fluid, 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  soiled  gloves.  The 
usual  care  should  be  taken,  as  the  fluid  is  highly  ex- 
plosive. 

To  Prevent  Injury  from  Perspiration.  Apply 
ordinary  corn  starch  (dry)  to  the  hands  before  draw- 
ing on  the  gloves.  Pulverized  soap-stone  will  answer 
the  same  purpose. 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Gloves.  Stains  may  be 
removed  from  the  most  delicately  colored  gloves  by 
suspending  them  for  a  day  in  an  atmosphere  of  am- 
monia. Provide  a  tall  glass  cylinder,  in  the  bottom  of 
which  place  a  small  quantity  of  aqua  ammonia.  Be 
careful  to  remove  from  the  sides  of  the  jar  any  am- 
monia that  may  have  been  spattered  there.  Suspend 
the  gloves  in  the  top  of  the  jar,  by  the  stopper.  They 
must  not  come  in  contact  with  the  liquid. 

Glucose,  a  chemical  combination  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  starch,  which  to  most  persons  has  a  sweetish 
taste  and  in  a  measure  takes  the  place  of  sugar.  Made 
in  large  factories,  as  it  is,  it  necessarily  has  in  it  such 
poisonous  substances  as  free  sulphuric  acid,  chlorides 
of  tin,  calcium,  iron  and  magnesia,  sulphate  of  iron, 
copperas,  or  lime,  in  quantities  less  or  greater.  Even 
perfectly  pure  glucose  is  not  as  sweet  as  cane  sugar, 
the  difference  being  that  one  pound  of  the  latter  will 
sweeten  as  much  as  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the  for- 
mer. Glucose  is  being  introduced  largely  into  all  the 
sugars  and  sirups  of  commerce,  and  its  manufacture 
isbeingrapidly  increased  every  year.  The  dealers  hold 
out  to  the  farmers  the  inducement  that  the  price  of 
their  corn  will  be  greatly  enhanced  by  its  conversion 
into  glucose,  and  of  course  they  are  very  ignorant  or 


GL  UE—  GLUTTONY. 


573 


incredulous  concerning  its  effect  upon  human  health. 

Glue,  a  tenacious  cement,  principally  used  by 
cabinet-makers,  joiners,  book-binders,  case-makers  and 
hatters.  The  substances  from  which  glue  is  made 
are  the  shreds  or  parings  of  hides ;  the  ears  before 
they  are  immersed  in  the  tanners'  vats ;  the  cullings 
and  raspings  of  horn  from  the  comb-maker  and  the 
button-maker;  the  hoofs  and  horns  of  oxen,  calves, 
and  sheep  from  the  butcher ;  the  pelts  of  the  hare, 
rabbit,  beaver,  etc.,  from  the  hat-makers,  beaver-cut- 
ters, and  furriers;  and  the  parings  of  vellum  and 
parchment  from  the  white  leather  dresser,  glover,  etc. 
These  substances  are  indiscriminately  mixed  together 
and  are  purified  from  all  grease  and  dirt  by  a  digestion 
in  lime  water,  the  greatest  care  being  taken  to  remove 
every  piece  that  is  in  the  slightest  degree  putrescent. 

To  Prepare  Glue  for  F.^mily  Use.  Crack  up 
the  glue  and  put  it  in  a  bottle.  Add  to  it  common 
whisky;  shake  up,  cork  tight,  and  in  three  or  four  days 
it  cao  be  used.  It  requires  no  heating;  will  keep  for 
almost  any  length  of  time,  and  is  at  all  times  ready 
for  use,  except  in  the  coldest  weather,  when  it  will 
require  warming.  It  must  be  kept  tight  so  that  the 
whisky  will  not  evaporate.  A  tin  stopper  covering 
the  bottle,  but  fitting  as  closely  as  possible,  must  be 
used. 

A  Strong  Glue  That  WrLL  Resist  Moisture. 
Dissolve  gum  sandrac  and  mastich,  of  each  y^  of  an 
ounce,  in  i^  pint  spirits  of  wine,  to  which  add  J^  ounce 
spirits  of  turpentine.  Take  strong  glue,  or  that  in 
which  isinglass  has  been  dissolved  ;  put  the  gums  in  a 
double  glue  jxst,  add  the  glue  by  degrees,  constantly 
stirring  it  over  the  fire  till  the  whole  is  well  incorpor- 
ated ;  strain  it  through  a  cloth,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 
It  may  now  be  returned  to  the  glue  ]X)t,  and  Y^  ounce 
very  finely-powdered  glass  added.     Use  it  quite  hot. 

Strong  Isinglass  Glue.  An  ounce  of  best  isinglass 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water.  Strain  the  solution 
through  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  add  to  it  a  proportionate 
quality  of  the  best  glue,  which  has  previously  been 
soaked  in  water  for  24  hours,  and  a  gill  of  vinegar. 
After  the  >vhole  of  the  materials  have  been  brought  into 
solution,  let  it  once  boil  up,  and  strain  off  the  impuri- 
ties. This  glue  is  adapted  for  any  work  which  re- 
quires particular  strength,  and  where  the  joints  them- 
selves do  not  contribute  toward  the  combination  of 
the  work. 

Liquid  Glue.  Take  gum  shellac,  3  parts  by  weight, 
caoutchouc  (India  rubber)  one  part  by  weight.  Dis- 
solve the  caoutchouc  and  shellac,  in  separate  vessels, 
in  ether,  free  from  alcohol  applying  a  gentle  heat. 
When  thoroughly  dissolved,  mix  the  two  solutions, 
and  keep  in  a  Ijottle  tightly  stopped.  This  glue  re- 
sists the  action  of  water,  both  hot  and  cold.  Pieces 
of  wood,  leather  or  other  substances,  will  part  at  any 
other  point  than  where  joined.  Or,  take  a  bottle 
two-thirds  full  of  best  common  glue,  and  fill  up  the 
bottle  with  common  whisky  ;  cork  it  up,  and  set  by  for 
three  or  four  days,  and  it  will  dissolve  without  the  ap- 
plication of  heat. 


It  will  keep  for  years,  and  is  always  ready  to  use 
without  heat,  except  in  very  cold  weather,  when  it 
may  need  to  be  set  a  little  while  in  a  warm  place,  be- 
fore using. 

To  Prevent  Glue  from  Cracking.  Add  to  the 
glue  a  very  small  quantity  of  glycerine,  the  quality 
modified  according  to  circumstances. 

To  Keep  Glue  From  Souring.  Put  in  a  little 
muriatic  acid  and  it  will  preserve  glue  in  good  con- 
dition for  a  long  time.  It  will  neither  dry  up  nor  fer- 
ment. Liquid  glue  is  made  in  this  way,  and  sold  in 
bottles.  The  use  of  a  small  portion  of  the  sugar  of 
lead  will  also  prevent  fermentation. 

Glume,  the  husk  and  chaff  of  wheat  and  grain  plants. 

Glut,  in  mechanical  work,  a  large  wooden  wedge 
used  in  splitting  timber. 

Gluten  (glu'ten),  the  viscid,  tenacious  substance 
which  gives  adhesiveness  to  dough.  It  may  be  separ- 
ated from  the  flour  of  grain  by  a  current  of  water,  the 
starch  and  other  soluble  matters  being  thus  washed 
out.  Gluten  consists  of  glutine,  vegetable  fibrine,  and 
caseine,  with  sometimes  a  fatly  substance.  The  darker 
and  more  nutritious  i^rtion  of  wheat  grain  is  that 
which  gives  Graham  flour  its  dark  color  Good 
wheat  flour  contains  from  19  to  24  per  cent  of  gluten. 
The  wheat  of  warm  climates  is  much  richer  in  gluten 
than  that  of  colder  regions.  It  is  owing  to  the  large 
quantities  of  this  substance  in  Italian  flour  that  paste 
made  with  it  is  sufficiently  tenacious  to  be  drawn  out 
into  vermicelli.  Of  all  vegetable  substances  gluten 
appears  to  be  the  most  nutritious. 

Glutton,  is  a  term  used  by  some  horticulturists  to 
denote  those  "  water-sprouts  "  or  "  suckers  "  which  es- 
pecially grow  upon  diseased  or  over-pruned  apple-     , 
trees  ;  a  very  appropriate  designation. 

Gluttony.  As  the  stomach  was  never  intended  to 
do  all  the  work  that  ignorance  of  a  depraved  appetite 
so  commonly  provides  for  it,  the  exquisitely  perfect 
machinery  soon  gets  out  of  order  from  excessive  eat- 
ing, which  is  in  fact  at  least  as  mischievous,  if  not  ac- 
tually more  so,  than  excessive  drinking.  If  we  could 
see  the  effects  of  the  former — the  crowd  of  diseases, 
the  myriad  ghosts  of  those  who  die  early,  and  all  the 
varied  horrors  which  are  so  frequently  associated  with 
deaths  and  diseases,^we  should  cry  out  as  loudly 
against  gluttony  as  we  now  do,  and  justly,  against 
drunkenness.  Temperance  in  eating  and  drinking  is, 
when  combined  with  the  judicious  selections  of  food 
and  drink,  the  real  source  of  health,  and  those  are  wise 
who  know  this  and  act  upon  their  knowledge.  Hap- 
piness consists  more  largely  than  many  people  imag- 
ine in  earing  and  drinking  wholesome  things  in  proper 
quantities.  The  process  of  digestion  ought  always  to 
be  easy  and  pleasant,  and  it  is  not  a  bad  old  rule  al- 
ways to  finish  a  meal  before  the  food  has  lost  its  rel- 
ish. The  kind,  quantity,  and  quality  of  a  man's 
ailment  ought  to  bear  a  just  proportion  to  the  strength 
of  his  constitution,  the  amount  of  exercise  he  takes, 
and  the  condition  of  his  digestive  organs.     If  he  can 


574 


GL  YCERINE—GOA  T. 


immediately  after  dinner  write,  or  walk,  or  go  about 
his  ordinary  business  or  pleasure ;  after  supper  sleep 
soundly  and  rise  in  the  morning  free  from  fever,  with 
no  bad  taste  in  his  mouth,  refreshed  and  cheerful,  he 
may  be  tolerably  sure  that  his  diet  is  well  regulated, 
and  that  he  has  not  exceeded,  in  eating  or  drinking, 
the  bounds  of  temperance. 

Glycerine  (glis'er-in).  This  is  a  colorless,  viscid, 
neutral,  uncrystallizable,  inodorous  fluid,  of  a  sweet 
taste,  is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  in  all  projxjr- 
tions,  but  is  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  It  is  a  product 
of  the  saponification  of  the  various  fats  at  one  time 
regarded  as  refuse.  The  uses  of  glycerine  are  numer- 
ous. In  medicine  it  is  used  as  a  local  application  in 
diseases  of  the  skin  and  ear,  and  it  is  used  internally 
as  a  solvent  for  many  drugs.  It  is  a  valuable  pre- 
servative for  small  and  delicate  preparations,  and  it 
has  been  applied  to  the  preservation  of  meat.  As  a 
household  article  glycerine  is  valuable  for  many  uses. 
Applied  to  the  skin  it  has  a  softening  and  healing 
effect,  and  is  probably  the  best  application  known  for 
chapped  hands.  In  cases  of  wounds,  sores,  bruises, 
bums,  etc.,  it  is  always  a  handy  and  effectual  anti- 
dote. In  surgical  cases  it  reduces  the  secretion  of 
pus,  and  never  adheres  to  the  surface  of  the  wound, 
which,  until  the  period  of  cicatrization,  is  always  clean, 
and  therefore  does  not  require  washing.  In  bums, 
deep  abscesses,  fistulous  passages  and  ulcerations, 
glycerine,  combined  with  appropriate  medication,  as- 
sists the  internal  treatment  very  remarkably.  It  has 
been  found  serviceable  in  itch  affections.  A  good 
preparation  for  the  skin  is  a  mixture  of  glycerine  and 
collodion,  which  is  supple  and  adheres  closely  to  the 
surface. 

Glycerine   enters  into  the  manufacture  of  soaps, 

ointments,  balsam,  composition  for  leather,  copying 

•  ink,  lotions,  the  preservation  of  fruit,  and  into  other 

uses,  several  of  which  are  mentioned  in  connection 

with  other  subjects  in  this  volume. 

Glyster :  same  as  Clyster. 

Gnats.  The  best  preventive  against  these  annoy- 
ing little  flies  is  said  to  be  rubbing  spirits  of  camphor 
oyer  the  face  and  hands;  it  is  also  a  cure  for  their 
bites  and  stings. 

Goad,  a  pointed  instrument  formerly  used,  especi- 
ally in  the  East,  for  driving  oxen. 

Goat,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  order  Rumi- 
nantia.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  genus  of  antelopes 
on  the  one  hand,  and  genus  of  sheep  on  the  other,  so 
that  it  is  difficult  to  define  the  distinction  between 
them,  though  the  common  domestic  goat  and  sheep 
are  of  widely  different  appearance.  A  marked  dis- 
tinction is  that  the  horns  of  the  goat  are  directed  up- 
ward, backward  and  outward,  while  those  of  the  sheep 
are  more  or  less  spirally  twisted.  Another  character- 
istic is  the  beard  on  the  chin  of  the  male  goat,  which 
is  wanting  in  the  sheep.  A  constant  character  is  the 
straight  line  of  the  face  in  goats,  and  the  tail  of  goats 
is  much  shorter  than  that  of  sheep ;  ^another  the  want 


of  a  small  bit  of  fatty  secretion  between  the  toe 
which  is  found  in  sheep ;  another,  the  strong  smell  of 
male  goats ;  and  also  the  difference  of  the  goat  from 
the  sheep  in  temper.  The  horns  and  beards  of  female 
goats  are  always  smaller  than  those  of  the  male. 
Goats  are  found  wild  in  mountainous  countries.  The 
Rocky  Mountain  Goat  or  Antelope  is  a  specimen  of 
the  wild  variety.  The  .Syrian  Goat,  the  Cashmere 
and  the  Angora  Goats  are  all  noted  for  the  length 
and  fineness  of  their  hair.  Great  variation  in  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  hair  results  from  difference 
in  climate. 

The  wild  species  of  goat  inhabit  mountains,  near 
the  limits  of  perpetual  snow;  and  even  such  of  the 
domesticated  varieties  as  live  in  mountainous  districts 
continue  to  climb  while  grazing,  till  thirst  or  the  love 
of  home  recalls  them  to  the  valley.  AVi  goats  leap 
with  precision  on  very  difficult  ground,  and  love  to 
look  over  precipices,  and  to  climb  to  the  summits  of 
beetling  crags  and  lofty  pinnacles ;  and  when  two 
meet  on  such  a  narrow  ledge  of  rock  as  will  not  ad- 
mit of  their  passing  each  other,  the  one  lies  down  and 
the  other  walks  over  its  back.  They  are  always  in 
motion,  ever  in  search  of  new  objects,  constantly  fer- 
menting with  insatiable  curiosity;  and  though  not 
disinclined  to  associate  with  the  animals  of  the  farm 
or  with  man  himself,  they  are  unsteady  in  their  feel- 
ings, and  continually  prone  to  break  bounds  and 
wander.  They  are  acute  in  sensation,  and  far-sighted 
in  vision,  keen  and  delicate  in  the  sense  of  smell,  and 
wayward,  audacious  and  fearless  in  disposition,  and 
when  grazing  or  passing  from  place  to  place  in  com- 
pany with  sheep,  they  always  take  the  lead  and  allow 
the  sheep  to  follow.  None  of  the  species  are  large  in 
stature,  but  their  structure  is  robust  and  their  habits 
vigilant.  The  chase  of  them  is,  therefore,  both  labor- 
ious and  dangerous;  for  every  strange  object  is  seen 
at  a  great  distance,  and  if  suspicious,  avoided  by  a  re- 
treat, which  defies  the  skill  and  industry  even  of  the 
most  intrepid  hunter,  and  often  causes  his  life  to  be 
sacrificed  by  the  dangers  of  the  precipices,  the  ice, 
or  the  animal,  driven  to  despair,  bolting  down  upon 
him,  and  plunging  both  headlong  into  the  abyss.  The 
wild  species  can  mount  a  perpendicular  surface,  15 
feet  high,  at  three  leaps,  or  rather  three  successive 
bounds  of  five  feet  each,  if  the  slightest  rugosity  will 
suffer  the  renewals  of  impending  force,  while  the  orig- 
inal impulse  is  still  sufficient  to  retain  the  given  direc- 
tion. Between  two  perpendicular  rocks,  close  to- 
gether, they  mount  by  alternate  bounds  from  one  to 
the  other.  In  cases  of  fear,  their  voice  is  a  short, 
sharp  whistle,  stronger  than  the  chamois ;  at  other 
times  it  is  a  snort ;  when  threatening,  it  is  a  broken, 
spluttering  sound,  and  when  young  they  bleat.  The 
females  are  attentive  and  affectionate  to  their  young, 
and  will  defend  them  against  wolves  and  eagles. 
Goats  readily  find  sustenance  in  situations  where  bo- 
vine animals,  or  even  sheep,  would  starve,  and  are  so 
extremely  course  in  (heir  tastes  and  indiscriminate  in 
their  digestion  that  they  will  feed  on  plants,  such  as 
the  cowbanes  and  the  spurges,  which  are  noxious  to 


GOAT. 


575 


other  animals,  on  the  buds  and  bark  of  shrubs  and 
trees,  and  even  on  such  nauseous  and  narcotic  stuff 
as  manufactured  tobacco. 

Goats  and  sheep  seem  to  have  been  among  the 
last  of  the  geological  series  of  animals  which  appeared 
upon  earth,  so  as  to  liave  preceded  by  but  a  link  or 
two  the  creation  of  man.  Any  remains  of  them  which 
have  been  found,  like  the  remains  of  man  himself, 
occur  in  such  perfectly  recent  deposits,  or  in  such 
strictly  superficial  situations,  as  to  prevent  them  from 
being  regarded,  in  any  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  as 
fossils.  Yet  though  no  fossil  goats  or  sheep  have 
anywhere  been  found,  living  goats  occur,  in  a  wild 
state,  in  three,  or  perhaps  four,  of  the  great  divisions  of 
the  globe,  and  living  sheep  occur,  in  a  wild  state,  in 
almost  every  great  jxsrtion  of  the  world,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  Australia. 

The  different  kinds  of  domesticated  goats,  though 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  diffused  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  world,  and  diversified  by  the  influence  of 
different  climates  and  the  pastoral  usages  of  different 
countries,  are  easily  reducible  to  a  single  species. 
But  the  different  kinds  of  wild  goats,  though  far  fewer 
in  number,  and  not  at  all  affected  by  artificial  circum- 
stances, exhibit  very  wide  diversities,  and  require  to 
be  distributed  into  several  species.  Linnaeus  regards 
the  domestic  goat  as  an  original  or  underived  species ; 
but  the  vast  majority  of  naturalists,  though  widely 
disagreeing  among  themselves  in  some  important 
particulars,  regard  it  as  a  modification  of  some  one  or 
other  of  the  existing  species  of  wild  goats. 

The  domesticated  goat,  in  almost  any  of  its  varieties, 
but  especially  in  the  best  and  most  common  of  them, 
is  an  animal  of  great  utility  to  men,  and,  if  properly 
treated,  would  in  bleak,  bare,  mountainous  districts 
be  more  valuable  than  even  the  sheep.  Its  skin, 
with  the  hair  on,  was  probably  an  extensive  and  long- 
continued  article  of  clothing  among  the  ancients,  and 
is  still  so  used  by  some  of  the  peasantry  of  the  Scot- 
tish Highlands,  and  by  many  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Brittany  and  Normandy.  Its  skin,  in  a  dressed  state, 
particularly  the  skin  of  the  kid  or  young  goat,  is  of 
great  importance  in  the  present  day  to  glove-makers, 
and  is  said  to  be  more  susceptible  of  dyes  than  any 
other  kind  of  skin.  The  horns  are  good  material  for 
knife  handles.  The  hair  of  the  woolly  and  silky- 
fleeced  varieties  is  a  material  of  great  mercantile  value 
for  the  manufacture  of  shawls  and  similar  fabrics. 
But  even  goat-hair,  in  general,  is  of  much  worth.  It 
was  anciently  combined  with  the  short  fur  of  other 
animals,  and  vn\\\  vegetable  gum  or  animal  glue,  for 
the  manufacture  of  a  solid  kind  of  felt  which  was 
very  long  and  extensively  used  in  Northern  Asia ;  and 
it  formed  a  chief  material  of  several  sorts  of 
fabrics  for  wearing  apparel  in  some  of  the  Roman 
provinces  before  the  time  of  Constantine  and  among 
the  Scandinavian  tribes  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
domestic  goat  in  the  north  and  west  of  the  old  world 
preceded  sheep  for  many  ages,  and  predominated 
while  the  country  was  chiefly  covered  with  forests; 
nor  is  there  evidence  of  a  wool-bearing  animal  cross- 


ing the  Rhine  or  the  Upper  Danube  till  towards  the 
subversion  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The  hair  of  the 
haunches,  where  it  is  usually  thicker  and  longer  than 
elsewhere,  brought  a  high  price  from  perruquiers  in 
the  days  of  general  wig-wearing,  and  is  still  used  for 
making  the  wigs  of  barristers,  judges,  and  other  wigged 
dignitaries  of  Great  Britain. 

The  flesh  of  the  goat,  and  particularly  that  of  the 
kid,  was  formerly  in  great  and  general  request  as  an 
article  of  food,  but  is  at  present  very  generally  dis- 
liked. The  flesh  of  the  adult  goat,  especially  of  one 
somewhat  advanced  in  age,  is  tough  and  strong-tasted, 
yet  does  very  well  to  be  salted  and  made  into  bacon, 
and  is  so  treated  in  Wales.  The  haunches  of  the 
goat,  says  Pennant,  "are  frequently  salted  and  dried, 
and  supply  all  the  uses  of  bacon ;  this,  by  the  natives, 
is  called  Coch  yr  wden,  or  hung  venison.  The  meat 
of  a  castrated  goat  that  is  six  or  seven  years  old, 
which  is  called  hyfr,  is  reckoned  the  best,  being 
generally  very  sweet  and  fat.  This  makes  an  excel- 
lent pastry;  goes  under  the  name  of  rock  venison,  and 
is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  deer."  The  flesh  of  the 
kid  is  so  tender  and  well-flavored  as  not  to  be  sur- 
passed by  that  of  the  best  lamb,  and  is  as  nourishing 
as  it  is  delicate.  Nothing,  therefore,  but  culpable 
ignorance  or  absurd  prejudice  prevents  as  brisk  a 
demand  for  goat's  flesh  in  the  markets  of  mountain- 
ous districts  as  for  the  flesh  of  sheep  and  lambs  in 
the  shambles  of  low  and  extensive  plains. 

The  suet  of  the  goat  is  said  to  make  whiter,  and  in 
all  respects  better,  candles  than  that  of  the  sheep  or 
the  ox.  The  milk  of  the  she-goat  is  light,  rich  and 
nourishing;  it  jxissesses  qualides  intermediate  between 
that  of  the  cow  and  that  of  the  ass,  being  more  serous 
than  the  former  and  less  so  than  the  latter;  it  curdles 
easily,  and  makes  a  very  palatable  cheese;  it  has 
been  long  extolled  as  has  also  been  its  whey,  for 
its  medicinal  virtues,  and  it  has  yielded  freely  to  the 
hand  in  comparatively  large  quanliries  and  during  a 
comparatively  long  time. 

Goats  do  well  to  be  confined  in  yards  as  pets  for 
children,  and  form  fine  subjects  for  the  exercise  of 
the  care  and  the  gentleness  which  all  young  people, 
especially  in  country  situations,  ought  early  to  acquire 
for  every  kind  of  domestic  animal.  Goats  do  well, 
also,  to  be  tethered  to  limited  spots  by  the  wayside,  on 
patches  of  waste  ground,  or  in  the  corners  of  fields  or 
paddocks  to  feed  upon  coarse  herbage  or  redundant 
grasses  for  the  sake  of  yielding  milk  for  invalids. 
But,  in  almost  any  other  circumstances,  they  are  ill- 
adapted  or  not  adapted  at  all  to  low,  enclosed,  and 
well  cultivated  districts;  for  besides  being  far  less 
profitable  in  such  situations  than  sheep,  they  overleap 
fences,  browse  upon  the  twigs  of  hedges,  and  con- 
stantly do  considerable  damage  by  their  peculiar  tastes 
and  habits.  In  mountainous  districts,  however,  they 
are  of  great  value,  and  ought  to  be  in  very  extensive 
request.  Goats  can  feed  well  where  sheep  would 
almost  or  altogether  starve,  and  in  many  bare,  bleak 
and  rocky  regions.  The  domesric  goat,  like  the  wild 
one,  thrives  on  many  a  plant  which  would  disgust  and 


57<5 


GOITER— GOLD-FISH. 


perhaps  kill  other  domestic  animals;  and,  like  the 
wild  one,  too,  it  easily  climbs  to  the  least  accessible 
and  the  most  unpromising  acclivities  of  rocky  mount- 
ains in  search  of  food. 

The  goat  is  but  little  used  in  American  agriculture. 
It  is  often  kept  about  livery  stables  because  it  is 
thought  that  its  peculiar  odor  has  a  tendency  to  pre- 
vent disease. 

Gtoiter,  a  scrofulous  enlargement  of  the  thyroid 
glands  at  the  throat.  Take  two  drachms  iodine  and  one 


Fig.     I. —Snow   Goose. 

ounce  iodide  of  jwtassium,  to  be  taken  in  ten-drop 
doses  each  morning  before  eating.  Once  a  day  rub 
the  neck  with  iodine.  The  ugly  stain  may  be  avoided 
by  putting  the  iodine  into  a  mortar  and  ix)uring  in 
oil  of  jumper  until  the  mixture  will  not  stain  the  finger. 
It  does  not  impair  the  strength  or  peculiar  properties 
of  the  iodine  in  the  least.  Rubbing  persisted  in  for 
months,  a  few  minutes  two  or  three  times  a  day,  will 
generally  scatter  tumors  of  this  kind. 

Gold.     Gold  is  valuable,  not  only  on  account  of 


its  scarcity,  wliich  renders  it  very  useful  as  a  medium 
of  exchange,  but  it  possesses  some  peculiar  properties 
which  render  it  preferable  to  every  other  metal  for 
particular  purposes.  Its  great  malleability  is  exem- 
plified in  the  making  of  gold  leaf,  so  much  employed 
in  gilding.  Its  ductility  and  tenacity  are  shown  by 
the  drawing  of  gold  and  gilt  silver  wire,  and  in  gold 
lace  and  embroidery.  Its  softness  renders  it  easy  to 
be  worked  into  various  delicate  forms  for  ornaments, 
for  which  its  beautiful  rich  color  and  resplendent 
luster,  which  are  different  from 
those  of  any  other  metal,  pecul- 
iarly qualify  it;  and  its  perfect 
unalterability,  when  exposed  to 
the  air  or  fire,  has  justly  stam- 
ped its  high  character  in  all 
ages.  Its  specific  gravity  is  great- 
er than  any  metal  except  platin- 
um. Its  hardness  is  greater 
than  that  of  lead  and  tin,  but 
inferior  to  iron,  copper,  platinum 
and  silver.  It  cannot  be  dis- 
solved by  any  acid  except  the 
nitro-muriatic,  formerly  called 
aqua  regia,  and  which  is  a  mix- 
ture of  the  nitric  and  muriatic 
acids;  neither  of  these  acids, 
separately,  can  dissolve  it;  and 
it  is  precipitated  from  its  solu- 
tion in  the  state  of  gold  powder 
by  an  alkali.  It  forms  alloys 
with  most  of  the  metals.  These 
properties  render  it  invaluable 
for  many  economical  purposes, 
which  are  well  known ;  and  its 
never  tarnishing,  if  pure,  when 
e.xix)sed  to  the  air,  occasions  it 
to  be  so  much  used  in  gilding, 
on  both  wood  and  metal. 

Gold  Coin  may  always  be 
proved  if  any  counterfeit  be 
suspected,  by  its  great  gravity 
of  17.157.  Pure  gold  has  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  19.3;  the  reduc- 
ed weight  of  the  coin  is  due  to 
the  alloy.  Aqua  regia  is  the  sol- 
vent of  gold. 

How  THE  Value  of  Gold  is 
Estimated.  Goldsmiths  usu- 
ally indicate  the  purity  of  gold  in 
the  following  manner :  Perfectly  pure  gold  they  suppose 
divided  into  24  parts  called  carats.  Gold  of  24  carats 
therefore  means  pure  gold;  gold  of  23  carats  means 
an  alloy  of  23  parts  gold  and  one  of  some  other  metal, 
and  so  on.  The  number  of  carats  mentioned  indicate 
the  pure  gold,  and  what  that  number  wants  to  24, 
indicates  the  quantity  of  alloy. 

Gold-Fish.  These  should  be  kept  in  a  vessel  of 
such  capacity  as  will  allow  of  at  least  two  gallons  of 
water  to  each  fish,  and  the  water,  if  of  this  minimum 


GOOSE. 


577 


quantity,  should  be  renewed  every  day  or  two.  In 
renewing,  clean  the  vessel  inside  with  a  cloth.  The 
water  supplied  should  be  clean  and  not  very  hard. 
These  fish  need  not  be  fed,  as  they  obtain  all  the 
sustenance  they  need  from  the  water  and  air.  Sub- 
stances thrown  into  the  water  as  food  only  deteriorates 
that  element  for  their  existence.  Fresh  leaves  and 
growing  water  plants  have  a  good  effect  upon  the 
health  of  the  fish. 

Goose.  The  goose  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
the  duck,  but  is  classed  with  the  genera  Anser  and 
Bemicla.  The  goose,  although  not  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  was  known  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  other 


Wild  Geese.  No  less  than  eight  well  determined 
species  of  wild  geese  inhabit  North  America ;  besides 
these  there  are  four  varieties,  so  that  the  list  of  our 
geese  in  all  include  about  a  dozen  fowls. 

Barnacle  Goose.  Some  claim  that  this  goose  is 
found  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  .the  United  States, 
while  others  think  the  specimens  killed  were  the 
White-fronted  Goose  which,  being  rare  in  the  East, 
might  have  been  mistaken  for  the  Barnacle.  It  is 
plentiful  on  the  Western  coast  of  England  and  North 
of  Ireland.  It  is  a  very  wild  kind  and  difficult  to  ap- 
proach by  any  means.  Audubon  says  it  breeds  in 
Ireland,  Spitzbergen,  Greenland  and  Lapland.     We 


Fig.    2. —  The  Barnacle    Goose. 


ancient  nations.  Although  apparently  a  stupid  bird, 
it  is  aroused  by  the  slightest  noise  in  the  night,  and 
the  immediate  cackling  which  they  begin  uixm  the 
approach  of  apprehended  danger,  is  considered  as  a 
valuable  safeguard.  It  was  held  sacred  by  the  Romans 
on  this  account,  it  having  alarmed  the  sentinels  of  the 
Capitol  at  the  invasion  of  the  Gauls,  and  thus  saved 
the  city. 

There  are  many  wild  varieties  of  the  goose  which 
make  their  regular  visits  to  the  United  States,  coming 
from  the  Arctic  seas  and  Hudson  Bay  region.  Of 
these  we  will  treat  first,  after  which  the  domestic 
varieties,  their  care,  management,  etc. 


give  an  excellent  specimen  of  this  bird  on  this  page. 

Bean  Goose.  This  species  has  its  home  in  the 
north  frigid  zone,  but  occasionally  wanders  as  far 
south  as  the  Lake  region.  Its  beak  is  rather  slender 
and  pointed,  its  color  black  with  an  orange  center,  the 
head  and  upper  parts  brownish  gray,  the  primaries  of 
a  darker  hue,  both  tail  coverts  are  white,  the  throat 
and  breast  are  grayish  white,  and  the  abdomen  pure 
white.  The  total  length  of  the  bird  is  about  34  inches. 
It  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  Barnacle  Goose,  and  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  a  mere  variety  of  that  species. 
See  engraving,  page  581. 

Brant  Goose.     The  Brant  Goose  is  common  on  the 


578 


GOOSE. 


eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  in  very  severe 
winters  extends  its  migrations  as  far  south  as  the 
Cunituck  region,  stopping  on  its  journey,  and  in  open 
winters  remaining  in  the  several  sounds  and  bays  on 
the  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey  coasts  until  spring. 
According  to  the  severity  and  mildness  of  the  season, 
so  are  their  numbers  increased  and  decreased  north 
and  south  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Carolinas. 
The  common  Brant  is  not  known  in  the  West,  not- 
withstanding every  bird  of  the  goose  family  but  the 
Canadian  goose  is  sometimes  called  Brant  by  sports- 
men of  that  section  of  the  United  States.  The  mis- 
named Brant  of  the  West  is  the  White-fronted  Goose, 
on  this  page.    The  Brant  Goose  is  strictly  a  salt-water 


Fig. 3  .—  White-fronted  Goose, 

bird,  never  going  inland,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  crossing 
headlands  or  projections  of  land  in  their  course.  They 
breed  in  the  far  North,  Audubon  states,  on  the  coasts 
of  Hudson  Bay  and  the  Artie  sea,  and  begin  their 
journey  south  in  the  autumn,  from  the  middle  to  the 
last  of  October.  The  methods  of  capturing  the  Brant 
are  precisely  similar  to  those  employed  with  its  more 
important  relative,  the  Canada  Goose. 

Canada  Goose,  or  Common  Wild  Goose.     This  is  by 


far  the  most  abundant  and  universally  distributed  of 
the  North  American  geese.  In  one  or  another  of  its 
varieties  it  is  found  in  all  the  States  and  Territories 
except,  perhaps,  the  Gulf  States.  It  is  the  most  com- 
mon wild  goose  in  the  United  States  ;  like  the  Gray 
Lag,  as  it  is  known  in  Europe,  it  is  termed  by  the 
common  appellation  of"  Wild  Goose"  in  this  country. 
It  is  familiar  to  all  sportsmen,  and  easily  recognized 
from  its  curious  habits  of  flight  and  peculiar  cry 
("honk,  honk").  This  sound  often  comes  upon  the 
ear  at  night,  when  the  flock  is  invisible,  and  it  is  fre- 
quently heard  even  in  the  day-time,  seeming  to  come 
form  the  sky,  the  birds  being  beyond  the  reach  of 
vision.  They  make  their  annual  flights  in  their  regu- 
lar battalion-like  progress  to  and 
from  their  breeding  places. 
Their  spring  migrations  usually 
take  place  from  the  20th  of 
March  to  the  last  of  April  but 
are  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
state  of  the  season.  They  linger 
in  the  North,  where  they  breed, 
until  the  hard  frosts  warn  them 
that  the  lakes  and  streams  will 
soon  be  frozen  over.  Wilson 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  range 
of  the  Canada  Goose  "  extends 
to  the  utmost  polar  point,  amid 
the  silent  desolations  of  un- 
known countries,  shut  out  from 
the  prying  eye  of  man  by  ever- 
lasting and  inseparable  barriers 
of  ice."  In  size  the  Wild  Goose 
is  35  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
18  inches.  The  upper  parts  are 
a  brownish  color,  the  lower  parts 
lighter,  while  the  head,  neck, 
bill  and  feet  are  black.  In  a 
state  of  domestication  the 
female  does  not  breed  until  two 
years  old.  The  gander  will  mate 
with  the  common  goose,  but 
their  young  will  not  breed. 

Hutchins'  Goose.  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, in  his  valuable  work  on 
ornithology,  tells  us  that  the 
Hutchins'  Goose  was  for  a  long 
time  taken  for  the  Brant,  or  an 
emaciated  Canada  Goose.  Its 
resemblance  to  the  latter  is  so 
great  that,  were  it  not  for  its 
decreased  size  and  the  more  disrinct  barred  mark- 
ings on  its  breast  and  belly,  the  two  would  be 
identical.  The  Hutchins'  Goose  is  abundant  in 
Hudson  Bay,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  as  far  south  as 
California ;  and  the  lakes  of  all  the  Western  Terri- 
tories at  times  throng  with  them.  A  good  engraving 
of  this  species  is  given  on  page  580. 

Snow  or  Arctic  Goose,  or  White  Brant,  is  plentifully 
distributed    throughout    the   greater   portion    of   the 


GOOSE. 


S19 


United  States ;  but  of  late  years  its  principal  range  is 
in  the  West  and  Southwest,  from  Texas  northward. 
Audubon  saw  it  in  great  numbers  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  in  its  gray  plumage  on  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi. Until  the  Snow  Goose  reaches  two  years 
(some  writers  say  three),  its  plumage  is  an  ashy-gray 
or  sooty-white.  In  the  West  this  bird  is  frequently 
called  the  White  Brant,  and  sometimes  confounded 
with  the  White-fronted  Goose.  The  excellent  engraving 


some  they  are  termed  the  Laughing  Goose,  on  account 
of  the  grinning  appearance  of  their  bill,  the  space  be- 
tween the  upper  and  lower  mandible  being  wide  apart 
and  displaying  a  corrugated  ridge  resembling  teeth. 
The  range  of  the  White-fronted  Goose  is  entirely  west- 
ward in  the  United  States,  being  very  rare  in  the  East. 
The  measure  of  an  adult  bird  in  its  winter  plumage, 
as  taken  from  a  specimen  in  the  Philadelphia  Academy 
of  Sciences,  is  as  follows:     Length  to  end  of  tail,  27 


of  this  goose  (shown  on  page  576)  very  clearly  shows 
its  build  and  shape,  and  scarcely  needs  further  des- 
cription. 

White-fronted  Goose,  Speckled  Belly.  In  the 
West  this  bird  is  very  abundant,  coming  in  advance 
of  the  Canada  Goose,  and  leaving  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  eariier.  Dr.  Richardson  says  they  breed  in  the 
Mackenzie  river  region  and  in  the  Arctic  seas.  They 
are  called  Brant  in  the  West  by  many,  thus  confound- 
ing them  with  the  real  Brant  {Anser  BernielaX     By 


Fig.  i.— Brant. 


inches;  to  end  of  wing,  26  inches;  to  end  of  claw,  29; 
extent  of  wings,  60;  wing  from  flexure,  14 J^;  tail, 
4?^;  bill,  i^;  weight,  5^  pounds.  When  domes- 
ticated it  belongs  to  the  class  of  birds  which  are  re- 
strained from  resuming  their  original  wild  habits  more 
by  the  influence  of  local  and  personal  attachment 
than  from  any  love  which  they  seem  to  have  for  the 
comforts  of  domestication.  They  maybe  trusted  with 
their  entire  liberty,  or  nearly  so,  but  require  an  eye  to 
be   kept  on  them   from  time  to  time  lest  they  stray 


S8o 


GOOSE 


away  and  assume  an  independent  and  wild  condition. 
The  first  impression  of  every  one,  ujion  seeing  this 
species  in  confinement,  would  be  that  it  could  not  be 
trusted  with  liberty ;  and  the  sight  of  its  exercising  its 
wings  at  its  first  escape  would  make  its  owner  despair 
of  recovering  it.  This  is  not,  however,  the  case.  By 
no  great  amount  of  care  and  attention,  they  will  mani- 


in  most  others;  the  flesh  is  excellent.     For  a  fine  pic- 
ture of  this  goose,  see  page  578. 

Besides  these  breeds  of  wild  geese  there  is  the  Ross 
Goose,  the  Blue  Goose,  or  Bald-headed  Brant,  and 
Emperor  Goose,  all  of  which,  however,  are  seldom  met 
with  in  the  United  States  save  the  Blue  Goose.  See 
page  582.     It  is  found  during  the  migratory    season 


Fig,  i.—Hutckins'  Goose, 


fest  such  a  degree  of  confidence  and  attachment  as  to 
remove  all  hesitation  as  to  the  future;  and  they  may 
be  regarded  as  patterns  of  all  that  is  valuable  in  An- 
serine nature,— gentle,  affectionate,  cheerful,  hardy, 
useful  and  self-dependent.  The  gander  is  an  attent- 
ive parent,  but  not  a  faithful  spouse.  The  eggs  are 
smaller  than  those  of  the  common  goose,  pure  white, 
and  of  a  very  long  oval ;  the  shell  is  also  thinner  than 


distributed  over  the  West  in  company  with  the  Snow 
Goose  and  the  White-fronted  Goose.  All  wild  geese 
are  captured  similarly,  and  the  explicit  directions 
given  in  the  article  Guns  and  Gunning  wll  apply 
equally  well  to  all  wild  geese. 

Domestic  Varieties.  Of  the  eight  sub-varieties 
of  the  goose  family  supposed  to  have  descended  from 
three  distinct  wild  species,  the  common  Gray,  or  White 


GOOSE. 


S8i 


Goose,  the  Bremen,  or  Embden,  and  the  Toulouse, 
are  supposed  by  some  to  have  come  from  the  Gray- 
legged  goose  still  found  wild  in  the  North  of  Europe. 
Others  consider  the  domestic  species  a  mongrel,  like 
the  dunghill  fowl,  made  up  of  several  varieties,  to 
each  of  which  it  occasionally  shows  more  or  less  affin- 
ity, and  yet  others  contend  that  it  is  not  to  be  refer- 
red to  any  existing  species. 

The  domestic  gander  is  polygamous,  but  he  will 
seldom  couple  with  females  of  any  other  species. 
Hybrid  common  geese  are  almost  always  produced 
by  the  union  of  a  wild  gander  with  a  domestic  goose, 
and  not  by  the  opposite. 
Bremen.  Is  a  large, 
pure  white  goose, 
with  brick-red  legs 
and  bill,  first  brought 
to  this  country  from 
Bremen,  in  Holland. 
In  England,  they  are 
called  Embden,  from 
a  town  of  the  same 
name  in  Holland, 
where  theirs  were 
first  obtained.  They 
are  said  to  be  ex- 
clusively bred  in 
Germany  and  Rus- 
sia, and  probably 
Austria.  These  geese 
are  very  large,  weigh- 
ing from  twenty-two 
to  twenty-six  ix)unds, 
live  weight,  and  oc- 
casionally full  thirty 
lX)unds  when  in  high 
flesh,  as  seen  in  ex- 
hibitions;  and 
though  so  large,  they 
are  well  proixsrtion- 
ed,  hardy,  healthful, 
and  very  showy. 
They  are  quiet  and 
peaceable,  and  take 
on  flesh  very  rapidly 
with  extra  feed. 
They  also  supply  a 
superior  quality  of 
feathers  in  very  large 

quantity.  The  female  lays  about  the  same  number 
of  eggs  as  the  common  goose,  but  usually  commences 
much  earlier  in  the  spring.  A  cut  of  this  goose  is 
given  on  page  583. 

Chinese  Geese.  As  an  ornamental  and  useful  va- 
riety of  aquatic  fowls,  the  Brown  or  White  China 
Geese  would  be  much  better  for  the  breeder  than  the 
common  kind.  They  are  of  all  the  Anser  tribe  the 
most -prolific  layers.  They  commence  early  in  the 
spring  and  lay  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  eggs  with- 
out stopping,  and  if  broken  up  in  their  inclination  to 


sit,  will  lay  again  and  again.  They  breed  three  or 
four  times  in  a  season  if  allowed,  and  are  carefui  and 
vigilant  mothers.  Their  eggs  are  not  more  than  half 
the  size  of  those  of  the  common  goose,  but  they  more 
than  make  up  for  deficiency  of  size  by  laying  almost 
thrice  the  number  of  the  larger  breeds.  In  color  this 
variety  is  mostly  brown,  shading  from  dark  to  light. 
The  neck  has  a  dark  stripe  down  to  the  body,  the 
under  parts  grayish  brown  and  darker  imder  the 
wings,  and  the  legs  are  of  a  dusky  orange  color.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  China  goose  is  a  knob  at  the  base 
of  the  bill.  They  are  more  swan-like  in  shape  and 
carriage  than  any  known  variety. 


ci«s.vucf]ib..La» 


Fig.  t.—Bean  Gocse, 

Himg  Kong  or  African.  Is  colored  the  same  as 
the  Brown  Chinas,  with  bills,  knob  and  legs  a  dull 
black,  while  in  size  it  has  no  superior.  It  is  also  dis- 
tinguished by  a  large  fold  of  loose  skin  under  the 
throat,  called  the  dew-lap,  that  increases  with  age. 

Toulouse.  Was  brought  to  this  country  from  the 
South  of  France.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  com- 
mon gray  goose  by  the  uniformity  and  constancy  of 
its  color,  which  is  alike  in  both  sexes,  and  darker  than 
in  the  common  goose,  and  by  its  very  large  size,  be- 
ing as  heavy  as  the  best  bred  Bremen.     They  are 


582 


GOOSE. 


rather  short-legged,  have  round,  compact  bodies,  and 
a  large  development  of  the  abdominal  pouch,  which, 
in  the  common  goose,  is  a  mark  of  considerable  age, 
but  commences  its  appearance  in  this  variety  when 
but  a  few  months  old.  Like  the  Bremen,  they  lay 
early  in  the  spring,  are  very  quiet,  fatten  readily,  and 
have  excellent  flesh.  Our  common  geese  cross  freely 
with  the  Bremen  and  Toulouse,  the  first  cross  yield- 
ing birds  nearly  or  quite  as  large  as  either  parent ;  but 
the  results  of  the  cross  rapidly  degenerate  by  breed- 
ing among  themselves.  To  keep  up  the  size  the  cross 
birds  should  be  bred  to  one  of  the  larger  geese.  The 
cross  between  the  Bremen  and  the  Toulouse  is  even 
larger  than  either  parent,  but  deteriorates  by  breeding- 
in.  The  time  of  incubation  by  this  variety  is  from 
twenty-eight  to  thirty  days.     See  cut,  page  583. 

Care  and   Management.      Generally   not   more 
than  four  or  five  geese  should  be  allowed  to  one  gan- 
der, to  be  very  profitable,  and  such   a  family  will  re- 
quire a  house  about  ten  feet  square.  Each 
nest  should  be  about  two  feet  and  a  half 
square.  Geese  should  be  set  early  in  the 
spring,  as  it  is  difficult  to  rear  the  young 
in  hot  weather,  and  incubation   requires 
about  34  days.     They  sit   very  steadily, 
but  they  should  be  induced  to  come  off 
daily  and  take  a  bath.      They  should 
also  be  faithfully  supplied  with  food  and 
water,   to  keep   them  from    eating    up 
their  own  eggs.     The   ganders   remain 
near  when  sitting,  and  seem  to   act  the 
part  of  a  sentinel.     They  seem  very  anx- 
ious to  see  the  young  ones  that  are  to  be 
bom  make  their  appearance.      It  is  not 
necessary   to   keep    the    gander    away. 
Incubation   lasts   from  28   to   30   days. 
After  28  or  29  days'  incubation,  begiri   to 
clip  the  shell.     This  may  be  done  at  in- 
tervals, however,  of  from  24  to  48  hours. 
Like  turkey  chickens,  goslings  must  be 
taken    from    under   the    mother   lest, 
•  if  feeling   the  young  ones    under    her, 
she  might  perhaps  leave  the  nest  of  the  tardy  brood 
still  unhatched.     After  having  separated  them  from 
her,  they  must  be  kept  in  a  basket  lined  with  wool 
and  covered  with  cloth,  and  when  the  whole  of  the 
eggs  are  hatched,  may  be  returned  to  the  mother. 
The  male  seems  to  evince  the  same  solicitude  for  the 
young  as  the  mother,  and  will  lead  them  and  take 
equal  care  of  them.     On  the  second  day  after  they  are 
hatched,  they  may  be  let  out  after  the  dew  is  off,  if 
the  weather  is  warm,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  ex- 
pose them  to  the  scorching  rays  of  the  sun,  which 
might  kill  them.     The  goslings  should  have  immedi- 
ate access  to  the  turf,  and  be  fed  on  boiled  oatmeal 
and  rice,  with  water  from  a  pond,  in  a  very  shallow 
dish.     They  should  not  be  allowed  to  swim  for  about 
two  weeks,  during  which  time  the  goose  should  be  kept 
under  a  very  large  crate.     Until  fledged  they  should 
be  protected  from  cold,  driving  rains.     For  fattening, 
they  should  be  penned  up  half  a  dozen  together  in  a 


dark  shed,  and  fed  on  barley  meal,  being  let  out  sev- 
eral hours  for  a  last  bath  before  they  are  killed,  in 
order  to  clean  their  feathers. 

The  liver  of  a  fat  goose  is  often  larger  than  all  the 
other  viscera,  and  was  a  dish  in  so  great  reputation 
among  the  epicures  of  Rome  that  Pliny  thought  it  de- 
served a  serious  discussion  to  whom  the  honor  ot 
inventing  so  excellent  a  dish  was  due.  They  fed  their 
geese  on  figs,  to  improve  their  relish,  and  were  not 
ignorant  that  they  fattened  sooner  in  a  dark  room ;  but 
it  was  left  for  modern  gastronomers  to  invent  the  bar- 
barous method  of  nailing  down  their  feet  and  putting 
out  their  eyes. 

Though  greatly  relished  by  some  persons  as  food,  it 
is  not  a  universal  favorite.  The  flesh  abounds  in  fla- 
vor, and  is  considered  to  be  highly  stimulant.  When 
young  it  is  tender,  but,  in  general,  it  is  only  adapted 
for  good  stomachs  and  powerful  digestion,  and  should 
be  sparingly  used  by  the  sedentary  and  weak,  and  by 


Fig.  7.  — Blue  Gvose, 

persons  subject  to  cutaneous  diseases.  Its  strong  fla- 
vor is  by  some  thought  to  require  modification  by 
stuffing  with  sage  and  onions,  though  others  relish  it 
only  when  this  is  not  demanded.  From  the  various 
parts,  liowever,  many  savory  dishes  are  prepared,  for 
which  we  refer  to  the  receipts  on  that  subject.  The 
fat  is  reckoned  peculiarly  subtle,  penetrating  and  re- 
solvent, and  is  usually  preserved  for  domestic  appli- 
cations. 

The  average  weight  of  the  large  kind  of  geese  is 
froni  nine  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  instances  have  been 
known  of  their  weighing  thirty  pounds  when  fully  fat- 
tened ;  but  the  smaller  breeds  are  preferable  for  the 
table. 

It  is  not  altogether  on  account  of  use  as  food  that 
this  bird  is  valuable ;  their  feathers,  their  down,  and 
their  quills  have  long  been  considered  as  articles  of 
more  imjxjrtance,  and  from  which  their  owners  reap 
more  advantages.     In  this  respect,  the  poor  creatures 


GOOSE. 


583 


have  not  been  spared  ;  urged  by  avarice,  their  inhuman 
masters,  in  some  places,  appear  to  have  ascertained 
the  exact  quantity  of  phunage  of  which  they  can  bear 
to  be  robbed  without  being  deprived  of  life. 

Diseases.  Geese  are  seldom  unhealthy,  and  con- 
sequently are  attacked  by  but  few  diseases.  Cold  and 
fogs  are  their  worst  enemies ;  therefore,  when  young, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  them  out  but  in  fair 
weather,  when  they  can  go  to  their  food  without  a 
leader.  They  are  particularly  subject  to  two  diseases: 
the  first  a  looseness  or  diarrhoea,  for  which  Main  rec- 
ommends hot  wine  in  which  the  parings  of  quinces, 
acorns,  or  juniper  berries  are  boiled.  The  second  is 
like  a  giddiness,  which  makes  them  turn  round  for 
some  time ;  they  then  fall  down  and  die,  if  they  are 
not  relieved  in  time.  The  remedy  recommended  by 
Main  is  to  bleed  the  bird  with  a  pin  or  needle,  by 
piercing  a  rather  prominent  vein  situated  under  the 
skin  which  separates  the  claws.  Another  scourge  to 
goslings  are  little  insects  which  get  into  their  ears  and 
nostrils,  which  fatigue  and  exhaust  them ;  they  then 
walk  with  their  wings  hanging  down,  and  shaking  their 


vessel  full  of  clear  water ;  in  order  to  eat  it  they  are 
obliged  to  plunge  their  heads  in  the  water,  which  com- 
pels the  insects  to  fly  and  leave  their  prey.  It  is  the 
same  with  the  goose,  says  Main,  as  with  every  other 
bird  that  is  fattened  up;  that  moment  must  be  laid  hold 


Fig.  8. — Toulouse, 


heads. 

return 


The  relief  proposed  is  to  give  them,  on  their 
from  the  fields,  some  corn  at  the  bottom  of  a 


Fig.   9. — Bremen   or  Eutbden. 

of  when  they  come  to  a  complete  plumpness, 
or  they  soon  get  lean  and  die  if  they  are  not 
killed.  Meal  and  skimmed  milk  will  soon  do 
the  business;  after  ranging  in  the  grain  stubbles 
but  little  else  will  be  required.  These  are 
called  green  geese,  and  are  most  esteemed  by 
the  epicure ;  they  will  then  be  about  six  weeks 
old,  tender  and  fine.  Steamed  potatoes,  with 
four  quarts  of  ground  buckwheat  or  oats  to  the 
bushel  mashed  up  with  the  potatoes,  and  given 
warm,  it  is  said,  will  render  geese,  cooped  in  a 
dark  place,  fat  enough  in  three  weeks.  The 
French  method  of  fattening  consists  in  pluck- 
ing the  feathers  from  under  the  belly  ;  in  giving 
them  abundance  of  food  and  drink,  and  in 
cooping  them  up  more  closely  than  is  practiced 
with  common  fowls  ;  cleanliness  and  quiet  be- 
ing, above  all,  indispensable.  The  best  time 
is  in  the  month  of  November,  or  when  the  cold 
weather  begins  to  set  in. 

Roast  Goose  and  Duck.  Boiling  water 
should  be  poured  all  over  and  inside  of  a  goose, 
or  duck,  before  you  prepare  them  for  cooking, 
to  take  out  the  strong,  oily  taste.  I.et  the  fowl  be 
picked  clean,  and  wijjed  dry  with  a  cloth,  inside  and 


584 


GOOSEBERR  Y— GOPHER. 


out;  fill  the  body  and  crop  with  stuffing;  if  you  prefer 
not  to  stuff  it,  put  an  onion  inside ;  put  it  down  to  the 
fire,  and  roast  it  brown.  It  will  take  about  two  hours 
and  a  half. 

Another:  Geese  and  ducks,  if  old,  are  better  if 
parboiled  before  they  are  roasted.  Put  them  on  in 
sufficient  water  to  cover  them,  and  simmer  about  two 
hours.  Make  a  stuffing  with  four  onions,  i  ounce  of 
green  sage,  chopped  fine,  a  large  cupful  of  stale  bread 
crumbs,  and  the  same  of  mashed  jjotatoes,  i  teaspoon- 
ful  of  butter,  a  little  pepper  and  salt,  and  i  unbeaten 
egg;  mix  them  well  together  and  stuff  the  body  of  the 
goose ;  then  place  in  the  oven  and  bake  about  an  hour 
and  a  half.     Serve  with  apple  sauce. 

Gtooseberry.  This  fruit  is  too  well  known  to  need 
any  particular  description  in  this  place;  but  the  fact 
that  good  ripe  gooseberries  are  sweet  and  luscious  is 
not  so  well  known.  This  berry  is  generally  picked 
when  green,  and  for  those  who  like  sour  fruit  it  makes 
a  valuable  sauce,  the  greatest  objection  being  the 
large  amount  of  sugar  required  in  their  preparation. 
They  are  also  good  for  pies,  tarts  and  puddings,  the 
flavor  being  liked  by  everybody,  and  it  being  the 
earliest  fruit  that  can  be  used. 

Cultivation.  Like  the  currant,  gooseberry  plants 
are  propagated  only  by  cuttings.  Select  the  strong- 
est and  straightest  young  shoots  of  the  current  season, 
in  the  fall,  cut  out  all  the  buds  from  that  portion 
which  is  to  go  into  the  ground,  to  prevent  suckering, 
and  plant  these  cuttings  in  a  deep,  rich  soil  on  the 
north  side  of  a  fence  or  hill,  or  in  some  shaded  border. 
They  should  be  inserted  in  the  ground  about  six  inches 
deep,  and  from  three  to  six  inches  should  remain 
above  the  ground ;  press  the  soil  firmly  about  them, 
and  cover  with  a  mulch  of  coarse  manure,  to  be  taken 
away  the  following  spring ;  at  that  time  examine  them, 
and  if  any  are  found  raised  by  the  freezing  press  the 
earth  again  finnly  around  them.  The  ensuing  fall 
they  should  be  well  rooted  and  ready  to  transplant  to 
their  permanent  situation,  which  should  be  a  sunny 
place. 

The  gooseberry  in  our  climate  is  very  impatient  of 
drouth,  and  therefore  the  best  soil  for  it  is  a  deep, 
strong  loam,  which  should,  like  the  ground  for  currants, 
be  heavily  manured  and  mulched  from  year  to  year. 
To  raise  good  fruit  regular  and  liberal  pruning  is  ab- 
solutely necessary;  no  sucker  should  be  allowed  to 
grow;  the  branches  should  be  thinned  out  every 
winter,  an  effort  being  made  at  the  same  time  to  pre- 
serve the  fine  outline  of  the  bush.  In  the  usual  shrub 
form,  with  horse-and-plow  cultivation,  etc.,  these 
plants  will  bear  profitable  crops  for  many  years;  but 
in  the  tree  form,  where  but  one  stem  is  allowed  to 
grow  in  a  place,  they  will  begin  to  decline  in  about 
five  or  six  years.  With  this  plant,  as  well  as  with  all 
other  fruit  trees,  the  thoughtful  gardener  will  keep  up 
a  succession  of  young  plants  by  striking  some  cut- 
tings every  season. 

As  to  the  distance  from  one  another  at  which  they 
should  be  planted,  there  is  a  wide  difference  of^pin- 


ion,  some  advising  that  they  should  be  very  thick  in 
the  rows  about  eight  feet  apart,  and  others  thinking 
that  they  should  be  about  four  feet  apart  in  the  row 
and  the  rows  about  five  or  six  feet  apart.  The  for- 
mer method  is  said  to  prevent  mildew  to  some  extent, 
especially  if  but  very  little  trimming  is  done.  Of 
course,  all  old  wood  should  be  kept  cut  out.  Give 
clean  cultivation,  and  for  mulching  wood  and  coal 
ashes  are  very  good  to  mix  in  with  the  other  material. 
Varieties.  Not  many  English  varieries  of  the 
gooseberry  are  recommended  for  cultivation  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  United  States,  as  they 
are  very  liable  to  mildew;  but  where  they  are  not  so 
liable,  the  Crown  Bob,  Roaring  Lion,  Red  Champagne 
and  Whitesmith  are  recommended  as  the  best.  These 
should  be  severely  pruned,  and  both  branches  and 
fruit  patieritly  thinned  out.  For  many  years  the 
Houghton  Seedling  has  been  the  most  popular  variety. 

American  Seedling,  American  Cluster,  Pale  Red,  etc. 
Bush  more  upright  than  Houghton,  very  productive, 
hardy,  exempt  from  mildew;  wood  slender;  fruit  small 
to  medium  and  when  fully  ripe  is  darker  in  color  than 
the  Houghton;  hangs  a  long  time  upon  the  bush;  flesh 
tender,  sweet  and  very  good. 

Charles  Downing.  An  upright,  vigorous  growing 
variety  and  very  productive;  exempt  from  mildew  and 
disease ;  wood  stout  and  heavy,  and  thorny ;  foliage 
abundant;  fruit  somewhat  larger  than  Houghton, 
whirish  green  with  the  rib  veins  distinct,  and  hangs 
on  until  severe  freezing  weather;  it  is  probably  one  of 
the  best  varieries  for  the  laritude  of  Iowa. 

Houghton's  Seedling.  This  is  still  the  king  of  goose- 
berries for  the  West,  as  it  has  been  for  many  years. 
It  is  a  vigorous  grower ;  branches  rather  slender  and 
drooping ;  very  productive  and  not  subject  to  mildew ; 
fruit  medium  size  or  below,  inclining  to  oval,  smooth, 
pale  red,  tender  and  sweet.  Dried  by  artificial  heat 
it  is  excellent  for  puddings  and  pies. 

Mountain  Seedling.  A  good  market  sort.  The  bush 
grows  tall  and  stragghng  and  bears  abundantly  very 
large  and  small  berries,  which  are  sweet,  a  dark  brown- 
ish red  with  a  long  stem  and  tough  skin,  and  disposed 
to  hang  long  on  the  bush. 

Smith's  Improved.  This  plant  is  more  upright  and 
vigorous  than  its  parent,  the  Houghton  seedling;  the 
fruit  is  larger  and  somewhat  oval,  light  green,  with 
thin  skin,  a  bloom  and  an  excellent  flavor ;  excellent 
for  cooking  and  as  a  dessert.  As  this  variety  has  a 
tendency  to  overbear  it  should  be  liberally  pruned. 
For  all  purposes  this  variety  stands  next  to  the 
Houghton's  Seedling  in  the  West. 

Gopher,  a  species  of  rat,  with  cheek  pouches,  broad, 
mole-like  fore  feet,  and  of  a  reddish  or  chestnut  brown 
color.  The  name  has  also  been  given  in  different  lo- 
calises to  several  species  of  ground-squirrel  and  other 
burrowing  animals.  The  gopher,  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river,  does  much  damage  to  field  crops ;  and 
there  is  no  easy  and  specific  remedy  against  them 
known.  The  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  destroy  them 
in  all  practical  ways,  with  dogs,  traps,  shooting,  etc. 


/ 


*^. 


GO  U LARD— GRAFTING: 


585 


Goulard,  a  solution  ofsugaroflead,  used  for  inflam- 
mations :  so  called  from  the  inventor  ;  "Goulard's 
extract." 

Gourd.  The  gourds,  especially  the  larger  kinds, 
require  a  season  fully  as  long  as  that  in  the  Ohio 
River  valley  and  southern  Missouri  to  attain  perfec- 
tion. The  ornamental  kinds  are  apt  to  grow  too  large 
if  the  ground  is  too  rich. 

Varieties.  Hercules'  Club.  Grows  four  to  six  feet 
in  length. 

Sugar-Trough.  Holds  several  gallons  and  will  last 
years  as  sap  vessels. 

Dipper,  Double-Bottle  and  Angora  are  also  good 
varieties. 

Dish-Cloth.  The  lining  of  this  gourd  is  so  tough  that 
it  can  be  used  as  a  dish-cloth.  Itis  also  called  "  Bonnet 
gourd  "  or  "  Luffa." 

Besides  the  above  there  are  many  fancy  varieties. 

Gourd-Worm,  a  worm  that  infests  the  liver  of 
sheep  ;  called  also  the  fluke-worm. 

Gout,  inflammation  of  the  fibrous  and  ligamentous 
parts  of  the  joints,  first  attacking  the  great  toe  and  then 
the  other  toes,  the  fingers  and  the  larger  joints.  ,  The 
disease  is  the  result  of  "  high  living,"  and  is  far  more 
common  in  England  than  in  this  country.  Treatment : 
In  this  complaint,  a  perspiration  should  be  kept  up  by 
the  use  of  hot  medicines — especially  composition  and 
pennyroyal  tea,  as  this  will  assist  nature  in  expelling 
the  gouty  matter.  As  the  seat  of  the  disease  is  gen- 
erally in  the  foot  and  leg,  it  should  be  wrapped  in  the 
softest  wool,  wet  in  sweet  oil,  and  lightly  bandaged. 
When  the  fit  is  over,  a  dose  of  tincture  of  rhubarb 
should  be  given.  When  the  disease  attacks  the  head 
or  lungs,  measures  should  be  taken  to  bring  it  to  the 
feet.  For  this  purpose,  let  the  two  feet  be  bathed  in 
warm  water,  followed  by  strong  mustard  poultices.  To 
prevent  any  aggravation  of  the  disease,  the  subject 
must  adopt  a  radically  hygienic  or  vegetarian  diet,  and 
be  totally  abstemious  from  all  artificial  drinks  and 
epicurean  dishes. 

Governor,  of  an  engine,  two  swinging  globes  for 
maintaining  a  uniform  velocity  of  the  machinery,  by 
proportioning  the  steam  to  the  work. 

Gown,  a  loose,  flowing  upper  garment, — especially 
a  woman's  dress  or  an  official  robe;  any  loose  wrapper 
worn  by  gentlemai%  within  doors. 

Grackle,  the  purple  or  crow  blackbird.  It  is  a  great 
pest  to  oats  and  corn.  Shooting  at  them  considerably 
night  and  morning  will  drive  them  away.  It  is  still 
an  open  question  whether  they  do  more  harm  than 
good,  as  they  also  destroy  many  injurious  insects. 
They  pass  the  winter  in  the  South.  Sometimes  the 
red-winged  blackbird,  when  young,  is  mistaken  for 
young  grackle,  but  it  is  also  equally  destructive. 

Grade  Cattle  are  the  descendants  of  any  pure 
breed  crossed  with  the  native  or  mixed  breeds.  See 
Cattle,  page  211. 

Grafting.  This  is  the  process  of  so  fixing  a  shoot  or 


cion  or  twig  of  one  plant  upon  another  plant  that  it 
will  grow,  and  bear  its  own  fruit.  This  is  the  most 
common  method  of  propagating  varieties  with  their 
characteristics,  the  seeds  of  which,  if  sown,  would  pro- 
duce other  and  inferior  fruit.  There  are  several  meth- 
ods of  grafting,  some  being  better  for  some  plants  and 
others  for  other  plants.  The  most  important  points  to 
bear  in  mind  are,  to  apply  the  inner  bark  of  the  stock 
and  of  the  graft  precisely  to  each  other,  and  to  bind 
them  firmly  in  that  position  The  great  advantage  ob- 
tained by  grafting,  is  that  of  being  able  to  appropriate 
the  entire  vigor  of  an  old  established  plant  to  the  sin- 
gle piece  of  wood  which  is  attached  to  it  by  grafting; 
and  whether  this  be  in  the  ground  or  in  pots,  or  what- 
ever be  the  nature  of  the  subject,  there  is  no  other 
means  by  which  the  object  can  be  effected,  unless  it 
be  by  budding,  which,  after  all  is  said  and  done,  is  but 
a  branch  of  the  same  operation  ;  the  difference  being, 
that  whereas  by  grafting  we  attach  a  piece  of  wood, 
with  perhaps  several  eyes,  by  budding  we  cut  out  each 
eye  with  a  small  piece  of  bark,  and  by  cutting  a  slit  in 
the  bark  t)f  the  stock,  and  raising  it  on  each  side,  we 
are  enabled  to  tuck  in  the  small  piece  with  the  eye  to 
it,  and  bind  it  there.  In  this  case  the  operation  of 
tucking  the  one  bark  under  the  other  is  facilitated  by 
making  a  cross  cut.  It  is  obvious  that  every  eye  on  a 
new  variety  can  thus  be  made  into  a  plant,  and  the 
whole  vigor  of  the  stock,  as  in  the  case  of  grafting  the 
other  way,  is  thrown  into  the  growth  of  the  new  vari- 
ety. This  practice  is  more  adapted  in  some  subjects 
than  others.  Roses  are  nearly  all  propagated  by  bud- 
ding ;  and  those  who  wish  to  form  a  collection  cannot 
do  better  than  provide  themselves  with  briers  and  bud 
them  in  mid-summer,  or  thereabouts,  with  all  the  vari- 
eties they  require.     See  the  article  Budding. 

Whip  or  Tongue  Grafting.  This  is  most  gener- 
ally practiced  when  the  stock  and  cion  are  nearly  of  an 
equal  size.  The  point  is  in  so  forming  the  graft  and 
stock  that  the  sap  and  bark  ofeach  will  meet  the  other 
perfectly;  or,  if  either  be  too  large,  the  bark  will  match 
on  one  side.  The  tongue  is  a  notch  cut  in  the  stock 
corresponding  with  one  cut  in  the  cion,  each  having  a 
lip,  as  it  were,  to  meet  the  other,  and  when  put  to- 
gether, serve  as  a  support  in  steadying  the  graft  until 
they  are  united  in  growth.    (Fig.  i,  second  and  third 

examples.)  This  system 
is  largely  practiced  by 
nurserymen  in  the  propa- 
gation of  the  apple,  and, 
being  done  upon  the  roots 
of  the  stock,  is  called  root 
grafting.  The  work  can 
be  done  in  mid-winter,  the 
roots  being  kept  in  moist 
sand  all  winter,  and  cions 
being  taken  from  the  tree 
late  m  the  fall  or  any  time 
during  the'  winter  when 
they  are  not  frozen,  and 
Grafting  can  of  course  be 
done  upon  stocks  in  the  open  ground  in  spring,  or 


Fig.  I. — SpUct  and  Tonffue 
Gra/ting: 

kept  in  the  same  manner. 


SM 


GRAFTING. 


Fig.   3. — Saddle 


upon  limbs  of  trees  in  early  spring.  The  latter  is 
called  "  top-grafting,"  and  is  often  resorted  to  in  re- 
newing old  trees,  or  in  introducing  new  varieties. 

Splice  Grafting.  This  is  simply  binding  together 
the  smoothly  beveled  surfaces  of  the  two  pieces  with- 
out any  tongue  or  notch.  (First  example  in  Fig  i.) 
Crown  grafting  is  about  the  same,  differing  only  in  hav- 
ing a  simple  notch  in  each  piece  so  that  they  will  fit 
perfectly.  The  latter  is  rarely  prac- 
ticed except  upon  small  stocks  stand- 
ing in  the  ground,  and  then  worked 
near  the  upper  rootlet  or  fiber. 

Saddle  Grafting  is  one  in  which 
the  stock  is  cut  into  the  form  of  a 
smooth  wedge,  and  made  to  fit  in  a 
corresponding  deep  notch  cut  into  the 
lower  end  of  the  cion.  This  method 
is  practiced  more  with  the  cherry, 
peach,  plum,  apricot,  etc. 

Side  Grafting  is  that  in  which  a 
notch  or  slit  about  one  inch  long  is  Grating. 
cut  in  the  side  of  the  stock,  paring  the  outer  portion, 
then  splitung  the  graft  and  paring  both  the  inner  and 
outer  portion,  so  that  when  inserted  there  will  be  a 
union  of  the  bark  and  wood.  The  stock  should  not 
be  headed  in  until  the  graft  shows  signs  of  union,  and 
then  the  pruning  back  should  be  gradual. 

Cleft  Grafting  is  an  old  mode  now  seldom  prac- 
ticed. It  consists  in  sawing  the  stock  or  limb  off 
square,  then  splitting  it  down  with  grafting  knife  or 
chisel,  cutting  the  lower  end  of  the  cion  in  the  form  of 
a  wedge,  and  inserting  it  so  that  one  side  at  least  will 
be  in  association  with  the  alburnum,  or  inner  bark. 
The  withdrawing  of  the  chisel  or  knife  holds  the  graft 
firm.     Fig.  3. 

All  grafts  should  be  firmly  tied  up  m  an  envelope 
of  cotton  or  other  kind  of  cloth  dipped  in  grafting  wax, 
which  consists  of  four  parts  of  rosin  and  three  each 
of  bees-wax  and  lard,  melted  together.  This  is  gener- 
ally preferred,  although  there  are  of  course  many  com- 
positions made  for  the  purpose.    Fig.  i,  last_  example. 

Single-Bud  Grafting  consists  m  removing  a  por- 
tion of  the  wood,  bark  and  all,  from  the  stock,  and  fit- 
ting into  its  place  a  bud  with  a  piece  of  wood  and  bark 
attached. 

Crown  Grafting  is 
that  which  is  generally 
practiced  in  top-grafting, 
which  is  the  insertion  in 
the  margin  of  a  stub,  sawn 
off  for  the  purpwse,  several 
cions.  In  this  case,  in 
stead  ofsplitting  the  stock,  |f  9 
the  grafting  stiletto  is  care-  J|i3| 
fully  passed  one  or  two 
inches  down  between  the  Fig.,3.— c/^o*  Grafting. 
bark  and  wood,  loosening  it  and  slightly  cracking  it 
open,  when  the  graft,  which  is  cut  only  on  one  side  as 
a  tapering  half-round  wedge,  of  any  desired  length 
and  with  or  without  a  shoulder,  is  firmly  set  in.  Two, 
three  or  four  such  grafts  may  be  set  in  a  large  limb, 


their  number  hastening  the  coveringof  the  stump  of  the 
limb,  and  when  this  is  effected  they  can  be  cut  away. 

Grafting  by  approach,  or  inarching,  is  grafting  the 
cion  of  a  tree  growing  near,  without  cutting  it  off  from 
the  parent  tree  until  the  new  growth  is  established. 
This  mode  is  chiefly  followed  with  fruit  plants  in  green- 
houses, as  camellias,  oranges,  etc.,  which,  being  put  in 
boxes  or  pots,  can  be  readily  adjusted  for  the  process. 
A  stay  bar  is  often  of  advantage,  to  hold  the  trees 
steady  until  the  process  is  finished.  The  cut  surfaces 
in  this  work  should  of  course  be  made  exactly  to 
match. 

The  Cions.  Procure  the  grafts  or  cions  in  the  latter 
part  of  February,  or  during  the  first  part  of  March. 
The  best  cions  are  taken  from  the  ends  of  the  limbs, — 
last  year's  growth.  These  should  be  cut  from  one  to 
two  inches  below  the  starting  of  last  year's  growth. 
When  they  are  used  the  small  end  is  to  be  discarded. 
Three  buds  are  sufficient  to  have  on  a  graft.  Ordin- 
arily one  twig  will  make  but  one  or  at  the  most  two 
good  grafts.  The  last  year's  growth  are  preferable  to 
the  suckers,  or  "water-sprouts,"  as  they  come  into 
bearing  sooner — ^but  the  latter  will  grow  the  thriftiest 
as  a  general  rule.  Grafts  taken  below  these  will  come 
into  bearing  sooner  than  those  of  a  year's  age,  but  are 
usually  of  objectionable  shape,  and  make  a  low,  scrag- 
gly  top. 

The  cions  of  different  kinds  of  fruit  should  each  be 
placed  in  different  bundles  and  firmly  bound  with  a 
strong  cord,  to  which  should  beattacheda  tag  or  label 
of  pine,  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  from  three- 
fourths  to  one  inch  in  width,  on  which  should  be 
plainly  written  with  a  lead  pencil  the  name  of  the  kind 
of  fruit  it  represents.  The  best  way  to  preserve  the 
cions  until  they  are  required  for  use  is  a  question  of 
no  small  importance.  The  method  we  prefer  is  to 
pack  the  bundles  in  saw-dust  thoroughly  wetted,  lay- 
ing thick  layers  of  it  around  and  between  the  bundles 
in  a  water-tight  box.  The  box  should  be  kept  in  a 
cool  place,  or  may  be  buried  near  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Freezing  does  not  injure  them,  provided  no 
artificial  heat  is  used  to  extract  .the  frost.  They  will 
do  well  if  buried  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
When  the  weather  is  sufficiently  warm  the  process  of 
grafting  may  commence. 

Where  one  has  young  trees  raised  from  the  seeds, 
the  better  way  is  to  dig  them  up  in  the  fall,  after  they 
have  attained  the  size  of  three^ighths  to  half  an 
inch  in  diameter;  cut  off  the  tops  to  within  three 
to  five  inches  of  the  root,  and  place  them  in  moist  soil 
in  a  cellar,  filling  up  the  spaces  with  the  soil  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  top.  Leisure  hours  can  be  employed 
in  grafting  them.  In  trees  of  this  size,  this  is  done  by 
cutting  the  root  just  below  the  place  which,  before  it 
was  removed  from  the  place  where  it  grew,  was  at  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  with  a  sharp  knife,  making  a 
slant  of  three-fourths  to  one  and  one-fourth  inches 
in  length.  Select  a  graft  having  three  buds  as  near 
the  same  size  as  the  stock  as  possible,  and  cut  the 
lower  end  in  a  sLmt  that  will  be  in  a  perfect  fit  to  the 
stock.     Place  these  together,  being  sure  that  the  space 


GRAFTING-  WAX— GRAIN. 


587 


between  the  bark  and  the  wood  (the  avenue  for  the 
flow  of  the  sap)  fits  perfectly  on  one  side  at  least. 
Tonguing  is  useless.  If  the  graft  and  the  stock  are 
the  same  size  and  the  barks  fit  on  both  sides,  it  is  bet- 
ter, as  the  growth  of  the  cion  is  liable  to  be  greater. 
Having  done  this,  wrap  around  it  a  strip  of  muslin  on 
which  melted  grafting  wax  has  previously  been  spread 
with  a  brush,  replace  it  in  moist  soil  and  there 
let  it  remain  until  it  can  be  re-set  in  the  ground.  It  is 
better  to  have  the  orchard  ground  ready  prepared,  and 
set  them  where  they  are  to  remain,  at  a  distance  of 
thirty  feet  apart,  as  removing  them  again  from  the 
nursery,  where  they  may  have  been  placed  to  attain  a 
large  size,  retards  their  growth. 

Trees  may  be  grafted  in  the  limb  after  they  have 
grown  to  a  large  size,  provided  they  are  sound  and 
healthy.  Limbs  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches  in 
diameter  may  be  grafted.  This  is  usually  done  by 
what  is  called  "cleft  grafting." 

Where  the  stub  is  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter, two  grafts  should  be  inserted  in  each.  This 
makes  the  pressure  on  the  inserted  part  of  the  graft 
more  even,  and  gives  two  chances  instead  of  only  one 
to  have  a  living  graft.  If  both  scions  grow  one  should 
be  subsequently  sawn  off  close  to  the  stub,  for  if  both 
are  allowed  to  grow  they  will  form  a  crotch  that  may 
in  future  be  as  detrimental  as  it  would  be  unsightly. 

There  is  another  method  of  limb  grafting  which 
may  be  employed,  when  the  season  is  far  advanced, 
and  the  bark  "slips"  or  fails  to  split  at  the  cleft  in  the 
wood,  so  as  to  render  cleft-grafting  difficult  and  often 
impracticable.  It  is  to  prepare  the  stock  as  in  cleft 
grafting,  then  slit  the  bark,  and  if  the  stub  be  over  an 
inch  in  diameter  on  both  sides,  downward  for  the 
space  of  an  inch  or  more.  Raise  the  corners  of  the 
bark  slightly  with  the  point  of  a  knife  blade ;  then  at 
the  slit  insert  a  wedge  made  of  iron  or  hard,  seasoned 
wood,  and  loosen  the  edges  of  the  bark.  This  being 
done,  cover  the  top  of  the  stub  and  the  slits  with  wax. 

These  methods  of  grafting  may  be  practiced  on  ap- 
ple, pear,  plum,  and  some  other  fruit  trees,  but  for 
peach  trees  budding  is  preferred,  which  must  be  done 
later  in  the  season,  usually  in  the  months  of  August 
and  September. 

Grafting  Wax.  This  is  variously  made.  It  usually 
consists  of  rosin,  tallow  and  beeswax.  Sometimes 
they  are  mixed  in  equal  parts ;  but  this  mixture  is 
hardly  adhesive  enough ;  more  rosin  increases  its  te- 
nacity. A  cheap  and  useful  compound,  but  some- 
times found  rather  inconveniently  adhesive  to  the 
hands,  is  made  of  four  parts  of  rosin,  two  of  tallow,and 
one  of  beeswax  A  coat  of  the  wax,  about  one-twen- 
tieth of  an  inch  thick,  spread  over  muslin,  calico,  or 
tough  and  flexible  paper,  makes  an  excellent  plaster 
for  out-door  grafting;  or,  if  spread  half  as  thick  on 
paper,  is  well  adapted  to  root  grafting.  In  either 
case  the  strips  should  be  narrow,  that  they  may  be 
easily  wrapped  around  the  graft  till  it  is  well  covered, 
when  the  rest  may  be  torn  off.  In  making  the  plas- 
ters it  is  essential  that  the  ingredients  of  the  wax 
should  be  thoroughly  stirred  together  before  it  is 


spread.  A  paper,  soft,  thin  and  tough,  is  used  for 
wrapping.  For  out-door  grafting  in  cool  weather,  a 
furnace  of  charcoal  is  sometimes  necessary  to  soften 
the  wax;  but  all  out-door  grafting  should  be  done  when 
the  temperature  is  sufficiently  mild  to  keep  the  wax  soft 
enough  to  work. 

Grain.  This  term  includes  all  those  kinds  of 
grass  which  bear  a  straw,  and  which  are  cultivated 
on  account  of  their  seeds  for  the  production  of  meal 
or  flour.  The  word  corn,  or  its  equivalent  in  other 
languages, is  frequently  applied  exclusively  to  that  kind 
of  grain  which  constitutes  the  chief  nourishment  of 
the  country.  Thus,  in  a  great  part  of  Germany,  it  is 
rye ;  in  France,  it  is  wheat ;  in  the  Low  Countries, 
spelt,  and  in  North  America,  maize.  That  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  grain  grow  wild  in  some  countries  is  well 
known,  as,  for  example,  barley  and  oats  in  Germany; 
but  they  have  not  the  perfection  of  the  cultivated 
grains.  These  all  seem  to  be  natives  of  warmer  cli- 
mates in  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  to  be  an- 
nual plants,  becoming  hybernating  only  from  cultiva- 
tion, since  a  summer  does  not  suffice,  in  northern 
climates,  for  their  development.  In  common  with 
most  grasses,  they  form  their  stalks  or  stems  upon  the 
lower  joints  of  the  root.  Their  fascicular  roots  spread 
themselves  out  chiefly  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
which  they  almost  cover  with  their  thick  web,  while 
a  smaller  part  penetrates  deeper,  when  they  find 
looseness  of  soil  and  nourishment  to  attract  them. 
All  kinds  of  grain  contain  nutritious  particles  of  a  sim- 
ilar character,  although  they  vary,  both  in  their  quan- 
tity and  their  mixture,  in  various  grains.  These  ele- 
ments are:  i.  Gluten,  which  affords  the  strongest 
nourishment  for  the  animal  body.  2.  Fecula,  or 
starch,  which  is  very  nutritious,  although  not  so  much 
as  gluten,  which,  however,  it  seems  to  render  more 
digestible.  3.  A  sweet  mucilage,  which  is  more  nu- 
tritious than  starch,  but  is  small  in  quantity,  and  ren- 
ders the  grain  liable  to  the  vinous  and  acetous  fer- 
mentations. 4.  The  hulls,  which  consist  of  a  fibrous 
matter,  and  contain  a  digestible  aromatic  substance. 
5.  Moisture,  which  is  predominant  even  in  the  dryest 
grain,  and  increases  the  weight  of  the  mass,  although 
it  lessens  the  specific  gravity ;  it  affords  no  nourish- 
ment, hastens  the  decomjxisition  of  all  kinds  of  grain, 
if  they  are  not  kept  very  dry,  and  serves,  after  plant- 
ing, to  stimulate  the  first  motions  of  the  germ. 

Grain  Growing.  The  result  of  long  continued 
experience  proves  unmistakably  that  where  the  farm- 
ing is  good,  on  well  drained  and  deeply  cultivated  soil, 
thin  sowing,  no  matter  what  kind  of  grain,  is  far  more 
profitable  than  thick.  It  is  wrong  to  go  on  sowing 
the  same  quantity  of  seed  our  forefathers  did  when 
broadcasting,  without  taking  into  account  the  altered 
circumstances,  such  as  the  drill,  drainage,  and  higher 
farming,  and  then  complain  because  we  do  not  have 
larger  crops.  The  higher  you  farm  the  less  seed  is  re- 
quired. We  lay  down  no  particular  rule,  but  recom- 
mend each  farmer  to  satisfy  his  mind  by  comparative 
trials  which  quantity  of  seed  is  most  profitable  to  him 
under  his  peculiar  circumstances  of  soil,  climate,  and 


SM 


GRANARY. 


style  of  farming.  It  is  generally  known  that  ergot  in 
rye,  and  it  is  to  be  found  in  no  other  grain,  when 
brought  into  the  human  organism  operates  as  a  narcotic 
jxjison.  The  farmer  ought  to  remove  the  infected 
plants  growing  in  the   neighborhood  of  his  rye  field. 

It  requires  an  experienced  eye  to  discover  smut  in 
wheat,  for  the  infested  ears  are  not  distinguished  in 
their  outer  appearance  from  the  healthy  ones.  The 
diseased  grains,  however,  when  rubbed  between  the 
fingers,  burst  out  at  the  slightest  pressure,  and  we  see 
that,  instead  of  the  white  meal,  they  are  filled  up  with 
a  dark  smutty  mass,  which  is  distinguished  by  a  nau- 
seous smell  resembling  herring  brine.  A  solution  of 
blue  vitrol,  which  is  not  hurtful  to  the  seeds,  is  sure 
to  kill  the  dangerous  spores  and  at  the  same  time  is 
a  cheap  preventive. 

Rust  and  brands  infest  and  destroy  the  stem  as 
well  as  the  leaves.     In  examining  your  corn-fields  in 


Fig.  I — Grain  Dumptr. 

the  be^nning  of  summer,  you  will  most  likely  find  a 
number  of  plants  covered  all  over  with  bright,  rusty 
spots  and  lines.  Mildew  in  grain  is  the  mycelium  of  a 
parasitic  fungus,  which,  sometimes  very  thin  and  cob- 
web-like, sometimes  in  a  thick,  felty  layer,  disturbs  the 
development  of  the  infected  plant,  particularly  by  ob- 
structing the  stomata,  and  by  drawing  its  nourishment 
from  out  of  the  infected  organs  by  means  of  little  wart- 
like processes,  through  which  the  mycelium  is  at- 
tached to  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  often 
found  in  abundance  covering  the  leaves  of  the  sev- 
eral cereals.  Dark,  heavy  loam,  if  the  climate  is 
agreeable,  is  better  adapted  to  the  production  of  grain 
than  any  other.    See  articles  on  Corn,  Wheat,  Rye,  etc. 

Oranary,  an  apartment,  a  division  of  a  building, 
an  entire  building,  or  a  very  extensive  store,  for  con- 
taining and  preserving  grain. 

Every  granary,  whatever  its  capacity,  ought  to  be 
dry,  well-ventilated,  inaccessible  to  vermin,  and  con- 
veniently situated  for  both  receiving  and  surrender- 
ing its  contents ;  it  ought  to  have  appliances  for  regu- 
lating ventilation  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
grain  and  the  state  of  the  weather;  it  ought  to  afford 
scope  for  the  special  treatment  of  any  grain  which 
may  happen  to  be  attacked  by  disease ;  it  ought  to  be 
so  situated  and  constructed  as  to  be  free  from  in- 
jurious temperature,  and  from  any  access  of  foul  air 


or  damp  vapor;  and  if  it  be  more  than  a  mere  room 
or  recess,  for  keeping  a  small  slock  of  grain  for  a  single 
month  or  two  in  sacks,  it  ought  to  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions by  means  of  either  fixed  or  movable  partitions, 
in  order  that,  vnthout  waste  of  space,  different  kinds 
of  grain  and  different  parcels  of  the  same  kind  may 
be  effectually  kept  separate. 

A  room  finished  off  in  the  barn,  or  over  the  wagon 
shed,  though  often  made  to  answer  the  purpose,  is  not 
a  satisfactory  substitute  for  a  building  devoted  to  this 
special  purpose.  The  granary  may  be  a  very  simple 
structure,  but  it  should  be  an  independent  building. 
The  size  and  the  detail  of  construction  will  vary 
greatly  with  the  requirements  of  different  farms,  but 
there  are  a  few  general  principles  which  should  be 
universally  regarded.  The  building  should  be  set 
upon  stone  posts,  or  a  smooth  brick  wall,  which  should 
rise  at  least  three  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  effectual 
methods  for  keeping  rats  away 
from  the  grain.  If  walls  are 
used,  spaces  should  be  left  to 
allow  a  circulation  of  air  under 
the  building.  Two  sides  of  the 
granary  should  be  covered  with 
slats  2  }^  or  3  inches  wide,  and 
placed  y^  an  inch  apart.  The 
other  sides  should  be  boarded 
perfectly  tight.  The  eaves  should 
project  considerably  and  the  roof 
be  kept  constantly  in  repair.  The 
floor  should  be  made  of  planks 
closely  fitted  and  smoothly  laid. 
There  should  be  at  least  two  win- 
dows to  admit  light,  and  a  ventilator  should  also  be  pro- 
vided. Against  the  sides  covered  with  slats,  bins  for 
holding  ears  of  com  may  be  built.  These  should  not 
be  more  than  three  feet  wide,  but  in  height  may  ex- 
tend nearly  to  the  roof.  Against  the  sides  covered 
with  boards  bins  for  wheat,  oats  and  shelled  corn  may 
be  constructed.  These  should  be  perfectly  tight,  with 
well-fitting  covers,  and  provided  with  locks  and  keys. 
Bins  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  more  than  three 
or  four  feet  wide  and  four  feet  high.  They  should  be 
divided  off  by  partitions  into  several  compartments, 
each  holding  from  lo  to  40  bushels  of  grain,  and 
should  be  marked  on  the  inside  to  show  the  number  of 
bushels  they  contain,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  2,  page  60. 
Grain  Dumper.     A  modern  and  most  convenient 


FlO.  ».— Gra 


method  of  unloading  grain  from  the  wagon  is  illus- 


GRANGE— GRAPE. 


589 


trated  by  Fig.  i,  on  the  preceding  page.  Especially  is 
this  a  valuable  contrivance  for  mills  and  grain  eleva- 
tors. It  enables  men  to  unload  rapidly,  thus  avoiding 
delays  and  waste  of  time.  It  is  made  by  the  Nordyke 
&  Marmon  Company,  of  Indianajwlis,  Ind. 


Grain  Measurer. 


Fig.  3.— Grrtirt  Register. 


are  illustrations 
of  substantial 
and  perfectly 
working  grain 
m  e  a  surers, 
manufactured 
by  Nichols, 
S  he  pard  & 
Co.,  Battle 
Creek.  Mich. 


\ 


Grange,  a  farm;  generally  a  farm  with  a  house,  at 
a  distance  from  neighbors ;  an  organization  of  farmers 
for  mutual  instruction  and  self-protection. 

Granite  Ware,  sheet-iron  cooking  utensils  which 
have  a  clouded,  bluish  enamel  inside  and  out,  and  are 
more  free  from  ;x)isonous  matter  than  porcelain.  No 
boiling  of  articles  of  food  should  be  done  now-a-days 
in  uncoated  iron  vessels.  Care  is  requisite,  however, 
to  guard  against  burning  anything  in  enameled 
ware. 

Granlvorous  Animals,  animals  which  wholly  or 
mostly  feed  on  grain  or  other  seeds. 

Granulation,  the  act  of  forming  into  grains,  as 
jwwder,  sugar  and  honey.  In  the  heahng  of  wounds 
or  sores,  suppurative  granulation  is  the  growth  of 
grain-like  protuberances  of  healthy  tissue,  serving  to 
fill  the  cavity  and  unite  the  sides.  Sometimes  these 
grow  too  fast ;  then  they  are  unhealthy,  being  soft 
and  growing  beyond  the  edges  of  the  wound.  To  pre- 
vent this,  sprinkle  a  little  powdered  blue-stone  or  a 
little  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  the  wound  will  soon  heal 
level  with  the  surrounding  surface.  "  Granulated 
sugar  "  is  merely  a  selling  brand  of  a  variety  of  sugar. 
Honey  at  ordinary  temperatures  will  in  the  course  of 
a  few  weeks  or  months  whiten  and  granulate,  when  it 
is  said  to  be  "  candied." 

Grape.  The  grape  is  honored  by  greater  antiquity, 
perhaps,  than  any  other  fruit,  not  only  as  an  article 
of  diet,  but  also  as  a  source  of  a  beverage,  which  is 
more  jxDpular  than  that  made  from  the  other  fruits. 
The  modern  "  grape  cure"  is,  perhaps,  nothing  but  a 
revival  of  what  was  very  universally  practiced  in 
ancient  times.  In  most  acute  attacks  of  fevers,  if  the 
patient  eats  nothing  but  the  juice  and  pulp  of  the 
best  grapes,  he  will  recover  far  more  readily  than  by 
the  employment  of  any  other  "victuals  and  drink." 
But  this  is  not  the  place  to  repeat  all  the  praises  of 
this  fruit,  which  has  been  so  celebrated  in  prose  and 
song.     We  proceed  at  once  to  the  practical  item  of 

Propagation.  The  most  usual  method  is  by  cut- 
tings like  those  of  currants  and  gooseberries.  The 
cions  should  be  long  enough  to  contain  three  buds 
and  an   inch  or  two  more  at  each  end.     These  are 


planted  in  the  ground  with  one  bud  below  for  making 
roots,  and  two  above  for  the  vine.  While  but  one 
vine  should  be  allowed  to  grow,  the  two  buds  are 
taken  so  that  in  case  one  of  them  is  destroyed  by  ac- 
cident, there  is  another  to  grow.  Another  method  of 
propagation  is  "layering,"  the  process  of  which  is 
described  under  that  head.  After  one  season's  growth 
of  these  young  plants,  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the 
spring,  they  are  to  be  transplanted  to  the  vineyard, 
which  should  be  a  warm,  sunny  hillside,  not  steep, 
better  if  it  be  sandy,  gravelly  or  shaly,  and  of  the  qual- 
ity of  good  corn  ground. 

The  best  locality  is  the  southwestern  brow  of  a  hill, 
as  the  temperature  there  is  warmer  and  more  even,  and 
late  frosts  in  May  or  June  will  not  be  followed  so  soon 
by  a  hot  sun,  which  injures  the  vines.  The  drier  the 
soil  the  sweeter  the  fruit.  Some  say  that  the  grape 
does  better  where  the  winters  are  mild  and  the  sum- 
mers cool;  this  is  probably  true  for  hot  countries,  but 
in  the  extreme  Northern  porrion  of  the  United  States 
they  want  all  the  heat  they  can  get  in  the  summer 
time. 

Grafting  the  grape-vine  improves  the  fruit,  and  is 
best  done  in  the  winter  or  very  early  in  the  spring,  as 
the  plants  at  that  time  do  not  bleed.  It  is  believed, 
however,  that  the  blading  does  no  perceptible  injury, 
except  that  it  prevents,  in  grafting,  a  good  union  of 
the  cion  with  the  stock.  Bleeding  may  be  prevented 
by  working  into  the  pores  of  the  wound,  by  thumb  and 
finger,  a  paste  of  one  part  of  calcined  oyster-shells 
beaten  to  fine  powder  in  a  mortar,  and  three  parts  of 
cheese.  A  second  application  is  sometimes  necessary. 
Experience  varies  as  to  whether  we  should  graft 
above  or  below  the  surface,  or  whether  ring  or  cleft 
grafting  is  the  better.  Wild  vines  furnish  the  best 
stocks.  But  it  is  doubted  whether  grafting  is  needed 
in  the  West. 

The  ground  should  be  plowed  or  trenched  to  the 
depth  of  1 8  inches  or  two  feet,  being  enriched  by 
well  rotted  manure  and  thoroughly  pulverized.  In 
the  States  west  of  Lake  Michigan  it  is  best  to  stake 
off  the  rows  north  and  south,  about  eight  feet  apart, 
for  trellises,  and  six  for  stakes,  so  that  the  vines  will 
receive  all  the  sunshine  possible.  In  the  States  east 
it  is  perhaps  best  to  have  the  rows  running  east  and 
west,  so  that  the  western  breeze  will  dry  off  the  vines 
quickly  after  the  rains,  which  are  more  frequent  than 
in  the  West.  Where  the  ground  is  not  pulverized  to 
the  depth  above  mentioned,  holes  two  feet  in  diame- 
ter must  be  dug  to  that  depth,  with  a  mound  of  loose 
earth  in  the  bottom  of  each,  on  which  the  plants  are 
to  be  set,  with  the  roots  spread  out  as  represented  on 
page  511.  The  distance  of  plants  in  the  rows  should 
be  8  to  12  feet,  according  to  the  kinds  and  manner  of 
training.  Prune  the  roots  smoothly,  cutting  off 
bruised  ends  and  the  long  extensions.  In  general,  set 
the  plants  so  that  after  the  earth  is  pressed  closely 
upon  the  roots  they  will  be  at  the  same  depth  below 
the  level  of  the  ground  they  naturally  grew.  In  Wis- 
consin and  Minnesota  they  prefer  to  set  about  four 
inches  below   the  surface;  mulch  thoroughly,  and 


590 


GRAPE. 


keep  moist  the  first  year;  the  best  mulching  is  fresh- 
mown  grass  not  in  seed,  lightly  covered  with  leached 
wood  ashes.  Allow  but  one  cane  to  grow,  keeping  it 
tied  to  a  stake,  and  limit  its  height  to  three  or  four 
feet;  allow,  also,  the  laterals  not  to  extend  beyond 
two  or  three  buds ;  pinch  off  the  buds  at  first  start- 
ing, and  the  tendrils  too,  and  not  wait  until  you  have 
to  use  the  knife.  The  second  year  it  will  be  ready 
for  the  trellis  or  stake,  and  begin  to  bear  a  little,  but  it 
should  not  be  allowed  to  bear  fruit  this  year.  While 
some  viticulturists  are  in  favor  of  letting  the  vine 
grow  unpruned  and  unchecked,  bower  fashion,  most 
vineyardists  train  to  trellises  or  posts,  and  prune  the 
vine,  cutting  the  branches  back  to  within  three  or 
four  inches  of  the  main  stem,  and  leaving  two  or  three 
buds  for  next  year's  fruiting ;  but  the  next  year  only 
one  of  these  is  allowed  to  grow,  the  most  vig- 
orous or  the  lowest  being  the  favored  one.  When 
stake  training  is  contemplated,  the  posts  should  be 
set  before  the  planting,  that  the  roots  may  not  be  dis- 
turbed. 

The  trellis  consists  of  three  wires  or  courses  of 
lath  fastened  to  the  row  of  posts,  and  horizontal  train- 
ing is  preferable  to  perpendicular ;  also,  the  nearer  the 
ground  the  grapes  can  be  grown  and  matured  the 
better,  other  things  being  equal.  A  modification  of 
the  horizontal  is  the  "fan-shaped." 

In  November  or  early  winter,  prune  back  the  arms 
which  have  borne  fruit  the  previous  season,  near  the 
base  or  main  stem,  except  such  varieties  as  the  Rog- 
ers' Hybrids,  Isabella,  Diana  and  some  others,  which 
should  be  allowed  arms  of  old  wood,  and  the  young 
canes  cut  back,  or  kept  back,  to  short  spurs  of  one  or 
two  buds.  Cultivate  between  the  rows  with  a  five- 
tooth  cultivator,  and  use  the  hoe,  allowing  no  weeds 
or  grass  to  get  a  foothold.  All  grape-vines  should  be 
protected  during  the  winter ;  the  Concord  is  the  har- 
diest, and  does  fairly  well  without  being  buried  dur- 
ing the  winter,  but  even  it  will  do  enough  better  for 
protection  to  make  it  pay.  After  the  wounds  have 
had  a  few  days  to  season,  lay  the  vines  down  upon 
the  ground,  covering  with  straw,  seedless  hay,  or  corn- 
stalks and  light  earth  ,  it  matters  but  little  which  is 
next  the  vines.  Practice  and  creed  vary  as  to  the 
propriety  of  trimming  off  some  of  the  leaves  during 
the  summer. 

The  practice  of  what  is  called  the  "  annual  renew- 
al "  system  is  followed"  and  highly  recommended  by 
many  vineyardists.  It  consists  in  producing  new 
cane's  each  yearfor  the  next  season's  fruit.  Probably 
its  utility  is  owing  to  circumstances.  Grape  culturists 
will  vary  in  their  practice  so  long  as  one  class  endeav- 
or to  raise  the  greatest  amount  cheaply,  irrespective 
of  quality,  and  another  the  best  quality,  regardless  of 
cost. 

Overbearing  should  never  be  allowed,  as  it  weak- 
ens the  vines  and  renders  them  subject  to  disease  and 
insects. 

The  best  manure  is  a  compost  of  cow-dung,  old 
sods  or  loam  in  equal  parts,  and  to  each  wagon  load 
two  bushels  of  air-slacked  lime,  one  peck  of  salt 


and  one  bushel  of  ground  bone,  thrown  broadcast 
upon  the  ground  in  the  spring,  and  plowed  in. 
Land-plaster  is  good,  as  it  absorbs  moisture  from 
the  atmosphere  and  rains,  retaining  it  a  long  time, 
and  giving  it  slowly  back  to  the  soil  during  dry 
weather.  Cob  ashes,  tobacco  stems,  and  small  dead 
animals  are  also  very  good;  but  fresh  stable  manure 
should  never  be  apphed,  as  it  causes  mildew  and 
rot.  Burying  manure  one  year  on  one  side  of  the 
vine  and  the  next  on  the  other,  and  so  on,  is  often  very 
remunerative. 

Gathering  the  Fruit.  Grapes  are  generally 
gathered  before  they  are  sufficiently  ripe ;  they  do  not 
fully  ripen  until  a  week  or  two  after  they  color,  and 
the  Concord  is  better  if  it  is  let  remain  on  the 
vine  four  or  five  weeks  after.it  turns  black.  The 
Hartford  Prolific,  however,  is  about  as  good  as  soon 
as  it  fully  colors  as  it  will  ever  become. 

Keeping  the  Fruit.  Many  varieties  of  the  grape 
can  be  kept  far  into  the  winter,  some  even  until  spring; 
and  as  the  earliest  usually  ripen  in  August  or  the  first 
of  September,  with  a  well  selected  assortment  of  va- 
rieties we  may  have  it  in  season  nearly  or  quite  as 
long  as  the  apple.  For  keeping  they  should  be  gath- 
ered when  the  vines  and  fruit  are  dry  (the  middle  of 
a  bright  day  is  the  best),  spread  a  few  days  for  the 
evaporation  of  any  chance  moisture  and  the  drying  of 
the  ends  of  the  stems.  All  unripe,  decayed  and  im- 
perfect berries  should  be  removed.  Then  pack  in 
shallow  boxes  two  or  three  layers  deep,  with  or  with- 
out a  thickndss  of  paper  between  the  layers,  cover 
the  boxes  and  keep  dry  and  cool  as  possible  above 
the  freezing  point.  Perfectly  clean  dry  oats  are  ex- 
cellent for  packing :  there  is  not  the  objection  to  them 
that  is  found  in  sawdust,  chaff,  chopped  hay  or  other 
fine  and  dusty  materials.  Rye  straw  is  excellent. 
The  fruit  will  require  an  occasional  examination,  but 
with  a  little  care  we  may  enjoy  it  for  months. 

Where  the  Isabella,  Catawba,  Ionia  or  Diana  can 
be  grown,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  keeping  them  till 
the  first  of  the  new  year  or  later.  The  grapes  are  al- 
lowed to  ripen  fully;  they  are  picked  and  placed  in 
shallow  trays,  in  which  they  remain  in  an  airy  room 
to  "  cure."  The  operation  of  curing  consists  merely 
in  a  sort  of  wilting,  by  which  the  skin  becomes  tough- 
ened and  will  not  break  when  the  fruit  is  packed. 
The  clusters,  when  properly  "  cured,"  are  packed  in 
boxes,  usually  of  three  or  five  pounds  each.  The 
bottom  of  the  box  is  opened,  the  larger  clusters  laid 
in  carefully,  and  smaller  bunches  packed  in  upon 
them  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  require  a  moderate 
pressure  to  bring  the  cover  (or,  properly,  the  bottom) 
of  the  box  to  its  place,  where  it  is  nailed  down.  The 
pressure  used  is  such  that  when  the  top  of  the  box  is 
opened,  the  grapes  next  to  it  are  found  to  be  some- 
what flattened.  The  fruit  must  be  pressed  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  cannot  shake  in  travel,  and  this  can 
only  be  done  with  grapes  the  skin  of  which  has  been 
toughened  by  being  properly  cured.  If  clusters  were 
placed  in  the  box  as  they  come  from  the  vines,  and 
subjected  to   the   needed  pressure,   the  skin  would 


59* 


GRAPE. 


crack  around  the  stems,  liberating  the  juice,  and  the 
whole  would  soon  pass  into  decay.  With  the  Concord 
and  related  varieties,  the  skin  is  too  tender  to  allow  of 
long  keeping,  and  it  does  not  seem  to  toughen  in  the 
curing  process. 

Another  Method.  Take  new  soap  boxes  and  nail 
cleats  on  the  ends  or  sides,  about  one  inch  from  the 
top,  and  between  these,  bars  at  various  distances,  as 
required  by  the  varying  length  of  the  bearing  shoot- 
cuttings.  The  bars  are  made  by  nailing  a  small 
strip  on  top  of  each.  As  late  as  possible  in  the  sea- 
son cut  off  the  bearing-shoots  containing  the  bunches, 
and  shorten  them  so  they  will  crowd  between  the  end 
of  the  box  and  the  top  part  of  the  bar,  resting  on  the 
bottom  part.  Hang  the  bunches  in  their  natural  po- 
sorion  and  lay  on  the  cover.  By  this  method  the  box 
can  be  handled,  carried  to  the  light,  and  each  bunch 
be  examined  as  the  winter  advances.  Decaying  ber- 
ries or  bunches  can  be  removed,  and  the  best  be  kept, 
without  any  mouldy  taste,  as  is  so  common  when 
grapes  are  packed  solid  and  kept  late. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  The  insect  most  noxious 
to  the  grape-vine  in  the  West  is  a  species  of  louse 
known  only  by  its  scientific  name.  Phylloxera  (Fig.  i), 


Fio.  I,— Work  of  Pkylloxtra. 

which  sucks  the  roots,  causing  masses  of  warts  and 
knots,  ultimately  killing  the  vine.  Its  work  is  slow  and 
sure,  and  the  vine  being  weakened  by  it  is  very  often 
destroyed  more  readily  by  mildew,  rot,  etc.  The  Con- 
cord, Hartford  and  Ives'  Seedling  are  not  so  much  at- 
tacked by  it.  Remedies :  Whale-oil  soap  in  solution ; 
flooding  the  land  for  thirty  or  forty  days  after  the  sea- 
son's growth  has  subsided;  sulphuric  carbonate  of 
potash  sprinkled  on  the  ground  in  the  form  of  jxsw- 
der,  to  be  carried  down  into  the  ground  by  rain. 

The  Thrip  is  a  little  hopping  insect  which  infests 
.the  under  side  of  the  leaves  and  proves  very  destruct- 
ive, especially  upon  the  vines  protected  by  high  wood- 
en fences,  walls  or  houses.  The  leaves  are  sapped 
by  the  insect,  become  blanched  and  have  a  scorched 
appearance,  die,  and  afterward  the  whole  vine  dies. 
Remedies;  Night  lamps  and  tar  paper  still  mornings 
and  evenings  when  the  leaves  are  well  grown ;  or,  a 


few  applications  of  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 
The  Gall  Louse  is  similar  to  the  Thrip  in  its  habit, 
and  may  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 

Several  species  of  beetle  infest  the  grape,  namely, 
the  Flea  Beetle   (Fig.  2),  the  steel-colored  and  the 


Fig.  9. — Grape-vine  Flea  Beetle.    (Haltica  chalybea.) 
a,  leaf  infested  ;  6^  magnified  view  of  larva  ;  c,  cocoon  ;  d^  beetle. 

brown  spotted.  The  flea  beetle  is  a  small,  oblong, 
bluish  or  greenish  insect  and  a  very  active  jumper. 
It  is  the  larva  of  the  beetle  that  does  the  mischief  on 
the  vine.  It  is  of  a  shiny  brown  color,  with  a  row  of 
darker  spots  on  each  segment ;  the  head  is  black. 
The  only  redeeming  feature  about  it  is  that  it  seldom 
appears  in  the  same  locality  in  great  numbers  during 
consecutive  years.  These  beetles  leave  their  hiber- 
nating quarters  in  April,  and  attack  and  destroy  the 
young  leaf-buds  as  soon  as  they  appear;  later  they 
feed  upon  the  leaves  which  have  escaped  their  ear- 
lier ravages,  and  deposit  their  eggs  upon  thfem.  The 
eggs  are  of  an  orange  color,  and  soon  hatch  into  a 
chestnut-colored  larva.  These  larvae  also  feed  upon 
the  leaves,  and  when  they  appear  in  great  numbers 
sometimes  strip  the  vines  of  their  foliage.  After  a 
month  of  active  life  the  larvae  descend  to  the  ground 
and  bury  themselves  near  the  surface,  where  they 
make  cells  of  the  earth  and  change  to  pupae  of  a  dirty 
yellow  color.  The  adult  beetles,  issuing  in  the  course 
of  a  few  weeks,  again  feed  upon  the  leaves  during  the 
autumn,  doing,  however,  but  little  damage,  and  later 
seek  their  winter  quarters  beneath  the  bark  and 
splinters  on  the  vines  and  the  stakes  which  support 
them,  as  well  as  under  any  rubbish  that  may  be  in  the 
vineyard.  Remedy:  Take  two  pieces  of  common  cot- 
ton sheeting,  each  being  two  yards  long  and  half  as 
wide ;  fasten  sticks  across  the  ends  of  each  piece  to 
keep  the  cloth  open  and  then  drench  with  kerosene. 
Give  the  sheets  thus  prepared  to  two  persons,  each 
having  hold  of  the  rods  at  opposite  ends  of  the  sheets. 
Then  let  the  persons  pass  one  sheet  on  either  side  of 
the  vine,  being  careful  to  unite  the  cloth  around  the 


^« 


«' 


V 


.:>%^:.%: 


GRAPE. 


593 


base  of  the  vine;  then  let  a  third  person  give  the 
stake  to  which  the  vine  is  attached  a  sharp  blow  with 
a  heavy  stick.  Such  a  blow  will  in  nearly  every  case 
jar  the  beetles  into  the  sheets,  where  the  kerosene 
kills  them  almost  instantly. 

This  process,  after  little  expense,  can  be  performed 
almost  as  rapidly  as  the  persons  employed  can  walk 
from  one  vine  to  another.  The  expense  necessary  is 
very  trifling,  and  boys  can  do  the  work  quite  as  well 
as  men.  Warm,  bright  afternoons  are  the  proper 
times  for  this  work  to  be  done,  and  it  should  be  per- 
formed faithfully  every  sunny  day  until  the  vines  are 
out  of  danger.  This  mode  of  combating  the  beetle  is 
much  more  effectual  than  any  other  which  has  been 
hitherto  suggested ;  for  it  can  be  used  early  in  the 
season  before  the  vines  are  seriously  injured  and  be- 
fore the  insects  have  begun  to  multiply.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  above,  the  remedies  which  have  been 
recommended  often  should,  if  necessary,  be  used. 
These  are  as  follows :  First,  all  rubbish  should  be 
removed  from  the  vineyard,  and  the  stakes  and  trellises 
which  support  the  vines  be  well  cleaned  of  bark  and 
splinters,  so  as  to  afford  the  beetles  little  chance  for 
hibernating  in  the  vineyard.  Second,  if  the  larvse  ap- 
pear in  great  numbers,  lime  should  be  sifted  over 
the  vines. 

There  are  two  other  species  of  this  genus  noxious 
to  the  vine,  which  may  be  similarly  treated. 

The  larv£e  of  several  other  kinds  of  beetle  are  also 
injurious  to  the  vine ;  as,  Colaspis,  a  yellowish  grub ; 
Fidia,  or  "rose-bug,"  chestnut  brown;  drops  to  the 
ground  readily  and  easily  caught  like  plum  curculio; 
another  rose-bug  which  especially  infests  the  Clinton 
grape ;  several  si^ecies  of  vine-chafers,  which  should 
be  destroyed  by  dusting  or  syringing  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  their  first  appearance.  Grape  curculio, 
which  Hke  the  plum  curculio  drops  off  and  can  be 
caught  and  killed  in  the  same  way  ;  Bosteichus,  Fig. 

3,  which  also  is  in- 
'  jurious  to  the  ap- 
ple, the  peach  and 
the  hickory ;  broad- 
necked  Prionus,  a 
creamy  white  grub 
with  a  pale  bluish 
line  alongthe  back 
which  works  in  the 
roots  of  grape  and 
fruit  trees ;  and  the  tile-horn  Prionus,  whose  mischief 
is  done  before  it  is  discovered;  no  remedy  except  to 
destroy  the  vines. 

The  snowy  tree  cricket,  although  when  young  lives 
on  plant  lice  and  insect  eggs,  girdles  the  stems  of 
grapes,  causing  them  to  wither  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
Remedy :  Cut  off  the  affected  twigs  before  hatching 
time  and  burn  them. 

Mildew  consists  of  several  species  of  fungus,  and  is 
easily  detected.  The  best  remedy  known  is  the 
sprinkling  of  powdered  sulphur  and  quicklime  upon 
the  vines,  which,  however,  is  more  effectual    upon 

38 


F.G. 


Bosteichus  basitlare. 
larvii  ;  b^  pupa  ;  £■,  beetle. 


European  varieties  than  upon  American.  The  grape 
rot  is  a  serious  evil  in  the  West,  some  varieties  being 
far  more  liable  to  it  than  others.  The  Concord  can 
be  saved  from  it  by  a  sprinkling  of  air-slacked  lime, 
either  common  or  oyster,  and  sulphur,  in  equal  parts, 
several  times  during  the  season,  when  the  vines  are 
wet.  It  is  said  that  it  will  pay  to  enclose  each  bunch 
of  grapes  in  a  little  paper  sack  when  danger  threatens. 


Fig.  4. — Spotted  Vine-Chafer,  (Pelidnota  punctata.) 
<r,  larva  ;  ^,  pupa  ;  r,  beetle  ;  1^,  tip  of  abdomen  ;   f,  antenna,    magnified; 
/,  leg. 

Some  birds  are  troublesome  to  the  vineyard.  They 
can  be  kept  off  by  stretching  cotton  twine  over  the 
vineyard,  attached  to  laths  nailed  up. 

The  grape  rot  is  probably  due  to  certain  states  of 
the  weather,  which  favor  the  development  of  Bacteria, 
the  disease  being  similar  to  twig  blight  in  the  apple 
and  the  pear.  It  may  be  prevented  by  training 
against  buildings  or  on  high  poles  12  to  20  feet  high. 
The  use  of  paper  bags  is  said  also  to  be  a  preventive 
of  this,  as  well  as  of  other  diseases,  and  also  a  prt)- 
tection  against  birds  and  insects.  Muslin  bags  are 
better  than  paper,  as  they  are  more  easily  tied  on,  and 
they  will  be  good  for  several  years'  use.  Paper  bags, 
however,  have  the  advantage  of  turning  rain  better, 
which  is  an  object  with  some.  In  these  bags  white 
grapes  remain  of  a  greener  color,  but  the  other  sorts 
color  well. 

Varieties.  The  most  profitable  varieties  for  wine 
are  the  Oporto  and  Virginia  Seedling,  which  make  a 
red  wine ;  next  the  Martha,  which  makes  a  white  wine; 
and,  thirdly,  the  Delaware  and  Catawba, — in  some 
places  also  the  Herbemont.  Wine  from  Rogers'  Hy- 
brids imitates  foreign  wines. 

Adirondac.  Bunch  large,  compact,  shouldered ; 
berry  large,  perfectly  black,  beginning  of  September, 
very  good  dessert,  fair  market;  foliage  subject  to 
mildew. 

Agawam,  Rogers'  No,  15.  Bunch  long,  compact, 
shouldered ;  berry  large,  dark  red,  fair,  dessert  and 
market,  middle  of  September ;  keeps  well  after  gather- 
ing.    Is  a  shy  bearer. 

Allen's  Hybrid.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered,  com- 
pact ;  berry  medium,  whitish  yellow,  best  dessert,  poor 


594 


GRAPE. 


market,  middle  of  September ;  liable  to  mildew ;  finest 
of  white  grapes. 

Alvey.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered,  berry  small, 
black,  fair  dessert  and  market,  beginning  of  Septem- 
ber; has  a  thick,  tough  skin;  sour,  fibrous  pulp  and 
large  seeds. 

Autuchon,  Arnold's  Hybrid  No.  5.  Bunch  long, 
compact,  often  shouldered ;  berries  medium,  greenish 
white,  with  a  golden  tint  when  fully  ripe;  skin  thin  ; 
flesh  void  of  pulp,  sprightly  and  rich. 

Belvidere.  Hardier  than  the  Concord,  in  character 
and  quality  about  equal  to  the  Perkins;  ripens  the 
beginning  of  September. 

Brighton.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered ;  berry  large, 
strongly  adhering  to  the  stem;  skin  moderately  thick, 
reddish  purple;  flavor  rich,  sprightly,  vinous,  moder- 
ately sweet,  remarkably  agreeable,  not  entirely  free 
from  pulp ;  ripens  at  the  time  of  the  Concord,  is  more 
vigorous  and  the  fruit  is  better. 

Catawba.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered,  open,  red, 
very  good  dessert,  fair  market,  October ;  hardy  as  the 
Concord,  one  to  two  weeks  earlier,  becomes  foxy  when 
too  ripe ;  makes  good  wine ;  recovers  from  the  attacks 
of  the  phylloxera  about  every  third  or  fourth  year. 

Champion.     Very  early. 

Clinton.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  shouldered ; 
berry  small,  black,  sour,  very  poor  for  dessert  or 
market,  October ;  good  for  red  wine ;  very  subject  to 
insect  depredations  ;  rots  badly. 

Concord.  Bunch  long,  compact,  shouldered; 
black,  very  good  dessert,  best  market,  middle  Sep- 
tember ;  next  to  the  best  for  wine ;  it  makes  a  red 
wine ;  subject  to  rot  but  not  to  fungus ;  still  the  most 
profitable  grape  for  the  West.  Should  hang  on  the 
vine  four  or  five  weeks  after  coloring. 

Creveling.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  shouldered ; 
fruit  black,  good  dessert,  verj'  poor  market,  middle  of 
September ;  sets  fruit  poorly  and  is  a  thin  bearer. 

Croton.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  shouldered ; 
berry  small,  greenish  yellow,  translucent,  remarkably 
delicate  and  beautiful;  flesh  uniformly  melring, sweet 
and  of  a  Chasselas  flavor ;  has  but  one  or  two  seeds, 
which  are  small ;  hangs  on  the  vines  until  late ;  keeps 
well  in  the  winter ;  makes  good  raisins ;  very  produc- 
tive and  hardy,  a  free  grower,  of  firm,  short-jointed 
wood  ;  subject  to  mildew ;  fruit  ripens  the  beginning  of 
September ;  one  of  the  best  table  grapes. 

Delaware.  Bunch  small,  compact,  shouldered; 
berry  small,  light  red;  flesh  very  sweet,  mild  and 
pleasant ;  best  dessert  and  market,  middle  of  Septem- 
ber, but  is  not  vigorous,  being  of  slow  growth,  subject 
to  diseases  and  insects ;  does  better  grafted  on  trimmed 
roots  and  cultivated  in  a  clay  soil. 

Diana.  Bunch  large,  compact,  long ;  berry  large, 
light  red,  rather  foxy,  with  a  thick,  tough  skin,  fair 
dessert  and  market,  end  of  September ;  one  of  the  best 
keepers ;  a  thin  bearer  on  strong  soil. 

Elvira.  Vigorous,  hardy  and  productive,  light  green 
fruit,  but  crowded  and  apt  to  rot. 

Eumelan.  Bunch  large,  compact,  shouldered ;  berry 
purple  black,  best  dessert,  very  poor  market,  middle 


of  September ;  has  large  seeds ;  fruit  commences  color- 
ing in  August. 

Eva.  Like  the  Martha,  but  white  and  a  little  bet- 
ter in  quality. 

Hartford  Prolific,  Bunch  large,  compact,  shoul- 
dered ;  berry  large,  black,  poor  dessert,  good  market, 
beginning  of  September,  hardy  and  productive. 

GcEthe, Rogers' No.  i.  Valuable  in  ladtude  39°; 
ripens  late;  beautiful  and  of  fine  flavor;  berries  very 
large,  yellowish  green,  often  blotched  with  dull  red; 
bunch  large,  shouldered.  Ready  for  use  almost  as  soon 
as  colored. 

Herbemont.  Thin  skin,  luscious  juice ;  berry  small, 
dark  blue,  covered  with  a  thick,  light  bloom;  bunch 
large,  compact,  shouldered;  rather  a  southern  grape, 

lona.  Bunch  large,  open  shouldered ;  fruit  red,  best 
dessert,  fair  market,  middle  of  September;  not  vigor- 
ous, but  resists  diseases  and  insects ;  blossoms  late. 

Isabella.  Bunch  large,  shouldered,  open  ;  berry 
large,  oval,  black,  fair  dessert  and  market,  end  of  Sep- 
tember; fair  for  wine;  some  seasons  it  fails  to  ripen ; 
should  be  pruned  to  single  or  two-eyed  spurs. 

Israella.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  shouldered; 
berry  large,  oval,  purple  black,  good  dessert,  poor 
market,  middle  of  September ;  sweet,  free  from  pulp ; 
requires  warm  soil. 

Ives,  Ives'  Seedling.  Bunch  medium,  compact, 
shouldered;  fruit  black,  good  dessert,  poor  market, 
end  of  September;  good  for  wine;  vine  vigorous,  hardy 
and  productive ;  does  better  on  heavy  soil ;  among  the 
three  best  for  profit  in  latitude  40°. 

Janesville.  Black,  good  dessert  and  market,  be- 
ginning of  September;  two  to  three  weeks  earlier  and 
hardier  than  the  Concord ;  great  favorite  in  the  North- 
west ;  second  quality  in  flavor. 

Joseph  Henry.     Earliest,  and  good  as  Delaware. 

Lady.  Bunch  medium,  compact,  long;  berry 
large,  yellowish  green,  best  dessert,  middle  of  Septem- 
ber; the  best  of  the  white  grapes;  foliage  persistent 
in  some  sections,  in  other  places  it  falls  off  in  July 
and  renewed  in  the  fall  and  the  wood«seems  to  ripen; 
in  the  latter  case  the  fruit  withers ;  vine  hardy  as  the 
Concord. 

Lady  Washington  is  a  new  and  promising  variety. 

Lindley,  Rogers'  No.  9.  Bunch  medium  size, 
long,  compact ;  berry  a  beautiful  red,  fair  market, 
dessert  and  wine,  middle  of  September ;  hardy,  vigor- 
rous  and  productive. 

Martha.  Bunch  medium,  open-shouldered ;  berry 
large,  beautiful  greenish  yellow,  very  sweet,  rather 
foxy,  poor  dessert,  fair  market  and  wine,  middle  of 
September;  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive. 

Maxatawney.  Bunch  medium,  loose  generally; 
berry  oval,  greenish  white  with  an  amber  tint ;  flesh 
not  pulpy,  very  sweet  and  delicious,  good  market  and 
wine,  last  of  September. 

Merrimac,  Rogers'  No.  19.  Bunch  large,  short, 
broad,  compact ;  berry  large,  black,  good  dessert  and 
market,  especially  in  latitude  38" ;  middle  of  Sep- 
tember; much  like  the  Wilder  in  quality;  vine  vigor- 
ous and  prolific. 


GRASS. 


595 


Missouri  Muscadine.  "  Hardiest  of  all,  and  bears 
like  a  Siberian  crab-apple." 

Norton's  Virginia.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered, 
compact;  berry  small,  dark  purple,  jxsor  dessert  and 
fair  market,  especially  for  wine,  but  for  the  latter  pur- 
pose it  needs  water  and  sugar;  ripens  in  October; 
needs  late  protection  or  favorable  season. 

Oporto.  Most  profitable  grape  in  the  Northwest 
for  wine ;  the  wine  is  red ;  bunch  small,  slightly 
shouldered;  berry  medium,  black;  flesh  purple,  pulpy, 
austere. 

Perkins.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered,  compact; 
berry  oval,  light  red,  becoming  copper-colored,  covered 
with  a  light  bloom ;  good  market  and  wine,  and  in 
some  places  next  to  the  Concord  for  profit;  plant  very 
hardy  and  productive ;  fruit  ripens  early,  inclined  to 
be  foxy  when  over-ripe. 

Prentiss.  Bunch  medium,  skin  thick,  flesh  good, 
rich,  sweet  flavor;  one  of  the  latest. 

Salem,  Rogers' No.  22.  Bunch  short,  small,  broad, 
compact;  berry  large,  dark  red,  good  dessert,  market 
and  wine;  end  of  September;  vine  vigorous,  pro- 
ductive. 

Taylor's  Bullitt.  Bunch  small,  short,  shouldered, 
compact ;  berry  small,  greenish  white  and  amber, 
good  toward  the  South,  end  of  September ;  a  beauti- 
ful grape. 

To  Kalon.  Bunch  large,  shouldered;  berry  large, 
purple-black,  very  good  dessert;  poor  market;  end  of 
September  ;  inclined  to  rot. 

Walter.  Bunch  medium,  shouldered,  compact ; 
berry  medium,  light  red,  best  dessert,  fair  market, 
wine  and  raisins;  middle  of  September;  vine  does 
not  do  well  in  the  East. 

Weehawken.     A  fine  early  white  grape. 

Wilder,  Rogers'  No.  4.  Bunch  large,  compact, 
shouldered,  sometimes  double-shouldered  ;  berry 
large,  black,  with  a  slight  bloom ;  very  good  dessert, 
market  and  wine;  middle  of  September;  succeeds 
well  in  the  West ;  should  be  pruned  to  single  or  two- 
eyed  spurs. 

Worden.  Bunch  large,  compact,  shouldered ;  berry 
large,  black,  very  good  dessert  and  market ;  a  week 
earlier  than  Concord  and  better  in  quality ;  valuable 
in  the  latitude  of  Central  Illinois. 

Foreign  grapes  are  recommended  strictly  for  culti- 
vation under  glass  ;  and  as,  when  thus  situated,  they 
may  be  considered  for  all  practical  purposes  as  inde- 
pendent of  climate,  and  as  they  are,  moreover,  thus 
grown  mainly  if  not  wholly  for  dessert  purposes,  we 
will  here  coj)y  merely  the  list  recommended  by  the 
American  Pomological  Society: 

Barbarossa,  Prince  Albert,  Brigola.  Black,  sweet, 
very  late;  hot  vinery. 

Black  Champion.     Sweet,  early  ;  cold  vinery. 

Black  Damascus.     Sweet,  late ;  cold  vinery. 

Black  Frontignan.  Muscat  flavor,  late;  cold 
vinery. 

Black  Hamburg  Sweet.  Ripens  the  average  time ; 
cold  vinery. 


Black  Prince.  Sweet,  ripens  at  the  average  time ; 
cold  vinery. 

Black  July.     Sweet,  early ;  cold  vinery. 

Bowood  Muscat.  White,  Muscat  flavor,  ripens  at 
the  average  time  ;  hot  vinery. 

Buckland  Sweetwater.  White,  sweet,  ripens  at  the 
average  time  ;  cold  vinery. 

Calabriana  Raisin.  White,  sweet,  late ;  hot 
vinery. 

Cannon-Bail  Muscat.     White,  late ;  hot  vinery. 

Chasselas  M  usque,  Joslin's  St.  Alban's.  White, 
early;  hot  vinery. 

Due  de  Magenta.     Black,  sweet,  early ;  hot  vinery. 

Early  Silver  Frontignan.  White,  Muscat,  early; 
hot  vinery. 

Golden  Hamburg,  Stockwood  Golden  Hamburg. 
White,  sweet,  late ;  hot  vinery. 

Golden  Champion.  Amber,  sweet,  medium  season; 
hot  vinery. 

Grizzly  Fronrignan,  Red  Frontignan,  or  Constantia. 
Red  and  yellow,  Muscat,  medium  season  ;  hot  vinery. 

Gros  Colman.     Purple,  sweet,  late;  cold  vinery. 

Lady  Down's  Seedling.  Black,  sweet,  very  late; 
hot  vinery. 

Muscat  of  Alexandria.     Black,  late ;  hot  vinerj'. 

Muscat  Hamburg.  Black,  average  season ;  hot 
vinery. 

Mrs.  Prince's  Black  Muscat.     Late  ;  hot  vinery. 

Queen  of  Nice.     White. 

Red  or  Rose  Chasselas.  Red,  sweet,  medium  sea- 
son ;  hot  vinery. 

Red  Lombardy.  Red,  sweet,  medium  season ;  hot 
vinery. 

Rio  Virgin.  Royal  Muscadine,  white,  sweet,  early; 
cold  vinery. 

White  Nice.     White,  sweet,  late ;  hot  vinery. 

West's,  St.  Peter's.  Black,  sweet,  very  late;  hot 
vinery. 

White  or  Dutch  Sweetwater.  Sweet,  early;  cold 
vinery. 

White  Frontignan,  or  Constantia,  Muscat  Blanc,  etc. 
White,  Muscat,  average  season  ;  hot  vinery. 

Wilmot's  or  Dutch  Hamburg.  Black,  sweet, 
medium  season;  hot  vinery. 

Zinfindal.  Black,  sweet,  average  season;  hot 
vinery. 

Grass,  a  vast  and  most  important  natural  order 
of  plants.  It  comprises  probably  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  vegetable  kingdom,  and  contributes  to  the  green 
parts  of  the  world  by  far  the  greater  part  of  their  ver- 
dure. It  includes  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of 
species  which  constitute  the  daily  food  of  animals,  and 
yet  it  exhibits  one  of  the  simplest  structures  which  oc- 
cur among  the  perfect  forms  of  vegetation,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  thoroughly  natural  orders  known  in  sys- 
tematic botany.  It  combines  such  amazing  specific 
variety,  with  general  simplicity, as  to  be  comparatively 
very  easy  of  study  and  arrangement.  The  grasses 
display  to  the  economist  a  stupendous  instance  of  the 
adaptations  of  plants  to  the  uses  of  man  and  the  lower 


596 


GJtASS. 


animals ;  they  afford  the  young  botanist  the  best  illus- 
tration of  the  truth  and  beauty  of  the  natural  orders 
of  plants;  and  they  demonstrate,  in  ten  thousand  other 
ways,  by  their  organism,  their  mechanical  transmuta- 
tions, their  connection  with  soil  and  light  and  air,  and 
the  mighty  and  multitudinous  parts  which  they  display 
between  lifeless  elements  and  living  bodies,  the  prov- 
idence, wisdom,  and  benignity  of  the  Creator.  They 
comprise  all  the  plants  which  yield  grain,  most  of  those 
which  constitute  pasture,  some  of  the  best  which  yield 
sugar,  and  not  a  few  which  abound  in  useful  secretions, 
grateful  juices  and  fragrant  odors.  Their  thousands 
of  species  are  distinguished  from  one  another,  not  only 
by  obvious  botanical  characters,  but  by  their  nutritive 
values,  their  economical  adaptations,  their  periods  of 
flowering,  their  habits  of  duration,  their  methods  and 
seasons  of  growth,  and  their  love  or  dislike  of  particu- 
lar soils  and  situations.  Their  flowers,  though  un- 
heeded or  thought  obscure  by  superficial  observers,  are 
remarkable  for  the  perfection  of  their  parts,  the  ele- 
gance of  their  structure,  and  the  blending  of  only  one 
set  of  differential  marks  with  an  enormous  variety  of 
generic  and  specific  characters ;  and  either  by  the  tex- 
ture of  their  organs,  the  number  of  their  stamens,  or 
the  relation  of  their  sexes,  or  especially  by  the  form, 
texture,  appearance,  number,  position,  and  arrangement 
of  glumes,  paleae  and  scales,  they  afford  means  of  a 
far  readier  and  surer  discrimination  than  if  they  were 
among  the  most  gorgeous  and  complicated  glories  of 
the  flower  garden. 

The  vegetable  kingdom  is  divided  into  three  great 
natural  orders,  called  Acrogenous,  Exogenous,  and 
Endogenous,  terms  referring  to  their  different  modes 
of  growing.  To  the  last  of  these  belong  the  grasses. 
The  word  Endogenous  means  ingrowing;  that  is,  the 
increase  in  the  growth  takes  place  upon  the  interior 
of  the  stem,  which  is  often  hollow,  though  mostly  filled 
with  a  soft,  pithy  substance,  which  becomes  harder  as 
it  nears  the  outer  surface  of  the  stem.  The  peculiar 
formation  of  the  leaves  of  endogenous  plants  is  also 
striking ;  the  veins  all  run  parallel  with  each  other, 
mostly  throughout  their  entire  length.instead  of  branch- 
ing off  and  forming  the  beautiful  and  prominent  net- 
work so  noticeable  in  others.  To  this  order  also  belong 
a  variety  of  plants  differing  widely  from  the  grasses, 
such  as  some  species  of  of  the  Lilies,  the  Orchids, 
and  many  more,  some  of  which  will  be  mentioned 
hereafter. 

The  stems  of  most  plants  are  much  branched,  but 
the  formation  of  the  grasses  is  peculiar,  the  stalk  being 
mostly  tubular  and  jointed,  and  quite  simple,  except 
where,  in  some  instances,  it  is  parted  to  give  place  to 
a  cluster  of  flowers.  The  leaves  are  very  long  and 
narrow,  and  the  flowers  are  variously  arranged,  some- 
times scattered  loosely  uixjn  the  stem,  as  in  the  oats, 
sometimes  in  a  short,  compact  head,  suspended  from 
the  ends  of  long  and  slender  branchlets,  as  in  the 
Fescue  grasses ;  and  sometimes  they  are  densely 
crowded  at  the  end  of  the  stem,  in  a  lengthened  spike, 
as  in  Wheat,  Rye  and  Timothy.  Each  flower  is  com- 
posed of  concave  valves,  placed  one  over  the  other; 


they  are  most  conspicuous  when  the  beautiful  white, 
yellow,  purple  or  scarlet  anthers,  which  are  hung 
gracefully  upon  their  slender  filaments,  project  from 
the  lips  of  the  corolla ;  the  plant  is  then  in  bloom;  and 
who  does  not  admire  a  specimen  of  fresh-blown  Fox- 
tail or  Timothy,  especially  when  on  some  foggy 
morning  the  minute  particles  of  moisture  have  settled 
upon  the  delicate  stamens,  giving  them  the  appear- 
ance of  being  thickly  studded  with  jewels.'' 

We  have  said  that  many  of  these  plants  have  jointed 
stems ;  this  is  observed  in  those  whose  leaves  grow 
one  above  the  other;  each  joint  here  answers  the 
double  purpose  of  giving  strength  to  the  stem  and  sup- 
port to  the  leaf  But,  in  other  varieties,  the  only  leaves 
produced  are  what  are  called  radical,  or  leaves  grow- 
ing from  the  root ;  with  these  the  stems  are  not  jointed, 
but  receive  additional  strength  from  their  being  some- 
times triangular  or  square,  and  mostly  very  fleshy  and 
stout. 

It  is  a  remarkable  provision  of  Nature,  that  those 
plants  which  appear  to  have  been  designed  for  food, 
either  bear  seed  in  great  abundance,  or  are  supplied 
with  some  separate  provision  for  reproducing  them- 
selves ;  this  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  grasses. 
Wheat,  Rye,  Com,  Oats,  Rice,  and  Barley,  which  con- 
stitute staple  articles  of  food,  all  produce  their  seed  in 
great  quantities ;  while  in  many  species  whose  seed 
supply  the  want^  of  the  birds,  the  roots  are  perennial 
and  creeping,  and  are  continually  sending  up  suckers, 
thus  increasing  themselves  many-fold  by  a  distinct 
method. 

Those  seeds  which  require  to  be  sown  every  year 
are  reserved  for  the  use  of  man,  whose  superior  intel- 
lect teaches  him  the  proper  mode  of  rendering  them 
useful;  while  the  inferior  animals  depend  entirely 
upon  that  provision  which  Nature  has  made  for  their 
supply. 

The  cereal  grasses,  or  grain  plants,  are  very  rapid  in 
their  growth,  and  in  a  surprisingly  short  time  send  up 
a  tall,  hollow  stem,  divided  by  joints  where  the  leaves 
are  inserted,  one  at  each  joint,  on  the  alternate  sides 
of  the  stem ;  each  leaf  embracing  the  stem  like  a 
sheath. 

Wheat  stands  at  the  head  of  the  cereal  grasses  for 
its  great  productiveness  and  utility.  There  is  no  doubt 
of  its  great  antiquity,  grains  having  frequently  been 
found  enclosed  with  the  mummies  of  Egypt.  Some 
of  these  having  been  sown,  have  produced  plants  sim- 
ilar to  those  now  grown  in  the  Levant. 

We  do  not  wish,  however,  todiscuss  thecereal  grains 
in  this  article,  but  will  confine  ourselves  to  those  plants 
which  come  under  the  head  of  the  term  grass  as  used 
in  every-day  life  by  many  people.  They  apply  it  to 
all  those  plants  which  are  used  for  pastures  and 
meadows.  This  is  a  classification,  however,  founded 
upon  use  alone,  disregarding  all  the  other  features  of 
the  plants.  A  great  variety  of  grasses  and  other  plants 
are  known  by  the  same  name  in  different  sections,  or 
one  plant  may  have  several  names.  Such  names  af- 
ford little  guide  as  to  what  is  meant.  There  is  such  a 
variance  in  this  respect  that  without  the  Latin  name 


GRASS. 


597 


is  given,  one  cannot  be  sure  that  he  is  correct  in  his 
naming. 

Our  Western  prairies  are  particularly  excellent  for 
the  raising  of  the  grains  and  hay,  on  account  of  the 
humus  consisting  so  largely  of  the  remains  of  the 
prairie  grass  which  has  for  many  centuries  grown 
ujxjn  them.  Were  the  climate  always  favorable,  the 
prairies  of  the  West  would  far  excel  all  the  rest  of  the 
world  every  year  in  the  production  of  these  most  use- 
ful articles  of  food  and  forage.  In  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Iowa  and  Missouri,  forage  grasses  are  more  profitable 
than  the  small  grains.  Among  the  many  kinds  of 
grass  which  have  been  profitably  cultivated  for  hay, 
we  will  name,  in  the  order  of  their  popularity,  only 
these :  Timothy,  red-top,  Hungarian,  millet,  orchard 
grass,  the  fescues  and  blue  grass.  The  last  mentioned, 
although  little  cultivated,  constitutes  our  most  valu- 
able grass  for  forage,  both  in  respect  to  its  nutritive 
qualities  and  its  universality  of  growth.  The  species 
abounding  in  the  Northern  States  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  different  from  the  "  blue  grass  of  Kentucky," 
and  by  others  to  be  a  variety  of  the  same.  Timothy 
flourishes  in  all  soils  except  such  as  are  wet,  too 
light,  dry  or  sandy,  and  is  found  in  perfection  on  the 
rich  clay  loams  between  40*^  and  44°  north  latitude. 
Orchard  grass  furnishes  three  good  crops  in  one 
season.  The  kind  of  grass  suited  for  permanent 
pasture  depends  uixsn  the  kind  of  soil.  Indeed,  it  is 
hardly  worth  while  to  try  to  seed  down  permanency 
any  but  moist  soils.  For  these  the  following  kinds  'of 
grasses  are  best  suited :  Red  top,  5  pounds  per  acre ; 
creeping  bent,  five  pounds,  meadow  spear-grass,  4 
pounds;  fowl  meadow-grass,  4  jwunds;  red  fescue,  5 
pounds;  meadow  oat-grass,  4  jxjunds ;  crested  dog's 
tail,  3  jx)unds;  timothy,  3  jxjunds. 

Cultivation  ok  the  Grasses.  As  a  general  rule, 
grass  seeds  do  best  when  sown  early  in  the  spring,  in 
a  mellovv  soil.  If  this  is  done  while  the  frost  is  leaving 
the  ground,  no  harrowing  will  be  necessary,  as  the 
spring  rains  wash  the  seed  into  the  porous  ground  and 
secure  to  it  an  early  germination.  They  are  also 
successfully  sown  in  August  or  September,  when  the 
fall  rains  will  generally  give  them  sufficient  growth  to 
stand  the  winter,  if  the  land  be  free  from  standing 
water.  Many  judicious  farmers  renovate  their  old, 
worn-out  meadows  by  giving  them  a  coating  of  unfer- 
niented  manure  and  then  turning  the  sod  com))letely 
over.  On  the  surface  thus  plowed,  a  dressing  of  well 
rotted  manure  or  compost  with  ashes  is  spread  and 
thoroughly  harrowed  in  lengthwise  with  the  furrows. 
The  seed  is  then  sown  and  slightly  harrowed  in,  and 
the  decomjx)sing  manure,  with  the  stubble  and  roots 
of  the  old  sod,  give  an  immediate  and  luxuriant  growth. 
Grain  may  occupy  the  land  with  the  grass  seed,  but 
if  the  latter  be  sown  alone  and  sufficiently  thick,  the 
young  plants  will  exclude  the  weeds  and  occupy  the 
soil  as  profitably  as  can  be  done  with  the  grain.  For 
a  good  coating  of  grass,  the  English  method  is  to  m\\ 
together  and  sow  on  a  single  acre,  without  any  grain, 
a  bushel  or  more  of  various  seeds  best  adapted  to  the 
purpose.     Sowing  broadcast  by  hand,  on  a  very  calm 


day,  is  a  good  method,  if  skillfully  done ;  otherwise 
one  of  the  modern  drills  should  be  used. 

Lands  that  should  be  kept  in  perpetual  grass  are 
such  as  are  frequently  under  water,  heavy,  tenacious 
clays,  and  the  steep  hillside  tracts  which  are  liable  to 
wash.  Low  bottom  lands  are  of  course  the  most 
profitable  for  haying,  as  they  are  kept  rich  by  overflows. 
Strong  clay  lands  can  not  be  properly  worked  with  the 
plow  without  great  labor,  unless  when  under-drained 
and  well  filled  with  manure ;  yet  these  soils  are,  next 
to  the  bottom  lands,  the  most  profitable  for  hay  crops. 
In  breaking  up  such  land  it  should  be  well  plowed, 
manured,  harrowed  and  heavily  seeded  to  grass ;  and 
if  any  deficiency  of  seed  or  growth  is  manifested  they 
should  receive  an  addition  of  seed,  with  a  com[X)st 
dressing.  A  Wisconsin  dairyman,  however,  maintains 
that  surface  cultivation,  without  plowing,  is  the  best. 
The  necessities  and  advantages  of  seeding  steep  hill- 
sides, subject  to  wash  by  the  rains,  are  too  apparent 
to  need  any  illustration.  It  is  well  to  pasture  such 
land  to  sheep,  as  they  drop  most  of  their  manure  on 
the  higher  points,  which  is  partially  washed  down  and 
sustains  the  fertility  of  every  part.  Very  stony  land 
should  not  be  broken  up  by  the  plow  for  the  meadow 
any  more  than  for  any  other  purpose. 

Permanent  meadows  and  pastures  should  be  now 
and  then  renovated,  as  there  are  not  returned  to  them 
quite  all  the  elements  that  are  taken  from  them. 
After  skimming  the  cream  off  them  for  a  number  of 
years,  returning  to  them  only  the  grosser  constituents 
will  not  restore  to  them  their  original  richness.  Ground 
bones,  gypsum,  and  in  short  whatever  tends  to  develoj) 
an  exuberant  vegetation,  must  be  constantly  added  to 
the  ground.  Ashes  and  salt  are  particularly  good  for 
pasture  lands,  as  their  office  is  to  cause  the  earth  to 
give  up  to  the  grass  and  other  forage  what  plant  food 
It  contains.  Lime,  bone  and  gypsum  add  to  the 
([uantity  of  plant  food  in  the  soil.  Permanent  meadow 
lands,  if  constantly  cropped  without  manures,  may  Le 
exhausted  with  much  greater  rapidity  than  pastures, 
though  this  depreciation  is  much  more  gradual  than 
with  tillage  lands.  The  proper  time  of  applying 
fertilizers  is  by  scattering  them  over  the  surface  wlien 
the  grass  is  just  commencing  a  vigorous  growth  in  the 
spring,  or  simultaneously  with  the  first  rains  after 
mowing. 

While  meadows  may  be  pastured  with  impunity  in 
the  fall  when  the  ground  is  dry  and  hard,  they  should 
never  be  pastured  in  the  spring. 

As  with  all  other  crops,  there  should  be  rotation - 
with    grass.     Instead    of    turning    an    old   meadow 
directly  into  a  new  one,  better  devote  the  ground  to 
other  crops  for  a  few  years. 

As  to  the  time  for  cutting  grass,  much  depends 
on  the  kind  of  grass  and  other  circumstances.  It 
yields  more  substance  when  cut  after  the  seed  is  fully 
formed,  say  when  it  is  between  the  milk  and  dough 
state ;  but  it  is  preferred  by  stock  when  it  has  been 
cut  in  the  flower,  or  just  before.  The  curing  of  grass 
for  hay  is  ])retty  universally  understood  by  the  farmers 
of  the  West  at  the  present  day.     They  know  that  the 


S98 


GRASS. 


best  curing  is  effected  on  drying  but  rather  cloudy 
days,  and  that  two  days  is  abundantly  sufficient  time 
for  curing.  All  rain  or  heavy  dew  is  a  damage,  if  it 
falls  upon  grass  partly  cured.  After  partially  drying 
it  is  best  to  let  it  remain  a  few  days  in  cocks,  on  the 
same  principle,  as  it  were,  that  we  prepare  the  most 
palatable  dishes  for  the  table  by  a  slow  simmering 
toward  the  last  in  a  closed  vessel.  Some  recommend 
that  hay  should  go  into  the  bam  or  stack,  not  per- 
fectly dry  and  crisp,  but  slightly  soft  and  moist  in  its 
own  juices,  and  should  therefore  be  stacked  or  stowed 
away  in  the  barn  at  precisely  the  right  time  •  others 
say,  the  drier  the  better. 

As  to  the  varieties  of  machinery  for  haying,  we  re- 
fer to  the  article  Hay.  In  this  department  of  farm- 
ing, machinery  has  a  signal  advantage  over  the  old 
practice  of  hand  labor.  The  introduction  of  the 
mower  has  caused  our  meadows  to  be  cleared  of 
stones,  roots,  etc.,  and  to  be  rolled  down  smoothly 
with  a  roller,  all  of  which  is  a  decided  advantage  to 
the  actual  yield  of  the  crops. 

As  to  threshing  for  seed,  many  kinds,  as  orchard 
grass,  are  best  treated  by  taking  a  handful  at  a  time 
and  switching  it  over  a  barrel  top.  They  cannot  be 
threshed  clean  or  winnowed  properly  with  a  threshing- 
machine. 

Timothy  constitutes  the  staple  hay  crop  throughout 
the  Northern  and  Western  States;  it  thrives  on  most 
soils,  in  nearly  all  situations,  averaging  two  to  three 
feet  in  height;  its  best  development  is  on  the  rich 
clays  and  clay  loams  between  40°  and  44°  north  lat- 
itude; its  roots  are  perennial,  it  is  easy  of  cultivation, 
is  hardy,  and  averages  one  and  a  half  to  three  tons 
per  acre,  but  affords  but  little  aftermath ;  both  green 
and  cured,  it  is  relished  by  cattle,  sheep  and  horses; 
its  nutritive  power  is  computed  at  half  its  weight,  dry; 
stands  pasturage  well  throughout  the  season.  It  is 
also  a  valuable  crop  for  seed,  an  acre  yielding  15  to  25 
bushels  of  cltan  seed,  worth  in  the  market  $2  to  $4  a 
bushel.  The  seed,  at  the  rate  of  6  to  12  quarts  to  the 
acre,  may  be  sown  either  in  the  fall  or  spring,  a  fine 
tilth  requiring  the  least  and  a  stiff  clay  the  most.  It 
is  well  to  sow  it  on  wheat  or  rye  in  August  or  Septem- 
ber. When  sown  alone  or  with  other  grasses  early  in 
the  season  on  a  rich  soil,  it  will  produce  a  good  crop 
the  same  year.  It  is  often  sown  with  red  clover  on 
the  plan  that  it  should  be  cut  when  in  bloom.  Its 
seed  ripens  after  that  of  clover.  In  New  England 
and  New  York  this  is  known  as  Herd's  grass,  and  in 
some  sections  it  is  called  "  cat's-tail,"  the  most  appro- 
priate name  of  all.  Its  only  scientific  name  is  Phleum 
pratense. 

Reii-  Top  is  considered  next  in  value  to  timothy  for 
hay,  being  hardy,  luxuriant,  preferring  a  wet  or  marshy 
ground,  if  a  Uttle  sandy  the  better,  averaging  one  and 
one-half  to  two  feet  in  height,  with  a  yield  of  875 
jxjunds  of  nutrient  material  to  the  ton.  Its  roots  are 
perennial,  it  flowers  late,  makes  good  pasture,  fair  hay, 
yielding  two  to  four  tons  to  theacre;  flourishes  through- 
out the  United  States.  Of  the  seed,,  sow  15  to  30 
quarts  to  the  acre,  with  wheat,  in  September.     Should 


be  cut  when  in  bloom  and  then  may  be  pastured. 
Relished  by  cattle.  Known  as  Herd's  grass  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Burdin's  grass  in  Rhode  Island,  Red  Bent  in 
some  places.  Summer  Dew  in  others,  Fowl  Meadow, 
Fine  Bent,  etc.,  etc.,  but  to  scientists  only  as  Agrostis 
vulgaris.  Another  species  of  this  (A.  stricta)  is  known 
by  some  of  tne  above  names. 

Blue  Grass  far  excels  all  others  for  pasturage,  but 
is  of  little  value  as  hay.  It  is  the  most  common  grass 
known.  That  which  abounds  in  the  North  has  been 
supposed  by  some  persons  to  be  of  a  different  species 
or  variety  from  that  of  Kentucky,  but  probably  with- 
out sufficient  foundation.  It  reaches  its  highest  per- 
fection in  strong  limestone  soils,  particularly  in  the 
rich  uplands  west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  It 
might  be  considered  an  evergreen  grass,  as  it  retains 
its  greenness,  as  well  as  its  virtues,  through  the  winter, 
except  when  there  is  much  freezing  with  no  snow  on 
the  ground.  From  it  the  people  of  the  Ohio  river 
valley,  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  and  the  Lake  re- 
gion obtain  most  of  their  milk,  butter  and  cheese.  It 
is  the  most  forward  grass  in  the  spring,  and  ripens  its 
seed  in  June ;  whence  one  of  its  local  names,  "  June 
grass."  The  seed  immediately  genuinates  under  the 
refreshing  showers  of  that  season,  and  the  young  grass 
sends  out  its  long,  slender  leaves  one  to  three  feet. 
One  acre  of  good  blue  grass  is  considered  equal  in 
value  to  an  acre  of  corn,  and  it  costs  much  less.  One 
acre  will  keep  a  cow.  The  yield,  per  acre,  is  esti- 
mated at  three  to  five  tons,  dry.  Nutritive  matter, 
1,317  pounds  per  ton.  It  is  also  the  best  lawn  grass. 
In  sowing,  supply  10  to  15  pounds  of  the  seed  to  the 
acre.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  alternate  husbandry, 
as  it  requires  more  than  one  summer  to  get  well  estab- 
lished; but  it  is  persistent,  and  is  often  regarded  as  a 
troublesome  weed.  Known  also  as  Green  grass. 
Meadow  grass.  Spear  grass,  Kentucky  Blue  grass, 
Smooth-stalked  grass,  etc.,  but  to  the  scientific  world 
simply  as  Poa  pratensis. 

Another  species,  Poa  compressa,  has  flat  stalks, 
which  are  dark  green,  hard,  shrinking  the  least  of  all 
grasses  in  drying,  rich  in  nutriment,  dwarfish  in  habit, 
abounding  in  the  Northern  States,  tenacious  of  its 
foot-hold,  forming  a  good  covering  to  the  ground,  and 
known  also  as  Blue  grass,  XVire  grass  and  Flat-stalked 
Meadow  grass.  Poa  trivialis,  or  Roughish  Meadow 
grass,  has  the  appearance  of  the  "great  queen  of 
grasses,"  is  somewhat  valuable  for  both  hay  and  pas- 
ture, affects  low,  wet  ground,  grows  about  20  inches 
high,  and  is  best  cut  when  in  seed,  about  July  10;  but 
it  is  more  highly  esteemed  in  England  and  Scotland 
than  in  this  country. 

False  Red-Top  (Poa  serotina)  takes  the  place  of 
blue  grass  in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  Called  also 
Swamp  Wire  grass.  Was  formerly  called  Fowl  Meadow 
grass.  The  stem  is  evergreen,  tall,  thriving  on  low, 
wet  land,  is  good  for  pasture,  and  in  the  region  named, 
also  for  hay,  as  such  being  soft  and  nutritious. 

Dwarf  or  Early  Meadmu  grass  (Poa  annua)  is 
found  everywhere  in  old  pastures  and  about  dwellings, 
making  much  trouble  by  constantly  springing  up  in 

\ 


GRASS. 


599 


paths  and  drives.     It  is  pale  green,  sweet,  short  and 
early,  fit  for  pasture  only. 

Millet  (Setaria  Italica),  or  Bengal  Grass.  This  runs 
wild  in  this  country,  where  it  is  sown,  but  as  a  forage 
plant  it  is  said  to  be  not  equal  to  oats.  It  requires  a 
dry,  rich,  well  pulverized  soil.  Sow  broadcast  or  in 
drills,  from  May  to  July.  It  ripens  in  60  lo  75  days. 
If  sown  broadcast  for  hay,  40  quarts  of  seed  to  the 
acre  will  be  required  ;  if  in  drills,  for  the  grain,  eight 
quarts  will  be  sufficient.  It  may  be  cured  like  hay, 
yielding  from  two  to  four  tons  to  the  acre ;  or  it  may 
be  used  profitably  as  green  fodder.  All  cattle  relish 
it,  and  fowls  are  fond  of  the  grain.  For  green  fodder 
it  should  be  cut  before  the  first  seeds  begin  to  ripen ; 
and  for  grain,  just  before  they  begin  to  fall.  It  grows 
two  to  four  feet  high,  and  yields  25  to  100  bushels  of 
seed  per  acre.  It  stands  drouth  well,  and  is  particu- 
larly adapted  to  dairy  farms.  In  the  Western  States, 
however,  the  above  has  mainly  given  place  to  the 
next  mentioned. 

Hungarian  Grass,  or  German  Millet.  This  is  liked 
by  all  farm  stock,  but  the  seeds,  if  allowed  to  get  ripe, 
are  supposed  to  bring  on  disorders  of  the  kidneys, 
especially  in  horses.  For  this  reason  it  should  be  fed 
rather  sparingly  to  horses  unless  it  has  been  cut  when 
in  bloom.  Two  feeds  of  Hungarian  per  day,  with  one 
of  straw,  to  cattle,  will  carry  them  nicely  through  the 
winter.  It  is  an  annual,  enduring  drouth  remarkably 
well,  has  many  leaves,  which  are  juicy  and  make  an 
abundance  of  nice  fodder.  It  attains  its  greatest  lux- 
uriance on  soils  of  medium  consistency  and  richness 
but  does  very  well  on  light  and  dry  plains. 

Egyptian,  East  Indian,  or  Pearl  Millet  ( Pencil- 
laria  spicata).  This  new  millet  is  quite  distinct  from 
all  other  species,  and  is  "without  doubt  destined  to  take 
a  place  in  the  front  rank  of  valuable  forage  plants. 
Sown  in  light,  sandy  soil,  the  plants  at  first  appear 
feeble,  resembling  broom-corn ;  but  when  a  few  inches 
above  ground  they  begin  to  tiller,  and  new  shoots  ap- 
pear very  rapidly  from  the  original  root,  until  they 
number  a  half  dozen  to  a  dozen  or  more.  The  stems 
at  first  are  nearly  prostrate,  but  when  about  two  feet 
long  they  begin  to  assume  an  upright  position,  reach- 
ing a  height  of  eight  to  ten  feet,  not  differing  in  color 
or  substance  from  common  Indian  corn.  In  fact,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  "leafy"  plants  in  the  great  family  to 
which  it  belongs.  When  the  stems  have  reached 
nearly  their  full  height,  the  seed  or  flower  spikes  ap- 
pear near  their  summit.  As  soon  as  the  first  or  prin- 
cipal flower  spike  appears,  the  stems  throw  out  lateral 
branches  from  every  joint,  these  in  turn  producing 
leaves  and  flower  spikes.  When  cultivated  for  fodder, 
the  seed  should  be  dropped  in  drills,  and  given  plenty 
of  room  on  account  of  the  peculiar  habit  of  tillering. 
The  fodder  is  in  the  best  condition  for  cutting  and 
curing  when  the  stalks  are  five  or  six  feet  high ;  but  if 
used  for  soiling,  it  might  be  cut  earlier  or  later,  at  the 
convenience  of  the  cultivator;  the  stumps  sprouting 
and  throwing  up  a  new  growth,  continue  to  grow  until 
killed  by  frosts.  Cows,  horses,  and  other  farm  stock 
are  exceedingly  fond  of  this  kind  of  millet,  eating  it 


with  as  much  avidity  and  apparent  relish  as  they  do 
the  green  leaves  of  corn.  Ninety-five  tons  of  green 
fodder  have  been  grown  from  one  acre.  West  of  the 
Missouri  river  it  may  be  sowed  on  upland,  in  drills 
two  and  one-half  feet  apart,  two  quarts  per  acre ;  hoe 
twice  before  it  is  a  foot  high ;  after  that  no  weeds  will 
get  a  foothold,  so  rapid  and  luxuriant  is  its  growth, 
seeds  stooling  10  to  25  stalks.  Is  not  easy  to  be 
blown  down  by  the  wind,  and  stands  drouth  wonder- 
fully well.  Probably  of  greater  value  to  young  stock 
as  a  fodder  plant  than  corn.  All  kinds  of  stock  are 
over-fond  of  it.  May  be  cut  four  times.  Land  good 
for  corn  is  all  it  wants.  The  seed  will  not  matu'e  in 
the  Northern  States. 

Orchard  Grass  is  the  best  grass  we  grow  in  the 
shade.  It  will  grow  three  to  five  feet  high,  yield  three 
to  five  tons  to  the  acre,  is  kt  home  in  the  Northern 
States,  and  requires  a  porous,  deep  and  fertile  soil ; 
sow  the  seed  in  March  at  the  rate  of  20  to  30  jxjunds 
to  the  acre,  and  it  will  take  possession  of  the  soil  as  a 
perennial;  may  be  mowed  from  June  to  September; 
but  it  is  best  to  cut  the  first  crop  just  before  the  seed 
ripens,  and  pasture  it  the  rest  of  the  season.  To 
secure  a  tender,  succulent  herbage,  it  should  be  fed 
closely.  The  seed  is  remarkably  light,  weighing  only 
12  to  15  potmds  per  bushel.  Its  tendency  to  grow  in 
stools  or  tussocks  is  an  objection  to  it  as  a  meadow 
grass. 

American  or  Swamp  Cock's-foot  is  another  species 
of  the  foregoing,  yielding  a  large  amount  of  grass  or 
hay,  but  of  inferior  quality. 

The  Fescues.  The  Tall  seems  to  be  more  nutritive 
than  any  other  grass.  It  grows  three  feet  high,  does 
best  in  a  black,  rich  loam,  flowers  the  first  week  in 
July,  ripens  its  seeds  the  last  week,  but  is  best  cut 
when  in  flower.  The  Meadmu  species  likes  a  boggy 
soil,  bears  well,  and  produces  an  eariy  grass,  much 
relished  by  cattle,  either  green  or  cured  as  hay.  It  is 
an  excellent  pasture  grass,  forming  a  considerable  [xir- 
tion  of  the  turf  of  old  pastures  and  fields.  Ripening 
its  seeds  early,  they  sow  themselves,  germinate  and 
take  ]x>ssession  of  the  ground  after  other  crops  are 
cut.  The  leaves  are  long  and  tender.  It  is  not  sown 
much  in  this  country,  and  when  it  is  sown  at  all  it 
should  be  mixed  with  other  grasses,  as  orchard,  rye, 
or  June.  Spiked  fescue  is  adapted  to  a  rich  loam, 
and  produces  the  best  of  hay  and  pasture.  Purple, 
Sheep's,  Hard  and  Floating  fescues  are  all  natives  of 
this  country  and  good  pasture  grasses.  Sheep's  fescue 
is  plentiful  in  mountainous  regions  and  adjacent 
plains.  It  is  deemed  a  nutritious  grass,  notwithstand- 
ing its  hard,  wiry  appearance.  It  assumes  various 
forms,  according  to  conditions  of  location ;  grows 
about  two  feet  high,  chiefly  in  bunches  or  stools,  with 
erect,  straight,  stiff"  culms  and  long  narrow  leaves  of 
pale  green  color. 

Sweet-Scented  Vernal  Grass.  This  is  one  of  the 
earliest  in  spring  and  latest  in  autum,  luxuriaring  in  a 
dry,  sandy  loam,  and  affording  two  to  three  crops  a 
season.  Its  chief  value  lies  in  its  energy  in  taking 
possession  of  old,  worn-out  fields;  and  it  is  this  species 


6oo 


GRASS  LANDS— GRA  VY. 


of  grass  that  gives  that  delightful  perfume  to  new- 
mown  hay  in  the  East. 

The  Tall  Oat  Grass  is  early,  luxuriant,  grows 
alxjut  five  feet  high,  makes  fair  hay  but  better  pasture, 
and  flourishes  in  a  loam  or  clay  soil.  Good  for  soil- 
ing and  for  rowen.  It  is  often  found  on  the  borders 
of  fields,  hedges,  woods  and  pastures.  Has  been 
considerably  cultivated. 

Meadcnu  Foxtail  is  also  an  excellent  pasture  grass, 
resembling  timothy  in  appearance,  but  earlier,  and 
has  a  softer  seed-top.  It  thrives  on  all  soils  but  the 
driest.  It  is  relished  by  stock  of  all  kinds,  and  gives 
an  abundant  aftermath.  In  all  lands,  therefore,  de- 
signed for  pasture,  it  should  form  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  mixture.  It  will  endure  almost  any  degree 
of  forcing,  by  liquid  manures  or  irrigation.  To  gain  a 
firm  footing  in  the  soil,  it  requires  three  or  four  years. 
The  seed  is  covered  with  soft,  wooly  husks  and  is  con- 
sequently light,  weighing  but  five  pounds  to  the 
bushel  and  containing  7  6,000  seeds  to  the  ounce. 

The  original  prairie  grasses  are  still  abundant 
west  of  Missouri  and  the  Missouri  river,  but  they  will 
all  eventually  give  way  to  cultivated  crops. 

Many  other  species  of  grass  are  of  some  value 
and  are  sometimes  sown  with  standard  kinds; 
as.  White  Bent,  Fiorin,  Brome,  Chess,  Peren- 
nial Rye,  Ribbon,  Bermuda,  Barnyard,  Crab,  Tus- 
sock, Buffalo,  Mesquit,  Arundo,  Gama,  Grama,  Hair, 
Thin,  Blue-joint,  etc.,  etc.,  but  they  deserve  no  par- 
ticular notice. 

Grass  Lands,  lands  producing  herbage  for  the 
feeding  of  farm  stock. 

Grass,  To  Crystallize.  Take  1  pound  of  alum, 
pulverize  and  dissolve  in  i  quart  of  water,  but  do  not 
let  it  boil ;  pour  the  solution  into  a  deep  earthen  jar, 
and  let  it  stand  until  about  blood-warm.  Fasten  your 
grasses  with  strings  to  a  stick  laid  across  the  top  of 
the  jar;  set  away  in  a  cool  place  where  they  will  not 
be  disturbed  for  12  hours,  then  take  them  out  and  let 
them  drain.  For  blue  crystals  use  indigo  or  washing- 
blue  ;  for  yellow,  boil  a  few  saffron  leaves  in  a  little 
water  and  mix  it  with  the  alum  water ;  for  pink  or 
red,  use  Prussian  red,  the  more  you  use  the  brighter 
the  color.  The  solution  maybe  heated  over  and  used 
until  the  alum  is  gone.  Be  sure  and  have  your  grasses 
perfectly  dry  before  putting  them  into  the  water. 
Press  some  green  and  autumn  leaves  to  put  in  your 
Iwuquets.  .Some  bitter-sweet  berries  (if  you  can  get 
them)  will  be  quite  an  addition. 

Grasshoppers.  At  the  present  day  this  term  is 
limited  by  exact  writers  to  those  green  insects  which 
are  akin  to  and  include  the  Katydid,  while  all  the 
grayish  insects  ordinarily  called  "  grasshoppers"  are 
truly  locusts.     See  Insects. 

Gravel,  tlie  formation  of  stone  or  calculous  sub- 
stances in  some  of  the  urinary  organs.  These  agents 
are  originally  contained  in  the  food  and  drinks 
taken.  When  the  functions  are  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition these  substances  are  carried  off  in  the  regular 


secretions,  but  when,  owing  to  debility  of  some  of  the 
organs,  generally  the  kidneys,  there  is  an  excess  of 
ureic  acid  in  the  system,  which,  uniting  with  the  cal- 
culous particles,  form  larger  masses  or  stones,  these 
are  sometimes  so  large  that  they  will  not  easily  pass  off 
through  the  urinary  ducts.  This  stone  may  lodge  in 
the  kidneys  or  in  the  ureters,  or  it  may  pass  into  the 
bladder,  and  if  not  neutralized  or  removed  will  cause 
inflammation  in  the  parts. 

If  the  stone  is  lodged  in  the  kidneys,  a  severe  and 
steady  pain  is  experienced  in  the  small  of  the  back. 
The  most  intense  pain,  however,  is  felt  when  the  sub- 
stance is  passing  through  the  ureters  from  the 
kidneys  to  the  bladder.  This  pain  is  so  severe  some- 
times as  to  cause  fainting  and  convulsions.  When 
the  stone  is  lodged  in  the  bladder,  very  distressing 
pains  will  be  felt  in  that  organ,  accompanied  with 
more  or  less  inflammation  and  an  itching  along  the 
urethra. 

In  treating  this  distressing  disease,  should  the  pain  . 
be  severe,  which  is  generally  the  case,  give  first  an 
opiate, — from  40  to  60  drops  of  laudanum,  or  J^  grain 
of  inorphine,  and  repeat  in  a  short  time.  Then  ad- 
minister suitable  diuretics,  warm  fomentations,  etc. 
When  the  urgent  symptoms  have  been  relieved,  give  a 
hydragogue  cathartic,  as  podophylUn  and  cream  of 
tartar.  Remedies  should  then  be  administered  to 
dissolve  the  stone  and  counteract  the  tendency  in  the 
system  to  its  formation.  The  juice  of  red  onions  is 
claimed  to  be  a  solvent  of  the  stone.  A  gill  is  to  be 
drunk  morning  and  evening,  for  three  days.  An  herb 
known  as  gravel-root,  common  in  some  sections  of  the 
West,  is  said  to  be  a  specific  in  this  disease.  It  should 
be  freely  used  in  the  forni  of  a  decoction. 

Gravy.  A  Cheap  Brown  Gravy.  Take  i 
pound  of  gravy  beef  and  a  sheep's  melt;  cut  it  into 
slices,  dredge  them  with  flour,  and  fry  them  lighUy  in 
butter ;  then  jxjur  in  not  quite  i  pint  of  water.  Add 
a  seasoning  of  pepper  and  salt,  a  small  onion,  and  a 
piece  of  celery  cut  into  slices.  Set  the  stew-pan  over 
the  fire,  and  let  it  stew  slowly  for  2  hours.  Skim  it 
well;  strain  it;  add  i  sjxwnful  of  catsup,  and  set  it  by 
for  use. 

Gravy  for  Hashes,  etc.  Break  some  bones,  and 
put  them  into  a  stewpan,  with  any  spare  cuttings  of 
meat  you  may  have;  add  a  little  pepper,  salt,  and  12 
allspice,  J^  head  of  celery,  and  i  bunch  of  sweet  herbs, 
and  simrner  it  for  about  2  hours,  with  sufficient  water 
to  cover  it.  Cut  i  small  onion  into  slices,  fry  it  in  a 
piece  of  butter,  and  boil  it  up  with  the  gravy  for  15  or 
20  minutes.  Strain  it  into  another  stewpan,  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  walnut  catsup,  and  a  piece  of  butter 
rolled  in  flour,  boil  it  up,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  your 
meat. 

Fish  Gravy.  Skin,  clean,  cut  up  and  soak  3 
small  eels;  put  them  in  a  stewpan  and  cover  them 
with  cold  water;  add  2  or  3  anchovies  (or  a  little 
essence  of  anchovy);  add  some  sweet  herbs,  whole 
pepper  and  mace,  lemon-peel,  and  a  shred  of  horse- 
radish.   Stew  gently  till  the  fish  is  drawn  down,  and 


GHA  YLING— GREASE. 


60 1 


put  in,  when  about  half  done,  a  crust  of  bread  toasted 
to  a  high  color.  Strain  off,  thicken  with  a  piece  of 
butter  and  flour,  and  it  is  ready  for  use  with  almost 
any  kind  of  fish. 

Gravy  for  a  Goose  or  Duck.  Put  i  set  of 
giblets  and  Y^  pound  of  lean  beef  into  a  stewpan, 
with  3  sage  leaves,  i  onion,  some  whole  pepper,  salt, 
and  3  pints  of  water,  and  boil  it  for  3  hours;  then  add 
I  glass  of  port  wine,  with  a  spoonful  of  flour  mixed 
smooth  to  thicken  it,  and  boil  again  for  2  or  3  minutes. 

White  Gravy.  This  gravy  is  the  stock  of  several 
white  sauces,  and  is  made  thus:  Put  into  a  quart  stew- 
pan  3  ix)unds  of  lean  veal,  cut  into  dice,  and  Yi  lX)und 
of  lean  ham,  cut  smaller;  add  a  glass  of  cold  water, 
and  put  over  the  fire  until  the  "white  glace,"  or  jelly, 
forms  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan  ;  then  add  3  pints  of 
cold  water,  i  bunch  of  savory  herbs,  i  sliced  onion,  and 
I  blade  of  mace.  Let  it  slowly  come  to  the  boil,  then 
add  a  little  salt,  skim  carefully,  and  simmer  slowly  for 
about  3  hours ;  strain,  and  when  quite  cold  remove 
all  the  fat. 

Grayling,  an  excellent  fish  of  the  salmon  tribe. 
See  page  472. 

Graze,  to  eat  grass  and  small  herbage,  as  cattle 
graze  on  the  meadows. 

Grazier,  a  farmer  who  employs  himself  princi- 
cipally  in  buying,  feeding  and  selling  cattle  and  sheep. 
He  differs  from  a  stock-farmer  in  paying  little  or  no 
attention  to  the  breeding  or  rearing  of  stock,  in  hav- 
ing a  closer  connection  and  far  more  frequent  inter- 
change with  the  markets  for  stock,  in  devoting  his 
chief  professional  skill  to  the  speediest  and  most 
profitable  fattening  of  the  particular  breeds  and  indi- 
viduals which  he  judges  to  have  the  best  adaptation 
to  his  pastures  and  to  the  markets.  He  requires  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  many  different  breeds  of  stock, 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  peculiar  adapta- 
tions or  non-adaptations  of  each  breed  to  such  cir- 
cumstances of  climate  and  pasture  as  those  which 
characterize  his  farm,  a  ready  discernment  of  the  ex- 
cellencies or  defects  of  any  individual  of  each  breed, 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  many  principles  and 
practices  involved  in  the  most  economical  treatment 
of  grass  lands  and  thoroughly  mercantile  habits  in 
selecting  the  best  markets,  in  making  the  seasonable 
purchases  and  sales,  and  in  subordinating  his  whole 
professional  conduct  to  the  fluctuations  and  even  the 
caprices  of  demand. 

Grease,  a  local  inflammation  of  the  heels  of 
horses,  causing  an  unsightly  condition  of  the  parts. 
It  is  the  result  of  suppurative  inflammatory  action  of 
the  skin  and  heels  of  the  hind  legs,  usually,  but 
sometimes  of  the  fore  ones.  It  is  more  common  with 
coarse-bred  Western  horses  and  heavy  breeds  than  in 
well  or  fine-bred  horses. 

Grease  or  Fat.  To  Preserve  Grease.  Boi)  all  the 
scraps,  rinds  and  bones  in  a  weak  lye,  and  the  purer 
grease  in  clear  water.  Let  the  mixture  cool,  take  off 
the  cake  of  grease  and  strain  it.    It  is  well  to  do  this 


occasionally,  as  you  save  it;  for  when  kept  for  a  long 
time,  impure  grease  becomes  offensive.  You  must  be 
careful  to  dry  off  all  the  water  before  laying  it  away 
in  the  grease  tub,  if  you  wish  it  to  keep  sweet.  The 
best  plan  to  collect  drippings  is  to  put  it  while  warm 
into  water  nearly  cold.  Any  impurities  it  may  con- 
tain will  sink  to  the  bottom. 

To  preserve  soap-grease,  fill  a  cask  with  good  strong 
lye,  and  drop  all  refuse  grease  therein.  Stir  up  the 
mixture  once  a  week. 

To  Take  Grease  out  of  Carpets.  As  soon  as 
it  is  dropped  put  on  plenty  of  wheat  or  buckwheat 
flour,  whiting  or  magnesia,  to  absorb  the  oil  and  keep 
it  from  spreading.  If  the  oil  is  near  a  seam,  rip  it  so 
that  the  oil  will  not  spread,  and  put  whiting  on  the 
floor  under  the  carpet.  Next  day  sweep  up  all  the 
flour  above  and  under  the  carpet  with  a  stiff  brush, 
and  put  on  plenty  of  fresh  flour.  The  above  is  in 
case  oil  is  dropped.  To  extract  simple  grease  spots, 
rub  them  with  white  flannel  dipped  in  raw  spirits  of 
turpentine.  If  they  show  after  a  while  rub  again,  on 
both  sides.  If  there  are  grease  spots  on  the  floor  re- 
move them  with  potters'  clay  before  the  carpet  is  laid 
down. 

To  Remove  Grease  from  Cloth  and  Woolen 
Articles.  Place  a  cotton  or  woolen  cloth,  or  a  piece 
of  blotting  paper  under  the  article  to  be  cleansed, 
then  rub  upon  the  spots  some  pure  benzine,  and  the 
grease  will  disappear.  Be  sure  to  place  a  cloth  un- 
der the  garment  to  be  operated  upon,  otherwise  a 
circular  stain  will  remain,  which  cannot  be  removed. 
The  benzine  drives  the  grease  through  the  article  to 
be  cleaned,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  cloth  placed  un- 
der it.  After  the  spot  is  removed,  con  rinue  to  rub 
with  a  dry  cloth  until  the  benzine  is  evaporated,  thus 
avoiding  a  stain. 

Another  way  to  remove  grease  spots  from  goods 
and  paper,  especially  the  latter,  is  to  grate  on  the  spot 
a  thick  coating  of  French  chalk ;  common  chalk  will 
answer,  but  it  is  not  as  good  as  the  French.  Cover 
the  sjxjt  with  brown  paper,  set  on  a  moderately  warm 
iron,  and  let  it  remain  rill  cold.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  have  the  iron  so  hot  as  to  scorch  or  change  the 
color  of  the  cloth.  If  the  grease  does  not  appear  to 
be  out,  on  removing  the  iron,  grate  on  more  chalk, 
heat  the  iron  again,  and  put  it  on.  Repeat  the  proc- 
ess until  the  grease  is  entirely  out. 

Refined  benzine  has  become  the  almost  universal 
means  for  removing  grease  spots  and  dirt.  Direc- 
tions for  using  it  are  given  just  above. 

To  Remove  Grease  from  Silk.  Separate  the 
yolk  of  an  egg  from  the  white  as  perfectly  as  possible ; 
stretch  the  fabric  on  a  board,  and,  with  a  soft  clothes- 
brush,  dip  into  the  yolk  and  rub  the  spot  with  it  until 
the  grease  seems  loosened.  The  yolk  will  not  injure 
the  most  delicate  colors,  but  the  rubbing  may  if  too 
severe.  Rinse  with  warm  rain-water,  rubbing  the 
edges  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  clapping  the  whole  be- 
tween dry  towels.  If  the  stain  is  not  quite  gone,  re- 
peat the  process. 

Another  method  is  to  rub  the  spots  of  the  silk 


6o2 


GREEN  FALLOW—GREENHOUSE. 


lightly  and  rapidly  with  a  clean,  soft  cotton  rag,  dip- 
ped in  chloroform,  and  the  grease  will  immediately 
disappear  without  injuring  the  color  of  the  silk.  Be 
careful  to  rub  the  article  lightly  and  rapidly,  and  finish 
with  a  clean,  dry  cloth.  Very  highly  rarefied  benzine, 
such  as  is  prepared  by  first-class  druggists,  will  also 
immediately  remove  grease  sjwts  from  the  most  deli- 
cately colored  silks. 

To  Take  Grease  Spots  out  of  Boards.  Make 
a  paste  of  fuller's  earth  and  hot  water,  cover  the  spots 
with  it,  let  it  dry  on,  and  the  next  day  scour  it  off 
with  soft  or  yellow  soap. 

To  Remove  Grease  Spots  from  Books.  Moisten 
the  spot  with  a  camel-hair  pencil  dipped  in  spirits  of 
turpentine;  when  dry,  moisten  with  spirits  of  wine. 

Green.  Fallow,  green  crops  plowed  into  the  soil. 

Greenhouse,  a  building  with  a  glazed  roof  in 
which  plants  are  kept  in  pots  and  arranged  on  stages 
in  a  manner  pleasant  to  the  eye.  A  structure  of  this 
kind  should  not  be  placed  where  it  will  be  much  ex- 
posed to  the  prevailing  cold  winds.  A  south  or  east 
exposure  is  best.  The  foundation  may  be  made  of 
stone,  brick  or  wood.  A  wall  of  stone  or  brick  should 
go  below  the  frost,  and  be  laid  in  mortar  made  of 
stone  lime  and  water  lime  of  equal  parts,  with  the 
proper  amount  of  clean,  sharp  sand.  A  good  stone 
wall  will  be  lasting,  but  it  will  carry  off  much  heat 
from  the  building.  It  might  be  furred  with  a  thin 
layer  of  wood,  or  lathed  and  plastered,  using  some 
water  lime.  A  solid  brick  wall  for  a  greenhouse,  in 
the  climate  of  Central  New  York  or  Michigan,  will 
last  but  a  few  years.  Further  south  they  are  said  to 
answer  for  the  south  and  east  walls.  The  heat  and 
moisture  within,  and  the  cold  without,  cause  the  brick 
and  mortar  to  crumble  and  give  way.  A  hollow,  ten- 
inch  wall  of  two  tiers  of  brick  bound  together  with 
strips  of  iron  is  warm  and  durable  if  made  of  good 
hard  brick.  Walls  of  wood  are  cheapest,  dryest  and 
warmest,  and  if  well  made  they  are  often  more  dura- 
ble than  walls  of  stone  or  brick.  For  such  a  wall, 
posts  are  used  of  cedar,  chestnut,  locust  or  even  oak, 
blue  ash,  or  red  cherry,  set  deep  and  firm.  Such  a 
wall  will  last  20  years  or  more. 

The  cistern  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  all  the 
water  which  falls  on  the  house  during  the  year,  so 
that  none  be  wasted.  As  we  are  using  water  most  of 
the  time,  the  cistern  should  have  about  one  cubic 
foot  of  contents  to  three  or  four  square  feet  of  ground 
covered  by  glass  and  potting  room.  We  prefer  them 
to  be  built  under  ground,  of  bricks,  arched  over,  just 
outside  the  house  or  under  the  center  of  it.  They  are 
often  built  under  the  center  stage,  and  covered  with 
planks,  upon  which  rests  the  pots  or  a  stage  to  sup- 
port the  pots.  In  this  case  the  walls  are  about  two 
and  one-half  feet  above  the  path.  If  such  a  cistern 
is  left  partly  uncovered,  the  water  soon  becomes  near- 
ly as  warm  as  the  air  of  the  house.  Lead  pipes  run 
from  the  gutter  or  eaves-trough,  underground  to  the 
cistern.  If  the  cistern  is  outside  or  below  ground, 
there  should  be  a  large  opea  tank,  made  of  boiler 


iron,  cement  or  planks  in  the  house,  to  contain  water 
until  it  has  become  wanned  by  the  heat  of  the  house. 
Water  for  plants  should  be  at  least  as  warm  as  the 
air  of  the  house  in  which  the  plants  grow.  Above 
this  tank  should  be  a  good  force  pump,  with  hose 
enough  to  reach  any  part  of  the  house,  to  enable  two 
men  to  shower  the  plants  whenever  desired. 

Designs  for  glass  structures  are  almost  endless. 
They  are  known  as  double-span  roofs,  having  a  roof 
of  equal  extent  on  each  side ;  as  lean-tos,  with  the  roof 
all  sloping  one  way  from  a  high  wall  or  building;  or 
as  a  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  lean-to,  in  which  one 
of  the  walls  is  higher  than  the  other,  and  the  rafters 
are  longer  on  one  side  of  the  house. 

A  lean-to  is  cheapest,  but  for  most  purposes  a 
double-span  roof  is  the  best.  The  latter,  if  running 
north  and  south,  gives  an  equal  distribution  of  light, 
so  the  plants  grow  symmetrically  without  being  turned 
around  every  little  while.  A  lean-to  or  two-thirds 
lean-to  is  rendered  warmer  with  the  same  heating 
apparatus,  on  account  of  the  protection  of  the  high 
walls  from  the  cold  winds.  The  lower  the  houses  are 
made,  the  better,  provided  they  are  high  enough  to 
afford  room  for  the  plants.  In  very  high  houses  the 
air  at  the  top  is  so  much  wanner  than  that  near  the 
ground  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  heat  them 
suitably  for  plants,  unless  the  plants  are  also  elevated 
on  a  high  stage  near  the  glass.  Plants  "draw"  or 
grow  slender  when  grown  far  from  the  glass.  Every 
man  of  experience  will  now  say.  Build  low.  For 
ordinary  purposes,  nine  to  twelve  feet  is  enough  for 
the  extreme  height.  For  good  work,  without  regard 
to  appearance,  six  or  seven  feet  is  much  better.  If  a 
number  of  houses  are  to  be  erected,  they  can  be  joined 
in  any  way  to  suit  the  locality  or  the  taste  of  the 
designer.  If  much  extended  in  a  line,  they  make  a 
greater  display,  at  the  expense  of  economy  in  fuel. 
For  mutual  protection  and  convenience,  it  is  better 
to  place  the  houses  close  together. 

It  is  a  good  way,  now  quite  popular,  to  build  three 
houses,  with  double-span  roofs,  running  north  and 
south.  These  are  joined  side  by  side  with  a  house 
for  potting  and  packing  (with  furnace  below)  running 
along  the  north  end.  This  room  on  the  north  affords 
protection  from  the  cold,  does  not  obstruct  the  light, 
and  permits  the  gardener  to  pass  from  one  house  to 
the  other  without  exposure  or  opening  of  outside  doors. 
In  England  and  Ireland  many  of  the  best  houses  have 
a  framework  of  iron  or  copper.  They  present  a  fine 
appearance,  are  stout,  durable,  and  do  not  obstruct 
the  light,  or  harbor  insects.  Some  have  been  tried 
in  various  places  in  this  country,  but  so  far  as  we 
have  been  able  to  learn,  all  have  failed  to  give 
satisfaction,  on  account  of  the  great  extremes  of  our 
climate.  These  changes  cause  the  glass  to  break, 
and  the  frame  work  conducts  away  the  heat  too 
rapidly  in  c'old  weather.  We  are  not  aware  that  any 
of  the  latest  improved  English  patents  have  been 
tried  in  this  country.  Our  best  builders  universally 
condemn  a  metallic  frame. 

Choose  glass  about  loinchesoneway,  double  thick, 


GREENHOUSE. 


603 


and  quite  flat,  so  as  to  make  tight  joints.  In  curvilin- 
ear houses,  have  the  glass  8  by  10  inches  where  the 
curve  is  greatest,  and  10  by  14  or  16  inches  where 
the  curve  is  least,  all  the  sash  being  10  inches  apart. 
None  of  the  glass  in  this  case  need  be  bent,  but  im- 
bedded in  soft  putty  made  of  kiln-dried  whiting  and 
white  lead  mixed  in  oil.  Each  glass  is  fastened  with 
four  zinc  shoe  nails  half  an  inch  long.  One  of  these 
is  placed  at  the  lower  edge  on  each  side,  to  keep  the 
lower  glass  in  place  and  the  upper  glass  from  sliding 
down;  the  other  two  are  an  inch  and  a  half  farther 
up  the  sash.  The  sash  are  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
farther  apart  than  the  width  of  the  glass.  No  putty 
is  now  used  on  the  outside  by  the  best  builders,  but 
some  thick  paint  covers  the  upper  edge  of  the  glass, 
running  on  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch.  In  England 
some  of  the  best  houses  are  now  made  without  any 
putty  or  lap  of  the  glass.  They  are  free  from  drip, 
and  permit  any  pane  to  be  removed  without  disturbing 
those  near  it.  Portable  greenhouses  are  there  quite 
common.  Ground  glass  is  liked  by  some  to  obscure  the 
light  in  summer,  to  prevent  the  plants  from  burning. 
They  break  more  easily  than  plain  glass,  and  they  do 
not  give  so  much  light  in  winter,  when  we  usually 
want  all  we  can  get.  To  obscure  glass  in  long,  hot 
days,  whitewash  of  lime  is  often  used ;  but  it  acts 
unfavorably  upon  the  sash,  paint  and  putty.  Indigo 
in  hot  water  or  linseed  oil  is  cheap,  easy  put  on,  and 
answers  a  good  purpose.  Whiting  in  oil  is  nice.  A 
favorite  with  many  for  nice  houses  is  sugar  of  lead 
ground  in  oil  and  diluted  with  turpentine.  Take  but 
little  at  a  time  on  the  brush  and  put  on  thin ;  before 
dry,  dust  or  dab  over  with  a  light,  dry  brush,  to  break 
up  the  lines  in  the  covering.  Any  of  the  above  can 
be  easily  removed  in  autumn,  especially  with  the  aid 
of  a  little  pearlash  water.  Some  fix  up  curtains  of 
muslin,  tacked  to  the  sash  inside,  or  placed  on  rollers. 
Some  have  curtains  outside,  made  to  roll  up  under  a 
cover  on  the  ridge  of  the  house.  You  can  have  a 
huge  blind  made  like  a  window  blind,  of  7-inch  boards, 
the  whole  large  enough  to  cover  one  side  of  a  com- 
mercial plant  house.  You  can  close  them  at  night  to 
save  heat,  and  open  to  any  extent  during  the  day  to 
get  just  as  much  light  as  you  want. 

Double  glazing  is  not  very  common,  though  it  saves 
much  heat.  The  snow  will  not  so  readily  melt  off 
in  winter;  dust  and  dirt  and  insects  get  in  and  look 
bad.  It  works  well  in  perpendicular  walls.  Double 
glass  for  a  third  of  the  way  from  the  bottom  is  most 
needed,  where  the  air  is  coldest.  The  inside  glass 
need  not  lap  or  be  puttied.  The  glass  may  slide  in 
from  the  top,  and  be  removed  for  cleaning  or  replacing 
when  broken.  All  nice  houses  above  eight  or  nine 
feet  in  height  should  be  supplied  with  King's  patent 
apparatus  to  open  the  upper  ventilators.  It  opens 
them  all  at  once,  to  any  extent  desired,  or  closes  them 
and  holds  them  securely  wherever  placed.  English 
sliding  sashes  for  ventilation  are  clumsy  affairs. 

A  curvilinear  roof  has  some  advantages.  It  is 
more  ornamental.  The  light  is  better  because  the 
angle  at  which  it  strikes  the  glass  is  more  varied. 


Such  a  roof  gives  head  room  next  the  sides  of  the 
house,  without  great  height  at  the  center  or  next  the 
wall  of  a  lean-to.  The  roof  is  stronger,  and  needs  no 
center  posts  in  a  room  twenty-five  feet  wide.  It  may 
be  kept  from  spreading  by  half-inch  rods  running 
across  from  rafter  to  rafter,  with  right  and  left  screws 
in  the  middle  to  arrange  the  tension.  Paint  the  rods 
of  the  same  color  as  the  sash,  so  as  not  to  be  con- 
spicuous. When  well  built,  curved  roofs  are  much 
more  expensive,  and,  except  for  their  finer  appearance, 
straight  slopes  are  preferable,  all  things  considered. 
The  cost  of  a  house  with  curvilinear  roof,  heated  with 
water,  and  stages  for  plants,  is  $2.50  to  $3.00  for  each 
square  foot  of  ground  covered.  This  does  not  include 
the  cost  of  masonry.  Houses  with  straight,  double 
span  roof,  made  plain  and  substantial,  heated  with 
water,  and  stages  in,  will  cost  from  $150  to  $1.90  per 
square  foot,  besides  masonry.  If  made  low  for  propa- 
gating, and  posts  of  wood  are  used,  they  can  be  made 
and  heated  with  water  complete  for  about  a  dollar  per 
square  foot.  If  heated  with  flues,  such  a  house  will 
cost  45  to  60  cents  a  square  foot.  The  curve  for  a 
curvilinear  roof  should  not  be  just  one  arc,  but  it 
should  curve  most  rapidly  about  one-third  of  the  way 
from  the  bottom  or  wall.  This  allows  a  good  slope 
for  the  upper  part  of  the  roof,  to  prevent  drip.  The 
rafters  are  about  three  by  six  inches,  cut  from  the 
timber  with  the  grain,  framed  together  and  bolted, 
making  one  continuous  piece  from  sill  to  ridge.  They 
may  make  tlje  lap  in  two  ways,  horizontally  or  vertic- 
ally. In  either  case  the  joints  will  be  covered  by  a 
five-eighths  inch  band  on  the  inside  and  outside 
edges,  well  nailed. 

The  purlines  are  two  by  three  inches,  about  six 
feet  long,  tenoned  into  the  rafters  and  bolted  into  the 
opposite  one  end  to  end,  and  placed  not  over  four 
feet  apart.  There  is  a  beveled  coping  on  top  of  the 
sill,  to  turn  the  water  off  and  to  serve  for  the  ventila- 
tors to  shut  against. 

Fig.  I  represents  a  neat  glass  structure,  combining 


Fig.  I. — Greenhouse* 

the  straight  and  curved  rafter.  The  side  ventilators 
are  hung  at  the  top  and  open  outwards.  They  are 
held  in  place  by  iron  straps  and  pins ;  a  screw  eye 
holds  the  strap,  one  by  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  to  the 
ventilator;  holes  in  the  strap  catch  on  an  iron  pin  in 
the  sill.    All  side  ventilators  are  best  when  made  to 


6o4 


GREENHOUSE. 


open  under  the  side  shelf  and  over  the  pipes  or  flues, 
so  as  to  warm  the  air  before  it  strikes  the  plants. 
Similar  doors  may  be  hung  from  the  side  beds  in  the 
house.     The  flues  are  often  boarded  up,  to  secure 


Fig,  2,^VeiUilators, 

good  bottom  heat  for  the  plants  on  the  side  shelves. 

Sash  bars  for  a  curved  roof  should  be  one  by  one 
and  a  half  inches,  cut  on  a  radius  to  conform  to  the 
rafters,  and  well  nailed  in  the  grooves  of  the  purlines. 
These  bars  run  only  from  one  purline  to  another. 
The  plates  are  two  by  four  inches.  The  gutter  is  of 
wood,  about  four  and  a  half  by  three  inches  in  width, 
the  ends  put  square  together  with  a  piece  four  inches 
long  and  five-eighths  wide,  curved  galvanized  sheet- 
iron  driven  into  both  ends  of  the  pieces  which  meet. 
The  gutters  are  held  in  place  by  a  bracket,  which  is 
useful  as  well  as  ornamental.  In  the  winter  place  a 
foot-board  over  the  gutter  and  let  it  resS*  on  the  sash 
above.  Tack  it  fast.  It  will  be  found  to  keep  ice 
from  accumulating  in  the  gutters. 

The  shelving  for  all  greenhouses  may  be  made  of 
open  slats  or  tight-matched  inch  boards.  The  side 
shelves  are  about  three  feet  wide,  with  a  light  strip  on 
the  edge  to  retain  sand  to  set  pots  on.  The  legs  of 
the  shelves  should  rest  on  stones  or  bricks.  The  paths 
are  about  three  feet  wide,  and  best  made  of  grout,  a 
trifle  rounding  to  let  off"  the  water.  Some  are  made 
of  slats  of  wood.  In  a  long  lean-to  for  ornamental 
purix)ses,  a  winding  path  gives  great  variety,  and  keeps 
small  parties  out  of  sight  of  each  other.  In  the  center 
of  a  wide  house  there  may  be  a  stage  with  shelves 
rising  towards  the  center,  vn'Cn  an  average  slope  about 
pajrallel  with  the  rafters.  Some  build  an  eight-inch 
brick  wall  within  the  paths  and  fill  the  space  with 
earth  for  plants.  The  walls  must  be  tied  with  iron 
rods  running  across  the  bed. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  a  tenth  part  of  all  the 
tasteful  fixings  seen  in  houses  managed  by  skillful 
persons.  These  consist  of  brackets,  rock  work,  trellises, 
rustic  seats,  grottoes,  fountains,  aquaria,  fancy  pots,  etc. 

The  heavier  parts  inside,  above  the  stages,  are 
beauriful  when  painted  pearl  white,  and  the  sash  a 
light  sky  blue.  The  legs  of  the  stage  may  rest  on  a 
flat  stone  or  a  few  bricks.  The  wood-work  should  be 
well  painted,  and  all  joints  are  better  if  put  together 
in  green  paint. 

Greenhouses  are  very  apt  to  have  too  much  wood  in 
them  when  built  by  common  mechanics.    They  should 


be  made  as  light  as  isconsistent  with  strength.  Heavy 
ornaments  are  all  out  of  place. 

Propagating  is  mostly  done  in  low,  narrow  houses, 
placing  the  cuttings  in  sand  which  is  on  the  stage. 
As  before  remarked,  the  space  under  the  stage  or  shelf 
is  usually  boxed  up,  to  keep  the  sand  much  warmer 
than  the  air  above  it,  to  secure  what  is  called  a  good 
bottom  heat.  This  is  very  essential  to  good  success, 
and  too  often  overlooked  or  forgotten.  There  is  noth- 
ing new  in  this  fact,  as  it  was  well  known  40 years  ago, 
and  perhaps  a  hundred.  Shelves  or  benches  for  this 
purpose  are  usually  made  of  wood,  sometimes  of  slate. 
Some  prefer  vats  containing  warm  water.  They  are 
more  expensive,  and  will  not  last  over  six  or  eight 
years.  Good  vats  can  be  made  of  water-lime  cement, 
held  in  place  by  boards  till  sufficiently  hardened.  A 
vat  of  wood  may  be  made  as  follows :  Lay  a  tight 
shelf  or  bench  three  feet  wide  along  the  side  of  the 
house,  selecting  the  best  pine  stuff  1 5^  inches  thick, 
tongued  and  grooved,  and  carefully  put  together  in 
green  paint.  Place  a  piece  2  5^  or  three  inches  wide, 
one  edge  up,  along  the  front  edge  and  back  edge  of 
the  shelf,  and  across  the  ends ;  also  one  along  the 
middle.  The  middle  strip  does  not  extend  quite  to 
the  farther  end.  On  these  three  parallel  strips  place 
another  tight  shelf,  with  edges  3  inches  high,  ujMn 
which  place  i  J4  inches  of  clean  sand,  to  contain  the 
cuttings.  This  must  never  get  above  70"  for  most 
cuttings.  Tap  the  flow  pipe  and  conduct  it  into  the 
side  of  the  vat  near  one  end.  The  water,  r  Yz  inches 
deep,  after  passing  down  one  side  of  the  vat  and  back 
the  other,  will  pass  out  through  another  pipe  into  the 
return  to  the  boiler.  To  check  the  heat,  place  a  little 
block  partially  over  the  upright  flow  pipe  where  it  en- 
ters the  vat.  If  much  over  80  feet  long,  the  water  gets 
too  cool  before  leaving  the  vat.  Fifty  to  60  feet,  or 
any  shorter  length  will  do. 

A  LEAN-TO  is  a  kind  of  greenhouse  often  used,  but 
the  light  is  all  from  one  side,  and  not  so  good  for  the 
plants  unless  they  are  frequently  turned  around.  A 
neatly  constructed  greenhouse,  attached  to  a  dwelling, 


Fig.  3. — Greenhouse  Attacked  to  a  Dwelling. 

and  partaking  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a  lean-to, 

with  but  little  of  its  disadvantages,  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

A  very  cheap  one,  easily  managed,  may  be  made  as 


GREEN  CROPS— GREEN  FOOD. 


60s 


follows :  Just  beneath  a  sloping  outer  cellar  door  may 
be  placed  a  few  sash  and  glass.  On  warm  days,  or  at 
all  times,  except  nights  and  very  cold  weather,  the 
wooden  doors  may  be  open.  Some  plants  will  do  very 
well  in  such  a  place.  One  can  be  made  on  a  much 
larger  scale,  on  the  same  plan,  which  can  be  entered 
through  the  cellar  or  from  the  house  above.  A  saddle 
boiler  is  used,  arched  all  over  with  brick,  which  grows 
smaller  as  it  becomes  a  flue  and  enters  a  large  chim- 
ney, which  also  answers  for  other  fires  in  the  house. 
It  needs  very  little  care.  The  boiler  also  has  some 
pipes  attached  for  warming  with  water.  It  takes  about 
2  J^  cords  of  3-foot  wood  for  a  year. 

A  portable,  dwarf  span-roof  greenhouse,  for  set- 
ting over  asparagus,  rhubarb,  grapevines,  tomatoes, 
etc.,  to  keep  off  frost  and  retain  heat  in  spring  or 
autumn,  can  easily  be  made.  Doors  on  hinges  may 
be  made,  to  cover  the  glass  quickly  in  cold  weather. 
The  cost  is  about  one  dollar  per  foot,  three  feet  wide. 

Heating  Apparatus.  Steam  is  now  seldom  used 
for  heating  greenhouses,  as  it  requires  more  attention, 
and  there  is  more  danger  than  when  warm  water  is 
employed.  Heat  does  not  circulate  until  the  steam  is 
generated,  while  water  begins  to  circulate  as  soon  as 
the  temperature  rises  one  degree.  Warm  water  is 
safest;  there  is  no  danger  of  gas  or  explosion,  the  heat 
is  not  excessive  anywhere,  but  evenly  distributed. 
There  is  something  injurious  and  unpleasant  about  a 
high  heat  of  flues  or  iron  pipes.  The  labor  of  tending 
fire  for  wanning  by  water  is  very  little,  an  item  of  no 
small  account  in  a  large  house.  The  cost  of  boiler 
and  pipes  is  the  greatest  objection  to  their  use.  Water 
is  best  for  large  houses ;  many  prefer  brick  flues  for 
small  ones.  The  boiler  should  be  large  enough  to 
contain  a  great  body  of  hot  coal,  and  not  need  hurry- 
ing. The  flow  pipe  must  come  out  at  the  highest 
point  of  the  boiler.  Most  builders  put  up  pipes  so  the 
flow  pipe  slowly  rises  from  the  boiler  to  the  extreme 
end,  where  there  is  an  expansion  tank ;  from  here  the 
pipe  returns  below  and  parallel  with  the  flow  pipe, 
and  enters  the  lower  part  of  the  boiler.  One  man 
arranges  the  flow  pipe  to  slowly  descend,  and  the  return 
pipe  also,  through  the  whole  length.  It  works  well. 
His  reasons  for  this  arrangement  are — that  after  leav- 
ing the  boiler  the  water  grows  colder,  and  heavier,  and 
naturally  falls,  to  make  room  for  the  lighter  warm 
water.  The  fewer  turns  in  the  pipe,  the  better.  After 
many  years  of  experience,  an  authority  gives  the  fol- 
lowing rule  for  the  amount  of  4-inch  pipe  to  heat  a 
glass  house  well  made  :  For  a  temperature  of  40''  to 
45°,  with  outside  at  10°  to  15"  below  zero,  we  need 
one  foot  of  pipe  to  every  four  feet  of  glass  exposure  ; 
for  65"  to  70°  we  need  one  foot  of  pipe  to  every  three 
feet  of  glass.  The  boiler  should  be  four  to  eight  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  house,  though  this  is  not  essen- 
tial with  all  heaters.  The  pipes  at  each  joint  rest  on 
brick  piers  carefully  made.  Houses  on  low  ground 
may  have  the  pipes  descend  and  then  rise  to  pass 
under  a  sill,  but  this  is  thought  objectionable.  For 
farther  details,  consult  almost  any  catalogue  advertis- 
ing heating  apparatus. 


Flues  have  long  been  used.  They  are  very  simple 
in  construction.  The  bottom  is  made  of  bricks  and 
tiles,  a  foot  one  way,  held  up  on  bricks  or  stones  to 
allow  the  heat  to  escape;  the  sides  are  made  of  two 
or  three  bricks  above  each  other  on  edge;  and  the  top 
is  covered  with  tiles.  The  flue  should  gradually  rise 
for  its  whole  length.  The  mortar  should  be  thin  and 
the  bricks  damp,  so  that  no  joints  will  be  left  for  point- 
ing. Well  puddled  clay  makes  a  very  good  mortar. 
Tiles  a  foot  square  often  have  a  notch  along  one  edge 
to  overlap  a  notch  in  the  previous  tile.  The  little  fur- 
row on  top  should  be  filled  with  mortar.  A  brick 
furnace  may  be  made  and  set  two  or  three  feet  below 
the  flues.  The  door  should  be  just  outside  the  glass 
house  and  open  into  the  shed  near  a  coal  bin.  If  for 
coal,  make  for  a  moderate-sized  house,  a  furnace  1 J^ 
feet  wide,  2  y^  feet  high  at  the  center  of  the  arch,  and 
2  feet  deep,  and  lined  with  fire  bricks.  If  for  wood,  it 
must  be  longer  and  some  larger,  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  house.  The  arch  needs  an  iron  front,  with 
two  doors,  one  for  fuel  and  one  for  ashes.  Iron  grates 
to  hold  up  the  fuel  are  desirable.  It  is  generally 
thought  impracticable  to  make  flues  work  well  if  much 
over  1 20  feet  in  length.  On  the  flue  should  be  placed 
several  large,  long  pans  of  water,  to  afford  moisture. 
Instead  of  bricks  for  the  entire  flue,  after  about  20 
feet,  flues  are  nicer  and  better  made  of  large  cement 
drain  pipe ;  they  crack  and  give  out  heat  too  freely 
for  placing  near  the  furnace.  A  saddle  boiler  is  some- 
times used,  uniting  the  heating  by  flues  with  that  by 
water.  It  is  a  very  economical  and  satisfactory  way 
of  heating  small  houses. 

To  FUMIGATE  a  greenhouse,  a  cheap  and  conven- 
ient method  is  to  set  a  large  flower-pot,  containing 
some  dry  tobacco,  ujxin  two  small,  inverted  flower- 
pots, which  are  as  far  apart  as  may  be  to  hold  up  the 
larger  one;  invert  another  large  flower-pot,  same  size 
as  the  other,  over  it,  and  placing  a  burning  candle 
underneath,  so  that  the  tobacco  will  be  kept  smoul- 
dering, without  blazing. 

Kindred  topics  are  Floriculture,  Gardening,  Window 
Gardening,  Hot-bed,  Cold  Frame,  etc. 

Green  Crops,  crops  which  alternate  with  the  cer- 
eal grasses  in  regular  rotations,  or  which  admit  of  the 
cleansing  and  ameliorating  cultivation  called  the 
green  fallow. 

The  term  green  crops  is  sometimes  employed  in  a 
large  sense,  to  designate  all  cultivated  esculent  plants 
which  are  used  in  a  green  or  ripe  state ;  and  in  this 
sense,  green  crops  comprise  the  greater  portion  of  the 
ordinary  productions  of  the  kitchen  garden. 

Green  Fly,  any  of  the  green  colored  species  of 
aphides  which  infest  peach-trees,  plum-trees,  cherry- 
trees,  or  the  shrubby  plants  of  the  greenhouse  or  the 
conservatory. 

Green  Food,  cut  or  gathered  esculent  plants,  used 
in  their  fresh  or  succulent  state.  It  difl'ers  from  fod- 
der in  excluding  all  dried  substances,  and  from  pas- 
turage or  herbage  in  being  consumed  in  the  house. 
See  the  article  Soiling. 


6o6 


GREEN  MANURE— GRINDSTONE. 


Green  Manure,  vegetable  substances  incorporated 
with  the  soil  in  their  succulent  state,  to  act  as  fertil- 
izers for  subsequent  crops.  They  may  be  either  en- 
tire plants  or  parts  of  plants;  either  weeds  or  parts  of 
cultivated  crops,  or  the  whole  of  cultivated  crops ; 
either  the  produce  of  waste  grounds  carried  to  arable 
fields,  or  the  refuse  of  any  kind  of  useful  produce,  or 
specially  raised  upon  the  spot  with  the  express  design 
of  being  used  as  a  manure ;  either  used  some  little 
time  after  becoming  dead,  but  before  losing  their  suc- 
culency,  or  buried  in  the  soil  by  the  same  act  or  proc- 
ess which  destroys  their  life. 

Vegetables  returned,  partly  or  wholly,  into  the  soil 
in  the  same  condition  in  which  they  have  grown  out 
of  it  might  seem,  to  an  unreflecting  person,  or  to  one 
unacquainted  with  agricultural  chemistry,  utterly  in- 
capable of  acting  as  fertilizers ;  and  certainly,  if  they 
derive  all  their  substance  out  of  the  soil,  and  were  to 
return  it  in  the  same  state  of  chemical  combination 
and  with  the  same  play  of  chemical  affinities  in  which 
they  derived  it,  they  would  give  back  exactly  what 
they  received,  and  affect  the  soil  in  no  other  man- 
ner than  by  the  accessories  and  accidents  of  their 
culture.  But  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  their  bulk 
is  derived,  not  from  the  soil  at  all,  but  from  air  and 
water,  and  the  whole  of  this  is  contributed  by  green 
manure  as  clear  gain  to  the  soil,  or  as  prepared  and 
ready  aliment  for  the  succeeding  crop ;  and  the  re- 
mainder of  their  bulk,  though  extracted  from  the  soil, 
is  brought  into  new  affinities,  and  more  practicable 
ones  than  before,  so  that  even  this,  as  returned  to  the 
soil  by  green  manure,  is  in  a  condition  for  more  rapid 
and  advantageous  assimilation  than  if  it  had  not  re- 
cently played  a  part  in  vegetable  growth. 

Green  manure,  though  a  very  important,  facile  and 
powerful  means  of  enriching  the  soil,  and  though 
known  in  some  forms  to  the  ancient  Romans,  and 
practiced  in  others  by  very  many  farmers  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  has  received  but  very  little  attention  from 
scientific  agriculturists,  and  is  even  unrecognized  in 
name  by  very  many  cultivators. 

Specific  green  manure  maybe  regarded  as  at  present 
practically  unknown  among  the  farmers  of  Great 
Britain ;  residual  green  manure  from  cultivated  plants 
is  known  principally  in  the  form  of  breaking  up  lea 
grounds  and  plowing  clover  lands,  and  partly  in  the 
practices  of  kitchen  gardeners,  namely,  in  the  plow- 
ing in  of  the  leaves  and  tops  of  turnips  ;  and  inciden- 
tal or  waste  green  manure  is  known  only  in  such  a 
fitful  and  scattered  manner  as  places  it  beyond  the 
limits  of  all  system. 

Greens.  Nearly  all  sorts  of  vegetables  and  weeds 
have  been  used  for  greens  in  man's  eagerness  in  early 
spring  for  something  fresh  grown.  The  following  are 
the  best  in  the  order  of  their  dietetical  quality : 

Asparagus,  turnip  and  cabbage  sprouts,  beet  tops 
and  spinach,  mustard  and  horse-radish  tops,  salsify 
tops,  purslane,  yellow  dock  and  rhubarb,  cowslips 
(Caltha  palustris),  young  poke,  lamb's-quarters,  dan- 
delion, ix>tato  tops,  etc.  When  boiled  enough  they 
will  sink  to  the  bottom.    When  cooking  them  mixed, 


do  not  put  the  very  tender  kinds  along  with  the 
tougher  or  older.  If  you  have  not  a  piece  of  salted 
meat  with  them,  put  in  some  salt. 

Greyhound,    a   slender,   graceful  variety  of  dog. 
See  Dog. 

Grinders,  the  large  teeth  used  for  mastication.  See 
articles  Cattle  and  Horse. 

Grindstone.     The  grindstone  is  an  important  ad- 
junct to  the  farmer's  outfit,  and  the  selection  of  good 
ones  requires  knowledge  and  care.     When  it  is  possi- 
ble,  grindstones  should  be  large,  and  turned  by  some 
power  stronger  than  human  muscle ;  for  there  is  no 
task  more  irksome,  especially  to  boys,  than  turning  a 
grindstone,  when    a    200-pound   man   is   laying   his 
weight  on  the  instrument  that  is  being  ground.     On 
ordinary  farms,  wind,  dog  and  horse  power  can  be  em- 
ployed  to  turn  grindstones.     Where  hand-power   is 
used  the  stones  should  be  of  moderate  size.   The  best 
stone  for  all  purposes  is  moderately  hard  and  of  even 
texture,  to  prevent  the  stone  becoming  uneven.     It 
should  be  carefully  hung,  and  well  centered  to  pre- 
vent wabbling  and  thrusting.  The  axle  should  turn  on 
rollers,  or  in  metal  boxes.     For  heavy  work,  such  as 
grinding  scythes,  axes,  and  large  tools,  a  stone  two 
feet  in  diameter  is  small  enough,  and  should  be  turned 
by  a  power  equal  to  that  of  a  strong  man;  but  when 
small  tools  are  to  be  ground,  such  as  knives,  small 
chisels,  etc.,  a  smaller,  finer  stone  can  be  used,  and 
driven  by  a   treadle.     Grindstones   should  never  re- 
main  in  a  trough  of  water.      When    the    stone  is 
still,  the  part  in  the  water  becomes  soft  by  soaking, 
and  wears  unevenly.     It  is  better  to  place  a  vessel  of 
water  on  a  frame  at  one  end,  and  make  a  smale  hole 
in  the  vessel,  so  that  a  small  stream  will  spout  out 
upon  the  stone  while  turning,  plugging  it  up  when 
not  in  use.  Whenever  the  stone  has  become  irregular, 
it  may  be  made  perfectly  round  again  by  fixing  an 
old  chisel,  or  other  blade  of  steel,  to  a  frame,  so  that 
the  straight  edge  of  the  blade  will  rest  at  right  angles 
upon  the  stone.     One  end  of  this  frame  should  work 
on  a  hinge  fastened  to  an  upright,  so  the  frame  will 
rise  and  fall  with  the  irregularities  of  the  stone.     The 
other  end  of  the  frame  should  rest  upon  an  upright 
when  the  blade  is  on  the  lowest  depression  of  the 
stone's  surface.    This  will  prevent  any  cutting  of  the 
depressed  portions  of  the  stone,  and  will  permit  the 
cutting  of  the  stone  down  to  a  perfect  circle,  with  the 
diameter    the    same    as    the   lowest    portion.      Do 
not  allow  the  stone  to  get  out  of  order,  but  keep  it 
perfectly   round   as   above   directed.     Clean  off  all 
greasy  tools  before  sharpening,  as  grease  or  oil  de- 
stroys the  grit. 

One  of  the  commonest  acts  of  negligence  which 
causes  a  farmer  expense  and  a  great  deal  of  vexation, 
is  that  of  setting  the  crank  of  the  grindstone  in  so 
loose  and  slovenly  a  style  that  it  strikes  the  frame  and 
and  is  broken  off. 

Artificial  Grindstones  can  be  made  by  taking 
pure,  white  sand,  5  parts;  shellac,  i  part;  melt,  and 
form  into  the  proper  shape  while  warm.   The  fineness 


GRIST-MILLS. 


607 


of  the  sand  must  depend  on  the  work  the  stone  is  in- 
tended for.  Pounded  emery  may  be  substituted  for 
sand.  The  same  composition  is  formed  on  pieces  of 
wood,  for  the  purjxjse  of  sharpening  knives,  cutting 
stones,  shells,  etc. 
To  Measure  Grindstones,  multiply  three-fourths  of 


made  in  the  moving  power  and  the  various  apparatus 
of  the  mill,  the  grinding  is  done  in  the  same  way. 
Two  circular  stones,  placed  very  near  to  each  other, 
are  still  employed.  The  mills  illustrated  in  this  arti- 
cle are  known  as  portable  mills,  and  are  small  and 
may  be  run  to  advantage  in  any  good  neighborhood. 


Fig.  \.— Portable  Mitts. 


the  square  of  the  diameter  by  the  thickness.  Example : 
How  many  cubic  inches  in  a  grindstone  22  inches  in 
diameter  and  4  inches  thick.?  22  times  22  are  484;  ^ 
of  this  is  363;  4  times  the  last  are  1,452,  cubic  inches, 
the  answer. 

Gripes,  is  sometimes   applied  to  colic,  which  see 
under  Horse,  and  page  278. 


They  are  made  and  sold  by  the  Nordyke  &  Marmon 
Company,  of  Indianajxilis,  Ind.  Either  run  of  burrs 
can    be  stopped  or   started,   as   needed.     The  outfit 


-..—Roller   .Mill. 


Grist- Mills.  The  ordinary  grist-mill  at  the  pres- 
ent day  are  driven  either  by  steam  or  water  power. 
Wind  and  water  power  were  the  motive  powers  used 
by  the   ancients,   but  whatever  changes  have   been 


IValer-Prwtr  Mill. 


comprises  one  wheat  mill,  one  com  mill,  one  flour 
bolt,  conveyors,  etc.,  one  double-suction  smut  machine 
and  screen  shoe,  three  sets  of  elevators  with  belts, 
cups,  etc.,  scales,  picks,  bag  truck,  etc. 

Fig.  2  gives  a  sectional  view  of  a  roller  grist  mill.  A 
study  of  It  reveals  one  feature  after  another,  all  tend- 
ing to  exhibit  in  a  grand  result  the  neat  and  conven- 
ient system  which  modem  milling  science  has  attained. 

Fig.  3  presents  a  like  view  of  the  mill  as  run  by 
water  power.  In  contemplating  the  erection  of  a 
mill,  one  is  inclined  to  believe  he  can  procure  one  thing 


6o8 


GRIT—GRO  VE. 


of  one  party  and  another  of  another,  and  work  them 
all  in  to  advantage;  but  the  further  he  proceeds  with 
his  task  the  more  entangled  and  vexatious  it  becomes. 
It  is,  therefore,  more  satisfactory,  as  well  as  cheaper, 
to  engage  some  responsible  party  who  supplies  all  the 
appurtenances  of  grist-mills,  and  especially  one  who 
furnishes  competent  millwrights  to  put  up  the  mill, 
and  make  good  all  guaranties. 

Hand  and  Power  Mill.     It  is  a  great  luxury  to 

have  fresh-ground 
meal,  either  corn 
or  wheat,  forbread, 
mush,  puddings, 
etc.  Between  the 
meal  from  a  hand 
mill,  cooked  and 
served  the  same 
day  it  is  ground, 
and  that  which  is 
generally  sold  at 
the  supply  stores 
in  town,  there  is  as 
great  a  difference, 
•  both  in  flavor  and 
healthful ness,  as 
there  is  between 

Y^c.^.-Combined  Hand  and  Power  Mill,     f^esh  vegetables 

from  the  garden,  cooked  and  eaten  immediately,  and 
the  old,  dirty,  wilted,  immature  stuff  we  find  in  the 
city  market.  Hand  mills,  ranging  in  price  from  $3.50 
to  $25  can  be  obtained  through  hardware  dealers.  L. 
J.  Miller,  of  Cincinnati,  O.,  is  one  party  who  makes 
them.  Fig.  4  represents  a  combined  mill,  weight  100 
pounds,  and  price  $25 ;  capacity  one  to  three  bushels 
per  hour. 

The  same  party  also  manuficlures  a  fine  power 
mill  for  grind- 
ing drugs  and 
spices  as  well 
as  grain.  Fig.  5. 
This  mill  will 
run  equally 
well  either  way 
— right  or  left 
— and  can  be 
attached  to 
any  kind  of 
power,  steam, 
wind,  water  or 
horse.  The 
plates  are 
made  of  the 
hardest  white 
iron,  ground 
true  with  an 
emery  wheel. 
One 
last  for  five  to 

eight   years  for  Fig.  s.— Grain.  Sfict  and  Drue  Milt. 

farm  use,  and  when  worn  out  are  easily  replaced. 
See  also  Feed-Mill. 


pair  will  ««a!ess»»»v^=^ 


Grit  or  Grits,  the  coarse  part  of  meal;  oats  or 
wheat  hulled  or  coarsely  ground;  groats.  (The  word 
has  other  meanings.)  All  the  grains  have  been  vari- 
ously hulled,  cracked,  ground  and  cooked,  and  sold 
under  a  variety  of  fancy  names. 

Groats  (grawts),  oats  or  wheat  deprived  of  the 
hull  or  outer  coating. 

Groin,  the  depressed  part  of  the  body  between  the 
belly  and  the  thighs.  Whenever  there  is  chafing  in 
the  part,  either  with  adults  or  with  children,  dust  it 
with  corn  starch-  if  that  is  not  at  hand,  take  common 
flour. 

Groom,  a  servant  who  attends  to  the  stable,  and 
feeds,  grooms  and  litters  horses.  He  ought  to  possess 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  wants  and  habits  of  the 
horses,  to  exercise  much  patience  and  skill  in  the 
management  of  the  particular  animals  in  his  charge, 
and  to  practice  regularity  and  care  in  the  performance 
of  his  several  duties,  both  upon  the  animals  them- 
selves and  upon  their  stable. 

Grooming,  the  combing,  brushing,  and  hand- 
dressing  of  a  horse.  Every  horse  which  is  kept  much 
in  the  stable,  or  is  highly  fed,  or  is  little  worked,  re- 
quires grooming  as  a  substitute  for  out-door  exercise, 
and  every  horse  which  is  demanded  by  taste  or  fash- 
ion to  have  a  spruce  and  glossy  appearance,  requires 
grooming  as  the  only  healthy  means  of  maintaining  a 
healthy  "coat."  But  the  curry-comb  needs  to  be  but 
lightly  applied  to  any  horse,  and  not  applied  at  all  to 
a  horse  with  thin  or  tender  skin;  and  a  soft  brush  or 
even  a  hair  cloth,  aided  by  a  little  additional  pressure 
of  the  hand,  will,  in  many  instances,  effect  all  the 
purposes  of  an  efficient  grooming.  A  farm  horse,  or 
any  horse  whatever,  which  is  hard-worked  during  the 
day  and  turned  into  the  field  at  night,  would  be  in- 
jured, rather  than  benefitted,  by  any  further  grooming 
than  the  mere  brushing  of  the  dirt  from  his  legs. 

Gros-grain  (gro-grain')  or  Grogram  (grog  ram),  a 
kind  of  coarse  stuff  made  of  silk  and  mohair;  also,  a 
kind  of  strong,  coarse  silk. 

Ground-Bait,  bait  consisting  of  balls  of  boiled 
barley,  etc.,  dropped  to  the  bottom  of  the  water  to  col- 
lect together  the  fish. 

Ground- Cherry,  a  common,  hairy  weed,  bearing 
edible  berries  within  inflated  pods. 

Ground  Hemlock,  a  species  of  creeping  yew 
growing  in  the  Lake  region. 

Ground  Ivy,  a  catnip-like,  creeping  plant,  common 
in  some  door-yards ;  gill-over-the  ground. 

Grove,  a  small  and  ornamental  wood.  An  open 
grove  consists  entirely  of  trees,  and  a  closed  grove,  in 
addition  to  trees,  has  either  an  environing  or  an  un- 
derwood shrubberj'.  Groves  admit  of  a  vast  variety 
of  forms  and  arrangements,  and  may  be  made  either 
principal  or  subordinate  features  of  a  scene;  but 
whenever  they  are  intended  mainly  for  shelter,  or  often 
when  intended  principally  for  picturesque  effect,  they 


GROUSE. 


^09 


ought  to  have  their  trees,  not  in  rows,  but  at  scattered 
distances. 

Grouse  are  beyond  all  question  the  finest  game 
birds  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge.  The  true 
grouse  are  confined  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  and 
attain  their  greatest  development  in  North  America, 
no  less  than  nine  well  marked  species  being  natives 
of  this  country.  The  grouse  may  be  distinguished 
from  any  of  their  relatives  by  the  more  or  less  dense 
featheringofthe  tarsus  and  the  groove  for  the  nostril, by 
the  presence  above  the  eye  of  a  strip  of  naked  yellow  or 
red  skin,  and  by  the  pectinated  margins  of  the  toes.  In 
addition  to  these  peculiarities  several  species  possess 
curious  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  side  of  the  neck,  and 
some  have  under  these  feathers  air  sacks  which  are 
capable  in  the  breeding  season  of  great  distention. 

Canada  Grouse,  Spruce  Partridge.  The  Can- 
ada Grouse  is  a  northern  species  nowhere  very  abund- 
ant. Its  favorite  haunts  are  the  dense  swamps  of 
Canada,  Northern  Maine  and  the  Adirondack  region, 
where  grow  the  pine,  spruce  and  tamarack,  on  the 
buds  and  leaves  of  which  it  feeds. 

Dusky  Grouse,  Blue  Grouse,  Grey  Grouse, 
Mountain  Grouse,  Pine  Grouse,  Fool-hen.  This 
species  is  certainly  one  of  the  finest  birds  of  its  fam- 
ily. Its  flesh  is  almost  entirely  white, — as  much  so  as 
the  Ruffed  Grouse  or  quail,  and  has  a  peculiar  tender- 
ness and  flavor.  The  breast  is  remarkably  full,  and 
the  whole  body  compact  and  plump.  The  feather- 
ing is  close  and  thick,  wings  and  tail  short  and  square, 
the  latter  a  beautiful  fan  when  spread,  like  that  of 
the  Ruffed  Grouse.  Its  food  and  habits  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  the  latter  bird,  consisting  of  insects 
and  the  berries  and  seeds  of  the  pine  cone,  the  leaves 
of  the  pines,  and  the  buds  of  trees,  etc.  It  has  also  the 
same  habits  of  budding  in  the  trees  during  deep 
snows  as  the  Ruffed  Grouse,  which  are  so  often  shot 
while  thus  engaged  on  winter  moonlight  nights  in  the 
orchards  of  New  England.  With  the  Blue  Grouse,  how- 
ever, this  habit  of  remaining  and  feeding  in  the  trees  is 
more  decided  and  constant;  and  in  winter  they  will 
fly  from  tree  to  tree,  and  often  be  plenty  in  the  pines 
when  not  a  track  can  be  found  in  the  snow. 

The  nests  of  the  Dusky  Grouse  are  upon  the  ground, 
usually  well  hidden  in  a  thicket,  and  the  broods  about 
one-third  larger  than  those  of  the  Sage  Hen,  generally 
from  twelve  to  fiifteen  in  number.  The  eggs  are  of  a 
creamy  white  color,  speckled  all  over  with  dots  of 
chocolate  brown. 

The  Blue  Grouse  is  more  or  less  abundant  through- 
out the  Rocky  Mountains,  extending  northward  to 
Alaska,  and  south  nearly  to  Mexico.  It  is  perhaps 
nowhere  more  numerous  than  in  Montana,  in  which 
Territory  one  may  sometimes  see  twenty  broods  in  a 
day's  travel. 

Sage  Grouse,  Cock  of  the  Plains.  This  species 
is  the  largest  of  the  North  American  grouse,  and 
yields  in  size  only  to  the  giant  Cock  of  the  Woods,  of 
Europe.  In  the  early  season,  that  is,  in  August  and 
the  first  half  of  September,  it  furnishes  fine  sport,  for 
39 


it  lies  well,  and   when  it  rises  flies   so  straight  and 
steadily  that  it  is  very  easily  secured. 

The  male  bird  is  over  two  and  one-half  feet  long, 
and  weighs  seven  pounds  or  more  ;  indeed,  specimens 
are  sometimes  said  to  attain  a  weight  of  over  ten 
pounds.  The  upper  parts  are  variegated  with  black, 
brown  and  yellowish  grey ;  the  sides  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck  are  whitish,  and  are  furnished  with 
curious  stiff  feathers,  each  of  which  terminates  in  a 
long  hair  or  bristle.  The  lower  part  of  the  breast 
and  the  abdomen  are  black.  The  females  and  young 
males  of  the  first  autumn  are  smaller  and  lack  the 
stiff  neck-feathers  of  the  old  males.  Such  in  brief 
are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  this  fine  grouse. 

The  Sage  Grouse  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  high,  dry 
plains  of  the  interior,  which  are  covered  with  a  more 
or  less  thick  growth  of  the  sage  brush  (Artemisia  tri- 
dentata).  On  the  leaves  and  buds  of  this  shrub  the 
grouse  chiefly  feed,  sometimes  varying  their  diet  with 
grasshoppers  and  berries,  or  the  buds  of  the  willow 
and  greasewood. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn,  the  Sage  Grouse 
congregate  in  packs  of  from  ten  to  twenty,  usually 
all  members  of  the  same  brood.  At  the  approach  of 
winter,  however,  the  packs  become  very  large,  several 
hundred  being  somerimes  found  together.  At  this 
season  they  are  very  wild. 

The  broods  pass  the  night  on  the  uplands,  coming 
down  to  the  water  morning  and  evening,  and  retiring 
to  the  higher  grounds  again  without  much  delay. 
The  sage  grouse  are  said  to  spend  the  night  upon  the 
ground,  roosting  together  much  after  the  manner  of 
the  common  quail. 

Sharp-tailed  Grouse,  Sprig  Tail,  Pin-tail, 
White  Belly.  The  range  of  the  Sharp-tailed  Grouse 
is  quite  extended,  for  it  is  found  from  Alaska  on  the 
north  to  Kansas  on  the  south,  and  from  Michigan  to 
the  Sierra  Nevadas  and  the  Cascade  Range. 

The  prevailing  colors  of  the  Sharp-tailed  Grouse  are 
a  clear  dusky  black  above,  and  pure  white  beneath; 
upper  parts  variegated,  with  transverse,  rather  zigzag 
spots  of  yellowish  brown;  wing  coverts  with  large  round- 
ed, and  outer  webs  of  primaries  with  smaller  and 
more  quadrate  spots  of  pure  white;  breast  thickly 
covered  with  broad  V-shaped,  and  the  sides  with  less 
numerous,  sagittate  marks  of  uniform  clear  slaty  or 
dusky;  legs  densely  feathered  ;  throat  thickly  spot- 
ted with  dusky ;  the  two  middle  feathers  of  the  tail 
one  inch  longer  than  the  others. 

In  size,  this  species  about  equals  the  well  known 
Prairie  Chicken  or  Pinnated  Grouse,  and  altogether  is 
one  of  our  finest  game  birds. 

An  interesting  fact  in  the  history  of  this  species,  is 
that  it  seems  to  retire  before  the  advance  of  the  set- 
tlements, while  its  place  is  taken  by  the  Pinnated 
Grouse.  Thus  in  Minnesota,  where  formerly  the 
White-bellies  abounded,  and  the  Prairie  Chicken  was 
unknown,  the  former  are  now  becoming  each  year  more 
scarce  and  the  latter  more  abundant.  The  Pinnated 
Grouse  seems  to  follow  the  husbandman,  and  to  be 
far  less  wild  and  untamable  than  the  ShariJ-tailed. 


GROUSE. 


6ii 


It  is  said  that  in  entering  a  wheat  field  the  Sharp- 
tailed  Grouse  always  flies,  and  thus  cannot  be  trailed 
by  a  dog,  but  must  be  winded,  while  the  Prairie  Chick- 
en always  goes  to  feed  on  foot,  and  may  thus  be 
roaded  up  by  a  dog. 

f  iNNATED  Grouse,  Prairie  Chicken.  No  mem- 
ber of  the  grouse  family  is  better  known  than  the 
Prairie  Chicken  of  the  Western  States,  and  none  is 
more  numerous  or  more  eagerly  sought  for  by  sports- 
men. This  species  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches 
in  length.  Its  color  is  blackish  brown,  varied  above 
and  below  with  tawny  •,  the  under  tail  coverts  and  vent 
are  white,  and  the  throat  buff.  The  sides  of  the  neck 
are  ornamented  with  little  wing  like  tufts  of  feathers 
(whence  the  name  pinnated),  and  beneath  these  are 
two  naked  spaces,  which  in  the  breeding  season, 
during  the  "  tooting  "  of  the  male  bird,  are  distended 
until  they  reach  the  si^e  of  an  orange.  The  "tooting" 
is  the  call  of  the  male  bird,  and  is  only  heard  during 
the  early  spring.  At  this  season  the  grouse  are  great 
fighters,  dashing  at  each  other  with  more  display  than 
effect,  and  with  little  or  no  damage  done  on  either 
side.  This  bird  is  found  in  open  plains  on  which  are 
few  trees,  but  sometimes  takes  to  the  scrub  oak  for 
shelter.  The  nest  is  composed  of  grasses  and  leaves, 
built  on  the  round  under  the  shelter  of  a  bush.  The 
eggs  are  brownish  white,  often  somewhat  spotted,  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  in  number. 

A  tuft  of  long,  pointed  feathers  on  each  side  of  the 
neck  covers  a  naked,  orange-colored  air  sack,  which 
is  capable  of  great  inflation.  These  air-sacks  enable 
the  males  to  produce  the  peculiar  booming  sounds 
which  are  always  heard  during  the  pairing  season. 
When  the  air  receptacles  are  inflated,  the  bird  lowers 
his  head  to  the  ground,  and,  opening  its  bill,  utters  a 
succession  of  sounds,  going  from  loud  to  low  till  the 
air  of  the  sacks  is  exhausted;  then  immediately  erect- 
ing itself,  and  inflating  the  sacks,  it  proceeds  as 
before.  These  sounds  may  be  heard  a  mile  or  more. 
We  present  a  fall-page  illustration  of  this  variety  of 
the  grouse  on  the  preceding  page. 

The  "  Prairie  Hen,"  or  Pinnated  Grouse,  is  lawful 
game  in  most  of  the  States  between  the  middle  of  Au- 
gust and  the  first  of  January,  but  the  season  closes 
in  reality  about  the  first  of  November,  because  the 
birds  by  that  time  have  become  so  wild  that  but  few 
care  to  hunt  them. 

Their  flight  is  regular  and  swift,  frequently,  in  Oc- 
tober, flying  several  miles,  then  dropping  down  in  the 
long  grass.  They  fly  less  rapidly  than  the  Ruffed 
Grouse,  but  like  them,  make  a  cluckjust  before  start- 
ing. They  resort  to  their  feeding  ground  about  day- 
light, and  retire  to  the  cornfields  or  fresh  plowed 
fields  to  dust  themselves,  and  come  for  their  evening 
meal  about  four  o'clock.  They  roost  within  a  few 
feet  of  one  another  all  the  year,  seldom  roosting  on 
trees,  but  generally  take  an  open  field,  and  sometimes 
on  the  fences.  In  the  early  fall  their  flesh  is  light, 
but  after  a  few  frosts  the  flesh  becomes  dark,  and 
loses  its  dehcate  flavor.  Unlike  the  Ruffed  Grouse, 
they  can  be  domesticated,  and  will   pair  and   breed 


during  imprisonment,  and  do  not  migrate  like  the 
other  varieties.  The  grouse  in  the  spring  commences 
about  April  to  "toot,"  and  can  be  heard  nearly  a 
mile. 

Ruffed  Grouse,  Partridge  (of  the  East  and 
North),  Pheasant  ( of  the  South  and  Southwest). 
The  Ruffed  Grouse  is  of  all  our  game  birds  the  most 
difficult  to  kill,  least  domestic  in  its  habits,  and  most 
particular  as  to  the  haunts  which  it  frequents.  The 
range  of  this  grouse  extends  over  the  whole  breadth 
of  our  continent,  wherever  there  is  wooded  country, 
northward  as  far  as  the  fifty-sixth  parallel,  and  south- 
ward to  Texas.  Audubon  says  that  there  are  portions 
of  South  Carolina  in  which  it  never  existed,  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  is  found  in  the  extreme  southeast 
at  all. 

Nothing  can  excel  the  grace  with  which  it  moves 
upon  the  ground.  It  walks  with  a  proud  step,  ele- 
vated head,  the  ruffs  more  or  less  raised,  and  its  ex- 
quisitely beautiful  tail  partly  spread.  It  poises  a  sec- 
ond or  two  on  one  foot,  then  on  the  other,  and  at  almost 
every  movement  utters  a  soft  cluck.  If  disturbed  it 
lowers  its  head,  spreads  its  tail  wider,  and  runs  rapidly 
into  the  thickest  bushes.  If  there  be  no  hiding-place 
near,  it  at  once  takes  wing  with  the  loud  whirring 
which  all  have  heard  who  have  had  the  pleasure  of 
visiting  its  favorite  resorts.  According  to  Audubon, 
these  sounds  are  never  heard  when  the  bird  rises  of 
its  own  accord,  but  only  when  flushed  by  a  real  or 
supposed  enemy.  The  flight  is  straight,  rather  low, 
and  under  ordinary  circumstances  not  more  than  one 
or  two  hundred  yards  at  a  time.  •  If,  when  flushed,  it 
alights  upon  a  tree,  as  is  often  the  case  in  regions 
where  it  has  not  been  much  hunted,  it  will  generally 
be  found,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  farthest  from  the  pur- 
suer, and  close  to  the  trunk,  and  standing  so  still  and 
erect  that  one  can  readily  mistake  it  for  a  stump  of  a 
broken  limb. 

Doubtless  in  point  of  flavor  and  delicacy  the  Ruffed 
Grouse  may  be  awarded  the  palm  above  all  other 
birds  of  the  gallinaceous  tribe. 

The  wide  extent  of  country  which  the  Ruffed 
Grouse  (or  Pheasant  as  they  call  it  in  some  locali- 
ties, or  Partridge  as  they  call  it"  in  others)  inhabits, 
causes  it  to  be  well  known  in  almost  every  section  of  the 
United  States,  and  there  are  few  sportsmen  who  have 
not  toiled  and  been  tantalized  in  its  pursuit.  Early  in 
April  the  cock  grouse  begins  his  wooing,  and  perched 
upon  some  fallen  log,  commences  his  amatory  drum- 
ming, calling  to  his  side  the  unfortunate  mate  whose 
family  duties  he  will  soon  refuse  to  share. 

We  present  a  fine  picture  of  this  species  of  bird  on 
page  613. 

Ptarmigan,  Willow  Grousc,  Partridge  (of  New- 
Foundland).  The  various  species  of  Ptarmigan  are 
all  alpine  birds,  and  are  found  only  in  the  north,  and 
on  the  highest  mountain  ranges.  They  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  members  of  the  Grouse  fam- 
ily by  the  dense  feathering  of  the  tarstis  and  toes,  by 
turning  white  in  winter,  and  by  the  possession  of  only 
fourteen  rectrices,  or  tail  feathers. 


6l2 


GRtJB— GUANO. 


Rock  Ptarmigan,  Mountain  Ptarmigan.  This 
sijecies  is  still  more  boreal  in  its  habitat  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  but  little  is  known  concerning  it.  It  is 
never  found  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States. 

White-tailed  Ptarmigan,  White  Quail.  The 
White-tailed  Ptarmigan  may  be  distinguished  from 
all  others  of  the  genus  by  having  the  tail  white  at  all 
seasons.  It  is  the  smallest  of  our  Ptarmigan,  and  it 
is  the  only  one  of  regular  occurrence  within  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States.  In  the  winter  this  species 
is  pure  white  throughout,  but  the  summer  plumage  is 
curiously  mottled  with  dark  brown  and  tawny  and 
white. 

Grub,  a  larva  which  infests  fields,  orchards, 
and  gardens  and  partially  destroys  the  crops.  The 
word  is  sometimes  used  so  very  loosely  as  to  desig- 
nate wire-worms,  slugs,  and  almost  allkindsof  maggots 
which  occur  in  the  field ;  it  is  sometimes  used  less 
loosely  to  designate  the  larvte  of  the  most  mischiev- 
ous grass-eating  insects,  whether  dipterous,  coleopter- 
ous, or  hymenopterous ;  and  it  is  now  more  commonly, 
and  with  very  obvious  propriety,  used  in  so  restricted 
a  sense  as  to  designate  only  the  larvae  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  the  coleoptera. 

Gruel,  a  drink  made  of  meal,  or  flour,  and  water. 

Oat-meal  Gruel.  Put  a  pint  of  boiling  water  into 
a  sauce-pan;  stir  in  gradually  two  table-spoonfuls  of 
oat-meal.  When  smooth,  set  to  the  back  of  the  stove 
to  boil  for  half  an  hour  or  longer.  Season  with  salt, 
and  strain  before  serving.  Sugar  may  be  added  if 
liked,  and  a  flavoring  of  nutmeg,  lemon  or  cinnamon. 
Port  wine  is  often  used  for  invalids.  Another  very 
nice  gruel  is  made  by  taking  alittlemore  oat-meal  and 
adding  a  cup  of  sweet  milk  just  before  straining,  after 
which  the  gruel  must  be  simmered  for  ten  minutes  and 
seasoned  to  taste. 

Corn-meal  Gruel.  To  make  a  cupful  of  this,  wet 
a  tablesjxjonful  of  the  meal  with  a  little  cold  water, 
ixjur  upon  it  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  let  it  boil 
half  an  hour.  Nutmeg,  sugar  and  cream  may  be  added 
if  liked. 

Arrow-root  and  Tapioca  gruels  are  made  in  a 
similar  manner. 

Graham  Gruel.  Stir  a  spoonful  of  the  flour  into  a 
pint  of  boiling  water;  boil  about  five  minutes;  strain 
It  through  a  milk  strainer,  and  season  to  taste.  There 
are  little  strainers  to  be  had  which  are  made  purposely 
for  culinary  work. 

Ground-rice  Gruel.  Rub  a  tablesixwnful  of 
ground  rice  in  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water  and  stir 
it  into  a  half-pint  of  boiling  water;  add  a  little  salt, 
and  let  it  boil  up  a  half  a  minute.  When  milk  is 
allowed,  it  is  well  to  make  the  gruel  of  equal  parts  of 
milk  and  water. 

Flour  Gruel.  Tie  up  in  a  piece  of  thick  cotton 
cloth  a  coffee  cup  of  white  flour;  boil  it  steadily  for 
three  hours,  then  remove  the  cloth  and  lay  the  lump 
where  it  will  become  perfectly  dry.  I'o  use  it,  grate 
it  and  thicken  two  gills  of  boiling  milk  with  a  dessert 
spoonful  of  it  wet  in  cold  water. 


Cracker  Gruel  is  made  of  pounded  crackers,  with 
the  usual  seasoning. 

Grunter,  is  applied  to  horses  that  give  forth  a  grunt- 
ing noise.  One  condition,  giving  rise  to  wheezing, 
roaring,  whistling,  piping,  and  rattling  will,  with  slight 
modification,  produce  a  grunter. 

Guano  (gwah'no),  the  excrement  and  remains  of 
sea  birds,  which  have  accumulated  for  ages  upon  rain- 
less, rocky  islands  of  the  South  Pacific  coast.  When 
genuine,  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  special 
fertilizers. 

In  the  prevailing  native  language  of  Peru,  the  word 
huana  signifies  dung  or  manure,  huanacaci  signifies 
the  application  of  manure  to  land,  and  huanaes  signi- 
fies birds  which  supply  dung  of  a  kind  and  in  quanti- 
ties fitted  to  be  used  as  manure;  and  the  first  of  these 
words,  though  pronounced  whami  by  the  Peruvians, 
has  been  corrupted  by  the  guttural  enunciation  of 
Europeans  into  the  word  guano. 

Peruvian  guano  is  the  chief  supply  in  the  market, 
but  all  the  guano  in  the  world  is  very  limited  in  quan- 
tity compared  with  the  demand  ;  hence  mariy  unprin- 
cipled parties  have  resorted  to  adulterations  and  imi- 
tations. Every  farmer,  however,  can  manufacture  his 
own  guano,  by  saving  all  the  manure  and  refuse  of  his 
poultry  yard.  Mr.  Greeley  considered  that  farmer 
unskillful  who  could  not  with  $ioo  expense  manufac- 
ture more  manure  and  fertilizing  material  on  his  farm 
than  with  $150  worth  of  material  brought  from  abroad. 
On  analysis,  Peruvian  guano  yields  145^  per  cent,  of 
water,  535^  per  cent,  organic  substance,  and  2>2>yi  P^"^ 
cent.  ash.  Of  the  latter  the  principal  ingredients  are 
lime,  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid.  Guano 
and  all  poultry  manure  is  very  concentrated  ("strong"), 
and  there  is  always  danger  of  over-dosing  the  land 
with  it.  What  crops  need  these  fertilizers,  and  in  what 
portions,  are  indicated  in  the  respective  articles. 

The  deix)sits  of  guano  longest  and  best  known,  and 
for  some  time  supposed  to  be  the  only  ones  in  the 
world,  occur  on  the  islands  and  sea-board  of  Peru,  be- 
tween the  13th  and  21st  degrees  of  south  latitude. 
They  exist  in  limited  and  irregular  patches  and  masses, 
and  have  sometimes  a  thickness  of  50  or  60  feet,  and 
are  excavated,  in  the  course  of  commerce,  like  mines 
of  iron  ochre.  They  comprise  many  varieties,  as  to 
both  the  comparative  age  of  the  accumulations,  and 
the  degree  and  manner  in  which  they  have  been  mod- 
ified by  natural  chemical  action  and  by  alluvial  inter- 
mixture ;  but,  in  general,  they  are  popularly  classified 
into  merely  three  kinds,  the  white,  the  dark-grey,  and 
the  red.  The  white  continues  to  be  deposited,  and 
may  readily  be  observed  in  a  quite  recent  state  in  the 
localities  which  are  at  present  frequented  by  vast 
flocks  of  flamingoes,  cormorants,  cranes,  and  other 
sea-fowl;  it  has  been  collected  on  the  isles  of  Islay  and 
Jesus,  at  the  rate  of  20  or  25  tons  in  a  single  season; 
and  it  may  be  observed  in  the  island  of  Torricella,  and 
probably  in  other  places  to  be  gradually  passing  into 
the  red  variety. 

The  great  thickness  and  vast  aggregate  extent  of  the 


k 


GUARD— GUINEA  PIG. 


6iS 


deposit  of  guano  may  seem  to  warrant  a  doubt  as  to 
their  origin  in  the  mere  excrementation  of  birds.  The 
Peruvians,  under  the  government  of  the  Incas,  knew 
well  the  fact  of  their  origin,  and  highly  appreciated 
their  economical  value  for  the  national  agriculture ; 
and  they  made  the  killing  of  the  young  birds  on  the 
guano  islands  a  capital  offense,  and  appointed  an 
overseer  to  the  charge  of  each  island, and  apportioned 
the  several  islands,  for  manuring  purixsses,  to  definite, 
adjacent,  and  respective  districts  of  the  main  land 
throughout  an  extent  of  200  leagues  of  coast.  But 
when  the  Spaniards  entered  the  country,  they  for  a 
time  regarded  the  whole  of  the  Peruvian  account  of 
the  guano  as  a  fable,  and  seemed  to  regard  the  accu- 
mulations of  manure  as  far  too  vast  to  have  possibly 
arisen  from  the  excrementation  of  birds ;  and  modern 
visitors  to  Peru,  who  should  look  only  to  the  most  su- 
perficial appearances,  will  find  that  the  immense  flocks 
of  birds  which  formerly  frequented  these  shores  have 
been  disturbed  or  driven  away  by  the  increase  of  traffic, 
and  may  possibly  regard  the  smallness  of  the  existing 
flocks  as  a  conclusive  proof  that  the  guano  must  have 
had  other  origin.  Many  things,  however,  afford  deci- 
sive evidence  that  the  main  part  of  all  good  guano 
consists  entirely  of  the  excrements  of  birds,  particularly 
the  observation  and  testimony  of  the  ancient  Peru- 
vians, the  observed  formation  of  white  guano  in  some 
places  at  the  present  day,  the  occurrence  of  the  feath- 
ers and  bones  of  birds  in  recent  specimens  of  guano, 
and  the  close  similarity  of  the  chemical  constitution  of 
guano  to  that  of  the  newly-fallen  excrement  of  most 
birds,  and  especially  to  that  of  the  raptorial  sea- 
fowls. 

Guard,  in  a  mowing  or  reaping  machine,  one  of 
the  fingers  of  the  cutting  apparatus  for  protecting  the 
knives.  An  ''  open  guard  "  has  an  opening  above  the 
knives,  to  prevent  clogging. 

Guinea  Fowl,  a  domesticated  bird  of  the  gal- 
linaceous group.  It  exists  in  a  wild  state  only  in 
Africa,  and  has  thence  been  diffused,  as  a  domesti- 
cated bird,  through  Europe  and  America.  In  its  wild 
state  it  associates  in  flocks  of  200  or  300,  and  delights 
in  marshy  situations ;  and  both  in  its  wild  and  its 
domestic  states  it  roosts  on  trees  or  other  lofty  objects. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  turkey,  but  larger  than  a  large 
dung-hill  cock;  it  can  not  be  tamed  out  of  a  shy,  rest- 
less and  half-wild  habit;  and  it  possessesmuch  courage 
and  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  a  turkey.  It  has  a 
peculiar  gait,  a  singular  chuckle,  and  a  harsh,  scream- 
ing cry ;  and  the  male  and  female  of  it  are  so  exceed- 
ingly like  each  other  as  not  to  be  easily  distinguished. 
It  has  such  habits  of  feeding  and  domestication  as  to 
sufficiently  fit  it  to  be  kept  in  the  same  poultry  ground 
as  common  fowls;  but  it  makes  its  nest  in  very 
secluded  and  secret  spots,  far  from  home,  and  gives 
no  notice  of  laying  or  sitting;  so  that  its  eggs  can 
not  be  easily  found,  and  require  for  the  pur- 
pose of  domestic  propagation  to  be  hatched  and  fos- 
tered beneath  a  common  hen.  It  serves  as  a  good 
night-watch  to  a  farm  residence  or  poultry-yard,  for 


whenever  it  is  disturbed  during  the  night  by  the  sound 
of  footsteps,it  makes  such  loud  cries  as  to  summon  the 
attention  of  the  inmates.  It  is  very  prolific ;  both  its 
eggs  and  its  flesh  are  generally  relished.  It  has  been 
supposed  to  combine  the  properties  of  the  pheasant 
and  the  turkey.  Its  flesh,  both  in  color  and  in  flavor, 
is  more  like  that  of  the  pheasant  than  that  of  the 
common  cock  and  hen.  It  possesses  much  delicacy, 
and  is  in  fine  season  in  March  and  April. 

To  commence  breeding  them,  it  is  best  to  set  their 
eggs  under  a  common  hen,  as  the  old  birds  wander  so 
far  from  the  premises.  If  regularly  fed,  however,  at 
the  place  of  their  birth,  they  will  remain  about  home. 
They  roost  on  the  lower  branches  of  trees,  and  can- 
not be  persuaded  to  stay  in  a  house.  Eggs  must  be 
taken  from  a  Guinea  fowl's  nest  without  her  knowl- 
edge, else  she  will  forsake  it  altogether.  Some  nest- 
eggs,  therefore,  must  be  left  every  time.  For  breed- 
ing, the  earliest  eggs  should  be  given  to  a  common 
hen,  as  the  Guinea  hen  herself  is  generally  too  late  in 
the  season  contracting  the  "  sitting-fever"  of  her  own 
accord.  The  chicks  require  food  almost  inmiediately, 
at  least  within  six  hours  after  hatching,  and  should  be 
cared  for  in  the  same  manner  as  young  turkeys, 
though  they  may  be  allowed  more  liberty.  They  re- 
quire more  constant  feeding  than  any  other  chickens, 
a  few  hours'  abstinence  being  fatal  to  them.  They 
need  also  more  animal  food,  especially  in  winter. 
Corn  meal  should  never  be  fed  to  the  young  Guineas 
during  their  "  baby-hood,"  but  the  food  should  be  the 
same  as  that  given  to  young  turkeys,  such  as  stale 
bread  soaked  in  fresh  milk,  cottage  cheese  (made  from 
thick  milk  after  the  whey  has  been  strained  off),  bits 
of  hard-boiled  egg,  chopped  onion  tops,  etc.,  not  for- 
getting that,  when  feathering  up,  they  require  the  food 
little  and  often,  as  much  as  they  will  eat  at  a  feed, 
and  no  more. 

Guinea  Pig,  a  small  and  beautiful  Brazilian  (juad- 
ruped  of  the  order  Rodentia.  It  occurs  wild  in  the 
woods  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  and  is  treated  and  used 
in  Great  Britain  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tame 
rabbit ;  and  is  often  kept  upon  premises  in  the  belief 
that  its  odor  drives  away  rats.  It  is  about  seven  inches 
long,  and  has  a  white  ground  color,  variegated  with 
irregular-outlined  spots  of  black  and  orange.  It  is 
enormously  prolific,  and  but  for  being  unable  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  cold  and  moisture,  it  would,  in  its 
wild  state,  speedily  outrun  all  possible  supplies  of  food 
in  even  the  most  luxuriant  region.  The  female  has 
been  known  to  produce  young  ones  when  only  two 
months  old;  her  period  of  gestation  is  only  three 
weeks ;  she  brings  forth  a  new  brood  at  least  every 
two  months,  and  a  single  pair  are  capable,  in  the 
course  of  a  twelvemonth,  of  multiplying  into  a  thou- 
sand individuals.  The  young  do  not  attain  maturity 
of  growth  till  they  become  about  six  or  seven  months 
old;  but  they  are  as  active  and  alert  about  12  or  14 
hours  after  birth  as  when  full-grown,  so  that  they  re- 
quire exceedingly  little  parental  care.  The  Guinea 
pig  is  eminently  cleanly  in  its  habits,  and  may  often 


6i6 


GULL— GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


be  seen  cleaning  and  smoothing  its  fur  with  the  most 
sedulous  care.  It  is  particularly  fond  of  parsley  and 
lx)maceous  fruits,  but  readily  feeds  on  any  one  of  a 
great  number  of  herbaceous  plants;  it  appears  to 
ruminate  after  eating,  and  it  drinks  very  little,  and  is 
exceedingly  sensitive  to  damp  and  cold.  Its  flesh  is 
regarded  by  ihe  Italians  as  delicate  food,  and  its  skin 
is  nearly  as  valuable  as  that  of  the  rabbit. 

Gull.  These  birds  are  well  known  everywhere, 
being  found  almost  universally  spread  over  the  globe. 
They  are  distinguished  from  other  sea-fowl  by  their 
straight  bill,  bending  downward  toward  the  point,  and 
marked  below  the  under  mandible  by  a  triangular 
prominence,  by  their  light  body,  supported  by  large 
wings,  by  slender  legs,  palmated  feet,  and  a  small 
hind  toe.  They  are  timid  and  cowardly  except  in  de- 
fense of  their  young.  (Generally  seen  in  large  flocks, 
the  old  and  young  separate;  the  larger  species  frequent 
the  sea,  the  smaller,  lakes  or  rivers.  They  walk  with 
tolerable  ease  and  swim  well,  but  are  incapable  of 
diving.  They  keep  much  on  the  wing  and  their  flight 
is  rapid,  strong  and  long  sustained,  even  in  heavy 
gales.  In  sitting,  they  contract  their  neck,  and  rest 
on  one  foot.  They  are  extremely  voracious,  fighting 
with  each  other  for  prey.  They  are  patient  of  hunger, 
but  will  feed  on  every  kind  of  animal  food  either  dead 
or  alive,  putrid  or  fresh.  Their  principal  food,  how- 
ever, is  fish,  for  which  they  will  follow  the  shoals;  they 
catch  them  with  great  agility,  darting  down  like  an 
arrow.  They  breed  only  once  a  year,  laying  from  two 
to  four  eggs.  The  species  are  exceedingly  numerous 
and  resemble  each  other  greatly.  The  gulls  are  con- 
tinually fighting  each  other,  the  stronger  plunder- 
ing the  weaker.  No  sooner  does  one  rise  from  the 
water  with  a  fish  in  its  bill  than  it  is  immediately  pur- 
sued by  others  stronger  than  itself,  and  the  first  that 
reaches  it  tears  away  the  spoil.  Should,  however,  the 
latter  not  instantly  swallow  the  booty  it  has  required, 
it  is  in  turn  pursued  by  others;  and,  even  if  it  has 
performed  this  process,  it  is  ofttimes  obliged  to  dis- 
gorge it,  when  it  is  seized  by  one  of  the  pursuers  be- 
fore it  can  reach  the  water.  The  facility  which  the 
gulls  have  of  vomiting  their  food  has  been  taken 
notice  of,  even  in  their  captive  state.  Some  of  these 
birds  have  been  tamed,  but  even  then  they  have  al- 
ways discovered  the  same  cjuarrelsome  and  voracious 
habits.  When  two  are  kept  together  the  weaker 
generally  becomes  the  victim  of  the  ill-temper  of  the 
other.  This  genus  is  not  well  understood  by  natural- 
ists, and  much  confusion  exists  as  to  the  species. 

Gully,  a  channel  or  hollow  worn  in  the  earth  by  a 
current  of  water;  a  gulch. 

Gum,  a  concrete  juice,  the  product  of  many  vege- 
tables. There  are  many  varieties,  all  reducible  to  two 
kinds — soluble,  or  true  gums,  which  dissolve  in  water, 
forming  mucilage;  and  insoluble  gums,  which  soften 
and  swell  in  water,  but  are  not  soluble.  Fruit  trees 
often  exude  gums;  this  is  considered  a  disease  and 
may  arise  from  the  puncture  of  insects,  but  according 


to  some,  is  also  an  indication  of  poor   soil,  requiring 
putrescent  manures. 

Gum,  Chewing,  To  Make.  Soften  2  ounces  bal- 
sam of  tolu  in  a  water  bath,  and  then  mix  with  it  i 
ounce  white  sugar  and  3  ounces  bolted  oatmeal;  roll 
in  finely  powdered  sugar  or  flour,  and  form  drops  or 
sticks,  to  suit  the  fancy.  Another  article  is  made  by 
dissolving  paraffin  at  a  gentle  heat  in  a  very  little  olive 
oil  and  glycerine;  stir  it  after  it  becomes  cool,  and 
then  compress  it.  The  quantity  of  these  ingredients 
depends  somewhat  on  their  quality,  and  somewhat  on 
what  product  is  desired. 

Gum.s,  To  Preserve.  Keep  the  tartar  off  the 
teeth,  rub  the  gums  a  minute  or  two  every  day  with 
the  finger  dipped  in  cold  water  or  brine,  and  abstain 
from  drug  lotions.  But  the  best  known  drug  to  harden 
the  gums  is  a  mixture  of  J^  pint  of  Jamaica  spirits,  }^ 
teaspoonful  each  of  powdered  alum  and  saltpeter  and 
I  ounce  pulverized  myrrh.  For  sponginess,  foulness 
and  scurvy  of  the  gums,  add  i  J^  to  2  drachms  of 
Peruvian  bark  to  every  ounce  of  the  dry  ingredientsof 
any  simple  tooth  paste.  A  good  wash  for  sore  gums 
consists  of  5  drachms  jxiwdered  borax  dissolved  in  J^ 
pint  of  distilled  water.  For  ulcerated  gums,  take  of 
hypochlorite  of  lime  10  to  25  grains,  gum  Arabic  mucil- 
age i;^  to  4  drachms,  syrup  of  orange  peel  i  j4  to  2 
drachms,  and  mix  thoroughly. 

Gunny,  a  strong,  coarse  kind  of  sacking,  made 
from  the  fibers  of  certain  East  Indian  plants. 

Gunpowder,  To  Make.  Pulverize  separately  76 
■parts  nitrate  potassa,  11  sulphur  and  13  freshly  burned 
charcoal;  mix  these  with  a  little  water,  roll  into  cakes 
on  a  board,  dry  on  clean  paper  in  a  warm  place  and 
crumble  it  up. 
Gunpowder  Burns,  To  Treat.  Smear  the  scorched 
surface  with  glycerine,  by  means  of  a  feather;  then 
apply  cotton  wadding  and  cover  with  oil  silk. 

Guns  and  Gunning.  In  this  article  we  shall  treat 
of  guns  and  ammunitions  and  their  uses,  which  in- 
cludes the  manner  of  hunting  the  various  kinds  of 
game.  The  article  is  very  largely  extracted  from  the 
Sportsman's  Gazetteer,  by  Charles  Hallock,  who  is 
considered  authority  on  the  subject  of  guns  and  their 
uses. 

"  In  laying  down  specific  instructions  for  the  selec- 
tion of  guns  and  rifles,  with  their  appropriate  charges 
and  various  kinds  of  ammunition  adapted  to  different 
localities,  seasons,  and  varieties  of  game,"  says  Mr. 
Hallock,  "  we  do  so  with  the  positive  conviction  that 
our  views  and  opinions  will  be  controverted  at  the 
outset  by  hundreds  who  may  differ  with  us  and  wiih 
each  other ;  just  as  they  would  be  if  w  e  took  a  jX)sition 
diametrically  opjxisite  from  that  which  we  now  take. 
With  this  special  plea,  we  will  proceed,  simply  pre- 
mising that  what  we  print  here  has  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  gentlemen  of  venerable  experience  in  the  use 
of  old-time  and  modern  implements  in  all  parts  of 
America,  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


619 


who  are  recognized  by  the  sporting  fraternity  as  reliable 
and  sufficient  authority. 

The  Rifle.     "All  rifles  divide  themselves  in  two 


Fig.  I. — Gun  Cas^. 

great  classes,  long-range  and  short-range.  Long-range 
rifles  are  used  as  military  weajxins  for  arming  infantry, 
and  as  sjxjrting  weajxins  for  hunting  cariboo,  deer, 
antelope,  and  other  such  timid  game  as  will  not  allow 
of  near  approach.  Short- 
range  rifles  are  used  as  , 
military  weapons  for  arm- 
ing cavalry,  and  for  gen- 
eral s[X)rting  purposes. 
The  division  between  the 
two  may  be  taken  at  two 
hundred  yards.  Rifles  for 
match  shooting  may  be 
used  at  both  ranges;  hut, 
from  the  natural  desire  of 
all  of  us  to  accomplish 
the  most  difficult  feats, 
they  are  generally  held  to 
mean  long-range  weajxins. 

"The  first  rule  we  shall  lay  down  is  this:  It  is  nec- 
essary to  decide  whether  you  want  a  rifle  for  long  or 
for  short  range.  You  can  select  either  or  both,  but 
not  both  in  the  same  rifle.     One  will  not  do  the  work 


mark  small  enough  to  be  seen  over  what  are  technic- 
ally called  "hunting  sights,"  with  an  off-hand  shot 
from  the  shoulder.  Greater  accuracy  than  this  is  not 
needed.  Such  a  rifle  ought 
to  shoot  close  enough  to 
place  a  majority  of  any  num- 
ber of  shots  within  the  fol- 
lowing-sized targets:  2-inch 
ring  up  to  50  yards  dis- 
tance; ^-inch  to  100  yards, 
6-inch  to  150  yards,  and  8- 
inch  to  200  yards.  A  good 
off-hand  shot  can  do  this  and 
fire  very  quickly,  and  his  gun 
ought  to  be  able  to  shoot  as 
close  as  he  can  hold  it. 

"To  summarize,  the  form- 
ula for  sighting  seems  to 
stand  thus:  Coarse  very  near 
the  piece,  with  a  less  coarse 
to  fine  at  20  yards  (center, 
p.  b.),  thence  finer  to  extra  fine  at  66  yards  there- 
abouts (and  greatest  error),  thence  less  fine  to  fine 
at  100  yards  (center  p.  b.),  thence  coarser  and  coarser 
(beyond  the  range).     Of  course  different  rifles,  and 


Fig.  3. — GuH  Case, 

of  the  Other.  A  knowledge  of  this  will  save  much 
annoyance  and  some  money.  The  first  requisite  of  a 
short-range  rifle  is  that  you  shall  be  able  to  hit  any 


Fig.  2.— <7««  Case. 

the  same  rifle  with  different  charges,  etc.,  produce 
different  curves,  or  errors.  Hence,  in  general,  learn 
well  by  practice  and  study  the  deviations  of  your 
rifle  along  the  whole  distance,  and  then  (for  close 
shooting)  seek  so  to  aim  as  to  correct  them. 

"Good     shooting,    however, 

cannot  be  done  without   good 

ammunition. 

"The  pasteboard   wad   over 

the  powder  has  its  advantages 

and     disadvantages.      If    the 

bullets  fit  the  shells  loosely,  it 

prevents    the    powder  spilling 

out  in  carrying,   if    the  bullet 

comes  out,  and  it  also  serves  in  ^ 

a  measure  as  a  gas  check,    and 

prevents,  in  a  degree,  fire  cut. 

But  if   the   bullet  is  concaved 

much  in  the  base,  the  wad  is  liable  to  be  forced  into 

the  hollow  base  of  the  bullet  and  go  with  it.      . 

"  Another  very  important  item  is  the  composition  of 


630 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


the  bullet,  which  must  be  of  a  hardness  in  proix)rtion 
to  the  amount  and  strength  of  the  jx)wder  used.  A 
bullet  that  would  be  hard  enough  to  use  with  70  grains 
of  powder  and  shoot  well,  would  be  good  for  nothing 


Fig.    4. — Double- Barreled  Shot-Gun. 

to  use  with  a  charge  of  100  or  1 10  grains. 

"Then  the  size  of  the  bullet  is  another  point  to  be 
attended  to.  If  it  is  too  large  it  is  apt  to  bind  in  the 
grooves  of  the  gun  in  inserting  the  cartridge,  and  tear 
the  patch ;  and  if  too 
small  and  is  loose  in 
the  shell,  it  is  liable 
to  slide  a  little  toward 
the  muzzle  if  the 
gun  is  held  muzzle 
downward,  and  also 
to  be  driven  forward 
a  little  by  the  blow  of 
the  firing-bolt  upon 
the  cap  before  the 
charge  is  ignited. 
All  these  little  things 

make  a  difference  in  the  shooting,  and  help  to  produce 
unaccountable  misses.  The  same  care  and  nicety 
should  be  observed  in  loading  each  and  every  cartridge 


as  may  be  gathered  from  what  has  been  already  said 
is  that  the  ball  should  have  sufficient  impinging  sur- 
face to  give  a  severe  shock  to  and  stun  the  game  fired 
at.     This  requires  a  large  caliber  for  small  game. 

"The  sportsman  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  finding  a  num- 
ber of  different  rifles  in  market 
which  will  answer  the  requisite 
•of  accuracy  within  the  condi- 
tions above  laid  down.  To  get 
a  rifle  that  does  not  require 
the  use  of  an  elevating  back 
sight  above  150,  or  even  100 
yards,  we  shall  not  find  easy. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that  mili- 
tary rifles,  which  are  long- 
range,  are  so  fashionable  that 
makers  of  so-called  sporting 
rifles  follow  the  proportions  of 
powder  and  projectile,  and  the 
rate  of  twist  best  suited  forlong 
range,  but  quite  unsuitable  for  short  range.  For  long 
range  we  want  as  small  a  bore  as  possible,  as  long  a 
projectile  as  ixjssiljle,  and  a  very  quick  twist,  to  give 
enough  velocity  of  rotation  to  keep  the  elongated  pro- 


fit.  t.—Double-Barreled  Shot 


as  would  be  required  in  loading  the  most  elaborate 
muzzle  loader. 

"Another  important  requisite  to  successful  shooting, 


Fig.  5. — Singig  Br*tek~Load*r, 

Ijectile  end  foremost,  and  as  much  powder  as  the 
small  bore  will  burn.  The  result  is  a  moderate  inirial 
velocity ;  but  owing  to  the  small  surface    exposed  to 

the  resistance  of  the 
•  air,     the  momentum 

of  the  heavy  project- 
ile, a  very  long  range. 
"  Now,  for  a  short- 
range  rifle  we  reciuire 
the  very  opposite  of 
all  this.  We  want  as 
large    a    caliber    as 
jx)ssible,    so    as     to 
make    a  big  hole  in 
our   game ;  as   large 
a  charge  of  powder 
as  possible,  to  give  a 
high  velocity,  without 
which    we    cannot 
have  a  low  trajectory.  This  also  requires  a  short  pro- 
jectile, to  diminish  the  friction  on  the  grooves,  and  a 
short  projectile  requires  a  slow  twist.     The  length  of 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


621 


barrel  must  be  shorter,  which  also  reduces  friction.  To 
reduce  these  proportions  to  practice,  we  find  that  the 
Creedmoor  long-range  rifle  and  its  ammunition 
have  the  following  proportions:  Weight  of  rifle,  10 
pounds;  weight  of  projectile,  550  grains  (ratio  1-6); 
weight  of  powder,  90  grains;  twist,  i  in  20  inches; 


a  short-range  rifle  proportioned  as  we  have  described, 
the  drop  of  the  ball,  owing  to  its  great  velocity,  is  so 
little,  there  is  absolutely  no  judging  of  distance  re- 
quired. Whether  you  are  at  25,  50,  75,  or  100  yards, 
all  you  have  to  do  is  to  draw  a  little  coarser  bead  the 
farther  off  your  game  is.     Practice  will  soon  show  you 


Fig.  7. — Cavalry  Carbine. 


caliber,  44-100;  length  of  ball,  1.6  inches;  length  of 
barrel,  30  inches.  A  short-range  rifle,  suited  for  deer, 
bears,  buffalo,  etc.,  should  have  the  following;  Weight 
of  rifle,  9  pounds;  weight  of  projecdle,  320  grains  (ratio 
5^);  weight  of  jxiwder,  80;  twist,  i  in  48  inches;  cal- 


how  much.  Your  ball  should  not  deviate  more  than 
a  couple  of  inches  above  or  below,  and  this  does  not 
exceed  the  limit  of  accuracy  heretofore  laid  down. 

"The  faults   of  modern   American  breech-loading 
rifles  intended  for  sporting  use  are:   i.  Not  large  or 


Fig.  i.—Hal/.Oclagat 

iber,  55-100;  length  of  projectile,  y[  inch;  length  of 
barrel,  24  inches.  Forsmaller  game, such  as  turkeys, 
a  caliber  of  35-100  will  answer,  and  the  length  or 
weight  of  ball,  charge  of  powder,  etc.,  will  be  reduced 
in  proportion. 

"  The  difference  in  the  practical  operation  of  the  two 


Barreled    Sporting  Rifii. 

heavy  enough  projectile  to  make  a  disabling  wound  on 
an  animal  as  large  as  an  old  buck  deer.  2.  Notenough 
velocity  of  ball,  owing  to  too  little  powder  being  used, 
and  too  great  friction,  resulting  from  an  unnecessarily 
quick  twist.  The  muzzle-loading  hunting  rifles  that 
were  made  20  or  30  years  since  avoided  the  second  of 


Fig.  9. —  Creedmoor    Target  Rijle. 


rifles  will  be  this  :  With  the  long-range  weajwn,  if  you 
have  your  range  within  a  very  few  yards,  and  elevate 
your  back  sight  accordingly,  you  can  make  accurate 
shooting  at  all  ranges.  But  if  you  misjudge  your  dis- 
tance at  all,  or  even  if  you  know  it  and  have  not  time 
to  elevate  your  back  sight  to  its  proper  height,  you  will 
certainly  either  shoot  under  or  over  your  game.    With 


these  faults.  Their  caliber  was  smaller  than  we  should 
now  use ;  but  the  reason  was  that  in  those  days  a 
hunter  had  to  prepare  his  own  ammunition,  and  he 
liked  to  make  it  go  as  far  as  possible.  There  is  one 
other  ix)int  that  deserves  mention.  Shall  we  choose 
a  single-loading  rifle,  or  a  repeater,  that  carries  a  mag- 
azine of  cartridges  ?    Now,  it  is  very  clear  that  there 


62  2 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


are  many  advantages  in  a  repeater,  and  the  only  ques- 
tion is  whether  there  are  any  disadvantages,  due  to 
its  peculiarities,  sufficient  to  counterbalance  the  ad- 
mitted advantages. 

"The  best  known  of  this  class  of  guns  is  the  '  Win- 
chester,' which  is  made  of  three  models,  viz.,  that  of 
1866,  1873,  and  1876,  using  respectively  charges  as 
follows:  1866,  Rim  Fire  44  cal.,  200  grains  of  lead, 
28  grains  of  powder;  1873,  Central  Fire  44  cal.,  200 
grains  of  lead,  40  grains  of  powder;  1876,  Central 
Fire,  45  cal.,  350  grains  of  lead,  75  grains  of  powder; 
thus  giving  a  range  of  jwwer  to  suit  the  peculiarity  of 
the  game  in  any  section  of  the  country,  the  1 87  6  being 
adapted  to  the  heaviest  game  our  country  affords. 
The  mechanical  arrangements  of  all  the  models  are 
the  same,  and  is  proven  by  experience  to  be  strong 
and  durable,  the  model  of  1876  having  been  tested 
with  203  grains  of  powder  and  2,100  grains  of  lead 
without  injury.  There  is  no  more  complication  to  this 
gun  than  in  most  of  the  single  breech-loaders,  and 
consequently  no  more  risk  of  its  getting  out  of  order." 


Fio.  10. — Powder  and  Shot  Ckargtr. 

Guns  to  Carry  Balls.  In  the  timber,  where  the 
game  is  shot  at  short  distances,  a  strong  double  gun 
is  a  formidable  arm  when  loaded  one  with  ball  and 
one  buck-shot  cartridge.  The  ball  may  be  relied 
upon  for  ten  rods,  and  at  a  still  longer  range  with 
slight  elevation,  and  for  snap  shots  at  running  game, 
will  do  fatal  work  about  as  often  as  a  rifle.  The 
round  ball  is  considered  as  more  immediately  destruct- 
ive than  any  other.  The  blow  is  very  powerful  and 
the  "  shock  "  to  the  animal  consequently  great,  while 
the  flesh  and  skin  will  hardly  close  over  the  wound  to 
retard  bleeding.  It  is  claimed  that  large  game  will 
succumb  more  rapidly  to  the  ragged  crush  of  such  a 
large  ball,  and  save  many  a  mileof  trailingorthelossof 
game.  There  are  many  long,  arduous  tramps  taken 
after  large  game,  when  every  ounce  is  to  be  well  con- 
sidered in  arranging  packs ;  and  when  but  one  gun 
can  be  carried,  the  use  of  ball  in  double  guns  may 
enable  a  hunter  to  decide  upon  taking  a  gun  that 
will  bring  ducks,  spruce  grouse,  etc.,  to  the  larder. 
Round-ball  cartridges  may  be  prepared  in  the  same 
way  as  shot  cartridges,  with  a  wad  over  the  fx)wder, 
but  none  on  the  ball,  simply  creasing  the  shell  deeply 
over  it,  to  keep  it  firm. 

Shot-Guns.  While  the  muzzle-loading  rifle  may 
be  said  to  still  hold  its  own  with  the  breech-loader,  as 


proved  by  the  long-range  tests  at  Creedmoor  and 
elsewhere,  as  well  as  in  the  field,  the  muzzle-loading 
shot-gun  has  had  to  defer  to  the  breech-loader.  The 
advantages  are  so  much  with  the  latter,  especially  in 
wing  shooting,  that  we  shall  confine  our  few  remarks 
to  it  exclusively.  There  are  so  many  makers  of  ex- 
cellent guns,  both  English  and  American  (which  are 
chiefly  in  use  in  this  country),  that  in  attempting  a 
selection  of  the  best,  comparisons  as  to  their  merits 
become  invidious  and  fruitless  of  satisfactory  con- 
clusions. 

In  the  purchase  of  guns  sportsmen  should  be  gov- 
erned by  their  pecuniary  resources;  and  as  all  cannot 
aflbrd  to  purchase  the  highest-priced  English  guns, 
which  cost  at  least  $250  in  our  markets,  including 
their  fixtures,  they  naturally  inquire  if  an  American 
gun  equally  good  cannot  be  bought  at  a  price  much 
less.  Undoubtedly  we  have  as  competent  gunsmiths 
here  as  any  abroad ;  and  inasmuch  as  most  of  the 
materials  used  by  them  are  of  foreign  production, 
imixjrted  in  a  crude  state,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose 
that  they  can  be  and  are 
perfected  and  embodied  in 
the  completed  gun  at  a 
much  less  expense  than  the 
imported  gun  would  cost. 
Such  a  gun,  when  obtained, 
is  a  treasure.  But  it  hai>- 
pens  that  a  great  many 
inferior  low-priced  guns  are 
placed  upon  the  market 
under  the  pretentious  titles 
of  "  stub-twist,"  "  lamin- 
ated steel,"  "  Damascus," 
and  the  like,  retailing  at  from  $30  to  $70;  so  that 
one  is  liable  to  be  deceived  unless  he  is  a  good 
judge.  The  only  safety  in  purchasing,  therefore,  is  to 
obtain  reliable  counsel,  and  to  deal  with  honest  and 
responsible  parties. 

Inasmuch  as  good  muzzle-loaders  can  be  bought  at 
very  low  prices,  there  is  a  prevalent  disposition  to 
have  them  altered  to  breech-loaders,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience  and  safety ;  but  we  would  not  advise 
this  change  except  in  special  cases,  as  the  expense  of 
altering  will  nearly  equal  the  additional  cost  of  a  new 
breech-loader.  Choice  of  guns  depends  upon  the 
habits  and  quests  of  the  shooter.  For  a  man  who 
shoots  but  little,  and  seldom  on  the  wing,  a  muzzle- 
loader  is  as  good  as  need  be  required.  For  a  man 
who  wants  a  general  service  gun,  for  field,  cover  and 
trap  shooting,  a  breech-loading  gun  of  eight  and  a 
half  pounds  weight,  30-inch  barrels  and  10  gauge,  is 
the  proper  tool.  It  will  answer  for  snipe,  grouse, 
hares,  turkeys  and  ducks,  and  for  deer  when  loaded 
with  buck-shot.  However,  a  No.  1 2  gauge  is  service- 
able enough,  the  odds  against  it  being  merely  that  it 
will  not  stand  so  heavy  a  charge  as  a  10  gauge,  and 
of  course  will  not  bag  the  game  shot  at  as  often  or  as 
easily  as  the  other.  For  wild-fowl  shooting  use  a  gun 
from  nine  and  a  half  to  ten  pounds  weight,  32-inch 


GUN'S  AND  GUNNING. 


625 


barrels,  and  10  gauge.  For  "  ixjint  shooting,"  on  the 
Chespeake  Bay  and  similar  places,  a  14-pound,  five 
to  eight  bore  single  gun  is  the  most  effective. 

Guns  for  natural-history  specimens  should  be  16 
bore  and  26-inch  barrel;  load  with  mustard  shot  and 
a  half  drachm  of  jx)wder.  No  gun  will  do  itself  justice 
or  give  proper  execution  unless  it  is  properly  loaded. 
Correct  loading  used  to  be  acquired  by  careful  obser- 
vation and  practice ;  but  now  we  have  a  table  of  pro- 
portionate charges  for  different  gauges,  which  has 
been  jirepared  by  Major  H.  \V.  Merrill,  United  States 
Army,  to  whom  all  inexperienced  sjMrtsmen  owe  a 
large  debt  of  obligation.  'I'he  table,  which  is  here- 
with given,  is  based  upon  the  rule  that  ''''The  propor- 
tionate charges  of  shot-guns  of  different  bores  are  to 
each  other  in  the  ratio  of  the  area  of  their  bores!" 

TABLE   OF    PROPORTI0N.\TE    CHARGES   OF   SHOT-GUNS 
OF  DIFFERENT  GAUGES  FRG.VI  NO.  4  TO  16  INCLUSIVE. 


0 

0 

•g     8 

V 

«  E 

SI 

ll 

H 

=  3 

,-•)  3 

F-a 

^ 

«  n 

rs-V 

•^ 

Z 

te 

< 

X 

J-^ 

rt       c 

i" 

U 

■A 

4 

1.08 

9137 

2.4, 

7 1-3 

2  7-16 

•iM 

.? 

■99 

7'>93 
6782 

2.06 

6.-5 

a  1-16 

449 

6 

il 

1.82 

sM 

1% 

197 

I 

6277 

.■67 

s. 

I   13-16 

164 

■S5 

5052 

1.51 

4'A 

iJ^ 

329 

9 

.Hi 

5275 
4398 

1.41 

4K 

I  7-16 

307 

10 

■79 

■  ■31 

4 

1  5-16 

286 

.76 

452' 

1. 21 

3  »-3 

I  3-16 

264 

■71 

4176 

1.13 

3  1-3 

iM 

244 

■7" 

w;t> 

1.06 

3  '-5 

1   1-16 

211 

Unit    of 

.69 

171<> 

I. 

3 

I 

218 

Tatham's 

measure. 

.67 

lilt" 

■94 

"  4-5 

.15-16 

205  Standard  shot 

34  K    'Ir'ms. 

ih 

.65 

3238 

■  S6 

2  3-5 

.14-16 

18S        No^    6. 

Note. — The   unit  of  measure  is  three  drachms  of  powder  and  one 
ounce  of  shot  for  a  No.  14  gan. 

The  charges  given  are  not  too  light  for  small  game 
within  45  or  50  yards;  for  young  boys  they  are  too 
heavy,  and  may  be  reduced  one-fourth.  The  Major 
advises  that  beyond  50  yards,  for  large  game,  ducks, 
turkeys,  geese,  deer,  etc.,  the  charges  be  increased 
according  to  the  powers  of  the  gun  and  the  ends  to  be 
accomplished.  Some  persons  will  say,  and  quite 
truly,  that  all  guns  of  the  same  bore  do  not  call  for 
the  same  amount  of  ammunition.  They  are  exceptions 
to  the  general  rule;  load  them  to  suit  their  peculiari- 
ties. Very  light  guns,  with  large  bores,  may  not  shoot 
pleasantly,  from  too  much  recoil;  load  them  less,  but 
at  the  expense  of  penetration  and  wounded  game. 
Cheap  guns  with  rough  barrels,  and  rusty  or  dirty 
guns,  may  kick  too  much  with  these  loads.  These, 
with  all  other  nondescript  and  unduly  proportioned 
guns,  are  excepted  from  the  general  rule.  This  pre- 
supposes fair  guns  only.  Very  diverse  results  with 
good  guns  may  be  brought  about  by  having  the  powder 
disproportionate  to  the  shot  and  conversely;  using 
very  coarse  or  very  fine  powder,  also  very  coarse  and 
very  fine  shot;  by  employing  more  or  less  wads  vary- 
ing in  diameter  and  thickness,  and  setting  them  home 
on  the  charge  with  different  pressure  or  ramming;  by 
holding  the  gun,  when  discharged,  firmly  to  the 
shoulder,  or  otherwise,  etc.     Now,  if  all  these  items 

40 


control  the  shooting,  does  it  not  follow  that  to  load  a 
gun  accurately  for  all  purjwses  requires  many  experi- 
ments, good  judgment,  and  even  great  skill.? 

Choke-Boring.  There  have  been  many  crucial 
tests  of  choke-bored  guns  against  smooth-bores,  both 
in  this  country  and  England,  but  the  advocates  of  one 
and  the  other  do  not  seem  wholly  satisfied  with  the 
exhibit  as  deciding  their  respective  merits.  The  ad- 
vantages of  choke-boring  under  certain  conditions  of 
field  shooting  are  certainly  conceded.  The  effect  of 
choke-boring  is  to  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the 
gun  at  long  range.  If  we  did  all  of  our  shooting  at 
very  long  range,  we  would  be  induced  to  use  a  choke- 
bored  gun,  or  at  all  events,  to  have  the  barrel  choke- 
bored;  but  for  our  own  customary  service  we  prefer  a 
gun  not  choked,  for  the  reason  that  we  have  found 
that  the  Kay  concentrating  cartridges  produce  the 
effect  that  is  claimed  for  tiie  choke-bores.  Thus  we 
have  the  choice,  at  all  times,  between  the  straight  and 
the  choke,  which  gives  us  an  advantage  in  shooting 
which  we  should  not  have  if  restricted  to  one  or  the 
other. 

In  the  following  illustrations  we  verj^  accurately 
show  some  of  the  best  guns  now  in  our  market,  together 
with  many  of  the  parts : 

Figs.  7,  8  and  g  represent  rifles  made  by  the 
Whitney  Arms  Co.,  Whitneyville,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

Fig.7  is  a  sporting  rifle.  It  is  simple  of  construction, 
strong,  made  of  the  best  material,  easily  manipulated 
and  safe.  The  firing  pin  can  not  reach  the  head  of 
the  cartridge  until  the  breech  is  fully  closed;  there- 
fore the  piece  can  only  be  fired  when  the  breech  is 
locked.  The  shells  can  be  re-loaded.  Fig.  8,  a  target 
rifle,  withdraws  the  firing  pin  by  positive  motion.  It 
withdraws  the  cartridge  shell  clear  from  the  chamber. 
It  loads  on  the  half-lock.  The  breech  block  is 
securely  locked  the  instant  it  is  closed.  It  is  fired  by 
a  center  lock.  It  has  an  extra  notch  on  the  hammer 
and  can  be  carried  loaded  without  fear  of  accidental 
discharge. 

A  Creedmoor  target  rifle  is  made  which  is  smaller 
and  of  less  weight,  and  is  calculated  for  the  young 
amateur. 

Fig.  9,  the  cavalry  carbine,  is  one  of  the  best  manu- 
factured. Its  component  parts  are  all  of  the  best 
material  and  it  never  misses  fire. 

In  Fig.  4  we  illustrate  the  "  Parker  "  Breech-Load- 
ing Double-Barreled  Shot-gun. 

The  construction  of  this  gun  is  so  simple  any  person 
with  nothing  but  a  screw-driver  can  take  it  apart  for 


Fig.  II. — Loading  Plug, 

cleaning  or  repairs.    The  springs  used,  aside  from  the 
an  be  made  by  an*  one. 


locks,  are  such  as  can  be  made  by  an)r  one. 


626 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


Fig.  11  represents  a  loading  plug 
which  can  be  used  either  for  load- 
ing shells  or  extracting  caps. 

The  cleaning  rods  shown  by 
Fig.  12  are  made  from  the  finest 
imported  wood  ;  the  joints  brass  or 
nickel-plated  and  have  patent  im- 
plements accompanying  them.  In 
Figs.  13  and  14  we  give  illustrations 
of  the  adjustable  cleaning  rod. 

They  represent  the  cleaner 
open  and  closed.  The  self-ad- 
justing action  of  the  spring  brings 
the  cleaning  implement  to  bear 
upon  every  portion  of  the  inner 
surface  of  the  gun,  thus  cleaning 
a  gun  choked  on  any  principle. 
In  loading  accurately  the  powder 
and  shot  measure  (see  Fig.  10) 
and  capper  (see  Fig.  15)  are  nec- 
essary. 

The  capper,  hand  shell-extrac- 
tor and  a  screw-driver  may  be  all 
combined  in  one.  There  is  also 
a  good  combination  screw-driver 
(Fig.  16),  which  will  be  found 
convenient  and  serviceable. 

The  cartridge  belt, Fig.  17,  re- 
volves around  the  body.  Gives 
perfect  ventilation  to  the  chest, 
carries  any  size  of  shell  and  holds 
them  open  end  up,  thereby  pre- 
venting the  wads  starting  in  load- 
ed shells. 

All  guns,  of  any  value,  should 
The  protection  thus  afforded  will  keep 
a  gun  in  better  condition  and  for  a  longer  time  than  one 


Fig.  1^.— Cleaning  Rod. 

have  a  case 


Fig.  13. — Adjustable  Cleaning Rod^  Closed, 

could  hope  to  without  a  case.  We  present  several 
different  kinds.  Fig  i  represents  the  shell-top  gun 
case.  It  is  first  quality,  extra  heavy  sole  leather  and 
steel  frame,  with  compartments  in  cover  holding  75 
shells,  sliding  stock  tray  so  as  to  fit  any  style  and  load- 
ing tools.  Barrels  placed  in  tray  over  stock.  Figs.  2 
and  3  are  simply  gun  cases.  They  are  made  of  heavy 


Fig.  x^.— Adjustable  Cleanirg  Rod,  Of  en. 


bridle  leather  w4th  pockets   for  cleaning  rods.     The 
fore^ing  accompaniments  to  a  gun  are  all  made  by 


Parker  Bros.,  Meriden,  Conn.,  a  good,  reliable  firm. 
The   single  breech-loading  gun.  Fig.  5,   Will  H. 

Cruttenden,  General   Agent,  Cazenovia,   New  York, 

has  a  top  lever 
Fforopenmgthe 
gun,  which 
serves  as  an 
indicator 
showing  when 
the  gun  is  se- 
curely locked. 
The  lug  e  x- 
tends  through 
the  break-off 
a  n  d  is  very 
wide.  The 
actions  are  all 


Cafper. 


well  fitted  so  that  the  gun  is  not  liable  to  shoot  loose. 
Gunning:  How  to  Shoot.  In  firing,  press  the  gun 
firmly  against  the  right  shoulder,  place  the  index  fin- 
ger of  the  right  hand  on  the  trigger,  with  the  thumb 
over  the  grip  just  behind  the  hammer.     Support  the 


Fig.   i6- — Combination  Serevt- Driver, 

Other  end  of  the  gun  by  letting  it  rest  on  the  left 
hand  at  a  point  about  one-third  the  length  of  the 
ba,rrel.  The  novice  should  practice  bringing  the  gun 
up  with  breech  and  sight  on  the  same  level.  The  gun 
should  be  raised  with  a  firm,  quick  motion  to  the 
center  of  the  object  to  be  shot  at, 
and  the  trigger  pulled  the  instant 
the  sight  is  taken  ;  the  first  sight  is 
always  best,  and  the  best  shots 
those  that  shoot  quickest.  The 
beginner  should  practice  on  a  mark 
with  shot,  and  should  learn  to  aim 
with  both  eyes  open.  Target  shoot- 
ing with  a  rifle  at  rest  requires  the 
shutting  of  one  eye.  A  rabbit  in 
motion  affords  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  a  novice  to  test  his  marksmanship,  and 
when  he  can  kill  one  with  ease  he  may  feel  assured 
of  his  ability  to  hit  almost  anything.  But  never  shoot 
a  rabbit  while  it  is  sitting.  It  is  too  much  like  murder, 
and  even  a  novice  should  be  above  that.  To  be  a 
"  crack  shot "  with  a  rifle  one  must  have  a  steady 
nerve,  and  all  flinching  or  perturbation  common  to 
beginners  must  be  overcome.  It  will  disappear  by 
practice.  A  good  means  of  testing  one's  steadiness, 
is  by  balancing  a  half  dollar  on  the  end  of  the  barrel 
of  an    unloaded  rifle,  and,  after  aiming  and  drawing 


Flo.i7,.  Cartridge  Belt. ' 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


627 


the  trigger,  if  tlie  coin  remains  the  nerves  are  suf- 
ficiently steady.  For  long-range  shooting  it  is  best  to 
kneel,  resting  the  left  arm  on  the  left  knee. 

Loading  and  Carrying.  The  handling  of  breech- 
loading  guns,  and  the  using  of  shells,  is  too  wellknown 
to  require  direction.  In  muzzle-loading  no  wadding 
is  used.  The  bullet  is  put  on  a  small  round  piece  of 
flannel,  felt,  or  thin  skin,  called  a  patch,  with  just 
enough  grease  spread  over  it  to  make  the  bullet  go 
down  easily.  Ram  only  hard  enough  to  bring  the  ball 
down  to  tlie  powder.  If  the  cap  will  not  go  down  on 
the  end  of  the  nipple,  it  can  be  forced  home  by  gently 
letting  the  hammer  down  and  pressing  on  it.  In  doing 
this  rest  the  but  of  the  gun  against  the  thigh,  and  keep 
the  barrel  always  [xjiniing  at  right  angles  to  the  body. 
At  no  time  tap  the  hammer  when  it  is  on  the  cap,  for 
it  may  be  too  violent  and  end  fatally.  Never  bring 
the  hammer  from  a  full  to  a  half-cock,  but  first  let  the 
hammer  clear  down,  and  then  re-adjust  it.  All  fire- 
arms, when  not  in  use,  should  be  oiled  well  and  kept 
in  a  dry  place.  Clean  thoroughly,  inside  and  out,  be- 
fore and  after  using. 

To  be  a  successful  sportsman  one  must  always 
keep  his  gun  in  readiness,  and  to  do  this  it  should  be 
carried  in  the  hollow  of  the  left  arm,  with  the  muzzle 
jwinting  back,  or  with  the  stock  under  the  right  arm 
and  muzzle  toward  the  ground,  which  is  safest,  esj^ie- 
cially  when  hunting  with  a  companion.  Too  much 
caution  cannot  be  used  in  handling  a  gun,  and  it 
should  never  be  carried  in  any  other  than  the  three 
ways — the  two  just  mentioned  and  over  the  shoulder. 
If  one  becomes  accustomed  to  these  ways  he  will 
think  of  no  other. 
While  passing  through  thick  bushes  ahuays  carry  the 
gun  under  the  arm,  as  this  prevents  its  accidental  dis- 
charge by  the  trigger  or  hammer  catching. 

There  is  more  to  be  dreaded  from  a  companion's 
weapon  than  your  own;  do  not  allow  him  to  hold  his 
gun  so  that  you  can  see  down  the  barrels. 

When  going  through  or  over  a  fence,  put  your  gun 
at  half  or  full  cock,  for  if  it  should  catch  in  anything, 
it  will  not  explode  as  it  would  if  the  hammer  rested 
on  the  cap  and  was  slightly  raised  and  loosed.  Keep 
it  well  in  front,  muzzle  upwards,  with  the  hand  in 
front  of  the  trigger  guard.  If  you  should  be  in  com- 
pany the  one  following  should  bring  his  gun  through 
the  fence  pointing  backwards. 

When  expecting  game,  the  gun  should  be  carried 
on  the  left  arm  if  your  companion  is  on  the  right  side; 
or  in  the  left  hand,  with  the  muzzle  sufficiently  up- 
wards to  be  safe. 

The  finger  should  never  touch  the  trigger  until  the 
game  is  moved;  for  if  a  stumble  or  fall  occurin  walk- 
ing, and  the  finger  is  inside  the  guard,  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  cause  an  explosion. 

The  hammers  should  never  be  resting  upon  the  cap 
or  striker;  it  is  very  dangerous,  as  a  very  slight  blow 
or  concussion  from  a  fall  would  cause  a  discharge. 

If  snow  or  mud  gets  into  the  barrels  be  careful  to 
clear  it  well  out  before  shooting,  Many  good  barrels 
are  either  burst  or  bulged  from  some  substance,  even 


a  wad,  being  left  in  the  muzzle.  When  getting  into  or 
out  of  a  wagon,  do  not  pull  your  gun  after  you.  Keep 
it  in  front  with  the  point  well  up.  A  breech-loading 
gun  need  scarcely  ever  be  loaded  except  when  ex- 
pecting game;  but  a  few  shells  should  be  kept  in  the 
most  convenient  place  in  case  of  hurr)'.  Never  take 
a  loaded  gun  into  a  house,  but  either  draw  the  shells 
or  take  off  the  caps.  Under  no  circumstances  what- 
ever attempt  to  de-cap  or  re-cap  a  loaded  shell,  but 
carefully  draw  the  charge  first.  If  a  metal  shell,  keep 
it  well  in  front,  so  that  the  charge  would  be  clear  of 
you  in  case  of  explosion  ;  and  if  a  paper  shell,  better 
lose  the  shell  by  cutting  it  through  to  save  the  ammu- 
nition, than  run  the  risk  of  taking  off  the  primer.  In 
loading  shells  keep  them  well  away  in  front,  and  be 
careful  that  the  primer  does  not  rest  upon  any  hard 
substance,  but  have  holes  drilled  out  in  the  center  of 
the  stand.  Have  metal  shells  properly  fitted  for  the 
chamber  of  your  gun,  and  do  not  lend  them,  for  if  used 
in  a  gun  of  slightly  larger  caliber  than  your  own,  they 
will  burst  or  bulge,  and  be  useless  for  your  own  after- 
wards. When  loading  a  gun  place  the  butt  upon  the 
foot  and  incline  the  muzzle  well  outwards  quite  clear 
of  your  head.  If  one  barrel  is  fully  loaded  it  should 
be  turned  farthest  away,  keeping  the  hand  clear  of  it, 
and  only  the  smallest  {wrtion  of  the  finger  that  is  nec- 
essary should  be  over  the  loaded  barrel  in  using  the 
ramrod.  Both  barrels  should  be  at  half-cock,  as  the 
escape  of  the  gas  allows  the  powder  to  be  driven  well 
into  the  tube.  Take  care  not  to  leave  tow  or  rag  in 
the  breech  when  wiping  out  the  gun ;  it  may  be  fired 
by  the  first  discharge;  and  igniting  the  powder  in  re- 
loading may  cause  a  fatal  accident  by  exploding  the 
contents  of  the  powder  flask.  Have  the  caps  properly 
fitted  to  the  tube,  so  as  not  to  burst  in  putting  on;  they 
will  be  easily  taken  off,  and  not  liable  to  be  lost.  A 
spare  tube  and  wrench,  a  shell  extractor,  knife,  screw- 
driver, piece  of  cord  or  string,  and  some  small  money 
may  be  found  useful  to  a  hunter.  Never  put  away  a 
gun  without  wiping  and  oiling  outside,  and  examine 
the  locks  often  for  fear  of  water  and  rust.  Wash  the 
barrels  of  a  muzzle-loader  very  often,  for  in  damp 
weather  a  large  portion  of  the  powder  will  be  wetted, 
and  become  caked  when  forced  down  into  the  breech. 
Be  careful  that  your  shells  are  properly  loaded,  and 
carry  at  least  two  sizes  of  shot  for  ordinary  use.  A 
few  with  buck  and  B  B  shot  should  be  kept  very  con- 
veniently for  large  game,  or  long  shots  at  flocks  of 
geese  or  ducks.  Great  caution  should  be  taken  if  the 
wad  over  the  shot  should  become  loose,  to  repiove  it 
before  putting  in  another  cartridge ;  for  if  the  weight 
of  shot  should  force  the  wad  to  the  muzzle  of  the  gun, 
it  would  be  almost  certain  to  burst  or  bulge  the  barrel 
at  the  next  discharge.  Many  fine  guns  ares[X)iled  by 
this  simple  thing,  and  either  the  maker  of  the  gun  or 
the  jKiwder  (pardcularly  if  Dittmar  or  any  other  new 
explosive  should  be  used),  gets  blamed  for  a  casualty 
over  which  they  have  no  control,  and  the  real  cause 
is  never  known.  It  is  not  very  likely  that  the  strength 
of  any  powder  (even  if  20  drams  were  used)  would  be 
powerful  enough  to  damage  a  barrel  which  has  been 


638 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


tested  to  stand  many  times  that  power  before  leaving 
the  factory.  In  resting  a  gun  upon  the  ground  never 
place  the  hand  over  the  muzzle ;  it  is  very  dangerous. 

In  shooting  birds  for  mounting  purjwses,  load  as 
lightly  as  iwssible.  Put  in  no  more  shot  than  is  needed 
to  kill  the  bird,  and  not  enough  powder  to  send  the 
shot  clear  through,  making  two  holes  instead  of  one. 
"Dust  shot"  is  best  for  small  birds,  but  No.  12  will 
answer.  For  ducks  and  large  birds,  No.  8  is  about  the 
right  size. 

To  Shoot  Game  near  the  ground  and  moving  from 
you,  aim  well  over  the  head,  or  the  charge  will  fall  too 
low.  For  birds  above  the  gun  and  flying  from  you, 
aim  low,  or  the  shot  will  pass  too  high.  In  cross-shoot- 
ing at  close  range  aim  a  foot  or  so  in  advance.  Allow 
more  distance/or  longer  range.  Cross  shots  are  alway 
best,  especially  for  quails,  as  an  easier  mark  is  pre- 
sented, and  a  more  vital  part  exposed.  A  cross-shot 
may  generally  be  had  by  walking  around,  and  coming 
up  toward  or  in  front  of  your  dog  while  pointing. 
Game  should  always  be  approached  from  the  direc- 
tipn  in  which  the  wind  is  blowing,  and  with  birds  in  a 
body,  aim  at  those  that  are  farthest  away.  Do  not 
take  your  eyes  off  a  flock  of  birds  after  firing  till  they 
have  flown  several  hundred  yards,  as  some  of  the 
birds,  though  mortally  wounded,  may  not  fall  at  once. 

In  order  to  become  a  good  judge  of  distance,  meas- 
ure out,  say  30,  40,  50  and  60  yards  at  your  own 
homestead,  and  familiarize  yourself  with  the  respect- 
ive distances. 

The  pull  of  the  trigger,  the  quickness  of  the  pow- 
der, of  which  the  small  grain  is  said  to  be  the  best 
for  snap  shots  (although  perhaps  not  quite  so  strong), 
have  all  to  be  considered,  bearing  in  mind  that  three- 
fourths,  if  not  more,  of  the  shots  missed,  are  from  be- 
ing behind  rather  than  in  front. 

This  remember  and  treasure  up  as  the  greatest  se- 
cret in  shooting:  Never  allow  your  gun  to  be  brought 
upon  a  bird  from  above,  or  before  it ;  but  always  from 
behind  if  cross  shots,  or  below  if  rising  shots.  The 
course  of  flight  being  in  direct  opposition  to  the  mo- 
tion of  the  gun,  unless  that  instruction  is  followed,  it 
would  require  at  least  double  allowance  to  be  made, 
and  even  then  we  very  much  question,  unless  in  very 
experienced  hands,  whether  one  shot  in  twenty  would 
be  effective. 

The  greatest  care  should  also  be  used  that  the  gun 
be  held  level,  so  that  the  line  from  the  eye  in  taking 
sight  should  be  along  the  center  of  the  rib,  from  the 
screw  a{  breech  to  the  sight  on  muzzle. 

With  ground  game  the  sarr.e  principle  applies  more 
or  less,  remembering  that  whereas  with  birds  above 
your  level  going  right  away,  you  shoot  under  them; 
hares  or  rabbits,  and  even  birds,  near  the  ground  be- 
ing below  your  level,  it  is  requisite  to  be  well  over 
them,  carefully  calculating  whether  it  is  rising  or  fall- 
ing ground,  and  with  side  shots  be  well  in  front,  as 
explained  before. 

If  a  hare  or  rabbit  is  crossing  you  in  brush  or  tim- 
ber, and  you  only  just  get  a  sight,  snap  shoot  three  or 
four  feet  in  front  of  where  you  saw  it,  and  you  will  be 


almost  sure  to  find  that  you  have  killed.  So  with  a 
woodcock ;  shoot  after  him  in  the  direction  he  was 
taking,  although  you  have  lost  sight,  for,  being  a  very 
soft  bird,  a  single  pellet  may  kill  him  at  50  or  60 
yards.     It  will  be  found  to  answer  very  often. 

Hints  ON  Prairie  Shooting.  "The  15th  of  Au- 
gust," says  Mr.  Hallock,  "is  the  opening  day  of  the  sea- 
son for  pinnated  grouse,  or  'chickens,'  as  they  are 
usually  called  out  West,  and  during  the  remainder  of 
that  month  and  the  first  two  weeks  of  September 
much  larger  bags  can  be  made  than  later  in  the  season." 

But  by  deferring  the  time  until  the  latter  part 
of  September,  we  can  have,  say,  a  week's  shooting  for 
grouse,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  snipe  and. 
ducks  will  begin  to  visit  the  lakes  and  marshes  which 
abound  in  the  West  and  Northwest,  and  afford  most 
excellent  sjxjrt.  In  order  to  have  the  best  sport,  it  is 
imjxjrtant  that  each  shooter  should  take  with  him  at 
least  one  good,  steady,  well-broken  dog,  and  in 
condition  to  work  day  after  day,  and  by  all  means 
one  that  is  a  good  retriever. 

Early  in  the  season,  use  No.  8  shot ;  later.  No.  6. 

How  TO  Load  for  Game.  A  ten-bore  will  cham- 
ber about  five  buck-shot;  put  in  about  four  layers  and 
four  drachms  of  powder.  Pinnated  grouse,  three  and 
a  half  drachms  of  powder  and  one  and  one-eighth 
ounces  No.  8  shot.  Ruffed  grouse  (partridge),  three 
and  a  half  drachms  powder  and  one  and  one-fourth 
ounces  No.  8  shot.  Woodcock  and  snipe,  three 
drachms  powder  and  one  and  one-eighth  ounces  No. 
10  shot.  Powder,  No.  6  Laflin  &  Rand's.  Some 
years  ago  fine-grain  powder  was  generally  used ;  the 
coarse  grain  gives  better  penetration  and  less  recoil. 
Either  the  brown  or  blue  shells  can  be  loaded  again, 
provided  they  are  intact  and  not  injured  anywhere. 

Blinds,  Decoys,  Calls,  and  Other  Devices. 
The  Sink-box  or  Battery.  The  sink-box  is  about  six 
feet  three  inches  long,  one  foot  two  inches  deep,  two 
feet  wide  at  the  top,  one  foot  eight  inches  at  the  bot- 
tom. To  this  box  is  fastened  a  platform  about  t2 
feet  long  and  seven  feet  wide,  and  to  this  platform  is 
fastened  a  frame  covered  with  muslin,  as  follows : 
Width  at  head,  nine  inches;  width  at  sides, two  feet. 
This  box  is  carried  to  the  shooting  grounds  by  placing 
it  on  a  boat,  and  is  then  anchored  at  the  head  and 
foot,  head  toward  the  wind.  The  shooter  then  places 
his  decoys  at  both  sides,  and  strings  them  towards 
the  foot,  so  the  decoys  will  form  a  V-shape ;  but  place 
most  of  your  decoys  on  the  left,  so  that  the  ducks 
will  comeon  your  left,  as  this  is  the  easiest  shooting. 
After  this  is  done  the  shooter  gets  into  the  box,  and 
places  weights  in  it,  so  that  it  will  be  sunk  even  to 
the  water.  The  shooter  then  lies  down  in  the  box 
with  his  face  to  the  leeward,  so  that  he  can  see  every 
dart  made,  and  thus  have  an  easy  shot.  Where 
ducks  are  plenty  this  is  a  most  destructive  contriv- 
ance, as  the  ducks  can  see  nothing  until  they 
get  over  the  decoys,  and  then  it  is  too  late,  for  at  this 
moment  the  shooter  rises  up  and  pours  in  his  deadly 
fire. 

Blinds.    A  blind  is  a  concealment.      Blinds  are 


i 


GUNS  AND  GUNNING. 


631 


contrived  in  a  dozen  different  ways  to  suit  varying  ex- 
igencies. Properly  they  are  imitations  of  nature,  or 
such  close  resemblances  to  natural  objects  that  the 
birds  to  be  decoyed  are  wholly  unsuspicious  of  them. 
If  a  man  is  hunting  along  the  margin  of  a  river 
which  is  lined  with  rushes,  he  bends  the  rushes  over 
the  boat  and  hides  beneath  them,  taking  care  that  his 
garments  shall  be  the  same  color  as  surrounding  ob- 
jects. If  he  is  among  willows  on  shore  or  by  the 
river  side  he  partly  lops  off  the  branches  and  lets 
them  hang  over  him.  If  he  is  by  the  sea-shore, 
where  the  waves  pile  up  the  kelp  and  algae,  he  makes 
a  suitable  pile  of  his  own  and  uses  it  for  a  blind.  If 
logs  and  drift-wood  line  the  banks  of  the  shore  or 
margin  of  a  stream,  a  canoe  or  boat  turned  over  looks 
like  a  log  and  affords  a  blind.  If  birds  are  to  be 
hunted  in  fields  or  near  cover,  a  shock  of  corn  or  pile 
of  brush  answers  the  best  purpose.  If  in  mid-winter, 
when  snow  is  on  the  ground,  or  ice  moving  in  the  riv- 
ers, blocks  of  ice  set  up,  or  bleached  cotton  cloth 
made  fast  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  make  an 
effectual  concealment,  and  can  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished from  the  adjacent  landsca])e.  The  shooter's 
dress  should  then  be  as  nearly  white  as  possible. 
Blinds  should  never  be  built  higher  than  the  shoul- 
ders of  the  person  erect,  and  the  interstices  should  al- 
ways be  so  covered  as  to  conceal  his  form  and  move- 
ments. 

Decoys.  Select  a  clear  stick  of  timber  of  cedar  or 
pine  (cedar  is  the  best),  about  five  by  seven  inches. 
Cut  it  in  pieces  twelve  inches  long;  make  a  pattern 
of  pasteboard  about  the  shape  of  a  duck,  viewing  it 
from  above.  Mark  out  the  pieces  of  wood  by  the 
pattern,  and  rough  them  out  with  a  hatchet.  Make 
another  pattern  of  the  side  view  of  the  duck's  head 
and  neck  when  shortened  or  drawn  in,  and  mark  out 
some  heads  on  a  piece  of  inch  and  a  half  board,  so 
the  grain  of  the  wood  will  come  lengthwise  of  the 
duck  s  bill.  Saw  them  out  with  a  key-hole  saw.  Cut 
a  square  place  in  the  body  of  the  decoy  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  deep  to  receive  the  base  of  the 
neck.  Fit  a  neck  to  each  body,  and  bore  a  hole 
lengthwise  through  the  head  and  neck  into  the  body; 
make  the  joint  of  the  neck  with  glue,  and  fasten  the 
heads  on  the  decoys  by  driving  a  pointed,  tight-fit- 
ting piece  of  wire  through  the  hole  already  made. 
When  the  heads  have  been  fastened,  shave  them  in 
form  with  a  draw-knife,  rasp  them  off  smooth,  put  the 
finishing  touch  on  the  heads  and  crook  of  the  necks 
with  a  jack-knife,  and  sandpaper  them  thoroughly. 
Buy  some  white  lead,  boiled  oil,  and  dry  colors,  and 
paint  them  as  near  as  ]X)ssible  like  the  ducks  that  are 
to  be  hunted.  They  may  be  made  to  look  more  nat- 
ural by  putting  glass  eyes  in  the  head,  set  in  holes  in 
plaster.  When  used,  anchor  them  from  a  staple 
driven  in  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  so  the  ducks  will 
always  head  to  windward,  as  live  ones  are  in  the 
habit  of  doing. 

Deaii  Diuks  as  Decoys.  Having  killed  the  duck 
and  secured  him,  take  a  stick,  a  reed  or  the  stalk  of  a 
strong  weed  that  is  stout  and  strong,  sharpen  one  end 


to  a  point,  which  insert  under  the  skin  of  the  duck's 
breast  and  along  up  the  neck  just  beneath  the  skin, 
into  the  head.  Do  this  so  that  the  head  will  hold  a 
natural  jxjsition  to  the  body,  and  the  neck  is  not 
awry.  Then  wade  out  and  plant  the  other  end  of  the 
stick  in  the  mud  over  which  there  is  a  foot  of  water  or 
a  litde  more.  The  body  of  the  duck  must  then  rest 
on  the  water  as  that  of  a  Uve  duck  does,  and  after 
having  smoothed  the  feathers  nicely.  It  is  best  to 
keep  on  setting  these  decoys  until  you  have  seven  or 
eight,  and  if  you  increase  the  number  it  will  be  all 
the  better. 

Stools /or  Snipe,  etc.  Stools  are  made  of  wood  in 
imitation  of  the  birds  to  be  decoyed ;  or  dead  birds 
may  be  used  as  above.  They  should  be  placed  at  a 
proper  shooting  distance  from  the  blind  where  the 
shooter  is  concealed. 

Live-Geese  Decoys.  In  bar  shooting  they  should 
not  be  staked  out  for  the  following  reasons :  Very  few 
Canada  geese  or  brant  used  for  decoys  become  prop- 
erly reconciled  to  their  captivity.  They  remain  more 
or  less  wild,  and  when  fettered,  are  apt  to  lose  their 
footing,  on  account  of  sudden  frights,  etc  ,  and  fall 
forwards  all  in  a  sprawl.  There  they  remain  prone, 
tagging  and  straining  for  hours  until  relieved.  If 
wild  geese  are  in  the  vicinity  where  this  occurs,  good- 
bye to  the  game;  it  will  not  be  deceived.  Moreover, 
the  gunner  should  retain  control  of  his  decoys,  in  or- 
der to  be  able  to  get  them  away,  when  necessary, 
from  the  spot  towards  which  the  wild  birds  are 
heading. 

Turkey  Calls.  Make  a  Httle  box  of  Spanish  cedar 
two  and  one-half  inches  long,  three-fourths  to  sev- 
en-eighths deep,  and  one  inch  wide.  Cut  a  piece  of 
smooth  slate  so  that  it  will  lie  nicely  in  the  bottom  of 
the  box;  have  the  top  smooth  and  even  and  no  rosin 
will  be  needed.  Make  the  box  of  the  same  material 
throughout,  and  put  together  with  brass  pins.  Brads 
or  glue  spoil  the  sound,  not  giving  sufficient  vibra- 
tion. If  made  from  pieces  of  cigar  lx)X,  be  sure  that 
no  paper  remains  on  the  box,  and  use  the  thinnest 
portions.  Another  call  consists  of  a  short  piece  of 
Spanish  cedar,  with  a  good  sized  nail  driven  half 
through  it;  draw  a  piece  of  slate  across  the  nail. 

To  operate  either  of  these  calls,  hold  the  slate  be- 
tween the  thumb  and  middle  finger  of  the  right  hand, 
while  the  call  is  held  by  the  thumb  and  middle  finger 
of  the  left.  Above  all  things  do  not  make  over  five 
strokes  for  a  single  call — oftener  four.  If  you  exceed 
this  number  you  will  get  no  turkey,  for  a  turkey  can 
count. 

Still  another  call  is  made  in  this  wise:  Take  a  piece 
of  dry  cedar  two  inches  long  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  wide  and  a  quarter  inch  thick,  and  with  a  nar- 
row chisel  hollow  this  out  so  that  the  sides  are  about 
as  thin  as  a  piece  of  tin,  or  it  may  be  a  little  thicker, 
so  that  it  is  not  too  delicate.  It  should  be  hollowed 
out  within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  bottom  and  end, 
and  your  call  is  complete.  Take  both  ends  be- 
tween your  thumb  and  fingers  and  rub  it  cross- 
wise against  the  but  plate  of  your  gun,  or  rub  it  on 


632 


GUTTER— G  YPSUM. 


your  gun  barrels.  You  require  no  rosin  or  anything 
else ;  simply  the  naked  wood  as  made.  In  one  hour's 
practice  you  can  perfectly  imitate  a  gobbler  or  a  hen 
at  your  pleasure.  One  beauty  about  this  is,  you  never 
make  a  mis-call  or  screech ;  it  is  perfect  every  time. 
Many  hunters,  however,  prefer  the  old-time  hollow 
bone  of  the  turkey's  wing. 

Whistle  for  Calling  Bay  Snipe.  Carefully  dry  the 
leg  of  a  curlew,  push  out  the  marrow  with  a  red  hot 
knitting  needle,  plug  up  one  end  and  then  practice. 

A  Plover  Whistle.  Take  a  round  miniature  tin 
box  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  thick,  or  less,  and  a  small  hole  exactly 
through  the  center.  If  it  does  not  answer  fully  on 
trial,  ream  out   the  hole    a    trifle.       We    have  seen 


Fig.  \^.— Standard  Trap. 

these  whistles  on  sale  at  toy  stores.     A  little  practice 
will  enable  you  to  call  any  whistling  bird. 

The  farmer  who  has  not  plenty  of  wild  game  on 
which  to  practice,  may  become  proficient  in  marksman- 


Klfi.  20. — Pigeon    Trap. 


r  If;.  20. — Ftg-eon    Trap. 

ship  by  a  small  outlay  in  the  purchase  of  a  trap  and 
balls  We  give  in  Fig.  19  an  illustration  of  a  trap  for 
this  purpose.     William  H.  Crultenden.of  Cazenovia, 


N.  Y.,  agent.  The  balls  may  be  either  glass  or 
wood.  Fig.  20  represents  atrap  for  pigeon  practice.  It  is 
handy,  cheap,  durable  and  sure  to  work. 

Gutter,  a  small  and  narrow  surface  drain;  but  the 
word  is  used  in  a  restricted  and  technical  sense  in  the 
practices  of  irrigation. 

Gyp  (jip),  a  name  applied  by  sportsmen  to  the 
young  female  pup. 

Gypsum  (jip'sum),  the  hydrous  sulphate  of  lime; 
'  land  plaster.  It  consists  of  40.1  per  cent,  of  sulphuric 
acid,  28.5  of  lime,  and  18  of  water,  or  of  three  equiv- 
alents of  sulphuric  acid,  one  of  lime,  and  two  of  water, 
or,  of  one  equivalent  of  sulphate  of  lime  and  two 
of  water.  It  can  easily  be  artificially  formed  by  mix- 
ing a  solution  of  muriate  of  lime  with  any  soluble 
sulphate,  or  by  pouring  sulphuric  acid  upon  common 
quicklime.  In  the  latter  case  a  violent  heat  is  evolved, 
and  when  the  mixture  is  ignited  water  is  given  off; 
and  if  the  sulphuric  acid  has  been  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity, the  resulting  substance  is  all  gypsum ;  and  if  not, 
the  substance  is  partly  gypsum  and  partly  quicklime. 

History  of  Gypsum  as  a  Manure.  The  grand 
value  of  gypsum  to  the  farmer,  and  even  the  chief  in- 
terest of  it  to  the  merchant,  are  its  uses  as  a  manure. 
Virgil,  in  commending  the  use  of  ashes  to  the  Roman 
farmers,  speaks  of  the  value  of  a  very  impure  variety 
of  gypsum ;  and  the  early  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  farmers  of  Lombardy  made  use  of  it  in  some 
such  way  as  the  Romans  But  none  of  these  parties 
were  acquainted  with  its  real  nature;  and  even  the 
chemists,  till  a  comparatively  late  period,  were  imable 
to  distinguish  it  from  limestone  or  other  calcareous 
substances.  About  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  a 
substance  which  was,  long  afterward,  shown  to  be  an 
impure  gypsum,  which  had  been  used  as  a  fertilizer 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Hanover,  drew  the  attention  of 
Mayer,  a  talented  Protestant  pastor  in  the  principality 
of  Hohenlohe,  and  was  found  by  him  to  possess  such 
manurial  powers  as  promised  to  be  of  great  and  gen- 
eral service  to  agriculture.  He  recommended  and 
published  the  substance  by  both  example  and  writing, 
and  he  speedily  made  a  deep  and  extensive  impres- 
sion in  its  favor.  Many  agriculturists  subjected  it  to 
experiment,  and  Schubart  in  German} ,  Tschiffeli  in 
Switzerland,  and  Franklin  in  America  wrote  in  recom- 
mendation of  it,  pushed  it  into  notoriety,  and  both  won 
for  it  a  host  of  friends  and  provoked  against  it  a  host 
of  foes. 

The  use  of  gypsum  extended  rapidly  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  the  district  around 
Paris,  and  was  so  zealously  propagated  in  North 
America  as  to  occasion  exix)rtations  from  the  quarries 
of  Monmouth  to  the  western  side  of  the  Atlantic;  and 
gypsum  rapidly  obtained  the  fame,  in  both  the  old 
world  and  the  new,  as  being  one  of  the  most  powerful 
auxiliaries  of  vegetation. 


ACK,  a  horse,  or  coach,  or  other  carriage, 
hackneyed  or  let  out  for  common   hire;  a 
_     hackney  coach ;  also  a  family  horse  used  in 
^^  all  kinds  of  work  as  distinguished  from  hunt- 
ing and  carriage  horses. 

Hackberry,  a  tree  of  the  elm  kind,  growing 
sparingly  in  all  our  forests  and  bearing  sweet, 
edible  fruits  the  size  of  a  small  cherry. 

Hackle,  an  instrument  with  teeth  for  separating  the 
coarse  part  of  flax  or  hemp  from  the  fine;  a  hatchel; 
any  flimsy  substance  unspun,  as  raw  silk;  a  fly  for 
angling,  dressed  with  feathers  or  silk;  a  long,  shining 
feather  on  the  neck  of  a  cock. 

Hackney,  let  out  for  hire,  as  a  coach. 

Hail,  a  species  of  snow  or  snowy  rain,  which  has 
undergone  several  congelations  and  superficial  melt- 
ings, in  its  passage  through  diff"erent  zones  of  the  at- 
mosphere, some  temperate  and  others   frozen.     It  is 
generally    formed    by  sudden    alternations   in    fine 
season.     Hailstones  are  often  of  considerable  dimen- 
sions,  exceeding  sometimes  the  length  of  an  inch. 
They  sometimes   fall   with  a    velocity   of  70  feet   a 
second,  or  about  50  miles  an  hour.     Their  great  mo- 
mentum, arising  from  this  velocity,  renders  them  very 
destructive,  particulariy  in  hot  climates.     They  not 
only  beat  down  the  crops,  and  strip  trees  of  their  leaves, 
fruits  and  branches,  but  sometimes  kill  even   large 
beasts  and  men.  The  phenomena  attending  the  form- 
ation and  fall  of  hail  are  not  well  understood.      An 
explanation   offered  is,   that    they    must  have   been 
originally  formed  at  an   aUitude  in   the  atmosphere 
where  the  temperature  is  greatly  below  32°,  and  that, 
in  consequence  of  their  extreme  coldness,  they  ac- 
quired magnitude  during  their  descent  by  condensing 
on  their  respective  surfaces  the  vajxjrs  contained  in 
the   electrified  cloud  and  atmosphere  through  which 
they   passed.      The   difficulty,  however,  is  not  alto- 
gether obviated  by  this  conjectural  explanation.     In 
this  country   hailstorms  seldom  assume  any  remark- 
able appearance,  but  in  some  other  countries,  espe- 
cially in  the  southern  districts  of  France  between  the 
Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,   hailstorms  are  so  violent,  and 
the  hailstones  so  large,  as  frequently  to  lay  waste  large 
districts  of  country.     Of  late  years  some  very  disas- 
trous hailstorms   have    occurred  in    {x>rtions   of  the 
Western  United  States  and  Western  Ontario.     These 
storms  have  invariably  been  accompanied  with  thun- 
der and  a  violent  squall   or  whiriwind.     Individual 
hailstones  have  been  known  to  weigh  as  much  as  five 


ounces,  but  there  are  stories  in  existence  of  much 
heavier  ones.  These  large  particles  of  ice  are  seldom 
globular,  but  rather  of  an  irregular  and  angular  shape. 
Hailstorms  generally  occur  during  the  hottest  period 
of  the  year,  and  seldom  during  night  or  winter. 

Hair.  The  hair  of  the  human  scalp  is  an  import- 
ant charge,  both  in  regard  to  health  and  to  etiquette. 
Fine  hair  has  been,  in  all  'ages,  considered  as  a 
beauriful  ornament,  and  the  proper  management  of 
it  is  well  deserving  of  attention;  as  this  will  be  assist- 
ed somewhat  by  a  knowledge  of  its  structure  and 
mode  of  growth,  we  shall  first  describe  these. 

Each  hair  is  a  hollow  tube  attached  to  a  root  or 
bulb,  which  grows  in  the  skin.     The  shaft  of  the  hair 
is  of  a  horny  substance,  but  the   bulb   is   furnished 
with  vessels  and  nerves,  as  is  evident  from  the  pain 
which  IS  felt  in  pulling  the  hair  by  the  roots.     When 
the  roots  are  pulled  out,  the  hair  does  not  grow  again. 
Although  the  hair  is  tubular,  if  it  has  never  been  cut 
it  is  closed  at  the  points,  which  are  sharp,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  large  hairs  that  form  the  whiskers  of  ani- 
mals, and  from  the  hair  of  which  camels-hair  pencils 
are  made,  which  becomes  useless  if  the  points  are  cut 
off.     There  is  probably  a  circulation  of  some  fluids  in 
hair,  although,    from  its  minute  structure,  this  cannot 
be  ascertained ;  but  it  may  be  inferred  from  the  change 
that  takes  place  in  its  color.     It  is  well  known  that 
the  hair  of  the  human  head  is  almost  always  lighter, 
and  sometimes  of  a  different  rint,  in  childhood  than  it 
becomes  afterward;  and  as  old  age  advances,  it  ex- 
periences, in   most  people  who  do  not  become  bald, 
the  remarkable  change  into  gray.     The  time  at  which 
hair  turns  gray  varies  remarkably  in  different  persons; 
and  it  is  frequently  accelerated  by  great  anxiety  of 
mind,  of  which  singular  instances  have  been  recorded. 
The  turning  gray  is  very  different  from  falling  off;  the 
latter  appears  the  consequence  of  some  decay  at  the 
roots,  whereas  they  are  only  the  most  permanent  hairs 
that  ever   become    gray;  the  strongest  and  darkest 
colored  are   the  most  liable  to  the  change,  and  are 
longer  in  being  shed  than  those  which  have  preserved 
their  color.     Hair  when  gray    appears  to  be  in  some 
degree  transparent,  and  has  a  remarkable  silvery  or 
glistening  appearance. 

The  color  of  hair  is  various,  but  limited  within  cer- 
tain boundaries.  It  varies  from  very  light  flaxen  to  a 
deep  raven  black,  and  goes  through  the  shades  of 
yellow  or  golden,  to  reddish  and  red,  auburn  or  light 
brown,  and  dark  brown,  and  blackish  brown. 

The  proper  management  of  hair  is  very  simple.     It 


^34 


HAIR. 


should  be  kept  as  clean  as  jx)ssible,  by  daily  brushing 
and  removal  of  the  dandruff  that  forms  upon  the  skin, 
and  occasionally  washing  with  pure  water,  which  will 
have  no  injurious  effect  on  the  health,  providing  the 
hair  is  not  very  long,  so  as  to  make  drying  it  difficult. 
To  assist  in  drying  it  thoroughly,  dip  the  brush  in  a 
very  little  hair  jxjwder,  and  brush  it  out  again ;  after 
that  a  little  good  perfumed  pomatum  may  be  brushed 
in ;  too  much  not  only  makes  the  hair  greasy  but  in- 
jures it.  There  is  a  natural  oil  secreted  by  the  hair, 
which  serves  to  keep  it  in  good  order;  sometimes  this 
is  defective,  and  the  hair  becomes  dry  and  harsh;  it 
is  then  proper  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  a  little  po- 
matum or  oil.  The  use  of  these  gives  to  hair  a  fine 
gloss  just  in  the  same  way  as  a  mahogany  table  is 
made  to  shine  by  rubbing  it  with  wax,  which  fills  up 
all  the  minute  cavities  with  a  smooth  substance.  A 
multitude  of  hair  oils  are  sold  by  the  druggists  under 
various  names,  their  compositions  being  kept  secret; 
and  each  of  them  is  said  to  have  extraordinary  qual- 
ities. Mo3t  of  those  which  are  advertised  are  expens- 
ive, and  persons  who  have  tried  them  agree  that  their 
pretended  virtues  are  extravagantly  overrated. 

When  hair  is  allowed  to  grow  very  long  without  cut- 
ting, it  is  observed  that  it  splits  at  the  points,  which 
injures  its  growth  ;  an  inch  or  two  should  then  be  cut 
off.  Curling  is  best  effected  in  the  usual  way,  by  paper- 
ing.    Using  hot  irons  is  apt  to  injure  the  hair. 

The  plentiful  growth  and  agreeable  appearance  of 
hair  is  usually  promoted  by  general  health  and  simple 
management;  and  more  dependence  may  be  placed 
on  them  than  on  any  arts  which  the  perfumer  may 
pretend  to. 

The  loss  of  hair  which  occasions  baldness  is  a  usual 
effect  of  old  age ;  but  it  takes  place  not  unfrequently  at 
early  periods  of  life.  Premature  loss  of  hair  is  indic- 
ative of  some  derangement  of  the  bodily  system,  by 
which  the  ordinary  functions  of  the  skin  are  in  the  de- 
fective state.  The  causes  of  this  may  be  various,  and 
are  not  easily  investigated.  Though  the  hair  has  be- 
gun to  come  off,  this  effect  will  sometimes  cease  with 
the  return  of  perfect  health ;  and  whatever  can  restore 
the  proper  action  of  the  skin  will  contribute  most  ef- 
fectually to  preserve  the  hair.  But  when  baldness 
has  actually  taken  place  for  some  time,  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether  any  application  can  reproduce 
hair  upon  the  part  from  which  it  has  disappeared, 
particularly  after  the  person  has  advanced  to  a  cer- 
tain time  of  life.  This  defect  is  almost  peculiar  to 
men ;  women  at  an  advanced  age,  though  their  hair 
becomes  white,  are  seldom  affected  with  this  disease. 
When  the  hair  is  observed  beginning  to  come  off,  the 
defect  is  frequently  owing  to  a  dryness  of  the  skin 
and  some  want  of  nourishment  at  the  roots ;  in  that 
case  a  little  good  pomatum  may  check  the  evil,  and 
prevent  its  extending. 

In  the  daily  papers  are  seen  numerous  advertise- 
ments of  preparations  for  restoring  the  hair  which  has 
fallen  off;  and  we  are  confidently  assured  that,  through 
their  virtues,  thousands  of  persons  who  had  been  bald 
are  now  adorned  with  luxuriant  tresses.     It  is  really 


amusing  to  observe  how  far  impudence  can  go,  and 
credulity  can  lead  to  being  duped  ;  and  one  would 
imagine  that  the  extravagant  style  and  gross  ignorance 
displayed  in  these  puffs  would  be  sufficient  to  expose 
them.  The  best  of  these  nostrums,  that  is,  those  which 
contain  nothing  deleterious,  are  little  more  than  some 
of  the  ordinary  fats  or  oils,  colored  and  perfumed,  and 
which  any  person  may  prepare  for  himself  at  one 
twentieth  of  what  they  cost  in  the  stores  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  latter  being  totally  useless  as  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  recommended.     See  page  55, 

Although  there  is  a  very  general  idea  that  the  fat 
of  the  bear,  or  bear's  grease,  promotes  the  growth  of 
hair  more  than  other  material,  in  consequence  of  the 
extravagant  advertisements  by  which  its  sale  is  an- 
nounced, yet  it  is,  in  fact,  no  more  efficacious  than 
common  pomatum,  which  it  much  resembles.  Indeed, 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  greatest  part  of  that 
which  is  sold  for  bear's  grease  never  came  from 
that  animal.  Real  bear's  grease  has  a  very  disagree- 
able smell ;  and  this  is  imitated,  it  is  said,  by  using 
the  fat  of  an  old  goat,  or  rancid  hog's  lard.  The  least 
evil  is,  that  the  weak  and  credulous  will  throw  away 
their  money  ;  but  there  is  the  greater  danger  that  they 
may  be  seriously  injured  by  com[X)unds  made  up  by 
persons  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  the  ingredients  they 
put  together,  and  totally  unfit  to  be  trusted  when 
health  is  so  much  concerned. 

Hair  Powder,  at  one  time  universally  worn,  is  now 
scarcely  used,  except  for  occasionally  dryingor  clean- 
ing the  hair,  and  similar  purposes.  It  is  merely  wheat 
starch  powdered  very  fine.  It  was  formerly  made  of 
various  colors,  and  perfumed. 

To  Cleanse  the  Hair.  Ammonia  should  not  be 
used  on  the  hair ;  it  injures  the  gloss  and  softness, 
causing  the  hair  to  become  harsh  and  dry.  The  best 
way  to  cleanse  the  hair  and  keep  the  scalp  healthy  is 
to  beat  up  a  fre^h  egg  and  rub  it  well  into  the  hair,  or 
if  more  convenient,  rub  it  into  the  hair  without  beat- 
ing. Rub  the  egg  in  until  a  lather  is  formed ;  occa- 
sionally wet  the  hands  in  warm  water,  softened  with 
borax;  by  the  time  a  lather  is  formed  the  scalp  is 
clean  ;  then  rinse  the  egg  all  out  in  a  basin  of  warm 
water,  containing  a  table-spoonful  of  jxiwdered  borax; 
after  that,  rinse  in  one  clear  warm  water. 

Dandruff  may  be  removed  by  an  application  of 
borax  and  warm  water,  or  the  yolk  of  an  egg  beaten 
up  in  warm  water.  Another  good  wash  consists  of 
powdered  camphor  i  ounce,  and  pulverized  borax  2 
ounces,  mixed  with  2  quarts  of  boiling  water  poured 
over  it ;  bottle  when  cold. 

Hair  Dyes  are  all  injurious,  no  matter  what  the 
advertisers  and  uneducated  fops  may  say.  When  gray 
hairs  begin  to  appear,  at  first  awhile  they  may  be 
plucked  out,  but  afterward  let  nature  take  its  course. 
Gray  hairs  often  have  a  charming  effect,  even  when 
associated  with  a  comparatively  youthful  face. 

To  Make  the  Hair  Curl,  apply  a  mixture  of  i 
pound  olive  oil,  i  dram  of  oil  of  origanum,  and  i  y^ 
drams  oil  of  rosemary. 

Pomade.     Take  the  marrow  out  of  a  beef  shank- 


HALTER— HAM. 


63s 


bone,  and  put  it  into  a  jam  pot;  set  Uie  pot  in  a  sauce- 
pan of  water,  and  boil  until  the  marrow  isquite  melted. 
Then  strain  and  add  scent  to  liking;  ottar  of  roses  is 
nicest.  Lard,  5  ounces;  olive  oil,  2J4'  ounces;  castor 
oil  ^  ounce  ;  yellow  wax  and  spermaceti,  of  each,  J^ 
ounce.  These  ingredients  are  to  be  liquefied  over  a 
water  bath  ;  then  add,  when  cool,  the  following  per- 
fume: essence  of  lemon,  essence  of  bergamot,  of  each, 
60  drops ;  oil  of  cloves,  15  drops. 

Making  Hair  Grow.  If  the  head  be  perfectly 
bald,  nothing  will  ever  cause  the  hair  to  grow  again. 
If  the  scalp  be  glossy  and  no  small  hairs  are  discerni- 
ble, the  roots  or  follicles  are  dead,  and  you  might  as 
well  cause  an  arm  to  grow  again  after  it  has  been 
amputated.  However,  if  small  hairs  are  to  be  seen 
there  is  hope.  Use  the  following  every  day :  Brush 
well,  and  bathe  the  bald  spot  three  or  four  times  a 
week  with  cold  soft  water;  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
I  dram ;  tincture  of  cantharides,  4  drams;  bay  rum,  4 
ounces;  castor  oil,  2  ounces. 

To  Restore  the  Hair  after  Illness.  Equal 
parts  of  best  brandy  and  strong  black  tea,  shaken  well 
together  and  rubbed  well  into  the  roots  of  the  hair 
once  daily,  will  usually  restore  the  hair  after  long  ill- 
ness. Be  careful  not  to  scratch  or  irritate  the  scalp 
with  rough  combing  and  brushing.  The  mixture  should 
be  made  at  least  once  in  three  days,  even  in  cool 
weather. 

To  Keep  the  Hair  from  Turning  Grey.  Take 
the  hulls  of  butternuts,  say  about  4  ounces,  and  infuse 
in  a  quart  of  water.  Then  add  J^  ounce  of  copperas. 
Apply  with  a  soft  brush  every  second  or  third  day. 
This  preparation  is  harmless,  and,  we  have  reason  for 
believing,  has  never  been  published.  It  is  far  better 
than  those  dyes  made  of  nitrate  of  silver. 

The  hair  should  be  in  good  trim.  The  gentleman 
will  keep  his  hair  cut  to  just  such  length  as  will  set 
the  neatest  and  most  gracefully ;  will  divide  it  by  a 
straight  line  an  inch  or  a  little  more  to  the  left  (or 
right)  of  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and  comb  and 
brush  thoroughly,  until  every  stubborn  lock  and  hair 
is  made  to  take  its  place. 

A  lady's  hair  should  be  brushed  for  at  least  ten  min- 
utes three  times  a  day, — morning,  noon  and  night, 
with  a  brush  of  moderate  hardness.  The  hair  should 
be  separated,  one  lock  after  another,  in  order  that  the 
head  itselfmay  be  well  brushed  and  the  scurf  removed. 
In  brushing  or  combing  begin  at  the  extreme  points; 
in  combing,  hold  the  portion  of  hair  just  above  that 
through  which  the  comb  is  passing,  firmly  between 
the  first  and  second  fingers,  so  that,  if  it  becomes  en- 
tangled. It  may  draw  from  that  jxjint  and  not  from  the 
roots.  Jerking  the  comb  violently  through  tangled 
hair  breaks  off  much  of  it,  rendering  it  uneven  and  un- 
controllable. About  once  a  month  it  is  well  to  clip 
off  the  ends  of  the  hair  with  shears,  to  make  it  even. 

Halter,  a  loose  rope-bridle,  or  strap,  without  bits  or 
curbs,  and  used  simply  for  leading  a  horse  or  tying 
him  up.  The  plain  or  common  halter  is  a  very  sim- 
ple affair ;  but  when  this  can  be  slipped  by  a  tricky 


horse,  a  halter  is  used  with  head-gear,  two  straps  and 
a  second  throat  band. 

Ham,  To  Cure.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the  cask 
with  coarse  salt,  lay  on  the  hams  with  the  smooth  or 
skin  side  down,  sprinkle  over  fine  salt,  then  another 
layer  of  hams,  and  so  continue  until  the  cask  is  full. 
Make  a  brine  in  the  following  proportions :  Six  gal- 
lons water,  9  pounds  salt,  4  pounds  brown  sugar,  3 
ounces  salt-peter,  r  ounce  saleratus.  Scald  and  skim, 
and  when  cold  pour  the  brine  into  the  cask  until  the 
hams  are  completely  covered.  The  hams  should 
remain  in  the  pickle  at  least  three  months,  and  a  little 
longer  time  would  do  no  harm.  A  handful  each  of 
mace  and  cloves  scattered  in  the  brine  will  greatly 
improve  the  flavor  of  the  meat.  If  it  is  desired  to 
give  a  red  coloring  to  the  hams  use  eight  ounces  salt- 
peter to  two  pounds  salt. 

The  following  is  another  method  used  successfully 
by  many :  Put  a  layer  of  salt  on  the  bottom  of  the 
cask,  and  put  in  the  hams,  sprinkling  salt  freely  over 
each  layer.  Make  a  pickle  in  proportion  of  i  !^  lbs.  of 
salt  and  i  J^  lbs.  sugar  to  a  gallon  of  water ;  boil,  skim, 
and  when  ccol  pour  over  the  hams.  In  six  weeks 
or  two  months  they  will  be  sufliciently  salted,  when 
they  are  to  be  taken  out,  dried,  and  smoked. 

In  pickling  meat,  salt  and  sugar  are  all  that 
are  really  needed,  but  saltpeter  and  potash 
are  often  added.  The  only  use  of  saltpeter  in  pick- 
ling meats  is  to  preserve  the  red  color;  potash  is 
thought  to  make  them  more  tender. 

Besides  the  method  of  pickling  hams  they  may  Jje 
cured  dry.  For  this,  place  a  table  or  platform  of 
boards  where  the  drip  will  do  no  harm,  or  so  arrange 
cleats  as  to  direct  it  into  a  pail.  Mix  one  pound  of 
brown  sugar  with  every  four  pounds  of  salt ;  rub  the 
hams,  etc.,  with  this  daily  for  a  week,  and  afterwards 
every  two  or  three  days  for  two  weeks  more.  Brush 
off  and  smoke. 

Preservation  of  Hams.  To  preserve  hams  ac- 
cording to  the  commercial  method,  case  each  one  in 
canvas,  after  it  is  smoked,  for  the  purpose  of  defend- 
ing it  from  the  attacks  of  the  bacon  beetle  (see  page 
55),  which  soon  fills  the  ham  with  its  maggots.  The 
canvas  should  then  be  whitewashed.  This  trouble- 
some process  can  be  avoided  by  the  use  <4  pyroligne- 
ous  acid.  With  a  painter's  brush,  dipped  into  the 
liquid,  one  man,  in  the  course  of  a  day,  may  effectually 
secure  200  hams  from  all  danger.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  insinuate  the  liquid  into  all  the  cracks,  etc., 
of  the  under  surface.  This  method  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  preservation  of  hams  in  hot  chmates.^ 
For  directions  concerning  smoking  hams,  see  "Bacon." 

Mutton  Hams.  To  pickle  for  drying:  First  take 
weak  brine  and  put  the  hams  into  it  for  2  days,  then 
pour  off  and  apply  the  following,  and  let  it  remain  on 
from  2  to  3  weeks,  according  to  size:  For  each  100 
ix)unds  take  salt,  6  pounds ;  saltpeter,  i  ounce ;  sale- 
ratus, 2  ounces;  molasses,  i  pint;  water,  6  gallons, 
will  cover  these  if  closely  packed.  The  saleratus 
keeps  the  mutton  from  becoming  too  hard. 


636 


HAMBURG  FOWLS— HARD   WATER. 


To  Boil  a  Ham.  Put  a  ham  in  a  boiler,  while  the 
water  is  cold ;  be  careful  that  it  boils  slowly.  A  ham 
of  20  pounds  takes  four  hours  and  a  half;  larger  and 
smaller  in  proportion.  Keep  the  water  well  skimmed. 
A  green  harr)  wants  no  soaking,  but  an  old  one  must 
be  soaked  1 6  hours  in  a  large  tub  of  water. 

To  Steam  a  Ham.  If  the  ham  has  been  hung  for 
some  time,  put  it  into  cold  water  and  let  it  soak  all 
night,  or  let  it  lie  on  a  damp  stone  sprinkled  with 
water  for  two  days  to  mellow.  Wash  it  well,  put  it 
into  a  steamer — there  are  proper  ones  made  for  the 
purpose — over  a  pot  of  boiling  water.  Steam  it  for  as 
long  a  time  as  the  weight  requires,  the  proportion  of 
time  given  above. 

This  is  by  far  the  best  way  of  cooking  a  ham.  It 
prevents  waste  and  retains  the  flavor.  When  it  is 
done,  skin  it  and  strew  bread-raspings  over  it  as  usual. 
If  you  preserve  the  skin  as  whole  as  possible  and 
cover  the  ham  when  cold  with  it,  it  will  prevent  its 
becoming  dry. 

Ham  and  Eggs.  Chop  finely  some  cold  boiled 
ham,  fat  and  lean  together,  say  a  pound  to  4  eggs; 
put  a  piece  of  butter  in  the  pan,  then  the  ham ;  let  it 
get  well  warmed  through,  then  beat  the  eggs  light; 
stir  them  in  briskly. 

To  Bake  Ham.  Take  a  medium-sized  ham  and 
place  it  to  soak  for  10  or  12  hours.  Then  cut  away 
the  rusty  part  from  underneath,  wipe  it  dry,  and  cover 
it  rather  thickly  over  with  a  paste  of  flour  and  water. 
Put  it  into  an  earthen  dish  and  set  it  into  a  moderately 
heated  oven  for  4  hours.  When  done,  take  off  the 
crust  carefully . and  peel  off  the  skin;  put  a  frill  of 
cut  paper  around  the  knuckle  and  raspings  of  bread 
over  the  fat  of  the  ham,  or  serve  it  glazed  and  gar- 
nished with  cut  vegetables. 

Hamburg  Fowls,  a  species  of  domestic  fowl :  see 
page  5  24. 

Haines,  a  pair  of  curved  pieces  of  wood  or  metal 
in  the  harness  of  a  draught  horse,  to  which  the  traces 
are  fastened  and  which  lie  upon  the  collar. 

Hampshire  Down  Sheep,  a  breed  of  English 
sheep.     See  Sheep. 

Hand,  a  lineal  measure  of  height.  It  is  the  usual 
or  average  breadth  of  the  fist  or  clenched  hand,  and 
is  commonly  reckoned  at  four  inches.  This  measure 
is  used  in  computing  the  height  of  horses;  so  that  a 
horse  of  five  feet  in  height  is  technically  said  to  stand 
15  hands  high. 

Hand-Drill,  a  drill  sowing  implement  driven  or 
drawn  by  hand.     See  page  367. 

Handicap,  a  race  in  which  the  horses  carry  differ- 
ent weights,  according  to  their  age  and  character  for 
speed,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  equalize  the  chances  as 
much  as  possible;  an  allowance  of  a  certain  amount 
of  time  or  distance  in  starting,  granted  in  a  race  to  the 
competitor  possessing  inferior  advantages,  or  an 
addirional  weight  or  other  hindrance  irajxised  upon 
the  one  possessing  superior  advantages,  in  order  to 


equalize,  as  much  as  possible,  the  means  of  success; 
as,  the  "  handicap  was  five  seconds,"  "  ten  pounds," 
etc.     The  term  is  similarly  used  in  marksmanship. 

Hands.  For  the  prevention  and  treatment  of  chap- 
ped hands,  see  Chapping. 

Hand-saw,  a  saw  to  be  used  by  one  hand.  Those 
hand-saws  which  have  teeth  slanting  forward,  or 
downward,  for  cutting  wood  in  the  direction  of  the 
fiber,  are  called  "  rip-saws,"  or  "  ripping-saws."  Never 
give  a  hand-saw  a  "temporary"  filing  by  merely 
sharpening  the  points,  as  that  will  almost  spoil  the 
saw  and  increase  the  labor  of  the  regular  saw-filer. 
In  filing,  lay  the  file  evenly  upon  the  whole  of  one 
side  of  a  tooth,  and,  with  considerable  pressure  down- 
ward, thrust  the  file  steadily  out.  Two  or  three  cuts 
of  this  kind  are  generally  sufficient  for  one  side  of  a 
tooth;  somedmes  even  one  thrust  is  suflficient,  if  the 
file  is  good  and  the  work  skillfully  done.  To  keep  the 
saw  from  rusting,  keep  it  dry  and  slightly  oiled, — 
well  rubbed  with  sweet  oil  or  any  grease  or  oil  in  which 
there  is  no  salt  and  out  of  which  all  the  water  has  been 
driven  by  heat. 

Hanging,  or  Strangling.  After  taking  the  cord 
from  the  neck,  proceed  with  artificial  respiration,  as 
for  drowning. 

Hard  Water.  The  tear  and  wear  of  clothes  by 
the  system  necessary  for  washing  in  hard  water  is 
very  important  in  the  economical  consideration  of  the 
questipn.  The  difference  in  this  respect  between 
hard  and  soft  water  is  very  striking.  Hard  water 
almost  always  contains  carbonate  of  lime  or  chalk,  as 
well  as  selenite.  By  boiling  the  water  this  is  separated, 
and  forms  the  fur  or  crust  on  the  inside  of  tea-kettles ; 
so  that  hard  water  is  rendered  somewhat  softer  by 
boiling,  but  not  quite  soft.  For  chemical  puriwses 
this  property  may  be  wholly  obviated  by  adding  to 
the  water  a  small  quantity  of  barytic  solution.  It  is 
this  selenite  or  gypsum  which  gives  the  water  its 
hardness.  Such  water  curdles  soap,  and  is  therefore 
unfit  to  wash  with.  The  sulphurie  acid  of  the  selenite 
attaches  itself  to  the  alkali  of  the  soap  whilst  the  oil 
and  lime  are  separated  in  flakes,  and  give  the  appear- 
ance of  curdling.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  add 
wood-ashes  or  concentrated  lye  or  potash  to  hard 
water  when  it  is  required  for  washing  purposes;  in  this 
case  the  alkali  of  the  ashes  or  potash  decomposes  the 
selenite.  Peas  and  vegetables  retain  their  color 
better  when  boiled  in  hard  than  when  boiled  in  soft 
water,  but  they  are  not  so  soft  and  tender.  Soft  water 
is  best  adapted  to  most  manufactories,  as  brewing, 
dyeing,  etc.  In  dyeing,  if  hard  water  is  used,  the 
selenite,  or  its  earthy  part,  is  deposited  in  the  stuff 
and  prevents  the  coloring  particles  from  penetraring. 
In  brewing,  or  any  other  process  where  water  is  used 
to  extract  the  virtues  from  vegetables  or  from  animal 
matter,  soft  water  is  best,  ±)ecause  its  solvent  ]X)wers 
are  greatest.  In  making  tea,  hard  water  will  not 
extract  as  much  as  soft,  unless  the  tea  be  powdered, 
for  it  has  not  so  much  power  in  softening  and  opening 
the  tea  leaves. 


//AI?NBSS. 


^37 


Harness.  The  harness  of  any  draught  animal, 
whatever  be  its  parts,  should  in  every  instance  ex- 
actly fit  the  animal  and  always  be  in  good  order. 
The  collar  and  saddle,  in  particular,  ought  to  be 
exact  in  size  and  shape,  and  thoroughly  adapted  to 
ease  and  comfort;  for  when  they  incommode  the 
%nimal,  or  render  him  uncomfortable,  or  especially 
when  they  gall  him,  they  make  him  restless  and 
reluctant  to  work,  destroy  his  temper  and  waste 
his  powers.  Even  an  improper  adjustment  of  the 
harness  or  the  girth  may  greatly  distress  him,  and 
waste  much,  both  of  his  strength  and  temper. 

//otv  to  select  good  harness.  The  great 
difficulty,  even  to  experts,  of  judging  the  qualit}' 
of  leather  when  manufactured,  and  of  the  honesty 
of  the  workmanship,  is  so  great  that  the  only 
safety  lies  in  buying  from  dealers  whose  reputa- 
tion is  above  suspicion,  and  buying  nothing  for 
which  less  than  a  fair  price  is  asked.  The  follow- 
ing, hints  may  probably  be  of  some  assistance: 
All  good  harness  leather  is  made  from  the  hides  of 
neat  cattle,  tanned  either  with  oak  or  hemlock 
bark,  the  former  being  very  much  the  best. 
Leather  tanned  with  oak  bark  alone  has  when 
cut  a  yellowish  drab  color,  without  the  least  tinge 
of  red,  while  that  tanned  either  wholly  or  in  part 
with  hemlock  bark  has  a  pronounced  reddish  cast. 
If  this  reddish  hue  is  very  prominent  on  cutting 
across  the  end  of  a  strap,  etc.,  do  not  buy  that  set 
of  harness.  When  leather  has  been  perfectly 
tanned,  it  is  of  the  same  color  throughout  its  thick- 
ness; if  in  cutting  across  (as  above)  and  moistening 
the  freshly  cut  surface  with  the  tongue  it  shows  a 
lighter  streak  in  the  center,  reject.  See  that  the 
wrinkles  wMch  are  always  found  on  the  black 
side  of  the  leather  run  across,  and  not  lengthwise 
of,  the  strap.  Beware  of  varnished  leather;  the 
best  quality  does  not  need  doctoring.  Rotten 
or  half-tanned  leather  is  never  so  soft  or  pliable  as 
fully  tanned  and  good  stock.  Where  good  thread 
is  used  long  stitches  are  better  than  short  ones. 
The  slits  made  by  the  dagger-shaped  awl  should 
not  run  in  the  direction  of  the  stitching,  as  is  some- 
times done  in  cheap  harness,  as  it  weakens  the 
leather  by  a  too  continuous  line  of  cutting.  With 
proper  stitching  the  end  of  the  slits  shovv  on  either 
side  of  the  stitches.  Never  buy  harness  with 
leather-covered  buckles,  turrets,  etc.,  as  such  arti- 
cles are  apt  to  be  weak. 

Collar.  The  collar  should  be  soft,  spongy 
and  elastic,  fit  snugly,  except  that  there  should  be 
plenty  of  room  under  the  throat,  so  that  there  be 
no  danger  of  chokin'^  when  drawing  heavy  loads 
up  hill.  The  collar  should  not  be  too  narrow^  op- 
posite the  sides  of  the  throat.  To  fit  one  to  a 
horse,  soak  it  well  in  water  and  then  let  the  ani- 
mal draw  heavy  loads  with  it  until  dry;  but  even 
for  this  process  a  collar  of  the  proper  proportions 
should  be  selected.     Those  which  are  open  at  the 


top  do  not  afford  so  firm  a  resistance  to  the  draft, 
and  break  sooner  than  those  made  solid.  The 
best   are   always  lined   with    leather.      Care  must 

be  taken  that  they  are 
neither  so  tight  as  to 
obstruct  the  breathing, 
nor  so  loose  as  to  gall  the 
shoulders.  The  breast 
collar,  for  light  work,  is 
much  better  and  hand- 
somer than  the  English 
collar.  For  a  horse  col- 
lar, a  good  sweat  pad 
is  a  great  utility. 

Benoit's  patent  sweat 
pad  for  horse  collars,  as 
represented  by  Fig.  i ,  is 
Fig.  \.-s-meat  Pad.  composed    of    Series    of 

detachable  sections  enclosed  in  a  case  adapted  to 
receive  them.  The  object  is  to  prevent  the  injury 
or  discomfort  prising  from  the  pressure  of  a  horse 
collar  upon  the  shoulders  of 
the  animal,  and  the  bruises 
and  sores  consequent  upon  the 
same;  and  to  permit  such  to 
readily  heal  after  they  have 
been  produced,  by  relieving 
the  pressure,  which  is  accom- 
plished by  detaching  such  sec- 
tion or  sections  as  would  bear 
upon  the  affected  parts.  This 
is  the  only  philosophical  the- 
ory and  common-sense  remedy 
known,  and  this  device  will 
readily  commend  itself  to  ev- 
ery one  who  has  the  welfare  of 
the  horse  in  consideration. 

Hames.  Such  hames  should 
be  selected  as  fit  the  adjusted 
collar;  for  otherwise  the  best 
collar  in  the  world  might  be 
spoiled.  Very  often  the  col- 
lar is  "blamed"  for  the  mis- 
chief which  the  hames  have 
slyly  done.  As  to  the  mate- 
rial, etc.,  of  this  article,  the 
iron  tubular  is  probably  the 
best,  such  as  Hayden's  patent, 
Fig.  2. 

There  is  also  manufactured 
a  safety  fastener  for  hames, 
which  is  a  very  great  improve- 
ment in  this  line  (Figs.  3  and 
4).  It  can  be  lengthened  or 
./A«yA»'..7'«A«/«r  shortened,  and  is  particularly 
Hames.  serviceable    where    the    horse 

has  fallen  down  and  the  unhitching  must  be  done 
instantly.  It  is  as  well  adapted  for  light  driving 
as  well  as  for  the  heaviest  truck.     A  good  neck- 


FlG. 


638 


HARNESS. 


Fig.  tt.  —  HaiHi'  Fastener — dosed. 

yoke  adjuster,  to  go  with  the  hames-strap,  is  illus- 
trated by  the  two  cuts  of  Fig.  5. 

The  "back-band"  at 
the  present  day  is  uniform- 
ly made  to  work  clear  of 
the  back-bone,  so  as  not  to 
gall  that  part  of  the  ani- 
mal. The  sweat-pads  or 
cushions  underneath  the 
band  have  a  constant  tend- 
ency to  harden  and  be- 
come foul !  hence  they  need 
frequent  cleaning  and  oil- 
ing. In  all  justice,  they 
should  be  thus  renewed 
once  for  every  day's  work 
in  warm  weather,  and  once 
or  twice  for  each  week's 
work  in  cold  weather. 
This  cleaning  and  oiling 
should  be  done  when  they 
are  taken  off  the  horse, 
and  while  they  are  warm, 
otherwise  it  is  a  difficult  task  to  do  the  work  well. 
Oil  or  grease  should  not  be  left  on  the  pads  in 
slovenly  quantities,  but  the  surplus  should  be 
wiped  off  clean. 

The  subjects  of  the  "belly-band,"  back-strap 
and  of  the  "martingales"  need  no  remarks. 
Cruppers  should  be  large  and  soft.  To  keep 
them  soft,  however,  they  require  treatment  similar 
to  that  of  sweat-pads,  described  on  preceding  page. 

Breeching  is  necessary  only  when  a  team  is 
required  to  back  a  load  occasionally,  or  in  a  hilly 
country  where  the  wagon  is  not  sufficiently  pro- 
vided with  a  brake.  In  all  cases,  however,  it  is 
safer  to  have  good  breeching,  although  its  appear- 
ance is  not  "  tasteful." 

Tug.  The  m6st  important  improvement  made 
recently  with  reference  to  tugs,  or  traces,  is  a 
spring  link,  which,  as  it  works,  catches  and  saves 
the   force  of  a  team  in   starting.     It  is  especially 


valuable  with  quick  starting,  impatient  horses,  and 
is  a  great  help  in  preventing  that  bad  habit, 
balking. 


Fig.  6.— I.  X.  L.  Sprhi/r  ^V  ■^''«*- 

Reins.  Those  which  are  rounded,  folded  or 
seamed  are  inclined  to  become  hard  or  rotten,  and 
are  therefore  not  so  reliable  as  those  which  are  flat 
the  whole  length.  Reins  should  be  so  strong  that 
in  case  a  trace  or  a  whiffle-tree  should  break  the 
team  can  draw  the  load  by  their  mouths. 

On  thesubject  of  the  halter  little  need  be  said. 
To  prevent  that  disgusting  habit  with  some  horses 


Fig.  t^,~Barnes*  Neck-Yokt  Adjuster. 

called  "  cribbing,"  "  stump-sucking,"  etc.,  a   kind 

of  halter  attach- 
ment (Fig.  7)  has 
been  invented,  con- 
taining needles, 
which  prick  the  un- 
der jaw  when  the 
animal  opens  h  i  s 
mouth  very  wide. 
The  needles  are  so 
guarded  that  they 
operate  at  no  other 
time,  and  cannot  be 
Fig.  7.— Cn»(V  ffcU'r.  broken.     O  n  e   o  r 

two  trials  with  this  arrangement  cures  the  habit. 

See  Bridle,  Saddle  and  Horseback-Riding. 

Care  of  Harness.     It  is  best  to  have  a  closet 

or  harness  room  where  there  is  much   fine  harness 

to  be  kept,  as  the  ammonia  from  the  stalls  consumes 


HARNESS— HARRIER. 


63$ 


the  oil  of  the  leather ;  at  least  they  should  be  cov- 
ered, if  with  nothing  but  a  sheet.  Dust  and  moist- 
ure should  be  carefully  wiped  from  harness  with  a 
woolen  cloth  when  taken  from  a  horse,  and  the  bits 
and  plated  mountings  rubbed  with  an  oiled  rag.  All 
harness  should,  two  or  three  times  a  year,  be  thor- 
oughly overhauled,  cleaned,  oiled  and  repaired.  Take 
it  all  apart,  soak  and  wash  it  thoroughly  with  a  stiff 
brush  in  strong  soap-suds,  and  then  black  it  with  the 
following  preparation:  equal  parts  of  oil  and  tallow, 
with  sufficient  lampblack  to  give  it  color;  or,  what  is 
better,  Prussian  blue,  which  will  give  it  a  new  and 
fresh  look.  The  latter  should  be  sparingly  applied 
but  well  rubbed  in,  with  a  quick  motion.  Another 
good  harness  polish  consists  of  2  ounces  mutton  suet, 
6  ounces  beeswax,  6  ounces  jxjwdered  sugar  candy, 
2  ounces  soft  soap,  and  i  ounce  indigo  or  lampblack. 
Dissolve  the  soap  in  }^  pint  of  water,  and  then  add 
the  other  ingredients ;  melt  and  mix  together,  and  add 
a  gill  of  turpentine.  Lay  it  on  the  harness  with  a 
sponge,  and  polish  off  with  a  brush.  The  best  water- 
proof harness  blacking  is  made  by  mixing  together  i 
pound  beeswax,  i  ounce  Prussian  blue  ground  in  2 
ounces  linseed  oil,  J^  pound  ivory  black,  3  ounces 
turpentine,  and  i  ounce  copal  varnish;  warm  these 
and  form  into  cakes.  This  i ;  called  "cake  blacking." 
Harness  needs  special  care  after  they  have  been  in  a 
soaking  rain  on  the  team.  Taken  wet  from  the  horse 
after  a  rain  or  melting  snow  uixjn  them,  and  hung  up 
in  a  careless,  twisted  shape,  it  will  dry  or  freeze  in 
that  shape,  become  unstitched  and  persistently  out  of 
shape  for  comfortable  sitting  on  the  horse.  When  the 
plated  metal  becomes  tarnished,  rub  first  with  whiting 
alone,  and  then  with  a  woolen  cloth  moistened  with  oil. 

Che.\p  Color  for  thk  Edge.  Soft  water,  i  gal- 
lon; extract  of  logwood,  r  ounce;  and  boil  them  until 
the  extract  is  dissolved,  then  remove  from  the  fire  and 
add  copperas,  2  ounces;  bi-chromate  of  jx)tash  and 
gum  arable,  of  each  J^  ounce;  all  to  be  pulverized. 

This  makes  a  cheap  and  good  color  for  shoe  or  har- 
ness edge;  but  for  cobbling  or  for  new  work,  upon 
which  you  do  not  wish  to  use  the  "  hot  kit,"  but  finish 
with  heel-ball,  you  will  find  that  if,  as  you  pour  this 
out  into  the  bottle  to  use,  you  put  a  tablespoonful  of 
lampblack  to  each  pint  of  it,  it  will  make  a  blacker 
and  nicer  finish.  It  makes  a  good  color  for  cheap 
work,  but  for  fine  work  nothing  will  supersede  the  first. 

The  common  way  of  oiling  a  harness  is  to  apply  as 
much  neat's-foot  oil  containing  lampblack  as  the 
leather  will  take  up,  and  then  to  wash  off  with  Castile 
soap  and  water. 

A  most  excelknt  method  of  coloring  and  oiling  har- 
ness is  the  following:  After  the  harness  has  been 
thoroughly  cleaned,  black  every  part  with  a  dye  made 
of  one  ounce  extract  of  logwood  and  12  grains  of  bi- 
chromate of  potash,  both  pounded  fine;  uix)n  this 
pour  2  quarts  of  boiling  rain-water,  and  stir  it  until  it 
is  all  dissolved ;  when  cool  it  is  ready  for  use.  When 
the  dye  has  struck  in,  apply  neat's-foot  oil  to  every 
part.  The  traces,  breeching  and  such  parts  as  need 
the  most  should  be  oiled  again.  They  should  again  be 


gone  over  with  a  mixture  of  one-third  castor  oil  and 
two-thirds  neat's-foot  oil.  A  few  hours  afterward,  or 
the  next  day,  wipe  the  harness  thoroughly  with  a 
woolen  cloth,  to  give  a  glossy  appearance.  The  rea- 
son for  using  castor  oil  for  the  last  coat  is  because  it 
will  withstand  the  effects  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
rain  much  longer  than  neat's-foot  oil.  One  pint  of 
oil  is  sufficient  for  one  harness. 

To  Rkstore  Old  and  Stiff  Harness.  Melt  over 
the  fire,  in  a  metallic  vessel,  eight  jxiunds  of  very 
pure  beeswax,  stirring  it  until  it  is  all  melted  ;  then 
introduce  one  ix)und  of  litharge,  which  has  been  pul- 
verized in  water,  dried,  and  passed  through  a  fine 
sieve.  Leave  it  on  the  fire,  and  stir  it  until  all  of  the 
soluble  part  of  the  litharge  is  incorporated  with  the 
wax;  remove  the  vessel  from  the  fire,  and  when  the 
mixture  shall  have  lost  a  portion  of  its  heat,  incorpo- 
rate with  it,  little  by  little,  one  pound  and  a  half  of 
very  fine  ivory  black,  of  the  best  quality;  replace  it 
on  the  fire,  and  stir  it  incessantly  until  the  wax  com- 
mences to  boil  again ;  then  remove  it  and  allow  it  to 
get  nearly  cool.  Then  add  to  it  spirits  of  turpentine, 
until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  a  paste.  More  tur- 
pentine may  from  time  to  time  be  added,  as  may 
become  necessary. 

Application.  If  the  leather  is  old  and  stiff,  or  cov- 
ered with  gum,  wash  it  with  a  brush  with  weak  pot- 
ash-water or  soap,  and  then  with  pure  spring-water; 
leave  it  to  dry,  and  then  blacken  it  with  ink.  When 
that  is  well  absorbed,  wipe  it  with  a  cloth,  and  th^ 
grease  it  abundantly  with  fish  oil  of  good  quality. 
Neat's-foot  oil  is  probably  preferable.  When  the 
grease  has  been  thoroughly  imbibed,  pass  over  it  a 
sponge  moistened  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  to  remove 
the  grease  from  the  surface;  then  give  it, with  a  shoe- 
brush,  a  layer  of  the  above  preparation;  finish  by 
polishing  with  a  soft  and  dry  brush. 

This  process  will  restore  the  leather  to  a  soft,  pli- 
able condition,  and  give  it  a  beautiful  appearance. 

A  Stitch  in  Time.  The  old  maxim  of  the  house- 
wife that  "  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine  "  applies  to 
harness  as  well  as  to  garments.  It  is  wise,  therefore, 
to  have  in  the  carriage  or  wagon,  or  even  in  the  field, 
such  material  and  appliances  as  might  be  needed 
away  from  home  for  the  prompt  repair  of  the  harness, 
such  as  strips  of  leather,  strings,  a  small  rope,  rivets, 
awl,  hammer,  screw-driver,  a  buckle  or  two  of  each 
kind,  etc.  Sometimes  a  slight  alteration  of  the  har- 
ness, bridle  or  collar  is  necessary  to  prevent  galling  or 
fretting  the  horse.  Very  seldom  a  harness  fits  so 
perfectly  but  that  an  occasional  slight  change  in  cer- 
tain parts  will  be  a  great  relief;  and  it  is  quite  an  art 
to  learn  to  notice  the  movements  and  actions  of  an 
animal  acutely  enough  to  see  what  is  really  needed 
at  any  time. 

Harrier,  a  sub-variety  of  the  hound  division  of  the 
dog  genus,  kept  specially  for  hunting  the  hare.  It 
comprises  three  principal  breeds, — the  old  harrier, 
the  modem  harrier,  and  the  beagle.  It  also  comprises 
some  subordinate  breeds,  and  it  has  been  used,  like- 
wise, for  producing  some  cross  breeds.  See  article  Dog. 


640 


HARROW. 


Harrow,  an  apparatus  consisting  of  a  number 
of  teeth,  for  pulverizing  and  stirring  the  soil.  Al- 
most anything  dragged  over  the  ground,  when  it 
is  not  too  wet,  serves  the  plants  cultivated  a  good 
purpose ;  and  the  main  question  is,  how  to  pulver- 
ize the  soil  sufficiently  and  with  the  greatest  ease. 
To  solve  this  problem  harrows  and  "drags  "  innu- 
merable have  been  invented  or  improved.  Rollers 
with  various  forms  of  teeth,  disc  harrows,  with 
their  diagonally  cutting  wheels,  and  toothed  har- 
rows in  a  multitude  of  forms,  have  been  in  the 
market,  and  have  been  used.  In  this  article  we 
show  a  few  of  the  best  for  the  various  purposes  of 
the  farmer,  calling  attention  to  the  good  "  points" 
one  must  look  for  in  constructing  or  purchasing  a 
harrrow. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  vibrator  harrow,  with  eight 
feet  cut,  manufactured  by  Phelps,  Bigelow  &  Co., 
Kalamazoo,  Mich.  The  frame  is  connected  by 
wrought-iron  straps  with  bolt  hinges.  The  teeth  are 
so  attached  to 
it  that,  with 
simply  a  com- 
mon wrench, 
they  can  be 
adjusted  to  cut 
the  ground  to 
anydepth,from 
two  to  six  inch- 
es. This  adapts 
it  to  all  kinds  of 
work,  and  the 
factof  the  tooth 
being  rigid  and 
frame  vibrato- 
ry and  adjustable,  makes  it  adapted  to  all  kinds 
of  soil.  Each  bar  in  the  harrow  works  inde- 
pendently of  all  the  others,  which  enables  it  to  con- 
form to  uneven  surfaces,  such  as  dead  furrows, 
etc.,  to  pass  obstructions,  and  to  free  itself  from 
cornstalks  and  other  trash  which  have  a  tendency 


a  very  easy  way  of  taking  the  harrow  to  and  from 
the  field. 

Fig.  2  is  a  cut  of  a  vibrating  harrow  made  by 
Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  111.,  and  Figs.  3  and  4  show 


^^■»-VV.\.N 


Fio.  I. —  Vibrator  Harrow, 


Fio.  t.—  ViBrating  Harrow. 

to  clog  most  harrows.  It  has  draw-irons  attached 
to  both  front  and  rear,  and  when  drawn  backward 
has  no  equal  for  covering  fine  seed  and  smoothing 
the  ground.  This  comes  from  the  peculiar  shape 
of  the  back  side  of  the  tooth.  When  folded  for 
shipment  or  for  storage,  it  is  very  compact,  and 
points  of  teeth  are  all  turned  inward.     This  is  also 


Fig.  3. — Scotch  Harrom, 

Other  patterns  made  by  the  same  company.  Being 
in  sections,  these  harrows  do  not  skip  the  low 
places,  but  reach  every  point  of  ground  alike,  and 
are   also  easily  managed,  and   easily  loaded  into  a 

wagon  and 
hauled  about, 
shipped,  etc. 
The  smooth- 
ing harrow  of 
Deere  &  Co. 
has  the  teeth 
swung  on  pins, 
so  that  when 
the  team  is 
hitched  at  one 
end  the  teeth 
are  straight  or 
vertical,aswith 
other  harrows, 
and  when  the  team  is  hitched  at  the  other  end  the 
teeth  assume  just  such  a  slant  as  is  needed  to 
smooth  the  ground  nicely,  thus  performing  the 
work  of  a  cultivating  spring-tooth  harrow;  and  it 
is,  of  course,  cheaper  and  more  simple  and  substan- 
tial than  the  latter. 

A   harrow   made  with  the  bars  nearly  parallel 
from  front  to  rear,  M-shaped,  is  stronger  than  any 


Via.  ^.—"GtUJtn"  Harrmf. 

other  form;  for  when  a  tooth  catches  upon  a  root 
or  stone,  the  strain  is  thrown  lengthwise  upon  the 
bar,  instead  of  across  it.  In  obtaining  a  harrow 
for  a  rough  piece  of  ground,  it  is  important  to  ob- 
serve this  principle.  The  cheapest  smoothing 
harrow,  or  drag,  is  one  made  of  brush,  which  is 
often  used  in  pioneer  sections  of  the  country. 


HARRO  W. 


641 


Barley's  smoothing  harrow  also  has  reversible 
teeth,  is  made  in  three  sections,  and  is  nine  feet 
wide.  It  has  45  5^-inch  round  steel  teeth,  which 
are  firmly  secured  to  the  frame  by  means  of  an 


Fig.  t^.— Smoothing  Harrovj. 


eye-bolt  and  patent  plate  in  such   a  manner  as  to 
change  their  position  as  described  above. 

All  the   proper  work  of  the   above   harrows,  as 
may  readily  be  inferred   from  their  lightness  and 


Fio.  i.—  T/if  "Acmf^'  Pulverizing  Harrow. 


from  the  comparatively  slight  hold  which  they 
take  of  the  ground,  makes  but  a  very  gentle  and 
easy  load  for  the  horses.  Yet  the  irregularities  of 
their  motion,  the  starts    and    bounds  which  they 


Fig.  6. — Barley's  Smoothing  Harrow. 

make  upon  obstructions,  and  their  alternations  of 
skimming  lightly  when  free  from  accumulations  of 
weeds  and  rubbish ,  and  of  lumbering  heavily 
when  incumbered  with  these  accumulations,  some- 
times occasions  considerable  labor.     And,  too,  the 

41 


mere  sinking  of  the  horses'  feet  in  the  soft  and  pul- 
verulent soil,  is  frequently  so  laborious  as  to  render 
it  easier  for  a  colt  or  pony  to  do  the  work  than  an 
ordinary  farm  horse. 

The  "Acme "  pulverizing  harrow  is  a  superior 
clod  crusher  and  leveler,  having  adjustable  ap- 
paratus for  these  purposes.  The  leveling  bar  is  * 
provided,  on  its  rear  edge,  with  a  series  of  steel  coul- 
ters, and  to  the  rear  of  this  is  another  bar  with  the 
same  kind  of  teeth.  These  teeth  lift,  cut  and  turn 
the  soil.  They  are  beveled  and  ground  on  the  out- 
side of  the  curve.  The  wear  is  entirely  on  the 
inside  of  the  curve  (the  opposite  side  of  the  bevel), 
and  they  are  therefore  in  a  measure  self-sharpen- 
ing. They  can  be  readily  "drawn  out"  by  a 
blacksmith  in  a  short  time,  or  ground;  and  if  occa- 
sionally sharpened  in  this   way  they  will    last  a 

lifetime. 

Harvest* 

the  season 
of  reaping 
field  crops. 
The  earliest 
harvest  of 
the  year  is 
that  of  the 
forageplants 
made  into 
hay;  the 
next  is  that 
of  the  cereal 
grasses,  gen- 
erally in  the 
order  of  rye, 
early  barley, 
wheat,  early 
oats,  late 
barley  and 
late  oats;  the 
third  is  corn; 
then  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  mangel-wurzel,  and 
other  esculent  root  crops.  The  succession  of  the 
cereal  grasses,  however,  is  greatly  modified  by 
soil,  climate,  exposure,  altitude,  and  the  varieties  of 
the  several  grains. 

The  season  for  each  crop  varies  in  different 
years,  according  to  the  comparative  backward- 
ness and  forwardness  of  the  season.     Some- 
times the   season  for  the   various  crops  is  so 
progressive  as  to  allow  them  to  be  reaped  in 
regular  succession,  and  sometimes  so  sudden 
■iiijifcfmt.st.1.  jjfuj  headlong  as  to  demand  tlie  most  prompt 
and  sweeping  exertions. 
Every  farmer  ought  to  anticipate  the  work  of 
the  harvest,  and  thoroughly  prepare  for  it. 
Harvesters:  see  Reapers. 

Hash.     Meat  minced  up,  stewed,  and  seasoned 
with  pepper,  and  sometimes  with  onion.     Potatoes 


643 


HA  T—HA IVTHORN. 


and  other  vegetables  are  also  sometimes  mixed  with 
it.  To  make  good  hash,  put  a  teacupful  and  a  half 
of  boiUng  water  into  a  saucepan;  take  a  tablespoonful 
of  flour,  mix  it  with  a  little  cold  water;  stir  it  into  the 
wann  water  and  boil  it  three  minutes ;  add  a  little 
salt  and  pepper  and  a  tablespoonful  of  butter.  Chop 
•  the  cold  meat  into  a  fine  hash,  removing  all  the  tough 
and  gristly  pieces  ;  put  it  into  a  tin  pan,  pour  over  the 
gravy  and  let  it  heat  ten  minutes  or  so,  but  not  cook. 
The  reason  that  many  people  have  poor  hash  is  that 
they  cook  it  too  much,  making  it  very  hard  and  un- 
palatable; or  they  use  tough  pieces  of  cold  meat,  or 
they  put  in  too  much  water  and  make  it  too  vapid,  or 
season  it  too  strongly.  If  preferred,  add  equal  quan- 
tities of  chopped  boiled  potatoes,  and  if  you  have  the 
gravy  of  the  meat  of  yesterday's  dinner,  you  may  use 
that  instead  of  the  made  gravy,  and  you  will  need  less 
butter. 

Hash  Balls  of  Corned  Beef.  Prepare  the  hash 
by  mincing  with  potatoes;  make  it  into  flat  cakes ; 
heat  the  griddle,  and  grease  it  with  plenty  of  sweet 
butter;  brown  the  balls  first  on  one  side  and  then  on 
the  other,  and  serve  hot. 

Hat.  The  most  important  feature  of  a  good  hat 
is  ventilation,  and  the  more  ventilation  the  better,  in- 
variably. The  scalp,  naturally,  needs  no  artificial 
covering;  and  when  one  does  feel  the  need  of  it,  it  is 
because  he  has  diseased  liis  scalp  and  made  it  tender 
by  the  use  of  non-ventilating  hats  or  caps.  Silk 
crowned  hats,  usually  styled  "  stove-pipe"  or  "  plug," 
are  the  most  unhealthful  of  all.  The  best  color,  as  to 
health,  is  a  light  one,  while  taste,  as  formed  by  cus- 
tom, generally  indicates  black,  especially  for  winter 
wear.  High  hats  appear  better  on  tall  men,  and  low, 
wide  hats  on  short  men.  To  a  man  laboring  out  in 
the  hot  sun,  a  "  havelock"  is  more  serviceable  than 
even  a  hat.  This  protection  is  simply  a  handkerchief, 
or  a  piece  of  muslin  the  size  of  a  handkerchief,  at- 
tached by  one  edge  to  the  back  rim  of  the  hat,  and 
permitted  to  hang  down  loosely  over  the  upper  part  of 
the  back,  to  protect  the  spine  against  the  excess  of 
heat. 

Hatch,  to  produce  from  eggs  by  incubation  or  by 
artificial  heat.  The  natural  processes  are  treated  in  the 
articles  on  the  respective  fowls  and  on  page  391. 
Hatching  by  artificial  heat  is  done  with  an  apparatus 
called  an  "incubator:"  see  page  533.  The  term 
"  hatch "  has  also  the  following  significations  :  As 
many  chickens  as  are  produced  at  once,  or  by  one  in- 
cubation ;  a  brood ;  the  act  of  exclusion  from  the  egg ; 
a  door  with  an  opening  over  it ;  a  half  door,  some- 
times set  with  spikes  on  the  upper  edge;  a  frame  or 
weir  in  a  river  for  catching  fish ;  a  floodgate ;  a 
bed-frame. 

Hatcbel,  an  instrument  formed  with  long  iron  teeth 
set  in  a  board,  for  cleaning  flax  or  hemp  from  the 
tow,  hards  or  coarse  part;  a  kind  of  large  comb.  To 
"  hatchel  "  is  to  use  this  instrument. 

Haunch  (hanch),  the  hip,  or  hind  part,  of  an 
animal. 


Havelock  (hav'e-lok),  a  light  cloth  covering  for 
the  head  and  neck,  used  by  soldiers  as  a  protection 
from  sunstroke.  This  is  a  precaution  so  important 
that  when  a  field  laborer  once  avails  himself  of  it  he 
will  never  afterward  be  contented  without  it  on  hot, 
sunny  days.  A  handkerchief,  with  one  edge  fixed 
underneath  the  back  side  of  the  hat  and  the  rest  per- 
mitted to  hang  down  over  the  neck  and  upper  part  of 
the  back,  is  sufficient.  White  is  the  best  color.  Al- 
most all  the  stupidity  and  sense  of  exhaustion  and 
lassitude  which  a  laborer  in  the  field  experiences  on 
sultry  days,  especially  for  an  hour  or  two  after  meals, 
would  be  prevented  by  this  simple  appliance.  It  is 
not  only  unhealthful  but  even  dangerous  to  expose 
one's  back  to  the  hot  sun  very  long,  especially  after 
eating  or  drinking  heartily.  The  use  of  the  havelock, 
even  in  its  immediate  effects,  is  far  better  than  whis- 
ky, or  any  other  stimulant,  to  iniy  man. 

Haw,  several  species  of  wild  fiuit.  Of  the  common 
red  haw  there  are  several  species,  four.d  in  the  books 
under  the  head  of  "thorn"  and  "hawthorn."  Red 
haivs  flourish  throughout  the  United  States, — in 
wooded  sections.  The  black  haw  is  an  edible  fruit 
of  the  honeysuckle  family  :  the  species  prevailing  in 
the  Northern  States  is  mostly  the  "shecpberry." 
The  red  haws,  by  cultivation,  could  be  made  a  fine 
orchard  fruit ;  but  as  it  belongs  to  the  same  order  as 
nearly  all  our  other  fruits,  the  temptation  to  add  it  to 
the  already  long  list  is  not  very  great. 

Hawk,  one  of  the  largest  birds  of  prey  in  North 
America,  allied  to  eagles  and  falcons,  buzzards,  vul- 
tures, condors,  etc.  Of  the  hawks  proper  in  this 
country  there  are  Cooper's,  Blue  backed  and  Sharp- 
shinned  ;  and  several  species  of  falcon,  buzzard,  etc., 
are  also  termed  "  hawks,"  as  the  Pigeon  hawk,  Spar- 
row hawk.  Goshawk,  Black,  Brown,  Red-tailed,  Red- 
tailed  Black,  Western  Red-tailed,  Red-shouldered, 
Red-bellied,  Broad-winged,  Rough-legged,  California, 
California  Squirrel,  etc.  The  night-hawk  is  not  a  true 
hawk,  but  a  bird  akin  to  the  whippoorwill.  More  than 
any  other  bird,  all  parties  are  agreed  upon  the  total 
destruction  of  all  species  of  hawk,  as  they  do  mankind 
nothing  but  harm,  by  their  slaughter  of  insect-eating 
birds  as  well  as  of  domestic  fowls. 

Hawk  Moth,  the  large  winged  insect,  like  a  num- 
mingbird  in  appearance,  the  larve  of  which  is  the 
large, green " tomato  worm, "called  also  "sphinx  moth," 
etc.  See  pages  863-4.  The  moth  is  not  injurious, 
but  its  larve  is  voracious  upon  tomato  and  tobacco. 
However,  they  are  never  so  numerous  as  to  create 
alarm. 

Hawk-weed,  a  composite  plant,  several  species  of 
which  grow  in  the  East,  but  very  many  species  in 
Europe.     It  is  of  no  consequence  in  this  country. 

Hawthorn,  several  species  of  small  trees  of  the 
rose  family,  as  the  English  hawthorn,  Evergreen  and 
Washington  thorns,  and  the  so-called  "  red  haws  "  and 
the  "  sugar  haw  "  of  the  West. 


HAT. 


643 


Hay.  Timothy,  red-top  and  clover  are  the 
principal  hay  products  of  this  country.  These 
have  been  fully  treated  under  head  of  Grass.  To 
prepare  good  grass  land,  that  is,  for  timothy  and 
clover,  first  summer-fallow  the  ground  for  one  sea- 
son, destroying  all  the  weeds  and  wild  grasses.     In 


Fig.  J.—Thf  Tiffin  Horse  Rake. 

the  latter  part  of  the  season,  spread  upon  it  an 
abundance  of  barnyard  manure,  and  a  liberal  supply 
of  ashes  and  gypsum;  slightly  work  tliese  in  with 
a  cultivator;  then,  about  Sept.  i,  sow  six  quarts  of 
timothy  seed  to  the  acre, 
and  in  early  spring  four 
quarts  of  clover  seed  to  the 
acre;  the  latter  should  be 
sown  when  the  ground  is 
honeycombed  with  frost 
and  before  it  is  settled.  If 
the  ground  is  reasonably 
fertile,  wheat  may  be  sown 
or  drilled  in  at  the  same 
time  with  the  timothy  seed. 
When  the  ground  is  well 
settled  in  the  spring,  so 
that  a  team  can  be  driven 
over  it  without  injury,  sow 
the  plaster  at  the  rate  of 
100  lbs.  to  the  acre.  This 
j'oung  meadow  should  not 
be  pastured  the  first  season. 
The  best  time  for  cutting 
either  timothy  or  clover  for 
hay  is  just  at  the  beginning 
of  their  blooming  season, 
when  all  the  working  force 
of  the  farm  should  be  con- 
centrated upon  making  hay 

until  the  work  is  all  done.  The  point  of  perfection  to 
be  aimed  at  is,  to  cut  in  the  morning  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  the  dew  is  off,  and  quit  about  ten  or  eleven 
o'clock;  the  air  should  be  dry  and  warm  enough 
to  sufficiently  cure  the  grass  by  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon,  when  it  can  be  called  "  hay,"  and  hauled 


to  the  mow  or  stack.  If  the  day  be  cloudy,  with 
this  quality  of  the  atmosphere,  all  the  better. 
If  too  much  of  this  freshly  made  hay  is  not  put 
into  a  single  mass  at  once,  there  will  be  no  danger 
of  molding.  But  this  "  perfection  "  of  a  day's  hay- 
making can  scarcely  ever  be  had,  and  the  farmer 
will  have  to  adapt  himself 
to  more  or  less  difficult 
situations.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  important  to  forecast 
the  weather  as  correctly  as 
possible;  and  when,  after  all 
his  care,  a  rain  threatens 
to  come  up,  he  must  pro- 
tect the  mown  grass  as  well 
as  he  >_an.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  should  have  "  hay 
caps,"  of  muslin  or  ducking. 
Partly  cured  grass  should 
not  lie  on  the  ground  over 
night  if  it  can-be  avoided; 
and  wh'»n  one  is  obligeil 
to  so  le^ve  it,  it  should  be 
cocked  and  covered.  The  windrow  is  no  protec- 
tion. He  should  have  a  constant  care,  therefore, 
not  to  cut  more  than  he  can  take  care  of  the  same 
day.     Some  farmers  cut  the  graso  late  in  the  after- 


KiG.  i.-BullarJs  H,iy  Tedder. 

noon  and  in  early  evening,  and  the  earlier  part  of 
next  day  it  cures  evenly  and  well.  Dew  or  rain 
on  freshly  cut  grass  does  not  injure  it  so  much  as 
after  it  is  partly  or  wholly  dried. 

With    the  modern  appliances,   as  illustrated  in 
the  accompanying  cuts,  hay-making  is  carried  on 


644 


HAT. 


with  much  greater  pleasure  and  profit  than  it  was 
a  few  years  ago.  Unless  the  crop  is  very  light, 
the  grass  should  be  scattered  out  and  turned  over, 
either  with  a  hand-fork  or  with  a  hay-tedder,  such 
as  Biillard's  Hay  Tedder,  Fig.  2. 

It  was  at  first  supposed,  when  mowers  came 
into  use,  that  in  consequence  of  the  grass  being 
left  so  evenly  spread  over  the  ground,  it  would 
•  require  nothing  more  to  be  done  with  it.  But 
experience  has  since  shown  that  it  lies  so  much 
more  compact  than  when  cut  with  a  scythe  that 
only  the  surface  will  cure,  and  the  under  side 
remain  for  several  daj's  as  green  as  when  cut:  and 
this  fact  gives  rise  to  the  necessity  of  a  machine 
that  would  toss  and  turn  it  with  sufficient  rapidity, 
otherwise  the  full  value  of  the  mower  could  not  be 
developed. 

For  hauling  hay,  a  rack  must  be  used  on  the 
wagon.  Many  forms  have  been  devised,  but  the 
one  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration,  Fig. 
3,  possesses  -more  desirable  qualities  than  any  other: 


Fio.  ■i.— Combination  Hay  Rack, 

T,  T,  are  bed-pieces  of  pine  or  other  straight- 
grained  light  wood,  14  or  16  feet  in  length,  8 
inches  wide  and  3  inches  thick;  if  of  oak  or  other 
hard  wood,  2}^  inches  thick  will  give  sufficient 
strength.  Four  cross-pieces,  B,  of  hard  wood,  1 1^ 
inches  thick  and  6  inches  wide,  are  mortised  and 
firmly  secured  to  the  bed-pieces.  This  constitutes 
the  frame  or  foundation,  and  is   shown   in  Fig.  4. 

Fig.  4. — Frame  or  Bud-Pieces. 

It  is  frequently  used  separately,  to  haul  rails, 
boards,  stones,  manure,  etc.,  and  is  a  convenient, 
strong  and  handy  arrangement  for  the  purpose. 
In  Fig.  3  is  shown  the  rigging  complete,  of  which 
its  four  cross-pieces  or  arms,  B,  are  7}^  feet  in 
length,  5  inches  wide  and  2]^  inches  thick. 

If  designed  for  a  "  sectional  rigging,"  and  to 
prevent  side  movement,  a  half-inch  groove  is  cut 
into  the  lower  sides  of  the  cross-arms,  B.  so  that 
they  fit  closely  upon  the  bed  pieces.  To  prevent 
a  forward  or  backward  movement,  eight  strong 
iron  hooks  are  attached  by  staples  to  the  sides  of 
the  cross-arms,  and  when  placed  upon  the  bed- 
\ 


Fig.  5- — Position  when  loaded. 


pieces  are  readily  hooked  into  the  staples.  Thus 
arranged,  one  man  can  easily  place  the  rigging 
upon  or  take  it  from  the  wagon.  Or,  if  desired, 
bolts  may  be  used  to  fasten  all  together,  by  passing 
them  through  the  cross-arms  and  bed-pieces;  there 

is    not    twenty-five 
cents    difference     in 
•  the   expense. 

Standards,  Z>,  can 
be  either  stationary, 
or  hinged  so  as  to 
be  quickly  lowered, 
raised  or  removed, 
by  a  small  bolt,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3. 
The  standards  should 
be  61^  feet  high,  and 
quite  strong,  to  with- 
stand the  pressure  of 
the  load,  as  well  as 
to  serve  as  a  ladder. 
The  boards  A' should 
be  «f  the  same  length 
as  the  bed-pieces,  and 
one  inch  thick  and 
six  inches  wide,  or 
straight-grained  light 
wood.  Wooden  pins 
or  stakes,  N,  are  in- 
serted as  shown,  and 
should  be  only  slight- 
ly sharpened.  Should 
the  hind  wheels  pro- 
ject above  the  boards 
A',  bridge  over  them. 
Wash  with  petro- 
leum, and  keep 
under  shelter  when 
not  in  use. 

In  loading  and  un- 
loading hay  with  a 
hand-fork  it  is  a  great 
convenience  to  place 
on  the  wagon  the 
forkfuls  in  some 
regular  order,  and 
take  them  off  at  the 
mow  ill  exactly  the 
reverse  order.  Both 
skill  and  care  are  re- 
quired with  every 
load,  else  there  will 
be  trouble  or  unnec- 
Fio.  6.-Posi(ion  ivien  unloaded.  gssary  lifting  and  tug- 
ging in  that  most  severe  of  all  farm  work,  unload- 
ing hay. 

For  stacking  or  mowing  away  the  hay,  various 
horse-forks  and  liay -carriers  are  devised.  We  call 
attention  to  the  best.     Figs.  5  and   6  illustrate  the 


HAT. 


64s 


"  harpoon  "  fork,  in  the  two  posi- 
tions. It  has  no  exposed  parts  or 
points  to  be  injured  by  contact  with 
beams,  etc.  It  penetrates  the  hay 
easily  and  compresses  it  from  top 
to  bottom,  thus  adapting  'it  espe- 
cially to  the  handling  of  fine,  short 
and  brittle  hay,  unbound  barley, 
etc.  From  the  manner  of  its  hold 
in  the  hay,  the  forkful  being  wide 
and  comparatively  shallow,  the  hay 
is  separateil  from  the  load  with  less 
power  and  is  more  easily  placed  in 
the  load  than  with  any  other  fork. 

The  "  grappling  "  style  of  fork 
(Figs.  7  ,  8  and  g  )  are  in  general  use, 
the  Noyes  style  claiming  the  ad- 
vantages of  both  the  harpoon  and 
the  ordinary  grapple.  It  is  made 
with  either  two  or  four  tines,  which 
are  so  protected  that  they  cannot 
catch  under  the  beam  or  girt. 

Figs.  7  atid  9  represent  a  hay-, 
carrier  called  the  "  Chapman's 
Railway  Hay-Conveyor."  The 
fork  (Fig.  7  )  and  the  conveyor  are 
both  manufactured  by  Gardner  B. 
Weeks,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Porter's  Hay  Carrier  (Fig.  12), 
made  by  Bristol  &  Co.,  Chicago, 
111.,  is  designed  for  a  wood  track. 

Figs.  10  and  11,  from  the  U.  S. 
Wind  Engine  and  Pump  Co.,  Ba- 
tavia.  111.,  explain  themselves.  Car- 
riers can  be  put  up  in  almost  any 
barn,  but  the  larger  the  structure 
the  better  will  it  pay  to  furnish  it 
with  a  hay-carrier. 

The  cut.  Fig.  13,  shows  a 
method  of  using  the  fork  in  stack- 
ing by  employing  stacking  irons 
with   ropes,  pulleys   and   grapples. 


Fig.  7. — Grappling  Hay  Fork  and  Railway  Jlay  Conveyor. 


Fork  as  it  returns 
to  the  load. 


Fork  when  the  hay  is 
discharged. 


Fig.  9.  —Railway  Hay  Conveyor, 


V\a.%.—  The  Noyei  Grapple  Fork. 


The  entire  cost  of  the  outfit,  poles  and 
ropes  included,  with  the  attaching  grap- 
ples, stacking  irons  and  fork,  need  rarely 
reach  forty  dollars,  while  twice  that 
sum  has  often  been  expended  on  a  sin- 
gle derrick  only  for  working  a  fork.  A 
second  method  of  stacking  would  be  to 
construct  a  strong  permanent  or  tempo- 
rar)'  frame  work  to  which  the  wooden 
rails  could  be  attached  and  the  car  and 
fork  used  same  as  in  barn. 

Stacks  of  hay  may  be  ventilated  in- 
making  a  hole  perpendicularly  through 
the  center,  with  apertures  through  the 
base  and  top  of  the  sides,  to  admit  a  cur- 
rent of  air.     This  open  shaft  through  the 


\ 


646 


HAr. 


.  X  X  KJ(^/ 


KlQ.  la.—Arranfi'rmfltl  of  track  for  taking'  hay  in  at  one  end  of  htirn. 


H 


Fio.  n.~  Arrangement  of  track  for  taking  hay  in  at  center  of  harn. 


Pig.  12. — Porter^s  Ihty  Carrier, 


Fig.  13.— Stacking  Jfay. 


KiO.  14.— Tib  Nigiis  Field  PUcMtig  Af^raitit. 


HAr. 


647 


center  of  the  stack  can  be  easily  made  by  filling  a 
bag  of  the  requisite  size  with  hay  or  straw,  placing 
it  upright  in  the  center  of  the  stack,  and  drawing 
it  upward  as  the  stack  rises.  Some  farmers  set  up 
three  poles  near  each  other,  fasten  them  together 
at  the  top,  and  build  the  stack  around  them.  By 
either  method  a  chimney  will  be  formed  in  the 
center  of  the  stack,  which  will  carry  off  the  vapor 
and  prevent  molding.  The  top  of  this  "chimney" 
should  be  protected  by  a  roof  to  keep  out  rain. 

Protection  of  hay-stacks  by  thatching,  as  prac- 
ticed in  old  countries,  is  too  tedious  a  process  for 
United  States  economy. 

In  hauling  hay  to  the  main  stack,  rick  or  barn, 
sometimes  much  labor  can  be   saved   in   those  sec- 


stack    consists   of  two  square 
a  passage  way  between    them.     The 


The    frame    of  the 
pens    with 

passage  is  covered  by  a  peak  roof  framed  or  tied, 
the  rafters  being  formed  of  fence  rails  or  thick 
poles,  with  their  lower  ends  set  a  small  distance  in 
the  ground.  The  hay  is  placed  in  the  spaces  en- 
closed by  the  fences  and  upon  the  rafters,  and  the 
stack  is  built  up  to  the  ordinary  height.  Very 
long  stacks  can  be  provided  with  two  passage  ways 
if  desired.  It  is  considered  advisable  to  construct 
the  frames  of  these  hay -stacks  as  permaneftt  struct- 
ures. 

Salting  Hay.  As  to  the  use  of  salt  or  lime 
on  the  hay  in  the  mow  or  stack,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence of  opinion,  owing  mainly,  perhaps,  to  experi- 


FiG.  n.—SkilUring  Hay  Rici. 


tions  where  they  are  sure  to  have  sleighing  during 
the  winter,  by  building  small  stacks  upon  runners 
and  platform  in  the  hay-field,  and  hauling  them 
in  at  the  most  favorable  time  during  the  sleighing 
season.  These  sleigh  foundations  may  last  for 
years.  Indeed,  stacks  may  be  made  upon  them, 
of  one  to  two  tons,  covered  with  caps,  and  hauled, 
when  there  is  snow  enough,  to  any  part  of  the 
farm  where  they  may  be  needed,  or  even  to  a  near 
market. 

Sheltering  Hay  Rick,  Fig.  14.  A  straw 
or  hay  rick  that  can  be  used  as  a  shelter  for  cattle, 
horses,  etc.,  is  shown  in  the  annexed   engraving. 


ments  under  varying  circumstances.  It  is  well 
known  that  both  salt  and  lime  absorb  moisture 
and  appear  wet,  thus  drying  the  hay  instead  of 
moistening  it,  as  it  seems  to  do;  and,  furthermore, 
it  is  also  well  known  that  salt  in  any  substance 
coaxes  stock  to  eat  it  more;  things  unfit  to  eat  will 
be  often  swallowed  because  of  the  salt  in  it.  On 
this  subject,  as  well  as  on  the  question  of  the  time 
for  cutting  hay,  there  is  difference  of  o])ini<)ii, 
some  declaring  that  their  cattle  fatten  better  on  one, 
and  some  on  the  other,  kind  of  hay.  One  party  or 
the  other  must  surely  attribute  the  good  condition 
of  their  stock  to  the  wrong  cause.     Generally  any 


648 


HAY. 


given  effect  is  not  due  to  any  single  cause,  but  to  a 
combination  of  causes. 

Hav  pressing  or  baling  is  comparatively  a  new- 
feature  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  and  even  in  the 


Fig, 


-Belt  Perpttual  Hay  Press. 


most  flourishing  hay  sections.  Only  a  few  years  ago 
the  markets  were  filled  with  loose  hay,  and  barges 
stowed  with  it  in  the  same  condition  for  transporta- 
tion.   To  supply  the  large  cities  thus  now  would  be 


advantages  of  baled  hay  are  well  known,  and  consum- 
ers are  also  beginning  to  recognize  the  fact  that  hay, 
after  baling,  loses  that  dusty,  dry  and  harsh  nature, 
and  becomes  soft  and  pliable,  more  like  newly  cured 
hay;  hence  sweeter  and 
more  nutritious,  occasioned, 
we  presume,  by  the  damp- 
ness the  bales  appear  to  ab- 
sorb from  the  atmosphere. 

Economy  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  marketing  of  crops 
is  of  more  than  ordinary  im- 
portance, when  they  are  of 
such  loose  and  bulky  nature 
as  to  limit  its  transportation 
in  consequence  of  excessive 
freights,  which  is  the  case 
with  unbaled  hay.  Therefore, 
if  the  farmers  of  any  location 
are  far  distant  from  market, 
and  subject  to  heavy  freights, 
it  will  pay  to  purchase  ma- 
chines for  baling.  When  this 
has  been  decided  upon,  and 
the  farmer  intends  to  bale 
his  own  hay,  and  perhaps  go 
into  the  business  by  bahng 
that  of  his  neighbors,  too 
much  care  cannot  be  exer- 
cised to  have  everything 
convenient,  and  in  securing  presses  adapted  to  the 
work  required.  Properly  conducted,  such  business  is 
safer  and  more  remunerative  than  ordinary  business 
investments,  and  may  always  be  increased  to  any  ex- 


FiG.    3. — Railway  Hay  Press. 


hardly  practicable,  if  possible.  It  is  not  difficult  now  to 
seethe  advantage^  of  baling  hay  preparatory  to  mar- 
keting. Indeed,  it  has  become  a  necessity  to  bale 
hay,  for  many  reasons.  For  economy  in  room,  clean- 
liness, neatness,  and  as  a  precaution  against  fire,  the 


tent,  or  closed  at  pleasure,  without  the  usual  loss 
incurred  in  closing  almost  any  other  business.  Making 
bales  alone  is  not  all  that  is  required,  but  they  should 
be  of  the  proper  size  and  shape  to  load  or  stow  well, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  proportioned  as  to  look  well, 


HAY-COCK—HAY  TEDDER. 


649 


so  smoothly  and  nicely  packed  as  to  show  the  quality 
to  the  best  advantage— and  if  hay,  the  sooner  marketed 
after  bailing  the  better,  as  the  outside  of  the  bales 
soon  become  faded  and  bleached  by  contact  \Yith  light 
ajid  air — also,  soon  loses  the  smooth  and  neat  appear- 
ance peculiar  to  newly  baled  hay,  when  properly  put 
up.  In  consequence  of  all  of  which,  such  hay  is  rated 
much  under  its  real  quality.  Indeed,  the  merchant 
frequently  makes  it  profitable,  and  passes  rough  and 
faded  bales  as  a  much  better  grade  by  re-baling.  It 
should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  consumers  in 


I'lu.  -i—Bale  Ties. 


most  of  our  large  cities  are  but  indifferent  judges  of 
the  quality  of  hay,  and  that  their  selections  are  based 
much  upon  the  appearance  of  the  bales. 

We  give  in  this  connection  illustrations  of  several 
styles  and  sizes  of  Dederick's  hay  presses.  These  are 
regarded  as  the  best  made  in  the  country.  They  aie 
manufactured  by  P.  K.  Dederick  &  Co.,  Albany,  N. 
Y.  By  Fig.  I  we  give  the  Belt  Perpetual  Press.  The 
Perpetual  presses  are  all  continuous  in  operation,  and 
bale  right  along  without  stopping  to  tie  or  remove  the 
bale.  By  Fig.  2  we  give  the  Railway  Hay  Press  in 
operation.  By  Fig.  3  we  show  the  style  of  Dederick's 
patent  dimension  and  adjustable  bale  ties,  and  by  Fig. 
4  wood-hoop  stretchers.  These  stretches  not  only 
prevent  expansion,  but  draw  the  hoops  so  nearly  even 
that  they  are  much  less  liable  to  break. 


Fig.  4. —  Wood-Hoop    Stretchers. 

Measuring  Hay.  The  weight  of  hay  cannot  be 
determined  with  accuracy  by  measuring;  but  some 
experience  or  a  few  trials  will  enable  the  owner  to 
ascertain  approximately  without  great  deviation.  Fine, 
ffexible  hay  will  pack  closer  than  coarse,  stiff  hay,  and 
that  which  is  cut  early  will  become  more  solid  than 
dry,  stiff,  late-cut  hay.    The  degree  of  dryness  when 


the  hay  is  drawn  in,  also  affects  the  result.  The  com- 
pactness will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  height  of  the 
mow  or  stack.  As  a  general  average,  however,  under 
a  pressure  of  ten  feet  or  more,  and  with  a  medium 
degree  of  the  other  influences  we  have  mentioned, 
about  5 00  cubic  feet  of  timothy  will  weigh  a  ton.  More 
strictly,  of  new-mown  hay  675  cubic  feet  will  be  re- 
quired; on  an  average,  400  to  5ooof  well  settled  hay, 
and  275  of  baled  hay.  To  find  the  cubic  feet  of  hay 
in  a  mow  is  very  easy;  to  find  the  cubic  contents  of  a 
circular  stack,  multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference 
by  .04  of  the  height.  Six  or  seven  hundred  feet,  or 
even  more  sometimes,  are  required  for  clear  clover. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  VALUE,  IN   DOLLARS  AND  C£NTS, 

Of  HAY  BY  THE  HUNDRED  POUNDS,  AT 

GIVEN   PRICES  PER  TON. 


Price 
Per  Ton. 

i, 

10 
12 

15 

27 

30 
32 

35 
37 

i 

8 

20 

25 

30 

35 
40 

45 
50 

^ 
65 
70 
75 

i 

i 
\ 

.60 

•75 

.90 

1.05 

1.20 

■■35 
1.50 
1.6s 
1.80 

■•95 
2.10 

2.25 

I. 00 

1.20 
1.40 
1.60 
1.80 

2.00 

2.20 
2.40 
2.60 
2.80 
3.00 

i 

i 

i 

1.20 

::io 
2.10 
2.40 
2.70 
3.00 

3-30 
3,60 
3-90 
4.20 
450 

i 

i 
1.40 

■■75 
2.10 
2.45 
2.80 
3-15 

% 
4.20 

4-55 
4.90 
5-25 

i 

J 

i 
1 

A 

i 

§ 

$  4-00 

500 

6.00 

700 

8.00 

g.oo  

10.00 

11.00 

12.00 

»3-oo 

14.00 

•500 

.40 

•50 
.60 

■z 
.90 
1. 00 
1. 10 
1.20 
1.30 
1.40 
1.501 

1. 00 
1-25 
1.50 

1-75 
2.00 

2.25 
2.50 

2-75 
3.00 

3-25 
3.50 
3-75 

1.60 
2.00 
2.40 
2.80 
3.20 
3.60 
4.00 
4.40 
4.80 

5.60 
6.00 

1.80 
2.25 
2.70 

3.60 
4.05 
4-50 

4-95 
5-40 
5-85 
6.30 
6.75 

2. 00 

2.50 

3-00 
3-50 
4.00 
4.50 
S-oo 

S-50 
6.00 
6.50 
7.00 
7-SO 

3.20 
3.75 

lis 

4.40 

4-95 
550 
6.00 
6.60 
7-15 
7.70 
8.25 

Hay-Cock,  a  small,  conical  pile  of  hay,  generally 
comprising  about  100  jxDunds. 

Hay  Fevor,  a  catarrh  to  which  certain  persons  are 
subject  in  summer,  characterized  by  sneezing,  head- 
ache, weeping,  snuffling  and  cough,  sometimes  at- 
tended with  fever  and  general  discomfort.  In  England 
the  cause  was  formerly  said  to  be  the  effluvium  of  hay; 
but  this  has  proved  to  be  an  error.  The  latest  theory 
is  that  the  cause  is  the  inhalation  of  the  pollen  of  rag- 
weed. Persons  subject  to  it  are  generally  relieved  by 
going  to  some  cool  resort  where  neither  hay-making 
is  carried  on  nor  the  ragweed  grows.  For  treatment, 
see  Fever. 

Hay  Knife,  a  knife  for  cutting  packed  hay,  either 
baled,  stacked,  or  in  the  mow. 

Hay  Mow,  an  apartment  in  a  bam,  generally  over- 
head, in  which  hay  is  stored. 

Hay  Press,  an  apparatus  or  machine  for  pressing 
hay  into  bales.     See  page  648. 

Hay  Rack,  an  arrangement  to  contain  hay,  straw 
or  other  fodder  for  the  immediate  use  of  stock. 

Hay  Bake,  an  implement  for  gathering  and  accu- 
mulating hay,  in  the  process  of  hay-making.  See  page 
643- 

Hay  Eick,  a  long  stack  of  hay.    See  pages  646-7. 

Hay  Tedder,  a  machine  for  soreading  and  turning 
liay.    See  Fig.  2,  page  643. 


650 


HAZEL— HEAPS. 


Hasel,  a  familiar  shrub,  bearing  edible  nuts.  The 
English  filbert  belongs  to 
this  genus.  The  witch  ha- 
zel belongs  to  an  entirely 
different  order.  The  en- 
graving gives  a  magnified 
view  of  a  weevil,  the  lar- 
va of  which  is  often  found 
in    the    hazelnut,  a  wrig- 


Lang-snouied  Nut   Wetvit. 
aninus  nasicus). 


(Bal- 


gling,  maggoty  worm. 

Head,  the  part  of  the  animal  body  which  con- 
tains the  brain  and  the  higher  organs  of  sense.  In 
many  animals,  it  is  connected  with  the  trunk  by  a 
neck,  and  is  more  or  less  movable  ;  in  some  animals, 
however,  it  is  immovable,  and  is  merely  a  prolongation 
of  the  trunk.  The  head  in  animals  is  more  distinct 
in  proixjrtion  as  the  brain  is  more  fully  developed  as 
the  center  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is  entirely  want- 
ing in  the  lowest  classes  of  animals,  which,  therefore, 
from  the  intestinal  worms  downward,  form  a  third 
class,  in  the  system  of  Latreille,  under  the  name  of 
Acephala  (headless  animals),  while  those  provided 
with  heads  are  divided  into  two  classes, — the  vertebral 
animals,  having  distinct  and  proper  heads,  and  the 
Cephalidia,  having  small  and  less  distinctly  formed 
heads.  In  this  part  the  mouth,  as  the  opening  of  the 
oesophagus,  is  always  situated.  In  the  second  class 
of  animals,  in  which  the  head  is  less  distinct,  that 
part  of  the  body  which  is  provided  ,with  the  mouth, 
may  be  called  the  head  end.  In  the  vertebral  ani- 
mals (mammalia,  birds,  reptiles  and  fish),  the  head 
has  a  bony  basis  (cartilaginous  only  in  the  cartilagin- 
ous fishes).  In  fish^  the  bones  of  the  head  are  not 
united  with  each  other,  and  the  formation  of  the  sepa- 
rate bones  are  various.  In  cartilaginous  fishes  the 
head  is  more  or  less  oblong  and  angular ;  in  osseous 
fishes,  it  is  less  flattened,  and  composed  of  a  consid- 
erable number  of  bones  connected  in  various  ways ; 
in  all  fishes  the  cavity  of  the  brain  is  very  small  and 
oblong.  Equally  various  is  the  formation  of  the  head 
in  the  different  classes  of  reptiles.  In  general  the 
head  is  composed  of  but  few  bones,  and  more  round- 
ed in  proportion  as  the  brain  is  well  developed.  In 
birds,  the  bones  of  the  head  are  more  closely  formed 
into  one  whole,  constituting  a  skull  more  or  less  round, 
which  contains  the  brain,  and  to  the  fore  part  of  which 
the  beak  is  attached.  But  the  head  is  most  perfect 
in  the  mammalia,  and  resembles  the  human  head 
more  nearly,  as  the  animal  approaches  more  nearly  to 
man.  In  general,  the  human  head  may  be  consid- 
ered as  the  standard,  which  may  be  traced  with  grad- 
ual deviations  through  the  different  classes  until  it 
entirely  ceases  in  the  lower  order  of  animals.  No- 
where is  its  proper  office  to  serve  for  the  reception  of 
the  nervous  system  so  distinct  as  in  the  human  head, 
the  cavity  of  the  skull  containing  the  principal  organ 
of  sensitive  life — the  brain.  The  great  cavities  of 
the  trunk  contain — the  chest  the  organs  of  irritable 
life  (the  heart  andlungs),  and  the  abdominal  cavity — 
the  organs  of  reproductive  life  (the  organs  of  di>;es- 
tion  and  generation).    The  superiority  of  the  head 


over  the  other  two  parts  just  mentioned,  appears  also 
from  the  circumstances, that  whilst  it  is  pre-eminently 
the  seat  of  the  nervous  system,  it  also  contains  organs 
essential  for  functions  of  the  irritable  and  reproductive 
system,  as  the  inspiration  and  expiration  of  the  air 
are  effected  through  the  nostrils  and  mouth,  and  the 
entrance  of  food  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  as  well  as 
the  preparation  of  it  for  digestion,  by  mastication  and 
production  of  saliva,  is  effected  by  the  mouth;  and 
these  organs  appear  more  prominent  in  the  heads  of 
animals  as  their  sensidve  system  sinks  lower  in  the 
scale.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  head  also 
contains  the  tongue,  an  organ  not  only  important  in 
respect  to  nourishment,  but  also  communicating  the 
desires  and  thoughts,  until  it  becomes  in  man  the  or- 
gan of  oral  intercourse,  of  language  and  of  finest 
music — singing.  The  human  head,  and  more  or  less 
the  head  of  other  animals,  is  divided  into  two 
chief  parts,  the  skull  and  the  face.  The  imixirtance 
of  the  head  as  the  noblest  part  of  the  animal  system 
has  occasioned  it  to  be  used  metaphorically  in  all 
languages  to  denote  that  which  is  chief 

Headache.  The  most  sensible  cure  of  any  head- 
ache is  to  remove  the  cause,  and  there  are  so  many 
causes  that  we  cannot  even  enunierate  them  here. 
Bathing  the  feet  in  hot  water  will  relieve  more  cases 
than  any  other  one  thing.  Warm  hip-baths  and  cool 
head-baths  come  next  in  requisition.  An  emetic  is 
sometimes  just  the  thing,  and  very  often  such  manip- 
ulations and  passes  as  the  "  magnetic  healers  "  ad- 
minister are  the  best.  Lying  down  is  the  proper 
relief  of  that  which  is  caused  by  a  lack  of  blood  circu- 
lation in  the  brain,  which  is  often  taken  for  a  "  rush 
of  blood  "  to  the  head,  or  a  "  fullness  of  blood  "  in  the 
brain.  Taking  medicines  into  the  stomach,  even 
*'  herb  teas,"  is  the  very  last  thing  to  do. 

Head-cheese,  a  dish  made  of  portions  of  the  head 
and  feet  of  swine,  cut  up  fine  and  pressed  into  the 
form  of  a  cheese.  After  thorough  boiling,  take  the 
flesh  and  skin  clean  from  the  bones,  and  mince  it  up 
with  salt,  pepper  and  vinegar,  and  when  cold,  press 
it  as  solidly  as  convenient.      Keep  in  a  cool  place. 

Header,  a  reaper  that  cuts  the  heads  only,  leaving 
most  of  the  stalk  standing. 

Head-gear,  covering  or  ornament  of  the  head. 

Heading,  material  for  the  heads  of  casks  or  bar- 
rels. 

Head-land,  the  strip  or  border  of  unplowed  land 
left  at  the  ends  of  the  furrows. 

Head-loiise.     See  Insect. 

Head-stall,  that  portion  of  the  bridle  or  halter 
which  encompasses  the  head. 

Health :  See  Hygiene. 

Heaps,  to  measure.  If  the  bottom  of  the  heap  t>e 
square  or  rectangular,  multiply  the  length  by  the 
breadth,  and  the  product  by  one-third  the  height.  If 
the  bottom  be  circular,  multiply  the  square  of  the 


HEARING— HEA  T. 


65' 


diameter  by  .7854,  and  the  product  by  one-third  the 
height.  For  ordinary  purposes  .7854  may  be  consid- 
ered Y^.  Hence,  to  estimate  the  heaped  bushels  in 
a  round  heap,  square  the  diameter,  in  feet,  divide  by 
6  and  multiply  by  the  height. 

Hearing,  the  perception  of  sounds.  The  hearing 
of  the  horse  is  so  acute  as  to  receive  vivid  impressions 
from  vibrations  of  the  air  too  slight  and  faint  to  be 
possibly  detected  by  the  keenest  human  ear.  The 
hunting  horse,  for  example,  hears  the  cry  of  the  hounds, 
and  erects  his  ears,  and  becomes  excited  and  impa- 
tient a  considerable  time  before  his  rider  detects  even 
the  faintest  sound.  The  fine  condition  of  this  sense 
in  so  useful  an  animal,  like  the  keenness  of  smelling 
in  the  dog,  and  the  peculiar  development  of  the  senses 
altogether  in  the  species  of  animals  which  subject 
themselves  to  domestication,  is  a  very  palpable  evi- 
dence of  the  bounty  of  the  Creator  to  man. 

Heart,  Palpitation  of  the.  This  affection  is  a 
very  strong  pulsation  of  the  heart,  sometimes  only 
occasional,  but  often  continual.  It  arises  from  morbid 
irritability  of  the  heart ;  it  is  often  purely  nervous, 
caused,  in  some  cases,  by  the  disordered  state  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels,  by  alcoholic  drinks,  by  excessive 
venery,  by  extreme  grief,  and  disappointments  preying 
upon  the  spirits,  all  tending  to  weaken  the  nervous 
system.  It  is  sometimes  a  symptom  of  other  diseases, 
as  indigestion,  hysteria.  The  beating  is  frequently  so 
violent  as  to  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance,  and 
sometimes  the  tremor  of  the  increased  action  of  the 
heart  may  be  seen  on  the  outside  of  the  clothes.  The 
pulse  at  the  same  time  is  very  irregular,  and  often  in- 
termittent. Palpitation  of  the  heart  is  not  to  be  neg- 
lected, as  it  may  lead  to  serious  consequences.  The 
treatment  of  this  disease  is  much  similar  to  that  for 
indigestion.  The  treatment  must  depend  on  the  state 
of  the  body ;  for  palpitation  may  be  the  effect  of  in- 
creased vitality,  or  fullness,  or  of  debility  and  relaxa- 
tion, etc.  If  the  system  be  in  a  plethoric  state  (full- 
ness) aperients  and  a  spare  diet  must  be  enjoined. 
Avoid  all  stimulants.  When  it  arises  from  disease  of 
the  heart,  or  of  the  large  vessels,  then  avoid  plethora, 
much  bodily  exertion,  full  meals,  and  excesses  of  every 
kind.  After  the  cessation  of  palpitation,  take  tonics, 
sjwnge  the  breast  with  tepid  or  cold  water, -and  gentle 
exercise  in  the  open  air. 

Heartburn,  a  burning  indigestion,  caused  by  eat- 
ing food  too  highly  seasoned  with  pepper,  vinegar,  or 
other  strong  condiments,  or  too  severe  lalwr  after  a 
full  meal.  A  dose  of  magnesia  or  carbonate  of  soda 
generally  gives  immediate  relief,  and  afterward  the 
causes  here  indicated  should  of  course  be  abstained 
from. 

Hearth  (harth),  the  pavement  or  floor  of  brick  or 
stone  in  a  chimney,  on  which  a  fire  is  made ;  the  floor 
of  a  fire-place,  and  from  which  is  a  passage  for  smoke 
to  ascend.  Figuratively,  the  house  itself,  as  the  abode 
of  comfort  to  its  inmates  and  of  hospitality  to  strangers. 

Heart's-ease,  pansy. 


Heart-wood,  the  central,  old,  and  colored  wood 
of  trees  ;  it  is  the  most  durable. 

Heat.  Heat  is  recognized  as  a  principle  rather 
by  its  effects  than  by  any  knowledge  we  possess  of  its 
essential  nature.  Every  one  experiences  the  presence 
or  absence  of  it  in  the  sensations  of  warmth  and  of 
cold;  and  we  all  witness  the  changes  produced  by  it 
on  other  bodies,  in  causing  them  to  expand  or  to  melt; 
and  likewise  in  the  process  of  combustion.  But  if  we 
inquire.  What  is  this  heat,  the  effects  of  which  are  so 
evident?  the  answer  is  rot  so  easy. 

By  some,  heat  has  been  considered  as  an  extremely 
subtile  fluid,  capable  of  insinuating  itself  between  the 
particles  of  all  bodies ;  of  remaining  there  in  a  dor- 
mant and  inactive  state,  or  of  being  put  in  motion  or 
activity,  by  which  only  it  is  rendered  sensible.  This 
supposed  fluid  has  been  named  caloric. 

By  others,  the  existence  of  any  such  peculiar  fluid 
is  denied,  and  heat  is  said  to  consist  merely  in  a  rapid 
motion  of  the  solid  particles  of  bodies  that  are  heated. 
The  prevailing  theory  among  modern  scientists  is  that 
heat  depends  upon  the  rapid  vibrations  or  waves  of  an 
inconceivably  subtile  fluid,  or  ether,  which  fills  all 
space,  and  is  quite  independent  of  the  ordinary  matter 
appreciable  by  our  senses. 

Most  substances  are  capable  of  being  melted  and 
vaporized  by  the  application  of  heat ;  and  most  prob- 
ably all  would  be  so  were  we  able  to  excite  a  sufficient 
degree  of  heat.  By  abstracting  the  heat,  we  again  re- 
duce all  vapors  to  their  fluid  state,  and  fluids  to 
that  of  solids.  Pressure  aids  in  condensation ;  t  and 
the  gases  are  reduced  to  liquids  by  the  application  of 
intense  pressure  and  the  abstt  iction  of  heat  at  the 
same  time.  It  is  only  when  the  temperature 
is  raised  to  a  certain  degree  that  solids  begin  to 
melt,  or  fluids  to  be  vajx)rized,  and  this  degree  is  dif- 
ferent for  every  different  substance,  but  is  always  pre- 
cisely the  same  for  the  same  substance,  provided  all 
other  circumstances  are  similar.  Thus  ice  always 
melts  when  heated  above  32",  as  water  always  freezes 
when  cooled  below  32";  and  waterisiilways converted 
into  vajxjr  when  its  temperature  is  raised  to  212", 
provided  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  the  same. 
Wax  has  another  degree  at  which  it  is  melted,  lead 
another,  silver  another,  and  gold  another.  The  degree 
of  heat  at  which  spirits  boil,  or  begin  to  be  converted 
into  vajwr,  which  is  the  same  thing,  is  lower  than 
the  boiling  point  of  water,  and  that  at  which  ether 
boils  is  a  great  deal  lower  still. 

The  ixiint  at  which  salt  water  freezes  is  lower 
than  the  freezing  ixsint  of  fresh  water,  and  in  the  act 
of  congelation  its  salt  is  deposited,  and  the  ice  is  sep- 
arated and  melted  and  affords  fresh  water.  Some  of 
our  navigators  have  observed  this  fact  with  great  joy, 
and  obtained  a  supply  of  fresh  water  where  they  but 
little  expected  to  meet  with  it.  The  mountains  of  ice 
met  with  at  sea  in  the  [wlar  regions  are  wholly  of  fresh 
water,  and  pools  and  basins  of  fresh  water  are  often 
found  on  them  from  the  parrial  meUing  of  the  ice. 
Although  all  these  substances  have  their  fixed  points 


6s  2 


HEAT. 


at  which  they  boil  under  similar  circumstances,  yet 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  has  a  verj'  consider- 
able influence  in  determining  the  point.  The  greater 
the  pressure  the  greater  the  degree  of  heat  requisite 
for  making  the  liquor  boil ;  and  the  more  we  can 
diminish  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  as  is  done  by 
the  air-pump,  the  less  is  the  degree  of  heat  that  is  re- 
quired to  convert  it  into  vapor.  In  this  way  ether, 
spirits,  and  even  water  are  made  to  boil  at  the  usual 
temperature  of  the  air,  when  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere is  removed  by  means  of  the  air-pump.  So  much 
is  the  boiling  facilitated  by  this  means  that  philoso- 
phers have  gone  so  far  as  to  assert  that,  if  all  pressure 
was  removed  from  the  earth,  every  substance,  solid  as 
well  ashquid,  would  immediately  be  volatilized,  or  con- 
verted into  vapor.  Water,  upon  an  average,  is  found 
to  boil  at  212",  and  this  is  generally  considered  its 
boiling  point;  but  in  this  country  there  is  a  consider- 
able difference  at  different  times  in  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere.  In  the  barometer,  which  is  the  instru- 
ment for  measuring  this  pressure,  the  height  of  the 
mercury  varies  as  much  as  three  inches,  and  a  rise 
of  one  inch  makes  the  water  require  two  degrees  more 
of  heat  to  boil  it.  There  is,  therefore,  in  this  country 
a  variation  of  six  degrees  of  heat  in  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water  at  different  times.  When  the  barom- 
eter is  at  the  lowest,  water  will  boil  at  209° ;  and  when 
it  is  at  the  highest,  it  will  not  boil  till  it  is  heated  to 
2 15  °.  The  more  elevated  the  situation,  the  less  is  the 
pressure  of  the  air,  and  consequently  water  will  boil 
withjless  heat  on  the  top  of  a  mountain  than  in  the 
valley.  An  amusing  experiment,  easy  to  be  performed, 
shows  this  effect  of  pressure  on  the  boiling  water  as 
well  as  any  experiments  with  the  air-pump.  Half  fill 
a  Florence  flask  or  other  glass  vessel  with  boiling 
water,  and  cork  it  tightly.  The  water  is  now  at  rest ; 
but  pour  a  little  cold  water  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
flask,  and  it  will  begin  to  boil ;  then  pour  hot  water  upon 
it,  and  it  will  cease;  pour  the  cold  water  again,  and  it 
will  boil,  and  so  on  for  a  considerable  time.  The  ex- 
planation of  the  experiment  is  this.  When  you  cork 
the  flask  the  upper  part  of  it  is  filled  with  vapor  from 
the  boiling  water,  and  the  cold  water  poured  upon  this 
part  condenses  the  vapor.  Now,  as  the  air  cannot  get 
in,  there  is  a  partial  vacuum — that  is,  the  pressure  of 
air  on  the  surface  of  the  water  is  considerably  dimin- 
ished. This  being  the  case,  the  water  will  boil  at  a 
lower  temperature,  and  the  heat  which  it  retains  is 
sufficient  for  the  purpose.  In  the  next  place,  by  pour- 
ing hot  water  upon  it,  that  within  is  partly  converted 
into  vapor,  which  affords  the  same  pressure  as  the  air 
would  do ;  the  water,  therefore,  ceases  to  boil  because 
its  heat  is  insufficient  under  that  pressure  to  make  it 
boil.  It  has  been  said  that  by  increasing  the  pressure 
on  the  surface  of  the  water  you  retard  its  boiling.  It 
is  on  this  principle  that  what  are  called  digesters  are 
formed.  When  ice  is  melted  it  absorbs  heat  from  all 
surrounding  bodies,  which  heat  has  not  the  effect  of 
increasing  its  temperature,  but  becomes  latent.  The 
water  is  not  hotter  to  the  feeling  or  to  the  thermome- 
ter than  the  ice  was  bifore  it  was  melted,  but  it  has 


absorbed  and  contains  more  heat.  The  same  happens 
when  a  fluid  is  converted  into  vapor,  and  the  same 
quantity  of  heat  that  is  thus  absorbed  is  again  extri- 
cated when  the  vapor  is  condensed  into  a  fluid,  or 
the  fluid  frozen  into  a  solid.  The  application  of 
this  fact  assists  us  in  explaining  a  variety  of  phenom- 
ena that,  without  the  knowledge  of  it,  would  be  inex- 
plicable. Put  a  vessel  of  snow  or  of  ice  before  a  fire, 
and  although  it  is  all  the  time  receiving  heat  from  the 
fire,  a  thermometer  immersed  in  it  shows  no  increase 
of  temperature;  all  the  heat  that  is  received  being 
necessary  to  convert  the  snow  into  water;  but  as  soon 
as  it  is  all  melted  the  thermometer  begins  to  rise. 
Were  it  not  for  this  circumstance,  all  the  snow  and  ice 
would  be  instantly  melted  when  the  temperature  of 
the  air  is  above  32',  the  consequence  of  which  would 
be  dreadful  inundations  after  every  winter.  So  much 
heat  is  absorbed  when  a  solid  becomes  a  fluid,  that  if 
we  can  suddenly  effect  the  conversion  we  produce  a 
great  degree  of  cold;  and  on  this  depends  the  effects  of 
freezing  mixtures.  When  snow  and  salt  mixed  are 
melted  in  a  warm  room,  so  much  heat  is  absorbed  by 
them  that  a  vessel  of  water  immersed  in  the  mixture 
becomes  frozen  notwithstanding  the  warmth  of  the 
room.  In  this  way  confectioners  prepare  different 
kinds  of  ices  in  the  summer.  Various  mixtures  of 
salts,  when  dissolved  in  water,  produce  the  same 
effect  without  the  addition  of  ice.  Eleven  parts  of 
sal  ammoniac,  ten  of  saltpeter,  and  sixteen  of  Glau- 
ber's salt,  mixed  with  thirty-two  parts  of  water,  will 
produce  cold  sufficient  to  freeze  water.  By  dissolving 
chloride  of  lime  in  nitrous  acid  even  mercury  may  be 
frozen.  The  heat  that  is  given  out  when  water  is 
frozen  tends  to  moderate  the  intensity  of  our  winters, 
and  accounts  for  the  increase  of  warmth  that  is  fre- 
quently observable  after  a  fall  of  snow.  When  ether, 
spirits,  or  water  are  exposed  to  the  air  they  are  grad- 
ually evaporated,  and  in  this  process  absorb  heat  as 
well  as  when  they  are  made  to  boil,  and  are  thus  vapor- 
ized. To  prove  this,  dip  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer 
in  ether  and  expose  it  to  the  air,  and  you  will  find  the 
mercury  fall  considerably ;  or  dip  your  hand  into  the 
same  liquor,  or  into  spirits,  or  even  water,  and  then 
expose  it  to  the  air,  and  you  will  feel  a  degree  of  in- 
tense cold,  in  consequence  of  its  absorbing  heat  from 
your  hand  to  convert  it  into  vapor.  In  warm  climates 
the  inhabitants  cool  water  and  other  liquors  for  drink- 
ing by  wrapping  the  vessels  in  wet  flannels  and  sus- 
pending them  in  the  air;  or  by  keeping  the  water  in 
porous  earthen  vessels,  through  which  a  part,  gradu- 
ally oozing,  is  evaporated,  and  cools  the  rest.  It  is 
this  evaporation  that  makes  a  person  feel  so  cold  when 
his  clothes  are  wet,  although  he  is  perhaps  sitting  near 
the  fire ;  and  it  is  the  cold  thus  produced  that  injures 
the  health  much  more  than  being  exjwsed  to  a  cold, 
sharp  air.  It  is  the  absorption  of  heat  by  the  vapor 
that  prevents  water  from  acquiring  a  greater  degree 
of  heat  than  212°.  If  you  boil  water  ever  so  violently 
or  apply  to  it  ever  so  intense  a  heat,  it  never  increases 
in  temperature,  the  heat  that  you  communicate  all 
going  to  the  conversion  of  it  into  vapor.    In  cooking, 


HEAT— HEDGE. 


653 


therefore,  it  is  useless  to  apply  additional  heat  to  water 
that  is  boiling,  to  make  it,  as  many  call  it,  \  oil  fast. 
If  you  keep  the  water  just  boiling,  that  is  quite  suffi- 
cient ;  and  in  many  cases,  indeed,  articles  will  be  as 
well  done,  and  as  soon  done,  by  a  heat  considerably 
less  than  that  of  boiling.  Having  observed  that  va- 
pors contain  more  heat  than  fluids,  and  fluids  than 
solids,  when  their  temperature  is  the  same,  we  must 
now  add,  that  among  fluids,  among  solids,  or  among 
vapors,  one  kind  contains  more  heat  than  another. 
Thus  a  ix)und  of  water  contains  more  heat  than  a 
pound  of  mercury,  and  a  jwund  of  iron  more  than  a 
pound  of  tin,  and  a  cubic  foot  of  common  air  more 
than  the  same  quantity  of  inflammable  air. 


TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT  UPON  CERTAIN 
BODIES. 
Designation.  Fahrenheit. 

Gold  melts >:983° 

Silver    "     1850" 

Copper**     2160* 

Brass     **     _. 1900^ 

Iron,  red  hot  in  daylight 1077* 

twilight 884° 

Common  fire 790" 

2inc   melts 740° 

Quicksilver  boils 630'' 

Linseed  Oil     **     600° 


Lead  melts 594^ 

Bismuth  melts 476* 

Tin  and  Bismuth, equal  parts, 
melts 283*" 


Designation.  Fahrenheit. 

Tin  melts 421^ 

Water  boils 213" 

Alcohol  '* 175** 

Ether 93° 

Heat  of  human  blood 98** 

Water  freezes 33° 

Strong  wine  freezes 20** 

Brandy  '*         7° 

Mercury  "         — 39* 

Greatest  cold  ever  produced. — 220" 
Snow  and  salt,  equal  parts.*  0° 
Acetous  fermentation  begins  78' 
ends..  88» 
Phosphorus  burns 68° 


Heat,  as  a  health  agency :  see  Hygiene. 

Heating  Power.  The  following  figures  show 
the  comparative  heating  power  of  substances  of  equal 
weight:  Peat,  32  ;  oak  wood,  seasoned,  46 ;  oak  dried 
on  a  stove,  59;  pine,  seasoned,  54;  anthracite,  95; 
alcohol,  no;  olive  oil,  145;  tallow,  150.  Twelve 
pounds  of  fresh  water  water  have  been  evaporated  in 
tubes  with  one  pound  of  anthracite. 

Heaves,  a  disease  of  horses,  characterized  by  diffi- 
cult and  laborious  breathing. 

Hectic,  affected  with  hectic  fever.  The  latter  is 
characterized  by  a  circumscribed  flush  of  the  cheek, 
debility  and  emaciation.  It  generally  accompanies 
the  advanced  stage  of  an  exhausting  disease,  as  con- 
sumption. There  is  no  remedy  for  it,  except  in  the 
cure  of  the  principal  disease,  of  which  it  is  symptom- 
atic; and  this  is  hardly  ever  possible. 

Hedge,  a  fence  of  living  plants.  It  serves 
the  purpose  of  separation,  shelter,  or  defense,  and  con- 
sists of  plants  which  grow  densely  and  ramify  from 
the  ground  upward,  and  interweave  their  branches, 
and  readily  grow  in  a  line  from  seeds  or  plants  and 
admit  of  being  cut  and  pruned  into  the  form  and  com- 
pactness of  a  wall,  to  any  width  and  height  which  the 
purposes  of  shelter  and  defense  require.  In  most 
parts  of  the  United  Stales  there  is  not  stone  enough 
convenient  for  building  fences,  and  if  barbed  wire 
should  fail  on  some  account,  the  hedge  will  yet  be  the 
fence  of  the  future, — that  of  Osage  orange  (Madura) 
in  most  parts  of  the  Union,  and  honey  locust  in  the 
extreme  North.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  a  large 
majority  of  those  who  have  imrchased  hedge  plants 
have  failed  in  growing  live  fences.     Some  have  failed 


from  ignorance,  not  having  been  furnished  with  proper 
instructions,  while  some  have  failed  from  mere  neg- 
ligence, not  having  carried  out  the  instructions  fur- 
nished. Farmers,  who  are  such  practically,  and  who 
live  on  their  farms,  can  grow  their  own  hedge  much 
cheaper  than  hedge  companies,  who  have  to  travel 
from  farm  to  farm.  But  if  you  prefer  to  have  your 
hedge  grown  by  others,  be  very  careful  with  whom  you 
contract,  as  some  of  those  self-styled  hedge  companies 
have  no  practical  knowledge  of  hedge-growing;  neither 
are  they  responsible,  as  many  who  have  been  "  taken 
in"  can  testify.  A  perfect  stand  the  first  season  is  the 
important  point.  This  obtained,  you  will  have  but 
few  difficulties  to  contend  with,  unless  you  live  among 
gophers. 

In  starting  from  the  seeds,  soak  them  thoroughly 
in  water,  then  plant  them  where  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  keep  them  thoroughly  watered,  in  rich  soil, 
an  inch  apart  and  covered  one  and  a  half  to  two 
inches.  But  with  inexperienced  hands  there  is  so 
much  risk  in  raising  from  the  seed  that  it  is  best  to 
purchase  the  plants  in  the  fall  of  some  honest  nurs- 
eryman. 

To  Keep  Plants  over  Winter,  select  a  dry  and 
rolling  piece  of  ground.  Open  a  trench,  spade  deep, 
and  10  or  12  feet  long.  Put  in  a  layer  of  plants,  2  or 
3  inches  thick,  and  at  an  angle  of  about  50°.  Cover 
by  taking  a  spade  of  dirt  from  the  front,  and  at  the 
same  rime  opening  a  trench  for  the  next  layer,  and 
pressing  the  dirt  firmly  uix)n  each  layer  with  your  foot. 
Repeat  the  operation  until  all  the  plants  are  trenched 
in.  Next,  dig  a  trench  around  the  bed,  about  3  feet  from 
it,  throwing  the  dirt  on  the  bed,  covering  i  foot  above 
the  top  of  the  plants,  and  extending  2  feet  beyond 
them.  Let  it  remain  till  the  ground  has  frozen  from  4 
to  6  inches  deep,  and  then  cover  2  feet  with  straw, 
and  weigh  it  down  with  frozen  crusts  of  earth,  suffici- 
ent to  hold  it  to  its  place.  Should  you  use  fresh 
manure  from  the  stable  instead  of  straw,  it  will  not 
require  to  be  so  thick,  the  object  being  to  keep  the 
plants  as  near  the  freezing  point  as  possible,  without 
letting  them  freeze.  Be  sure  that  the  covering  ex- 
tends at  least  2  feet  beyond  the  border  of  the  plants. 
Plants  may  be  kept  in  a  cellar,  packed  down  in  moist 
but  not  wet  dirt  or  sand. 

When  plants  are  received  in  the  spring,  they  should 
be  immediately  trenched  out,  just  as  you  trench  in 
the  fall,  omitting,  however,  the  additional  covering. 

Cultivation.  The  hedge-row  should  be  plowed 
out  the  fall  before  the  hedge  is  to  be  set,  and  finished 
with  a  deep  "  dead-furrow"  on  the  line  where  the 
plants  are  to  be  set.  In  the  spring,  before  setting, 
"  back-furrow,"  slightly  ridging  the  ground  where  the 
plants  are  to  stand,  and  pass  the  harrow  over  it  two 
or  three  times.  On  wet  or  sprouty  ground  do  not  open 
a  furrow  on  the  line  in  the  fall  plowing,  but  "back- 
furrow"  each  time  the  ground  is  plowed,  thereby 
ridging  up  the  bed  where  the  plants  are  to  stand. 
Plants  set  on  low,  wet  ground  are  liable  to  be  heaved 
out  by  the  first  winter  frost.  In.  dry  ground  the  plants 
may  be  set  out  in  the  fall. 


654 


HEDGE. 


As  soon  as  the  cold  weather  is  over,  remove  the 
straw  from  the  beds.  When  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground,  and  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell,  the  dirt 
should  be  thrown  off,  and  the  plants  taken  out  and 
carefully  assorted  into  two  or  three  classes  according 
to  size,  all  doubtful  plants  being  thrown  to  one  side. 
The  plants  should  average  lo  inches  in  length,  8 
of  this  to  be  the  yellow  part,  or  root.  As  they  are 
assorted  they  should  be  trenched  in,  each  lot  by  it- 
self, leaving  2  or  3  inches  of  the  tops  exposed  to  the 
sun,  in  which  condition  they  may  remain  till  they  are 
wanted  for  planting.  Should  the  plants  at  any  time 
become  partially  dried,  they  can  be  revived  by  soak- 
ing in  water  or  being  buried  so  that  each  plant  shall 
come  in  contact  with  the  moist  earth. 

The  best  time  to  set  the  hedge  is  when  the  buds 
have  started ;  though,  if  the  season  is  favorable,  it 
will  do  as  late  as  the  i5ih  or  20th  of  June.  The  buds 
may  be  kept  back  for  late  planting  by  leaving  the 
winter  covering  on  the  beds  until  near  the  time  the 
plants  are  wanted  for'  the  hedge-row.  Hedge  set 
early  can  be  re-set  the  same  season  by  reserving  a  few 
of  the  best  plants  until  a  seasonable  time  in  June, 
when  those  that  have  failed  to  grow  can  be  replaced 
by  such  as  you  know  to  be  good. 

Though  a  good  hedge  may  be  grown  by  using  any 
number  of  plants  from  16  to  50  per  rod,  a  long  series 
of  experiments  in  hedging,  in  which  the  plants  have 
been  set  from  4  to  16  inches  apart,  demonstrates  that 
about  8  inches  apart,  or  25  plants  to  the  rod,  is  the 
desired  distance  at  which  to  set  them  in  order  to 
secure  the  most  reliable  fence.  Some  recomniend 
from  12,000  to  1 6,000  plants  per  mile. 

An  even,  perfect  stand  and  uniformity  of  growth, 
in  a  beautiful  straight  line,  are  the  things  most  essen- 
tial to  success.  When  the  plants  are  taken  to  the 
field  they  should  be  distributed  first  along  the  line 
about  100  in  a  place,  and  heeled  in  until  wanted,  and 
never  left  exposed  to  the  sun  or  frost.  Procure  a 
strong  cord  from  10  to  15  rods  long,  marked  plainly 
with  red  yarn,  8  inches,  or  the  distance  you  want 
your  plants  apart.  There  are  two  methods  of  setting. 
One  is,  to  set  with  the  hedge-spade  (the  blade  of 
which  is  longer  and  narrower  than  the  common  spade), 
which  you  thrust  in  to  its  full  length,  slanting.  You 
then  raise  the  handle  slightly,  letting  a  boy  push  the 
plant  down  at  least  3  inches  deeper  than  it  stood 
jn  the  nursery,  tramping  the  dirt  firmly  to  the  plant 
with  your  foot.  If  the  ground  is  wet,  omit  the  tramp- 
ing, as  it  will  cause  the  ground  to  bake.  The  other 
method  of  setting  is  that  known  as  "  setting  in  the 
furrow."  In  either  mode  the  line  should  be  carefully 
staked,  but  twice  the  number  of  stakes  are  required 
in  the  latter.  In  opening  the  furrow,  use  a  good 
strong  team  and  good  plow,  in  the  hands  of  an  ex- 
perienced plowman.  Any  slight  crook  may  be 
straightened  with  the  spade.  After  the  furrow  is 
opened  and  line  stretched,  take  a  bundle  of  assorted 
plants,  and  placing  them  against  the  "land"  side,  fill 
m  a  little  dirt  with  a  hoe,  pressing  it  to  the  roots,  and 
when  the  plants  are  all  in,  fill  up  the  furrow  with  a 


plow.  But  be  very  careful  not  to  disturb  the  plants 
with  the  singletree,  nor  allow  the  horse  to  misplace 
them  with  his  feet.  The  roots  of  a  sound,  healthy 
plant,  when  cul,  jiresent  a  bright,  white  appearance; 
those  of  a  yellow,  dingy  cast  between  the  bark  and 
wood,  should  be  rejected  as  doubtful.  A  good  heavy 
coat  of  mulching,  applied  immediately  after  the  plants 
are  set,  will  be  of  great  advantage  in  keeping  back 
the  weeds,  preventing  injury  by  drouth  and  furnish- 
ing protection  to  the  hedge  the  first  winter. 

If  you  fail  in  getting  a  perfect  stand  the  first  sea- 
son, procure  enough  extra  strong  plants  the  second 
season,  and  fill  up  all  gaps  as  soon  as  the  buds  begin 
to  swell.  Re-setting  after  the  second  season  is  of 
little  use. 

If  well  mulched,  the  hedge  will  require  but  little 
further  attention  the  first  year  ;  otherwise  it  should  be 
kept  clean  and  free  from  all  weeds  and  grass,  and 
covered  up  with  a  furrow  from  each  side  before  the 
ground  freezes,  a  two-horse  plow  being  used.  In  the 
spring  uncover,  and  cultivate  as  you  would  a  row  of 
corn,  which  cultivation  should  be  repeated  every  sea- 
son until  the  hedge  is  five  or  six  years  old.  Manure 
should  be  used  in  all  places  in  the  hedge-row  where 
the  soil  is  too  thin  to  give  a  good  yield  of  corn  under 
good  treatment. 

The  treatment  for  the  second  year  is  simply  to  cut 
off  in  the  soring  all  above  one  or  two  buds  on  each 
branch,  and  to  leave  all  level  on  top  to  the  height  of 
some  two  or  three  feet.  The  trimming  is  done  by 
using  hedge  shears.  The  treatment  for  the  second 
year  is  the  same  in  cultivation.  No  weeds  or  grass 
sods  are  allowed  to  interfere,  in  order  to  have  the 
growth  of  all  the  trees  alike.  The  reason  that  it  is 
necessary  to  leave  a  bud  at  starting  of  the  growth  for 
the  second  year,  is  that  the  small  tree  wants  leaves 
wherewith  to  draw  support  from  the  atmosphere. 
Each  of  these  buds  will  throw  out  a  lateral  or  limb. 

In  the  spring  of  the  third  year  treatment  is  similar. 
Clean  culture  is  strictly  observed.  No  trimming  is 
needed  this  year. 

In  the  spring  of  the  fourth  year  some  of  the  limbs 
are  six  to  eight  feet  high.  With  the  use  of  the  hedge 
shears  cut  them  back.  For  the  fourth  year's  growth, 
in  August,  as  soon  as  some  of  the  limbs  are  eight  to 
ten  feet  high,  too  high  to  reach  with  the  shears,  use  a 
hedge  knife.  The  handle  is  some  three  feet  long,  the 
blade  a  foot  or  more  long  and  two  to  two  and  a  half 
inches  wide,  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  end.  The 
edge  is  curved  a  little  to  prevent  the  hmbs  from  mov- 
ing away  from  the  operator  on  being  struck.  At  this 
trimming  we  only  cut  away  limbs  of  the  most  rampant 
growth  and  crooked  snarls. 

In  the  spring  of  the  fifth  year's  growth  we  find  it  as 
in  Fig.  I,  trimmed  to  Fig.  2.  From  this  (Fig.  2)  we 
start  for  the  fifth  year.  By  this  time  our  trees  are  six 
or  seven  feet  high,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter at  the  ground.  In  August  of  the  fifth  year  we 
head  in  by  taking  off  all  side  limbs  up  to  six  or  seven 
feet  high,  when  the  hedge  will  resemble  Fig.  3. 

We  now  have  a  row  of  trees  resembling  a  row  of 


HEDGE. 


«5S 


cornstalks  stripped  of  leaves  with  the  tassels  all  com- 
plete. During  the  next  spring  after  the  four  years' 
growth,  with  trees  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter, 
we  are  prepared  to  commence  and  to  convert  it  into  a 
hedge.     With  heavy   buckskin    mittens   and   with  a 


J 


Fig.  I.  Fiii.  2.  V\'.  ; 

sharp  hatchet  commence  at  one  end  of  the  row  by 
hacking  a  tree  half  off  or  more,  close  to  the  ground, 
and  bending  it  over  in  a  straight  line  with  the  row,  so 
that  the  top  will  be  about  thtee  feet  from  the  ground. 
As  fast  as  the  work  is  done,  stakes  are  driven  into  the 
ground  in  the  hedge  row,  from  four  to  five  feet  apart ; 
and  as  the  trees  are  bent  over  they  are  braided  alter- 
nately on  each  side  of  the  stakes.  In  this  way  every 
tree  is  directly  over  the  others.  After  all  is  laid  and 
carefully  woven,  and  each  at  a  uniform  distance  apart, 
the  few  straggling  top  limbs  are  cut  away.  As  these 
small  stakes  are  unsightly  to  some,  every  fifth  or  sixth 
tree  is  allowed  to  stand  to  braid  by,  and  keep  the 
hedge  true  in  place.  This  cut  off  on  a  level  with  the 
top  of  the  hedge  row.  In  this  way  the  standing  stump 
grows  very  vigorously.  Of  the  two  modes  many  pre- 
fer the  stump  way,  as  it  adds  more  to  the  beauty  of  the 
hedge,  and  is  more  firm  than  a  stake.  Where  stakes 
are  used  they  can  be  taken  out  after  the  first  year,  as 
the  new  limbs  are  very  compact,  and  as  they  grow 
they  lap  by  and  grow  up  between  the  bodies,  some- 
what resembling  a  willow  basket.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  count  fifty  limbs  sprouting  out  of  a  single  tree 

1- 


Fig.  4. — Laying  the  Trees. 

the  first  year  after  being  lopped.  No  trimming  is 
needed  after  the  first  year,  but  clean  culture  is  im- 
]X)rtant.  Each  year  after  the  first  lopping  cutback  with- 
in about  sixinchesof  the  ijrevious  year's  growth.  After 
carefully  lopping  and  properly  weaving  every  tree,  we 
have  a  hedge  that  is  a  beauty,  and  when  in  leaf,  skirt- 
ing our  fields,  doubly  so. 


Fig.  4  sufficiently  represents  the  hedge  after  being 

lopped  and  made  ready  for  the  sixth  year's  growth. 

Fig.  5  is  in  the  fall  of  the  sixth  year's  growth. 

From  each  stub  near  the  ground  several  sprouts  will 

come  up.  They  too  will,  as  they  grow,  weave  in  be- 
tween the  slanting  tree  bodies.  As  the  roots  of 
the  Osage  naturally  grow  deep  in  the  ground,  care 
must  be  taken  to  have  the  hedge  row  well  under- 
drained  on  land  that  is  inclined  to  be  wet.  No  out- 
side sprouts  away  from  the  base  of  the  tree,  from  the 
roots,  ever  appear,  as  some  have  erroneously  sup- 
posed. When  the  hedge  is  built  as  described  above, 
it  occupies  no  more  land  for  a  few  years  than  a  com- 
mon post  and  board  fence.  In  August  or  the  first  of 
September  of  each  year,  shear  the  sides  and  keep  the 
top  level. 
With  a  little  care  a  hedge  can  be  grown  close  to  a 

gate  post.     Hedges  made  in  this  way  have  no  gaps, 

and  are  found  a  periect  barrier  to  all  domestic  animals. 
Cost  of  Hedge.     The  cost  of  growing  an  Osage 

hedge  to  five  years,  when  ready  to  plash,  is  shown  by 

the  following  figures : 

The  cost  of  preparing  the  ground  is  very  little  where 


Fig.  i.— The  Finished  Hedsc 

there  are  no  stones  to  hinder  the  plowing.  If  there 
are  they  must  all  be  taken  away,  at'leasi  where  the 
line  is  drawn,  by  the  side  of  which  the  plants  are 
placed  at  the  time  of  setting  out.  Where  there  are 
no  stones  to  be  disposed  of  and  a  stubble  ground  is 
used,  one  plowing,  by  turning  to  the  left  and  leaving 
the  last  furrow  exactly  on  the  desired  line,  will  be  suf- 
ficient! and  the  furrow  should  be  a  foot  deep  or  there- 
abouts, as  a  deep,  mellow  bed  is  needed  for  the  young 
plants.  This  work  can  be  done  in  the  spring;  if  de- 
layed till  the  fall,  which  is  a  better  time  for  the  first 
plowing,  the  frost  pulverizes  and  makes  the  ground 
mellow.  Just  before  setring  the  plants  in  the  spring, 
commence  to  plow  by  throwing  the  furrows  back  by 
turning  to  the  right.  Passing  twice  may  be  needed 
to  form  a  slight  ridge.  Twelve  feet  is  wide  enough 
for  the  ridge,  which  should  be  finely  harrowed.  If  a  strip 
is  desired,  now  occupied  by  sod,  fall  plowingis  the  best, 
as  the  sod  will  fairiy  rot  if  stirred  up  early  in  the 
spring,  in  ume  to  set  the  hedge  tow.  We  think  that  1 60 
rods  of  ground,  free  from  stones,  can  be  put  in  the 
best  order  by  one  man  and  his  team  in  one  day's 
work — all  told,  say  $3.  One  day's  work  with  the  hoe 
in  cleaning  and  straightening  the  furrow  made  by  the 
shovel  plow,  ready  to  draw  the  line  for  setting  the 
plants,  |i .50.    Total  first  year,  160  rods,  $4-S0- 

Second  Year — Cost  of  Plants  and  Setting.    Usually 
nurserymen  buy  the  seeds  of  seed   dealers,  who  in 


6s6 


HEDGE. 


the  West  buy  largely  from  Texas,  the  home  of  the  Osage. 
There  the  oranges  are  gathered  from  the  native 
trees,  rotted  and  the  seeds  washed  out  from  the  pom- 
ace, dried  and  made  ready  for  the  market.  The 
drills  are  prepared  to  receive  the  seeds  as  a  gardener 
drills  for  raising  peas.  The  rows  are  two  feet  apart, 
so  as  to  be  cultivated  with  a  horse-hoe  or  cultivator 
geared  for  the  purjx)se.  The  growth  of  the  first  year 
varies  from  two  to  three  feet  high.  After  the  leaves  are 
off  in  the  fall,  with  a  scythe  or  shears  cut  off  within 
about  fouror  five  inches  of  the  ground,  as  a  nursery- 
man does  his  seedling  apple  roots  for  grafting.  Assort 
and  tie  into  bundles  of  one  hundred  each,  and  bury 
in  pits  to  keep  moist  during  the  winter,  or  in  boxes  of 
soil  placed  in  cellars.  In  the  spring  these  are  sold  to 
customers.  During  the  last  fifteen  years  or  more  the 
price  has  varied  from  $2  to  $3  per  1,000.  After  the 
ground  is  made  ready  in  the  spring,  and  the  plants  as- 
sorted so  as  to  have  equal  size  and  «qual  vitality,  a  man 
with  a  boy  to  place  the  plants  at  the  side  of  the  line, 
as  previously  described,  can  put  in  a  row  of  one- 
half  mile  (160  rods),  and  do  it  well  in  one  day.  Six- 
teen plants  to  the  rod,  160  rods,  is  2,560  plants,  cost- 
ing, at  $3.00  per  1,000,  $7.68;  labor  for  man  and  boy, 
$2.25  ;   total  cost  for  the  second  year,  $9.93. 

Cost  of  Cultivation  each  Year  for  Five  Years.  A 
little  more  cultivation  than  for  a  row  of  corn  is  re- 
quired, as  the  space  is  six  feet  each  side  of  the  hedge 
row.  Cultivating  and  hoeing  twice  during  the  season 
will  be — two  days'  work  with  a  man  and  his  hoe,  one 
with  horse  and  cultivator,  $4. 

Cost  of  Trimming.  This  is  stated  in  the  table  in  the 
next  column. 

Cutting  Backs  Staking  and  Plashing.  If  the  stems 
and  trunks  have  been  kept  free  from  limbs,  as  pre- 
viously described,  two  men  being  employed  to  bend 
the  tree,  the  other  using  the  hatchet,  or  a  light,  thin- 
bladed,  sharp  axe,  they  will  plash  or  properly 
weave  in  between  the  stakes,  or  where  one  tree  in  five 
is  allowed  io  remain  uncut  at  the  ground  to  use  as  a 
stake,  40  rods  in  a  day,  at  $3.00 — four  days  for  t6o 
rods,  $i2.oo. 

Eighth  Year.  After  the  hedge  has  finished  in- 
creasing in  height,  etc.,  it  is  kept  in  form  by  side  and 
top  trimming  for  many  years.  We  know  of  many  that 
are  ten  years  after  plashing,  fifteen  years  in  all,  that 
remain  perfect  barriers.  As  yet  we  have  seen  none  re- 
quiring a  second  plashing.  Two  careful  trimmings  a 
year  will  keep  all  right. 

Fifteen  or  20  years  ago  this  mode  of  plashing  was 
introduced,  and  now  all  our  best  hedges  are  of  this 
pattern.  A  good  cattle  fence  can  be  made  without 
plashing,  and  do  very  well.  But  in  the  old  way  more 
or  less  of  the  plants,  or  trees  even,  will  be  harmed. 
The  weaker  are  overcrowded  and  die  out,  leaving 
open  places,  soon  made  larger  by  the  passage  of  cattle 
and  hogs.  By  the  plashing  system  the  hog  is  master- 
ed, for  once  at  least.  At  the  time  of  plashing  the 
trees  may  be  eight  or  ten  feet  high  even,  and  will  bet- 
ter weave  in  between  the  stakes. 

£ecapitu£ation.    Total  cost  for  1 60  rods  for  first  five 


years,  including  plashing  and  weaving  for  the  sixth 
year's  growth: 

Tilling  the  ground  for  planting  in  perfect  order $  3.00 

One  day's  work  in  cleaning  out  and  straightening  furrow 1.50 

Cost  of  plants  and  setting  them  out : g.^ts 

Cultivating  five  years,  $4  each  year 20.00 

Trimming  the  second  year,  160  rods,  two  days' work 3.00 

do.            third         do.          do.      three        do 4.50 

do.             fourth      do.          do.      four          do 6.00 

do.            fifth          do.          do.      five          do 7.50 

Cutting  back,  starting  and  plashing 12.00 

$66.85 

It  must  be  understood  that  all  this  work  has  been 
done  in  its  proper  season.  If  not  done  then,  as  in 
most  other  things,  more  work  is  needed  to  repair 
delays. 

It  must  be  remembered  this  hedge  should  be  pro- 
tected on  one  side  by  a  wooden  fence  (not  a  stone  wall, 
as  that  would  shade  it  too  much),  and  neither  cattle 
nor  hogs  allowed  to  pass  over  it  by  getting  between 
the  hedge  and  wood  fence  while  growing,  ready  to 
plash.  After  plashing  they  may  try  it  at  their  pleas- 
ure, if  pleasure  it  be. 

Ever  after  the  completion  of  the  hedge,  it  should 
be  trimmed  every  summer  and  fall. 

H0NEY-I.0CUST  Hedge.  To  make  a  good  hedge  of 
the  honey  locust,  it  is  essential,  in  the  first  place,  to 
procure  plants  with  good  roots,  and  if  these  vary  in 
size  they  should  be  assorted,  placing  those  of  equal 
size  together,  so  that  th^  line  may  be  even,  and  not 
with  large  and  small  plants  mixed  together.  Secondly, 
the  ground  must  be  well  prepared,  giving  a  deep  and 
mellow  soil.  With  care  in  setting  out  there  need  not 
be  any  gaps,  and  the  trees  will  be  uniform  in  size. 
Thirdly,  the  soil,  for  some  feet  on  each  side,  must  for 
some  years  be  kept  clean  and  well  cultivated,  and  not 
allowed  to  grow  up  with  weeds  and  grass.  The  hedge 
should  be  as  well  treated  as  a  row  of  potatoes  or  corn, 
of  which  no  farmer  would  expect  to  yield  a  crop  in  a 
grass  sod.  Fourthly,  the  young  trees  must  be  cut 
back  sufficiently  to  give  a  broad,  dense  mass  of  hori- 
zontal shoots  at  the  bottom.  This  cutting  should  be 
done  early  in  the  spring,  and  at  no  other  time.  If 
deferred  till  the  buds  have  swollen,  or  the  leaves  have 
opened,  a  severe  if  not  fatal  check  will  be  given  to 
the  hedge. 

It  is  usually  best  to  allow  the  hedge  plants  to  grow 
a  year  or  two,  to  become  well  established  before  cut- 
ting back,  then  to  cut  down  in  the  first  place  to  within 
three  inches  of  the  ground;  this  will  cause  numerous 
shoots  below  the  cut.  The  second  year  the  cuts 
should  not  be  more  than  three  or  four  inches  higher; 
the  third  about  six  inches,  and  so  on,  increasing  the 
height  each  successive  year  until  the  hedge  has 
reached  'the  desired  height.  It  will  require  several 
years  to  make  a  good  hedge.  Many  prefer  to  make 
longer  cuts,  or  about  a  foot  each  year,  so  as  to  have  a 
hedge  in  half  the  time  we  have  indicated,  and  in  doing 
so  they  never  get  one  deserving  the  name,  but  merely 
the  skeleton  or  shadow. 

The  importance  of  cutting  back  in  spring  before 
the  buds  swell,  will  be  well  understood  by  any  one 
who  will  leave  a  small  portion  of  his  hedge  until  the 


HEEL  IN-~HELLEBORE. 


657 


leaves  have  opened.  The  result  will  be  that  the 
growth,  instead  of  being  strong  and  vigorous,  will  be 
feeble  and  thin,  with  only  a  few  small  shoots. 

Evergreen  Hedges  are  much  admired  on  account 
of  keeping  green  througli  the  entire  year.  Perfect 
barriers  may  be  made  of  them  by  enclosing  barbed 
wires  along  their  whole  length.  These  wires  are 
placed  in  position  by  stretching  along  the  line  on 
light,  temporary  posts,  in  successive  years,  so  that  the 
growth  of  the  hedge  may  enclose  them  and  hold  them 
among  its  numerous  branches  where  they  cannot  be- 
come displaced.  When  the  plants  are  about  20 inches 
high,  stretch  the  first  wire,  just  resting  on  their  tips  or 
upper  forks.  The  hedg^  soon  grows  and  encloses  it. 
Additional  wires,  as  may  be  needed,  are  placed  in 
position  in  successive  years.  Two  wires  will  be  quite 
enough  in  most  cases.  One  alone  would  exclude 
nearly  all  intruders.  Three  might  be  needed  for  in- 
closing fruit  gardens.  These  wires,  when  once  covered, 
cannot  be  bent  or  thrust  aside;  they  are  stiffly  held 
by  innumerable  branches.  Such  a  fence  has  not  the 
objection  of  being  invisible  to  animals.  Norway 
spruce  is  the  strongest-growing  evergreen ;  hemlock 
and  arbor  vitK  may  l)e  made  efficient  by  the  enclosed 
barbs.  Among  deciduous  plants  the  buckthorn  would 
doubtless  prove  the  best,  as  it  is  easily  raised  from 
seed,  is  transplanted  with  great  facility,  is  perfectly 
hardy,  has  a  natural  hedginess,  and,  except  on  rich 
ground,  has  a  very  moderate  growth.  The  wire  used 
for  these  purix)ses  should  be  galvanized,  and  not 
painted,  as  it  is  to  remain  many  years. 

In  starting  an  evergreen  hedge,  the  young  plants  of 
Norway  spruce  are  placed  about  two  feet  apart.  The 
distances  might  be  greater  if  longer  time  could  be 
allowed  for  the  branches  to  meetand  fill  the  spaces 
between.  If  placed  two  feet  apart,  and  the  line  of  the 
hedge  is  kept  properly  cultivated,  the  spaces  would 
be  well  filled  in  three  or  four  years ;  if  three  feet  apart, 
five  or  six  years  might  be  required.  It  may  not  be 
necessary  to  cut  back  evergreens  like  deciduous  plants, 
but  if  the  Norways,  after  they  are  fairly  started,  are 
pinched  back  early  in  summer,  so  that  no  side  shoots 
shall  be  over  six  inches  long,  and  no  leaders  more 
than  a  foot,  the  hedge  will  be  more  compact  and 
beautiful. 

A  hedge  should  never  be  sheared,  so  as  to  form  a 
smooth  wall  of  verdure.  It  should  be  cut  back  by 
taking  off"  every  longer  shoot  at  a  fork,  leaving  no 
stump.  This  work  may  be  performed  rapidly  after 
some  practice,  either  with  a  knife  or  with  shears. 
When  the  exterior  is  smoothly  sheared,  a  close,  dense 
stratum  of  foliage  is  formed,  shutting  out  the  light 
from  the  interior,  which  in  a  few  years  becomes  a 
mass  of  bare  branches.  Such  a  hedge,  usually  left 
broad  at  the  top,  causes  the  lower  branches  gradually 
to  die,  and  the  whole  hedge  perishes  sooner  than  if 
properly  pruned.  If  simply  cut  back  with  a  knife  or 
with  shears,  leaving  an  irregular  surface,  the  interior 
foliage  will  be  fresh  ai.d  dense  for  a  long  time,  and 
the  hedge  itself  will  live  longer.  Norway  spruce 
trees,  if  planted  eight  feet  apart,  will  meet  and  form 
42 


a  continuous  screen  in  eight  or  ten  years.  These 
will  answer  well  for  some  of  the  subdivisions  of  the 
farm,  and  for  the  windward  boundaries  of  barnyards. 

The  cost  of  evergreen  hedges  and  of  screens  may 
be  readily  ascertained  by  procuring  from  nurserymen 
their  wholesale  prices  and  calculating  the  length  of 
line  reached  by  a  thousand.  If  two  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  a  thousand  will  extend  about  half  a  mile.  The 
prices  vary  much  in  different  seasons,  and  with  differ- 
ent dealers,  according  to  the  supply  or  surplus  on  hand. 
In  some  years,  when  nurseries  were  overstocked,  trees 
a  foot  and  a  half  high  could  be  purchased  for  $30  or 
$40  a  thousand,  or  even  less;  but  more  commonly  the 
price  is  double  or  triple  this  sum.  Smaller  trees 
may  be  had  at  lower  rates. 

It  is  not  probable  that  hedges  of  any  kind  will  ever 
be  generally  adopted  as  farm  barriers;  the  labor  of 
keeping  them  cut  back  will  deter  farmers  generally 
from  planting  them  extensively,  but  they  will  answer 
well  for  enclosing  fruit  gardens,  and  the  taller  screens 
will  be  valuable  for  cattle  yards. 

Other  Hedge  Plants.  The  buckthorn,  although 
of  slender  growth,  forms  a  tolerably  good  hedge.  It 
has  a  glossy  and  lively  green  foliage,  which  it  retains 
until  very  late  in  the  fall.  The  common  English 
maple  makes  a  beautiful  hedge,  being  compact  in  its 
habit  of  growth  and  requiring  very  little  pruning.  It 
is  neat,  hardy  and  free  from  insects.  The  European 
hornbeam  is  a  good  hedge  plant;  dense,  of  slow  growth 
and  requiring  but  little  or  no  pruning.  The  purple- 
leaved  barberry  makes  an  ornamental  hedge,  when 
well  cultivated  and  trimmed.  But  for  rapid  growth, 
easy  propagation  and  an  ample  foliage  of  a  shining 
deep-green  color,  no  plant  is  superior  to  the  Japan 
privet.  This  is  not  the  common  privet;  it  retains  its 
beautiful  green  foliage  until  very  late;  it  is  almost  an 
evergreen.  For  sheltering  gardens  and  orchards,  the 
best  deciduous  trees  are  Osage  orange,  white  birch, 
English  bird  cherry,  honey  locust,  English  maple, 
European  larch,  English  alder,  and  some  of  the  willows. 
But  the  best  screen  hedge  is  of  course  one  consisting 
of  evergreens,  such  as  the  Norway  spruce,  arbor 
vitse,  the  white  and  the  Austrian  pines. 

Heel  In,  to  lay  trees  or  shrubs  (which  have 
been  taken  up)  in  a  trench  at  an  angle  of  about  45" 
and  covering  with  earth  up  to  about  the  middle  of  the 
tree.  The  tops  of  the  trees  should  be  laid  toward  the 
south  to  prevent  sunburn. 

Heifer  (hef'r),  a  young  cow;  a  female  calf,  which 
bears  the  name  until  her  fourth  year,  after  which  time 
she  is  called  a  cow.  . 

Height  of  tree  or  other  tall  object,  to  measure : 
see  Tree. 

Helix,  a  genus  of  shell  animals,  including  the  garden 
snails ;  they  are  injurious  to  herbage,  and  may  be 
kept  off"  by  sprinkling  with  lime,  or  destroyed  by  hand 
picking. 

Hellebore  (hel'le-bore),  a  medicinal  plant,  of  which 
there  are  several  species.     They  are  all  acrid   and 


6s8 


HEMLOCK— HRMP. 


poisonous,  and  are  used  in  medicine  as  cathartics  and 
alteratives.  The  white  hellebore  is  often  called  vera- 
trum.  Medicinal  preparations  from  these  plants  are 
too  dangerous  for  unprofessional  hands  to  deal  with. 
It  is  recommended  for  jwU-evil  in  horses,  where  a  piece 
of  the  root  is  inserted  in  the  fistulous  opening.  Some 
veterinarians  discard  it.  When  one  is  poisoned  with 
hellel)ore  he  experiences  an  acrid,  biting,  bitter  taste, 
choking  sensation,  dryness  of  the  throat,  retching, 
vomiting,  purging,  pains  in  the  stomach  and  bowels, 
and  difficult  breathing.  As  antidotes,  give  emetics  of 
camomile,  mustard,  or  sulphate  of  zinc ;  large  draughts 
of  warm  milk,  or  other  bland  fluids ;  foment  and  leech 
the  belly  if  necessary,  and  give  strong  infusion  of 
coffee. 

Hemlock,  an  herb  and  a  tree.  i.  An  annual  herb 
of  the  parsley  (or  parsnip)  order,  with  perennial  roots, 
flowering  in  July,  and  growing  sparingly  in  the  United 
States,  especially  in  old  settlements  along  roadsides 
and  in  waste  grounds.  It  is  poisonous,  yields  a  fetid 
odor  like  that  of  mice  or  cat's  urine,  and  as  a  medicine 
it  is  a  sedaiive  in  small  doses  and  narcotic  in  large 
doses.  It  was  fonnerly  recommended  by  veterinarians 
for  inflammation  in  horses  and  cattle.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly of  benefit,  in  the  form  of  a  poultice,  to  cancerous 
sores.  2.  An  evergreen  tree  of  the  spruce  family, 
ornamental,  not  poisonous,  growing  abundantly  in 
some  parts  of  the  Lake  region.  The  bark  is  much 
used  in  tanning,  and  the  wood  is  useful  for  various 
purposes. 

Hemp,  a  genus  of  hardy,  cultivated  annual  plants 
of  the  nettle  family.  The  soil  and  climate  of  the  United 
States  are  favorable  to  the  production  of  hemp,  and 
the  reason  we  have  not  in  this  country  manufactured 
it  in  its  various  forms  as  extensively  as  the  people  of 
Europe,  is  the  absence  of  pauper  labor  and  competi- 
tive struggle  for  existence  which  exist  to  so  high  a  de- 
gree in  the  old  country.  We  are  justified  therefore  in 
describing  here  its  cultivation,  and  giving  everything 
that  may  be  of  practical  value  to  the  farmers. 

Cultivation.  The  best  ground  in  which  to  raise 
hemp  is  an  alluvial  or  vegetable  loam ;  but  it  will 
thrive  in  a  moderately  tenacious  clay  if  it  is  rich, 
drained  and  well  pulverized.  It  does  well  on  re- 
claimed muck  beds  when  properly  treated.  New 
land  is  not  suited  to  it  until  after  two  or  three  years 
of  cultivation.  A  grass  sod  or  clover  field  is  best  ad- 
apted to  it  when  plowed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter. 
This  secures  through  pulverization  by  frost  and  the 
destruction  of  many  insects,  especially  the  cut-worm, 
whic^  is  very  injurious  to  it.  The  land  should  be  re- 
plowed  in  the  spring,  if  not  already  sufficiently  mellow, 
as  fine  and  deep  rilth  is  essential  to  the  vigor  of 
the  crop. 

Sow  as  early  as  will  be  out  of  danger  of  severe 
freezing ;  but  where  a  large  quantity  is  to  be  raised  it 
is  well  to  make  two  or  three  planrings,  so  that  time 
will  be  found  to  harvest  it  all.  It  is  very  important 
that  all  the  seed  be  good,  as  too  thick  sowing  required 
by  the  suspicion  that  the  seed  is  poor,  may  cause  too 


many  to  take  possession  of  the  ground  at  once  and 
thus  smother  themselves.  At  the  same  time  it  is  im- 
ix)rtant  to  have  the  ground  well  covered.  Sow,  of  the 
last  year's  crop  of  seed,  four  to  six  pecks  to  the  acre. 
The  best  seed  is  indicated  by  its  bright  color  and  good 
weight.  In  sowing  broadcast,  harrow  lightly  both 
ways,  and  roll  the  ground.  Itisbettertojjlant  in  drills, 
as  that  method  requires  less  seed  and  allows  of  better 
cultivation.     If  the  soil  be  dry,  plant  deeper. 

Harvesting,  etc.  In  ])roperly  prepared  ground  no 
after  cultivation  is  necessary  ;  and  as  soon  as  the  blos- 
soms turn  alittle  yellow  and  the  leaves  begin  to  drop 
which  usually  occurs  three  to  three  and  a  half 
months  after  sowing,  it  is  ttme  to  cut  the  hemp.  But 
if  it  stands  a  week  or  ten  days  longer  than  this,  no 
injury  will  follow  except  that  it  will  not  rot  so 
evenly  and  thus  become  more  laborious  to  break.  If 
the  hemp  is  not  above  six  feet  high  it  can  be  cut  with 
strong  cradle  scythes  made  for  the  purpose,  at  the 
rate  of  an  acre  per  day ;  if  the  crop  is  stouter,  a  brush 
scythe  is  required,  in  which  case  a  half  acre  per  day  is 
good  work.  As  fast  as  cut,  spread  the  hemp  on  the 
ground  where  it  was  grown,  taking  care  to  keep  the 
butts  even,  when,  if  the  weather  be  dry  and  warm,  it 
will  be  cured  in  three  days.  As  soon  as  dry,  bind  into 
convenient  sheaves  and  stack  it  in  a  dry  place  near 
the  pools  where  it  is  to  be  rotted  by  the  water  process; 
build  it  in  round  stacks  and  thatch  them.  If  de- 
signed for  dew-rotring,  stack  it  in  large  ricks  in  the 
field  where  grown.  The  idea  is  to  expose  as  little  of 
the  hemp  as  possible  to  the  weather,  and  thus  secure 
it  from  decay  of  the  fiber.  The  ricks  may  be  30  to  50 
feet  long  and  15  to  20  feet  wide.  Make  the  founda- 
tion of  large  rails  or  logs,  laid  six  feet  apart,  and 
across  these,  rails  about  a  foot  apart.  As  the  hemp  is 
bound  in  sheaves,  let  it  be  thrown  into  two  rows,  with 
sufficient  space  for  a  wagon  to  pass  between  them. 
While  the  picking  up  and  binding  are  going  on,  a 
wagon  and  three  hands,  two  to  pitch  and  one  to  load, 
are  engaged  in  hauling  the  hemp  to  the  rick  and 
stacking  it.  The  rick  may  be  in  a  central  place,  so 
as  to  save  distance  in  hauling.  In  this- way  five  hands 
will  put  up  a  stout  rick  in  two  days  and  cover  it.  The 
roof  may  be  made  of  long  hemp,  with  the  leaves 
beaten  off. 

In  laying  down  the  hemp,  begin  with  the  top  ends 
of  the  bundles  inside;  and  if  they  do  not  fill  up  fast 
enough  to  keep  the  inside  of  the  rick  level,  add,  as 
occasion  may  require,  whole  bundles.  Give  it  as 
rounded  elliptical  form  at  each  end,  and  as  it  rises 
it  must  be  widened  so  as  to  make  the  top  courses 
shelter  the  bottom  ones ;  after  reaching  a  height  of  12 
feet,  commence  for  the  roof,  by  laying  the  bundles 
cross-wise,  within  a  foot  of  the  edges  of  the  rick,  carry- 
ing up  the  roof  at  an  angle  of  about  45".  Then 
cover  by  laying  up  the  bundles  at  right  angles  to  its 
length,  the  butt  ends  down  and  the  first  course  resring 
on  the  rim  of  the  rick  as  left  all  around,  one  foot  in 
width.  Lap  the  bundles  in  covering  the  roof  in 
courses,  precisely  as  if  in  shingling  a  house.  The 
first  shingling  thus  finished,  commence  the  second  by 


HEMORRHAGE. 


6S9 


\ 


reversing  the  bundles,  placing  the  top  ends  down,  and 
then  proceed  lapping  them  as  before.  The  third  course 
of  shingling  begin  with  the  butt  ends  down  again,  let- 
ting the  first  course  hang  at  least  one  foot  below  the 
edge  of  the  roof  as  eaves  to  shed  off  the  rain.  Unbind 
the  bundles,  and  lay  the  covering  at  least  one  foot 
thick  with  the  loose  hemp,  lapping  well  shingle  fash- 
ion as  before ;  and  for  a  weather  board  let  the  top 
course  come  up  above  the  peak  of  the  roof  about 
three  feet,  and  be  then  bent  over  it,  toward  that  point 
of  the  compass  from  which  the  wind  blows  the  least. 
The  roofing  is  then  finished.  If  possible,  the  rick 
should  be  made  when  the  weather  is  settled  and  rain- 
less. It  is  better  to  employ  ten  hands,  on  the  plan 
above  described,  so  that  a  rick  can  be  finished  in 
one  day. 

The  best  time  for  spreading  hemp  for  dew-rotting 
is  in  December;  but  in  case  of  a  large  crop  it  is  often 
desirable  to  commence  breaking  in  January,  and  then 
the  spreading  out  for  rotting  may  be  done  as  early  as 
the  middle  of  October;  earlier  than  this  is  too  wann. 
To  test  the  friable  condition  of  the  stalk,  try  it  in  a 
break.  When  sufficiently  watered,  the  stalk  loses 
that  hard,  sticky  feel  which  they  retain  till  the  process 
is  completed.  The  lint  also  begins  to  separate  from 
the  stalk,  and  the  fibers  will  show  themselves  some- 
what like  the  strings  of  a  fiddle-bow  attached  to  the 
stalk  at  two  distant  points  and  separate  at  the  middle. 
This  is  a  sure  indication  that  the  hemp  has  had  a 
good  rot. 

When  the  hemp  is  ready  to  be  taken  up,  it  should 
be  immediately  put  in  shocks,  without  binding,  of 
suitable  size.  If  dry,  the  shocks  should  at  once  be 
tied  with  a  hemp  band  by  drawing  the  tops  as  close 
together  as  possible,  in  order  to  prevent  the  rain  from 
wetting  the  inside.  If  carefully  put  up  and  tied,  they 
will  turn  rain  completely.  Each  shock  should  be 
large  enough  to  produce  50  to  60  jx)unds  of  lint.  If 
the  hemp  is  damp  when  taken  up  leave  the  tops  of  the 
shocks  open  until  dry. 

For  hemp-breaking,  cool,  frosty  weather  is  prefer- 
able. When  conditions  are  favorable  a  man  will  break 
and  clean  200  pounds  per  day,  but  an  ordinary  task 
is  about  100  pounds.  The  hand  hemp-break  is  made 
precisely  like  that  for  breaking  flax,  but  is  much 
larger.  The  under  slats  are  16  to  18  inches  apart  at 
the  hinder  end,  and  at  the  fore  end  they  approach  to 
within  three  inches  of  each  other.  After  breaking  out 
the  hemp  it  is  twisted  into  bunches  and  sent  to  the 
press  house  to  be  baled,  and  afterward  transported  to 
market. 

Water-rotting  is  done  in  vats  under  cover,  where  the 
water  is  kept  at  an  equable  temperature.  Seven  to 
ten  days  are  a  sufficient  time  for  the  process,  when 
the  weather  is  not  too  cold,  after  which,  when  the 
hemp  is  dried,  it  is  of  a  bright  greenish,  flaxen  color. 
These  vats  are  easily  constructed  and  managed,  and 
where  a  company  of  planters  join  together  the  expense 
to  each  is  comparably  inappreciable.  Before  putting 
into  the  vats  the  hemp  is  first  broken  by  a  steam  or 
horse  power  machine ;  but  this  is  not  essential.     If  it 


be  rotted  in  spring  or  river  water,  artificial  pools  or 
vats  must  be  formed  for  this  purpose,  and  should  not 
be  more  than  three  feet  deep,  else  the  hemp  will  be 
liable  to  unequal  rot.  Keep  it  well  under  water  by 
stones  uix)n  planks. 

To  raise  hemp-seed  requires  a  somewhat  different 
mode  of  cultivation.  The  best  ground  is  an  old  pas- 
ture or  meadow,  heavily  manured  and  plowed  in  the 
fall,  and  well  pulverized  in  the  spring.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  like  corn,  either  in  hills  or  drills, 
allowing  but  two  stalks  to  the  hill.  Soon  after  the 
hemp  is  up,  a  small  shovel  plow  should  be  run  through 
both  ways,  once  in  a  row;  but  if  the  ground  is  not  foul 
the  plowing  may  be  delayed  till  the  hemp  is  a  few 
inches  high,  and  then  the  young  grass  and  weeds  can 
be  covered  up  by  the  plow.  The  hoe  should  follow  the 
second  plowing,  and  cultivation  should  be  so  strict 
during  the  growing  season  as  to  keep  out  all  the  weeds 
and  grass.  When  the  hemp  has  so  far  advanced  as 
to  distinguish  readily  the  male  from  the  female  plants, 
let  all  the  "blossom  "  or  male  hemp  be  cut  out,  except 
one  stalk  in  every  other  hill  and  every  other  row. 
This  will  leave  one  stock  of  male  hemp  for  every  four 
hills;  and  after  fertilization  has  taken  place,  remove 
the  remaining  male  plants.  Some  farmers  top  the 
seed  plants  when  five  or  six  feet  high,  to  make  them 
branch  more  freely ;  but  this  is  not  necessary  where 
but  one  or  two  seed-bearing  plants  are  allowed  to  each 
hill. 

A  seed-bearing  hemp  crop  is  a  great  exhauster  of 
land.  The  seed  yields  an  oil  of  inferior  value,  and 
when  cooked  it  affords  a  fattening  food  for  animals. 

Hemorrhage,  a  morbid  or  accidental  flow  of  blood 
from  an  animal.  Hemorrhages  from  deep  or  lacerated 
wounds,  or  from  the  cutting  or  rupture  of  moderate 
arteries,  have  far  less  morbid  power  in  cattle  and  horses 
than  in  the  human  subject;  and  often  are  attended 
with  no  danger  whatever  in  the  former  when  they 
would  be  fatal  in  the  latter;  for,  in  consequence  of 
the  elasticity  of  the  external  tunic,  the  ends  of  the  cut 
or  ruptured  vessel  retract  within  the  cellular  substance 
and  close  their  orifices,  and  the  flow  of  blood,  though 
at  first  copious  and  alarming,  soon  becomes  slow,  and 
eventually  forms  a  coagulum  or  clot,  which  plugs  up 
the  wound  and  prevents  all  further  flow.  Yet  hem- 
orrhage in  cattle  and  horses  may  fiequently  be  serious 
enough  to  make  a  great  reduction  of  both  condition 
and  strength ;  and  in  every  case,  therefore,  it  ought, 
with  all  ix)ssible  speed,  to  be  artificially  stopped. 

Styptics,  such  as  flour,  puff-ball,  alum,  vitriol,  and 
other  finely  pulverulent  or  powerful  astringent  or  cor- 
rosive substances,  where  applicable  in  the  form  of 
powder  or  in  that  of  lotion,  act  either  by  mixing  the 
blood  into  a  thick  paste  or  by  astringing  it  into  a  co- 
agulum, but  have  little  or  no  effect  u]X)n  a  hemorrhage 
of  either  ox,  cow  or  horse.  Compression  by  means  of 
a  tassel  of  lint,  or  a  pledget  of  tow,  or  a  piece  of  soft 
sponge,  made  fast  with  a  bandage,  is  often  effectual 
in  any  ordinary  case  of  hemorrhage,  and  is  peculiarly 
suitable  when  the  place  of  discharge  is  beyond  the 


66o 


HEMORRHOIDS— HERBS. 


reach  of  more  special  manipulation ;  and  even  when 
the  application  but  partially  closes  the  bleeding  orifice, 
it  may  occasion  the  speedy  formation  of  a  firm  clot 
\x\X)\\  the  hole.  The  passing  of  a  ligature  of  waxed 
silk  or  thin  twine  around  the  bleeding  vessel,  is  still 
more  successful ;  and  this  may  often  be  effected  by 
means  of  a  tenaculum,  or  of  any  small  hooked  instru- 
ment which  can  lay  hold  of  the  vessel,  and  draw  it  a 
little  from  its  place ;  or  it  may  be  effected  by  seizing 
the  ends  of  the  vessel  by  a  pair  of  small  forceps  (see 


Forctps. 

figure)  or,  in  the  least  practicable  case,  it  may  be 
managed  by  taking  up  some  of  the  flesh  or  cellular 
membrane  in  two  or  three  places  around  the  vessel 
with  a  crooked  needle,  having  a  waxed  silk  thread 
attached  to  it,  and  closing  the  included  vessel  by  the 
constriction  of  the  ligature  upon  the  flesh.  The  tour- 
niquet is  seldom  applicable  to  the  horse ;  yet  in  the 
form  of  twisted  ligature  it  may  sometimes  be  advan- 
tageously used  in  cases  of  docking  and  of  wounds  in 
the  legs.  The  cautery  may  be  applied  when  a  bleed- 
ing artery  or  vein  is  not  broken  or  cut  asunder;  for  it 
readily  stops  the  hemorrhage  either  by  searing  up  the 
tubular  cavity  of  the  vessel,  or  by  plugging  up  the  ori- 
fice with  a  coagulum ;  but  it  ought  to  be  applied  at 
such  a  temperature  as  nearly  to  sear  the  part  and  not 
to  destroy  its  vitality;  for  a  part  made  dead  by  it  will 
afterwards  drop  off,  so  as  to  re-open  the  orifice  and 
renew  the  hemorrhage.  Yet,  in  the  horse,  the  seem- 
ingly mischievous  act  of  completely  separating  a  par- 
tially divided  artery,  will  stop  the  hemorrhage ;  for  the 
ends  of  the  separated  vessel  retract  within  the  cellular 
substance,  and  close  up  their  orifices  with  coagulum; 
and  hence  the  safety  of  tearing  out  the  testicles  in 
castration.  But  when  a  large  vein  is  divided,  it  re- 
quires to  be  secured  by  one  ligature  above  and  by 
another  below;  and  even  when  any  very  large  artery 
is  divided,  both  ends  should,  in  prudence,  if  not  in 
necessity,  be  secured  with  ligatures. 

Hemorrhage  from  the  navel-string  of  calves  is  some- 
times stubborn  and  dangerous.  Blue  vitriol,  oil  of 
vitriol,  or  some  other  powerful  corrosive  styptic  is  fre- 
quently recomniended,  but  ought  never  to  be  used; 
yet,  when  the  ligature  already  in  use  is  so  near  the 
belly  as  not  to  allow  another  to  be  passed  above  it,  a 
styptic  becomes  necessary,  and  one  of  the  best  is  a 
pledget  of  lint  dipped  in  a  decoction  of  galls  and 
made  fast  with  a  bandage,  so  as  to  combine  the  styp- 
tical  action  wth  the  compressionalone.  But  a  simple 
ligature  above  the  original  one,  whenever  there  is 
space  for  it,  is  decidedly  preferable.  Much  swelling 
and  inflammation  generally  follow,  and  these  must  be 
reduced  by  a  sedulous  and  persevering  course  of 
fomentation ,  and  eventually,  if  necessar)',  by  poulticing 
and  by  artificial  discharge  of  morbid  secretions.  See 
the  article  Bleeding. 


Hemorrhoids  (hem'o-roids),  Piles,  which  see. 

Hen,  the  female  of  the  domestic  fowl.  See  page 
422. 

Henbane,  a  jxjisonous  plant  of  the  nightshade 
order,  generally  known  as  hyoscyamus  (hi-o-si'a-mus) 
among  medical  men.  It  is  a  narcotic,  anodyne,  and 
soporific,  to  be  used  only  by  skillful  hands.  It  is  oc- 
casionally given  to  horses  to  relieve  cougii  and  irrita- 
tion of  the  throat,  the  dose  for  this  purpose  being  i  to 
2  drachms  of  the  extract  rubbed  down  in  a 
little  cold  water,  and  repeated  several  times 
a  day  ;  but  better  drugs  are  now  used.  As  a 
poison  the  symptoms  are  stupor,  numbness, 
nausea,  dilated  pupil,  delirium,  convulsions 
paralysis,  etc. ;  and  the  antidotes  are  the  same  as  for 
Aconite. 

Hen-House:  see  page  535. 

Herbaceous  (her-ba'shus),  having  the  nature  of  an 
herb  or  annual  plant. 

Herbarium,  a  systematic  collection  of  dried  plants 
for  botanical  study.  White  blotting  paper  in  sheets 
II J^  by  16  inches  in  size  is  used,  one  sheet  to  each 
specimen.  The  plants  should  be  fastened  down  with 
a  small  drop  of  mucilage  here  and  there,  or  with 
"  gummed  slips"  of  writing  paper.  Plants  should  be 
spread  out  before  they  are  wilted,  to  dry,  between 
sheets  of  porous  paper,  as  newspaper,  or  blotting 
paper  that  is  made  purjxssely  for  this  work,  and  can 
be  had  by  ordering  of  the  establishments  East  that 
deal  in  it.  Of  fleshy  plants  and  fleshy  parts  of  all 
plants  only  a  thin  slice  need  be  taken  that  will  show, 
in  outline,  the  structure  of  the  specimen.  Change  the 
drying  sheets  twice  a  day  for  three  or  four  days, 
and  then  once  a  day  a  few  days  longer,  and  the 
specimens  will  be  dry  enough  for  their  permanent 
place  in  the  herbarium.  To  prepare  sheets  for  trans- 
ferring figures  of  leaves  (or  embroidery),  take  lard  oil, 
or  sweet  oil,  mixed  to  the  consistence  of  cream,  with 
either  of  the  following  paints,  the  color  of  which  is 
desired  :  Prussian  blue,  lampblack,  Venetian  red  or 
chrome  green,  either  of  which  should  be  rubbed  with 
a  knife  on  a  plate  or  stone  until  smooth.  Use  rather 
thin  but  firm  paper:  put  on  with  a  sponge  and  wipe 
off  as  dry  as  convenient ;  then  lay  them  on  col- 
ored paper  or  between  newspapers,  and  press  by 
laying  books  or  some  other  flat  weight  upwn  them 
until  the  surplus  oil  is  absorbed,  when  it  is  ready  for 
use. 

Herbivorous  (her-biv'o-rus),  subsisting  exclusively 
on  herbs,  as  cattle  and  horses  in  a  state  of  nature. 

Herbs.  This  tenn  is  used  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  medicinal  and  savory  herbs,  of  which  the  most 
popular  in  garden  cultivation  have  been  caraway, 
coriander,  dill,  sweet  fennel,  lavender,  parsley,  cress, 
saffron,  sage,  summer  savor)',  sweet  marjoram,  thyme, 
rue,  wormwood,  chamomile,  hop,  spearmint,  anise, 
balm,  horehound,   rosemary,  tansy,  sweet  basil,  pep- 


HERD—HERDING. 


66 1 


permint,  elecampane.  See  each  of  these  in  their  re- 
spective alphabetical  order.  In  the  largest  and  most 
proper  sense,  however,  herbs  comprise  all  kinds  of 
plants,  except  trees,  shrubs  and  aphyllous  crypto- 
gams; but  it  is  generally  used,  by  many  at  least,  to 
mean  only  annuals  and  annual-stemmed  perennials; 
and  others  still  mean  by  them  only  such  plants  as 
are  supposed  to  [X)ssess  medicinal  properties.  For 
medicinal  purposes  herbs  should  be  cut  on  a  dry  day 
when  they  are  iu  flower,  and  spread  in  a  dry,  shady 
place.  The  medicinal  part,  when  dry,  may  be  pul- 
verized, passed  through  a  hair-sieve,  and  packed  in 
tin  boxes.  To  preserve  them  for  distillation  and  per- 
fumery, see  Flowers,  page  503. 

Herd,  a  number  of  grazing  animals  feeding  on  one 
pasture,  housed  on  one  farm,  or  congregated  under 
one  owner. 

Herding  is  the  taking  care  of  a  number  of  cattle, 
horses,  or  sheep  in  herds  or  flocks.  It  is  most  gener- 
ally resorted  to  iu  States  and  Territories  sparsely 
settled  and  noted  for  their  numerous  acres  of  wild 
grasses.  The  wild  and  nutritious  grasses  of  Texas, 
Kansas,  New  Mexico,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  California 
and  other  States  and  Territories,  together  with  their 
mild  climate,  are  the  great  inducements  which  the 
capitalists  accept  as  positive  assurance  for  the  safe 
and  profitable  investment  of  their  means  in  cattle  or 
herding  business.  A  large  majority  of  the  cattle 
herded  in  the  Southwestern  States  and  Territories  are 
the  "  Texas  cattle,"  elsewhere  described  in  this  work ; 
although  in  Colorado,  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  some  of 
the  Territories,  may  be  found  numerous  herds  of  Cali- 
fornia cattle.  Texas  may,  nevertheless,  be  considered 
as  the  cattle-supplying  State.  Many  thousands  of 
these  are  yearly  driven  from  Texas  north  into  Kansas, 
Colorado  and  Nebraska,  and  there  sold.  They  begin 
to  arrive  atx)ut  the  first  of  May  and  are  purchased  by 
parties  for  the  purfx^se  of  "herding"  and  increasing 
them  in  flesh  preparatory  for  the  market ;  yet  many 
of  them,  on  arriving  at  a  railroad,  are  immediately 
shipped  to  some  Eastern  market.  In  the  latter  case 
the  meat  is  poor  and  contains  none  of  the  juice  im- 
parted by  the  rich  and  nutritious  grasses  where  the 
cattle  are  herded. 

Before  Texas  cattle  are  started  on  the  drive,  the 
owner  is  compelled  to  brand  each  and  every  one  of 
them  with  what  is  known  as  a  road  brand.  This  is 
for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  the  cattle.  Their 
owners,  during  the  drive  north,  are  confined  to  certain 
limits,  regulated  by  legislative  enactment,  on  account 
of  a  contagious  disease  which  Texas  cattle  invariably 
impart  to  domestic  stock.  Those  who  purchase  for 
the  purpose  of  herding  and  increase  generally — in  fact 
hardly  without  an  exception — select  yearlings,  two- 
year-olds,  or  young  cows  with  calves.  Immediately 
on  "cutting  out  "  the  cattle  purchased  are  placed  in 
a  corral  and  the  brand  of  the  purchaser,  previously 
recorded,  put  on  them.  This  is  done  by  lassoing 
each  of  them  and  applying  a  red-hot  iron,  made  to 
represent  the  brand  of  the  owner,  to  a  certain  part  of 


the  animal,  and  held  there  until  the  hide  is  burnt  en- 
tirely through.  The  cattle  are  then  turned  loose  and 
driven  to  the  best  grass  by  men  called  "herders,"  and 
herded  until  fall.  Four  or  five  men  are  sufficient  to 
herd  from  two  to  three  thousand  cattle.  The 
herding  is  always  done  on  horseback;  and  it  is  a  fact 
well  known  to  the  Texas  herdsman  that  a  wild  Texas 
steer,  which  is  always  ready  to  run  a  man  down  and 
horn  him  when  on  foot,  is  perfectly  docile  when  the 
man  is  on  horseback.  To  an  inexperienced  man, 
herding  Texas  cattle  is  very  dangerous.  Often  the 
herd  is  stampeded  by  fright,  and  then  it  requires 
great  nerve  as  well  as  knowledge  to  prevent  them 
from  being  scattered  for  hundreds  of  miles.  There  is 
but  one  way  to  stop  the  stampede,  and  that  is  by  rid- 
ing, with  all  possible  speed,  until  you  are  ahead  of 
them,  when  you  must  continue  riding  in  the  same  way 
they  are  going  until  they  stop.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  herdsman  is  compelled  to  kill  the  leader  before 
the  herd  is  stopped  ;  therefore,  a  reason  for  the  "cow- 
boy" or  herdsman  always  having  a  pistol  hanging  to 
his  saddle.  Should  the  "cow-boy's  "  horse  stumble  or 
fall,  he  is  certain  to  be  run  over  by  the  herd.  Even 
this  is  not  certain  death  to  the  herdsman,  for  if  he  lie 
perfectly  still  the  cattle  will  either  jump  over  or  shy 
from  him  and  pass  on ;  yet  he  generally  gets  numer- 
ous bruises,  and  oftentimes  is  killed.  The  cattle  are 
herded,  kept  together,  until  the  fall,  when,  the  grass 
having  been  burnt  by  the  prairie  fires,  it  is  impossible 
to  find  a  place  with  sufficient  grass  to  supply  any  con- 
siderable number,  and  the  cattle  are  turned  loose  to 
find  their  own  sustenance.  Then  the  festive  "cow- 
boy" takes  his  vacation,  and  spends  his  accumulated 
wages  in  drinking  and  carousing  in  the  frontier 
towns. 

In  the  early  spring,  the  general  "round-up"  com- 
mences. Every  owner  of  cattle  who  has  a  recorded 
brand,  sends  a  number  of  men,  generally  two  to  four, 
to  the  different  States  and  Territories  to  assist  in  the 
collection  of  the  cattle.  These  men  scour  the  coun- 
try, and  collect  all  cattle  which  are  branded,  and  drive 
them  to  a  certain  point  previously  agreed  ujjon. 
When  they  are  all  collected,  then  commences  the 
work  of  "cutdngout,"  that  is,  separating.  Each  brand 
is  "cut  out"  by  itself  unril  the  brands  are  all  by  them- 
selves, and  each  owner  has  his  cattle.  The  young 
calves,  and  they  will  always  be  found  with  their  moth- 
ers, are  then  branded  with  the  owner's  brand,  and  the 
cattle  are  herded  on  green  grass,  as  before,  for  a  few 
months,  when  they  are  either  shipped  to  the  Eastern 
market  or  held  for  still  further  improvement  in  flesh. 
Texas  cattle  are  never  fed  at  any  rime,  and  acquire 
their  flesh  altogether  from  the  nutrition  contained  in 
the  wild  grasses ;  in  fact,  their  wild,  untamable  dis- 
lx)sitions  will  not  permit  their  prospering  in  small  en- 
closures, or  when  treated  as  domestic  cattle. 

The  herdingof  sheep  in  the  United  States  is  mostly 
confined  to  New  Mexico,  although  California,  Arizona 
and  portions  of  other  States  and  Territories  are  ex- 
tensively adapted  and  used  for  that  purpose.  Mexi- 
can sheep  are  purchased  in  New  Mexico  in  the  early 


662 


HERDSMAN— HICKOR  V. 


spring,  at  from  50  cents  to  $1.25,  and  driven  to  the 
States  and  Territories  for  the  same  reason  that  cattle 
are  driven,  namely,  improvement  and  increase.  The 
rapid  increase  of  sheep  is  inducing  many  of  our  fron- 
tier farmers,  where  wild  grass  and  good,  cool  water  are 
abundant,  to  invest  in  them  and  resort  to  herding. 
In  the  herding  of  sheep  it  is  necessary,  for  protection 
from  wolves  as  well  as  inclement  weather,  to  have  a 
corral,  in  which  the  sheep  should  be  placed  at  night. 
The  herd  is  turned  out  in  the  morning  and  driven  by 
the  herder  to  the  best  grass,  which  must  not  be  too 
far  away,  and  returned  to  the  corral  just  before  dark. 
The  Spanish  sheep  dog  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to 
a  half-dozen  men,  as  a  sheep  herder.  He  seems  to 
understand  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  herd  together, 
and  not  permitting  them  to  wander  away,  as  well  as 
their  safety  in  being  corraled  at  night.  There  is  no 
danger  in  the  herding  of  sheep  as  in  cattle,  neither  is 
it  so  laborious.  True,  there  are  small  herds  of  do- 
mestic cattle  and  sheep  herded  by  farmers  throughout 
the  United  States,  but  the  term  "herding"  is  more  ap- 
plicable to  the  cases  above  mentioned. 

Herdsman,  a  person  who  attends  a  herd  of  cattle. 
He  drives  them  to  their  pasture,  restrains  them  within 
certain  limits,  prevents  them  from  hurting  one  another, 
observes  their  condition  as  to  disease  or  health,  and 
exercises  a  general  care  over  them  during  the  period 
of  their  absence  from  the  farm  yard.  A  boy  or  girl  is 
usually  employed  to  attend  a  small  flock,  and  an 
elderly  man  a  larger  one.  But  since  the  enclosing  of 
lands  became  general,  herdsmen  of  any  kind  are 
seldom  required,  except  in  the  Western  States  and 
Territories,  where  it  is  resorted  to  quite  extensively. 
See  Herding. 

Herd's  Grass,  timothy,  in  New  England  and 
New  York,  and  red-top  in  Pennsylvania.      See  Grass. 

Hereford  (her'e-ford),  a  breed  of  cattle.  See 
page  200. 

Hermetically  Seal,  in  canning  fruit,  for  example, 
is  to  seal  air-tight. 

Hermaphrodite,  a  term  formerly  applied  exclu- 
sively to  signify  a  human  creature  possessed  of  the 
organs  of  both  sexes.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
other  animals  and  plants.  It  is  well  known  that  there 
is  no  such  a  thing  as  an  hermaphrodite  in  the  human 
species.  In  many  of  the  inferior  tribes  of  animals, 
the  male  and  female  parts  of  generation  are  found  to 
be  united  in  the  same  animal.  There  are  both  natural 
and  unnatural,  or  monstrous  hermaphrodites.  The 
natural  kind  belong  to  the  inferior  and  more  simple 
order  of  animals;  but  as  animals  become  more  com- 
plicated, and  each  part  is  confined  to  a  particular  use, 
a  separation  of  the  sexual  characteristics  takes  place 
and  they  are  found  united  only  in  some  particular 
cases.  In  the  horse,  ass,  sheep  and  cattle,  such 
instances  sometimes  occur.  In  the  case  of  cattle, 
when  a  cow  brings  forth  two  calves,  one  a  bull  and 
the  other  a  cow,  to  appearance,  the  latter,  in  most  in- 
stances, is  unfit  for  propagation.    See  the  article  Free- 


Martin.  Among  the  invertebral  animals,  such  as 
worms,  snails,  leeches,  etc.,  hermaphrodites  are  fre- 
quent. 

Hernia,  or  Hernial  Rupture  or  Burst,  a  tumor 
of  some  part  which  has  escaped  from  its  natural  place 
by  some  opening  and  projects  externally.  That  of 
the  abdomen  is  most  common,  and  consists  of  the 
protrusion  of  an  intestine  between  the  muscles. 
Hernia  is  said  to  be  '"strangulated"  when  the  pro- 
truded part  is  held  out  so  tightly  as  to  stop  its  proper 
function,  cause  swelling  and  great  pain.  All  cases  of 
hernia  require  the  services  of  a  conscientious  surgeon. 

Hessian  Fly,  a  two- winged  fly  destructive  to  wheat. 
It  has  pale-brown  or  red  eyes  and  black  feet,  wings 
blackish  or  tawny.  It  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  young 
wheat  plant;  maggots  are  hatched,  which  work  be- 
tween the  leaf  and  stalk,  lives  on  the  sap  and  destroys 
the  plant.  Late  sowing  and  burning  the  stubble  are 
methods  of  diminishing  the  number  of  this  pest,  which 
is  ver)'  destructive  some  seasons. 

The  Hessian  fly  is  so  called 
because  it  is  supj»sed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  the  United 
States  with  the  forage  brought 
by  the  Hessian  soldiers  of  the 
British  Army  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary war.  It  is  shown  by 
the  accompanying  engraving. 

Hieoough  (hik'  u  p),  or  Hickup. 
Swallow  a  mouthful    of  water, 
stopping  the   mouth   and   ears. 
Hessian  Fly.  Or,  take   anything   that   makes 

you  sneeze;  or,  3  drops  of  oil  of  cinnamon  on  a  lump 
of  sugar.  Standing  or  sitting  perfectly  still,  holding 
the  breath  as  if  frightened  andlistening  for  the  feeblest 
noise,  will  stop  most  cases  of  hickuping.  This  is  the 
ratianale  of  being  frightened  out  of  the  hickups. 

Hickory,  the  name  of  several  species  of  a  very 
valuable,  w  ell-known  tree.  The  most  popular  hard, 
small  hickory-nut  is  from  the  "shell-bark  hickory," 
so  called,  and  the  larger  nut  is  from  the  "Western," or 
"thick  shell-bark"  species.  The  pignut  and  the  but- 
ternut hickories,  and  the  pecan,  are  all  of  softer  wood, 
when  green,  and  the  nuts  are  all  soft-shelled. 

The  different  species  grow  in  a  variety  of  soils,  only 
the  pecan  in  wet  ones,  and  resemble  each  other  in  the 
quantity  of  the  timber  and  in  the  grain  and  quality  of 
their  wood.  In  the  qualities  of  hardness,  weight  and 
strength,  combined  with  elasticity,  it  is  unsurpassed. 
The  timber  until  thoroughly  seasoned,  or  if  ex]X)sed 
to  moisture,  is  peculiarly  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insect 
borers,  and  is  liable  to  decay  in  the  presence  of  heat 
and  moisture.  For  this  reason,  when  wanted  for 
timber,  it  is  immediately  peeled  when  cut,  and  sea- 
soned in  the  shade  as  quickly  as  ixjssible.  The  least 
valuable  species  for  timber  is  the  bitter-nut  hickory, 
and  the  most  valuable,  all  things  considered,  are  the 
shell-bark  and  the  thick  shell-bark.  The  second 
growth  of  pignut  hickory,  however,  is  considered  as 


HTDE—HIGHWA  Y. 


663 


being  superior  in  strength  and  toughness,  and  is  used 
for  axletrees  and  handles  for  tools.  The  several 
species  all  ripen  their  nuts  in  the  fall. 


llukory-IUirk  Borer.       (sSlytus   quadri-spinosus.) 

In  seasoning  hickory,  the  bark  should  be  peeled  off 
that  it  may  dry  and  harden  as  quickly  as  possible  on 
the  outside,  to  prevent  the  dei)redations  of  the  borer, 
illustrated  in  the  cut.  It  has  short  antenna  which 
terminate  enlarged  as  in  a  club;  the  length  is  one-fifth 
of  an  inch;  color  black,  with  brown  wing  cases.  The 
cut  at  I  shovvi  the  burrows  of  the  larvas  between  the 
bark  and  the  wood,  growing  wider  as  they  diverge 
from  the  line  where  the  eggs  are  deposited  ;  2,  another 
view  of  the  same,  showing  the  hole  made  by  the  exit 
of  the  beede ;  3,  beetle,  both  magnified  and  natural 
size;  4,  larvae,  the  same;  5,  pupa,  magnified.  The 
female  beetle,  says  Dr.  Cyrus  Thomas,  selecting  the 
trunk  or  larger  limb  of  a  hickory  tree,  bores  through 
the  bark  and  forms  a  vertical  chamber  next  to  the 
wood  froni  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  in  length,  on  each 
side  of  which  she  deposits  her  eggs,  varying  in  number 
from  20  to  50.  The  larvas,  when  hatched,  feed  on 
the  inner  bark,  each  one  forming  a  track  of  its  own, 
thus  forming  the  radiating  burrows  so  common  on  the 
under  side  of  the  bark  of  hickory  trees.  The  larva  is 
a  soft,  yellowish,  footless  grub,  much  like  the  larva  of 
some  of  the  curculios,  and  from  which  it  can  not 
easily  be  distinguished,  except  by  its  habits ;  it  is  very 
small,  not  exceeding  the  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length 
when  fully  grown.  The  eggs  are  deposited  during 
the  months  of  August  and  September,  and  the  beetle 
issues  about  the  latter  part  of  June  or  first  of  July. 
It  attacks  the  bitternut,  shell-bark  and  pignut  hickories, 
and  probably  the  pecan.  No  practical  remedy  is 
known,  nor  is  there  much  probability  of  any  extensive 


experiments  being  made  until  forest  timber  becomes 
more  valuable  than  it  is  now. 

Hickory  trees  cannot  well  bear  transplanting,  and 
they  should  therefore  be  raised  from  the  seed.  Keep 
the  nuts  over  winter  in  moist  earth  or  sand,  where 
they  will  net  be  subjected  to  alternate  freezing  or 
thawing,  and  in  the  spring  plant  two  or  three  together 
where  it  is  designed  one  should  stand,  and  afterwards 
remove  the  surplus  plants,  if  any.  Give  clean  culture 
until  the  trees  are  large  enough  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves. Start  the  plantation  with  the  trees  four  feet 
each  way,  and  thin  out  as  they  grow  up  until  they 
remain  32  feet  apart.  The  taller  and  straighter  the 
trees  desired,  the  longer  let  them  stand. 

Hide,  the  skin  of  a  cow,  an  ox,  a  horse,  or  any  other 
large  quadruped.  The  hides  of  catde  of  good  breeds 
are  thin,  movable,  mellow,  and  well-clothed  with  fine, 
soft  hair,  yet  not  so  loose  as  to  offer  no  resistance  to 
the  touch,  nor  so  thin  as  to  indicate  hardiness  of  con- 
stitution. See  the  articles  Cattle  and  Breeding.  A 
raw  or  green  hide,  in  commercial  language,  is  a  hide 
in  a  fresh  state,  or  when  taken  off  the  carcass ;  a  salted 
hide  is  one  which  has  been  dressed  with  alum,  salt- 
peter and  common  salt,  to  preserve  it  from  putrefac- 
tion; a -tanned  hide  is  a  salted  and  preserved  hide 
which  has  undergone  the  process  of  tanning;  and  a 
curried  hide  is  one  which  has  been  finally  dressed  by 
the  currier,  and  jxDssesses  all  the  characteristics  of 
leather. 

To  Cure  Green  Hides.  Lay  them  flat,  flesh 
side  up,  and  throw  \x\K>r\.  them  coarse  salt,  say  about 
15  ixjunds  of  salt  to  a  60  or  80-pound  hide;  in  i  2  to 
20  days  shake  the  salt  out  and  use  it  again. 

Hide-bound,  a  diseased  condition  of  the  skin  of 
horses  and  cattle.  The  hide  fails  to  possess  the  oily 
secretion  which  is  requisite  to  keep  it  soft  and  mellow; 
it  becomes  hard,  dry  and  unyielding ;  it  appears  as  if 
glued  firm  to  the  muscles  and  bones,  and  it  suffers 
such  a  refractoriness  of  the  minute  scales  of  its 
cuticle,  that  the  hair  is  irregularly  disposed,  and  forms 
a  rough,  ragged,  staring  coat.  Yet  hide-bound  is  not 
properly  a  disease  itself,  but  rather  the  symptom  of 
anyone  of  many  diseases.  It  results  from  grease,  farcy, 
founder,  chronic  cough,  worms,  prolonged  glanders, 
jxxar  diet,  all  sorts  of  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs, 
and  various  disorders  of  obscure  seat  or  ill-defined 
character.  The  grand  remedy  for  it,  of  course,  is  to 
attack  and  overthrow  the  disease  which  causes  it. 
But  when  that  disease  cannot -be  discovered,  or  even 
sometimes  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  main  treat- 
ment when  the  disease  is  quite  apparent,  a  few 
mashes,  a  little  physic,  an  antimonial  alterative  and 
regular  repeated  frictions  are  often  successful  in  re- 
moving hide-bound. 

Highway,  a  public  road,  or  road  which  any  person 
has  a  right  to  use,  whether  the  road  be  fit  only  for  foot 
passengers,  or  fit  also  for  wheeled  carriages.  Any 
road  which  has  been  used  by  the  public,  or  open  to  all 
persons,  during  a  certain  number  of  years  (diflerent  in 
different  States),  is  permanently  a  highway,  and  any 


664 


HIN'NY— HIVES. 


road  which  has  been  used  by  the  public  during  four 
or  five  years  may  continue  without  trespass  to  be  so 
used  until  it  is  formally  enclosed.  Public  roads  ac- 
quire the  name  of  highways  from  the  raised  causeways 
which  constitute  the  roads  of  the  Romans.  See  article 
Road. 

Hinny,  the  offspring  of  the  male  horse — stallion — 
and  the  female  ass.  The  mule  has  the  greater  ex- 
ternal resemblance  to  the  ass  ;•  so  has  the  hinny  the 
greater  external  resemblance  to  the  horse ;  and  a  more 
minute  examination  shows  that  the  mule,  not  only  in 
outward  fonn,  but  in  temper  and  characteristics,  has 
more  of  the  ass  in  his  nature — the  hiiiny  more  of  the 
horse.  It  is  in  a  considerable  degree  by  the  knowl- 
edge of  these  facts,  which  are  positive,  that  the  breeder 
is  led,  when  he  insists  that,  to  produce  the  greatest 
advantage  on  the  offspring,  the  excess  of  blood  and 
vital  energy  must  be  on  the  side  of  the  sire,  and  not 
on  that  of  the  dam;  since  he  finds  invariably  that 
from  the  jackass  and  the  mare,  whether  the  latter  be 
the  merest  dunghill  or  as  thorough-bred  as  Spiletta, 
the  mother  of  Eclipse,  springs  the  mule  of  the  ass 
type. 

The  mule  has  long  ears,  slightly  modified  and 
shortened  by  the  intermixture  of  the  horse ;  the  com- 
paratively hairless  tail :  the  narrow  quarters  and  thin 
thighs;  the  erect  mane,  the  elongated  head,  the  slen- 
der legs  and  narrow,  erect  hoofs,  and  the  voice  of  the 
ass.  The  hinny  has  a  smaller,  better  formed  head, 
the  flowing  mane  and  full  tail,  the  general  form,  the 
finer  coat,  larger  legs,  broader  feet,  and  the  voice  of 
the  horse.  What  would  at  first  appear  remarkable  is 
that  the  mule,  or  offspring  of  the  male  ass  and  mare, 
is  a  far  larger  animal  than  that  of  the  stallion  and 
female  ass;  and  not  only  that,  but  frequently  larger 
than  either  of  his  parents. 

The  hinny,  although  hardier,  more  patient,  more 
enduring  of  privation  and  scanty  fare  than  the  horse, 
is  infinitely  inferior  in  all  these  qualities  both  to  the 
ass  and  the  mule,  while  he  is  at  the  same  time  gentler, 
more  tractable,  and  nearer  the  horse  in  temper, — 
strong  arguments,  it  will  be  observed,  for  seeking  in- 
variably to  have  the  qualities  of  the  blood,  temper, 
courage,  spirit,  on  the  side  of  the  sire,  those  of  form 
and  size  on  that  of  the  dam. 

Both  the  mule  and  the  hinny  are  clearly  modified 
asses, — that  is  to  say,  they  have  both  more  in  their 
composition  of  the  ass  than  the  horse,  but  the  propor- 
tion of  that  tnore  depends  on  the  male,  and  not  on  the 
female  parent.  It  appears  that  the  vital  energy  and 
power  of  transmitting  organization  is  stronger  in  the 
ass  than  in  the  horse,  probably  because  he  is  entirely 
in-bred,  less  changed  by  domestication,  and  nearer  to 
his  natural  condition  than  the  more  cultivated  or 
highly  favored  animals. 

Hired  Help.  Every  farmer  who  has  to  employ 
help  wishes  to  have  a  good  hired  man.  He  desires 
that  the  wages  he  pays  shall  be  earned,  and  when  sure 
of  this  he  is  too  frequently  satisfied  with  his  help.  A 
man  that  works  upon  the  farm  is  not  a  mere  machine; 


he  has  a  moral  influence,  and  when  surrounded  by 
children  may  be  dear  at  any  price.  The  hired  man 
should  not  only  be  able  to  earn  his  wages,  but  also  to 
exert  a  good  influence  upon  the  young,  with  whom  he 
is  likely  to  be  more  or  less  associated.  Pay  good 
wages,  and  have  only  whole-souled,  honest,  upright 
men  upon  the  farm,  if  you  would  raise  the  best  crop 
that  the  farm  can  produce — a  family  of  noble  boys  and 
girls. 

The  following  general  rules  should  be  given  by  every 
farmer  to  his  hired  help,  and  insist  upon  their  adher- 
ing to  them: 

1.  Be  regular  and  uniform  in  hours  of  labor. 

2.  Do  every  operation  in  the  best  manner. 

3.  Finish  one  job  before  beginning  another. 

4.  Clean  every  tool  at  night  or  sooner  when  done 
with. 

5.  Bring  in  all  tools  and  machines  at  night. 

6.  Treat  all  animals  kindly  and  gently. 

7.  Never  talk  loudly  to  oxen  or  horses. 

8.  Study  neatness  in  everything  you  do. 

g.  Never  enter  the  house  with  muddy  boots. 

10.  Never  use  profane  language  or  get  in  a  passion. 

11.  Take  a  general  interest  in  the  success  of  the 
farm. 

12.  Study  to  improve  constantly  in  knowledge  and 
skill  in  farming. 

Those  employers  who  cannot  keep  their  hired  help 
very  long,  or  cannot  get  §pod  help,  are  lacking  in  their 
own  moral  qualifications  m  some  respect.  They  must 
surely  have  some  disagreeable  peculiarity  in  their 
character.  See  the  section  entitled  "To  the  Farmer 
Boy," page  258. 

Hit,  in  breeding,  an  instance  of  success. 

Hives,  an  eruption  common  to  young  persons,  con- 
sisting of  irregularly  shaped  patches  of  pimples,  which 
smart,  burn  or  itch.  These  blotches  rise  up  in  thick 
whelks,  irregular  in  shape,  from  the  size  of  a  ten-cent 
piece  to  several  inches  in  extent,  often  running  to- 
gether, of  a  florid  or  purplish  red  color,  and  attended 
with  intense  itching,  sringing,  or  burning  sensation, 
very  muchUke  that  produced  from  the  sring  of  nettles; 
— hence  the  name  of  nettle  rash.  It  usually  appears 
suddenly,  without  any  premonitory  symptoms,  and 
after  tormenting  the  patient  an  hour  or  two,  often  dis- 
appears as  suddenly  as  it  came,  though  it  frequently 
continues  all  night,  and  disappears  in  the  morning,  to 
return  again  at  night.  It  is  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  children  or  young  persons,  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  fifteen  years. 

Acetate  of  ammonia  will  generally  effect  a  cure ;  or 
salt  and  vinegar,  or  salt  water  alone.  Coxe's  hive 
syrup  has  been  popular  for  many  years,  but  as  it  is 
somewhat  poisonous,  a  doctor  should  be  called  before 
using  it.  A  simple  application  is  that  of  wheat  flour, 
freely  applied  and  rubbed  over  the  surface,  or  wher- 
ever the  eruptions  appear.  Therefore,  rub  the  parts 
freely  with  flour,  and  if  very  extensive,  apply  flour  to 
the  whole  body,  and  give  the  patient  freely  of  saff'ron 
tea ;  or  if  that  is  not  convenient,  give  sage  and  sassa,- 


HOARHOUND—HOLIDA  Y. 


66s 


fras  tea.  Then  follow,  as  soon  as  urgent  symptoms 
are  relieved,  with  cooling  physic,  once  a  day  for  several 
days  in  succession.  An  excellent  article  for  this  pur- 
pose is  cream  of  tartar  and  sulphur,  three  parts  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter,  mixed  with  molasses  until 
it  is  quite  thick,  giving  a  tea-spoonful  of  the  mixture 
two  or  three  times  a  day,  for  several  days. 

Attend  also  to  the  skin.  Give  the  patient  a  warm 
bath  every  evening,  or  a  sponge  bath,  by  washing  the 
whole  body  in  warm  saleratus  water.  Do  this  for  sev- 
eral evenings,  and  at  the  same  time  let  the  patient 
drink  a  little  sassafras  or  saffron  tea,  warm  or  cold, 
through  the  day.  Whenever  the  blotches  appear  ap- 
ply the  flour  freely. 

Hoarhound,  a  jilant  formerly  cultivated  in  every 
garden,  the  tea  or  decoction  of  the  leaves  being  used 
for  coughs  colds,  etc.  It  is  now  a  common  weed 
in  many  places. 

Hoarseness.  Wearing  a  wet  cloth  over  the  throat 
will  remedy  most  cases.  Patient  should  avoid  all  ex- 
jxjsure  to  "catching  cold,"  by  remaining  too  long  in 
rooms  of  confined  air,  etc.  A  good  herb  remedy  is 
the  following:  Take  i  drachm  of  freshly  scraped 
horse-radish  root,  boil  it  with  4  ounces  of  water  in  a 
close  vessel  for  3  hours,  and  make  it  into  sirup,  with 
double  its  quantity  of  sugar.  A  teaspoonful  to  be 
taken  several  times  a  day  ;  one  or  two  doses,  how- 
ever, sometimes  proves  effectual.  Or,  make  a  strong 
tea  of  horse-radish  and  yellow  dock,  sweeten  it  with 
honey  and  drink  it  freely ;  or,  take  four  ounces  of 
grated  fresh  horse-radish,  saturate  it  in  a  pint  of  good 
vinegar  over  night,  then  add  half  a  pint  of  honey, 
and  bring  it  to  the  boiling  ixjint ;  then  strain  and 
squeeze  out.  Dose,  i  or  2  teasixwnfuls  several  times 
a  day. 

Another  receipt  for  hoarseness  or  tickling  in  the 
throat  is  as  follows  :  Take  a  small  pinch  of  borax, 
powdered,  place  on  the  tongue,  let  it  slowly  dissolve 
and  run  down  the  throat.  Repeat  it  often.  It  is  also 
good  to  keep  the  throat  moist  at  night  and  prevent 
coughing. 

Hobble,  or  Hopple,  to  walk  lamely,  or  limp;  to 
fasten  the  legs  of  an  animal  loosely  together,  so  as  to 
impede  free  motion  ;  an  unequal,  halting  gait. 

Hock,  the  joint  of  the  lower  part  of  the  hind-leg 
of  a  horse,  an  ox  or  other  quadruped,  corresjXjnding 
somewhat  to  the  knee  of  the  fore-leg  of  the  same  ani- 
mal, and  to  the  ankle  of  the  human  being.  In 
the  horse  it  is  an  important  joint,  and  greatly  contrib- 
utes to  the  peculiarities  of  its  individual  conforma- 
tion, to  the  comparatively  high  or  low  value  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  is  frequently  the  seat  of  disease  and  of 
seeming  unaccountable  lameness. 

Hoe-cake,  a  coarse  cake  of  Indian  meal,  baked 
before  the  fire,  and  sometimes  on  a  hoe ;  a  johnny- 
cake. 

Hog:  see  Swine. 

Hog.   To  "hog"  the  mane  of  a  horse  is  to  partially 


clip  it  so  that  the  remaining  portion  projects  up  like 
the  sharp  ridge  of  bristles  on  a  hog's  back. 

Hogging  Down  corn,  to  turn  hogs  into  the  corn- 
field, at  any  time  after  the  ears  are  filled,  to  fatten 
themselves.  It  is  considered  a  practice  too  wasteful 
to  be  commended. 

Hogshead  (hog'zed),  a  measure  of  63  gallons;  any 
large  cask  of  indefinite  contents,  but  usually  contain- 
ing 100  to  140  gallons. 

Holiday  (hol'i-day),  originally  a  holy  day  ;  a  relig- 
ious anniversary;  next,  a  day  set  apart  in  honor  of 
some  person  or  in  commemoration  of  some  event; 
finally,  a  day  of  exemption  from  labor  and  of  recrea- 
tion and  gayety.  Thus,  utility  has  secularized  what 
was  once  exclusively  religious.  A  "legal  holiday"  is 
one  in  which  legal  processes,  except  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  good  order,  cannot  be  enforced.  They 
are,  Christmas,  New  Year's  Day,  February  2  2d  (the 
anniversary  of  George  Washington's  birthday),  the 
Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving,  and  every  day  pro- 
claimed by  the  Government  as  a  day  of  prayer,  fast- 
ing, thanksgiving,  jubilation,  etc.  Some  persons  ad- 
vocate an  increase  in  the  number  of  general  holidays, 
and  laboring  men  in  the  cities  often  have  a  half  holi- 
day, or  less  time,  given  them  weekly  by  their  employ- 
ers. Exclusively  from  the  standpoint  of  health,  one 
should  rest  when  he  is  tired,  with  no  reference  to 
days  or  hours;  the  holiday,  therefore,  is  practically 
regarded  more  as  a  day  for  social  intercourse  and 
gayety  than  as  a  day  simply  of  rest.  The  ancient 
Jews  in  Palestine  let  their  land  rest  every  seventh 
year,  to  allow  it  to  recover  its  fertility ;  but  the  Gentiles 
attributed  the  custom  to  sheer  laziness. 

Forthe  infomiation  of  country  school-teachers,  we 
will  say  here  that  they  will  be  safe  in  dismissing  school 
on  the  days  mentioned  above,  without  consulting  the 
directors,  and  that  they  will  not  have  to  "make  up" 
for  them,  without  a  specific  contract  to  that  effect. 

While,  perhaps,  there  are  not  a  sufficient  number 
of  National  holidays,  each  family  can  have  its  own 
days  of  rest  and  recreation.  Birthdays  should 
be  observed ;  for  the  children  these  days  should  be 
made  happy  by  gifts  and  by  a  pleasant  party,  or  by  a 
pleasure-ride  to  some  place  which  they  specially  de- 
sire to  visit.  Older  people  should  take  these  days  for 
thought,  rest  and  recreation.  It  is  fitting  that  these 
jxjints  of  time  should  be  observed,  and  that,  as  the 
years  pass  by,  and  age  gradually  but  surely  increases, 
the  individual  should  recognize  the  fact  that  life  is 
passing,  and  the  time  which  he  is  to  spend  upon  the 
earth  is  rapidly  diminishing.  They  need  not  be  sad 
days,  but  they  should  be  remembered  and  suitably 
observed. 

Parents  should  teach  their  children  to  remember 
these  days.  The  custom  which  some  writers  advo- 
cated long  ago,  of  planting  a  tree  to  commemorate 
the  birth  of  each  child,  is  to  be  strongly  commended. 
As  soon  after  a  child  is  born  as  the  proper  season  for 
transplanting  arrives,  let  a  fine  tree,  oak,  elm,  maple, 


666 


HOLLOW— HOMINY  MILL. 


evergreen  or  one  of  similar  nature,  be  planted  in  one 
of  the  yards  near  the  house.  This  tree  should  be  the 
special  care  of  the  child  in  whose  honor  it  was  put 
out,  and  as  they  grow  in  size  and  age  the  child  will 
take  a  deep  interest  in  the  tree,  and  will  soon  come  to 
regard  it  with  feelings  of  affection. 

Marriage  anniversaries  should  also  be  observed  by 
the  married  members  of  a  family.  They  may  well  be 
celebrated  by  social  unions  of  the  family  circles  to 
which  the  married  pair  originally  belonged.  When 
this  is  impracticable,  a  visit  to  some  near  relatives,  a 
tea-party  or  a  pleasure  trip  will  furnish  the  means  for 
the  appropriate  observance  of  the  day. 


Fig.  \.—WrigktU  Hominy  Milt. 

Hollow.  "  Hollow-eye,"  an  eye  sunk  in  its  orbit; 
"  hollow-hom,"  leanness  and  bloodlessness,  a  disease 
of  cattle  (see  Cattle) ;  "hollow  newel," an  opening  in 
the  center  of  a  winding  staircase  in  place  of  a  newel- 
post,  the  stairs  being  supjwrted  by  the  walls  at  the 
outer  end;  "  hollow-ware,"  a  general  trade  name  for 
hollow  articles,  as  cast-iron  kitchen  utensils,  earthen- 
ware and  the  like. 

Holly,  an  evergreen  tree,  with  a  fine-grained,  heavy, 
wiiite  wood,  much  used  to  adorn  churches  and  houses 
at  Christmas  time.  The  bark  is  used  to  reduce 
fevers,  and  the  berries  are  violently  purgative  and 
emetic.  The  berries  turn  yellow  or  red  about  No- 
vember I  St.  This  is  the  European  species,  which  is  best 


known.  The  American  holly  is  native  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  United  States,  and  is  more  hardy  than 
the  other.  The  tree,  and  especially  the  berries,  are 
exceedingly  beautiful. 

Hollyhock,  a  tall,  old-fashioned  plant  of  the  mal- 
low family,  producing  large,  fragrant  flowers.  It  is 
well  known. 

Holstein  Cattle,  a  breed  of  Dutch  cattle.  See 
page  204. 

Home  Adornment.  Under  the  head  of  Land- 
scape Gardening,  Lawn  and  Residence,  we  fully  treat 
of  outside  ornamentation,  and  here  we  would  fully 
treat  of  parlor  and  chamber  ornamentation 
had  we  several  hundred  pages  of  space;  for 
it  would  require  as  much  as  that  to  present 
only  a  glimpse  of  the  ingenuities  and  beau- 
ties found  in  the  homes  of  civilization.  The 
class  of  persons  wliom  we  particularly  desire 
to  read  this  paragraph  are  the  comparatively 
idle  girls  living  in  large  but  somewhat  unfurn- 
ished homes,  with  blank  walls  and  ceilings. 
How  much  scope  is  there  for  their  ingenuity 
and  labor,  devising  and  making  brackets,  wall 
pockets,  flower  boxes  and  vases,  hanging 
baskets,  fountains,  imitations  of  birds  and 
animals,  illusions,  what-nots  and  an  infinite 
variety  of  fancy  articles.  There  is  scarcely  a 
girl  living  Init  that  would  attain  a  sweeter  dis- 
position, and  a  better  disciplined  mind  by  hav- 
ing something  "on  hand"  to  do  in  adding  to 
the  beauties  and  attractions  of  home.  We 
presume  the  Creator  of  this  flowery  world 
would  have  no  objection,  even  to  the  most 
pious,  making  this  world  as  much  like  heaven 
as  possible.  Heaven  does  not  consist  exclu- 
sively of  psalm-singing,  but  of  everything 
^  beautiful  and  elevating ;  and  it  is  even  our 
'^^  duty  to  make  everything  in  this  world  serve 
as  heavenly  a  purpose  as  jx)ssible. 

The  best  method  of  learning  what  to  make 
for  home  adornment  is  to  observe  what  they 
may  have  at  the  well  furnished  homes  you 
may  visit,  and  the  best  way  to  learn  how  to 
make  them  is  to  be  inquisitive  about  them 
when  you  are  there. 

Homestead  Law :  see  Land. 

Hominy,  corn,  usually  of  the  smaller  white  flint 
kinds,  bruised  in  a  hominy  mill  or  a  mortar  until  the 
external  covering  is  removed  and  sifted.  Samp  is  com 
broken  coarsely  in  a  mill.  But  the  term  "  hominy  "  is 
often  applied  to  "  hulled  corn,"  which  see. 

Hominy  Mill.  The  wholesomeness  of  hominy  as 
an  article  of  diet,  its  nutritious  quality,  and  its  palat- 
able taste  when  properly  prepared,  have  now  become 
so  generally  recognized  as  to  multiply  ten-fold  the  de- 
mand for  this  product  which  existed  a  few  years  since. 
One  bushel  of  corn  wrill  make  from  28  to  30  pounds 
of  hominy.      The  several  manifest  advantages  of 


HONE— HONEY. 


667 


Wright's  pearl  hominy  mill  (Fig.  i)  over  older  patterns 
are  in  its  simplicity  of  construction  and  operation, 
economy  of  power,  and  avoidance  of  dirt  and  dust. 
It  is  a  horizontal  mill,  occupying  a  space  of  but  three 
by  four  feet  square,  and  has  a  regular  feed  and  dis- 
charge. The  grain  requires  no  soaking  or  steaming, 
but  can  be  worked  dry  as  well  as  when  damp.  The 
hominy  and  feed  are  separated  before  leaving  the  mill, 
the  hominy  running  out  on  a  shaking  screen  where 
the  fine  is  separated  from  the  coarse,  leaving  it  in  per- 
fect condition  for  the  market.  The  feed  is  depo  sited 
on  the  other  side. 

The    Eclipse  mill    represented    below    produces 


r 


Fig.    ^.—  liclipst    Hominy  Mill. 

a  nice  and  even  article  of  hominy,  fully  equal  to  any 
mill  in  the  market.  It  separates  the  hearts,  bran  and 
meal  from  the  hominy,  making  it  a  good  and  mer- 
chantable article.  It  requires  900  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  motion  must  not  check  up  when  the 
charge  is  let  into  the  mill.  The  largest  size  will  make 
from  20  to  30  barrels  of  merchantable  hominy  in  ten 
hours.  It  requires  about  eight-horse  power,  and  a  12- 
inch  pully,  with  eight  and  a  half  inch  face.  Put  in 
three-fourths  of  a  bushel  for  a  charge.  The  corn 
should  be  dry.  This  mill  requires  a  space  seven  feet 
two  inches  by  three  feet  four  inches. 

To  Cook  Hominv,  take  3  cups  of  water  to  i  cup  of 
hominy,  boil  slowly  for  ^  of  an  hour ;  the  longer  it 
boils  the  better  it  is ;  then  add  ^^  teacupful  of  sweet 
milk  to  a  cup  of  hominy,  and  boil  10  minutes  more  ; 
stir  it  frequently  while  boiling. 

Hominv  Croquettes.  To  i  cupful  of  cold  boiled 
hominy  (small  grained)  add  i  tablespoonful  melted 


butter  and  stir  hard,  moistening,  by  degrees,  with  i 
cupful  of  milk,  beating  to  a  sriff,  light  paste  ;  then  put 
in  I  teaspoonful  of  white  sugar,  and  lastly,  a  well- 
beaten  egg.  Roll  into  oval  balls  with  floured  hands, 
dip  in  beaten  eggs,  then  cracker-crumbs,  and  fry  in 
hot  lard. 

Baked  Hominv.  To  i  cup  of  boiled  hominy  (small 
kind)  allow  two  cups  of  milk,  i  heaping  teaspoonful  of 
butter,  I  tablespoonful  of  white  sugar,  a  little  salt,  and 
3  eggs ;  beat  the  eggs  very  light,  yolks  and  white  sep- 
arately; work  the  yolks  first  into  the  hominy,  alter- 
nately with  the  melted  butter ;  when  thoroughly  mixed, 
put  in  sugar  and  salt  and  go  on  beating  while  you 
soften  the  batter  gradually  with  milk; 
be  careful  to  leave  no  lumps  in  the 
hominy ;  stir  in  the  whites,  and  bake 
in  a  buttered  pudding  dish  until  light, 
firm  and  delicately  browned. 

Hone,  a  stone  of  fine  grit,  used  for 
sharpening  instruments  that  require 
a  fine  edge,  and  particularly  for  set- 
ting razors.  Imitation  hones  are  com- 
mon nowadays,  which  seem  to  serve 
the  purpose  very  well.  Printed  in- 
structions accompany  each  article 
sold,  whether  hone  or  strap.  See 
Whetstone. 

Honey,  fresh  from  the  comb,  is 
clear,  translucent,  slightly  amber-col- 
ored, and  viscous,  becoming  granular 
in  time,  with  whitish,  transparent  crys- 
tals. In  taste  and  smell,  it  is  sweet, 
agreeable  and  aromatic.  It  should 
not  irritate  the  throat  when  eaten, 
and  its  peculiar  flavor  should  be  so 
decided  that  it  can  be  readily  detected 
when  mixed  with  other  arucles  of  diet. 
Honey  derived  from  the  blossoms 
of  plants  of  the  mustard  family  granu- 
lates or  crystallizes  speedily — often, 
indeed,  while  yet  in  the  comb  before 
removal  from  the  hive  ;  while  that  from  plants  of  the 
mint  family  and  from  fruit  trees  in  general  maintains  its 
original  condition  unchanged  for  several  months  after 
being  extracted  from  the  comb.  Honey  produced  in 
northern  chmates  likewise  crystallizes  sooner  than  that 
from  southern  countries. 

Crystalline  sugar,  analogous  to  grape  sugar,  maybe 
obtained  by  treating  granular  honey  with  a  small 
quantity  of  alcohol,  which,  when  expressed,  takes 
along  with  it  the  other  ingredients,  leaving  the  crys- 
tals nearly  untouched.  The  same  end  may  be  at- 
tained by  mehing  the  honey,  saturadng  its  acid  with 
carbonate  of  calcium,  filtering  the  liquid,  then  setting 
it  aside  to  crystallize,  and  washing  the  crystals  with 
alcohol.  Inferior  honey  usually  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  uncrystallizable  sugar  and  vegetable  acid. 
When  diluted  with  water,  honey  undergoes  the  vari- 
ous fermentations,  and  in  very  warm  weather  an 
inferior  grade  of  honey  will  sometimes  undergo  a 


668 


HONEY. 


change  acquiring  a  |)ungcnt  taste  and  a  deeper  color. 
The  usual  adulterations  of  honey  are  with  various 
forms  of  starch,  as  those  of  the  jwlato  and  wheat,  and 
with  starch  and  cane  sugars.  The  starch  is  added  to 
whiten  dark  honey,  and  to  correct  the  acidulous  taste 
which  old  honey  is  apt  to  acquire,  as  well  as  for  the 
sake  of  increased  weight.  The  presence  of  starch 
may  be  readily  detected  by  the  usual  iodine  test. 
Honey  is  now  rarely  adulterated  by  the  old  methods, 
in  this  country  at  least,  as,  owing  to  the  large  supply, 
the  conditions  that  once  made  sophistication  profit- 
able now  no  longer  exist.  Since  the  manufacture  of 
glucose  has  been  so  greatly  extended  of  late  years, 
this  article  supersedes  nearly  all  others  in  the  adul- 
teration of  honey.  Indeed,  what  may  claim  in  the 
market  to  be  "  pure  extracted  honey,"  may  be  nearly 
all  glucose,  with  a  little  honey  to  flavor  it.  A  thin 
strip  of  comb  honey  is  generally  placed  in  the  mass, 
to  aid  the  deception.  Honey  adulterated  with  glucose 
will  not  granulate.  The  best  rule  in  purchasing  honey 
is  to  select  that  which  is  granulated,  or  "  candied," 
as  some  express  it.  Honey,  as  well  as  molasses  and 
sugar,  are  sometimes  made  even  from  scrapings  from 
the  floors  of  sugar  houses  and  groceries. 

M.^NAGEMENT  OF  CoMB  HoNEV.  Comb  honey  in 
boxes  should  be  taken  from  the  hive  as  soon  as  it 
is  finished,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  possible.  No  apiar- 
ist can  expect  to  have  his  honey  sell  for  the  highest 
market  jjrice  if  he  permits  it  to  stay  in  the  hives  for 
weeks  after  it  has  been  sealed  over,  allowing  the  bees 
to  give  the  combs  a  dirty  yellow  color,  by  constantly 
traveling  over  it.  All  box-honey  producers  know  that 
there  always  will  be  cells  next  to  the  box  that  are 
partly  filled  with  honey,  but  not  sealed  over,  and 
when  taken  from  the  hive,  if  the  box  is  turned  over 
sidewise,  the  honey,  being  thin,  will  run  out,  making 
sticky  work.  The  remedy  for  this  is  a  small,  warm 
room.  Bees  evaporate  their  honey  by  heat,  and 
therefore,  if  we  expect  to  keep  our  honey  in  good  con- 
dition for  market,  we  must  keep  it  as  the  bees  do,  in 
such  a  [xjsition  that  it  will  grow  thicker,  instead  of 
thinner  all  fhe  while.  The  honey  room  should  have 
a  window  in  it  and  the  south  side  should  be  painted 
a  dark  color,  to  draw  the  heat.  While  the  honey  is 
in  it  the  mercury  should  stand  from  80°  to  90' 
Fahr.,  and  when  crated  for  market,  you  can  tip  the 
lx)xes  as  much  as  desired  and  no  honey  will  drip, 
neither  will  any  of  the  combs  have  a  watery  aj)pear- 
ance :  all  will  be  bright,  dry  and  clean. 

Extracted  Honey  is  obtained  by  the  frames  be- 
ing uncapped  and  placed  in  the  basket  or  frame- 
holder  of  a  honey  extractor,  which  being  attached 
to  a  single  rod  in  a  large  can  and  revolved,  the  cen- 
trifugal force  throws  out  the  pure  honey  from  the 
combs,  which  runs  down  the  side  of  the  can  and  is 
drawn  off"  and  placed  in  jars  or  some  other  desirable 
receptacle.  Extracted  honey  is  the  pure  liquid  minus 
the  comb. 

Honey   must   be   "uncapped"  before   extracting; 
therefore  a  good  honey  knife  is  a  necessity. 
Honey  can  be  extracted,  if  carefully  done,  without 


the  least  injury  to  the  bees  or  the  comb ;  the  latter 
may  be  replaced  into  the  hive,  and  such  have  often 
been  refilled  by  the  bees  within  three  or  four  days. 

AVhen  the  breeding  apartment  becomes  so  full  of 
honey  that  the  queen  has  no  room  to  lay,  to  extract  it 
is  a  necessity.  By  the  extractor,  too,  all  the  honey 
may  be  taken  from  partly-filled  boxes — a  small  comb- 
holder  being  furnished  with  each  extractor  for  that 
purjxjse,  as  well  as  extracting  from  pieces  when  trans- 
ferring. By  its  judicious  use,  many  jxiunds  of  honey 
can  be  obtained  that  would  not  be  deix)sited  in  boxes 
by  the  bees.  Empty  combs  in  the  spring  are  invalu- 
able, and  in  the  fall  there  are  usually  many  surplus 
brood  combs.  By  extracting  the  honey  from  these 
and  carefully  putting  them  away,  you  not  only  have 
the  honey  for  use  or  sale,  but  also  the  much  desired 
combs  in  the  spring.  Inexperienced  bee-keepers  are 
sometimes  tempted  to  extract  too  closely,  and  thus 
ruin  the  colony.  The  extractor  should  only  be  used 
when  there  is  a  rapid  storing  of  honey,  and  the  outside 
frames  of  comb  are  nearly  capped  over.  Capped 
brood  will  not  be  injured,  but  there  is  danger  in  using 
the  extractor  when  the  brood  is  uncapped.  To  pre- 
vent swarming,  the  honey  extractor  is  successfully 
used  by  some.  Its  frecpient  use  will  usually  control  it. 
Many  swarms  and  large  yields  of  honey  will  not  be 
obtained  during  the  same  season.  The  one  will  be  at 
the  expense  of  the  other.  Honey  extracted  before  it 
is  capped  is  liable  to  become  sour.  It  needs  "ripen- 
ing;" if  it  be  "well  cured,"  and  placed  in  a  tight 
vessel,  it  will  keep  well. 

Considerable  confusion  has  resulted  from  consum- 
ers thinking  "extract"  and  "strained"  honey  the 
same  thing.  The  former  is  obtained  as  already  de- 
scribed, and  the  latter  is  the  result  of  hanging  up 
combs,  used  in  the  breeding  apartment  of  the  hive, 
and  pieces  of  comb  containing  bee-bread,  dead  bees, 
etc.,  and  catching  what  passes  through  the  cloth. 
That  is  "  strained  honey,"  and  is  quite  different  from 
the  pure  honey  extracted  as  before  described,  still 
having  the  flavor  of  the  bloom  from  wliich  it  came. 

Artificial  Honey  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Com- 
mon sugar,  4  ixjunds  ;  water,  1  pint ;  let  them  come  to 
a  boil,  and  skim;  then  add  pulverized  alum,  i^  ounce; 
remove  from  the  fire  and  stir  in  cream-of-tartar,  J^ 
ounce;  and  water  or  extract  of  rose,  i  tables]x)onful,  . 
and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Another :  Good  common  sugar,  5  pounds ;  water, 
I  quart;  gradually  bring  it  to  a  boil,  skimming  well; 
when  cool,  add  i  pound  of  bees'  honey  and  4  drops  of 
peppermint  essence.  For  a  better  article,  use  white 
sugar  and  ]4  pint  less  water  and  l4  ixjund  more  honey. 
If  it  is  desired  to  give  it  the  ropy  appearance  of  bees' 
honey,  put  into  the  water  ]^  ounce  of  alum. 

Honey  from  Tomatoes,  i  peck  ripe  tomatoes; 
peel,  and  cook  till  fine,  in  plenty  of  water,  then  strain. 
To  I  pint  of  juice  add  i  pint  of  sugar,  let  boil  to  a 
jelly;  while  boiling  put  in  one  dozen  green  peach  leaves 
to  give  it  flavor,  and  a  shade  of  honey.  Do  not  leave 
them  too  long,  as  it  would  be  too  dark,  and  then  flavor 
with  lemon  or  vanilla. 


HONE  Y-COMB—HOP. 


669 


Honey-Comb,  a  waxen  structure  full  of  cells, 
framed  by  the  bees,  to  deixjsit  their  honey  in.  The 
construction  of  the  honey-comb  seems  one  of  the  most 
surprising  parts  of  the  work  of  insects .  The  mate- 
rials of  which  it  is  composed,  which,  though  evidently 
collected  from  the  flowers  of  plants,  yet  do  not,  that 
we  know  of,  exist  in  them  in  that  form,  have  given 
great  cause  of  speculation.  The  wax  is  secreted,  by 
the  peculiar  organization  of  the  insect,  in  the  form  of 
small  and  thin  oval  scales,  in  the  incisures  or  folds  of 
the  abdomen.  The  regular  structure  of  the  comb  is 
also  equally  wonderful.  The  comb  is  composed  of  a 
number  of  cells,  most  of  them  exactly  hexagonal,  con- 
structed with  geometrical  accuracy,  and  arranged  in 
two  layers,  placed  end  to  end,  the  opening  of  the  dif- 
ferent layers  being  in  opposite  directions.  The  comb 
is  placed  vertically ;  the  cells,  therefore,  are  horizontal. 
The  distance  of  the  different  cakes  of  comb  from  each 
other  is  sufficient  for  two  bees  to  pass  readily  between 
them,  and  they  are  here  and  there  pierced  with  pas- 
sages affording  a  communication  between  all  parts  of 
tlie  hive.  The  construction  of  the  cells  is  such  as  to 
afford  the  greatest  possible  number  in  a  given  space, 
with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  material.  The 
base  of  each  cell  is  composed  of  three  rhomboidal 
pieces,  placed  so  as  to  form  a  pyramidal  concavity. 
Thus  the  base  of  a  cell  on  one  side  of  a  comb  is  com- 
posed of  part  of  the  bases  of  three  on  the  other.  The 
angles  of  the  base  are  found,  by  the  most  accurate 
geometrical  calculation,  to  be  those  by  which  the  least 
possible  expense  was  required  to  produce  a  given  de- 
gree of  strength.  The  sides  of  the  cells  are  all  much 
thinner  than  the  finest  paper;  and  yet  they  are  so 
strengthened  by  their  disjxjsition,  that  they  are  able  to 
resist  all  the  motions  of  the  bee  within  them.  The 
effort  of  their  thrusting  their  bodies  into  their  cells 
would  be  the  bursting  of  those  cells  at  the  top,  were 
not  these  well  guarded.  But  to  prevent  this,  the  crea- 
tures extend  a  cord,  or  roll  of  wax,  round  the  verge  of 
every  cell,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  scarcely  jxjssi- 
ble  they  should  split  in  that  jmrticular  part.  This 
cord,  or  roll,  is  at  least  three  times  as  thick  as  the 
sides  of  the  cell,  and  is  even  much  thicker  at  the  an- 
gle? of  the  cells  than  elsewhere,  so  that  the  aperture 
of  each  cell  is  not  regularly  hexagonal,  though  its  in- 
ner cavity  be  perfectly  so.  The  cells  which  have 
served  or  are  to  serve  for  the  habitation  of  the  worms 
of  the  common  and  one  of  the  male  bees,  are  often 
made  also,  at  other  times,  the  receptacles  of  honey ; 
but  though  these  are  differently  made  to  serve  either 
use,  there  are  others  destined  only  to  receive  honey. 
The  celerity  with  which  a  swarm  of  bees,  received  into 
a  hive  where  they  find  themselves  lodged  to  their 
minds,  bring  their  works  of  the  comb  to  perfection,  is 
amazing.  There  are  vast  numbers  at  work  all  at  once; 
and  that  they  may  not  incommode  one  another,  they 
do  not  work  upon  the  first  comb  unril  it  is  finished, 
but,  when  the  foundation  of  that  is  laid,  they  go  to 
work  upon  another,  so  that  there  are  often  the  begin- 
nings of  three  or  four  stories  made  at  once,  and  so 
many  divisions  allotted  to  carrying  on  the  work  of  each. 


Honey-Dew,  a  sweet  liquid  or  viscid  substance 
sometimes  found  on  the  leaves  of  trees  and  other 
plants  in  small  drops  Hke  dew.  Two  substances  have 
been  called  by  this  name:  one  secreted  from  the  plants, 
and  the  other  deposited  by  a  small  insect.  It  is  prob- 
able, however,  that  both  substances  are  essentially 
one,  being  abnormal  exudations  from  the  plant  caused 
by  insects,  microscopic  and  larger,  puncturing  it.  Bees 
feed  upon  honey-dew  with  great  avidity. 

Honeysuckle,  a  shrub,  much  admired  for  the 
beauty  or  fragrance  of  its  flowers.  There  are  several 
species.  The  most  common  kind  growing  wild  in  the 
Northern  States  is  called  the  American  honeysuckle, 
or  "woodbine."  The  true  woodbine,  however,  is  a 
European  variety,  bearing  yellow  flowers  and  red  ber- 
ries. The  trumpet  honeysuckle  has  bright  scarlet 
flowers,  which  are  yellowish  within  and  scentless.  The 
name  "  honeysuckle  "  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  children  sucking  the  flower  to  obtain  the 
drop  of  sweet  juice  at  the  base. 

Hoof,  the  horny  portion  of  the  foot  of  animals.  See 
Cattle,  Horse,  etc. 

Hoof-bound,  having  a  dryness  and  contraction  of 
the  hoof,  which  occasions  pain  and  lameness. 

Hooping- Cough,  a  kind  of  contagious  cough,  at- 
tended with  a  shrill  whoop,  and  is  more  common 
among  children.  The  older  the  patient  is,  the  lighter 
the  disease.  This  affection  is  easily  recognized.  Treat- 
ment— Hygienic  :  Keep  the  child  from  all  exposure, 
but  do  not  confine  him  to  a  close,  warm  room,  even 
for  five  minutes;  do  not  wrap  cloths  around  the  throat, 
or  dose  with  any  medicines  whatever,  not  even  herb 
teas;  keep  the  diet  steady,  and  consisting  of  only  the 
easily  digesting  aliments  ;  diet  rather  lightly  ;  keep  the 
extremities  warm;  and  give  hand  friction  twice  a  day. 
Do  not  permit  the  case  to  expose  'bther  children. 
Herbal:  Give  lobelia,  in  slightly  nauseating  doses, 
once  in  two  or  three  hours.  Sweetening  the  dose  is 
beneficial,  and  the  drug  may  be  either  in  substance, 
infusion  or  tincture.  "  Oxymel  of  lobelia  "  is  the  best 
preparation. 

A?wf/ier  :  Onions  and  garlic,  sliced,  of  each,  i  gill ; 
sweet  oil,  i  gill;  stew  them  in  the  oil,  in  a  covered 
dish,  to  obtain  the  juices;  then  strain  and  add  honey, 
I  gill ;  paregoric  and  spirits  of  camphor,  of  each,  % 
ounce;  bottle  and  cork  tight  for  use.  Dose,  for  a 
child  of  2  or  3  years,  a  tea-spoon  3  or  4  times  daily, 
or  whenever  the  cough  is  troublesome,  increasing  or 
lessening,  according  to  age. 

Another  :  Drink  freely  of  a  tea  of  red-clover  blos- 
soms, either  green  or  dry.  This  is  the  best  medica- 
tion of  all. 

Hoove,  Hoven,  or  Blown,  is  an  extremely  flatulent 
distension  of  the  rumen,  paunch,  or  first  stomach  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  It  is  accompanied  with  excessive 
pain,  and  if  not  soon  reduced  it  speedily  proves  fatal. 
See  page  230,  and  article  on  Sheep. 

Hop,  a  hardy,  perennial-rooted,  twining  plant.  Its 
popular  name  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  Saxon  word 


670 


HOP. 


^(?^/a«,  signifying  "to  climb."  The  principal  use  of 
hops  is  in  the  manufacture  of  beer,  and  it  will  be 
many  years  before  they  will  be  superseded,  if  ever. 
The  importance  of  this  crop  compels  us  to  give  some 
details  as  to  their 

Cultivation.  Very  rich  land  is  required.  If  it 
has  been  imjKJverished,  renovation  by  fresh  barnyard 
manures  and  alkaline  composts  will  be  necessary. 
After  a  plantation  is  started,  manuring  is  done  in 
winter  upon  the  hills,  and  when  in  the  spring  the  run- 
ners are  dug  up  for  sets,  the  manure  is  dug  in  around 
the  outside  of  the  roots  just  where  the  young  rootlets 
are  starting.  You  might  manure  annually  if  you  have 
sufficient  manure.  Plow  deeply,  9  to  12  inches,  and 
pulverize  well.  Mark  out  the  ground  at  intervals  of 
6  or  8  feet  each  way,  and  plant  at  the  crossing  of  the 
furrows.  If  the  ground  is  not  sufficiently  rich,  place 
three  or  four  shovels  of  manure  in  each  hill.  The 
planting  is  done  by  taking  new  roots  from  the  old 
hills.  Each  root  should  be  6  or  8  inches  long  and 
contain  two  or  more  eyes,  one  to  form  the  root  and 
one  the  vine.  Six  plants  may  be  in  each  hill.  The 
first  season  the  intervening  ground  may  be  planted 
with  potatoes  or  some  low  crop.  No  poles  will  be  re- 
quired the  first  year.  Hoe  the  plants  and  keep  them 
clean  of  weeds.  The  second  year  they  should  be 
supplied  with  tough  poles  12  to  15  feet  long,  two  or 
three  to  each  hill.  When  the  plants  have  reached  a 
length  of  3  or  4  feet,  train  them  to  the  poles,  winding 
them  in  the  direction  of  the  sun's  course,  that  is,  head- 
ing west  on  the  south  side  of  the  pole.  Tie  them 
gently  in  this  posidon  by  cotton  twine,  rushes,  tough 
grass  or  woolen  yarn.  Go  through  the  plantation 
every  day  and  tie  up  again  such  as  may  have  slipped 
out  of  place.  Another  method  requires  fewer  poles 
and  the  use  of  strong  twine  stretching  from  one  pole 
to  another;  but  this  is  more  laborious. 

A  slightly  different  plan,  more  in  detail,  is  this : 
Cheap  stakes  6  or  8  feet  high  are  used,  to  which  the 
growing  vines  are  tied.  Along  the  ends,  half-way  be- 
tween the  rows,  oak  posts  rising  12  feet  above  the  sur- 
face are  set  and  strongly  braced.  From  the  tops  of 
these  are  stretched,  between  the  rows.  No.  9  wires, 
which  are  kept  from  sagging  under  their  load  by  cross 
wires  upon  posts  set  every  five  hills  in  the  rows. 
From  the  top  of  every  stake  ordinary  wool-twine  is 
passed  over  the  wire  obliquely  to  the  stake  in  the  hill 
next  ahead  in  the  next  row.  The  vines  readily  follow 
up  the  twines  and  make  a  succession  of  beautful  ar- 
bors, truly  picturesque.  The  wire  for  an  acre  weighs 
about  400  pounds  and  costs  about  $20,  varyinf^,  of 
course,  according  to  the  price  of  the  wire.  You  may 
use  about  60  pounds  of  twine  per  acre,  cosring  %% 
cents  a  pound.  The  wire  and  twine  are  cheaper  than 
poles,  and  much  more  convenient.  The  stakes  re- 
main in  the  ground,  only  the  twine  being  taken  down 
with  the  hops.  In  the  fall,  plow  over  the  hop-yard, 
turning  the  furrows  toward  the  hills,  as  there  are  no 
poles  in  the  way. 

Hops  ordinarily  blossom  about  the  last  of  June  or 
eady  in  July,  and  remain  in  bloom   about  25  days. 


Humphrey's  Seedling  blooms  seven  days  earlier,  and 
remains  iii  bloom  only  12  days. 

Harvesting  and  Preservation.  When  the  hops 
have  acquired  a  pretty  strong  scent,  which  averages 
about  the  first  of  August,  gather  them.  The  seed  is 
then  brown  and  the  leaves  begin  to  change  color. 
Fiist  cut  the  vines  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
pull  up  the  poles  and  lay  them  in  convenient  piles. 
Strip  the  hops  off  the  vines  and  throw  them  into  large 
baskets,  keeping  them  free  from  leaves  and  dirt. 
Cover  each  hill  with  compost,  which  remove  in  the 
spring;  run  the  plow  on  the  four  sides  as  near  as  pos- 
sible, laying  bare  the  roots  but  not  injuring  the  plants; 
cut  the  roots  with  a  sharp  knife  within  2  or  3 
inches  of  the  main  roots;  trim  the  latter  if  spreading 
too  far.  It  is  well  to  break  or  twist  down  the  first 
shoots,  and  allow  those  which  succeed  to  run,  as  they 
are  likely  to  be  more  productive.  The  cutting  should 
be  done  on  a  sunny  day,  to  prevent  too  profuse 
bleeding. 

To  dry  hops,  spread  them  out  thinly  upon  a  plat- 
form in  a  shade,  and  stir  them  occasionally.  A  very 
large  quantity  is  more  safely  cured  in  a  kiln,  which 
should  be  very  particularly  constructed.  It  should 
be  in  a  dry  hillside,  dug  the  same  size  at  the  bottom 
as  at  the  top ;  lay  the  side  walls  up  perpendicularly 
and  fill  in  with  solid  stone  to  give  it  a  tunnel  form,  12 
feet  square  at  the  top,  2  feet  square  at  the  bottom, 
and  8  or  10  feet  deep.  On  the  top  of  the  walls  lay  sills, 
and  let  joists  into  them  as  for  a  floor;  on  these  nail 
laths  \%  inches  wide  and  5^  of  an  inch  apart;  and 
over  these  again  spread  a  clean  linen  cloth  and  tack 
its  edges  to  the  sills.  Then,  on  each  side  of  the  kiln, 
set  up  a  board  about  i  foot  wide,  tofoim  a  bin  for  the 
hops.  Plaster  the  inside  of  the  kiln  to  make  it  air- 
tight. Charcoal  is  the  only  proper  fuel  to  be  used  in 
drying  hops,  and  it  is  better  to  have  it  of  yellow  birch 
or  maple.  Thoroughly  heat  the  kiln,  and  then  put 
the  hops  upon  the  cloth;  keep  the  heat  steady  and 
regular,  but  gradually  increasing  during  the  process  to 
too°.  Fifty  pounds  of  hops  when  dried  is  the  largest 
quantity  that  should  be  dried  at  one  time  in  a  kiln 
of  this  size;  less  would  dry  better.  Don't  stir  them. 
After  lying  a  few  days  subsequent  to  the  kiln-drying, 
the  hops  will  gather  little  moisture,  seeming  to  undergo 
a  sweat;  this  will  begin  to  subside  in  about  a  week  in 
average  weather,  at  which  time,  and  before  the  sweat 
is  off,  they  ought  to  be  bagged  in  clear,  dry  weather. 
In  testing  from  time  to  time  the  degree  of  the  sweat, 
thrust  the  hand  into  the  middle  of  the  heap  and  care- 
fully examine  them;  if  you  find  them  very  damp  and 
their  color  altering,  they  should  be  re-dried  in  the 
open  air ;  or,  if  the  weather  be  damp,  in  the  kiln. 
Hops  should  not  remain  long  in  the  bin  or  bag  after 
they  are  picked,  as  they  will  very  soon  heat  and  be- 
come insipid.  In  bagging  them  for  market  they  are 
pressed  in  compactly  through  a  box  made  for  the  pur- 
pose and  managed  with  a  screw.  The  bags  may  be 
but  five  feet  long  and  large  enough  to  contain  250 
pounds.  A  bushel,  when  dried,  weighs  i^  pounds. 
The  bags  are  made  of  coarse,  strong  tow  cloth,  or  of 


HORNET  STINGS— HORSE. 


671 


\ 


Russia  hemp.  Building  houses  over  the  kilns  is  a 
good  practice  in  vogue ;  but  they  should  give  good 
ventilation  by  doors,  windows  and  a  large  opening 
over-head.  The  apartment  in  which  the  dried  hops 
are  stored  should  be  so  thoroughly  partitioned  off 
from  the  kiln-room  as  to  preclude  all  moisture  from 
those  which  are  drying. 

Hops  are  liable  to  attack  from  various  insects, 
blight,  mildew,  etc. ;  but  there  is  no  effective  remedy 
for  these  pests.  A  white  grub  frequently  gets  into  the 
hop-vine  just  below  the  surface,  and  sucks  the  juice 
until  the  vine  withers.  Lice  also  sometimes  attack 
the  leaves  and  make  quite  destructive  work.  The 
best  preventives  are  new  or  fresh  soil,  which  is  rich 
in  ashes  and  the  inorganic  manures,  and  in  a  fine  till- 
able condition  to  insure  a  vigorous  growth.  The  best 
varieties  are  the  English  Cluster,  the  Grape  and 
Humphrey  Seedling.  The  latter  originated  in  Wis- 
consin, ripens  ten  to  fifteen  days  earlier,  is  productive, 
hardy,  not  subject  to  fire-blight  or  winter-killing. 

Hornet  Stings:  see  Stings. 

Horse.  The  family  to  which  the  horse  belongs 
comprises  animals  which  have  only  one  apparent  toe 
and  a  single  hoof  to  each  foot ;  although  under  the 
skin,  on  each  side  of  their  metatarsus  and  metacarpus, 
there  are  spurs  representing  two  lateral  toes.  The 
family  consists  of  a  single  genus,  equus. 

The  history  of  mankind  abundantly  testifies  that 
every  possible  use  and  application  of  this  animal, 
whether  in  war,  commerce  or  pleasure,  seems  to  have 
been  anticipated  by  the  most  ancient  peoples  and  old- 
world  nations  which,  ages  ago,  most  largely  employed 
the  horse,  and  which  were  the  great  centers  of  antique 
civilization.  Indeed,  it  may  be  asserted  that  but  for 
the  horse  the  human  race  could  not  have  reached  its 
present  state  of  progress  or  refinement,  or  have  been 
enabled  to  contend  against  the  numerous  obstacles 
to  advancement  and  material  happiness  which 
surrounded  it ;  and  it  has  been  well  said  that, 
next  to  the  want  of  iron,  the  want  of  horses 
would  have  been  one  of  the  greatest  physical  barriers 
to  the  perfecting  of  the  arts  of  civilized  Hfe.  In  all 
ages  and  climes,  the  horse  has  been  the  devoted 
servant  of  man,  whether  toiling  at  the  tread-mill  or 
straining  every  muscle  in  the  race.  Beyond  all  other 
animals  his  only  equal  in  usefulness  is  his  iron  name- 
sake. 

History  of  the  Horse.  Fossil  bones,  supposed 
by  some  geologists  to  be  those  of  the  horse,  have  been 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  buried  deep  in 
depositions  of  an  older  date  than  the  era  of  the  crea- 
tion of  man.  Some  have  been  recently  discovered  in 
our  own  country,  mixed  with  those  of  extinct  species 
of  animals,  although  we  have  no  positive  proof  of  their 
being  the  bones  of  the  horse.  The  native  country  of 
the  horse  cannot,  with  certainty,  be  traced.  He  has 
been  found,  varj'ing  materially  in  size,  in  form,  and  in 
utility,  in  all  the  temperate,  in  most  of  the  sultry  and 
in  many  of  the  northern  regions  of  the  Old  World.  In 
the  Sacred  Volume  we  are  told  that  as  early  as  1650 


years  befoie  the  birth  of  Christ  the  horse  had  been 
domesticated  by  the  Egyptians.  When  Joseph  carried 
his  father's  remains  from  Egypt  to  Canaan,  "there 
went  up  with  him  both  chariots  and  horsemen."  One 
hundred  and  fifty  years  afterwards,  the  horse  constituted 
the  principal  strength  of  the  Egyptian  army.  Pharaoh 
pursued  the  Israelites  with  "  six  hundred  chosen 
chariots,  and  with  all  the  horses  of  Egypt."  Fifty 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt, 
and  1450  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  the  horse 
was  so  far  naturalized  in  Greece  that  the  Olympic 
games  were  instituted,  including  chariot  and  horse- 
racing.  We  have,  therefore,  sufficient  evidence  that 
the  horse  was,  at  a  very  early  period,  subjected  to  the 
dominion  of  man.  A  long  time  must  certainly  have 
elapsed  before  man  was  able  to  ascertain  the  value 
and  peculiar  use  of  the  animals  that  surrounded  him. 
The  writings  of  Moses  show  us  that  after  the  ox,  the 
sheep  and  the  goat,  man  subdued  the  ass,  and  then 
the  camel,  and  last  of  all  the  horse  became  his  servant; 
and  no  sooner  was  he  subdued,  and  his  strength  and 
docility  and  sagacity  appreciated,  than  the  others 
were  comparatively  disregarded,  except  in  Palestine, 
where  the  use  of  the  horse  was  forbidden  by  Divine 
authority. 

From  Egypt  the  use  of  the  horse  was  propagated 
to  other  and  distant  lands,  and  probably  the  horse 
himself  was  first  transmitted  from  Egypt  to  several 
countries.  The  Bible  decides  another  point:  that 
Arabia,  by  whose  breed  of  horses  those  of  othei 
countries  have  been  so  much  improved,  was  not  the 
native  place  of  the  horse.  Six  hundred  years  after 
the  time  just  referred  to,  Arabia  had  no  horses,  "  but 
all  the  horses  for  his  own  cavalry  and  chariots,  and 
those  which  he  supplied  the  Phoenician  monarchs,  he 
procured  from  Egypt."  The  horses  of  Arabia  itself, 
and  of  the  southeastern  parts  of  Europe,  are  clearly 
derived  from  Egypt;  but  whether  they  were  there 
bred  or  imported  from  the  southwestern  regions  of 
Asia,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  brought  from  the  interior 
or  northern  coast  of  Africa,  cannot  with  certainty  be 
determined. 

The  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  use  horses  for 
either  battle  or  pleasure,  and  commanded  to  ham- 
string such  as  they  captured  in  war;  yet  about  five  cen- 
turies after  their  exodus  from  Egypt,  they  so  fondly 
domesticated  horses  and  so  greatly  multiplied  them 
that  Solomon  had  1,400  chariots  and  12,000  cavalry. 
The  Eg)'ptians,  the  Ethiopians,  the  Medjs,  the  Per- 
sians, and  the  Greeks  successfully  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  horses,  and  maintained  them  in  a  spirited  and 
well-trained  condition  for  the  purpose  of  war  and  the 
chase;  the  Greeks  introduced  either  fine  breeds  of 
horses  themselves,  or  a  taste  for  possessing  and  im- 
proving them,  into  Arabia,  Barbary,  Spain  and  South- 
ern Italy ;  and  the  Romans  afterwards  diffused  them 
throughout  the  central,  the  western,  and  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe.  William  the  Conqueror  owed  the 
victory  of  Hastings,  in  a  main  degree,  to  the  superior- 
ity of  his  cavalry ;  and  the  barons  who  accompanied 
him,  being  made  land  owners  of  a  very  considerable 


1 


(rf==^^^ 


.^^m 


-^^^^g^s^ 


"^^wm 


HORSE. 


<573 


\ 


portion  of  the  kingdom,  rapidly  diffused  a  valuable 
mixture  of  the  characters  of  the  Norman  and  the 
Spanish  horses  among  the  British  breeds.  A  century 
later  King  John  made  some  imix)rtations  from  Flan- 
ders to  give  weight  and  substance  to  draft  and  cav- 
alry horses.  The  improvement  of  the  various  breeds 
were  afterwards  pursued  with  more  or  less  judgment 
and  zeal  by  other  British  monarchs.  It  has  already 
been  stated  that  the  earliest  records  we  have  of  the 
horse  trace  him  to  Egypt,  whence  he  gradually  found 
his  way  to  Arabia  and  Persia,  and  the  provinces  which 
were  colonized  from  Egypt ;  and  thence  to  other  parts 
of  the  Old  World.  But  Egypt  is  not  now  a  breeding 
country,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  ix)ssess  those  requi- 
sites which  could  have  constituted  one;  therefore  it  is 
natural,  \x\  giving  an  account  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  useful  breeds  of  different  countries,  to  begin  with 
those  of  Africa.  At  the  head  of  these  is  the  Barb, 
remarkable  for  fine  and  graceful  action.  The  Barb 
has  chiefly  contributed  to  the  excellence  of  the  Span- 
ish horse,  from  which  sprang  the  wild  horses  of 
America;  and  when  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of 
horses  began  to  be  systematically  pursued  in  Great 
Britain,  the  Barb  was  very  early  introduced.  Next  we 
have  the  East  Indian,  the  Persian,  the  Toorkoman, 
the  Tartar  and  Calmuck,  the  Turkish,  the  German, 
the  Swedish,  Finland  and  Norwegian,  the  Iceland 
the  Flemish  and  Dutch,  the  French,  the  Spanish,  the 
Italian,  and  the  English  horses,  all  of  which,  more  or 
less,  have  directly  or  indirectly  contributed  to  our 
American  breeds. 

The  first  or  ancient  mode  of  using  the  horse  was  in 
chariots^a  rude  vehicle  without  springs — or  riding  on 
horseback  without  saddle  or  bridle ;  hence  the  Elgin 
marbles  representing  the  rider  on  the  bare  back  of  his 
steed  without  a  bridle.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
Olympian  games,  about  775  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  saddles  and  bridles  were  invented.  They 
rode  about  four-mile  races  in  public  competition  for 
prizes  awarded  to  the  winner.  The  Olympian  games 
were  held  once  in  four  years  in  Greece.  They  were 
devoted  to  athletic  sports  and  horse-racing.  Elo- 
quence, jxaetry  and  the  fine  arts  were  cultivated  in 
these  conventions.  They  were  patronized  by  the  most 
distinguished  statesmen  and  orators  of  Greece.  Al- 
cibiades,  the  Athenian  general  and  disciple  of  Aris- 
totle, sent  from  his  stable  to  one  meeting  no  less  than 
seven- four  horse  chariots.  He  came  off  victorious 
with  three,  and  drew  three  prizes.  The  great  object 
of  these  four-mile  contests  was  to  improve  their  war 
horses.  Equestrian  skill  was  a  profession  of  the  an- 
cients. It  gave  great  distirtction  to  the  cavalry  sol- 
diers of  Greece  and  Rome. 

The  horse  was  early  devoted  to  war — used  by  ty- 
rants to  destroy  the  human  family.  Ambitions  rulers 
have  used  them  to  extend  the  dominion  of  empire,  and 
to  protect  kings  and  conquerors  in  their  dominions. 
Romulus,  the  reputed  founder  of  Rome,  753  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  selected  his  body-guard  from 
the  youthful  sons  of  the  wealthy  Roman  families,  be- 
cause  the   monetary   aristocracy  would  mount  their 

43 


sons  on  gallant  chargers,  to  defend  the  city,  free  of 
expense.  This  was  the  institution  of  the  mounted 
Roman  legions  that  served  the  State  at  their  own  ex- 
pense. They  were  called  "  Knights,"  a  title  of  honor, 
conferred  for  their  patriotism  and  bravery,  second  only 
in  distinction  to  the  title  of  a  Roman  senator.  The 
martial  spirit  of  these  young  mounted  cohorts  protected 
the  city,  at  their  own  expense,  from  the  barbarous 
hordes  that  surrounded  it. 

Caesar  depended  for  his  cavalry  upon  horses  pro- 
cured from  t'.aul,  which  could  ride  over  the  Roman 
chargers  at  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  as  if  they  were  in- 
fants in  cavalry  tactics.  Ponipey  the  (ireat,  who  had 
been  victorious  ujx)n  ahundred  battle-fields,  and  made 
twelve  crowned  heads  submit  to  the  jxjwer  of  Rome, 
could  not  stand  before  the  powerful  cavalry  of  Caesar. 
He  was  ignominiously  defeated  by  the  great  con- 
queror of  three  hundred  nations  or  tribes  and  eight 
hundred  cities,  who,  in  a  sixty  days'  fight  made  him- 
self Dictator  of  Rome. 

The  Grecian  horses  could  not  stand  before  the  more 
IX)werful  chargers  of  the  Persian  cavalry.  Their  irre- 
sistible charges  would  break  the  line  of  Grecian  cav- 
aliers, and  scatter  them  like  chaff  before  the  wind. 
The  Greeks  instituted  chariot  racing,  breeding  stables, 
and  imix)rted  Persian  or  foreign  stallions  to  breed  up 
a  more  powerful  race  of  horses,  so  that  the  great  law- 
givers of  Athens  might  extend  their  dominions  against 
the  more  formidable  cavalry  of  the  surrounding  na- 
tions. 

The  Greeks  first  drove  the  horse  to  a  rude  chariot, 
and  then  found  they  could  manage  him  while  on  his 
back,  with  the  voice  or  a  switch  and  without  either 
saddle  or  bridle.  This  ingenious  people  soon  invented 
the  snaffle  bridle,  and  both  rode  and  drove  with  its 
aid.  The  curb  bit  was  a  Roman  invention,  whilst 
shoeing  was  not  practiced  by  either  Greeks  or  Ro- 
mans. Saddles  and  harness  were  of  skins  and  some- 
times cloth.  Among  the  semi-civilized  Tartars  of 
middle  and  northern  Asia,  and  some  other  rude  na- 
tions, the  flesh  of  the  horse  is  used  for  food,  and 
mare's  milk  for  domestic  purposes,  the  latter  forming, 
when  fermented,  an  acid  drink  which  is  intoxicating. 

The  horses  found  in  the  wild  state  on  the  pampas 
of  the  South  and  in  the  prairies  of  North  America,  are 
undoubtedly  descendents  of  the  Spanish  chargers,  es- 
caped or  let  loose  in  the  exploring  expeditions  of  De 
Soto  and  other  adventurers,  especially  from  the  horses 
that  escaped  in  the  Spanish  wars  with  Mexico  and 
Peru,  increased  by  those  abandoned  at  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  blood  of  the  Barb  predominates  in  the  Spanish 
horse,  a  breed  brought  into  Spain  by  the  Aloors. 
The  Mexican  ponies  to  this  day  show  unmistakable 
marks  of  oriental  blood. 

Horses  are  not  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  the 
western  continent ;  at  least  none  of  the  first  discov- 
erers have  left  on  record  any  evidence  of  their  exist- 
ence. We  know  that  Columbus,  in  his  second  voy- 
age to  this  continent,  in  1493,  brought  over  horses, 
the  first  probably  that  ever  saw  the  light  of  the  sun  in 
the  western  hemisphere. 


674 


HORSE. 


In  1864  a  French  lawyer,  M.  L.  Escarbot,  brought 
horses  and  other  domestic  animals  from  France  into 
Acadia,  from  which  descended  the  French  horses 
now  in  that  country.  In  1609,  the  English  coloniz- 
ing ships,  landing  with  emigrants  at  Jamestown,  Va., 
brought  over  from  England  six  mares  and  one  horse. 
In  1625,  a  stock  of  horses  was  imported  from  Hol- 
land to  New  York  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company. 
In  1629,  Francis  Higginson,  an  English  emigrant, 
brought  over  horses  and  mares  to  Massachusetts, 
from  which  descended  the  first  stock  of  New  England. 

From  these  early  periods  and  beginnings  and  sub- 
sequent importations  many  millions  of  horses  have 
spread  over  the  United  States.  Some  of  the  noblest 
steeds  and  greatest  performers  in  the  world  are  num- 
bered among  our  running  and  trotting  celebrities,  and 
our  draft  and  road  horses  are  taking  rank  with  the 
best  breeds  of  England  and  France. 

ANATOMICAL   CHARTS. — PLATE   VI. 

Upon  this  plate  are  illustrated  the  superficial  mus- 
cles of  the  horse.  These  constitute  what  is  known 
as  flesh,  and  form  the  chief  bulk  of  the  soft  parts 
external  to  the  three  great  cavities — the  cranial, 
thoracic  and  abdominal.  On  the  trunk  they  are 
spread  out  in  layers,  varying  in  thickness  so  as  to 
form  a  protection  to  the  organs  within,  being  easily 
capable  of  extension  or  contraction,  and  are  means  of 
moving  the  several  parts  upon  each  other. 

The  muscular  system  of  the  horse  is  studied  by 
what  is  known  as  comparative  anatomy,  /.  <?.,  the 
various  muscles  are  compared  with  the  correspond- 
ing muscles  in  man,  which  are  very  fully  treated  in 
this  volume  under  the  head  of  anatomy.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  names  of  the  various  muscles  repre- 
sented by  the  figures  upon  this  plate,  and  the  general 
observations  given  under  the  head  of  Plate  I,  upon 
the  actions  of  muscles,  are  precisely  what  may  be  said 
upon  those  of  the  horse. 

No.  I,  occipito  frontalis  ;  2,  the  muscles  of  the  ear  ; 
.3,  orbicularis  oris;  4,  depressor  labii  inferioris  ;  5,  the 
zygomatic  muscles;  6,  platysma  myoides;  7,  sterno- 
cleido-mastoid ;  8,  trapezius;  9,  infraspinatus;  10, 
deltoid;  11,  latissmus  dorsi;  12,  the  triceps  ;  13,  the 
biceps;  14,  supinator  brevis;  15,  flexor  carpi  ul- 
naris;  16,  extensor  carpi  ulnaris ;  17,  extensor  ossis 
metacarpi  pollicis ;  1 8,  flexor  brevis  poUicis ;  1 9,  linea 
alba;  20,  oblique;  21,  the  chest;  22,  adductor  longus; 
23,  pectineus;  24,  rectus  femoris;  25,  vastus  exter- 
nus;  26,  peroneus  longus;  27,  tibialis  anticus;  28, 
the  annular  ligament ;  29,  the  soleus. 

Besides  the  muscles  there  are  fibrous  tissues,  ten- 
dons, cartilages  and  ligaments.  The  former  exist 
very  generally  throughout  the  body,  and  are  found 
under  three  forms,  as  white,  yellow  and  red  fibrous 
tissue.  These  tissues  are  very  flexible.  Ligaments 
are  glistening  and  inelastic  bands,  and  are  of  all 
forms.  Tendons  are  constructed  like  ligaments,  but 
usually  in  larger  and  more  rounded  bundles,  and 
like  ligaments  are  composed  of  white,  fibrous  tissue, 
and  are  used  to  connect  muscle  with  bone. 


PLATE  vn. 

We  have  here  a  very  interesting  illustration  of  the 
lateral  section  of  the  horse,  showing  the  contents  of 
the  thorax  and  abdomen,  the  intestines  being  re- 
moved. The  thorax  is  the  cavity  formed  by  the  ver- 
tebrae, ribs  and  their  cartilages  with  the  connecting 
muscles,  the  sternum,  the  diaphragm  and  the  inner 
margin  of  the  first  rib.  It  contains  the  central  part 
of  the  important  organs  of  circulation  and  respiration, 
and  gives  passage  to  the  oesophagus  as  it  connects 
the  pharnix  with  the  stomach.  The  principal  organ, 
the  heart,  shown  by  15,  lies  far  forward.  No.  14 
represents  the  lungs,  a  section  of  the  outer  covering 
being  removed,  showing  the  circulation.  No.  4 
shows  the  oesophagus,  and  5,  the  trachea. 

Lying  immediately  behind  the  thorax,  and  separat- 
ed only  by  the  diaphragm,  are  the  organs  of  diges- 
tion, and  the  space  in  which  they  are  packed  is  called 
the  abdomen.  The  contents  of  the  abdomen  are  the 
stomach,  shown  by  10,  11  and  12;  the  liver,  the 
spleen,  pancreas,  the  large  and  small  intestines,  the 
kidneys  and  the  mesenteric  gland.  Some  of  these 
organs  lie  close  to  the  spine,  as  the  kidneys,  17,  and 
the  pancreas.  The  stomach  lies  immediately  behind 
the  diaphragm,  13,  and  resembles  m  shape  the  Scotch 
bagpipe,  and  has  two  openings.  The  first,  shown 
at  II,  is  formed  by  the  termination  of  the  oesopha- 
gus as  it  passes  through  the  diaphragm,  and  the  lat- 
ter, at  12,  communicates  with  the  duodenum. 

No.  3,  on  this  plate,  represents  the  spinal  column, 
while  2  represents  the  cerebrum  or  anterior  portion  of 
the  brain;  No.  20,  the  cerebellum  or  posterior  portion 
of  the  brain;  No.  6  represents  the  tongue;  and  No. 
8,  a  section  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  upper  jaw; 
No.  7,  the  Schneiderian  membrane;  No.  9,  the 
spleen;  and  No.  17,  the  kidneys. 

PLATE  VIII. 

This  plate  illustrates  the  general  circulation,  show- 
ing the  larger  arteries  as  they  arise  from  the  heart 
and  ramify  throughout  the  body,  and  the  veins — the 
blue  lines — as  they  in  turn  gather  the  blood  from  all 
portions  of  the  body  and  return  it  to  the  heart.  The 
action  of  the  heart  is  similar  to  that  in  man,  which  is 
explained  in  the  article  on  anatomy,  as  are  also  the  ar- 
teries and  veins. 

PLATE  IX. 

Upon  this  plate  is  shown  the  skeleton  or  frame- 
work of  the  horse,  which  is  quite  fully  treated  on 
page  676,  so  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  give  more 
than  an  explanation  of  the  figures  on  the  plate  : 

1.  Cranium.  10.  10,  False  ribs. 

2.  Lower  jaw.  1 1.  Cartilages  of  false  ribs. 

3.  Cervical  vertebrae.  12.  Humerus. 

4.  4.  Dorsal  vertebrae.  13.  Upper  end  of  the  ulna 
5,5.  Lumbar  vertebrae.  14,  14.  Radius. 

6,  6.  Sacrum.  15.  Scapula. 

7,  7.  Coccygeal  vertebrae.  16.  Os  pisiform. 

8.  Sternum.  17,  18,  19,  20,  21  and  22. 

9.  True  ribs.  Carpal  bones. 


PLATE  VI 


PLATE    VII. 


PLATE  VIII 


PLATE  iX. 


HORSE. 


67s 


23.  Large      metacarpal 
bones. 

24.  Outer  metacarpal. 

25.  Small  metacarpal. 

26.  27.  Sesamoid  bones. 

28,  28.  Os  suffraginis. 

29,  29.  Os  coronse. 

30,  30.  Os  pedis. 

31,  31.     Wing     of    pedal 
bone. 

32,  33.  34.  35-  Os  innom- 
inatum. 

36.  Femur. 


37.  37.  Tibia. 

38.  38.  Os  calcis. 

39.  39-  Astragalus. 

40.  Hock  joint. 

41.  42,    43.    44-     Tarsal 
bones. 

45.  Large  metatarsal  bone 

46.  Small  metatarsal. 

47.  Inner  metatarsal. 

48.  Inferior  maxillary. 

49.  Atlas. 

50.  Orbit. 
51,51.  Patella. 


THE  FOOT. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  horse  that  requires  greater 
care,  both  in  health  and  disease,  than  the  foot.  This 
subject  is  elaborately  treated  in  the  articles  on  the 
horse  and  shoeing,  but  these  plates  will  be  of  value 
in  studying  this   important   section   of  this  animal. 

On  Plates  VII,  VIII  and  IX  are  represented 
sections  of  the  foot.  Figure  2,  on  the  first-named  plate, 
shows  a  section  of  the  parts  entering  into  the  comix)- 
sition  of  the  foot  and  the  fetlock  and  pastern  joints. 
No.  I  shows  the  OS  suffraginis;  No.  2  shows  os  coronae; 
No.  3,  OS  pedis;  No.  4,  os  naviculare;  Nos.  5  and  6, 
the  perforans  and  perforatus  tendon  ;  No.  7,  inferior 
sesamoida;!  ligament ;  No.  8,  cleft  of  frog ;  No  9,  sole; 
No.  10,  side  of  frog  cleft. 

Figure  2,  in  Plate  IX,  represents  the  hoof.  No.  i 
showing  outer  surface  of  the  crust;  No.  2,  the  inner 
surface  of  the  crust;  No.  3,  the  upper  surface  of  the 
sole;  No.  4,  part  corresponding  with  the  cleft  of  the 
frog,  and  No.  5,  coronary  band. 

Figure  2,  on  Plate  VIII,  represents  a  sound  fore- 
foot prepared  for  the  shoe.  No.  i  shows  the  heel  of 
the  crust;  No.  2,  the  toe;  Nos.  3,  3,  the  corners  of  the 
crust;  Nos.  4,  4,  the  bars  as  they  should  be  left  with 
frogs  between  them;  Nos.  5,  5,  the  angles  between 
the  heels  and  bars  where  corns  appear;  Nos.  6,  6,  the 
concave  surface;  Nos.  7,  7,  the  bulbous  heels,  and  No. 
8,  the  cleft. 

Points  of  a  Horse.  The  best  relative  proportions 
of  the  various  points  of  a  horse  will,  of  necessity,  differ 
widely  in  animals  destined  to  work  of  very  dissimilar 
character.  The  points  which  would  be  highly  prized 
in  a  race-horse  would  materially  lessen  the  value  of  a 
cart-horse.  But,  notwithstanding  this,  there  are  cer- 
tain points  which  should  be  found  well  developed  in 
good  horses  of  every  breed,  class  and  variety.  Such 
are:  widih  of  forehead,  indicative  of  large  volume  of 
brain,  and  denoting  courage,  tractability,  cleverness, 
etc.;  width  of  nostril,  as  well  as  of  jaw,  for  the  full 
and  easy  play  of  the  breathing  apparatus ;  fullness 
and  clearness  of  the  eye,  together  with  a  soft,  gentle 
expression,  pointing  to  soundness  and  good  temper; 
medium-sized  ear,  etc. 

The  neck  should  be  neither  too  long  nor  too  short. 
It  should  be  sinewy  and  full,  with  a  sweep  between 
the  withers  and  breast,  and  gradually  slope  off  until 
it  joins  behind  the  ear. 


In  the  fore-quarters  the  most  important  point  is 
the  slioulder,  if  the  horse  is  intended  for  the  saddle. 
In  the  draft  or  farm  horse,  on  the  contrary,  an  up- 
right shoulder,  well  equipped  with  muscle,  is  desir- 
able, and  in  a  measure,  also,  in  the  trotter  and 
carriage  horse,  the  pressure  of  the  collar  demanding 
a  steady  and  comparatively  motionless  surface  to 
sustain  it.  The  point  of  the  shoulder  should  be  fully 
developed,  but  there  should  be  no  projections  in  it. 
When  the  true-arm  is  short  and  the  elbow  is  under, 
or  only  slightly  behind  it,  the  action  of  the  horse  will 
seldom  be  good.  When  the  elbow  turns  inward  the 
horse  is  liable  to  turn  his  toes  out ;  in  the  contrary 
case,  to  turn  them  in.  A  muscular  and  long  fore- 
arm is  the  surest  indication  of  grand,  strong  action, 
and  is  a  most  important  point.  The  knee  should  be 
considerably  broader  than  the  adjacent  parts  of  the 
leg  above  and  below,  when  looked  at  from  the  front, 
tapering  off  to  a  thin  edge  behind,  with  marked  de- 
velopment of  the  pisiform  bone,  which  projects  back- 
ward at  its  upper  part.  Below  the  knee  the  leg 
should  be  as  large  as  in  any  other  part,  and  not  bent 
inward,  which  is  a  sign  of  weakness.  A  slight 
bending  forward  of  the  knee  is  far  preferable,  unless 
it  rise  from  overwork.  Large,  flat  cannon  bones  are 
important,  with  afiiU-sized  suspensory  ligament.  The 
fetlock  should  be  large  and  clean,  and  the  pasterns 
form  an  angle  somewhat  over  forty-five  degrees  with 
the  ground.  The  foot  should  be  round  and  moder- 
ately broad,  but  not  flat. 

In  the  middle  piece  the  withers  first  claim  our  at- 
tention. They  should  be  moderately  high  and  thin; 
not  too  prominent  and  not  devoid  of  muscle.  The 
volume  of  the  chest  shows  the  size  of  the  lungs,  as 
well  as  the  development  of  the  larger  digestive 
organs.  Too  great  breadth  of  chest  is  not  a  point  to 
be  commended  in  the  case  of  the  racer  or  trotter, 
inasmuch  as  it  interferes  with  the  free  action  of  the 
arms  and  shoulders  as  they  move  on  the  ribs.  In 
them  depth  of  chest  must  supply  the  want  of  width. 
The  size  of  the  chest  at  the  girth  indicates  the 
capacity  of  the  lungs ;  bottom,  or  staying  power,  de- 
pends upon  the  depth  of  the  back  ribs.  To  this  last 
point  especial  attention  should  be  paid.  The  back 
should  be  short  and  spacious.  From  the  shoulder 
point  to  the  back  of  the  quarters  the  distance  should 
be  greater  than  the  height  at  the  withers.  The  per- 
fection of  shape  in  this  point  is  embodied  in  the  say- 
ing, "  Short  above;  long  below." 

The  hind-quarters  will  have  to  present  character- 
istics dependent  ui)on  both  the  breed  and  the  purposes 
for  which  the  animal  is  to  be  used.  In  the  draft- 
horse,  the  main  requirement  is  strength,  solidity  of 
build  and  stamina.  In  his  case  the  lower  thigh  is 
much  shorter  than  that  of  the  Thoroughbred,  the 
hind-leg  much  straighter,  and  the  angle  formed  by 
the  hocks  very  small ;  whilst  the  upper  thigh  is  nearly 
or  quite  as  long  as  that  of  the  Thoroughbred.  In 
the  latter,  when  intended  for  high  speed,  the  two 
bones  which  unite  at  the  stifle-joint  should  be 
amply  long.     In  a  flat  outline,  the  length  from  the 


676 


HORSE. 


hip-joint  to  the  stifle-joint  will  measure  24  inches  in  a 
horse  of  15  hands,  three  inches,  and  proportionately 
as  the  height  be  greater  or  less;  measured  around  the 
surface  it  will  be  about  26  inches.  The  gaskin,  or 
lower  thigh,  should  be  of  nearly  the  same  length;  but, 
in  a  high-bred,  well-proix)rtioned  horse,  it  will  measure 
quite  28  inches  from  the  stifle-joint  to  the  point  of  the 
hock.  Great  muscular  ixjwer  in  quarters  and  gas- 
kins  is  a  desideratum  in  any  breed  of  horse,  for  these 
furnish  the  main  propelling  jxjwer.  In  selecting  a 
horse  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  survey  the  quarters  from 
behind,  see  that  they  are  large  in  volume,  well-knit, 
close  together,  and  leave  no  hollow  below  the  arms. 
Should  these  conditions  not  exist,  there  is  reason  to 
fear  some  constitutional  weakness  in  the  animal.  The 
hock,  which  has  to  bear  all  the  strain  exercised  by  the 
muscles,  ought  to  be  clean  and  flat,  but  of  good  size, 
without  any  gumminess  or  thorough-pins,  and  with  a 
clearly  defined  ixjint  standing  out  from  the  rest  of  the 
joint.  The  place  of  the  spavin,  and  the  "curby  place" 
should  not  be  enlarged,  the  hocks  be  well  let  down 
and  the  cannon-bone  short.  The  pasterns  and  feet 
should  be  proixirtioned  to  those  of  the  fore  extremity. 
Horses  in  which  even  all  the  points  above  enumerated 
seem  to  exist  when  in  the  stable  or  at  rest,  should 
never  be  purchased  without  being  tried  in  action ;  be- 
cause there  are  many  cas&s  in  which  the  most  finely 
formed  and  projxsrtioned  horse  will  fall  short  of  what 
ought  to  be  expected  from  him,  and  other  cases  in 
which  a  horse  apparently  faulty  in  one  or  more  points 
will,  in  action,  gready  surpass  the  opinion  formed  of 
him. 

The  various  parts  of  the  horse,  when  in  perfect 
proix)rtion  to  each  other,  ought,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  to  give  the  following  measurements.  The 
horse  is  supposed,  as  above,  to  be  15  hands  3  inches 
in  height: 

INCHES. 

Height  at  withers  and  croup g. 

Length  from  shoulder-point  to  quarter 56 

From  the  lowest  part  of  the  chest  to  the  ground '.'.!!!  36 

From  the  elbow-point  to  the  ground *  ]  ,g 

From  the  withers  to  the  pole,  just  behind  the  ears,  in  a  straight  line  30 

The  same,  measured  along  the  crest 32 

Length  of  head 22 

Width  across  the  forehead gU 

From  the  withers  to  the  hip 22 

From  the  stifle-joint  to  the  point  of  the  hock 28 

From  root  of  tail  to  stifle-joint 26 

From  the  point  of  the  hock  to  the  ground 22K 

Length  of  arm  from  the  elbow  to  the  pisiform  bone 19J4 

From  pisiform  bone  to  the  ground ,nj^ 

Girth 76.J1, 

Circumference  of  fore  cannon-bone,  about 8 

Such  are  the  various  external  points  or  character- 
istics which  should  be  found  in  a  really  good,  well-bred 
horse.  As  previously  stated,  the  heavier  and  more 
solid  draught-horse  will,  in  many  ix)ints,  deviate  from 
this  standard,  but  there  are  good  and  sufficient  reasons 
for  this,  which  have  already  been  dwelt  uix)n. 

Bone  Structure.  It  is  not  intended  to  overload 
this  article  with  more  technicalities  than  are  absolutely 
essential  to  the  thorough  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject by  the  reader.  Of  these  the  greater  number  will 
occur  in  describing  the  bone  structure  or  skeleton  of 
the  horse,  without    a  sufficient  knowledge  of  which 


those  interested  in  horses,  whether  as  breeders,  train- 
ers, buyers  or  otherwise,  can  never  hope  fully  to  mas- 
ter this  most  important  subject. 

The  number  of  bones  composing  the  skeleton  of 
the  horse  is  two  hundred  and  forty-seven,  which  are 
uftited  by  joints  to  form  the  spine,  thorax,  pelvis, 
tail  and  fore  and  hind  (juarters. 

The  spine  consists  of  7  cervical  (neck),  18  dorsal  (back)  and  6  lumbar 

(loin)  vertebra;  or  joints 31 

The  thorax  is  formed  of  the  dorsal  vertebra:,  with  18  ribs  on  either 

_side,  and  the  sternum  in  the  middle yj 

The  pelvis  is  made  up  of  two  ossa  innominata  (unnamed  bones)  and 

I  sacrum 3 

The  tail  usuaily  contains  17  bones 17 

The  fore  extremity  is  composed  of  20  bones  on  each  side „.  40 

The  hind  extremity  has  38  bones 38 

Cranium  (skull) io 

Face  and  lower  jaw :8 

Teeth 40 

I  nternal  ear  bones,  4  in  each 8 

Bones  of  the  tongue,  five  sections 5 

247 

The  Spinal  Column.  In  the  horse  this  is  the  first 
portion  of  the  skeleton  developed  in  the  embryo.  It 
is  the  frame  to  which  all  the  other  paris  are  joined. 
At  first  it  is  a  cylinder  of  cartilage,  but  in  course  of 
time  bone  points  form  corres]X)nding  to  each  vertebra 
or  joint,  the  whole  being  finally  divided  into  separate 
pieces  called  vertebrae.  The  vertebrae  may  be  divided 
into  true  and  false,  the  former  extending  from  the 
head  to  the  pelvis,  the  latter  from  the  pelvis  to  the 
hind  extremity  of  the  animal,  comprising  the  sacrum 
and  coccyx.  The  true  vertebras  embrace  the  7  cer- 
vical, 18  dorsal  and  6  lumbar  vertebrae.  From  each 
of  these,  two  plates,  called  /a;«'//<z,  project  upwards, 
tenninating  in  a  spinous  process.  Besides  this  there  are 
two  lateral  or  side  projections,  called  transverse  proc- 
esses, which  perform  the  office  of  binding  firmly  to- 
gether the  vertebras  themselves,  and  these  to  the  ribs 
and  extremities  below,  by  means  of  the  muscles  at- 
tached to  them.  Further,  each  vertebra  has  two 
small  projections  before  and  behind  (articular  sur- 
faces) which  form  distinct  joints  between  them.  The 
spinal  cord  and  its  clothing  lies  in  a  somewhat  trian- 
gular opening  between  the  body,  the  laminae  and  the 
spinous  process.  The  edges  of  this  aperture  are  at- 
tached to  those  before  and  behind  it  by  light  yellow 
(subflava)  ligamentous  tissues.  Opposite  these  open- 
ings the  bone  is  indented  below  and  above,  and 
opposite  each  space  between  the  vertebrjE  the  ligamen- 
tous tissues  are  pierced  by  holes  on  each  side  allow- 
ing a  passage  to  the  vertebral  nerves  which  stretch 
thence  to  the  exterior  as  well  as  to  the  extremities  of 
the  body.  The  spinal  column  is  thus  a  flexible  tube 
servingto  enclose  the  spinal  cord  and  afford  a  passage 
for  the  nerves,  while  it  is  firmly  secured  and  infinitely 
better  adapted  to  the  necessary  end  than  if  formed  of 
one  piece  of  bone,  which  would  be  no  aid  to  locomo- 
tion, be  devoid  of  flexibility  and  very  liable  to  break 
under  a  heavy  weight. 

Head,  Face  and  Hyoid  Arch.  The  bones  of  the 
skull  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the  case  of  the  brain 
as  those  of  the  spine  do  in  that  of  the  spinal  cord  or 
marrow.  They  form  a  series  of  imperfect  arches  pro- 


678 


HORSE. 


tecting  the  brain.     The  thirteen  bones  of  the  cranium 
are  named  as  follows : 


Occiput. 

Parietal  bone. 

Frontal  bone. 

Petrous  portion  of  temp'ral  bone. 

Zygomatic  arch. 

Lachrymal  bone . 


7.  Malar  bone. 

8.  Posterior  maxillary  bone. 

9.  XI.  Nasal  bone. 

10,  Anterior  maxillary  bone  . 

11,  Temporal  fossa . 

12,  13.  Lower  jaw. 

It  maybe  here  stated  that  the  skeleton  of  the  horse, 
like  that  of  most  of  the  superior  class  of  vertebrate 
mammalia,  is  divided  into  three  arches,  connected 
one  with  the  other  by  the  spine,  but  interrupted  be- 
low at  certain  distances  so  as  to  allow  of  the  arching 
or  bending  of  the  frame  which  takes  place  in  rapid 
locomotion.  The  first  of  these  arches,  called  neural 
(from  neuron,  a  nerve),  forms  the  jaws  and  bone  of  the 
tongue;  the  second  or  haemal  (haema,  blood),  comprises 
the  ribs  and  sternum,  and  constitutes  the  thorax  and 
its  appendages;  the  third  or  pel  vie,  which  protects  the 
organs  of  generation,  and,  through  its  prolongation, 
the  posterior  extremities,  assists  in  locomotion. 

The  facial  bones,  the  os  hyoides  and  the  lower  jaw 
are  suspended  from  the  neural  arch  just  in  the  same 
maimer  as  the  ribs  and  the  pelvic  bones  behind  them 
are  attached  to  the  vertebrae.  In  the  horse,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  many  of  the  higher  vertebrates,  there 
is  no  collar-bone,  the  fore  extremity,  in  his  case,  be- 
ing joined  to  the  thorax  by  two  broad  bands  of  muscle. 
Its  liability  to  fracture  and  dislocation  is  thus  lessened, 
but  he  is  thereby  made  more  subject  to  strains  and 
rheumatic  affections  of  the  muscular  sling.  The 
fore-quarters,  being  nearer  the  center  of  gravity,  sup- 
port more  weight  than  the  hind-quarters.  The  latter 
are  the  chief  propelling  force,  the  former  acting  some- 
what after  the  manner  of  springs. 

Teeth.  The  teeth  are  the  only  true  index  by  which 
the  age  of  the  horse  may  be  known.  To  do  this  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy,  a  very  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  changes  which  take  place  in  them  from  time  to 
time  must  be  had.  We  therefore  give  very  full  and 
careful  explanations,  with  illustrations,  of  these 
changes.  This  will  enable  one  of  ordinary  acuteness 
and  powers  of  observation  to  tell  the  age  of  this  noble 
animal.  The  incisors  furnish  the  chief  indications  ; 
to  them,  therefore,  must  the  attention  be  chiefly  di- 
rected. The  back  and  hook  teeth  should  be  observed 
to  some  extent,  as  their  condition  often  serves  to  cor- 
rect and  corroborate  the  indications  of  the  incisors. 
The  form  of  the  incisors  should  be  studied  by  care- 
fully examining  those  taken  from  dead  horses  of  dif- 
ferent ages. 

When  the  horse  has  a  full  mouth,  he  has  40  teeth, 
which  are  as  follows  :  i .  The  incisors  or  nippers — six 
in  the  upper  jaw  and  six  in  the  lower  jaw.  2.  The 
canine  or  tusks — two  in  the  upper  jaw  and  two  in  the 
lower  jaw.  3.  The  molars  or  grinders — twelve  in  the 
upper  jaw  and  twelve  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  mare 
has  but  36  teeth,  her  mouth  being  deficient  of  the 
four  canine  teeth.  The  rudiments  of  these  teeth 
sometimes  make  their  appearance  in  the  mare,  but 
they  never  become  developed  as  in  the  horse.  Each 
tooth  is  made  up  of  three  substances — cement,  enamel 
and  dentine.    These  three  constituents  of  the  horses' 


tooth,  being  of  different  degrees  of  hardness,  the 
enamel  leading  in  this  quality,  wear  away  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  rapidity.  The  result  is  the  rough  sur- 
face of  the  equine  tooth,  which  is  peculiarly  well 
adapted  to  the  crushing  of  grain,  upon  which  the 
animal  is  largely  fed.  The  milk  incisors  differ  con- 
siderably in  shape  from  the  permanent  teeth.  The 
milk  teeth  are  much  smaller,  especially  at  the  roots, 
while  in  the  permanent  set  the  thickness  is  nearly 
uniform  throughout  the  tooth.  The  milk  teeth,  too, 
are  indented  on  the  outside,  are  whiter,  and  on  their 
table  the  marks  are  much  less  perceptible  than  in  the 
permanent  teeth.  As  the  teeth  wear  away  they  pre- 
sent an  appearance  which  varies  according  to  the 
amount  of  wear  they  have  undergone.  A  means  of 
determining  approximately  the  age  of  any  horse  has 
thus  been  secured.  In  the  parlance  of  horse-breeders 
and  dealers,  etc.,  the  incisors  are  called  nippers,  the 
canine  teeth  tushes,  and  the  molars  grinders. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  colt  has  generally 
cut  his  16  grinders  and  12  nippers.  The  eight  for- 
ward grinders  are  usually  visible  at  birth;  the  two 
central  nippers  a  week  afterward.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  month  another  grinder  shows  itself  all  around, 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  second  month  the  next  nipper 
shows  itself.  At  the  end  of  the  second  month  the 
central  nippers  are  full-grown,  and  the  second  about 
half-grown.  The  corner  nippers  are  cut  between  the 
sixth  and  ninth  month,  and  are  full-grown  by  the  end 
of  the  first  year.  The  first  set  of  nippers,  as  before 
stated,  are  much  smaller  than  the  permanent  teeth, 
are  more  hollow  towards  the  mouth,  the  outer  edge 
being  at  first  higher  than  the  inner,  and  are  more 
rounded  in  front.  As  they  wear  away,  these  two 
edges  soon  get  level,  but  the  corner  nippers  preserve 
this  characteristic  for  a  long  time.  At  the  end  of  six 
months  the  central  nippers  are  almost  level;  the 
black  mark  in  their  middle  is  broad  and  ill-defined. 
At  the  end  of  the  ninth  month  the  next  upper  and 
under  nipper  are  worn  down  to  almost  even  surface. 

In  the  first  month 
of  the  second  year, 
at  latest,  a  fourth 
grinder  makes  its 
appearance  all 
around.  These  are 
the  firstlings  of  the 
permanent  set.  The 
three  first  molars  are 
also  shed.  At  18 
months,  the  mark  in 
the  central  nipper  is 
very  faint;  the  corner 
nippers  are  flat,  but 
mark  is  very  clear. 
As   a    matter    of 

Fig.  K.—  Threg-year-old  Mouth,  ^-t  .„  , 

B.  Anterior  maxillary  bone.     i.  i.  Central  ^OUrse  there  Will  be 
permanent  nippers,  nearly  full-grown.     2.  2.  a  pCrCeptlble   dlffer- 
Milk  teeth  worn  down.     3.  3.   Corner   milk  ^„„^    :_.     t-KQc**    e>r\r\ 
teeth,  still  showing;  central  mark.  4.  4.  Tushes  ^^P^^*-    ^"     incSc    COn- 
concealed  within  the  jaw.  ditionsbetweCnCOltS 

fed  on  soft,  fresh  food,  and  those  on  com,  dry  hay,  etc. 


HORSE. 


679 


The  second  tooth-cutting  begins  during  the  tliird 
year,  and  takes  place  in  the  same  order  as  the  milk 
teeth  appeared.  Both  are  present  in  the  jaw  in  a 
more  or  less  rudimentary  form  at  birth,  the  permanent 
being  more  deeply  set  than  the  milk-teeth.  As  the 
mouth  grows,  it  becomes  too  large  for  its  first  set  of 
teeth,  and  the  roots  of  these  being  pressed  upon  by 
the  growth  of  the  permanent  set,  their  fangs  are  ab- 
sorbed and  allow  the  new  teeth  to  show  themselves, 
either  in  the  places  of  the  formeror  by  their  sides.  When 
the  permanent  teeth,  instead  of  forcing  the  milk-teeth 
out,  show  themselves  by  the  side  of  the  latter,  they 

are  called  wolf's  teeth. 
The  sixth  grinder 
shows  itself  towards 
the  end  of  this  year, 
>ut  is  slow  of  growth, 
the  upper  and  lower 
central  nippers  fall  out 
and  their  place  is  sup- 
plied by  the  perma- 
nent ones. 

At  three  years  and 

four  or    six    months, 

,  the  next  nipper  is  shed 


Fig.  6. — Mout 


at  Four  and 


\ 


all    around    and    re- 

A.  Anterior  maxillary  bone.     i.  i.  Cen-  placed  bv  thc    pemia- 
tral     nippers     conMderably    worn    down.  *  ^      _,      ^ 

2.  2.  The  next  pair,  fully  developed,  with  nent  tOOth.  1  he  COmCr 
their  edges  slis'htly   worn.      3.  3.  Corner      •  1^ 

permanent  nippers  in  a  slate  of  growth,  "'PPSrS  aremUCnWOm 

withtheedges  of  the  cavity  sharp,  and  the  and  the  mark  in  them 
mark  very  plain.      4.4    The  tushes  show- .  1  ^       t'l  1  ^      A  f 

int;  themselves  through  the  gum,   but  not  OarClV  perCeptlDlC.    At 

full-grown.  fo^r  years,   the  edges 

of  the  central  nippers  become  blunted  and  the  teeth 
themselves  have  grown  considerably.  The  next 
nipper  all  around  has  attained  nearly  its  full  size,  the 
edges  being  still  quite  sharp,  and  the  mark  deep  and 
well  defined.  The  corner  nippers  ought  still  to  be  in 
their  place,  but  a  wish  to  misrepresent  the  age  of  the 
animal  sometimes  inducts  the  horse-dealer  to  knock 
them  out.  Between  four  and  a  half  and  five  years, 
the  corner  nippers  fall  out  and  the  tusk  is  visible. 

At  five  years  the 
mouth  is  furnished 
with  its  full  comple- 
ment of  teeth,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  7.  At 
this  age  the  central 
cavities  of  the  lower 
teeth,  as  compared 
with  the  upper,  are 
much  more  worn,  the 
middle  nipper  having  

only    a   small   black  p,^     ■,.— Lower  Nitptn  and  Tushes  at 

six)t  in  the  midst  of  Fh'  years  ou. 

a  smooth  surface;  the    ,'■  '■   ^'='"V'  nippers,  with  their   marks 
*  almost  entirely  worn  out.     2-  2.  Next  nip- 

next  is  niUch  worn,  pcrs,  showing  marks  partially  worn.  3.  3. 
««.^1  «-l^,^..„l,  ♦-l,^  -,^-„„-  Corner  nippers,  with  the  mark  phiinly  seen, 
and  though  the  corner  b„t  the  edges  pkrtially  worn.  44-.  'f '"hes 
teeth  show  the    mark^^l^  the  grooves  inside  almost  obliterated. 

distinctly,  they  also  indicate  considerable  wear.  The 
tush  is  prominent;  the  outer  surface  convex,  the  inner 
concave,  the  edges  clear  and  sharp.     The  sixth  molar 


Fig.  8. —  The  Lower  Nippers 

a  Six-Vear'Old  Horse. 


general  run  of  cases. 
Up  to  the  age  of  six, 


is  full-grown,  and  the  third  has  made  way  for  the  per- 
manent tooth.     These  are  the  teeth  which  furnish  the 

best  evidence  as  to 
age,  in  case  of  doubt. 
The  mouth  of  the 
six-year-old  i  s  t  h  e 
last  which  affords 
any  reliable  ground 
o  f  judgment  as  to 
exact  age.  The  nip- 
p  e  r  s  0/  the  lower 
jaw  are  known  to 
wear  out  two  years 
sooner  than  those  of 
the  upper  jaw,  so 
'^Tushes  oj  that  up  to  the  eight 
years,  the  horses' age 

Thelowerjaw.     i.  i.  The  central  nippers,  j^-, ay    bc    determined 
with  the  marks  worn   out.     2.  2.    1  he   next       .  r         ,         ,  , 
nippers  with  the  marks  disappearing.       3.  3.  With  tolerable    aCCU- 
Thecornernippers,  showing  the  mark  plamly  j^        pvTmi'ninrr 

enough,  but  with  the  edges  ofthe  cavity  con-  racy     Oy     exammmg 

siderably  worn      4.  4.  The  tushes,  standing  them  later,     VSX     the 
up  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  with  their  points 
only  slightly  blunted. 

up  to  the  age  of  eight  years, 
the  nippers  of  each 
jaw  are  nearly  vertical 
to  one  another;  after 
this  age  they  begin  to 
stand  outwards  from 
the  straight  line,  and,  | 
in  the  very  old  horse, 
form  a  sharp  angle. 
At  the  age  of  eight 
(Fig.  9),  the  upper 
nippers  present  much 
the  same  marks  as  the 
lower  nippers  do  at 
si.x.  Both  tushes  are 
much   worn   away   at 

the  points the    upper  Fig.    q.— upper    Nippers    in  the 

ones  more  than  the    .    .  .   .^"^"-0^ Horse. 

-  A.  Anterior  maxillary  bone.     i.  i.  Ccn- 

iOWer.  tral  nippers,  worn  to  a  plane  surface.  2.  2. 

At-    r>ino    \Ti^.:ira      tVi<>  N"' P^'"^'  still  showing  a  slight  remnant 

Ai  nme  years,  ^n^oHhtc2.v\ty.    3.3.  Corner  nippers,  show- 
upper   middle    nippers '"g'he  mark  plainly  enough.  4.  4.  Tushes, 
.,  1^1  more  worn  down  than  in  the  lower  jaw  of 

are  thoroughly  worn  the  six-year-old  mouth, 
down ;  the  second  pair  have  still  a  faint  mark 
left  and  the  corner  nippers  nothing  but  a  dark 
stain  without  any  central  depression.  After  the 
ninth  year  the  age  of  the  horse  is  a  matter  of  conjec- 
ture. The  teeth  increase  in  length  and  are  more  in 
a  line  with  the  jaw.  The  visible  section  of  each 
nipper,  instead  of  being  oval,  becomes  more  and  more 
triangular,  and  the  tooth  becomes  almost  round.  The 
teeth  assume  a  dirty  yellow  tint,  with  brown  and 
black  streaks.  The  tushes  wear  down  to  a  very 
diminutive  size,  and  frequently  one  or  both  drop  out. 
In  addition  to  what  has  been  already  said  touching 
the  punching  out  of  the  milk  nippers,  it  may  be  well 
to  state  here  that  dealers  not  unfrequently  saw  all 
the  nippers  of  an  old  horse  off  to  the  length  which 
they  have  in  the  six-year  old.  The  teeth,  too,  are  oc- 
casionally burned  to  a  properly  regulated  depth.     As 


f  Eight' 


68o 


HORSE. 


in  most  of  these  cases  only  the  experienced  eye  can 
detect  the  deception,  it  would  be  next  to  impossible 
to  give  rules  for  the  uncloaking  of  the  fraud. 

After  the  horse  passes  his  ninth  year  his  age  cannot 
be  told  with  absolute  certainty,  yet  by  studying  the 
changes  after  that  time  a  good  judge  will  not  miss  it 
far.  The  following  are  the  changes  as  indicated  after 
the  animal  passes  his  ninth  year : 

At  nine  years,  the  middle  nippers  are  rounded  on 
the  inner  side,  the  oval  of  the  second  pair  and  of  the 
corner  teeth  becomes  broader,  the  central  enamel  is 
nearer  to  the  inner  side,  and  the  marks  have  disap- 
peared from  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 

At  ten  years,  the  second  pair  are  rounded  on  the 
inner  side,  and  the  central  enamel  is  very  near  to  the 
inner  side. 

At  eleven  years,  the  corner  teeth  are  rounded,  and 
the  central  enamel  becomes  very  narrow. 

At  twelve  years,  the  nippers  are  all  rounded,  and 
the  central  enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the 
lower  jaw,  but  it  may  still  be  seen  in  the  upper  jaw. 

At  thirteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  commence  to 
assume  a  triangular  form  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  the 
central  enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  cor- 
ner teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 

At  fourteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  have  become 
triangular,  and  the  second  pair  are  assuming  that 
form.  The  central  enamel  has  diminished  in  the 
middle  nippers  of  the  upper  jaw. 

At  fifteen  years,  the  second  pair  have  become  tri- 
angular; the  central  enamel  is  still  visible  in  the 
upper  jaw. 

At  sixteen  years,  all  of  the  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw 
have  become  triangular,  and  the  central  enamel  is 
entirely  removed  from  the  second  pair  in  the  upper 
jaw. 

At  seventeen  years,  the  sides  of  the  triangle  of  the 
middle  nippers  are  all  of  the  same  length;  the  cen- 
tral enamel  has  entirely  disappeared  from  the  upper 
teeth. 

At  eighteen  years,  the  sides  of  the  triangle  of  the 
middle  nippers  are  longer  at  the  sides  of  the  teeth 
than  in  front. 

At  nineteen  years,  the  middle  nippers  become  flat- 
tened from  side  to  side,  and  long  froip  front  to  rear. 

At  twenty  years,  the  second  pair  assume  the  same 
form. 

At  twenty-one  years,  all  of  the  teeth  of  the  lower 
jaw  have  become  flattened  from  side  to  side,  their 
greatest  diameter  being  exactly  the  reverse  of  what  it 
it  was  in  youth. 

The  Thorax.  As,  in  subsequent  ]X)rtions  of  this 
article,  much  will  have  to  be  said  touching  the  treat- 
ment of  the  horse  in  disease,  especially  when  either 
distance  from  a  city  or  a  sudden  emergency  renders 
it  impossible  or  very  difficult  to  procure  the  services 
of  a  qualified  veterinarian,  the  chief  parts  of  the 
horse's  trunk  will  here  be  briefly  explained,  so  as  to 
render  the  treatment  of  the  animal  under  such  cir- 
cumstances more  intelligent  and  consequently  more 
humane. 


The  thorax,  which  has  already  been  mentioned  and 
explained  in  connection  with  the  bone-structure  sur- 
rounding it,  is  what  is  usually  termed  the  chest,  and 
contains  the  breathing  and  blood-circulating  appara- 
tus of  the  horse.  The  oesophagus,  connecting  the 
pharynx  with  the  stomach,  passes  through  it.  These 
organs  of  circulation  and  respiration  are  covered  with 
smooth  serous  membranes,  ihej>/eura  awApericardium. 
The  former  of  these  two  covers  the  lungs,  except  at 
their  roots,  where  the  blood-vessels  and  air-tubes  enter 
them.  It  is  then  called  tlie  pleura  pulmonalis  (lung 
pleura).  It  also  covers  the  ribs,  enabling  them  to 
contract  and  expand  with  ease,  by  the  gliding  of  one 
surface  against  the  other.  The  name  then  given  it  is 
the  pleura  eostalis  (costal  or  rib  pleura).  These  two 
together  form  a  bag,  which  holds,  in  health,  only  suffi- 
cient serum  to  lubricate  its  walls;  in  disease  this 
amount  increases  indefinitely,  frequently  leading  to 
dropsy  or  a  great  mass  of  pus,  where  severe  inflam- 
mation of  the  membrane  exists. 

Of  the  heart  and  its  action  it  is  unnecessary  to  treat 
here,  the  subject  being  familiar  to  every  one,  as  well 
as  the  action  of  the  lungs.  It  is  more  important  to 
describe  briefly  the  abdominal  and  pelvic  viscera  (in- 
testines). The  digestive  organs  lie  immediately  be- 
hind the  thorax,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  a 
thin  wall  of  membrane  called  the  diaphragm.  The 
space  in  which  these  organs  are  contained  is  called 
the  abdomen.  It  is  capable  of  very  great  distension. 
The  movement  of  the  diaphragm  in  the  act  of  breath- 
ing causes  the  flanks  of  the  animal  to  rise  and  fall, 
and  thus  indicates  either  the  distress  of  exhaustion  or 
any  peculiarity  of  breathing,  such  as  "broken  wind" 
or  the  various  inflammatory  conditions  of  the  lungs. 
In  their  natural  condition  the  abdominal  muscles 
slope  gently  from  their  costal  (rib)  to  their  pelvic 
attachments  or  ligaments.  Consetiuently  the  width 
and  depth  of  the  pelvis  and  back  ribs  indicate  the 
normal  capacity  of  the  abdomen.  Narrow,  shallow 
back  ribs  usually  indicate  weakness  of  the  digestive 
organs  in  the  horse.  The  abdomen  contains  the 
stomach,  liver,  spleen,  pancreas,  the  mesenteric  (mid- 
dle intestine)  and  chyle-bearing  ducts,  the  kidneys, 
with  their  vessels  and  nerves.  Of  these  organs,  some, 
such  as  the  kidneys  and  pancreas,  are  attached  close 
to  the  spinal  column  ;  others  glide  ujion  each  other, 
this  motion  being  facilitated  by  a  serous  coat,  similar 
to  the  pleura,  called  i\\Q  peritoneum  (C)reek,  to  si  retch 
around).  The  barbarity  of  those  who,  kicking  the 
horse  under  the  belly,  as  is  not  unfrequently  done, 
injure  these  imjxjrtant  organs,  is  at  once  manifest. 

The  stomach  is  situated  on  the  left  side  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  just  behind  the  diaphragm.  It  is 
pear-sha})ed,  has  two  openings,  two  surfaces  and  two 
bags,  usually  divided  by  a  narrow  neck.  Generally  in 
the  horse  of  medium  size  it  will  hold  about  three  gal- 
lons. The  intestines  are  divided  into  large  and  small, 
and  measure,  in  an  average-sized  horse,  from  eighty 
to  ninety  feet  in  length.  They  extend  from  the  stom- 
ach to  the  arms.  The  small  intestines  range  between 
an  inch  and  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  except  at 


HORSE. 


68 1 


their  forward  orifice,  where  they  are  much  enlarged, 
forming,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  smaller  stomach.  They 
are  tied  to  the  upper  walls  of  the  abdomen  by  the 
mesentery,  and  thus  become  folded.  The  mucous 
coat  of  the  stomach  presents  innumerable  little  pro- 
jections, like  the  pile  of  a  velvet  carpet;  through 
these  the  chyle  is  taken  up.  The  large  intestines  are 
shorter  than  the  small  ones  by  two-thirds.  They  are 
gathered  up  in  jwuches  or  cells  by  a  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  longitudinal  muscular  fibers.  The  mu- 
cous membrane  is  sparely  furnished  with  these  pro- 
jections, called  villi,  and  they  become  rarer  towards 
the  rectum.  The  liver  is  close  to  the  right  side  of  the 
diaphragm.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  it.  It  is 
enveloped  by  the  peritoneum,  except  at  the  entrance 
and  exit  of  the  large  veins.  The  bile  seems  designed 
to  dissolve  the  fatty  matter  contained  in  the  food,  and 
to  stimulate  the  intestines  in  their  functions.  The 
function  of  the  spleen  is  involved  in  doubt;  that  of 
the  pancreas  is  believed  to  be  similar  to  the  action  of 
the  saliva.  The  right  kidney  is  completely  within  the 
ribs;  the  left  barely  advances  beyond  the  eighteenth 
rib.  The  average  kidney  of  the  horse  weighs  about 
two  pounds  eight  ounces.  The  pelvis  contains,  in 
both  sexes,  the  bladder,  rectum  and  organs  of  genera- 
tion. The  bladder  occupies  the  middle  space  of  the 
pelvis,  and,  according  as  it  is  full  or  empty,  occupies 
more  or  less  of  the  space  of  the  abdomen. 

The  Nervuus  System  is  to  the  horse,  indeed,  to 
all  animated  beings,  the  fountain  of  motive  power. 
It  is  comjxjsed  of  two  different  colored  substances, 
the  one  grey  and  granular,  the  other  white  and 
fibrous.  The  former  is  the  reservoir  of  all  nervous 
power;  the  latter  simply  forms  the  line  of  its  communi- 
cation from  the  brain  to  any  part  of  the  body. 

The  nose  of  the  horse  is  endowed  with  marvelous 
sensibility,  which  he  exercises  in  the  selection  of  his 
food. 

The  eye  is  a,  most  important  organ  in  the  horse, 
and  deserves  some  detail,  inasmuch  as  ignorance  of 
its  construction  and  needs  has  been  the  cause  of  un- 
told suffering  to  the  horse,  and  has  added  consider- 
ably to  the  chapter  of  dreadful  but  unavoidable 
accidents.  In  the  eye  of  the  horse  there  are  three  hu- 
mors, which  perform  the  office  of  lenses,  and  concen- 
trate the  rays  of  light  on  the  back  part  of  the  eye, 
called  the  retina.  These  humors  are :  The  aqueous 
(watery),  the  crystalline  lens,  and  the  vitreous  humor 
(glassy).  The  first  is  a  perfectly  clear  fluid,  which  is 
rapidly  renewed  when  it  is  let  out  by  puncturing ;  the 
second  is  as  hard  as  a  stiff  jelly,  and  is  arranged  in 
layers  having  a  common  center  like  an  onion.  It  is 
a  double  convex  lens.  Behind  it  is  the  vitreous  hu- 
mor, confined  in  a  series  of  transparent  cells.  Upon 
the  absolute  transparency  of  these  humors  and  the 
proper  shape  of  the  parts  containing  them  depends  the 
sight  of  the"  horse.  The  same  causes  which  affect 
the  sight  in  man  will  affect  it  in  the  horse.  Too  great 
convexity  of  the  anterior  coat  produces  what  is  called 
the  "buckeye,"  and  leads  to  shying,  which,  when  it 
proceeds  from  this  cause,  is  always  incurable.    The 


outer  membrane  of  the  eye  is  called  the  sclerotic 
tunic;  the  second  the  "choroid;"  the  third  the 
"  retina,"  which  is  an  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve. 
The  membrane  which  protects  the  exposed  surface  of 
the  eye  is  called  the  "conjunctiva."  The  eyelids 
need  not  be  described.  The  haw  is  a  cartilage  lying 
within  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  and  is  termed  the 
membrana  nictitans.  It  can  be  thrust  outwards  so  as 
to  partially  cover  the  eye.  This  happens  when  any 
irritating  substance  strikes  the  surface  of  the  eye. 
The  lachrymal  or  weeping  apparatus  consists  of  the 
lachrymal  gland,  situated  beneath  the  outer  wall  of 
the  eye-ball,  and  secretes  a  fluid  which  is  intended  to 
relieve  the  eye  of  any  foreign  bodies  which  may  be 
present  in  it. 

The  ear  is  divided  into  the  external  and  internal 
ear.  The  former  collects  sounds;  the  latter  conveys 
it  inwards.  The  sense  of  touch  would  seem,  in  the 
horse,  to  reside  chiefly  in  the  lips,  and  to  some  extent 
in  the  feet. 

The  anatomy  of  the  foot  is  very  important  for  every 

man  to  understand. 
Observe,  in  the  cut, 
that  there  is  very  lit- 
tle space  between 
the  main  bone  and 
the  hoof,  and  that 
therefore,  in  case  of 
inflammation,  there 
is  no  room  for  swell- 
ing, and  the  pain 
must  be  intense.  The 
three  parts  of  the 
hoof  are  the  external 
wall,  or  crust,  the 
sole,  and  the  frog;  the 
latter  is  the  triangu- 
lar central  portion. 
The  crust  reaches 
from  the  hairy  edge 

YiG.io.— Lower  Part  0/ Leg  and  Foot,    of   the    skin    tO    the 

ground,  averaging  3J^  inches  in  this  extent.  The 
front  is  the  toe,  the  hinder  part  the  heel,  and  the  sides 
are  termed  the  "quarter-hoofs."  The  front  of  the 
crust  is  rather  more  than  a  half  an  inch  in  thickness, 
diminishing,  in  the  fore  feet,  to  one-fourth  inch  toward 
the  rear  portion.  The  hinder  hoofs  are  about  the 
same  thickness  all  around.  The  sole  is  slightly  con- 
cave downwards,  and  is  fixed  to  the  inner  side  and 
not  the  lower  edge,  of  the  external  hoof.  Its  usual 
thickness  is  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch,  and  consists 
of  plates  which  are  easily  separated.  In  the  middle 
of  the  frog  is  a  cleft,  the  sides  of  which  should  form 
an  angle  of  about  45".  In  front  of  this  cleft  is  a  solid 
wedge  of  the  substance  of  the  frog,  and  is  called  the 
"cushion."  The  hoof  grows  by  elongation  simply, 
and  not  by  spreading  out. 

VARIOUS    BREEDS   OF    HORSES. 

The  horse,  no  doubt,  existed  originally  in  a  wild 
state,  as  it  does  now  in  Spwth  America  and  Tartary, 


682 


HORSE. 


but  at  what  period  it  was  subjected  to  the  dominion 
of  man  cannot  be  determined.  All  the  civilized  na- 
tions of  the  ancient  world  of  whom  we  have  any  his- 
torical records  not  only  possessed  this  animal  in  a 
domesticated  state,  but  set  a  high  value  upon  it, 
bestowing  great  pains  in  training  and  improving  its 
various  breeds  or  races.  The  origin  of  those  breeds 
is  likewise  unknown,  but  they  were  most  probably  pro- 
duced by  the  circumstances  of  variety  in  climate,  food, 
and  shelter  during  a  long  succession  of  ages,  assisted 
afterward  by  the  effects  of  domestication  in  different 
countries.  Climate  has  great  influence  upon  the  forms 
of  animals,  and,  in  general,  a  species  is  found  in- 
digenous to  each  country  whose  form  best  fits  it  for 
supporting  its  existence  there.  Thus,  in  the  arid 
plains  of  the  East,  where  herbage  is  scarce,  the  horse 
is  found  to  jxjssess  a  form  which  enables  it  to  transport 
itself  with  great  rapidity  from  one  sjxjt  to  another, 
without  permitting  his  weight  to  cause  it  to  sink  in  the 
sandy  deserts.  In  cold  countries,  on  the  contrary,  his 
size  is  diminutive,  but  his  compactness  and  strength, 
as  well  as  his  coarse,  shaggy  coat,  enable  him  to  resist 
the  severity  of  the  weather.  In  temperate  climes, 
where  these  causes  do  not  operate,  and  where  vege- 
tation affords,  by  its  luxuriance,  more  nutriment,  we 
no  longer  see  him  equally  small  or  slender,  but,  with 
great  capacity  still  for  progression,  possessed  of  more 
beautiful  proportions,  with  superior  muscular  jxjwer, 
varying  considerably  in  his  qualities,  which  are  adapted 
'  to  the  purpose  of  war,  hunting,  parade,  the  saddle, 
'and  draught. 

•  The  indigenous  horse  of  every  country  has  been 
modified  by  cultivation,  and  the  native  breeds  have  at 
one  time  or  other  been  more  or  less  mixed  with  other 
varieties  with  a  view  to  improvement.  What  is  meant 
bv  purity  of  blood  is  the  result  of  limiting  the  propa- 
gation of  particular  races,  and  preventing  other  races 
from  mixing  with  them.  The  native  races  of  some 
countries  are  distinguished  and  esteemed  above  others 
for  their  peculiar  qualities. 

American  Thorough-breds.  The  Thorough-breds 
are  cultivated  in  great  perfection  in  the  United  States. 
Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  they  are  able  to 
carry  their  colors  to  the  front  in  competition  with  the 
most  formidable  horse  kingdoms  of  Europe.  The 
English  race-horses  have  been  the  acknowledged 
champions  of  the  world  for  two  centuries.  They  have 
met  and  defeated  the  far-famed  Arabian  courser  on 
the  scorching  sands  of  Bengal,  conquered  those  fiibled 
kings  of  the  wind  on  their  native  soil.  They  have 
ranged  through  the  frozen  regions  of  Russia,  and  de- 
feated all  the  best  horses  in  those  vast  dominions  of 
absolute  monarchy.  France,  that  great  nation  of 
horsemen,  has  been  compelled  to  strike  her  racing 
colors  to  the  stout  English  courser,  that  has  trampled 
them  in  the  dust  for  unnumbered  generations.  All 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  have  been  compelled  to  ac- 
knowledge the  superiority  of  the  Thorough-bred  En- 
glish courser.  Yet  notwithstanding  its  remarkable 
fleetness,  and  its  long  and  universal  reign,  it  is  com- 
pelled, in  the  humility  of  many  a  defeat,  to  acknowl- 


edge the  superiority  of  the  American  Thorough-bred. 

Iroquois,  an  American  three-year-old,  sent  over  the 
Atlantic  in  1881,  to  test  the  speed  and  bottom  of  the 
English  race-horse,  has  won  the  Derby,  the  most  pop- 
ular race,  and  the  largest  three-year-old  stakes  in 
England,  that  calls  out  the  flower  of  the  three-year- 
old  flyers  of  Britain.  Iroquois,  to  clinch  his  superior 
three-year-old  form  over  English-bred  colts,  won  the 
Prince  of  Wales  stakes  at  Ascot,  under  a  penalty  of 
nine  jxjunds  for  winning  the  Derby.  He  won  seven 
out  of  nine  starts,  with  all  their  penalties.  Iroquois 
conies  out  of  his  three-year-old  form  with  his  flag  fly- 
ing at  the  lop-mast.  He  has  not  only  the  credit  of 
beating  the  best  three-year-olds  in  the  great  racing 
metropolis  of  the  world,  but  has  the  good  fortune  to 
bring  to  his  owner  material  aid  of  over  $78,000  in 
stakes. 

Foxhall,  another  American-bred  colt  sent  over  from 
this  side  of  the  ocean  to  try  conclusions  with  the  best 
blood  of  Europe  in  1 881,  won  the  gran3  prize  of  Paris, 
the  most  popular  race  of  France,  the  great  sporting 
event  of  Europe,  with  stakes  of  $30,000  hung  up  to 
the  winner,  open  to  the  world.  It  brings  together  the 
best  horses  of  the  continent,  buckled  up  with  their 
armor,  to  compete  for  this  grand  prize  and  the  honors 
of  victory.  The  omens  of  victory  are  more  stimulating 
than  the  rewards.  They  stand  as  an  enduring  mon- 
ument to  the  victor.  They  immortalize  the  winner  by 
presaging  their  descent  to  posterity  as  the  great  cham- 
pions of  the  age.  Foxhall  had  no  "  splinters  "  to  con- 
test with.  He  was  confronted  with  the  most  powerful 
racers  of  Europe,  who  congregate  together  in  the 
beautiful  climate  of  France  to  develop  their  speed. 
Foxhall  vanquished  the  whole  with  remarkable  ease, 
and  had  run  in  him  left  over  to  beat  the  English 
three-year-olds  on  their  own  soil.  He  won  nearly  all 
his  engagements  in  England  after  being  penalized  by 
extra  weights  for  beating  their  faint-hearted  colts,  ac- 
cording to  English  rules  of  bringing  down  the  speed 
of  a  good  colt  to  the  capacity  of  their  light-waisted 
three-year-olds.  It  shows  Foxhall  to  be  far  better 
than  EngHsh  colts  of  the  present  year  by  taking  up 
nine  pounds  and  bearing  them  with  extra  weight  on 
their  own  soil. 

Parole,  a  few  years  ago,  when  he  won  the  Newmar- 
ket stakes  and  captured,  in  another  race,  the  City  and 
Suburban  stakes,  etc.,  finally  won  three  out  of  his  six 
first  starts  in  England,  gave  notice  to  Englishmen 
that  their  horses  must  run  from  end  to  end  to  beat  the 
American  horses  on  the  turf. 

The  first  authentic  account  of  Thorough-breds  im- 
ported into  this  country  was  Spark,  presented  by  Lord 
Baltimore  to  Gov.  Ogle,  of  Maryland.  The  date  of 
his  landing  is  not  known.  It  must  have  been  previous 
to  1750,  because  the  Pririce  of  Wales,  who  presented 
Spark  to  Lord  Bahimore,  died  in  1751,  and  these 
transactions  took  place  long  before  his  death.  Gov. 
Ogle  also  imported  Queen  Mab,  by  Musgrave's  gray 
Arabian,  into  Maryland.  About  1750,  Col.  Tasker, 
of  Maryland,  imported  from  England  the  celebrated 
mare  Selima,  by  the  Godolphin  Arabian.    Her  de- 


HORSE. 


683 


scendants  were  among  the  most  distinguished  racers 
in  the  early  annals  of  America. 

Gov.  Ogle  set  a  worthy  example  to  his  successors 
by  introducing  to  the  breeding  community  these  famous 
thorough-breds  that  have  perpetuated  a  race  of  worthy 
descendants,  and  stand  as  a  living  monument  to  mark 
the  public  spirit  of  their  early  patron  and  founder. 
The  immediate  successors  of  Gov.  Ogle  followed  his 
example,  and  encouraged  an  enterprising  public 
spirit  by  keeping  a  breeding  stud  to  improve  the  breed 
of  horses. 

These  importations  were  followed  by  several  stallions 
and  a  few  mares.  Fearnaught,  son  of  Regulus,  was 
landed  in  Virginia  in  1764,  and  also  Morton's  Trav- 
eler by  Partner,  grandson  of  the  Byrley  Turk,  and 
grandsire  of  King  Herod. 

These,  together  with  Jolly  Rogers  and  a  few  others, 
bred  to  those  imported  mares  Selima,  Kitty  Fisher, 
Jenny  Cameri^,  and  Miss  Colville,  may  be  said  to 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  American  race-horse. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  tlie  Revolution,  this  foreign 
traffic  in  equine  celebrities  was  suspended.  Every 
able-bodied  man  had  to  buckle  on  the  armor  of  war, 
to  defend  his  hearthstone  and  drive  the  invader  from 
our  soil.  At  the  conclusion  of  peace,  the  imiX)rtation 
of  horses  was  revived,  and  such  distinguished  stallions 
as  Medley  and  Shark  were  introduced  into  Virginia; 
the  latter  was  got  by  Marske,  the  sire  of  Eclipse. 
Diomed  was  brought  over  to  Virginia  in  1798.  He 
was  by  Florizel,  a  son  of  King  Herod.  He  was  one 
of  the  best,  if  not  at  the  head,  of  all  the  stallions  bred 
in  England.  Also,  imp.  Bedford  by  Dunganon,  was 
brought  into  Virginia.  Dunganon,  the  sire  of  Bedford, 
was  by  Eclipse,  out  of  Aspasia  by  Herod  (a  fashion- 
able pedigree),  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  popular 
sires  in  Great  Britain.  He  had  a  roach-back,  called 
in  racing  parlance  the  Bedford  hump,  which  he  trans- 
mitted to  his  posterity.  It  has  been  carried  to  the 
front  in  triumph  over  some  of  the  best  horses  on  the 
American  turf. 

Diomed  was  unquestionably  the  greatest  sire  of  get- 
ters of  winners  that  ever  stepped  his  foot  on  American 
soil.  Had  he  gotten  no  other  celebrity  than  Sir 
Archy  he  would  have  established  a  reputation  that 
would  last  as  long  as  the  horse  finds  admirers.  There 
was  not  a  winner  of  any  repute  for  half  a  century  that 
did  not  carry  in  his  veins  the  blood  of  Diomed.  Those 
great  champions  that  won  their  laurels  upon  the  turf, 
and  made  the  course  memorable  by  their  wonderful 
achievements,  were  nearly  all  of  this  blood.  They 
include  Eclipse,  Henry,  Sir  Archy,  Boston,  Lexington, 
Lecomte,  and  a  host  of  others,  whose  indomitable  en- 
ergy and  iron  will,  inherited  from  Diomed,  carried 
them  in  triumph  over  their  most  formidable  compet- 
itors to  victory  and  renown.  It  was  unexampled 
speed  and  the  courage  to  continue  it  to  the  finish  that 
Diomed  transmitted  to  his  posterity.  His  vital  powers 
were  ^o  strong  that  he  entailed  his  speed  to  the  fifth 
and  sixth  generation  of  his  descendants.  Nearly  all 
the  horses  up  to  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
that  became  distinguished  on  the  turf,  or  celebrated 


in  the  stud,  came  down  from  this  grand  old  hero  of 
stallions. 

Eclipse;  was  by  Duroc,  son  of  Diomed.  Eclipse  was 
never  beaten,  and  never  paid  forfeit.  He  was  retired 
from  the  turf  to  the  stud  when  in  the  palm  of  his 
glory,  with  the  champion's  wreath  girded  upon  his 
saddle,  where  he  became  as  successful  as  he  had  been 
distinguished  on  the  turf. 

Sir  Archy,  the  best  son  of  Diomed,  was  never  beaten 
nor  did  he  ever  meet  a  horse  that  could  make  him  ex- 
tend himself,  or  put  him  to  his  full  speed  towards  the 
close  of  a  race.  He  went  into  the  stud  in  the  prime 
of  life — when  there  was  none  that  dared  to  compete 
with  him  on  the  turf — where  he  sired  more  winners 
than  any  other  horse,  living  or  dead. 

Boston  was  probably  the  best  race-horse  of  his  day, 
and  the  equal  of  any  horse  of  any  age.  He  was  long 
on  the  turf,  and  never  fairly  beaten  but  once,  and 
that  when  out  of  condition,  by  the  fast  mare  Fashion. 
The  owners  of  Boston  offered  to  match  Fashion  asec- 
ond  time  for  $20,000,  but  the  profxisition  was  refused. 
This  showed  the  confidence  on  both  sides.  The  own- 
ers of  the  mare  were  satisfied  with  a  single  victory 
over  such  a  formidable  competitor,  without  sacrificing 
the  reputation  of  their  noble  animal  by  the  doubtful 
issue  of  a  second  attempt.  The  confiding  public  were 
always  on  the  side  of  this  great  son  of  Timelion,  the 
hero  of  so  many  battles,  and  would  defy  Fashion  or 
any  other  race-horse  to  beat  Boston  when  at  himself. 
Boston  was  on  the  course  six  years,  starting  thirty- 
eight  times,  and  winning  thirty-five  races — twenty-six 
of  these  at  four-mile  heats,  and  seven  at  three-mile 
heats.  His  winnings  amounted  to  the  large  sum  of 
$49,500. 

For  further  history  and  characteristics  of  the  Amer- 
ican»thorough-bred,  see  Thorough-breds  in  this  article. 

American  Trotter.  The  true  modern  trotting 
horse  is  a  most  remarkable  instance  of  what  may 
be  done  by  keeping  an  animal  to  one  kind  of  work  for 
generations,  and  selecting  the  specimens  best  fitted 
for  it  to  breed  from.  He  cannot  be  called  a  distinct 
breed,  and  will  almost  invariably  be  found  to  be  a 
cross  between  the  thorough-bred  and  some  more  ro- 
bust and  hardier  native  horse.  Some  have  come  from 
Canada;  some  from  the  country  horse  of  the  Middle 
States ;  some  from  the  Vermont  family ;  some  from 
the  Indian  pony,  and  lastly,  some  mainly  if  not  en- 
tirely from  the  thorough-bred.  To  no  one  of  these 
families  can  any  superiority  be  attributed  as  produ- 
cing trotters  of  great  speed.  All  have  shown  their 
specimens  by  means  of  which  to  claim  their  share  in 
the  production.  Only  it  may  be  affirmed,  generally, 
that  while  some  very  famous  trotting  horses  have  been 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  thorough-bred,  they  are  not 
generally  compatible  with  good  trotting  action  or 
speed.  Still,  it  is  true  the  best  time  trotters  have  not 
the  round,  high-stepped  action  which  is  prized  in  car- 
riage horses,  or  parade  horses  for  show,  and  that  they 
have  in  a  great  measure  the  long  reaching  stride,  the 
quick  gather,  and  the  comparatively  low  step  of  the 
thorough-bred.    The  first  time  ever  a  horse  trotted  in 


684 


HORSE. 


public,  in  America,  for  a  stake,  was  in  1818,  and  that 
was  a  match  against  lime  for  ^1,000.  The  match  was 
proposed  at  a  jockey-club  dinner,  where  trotting  had 
come  under  discussion,  and  the  bet  was  that  no  horse 
could  be  produced  that  could  trot  a  mile  in  three 
minutes.  The  horse  named  at  the  post  was  "  Boston 
Blue,"  who  won  by  a  close  shave  and  gained  great  re- 
nown. He  was  a  rat-tailed,  iron-gray  gelding,  16 
hands  high,  and  nothing  is  known  of  his  pedigree. 
Since  that  date  the  performances  of  trotting,  as  well 
as  running  and  pacing  horses,  in  America,  may  be 
found  under  the  head  of  Speed. 

The  essential  quality  of  speed,  at  any  gait,  is  a 
certain  organization  of  the  nervous  system,  and  this  is 
the  one  thing  needful  in  every  case.  This  is  what 
we  breed  for  when  we  breed  for  speed ;  this  is  the 
quality  that  has  been  transmitted  through  so  many 
generations  from  the  progenitors  of  American  trotters. 
We  can  not  detect  this  peculiarity  of  organization  by 
any  outward  sign  ;  we  can  know  of  it  only  by  its 
manifestations  in  action.  We  know  that  it  is 
hereditary,  and  we  also  know  that  it  may  be  associ- 
ated with  any  form.  We,  therefore,  must  respect  the 
pedigrees  of  the  horses  and  mares  we  breed  from,  and 
the  more  of  the'  trotting  quality  we  find  in  their  pedi- 
grees the  more  reason  we  will  have  for  expecting  a 
fast  colt.'  The  speed  should  be  in  both  families,  to 
make  its  inheritance  certain;  but  if  it  is  strongly  in- 
herited by  one  side,  we  may  reasonably  expect  all  of 
■  the  progeny  to  go  faster  than  the  parent  that  is  not 
'Speedy.  Thus  a  slow  mare  bred  to  a  good  trotting- 
•foal  getter  will  always  produce  faster  colts  than  she 
would  if  bred  to  a  slow  stallion  like  herself  No  trot- 
ter attains  his  greatest  speed  before  maturity,  and  the 
best  of  them  continue  to  improve  up  to  15  and  18 
years  of  age.  To  do  this  a  horse  must  have  a  good 
constitution,  one  that  will  carry  him  to  a  great  age 
without  disease,  and  will  stand  the  hard  work  neces- 
sary to  develop  his  powers.  Breeding  from  such 
horses  will  therefore  improve  the  stock  of  the  country, 
not  only  in  speed  but  also  in  stamina.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  Thorough-breds  for  running  races  has  been  of 
immense  benefit  to  the  road  stock  of  the  countr)'  by 
improving  its  speed  and  stamina,  and  by  giving  it 
better  form  and  style.  The  American  trotter  gets 
more  of  his  peculiar  excellence  from  the  Thorough- 
breds than  all  other  sources.  Since  the  first  trotting- 
match  in  America,  in  18 18,  when  the  trotring  of  a 
mile  in  three  minutes  was  considered  a  most  wonder- 
ful performance,  the  time  has  been  decreased,  by  the 
improvement  of  the  stock,  to  such  an  extent  that  in 
the  year  1881  Maud  S  trotted  her  mile  in  the  unprec- 
edented time  of  2  m.  \o%  s.,  and  with  like  improve- 
ment in  the  future,  none  can  tell  the  time  that  may 
be  recorded.  For  record  of  fastest  trotting-time,  see 
Speed. 

Arabian  Horse.  There  is  no  evidence  that  there 
were  horses  in  Arabia  900  years  before  the  time  of 
Christ ;  for  then,  while  Solomon  brought  silver  and 
gold  and  spices  from  Arabia,  he  brought  his  horses 
from  Egypt.     So  late  as  the  seventh  century  after 


Christ,  there  were  but  few  horses  in  Arabia,  for  when 
Mahomet  attacked  the  Koreish  near  Mecca,  he  had 
but  two  horses  in  his  army,  and  although  vast  numbers 
of  camels  and  sheep  were  carried  away,  and  immense 
plunder  in  silver,  not  a  single^  horse  is  mentioned  as 
a  part  of  the  spoils,  in  fact,  the  most  credible  testi- 
mony would  seem  to  show  that  the  horse  was  gradu- 
ally introduced  into  Arabia  at  a  comparatively  late 
period  from  Egypt,  from  whence,  also  from  the  same 
stock,  sprung  the  stock  of  horses  in  the  whole  south- 
eastern portion  of  Europe.  What  the  Arabians  have 
excelled  in  is  in  keeping  their  race  of  horses  pure  by 
the  most  careful  breeding  and  attention  to  keeping 
the  blood  pure  and  without  stain  of  intermixure. 

Travelers  differ  as  to  the  number  and  names  of  the 
distinct  breeds  of  horses  which  are  found  in  Arabia; 
but  Ali  Bey,  an  accurate  and  apparently  disinterested 
Oriental  writer,  describes  six  distinct  breads  of  Arabds. 
The  first, "  Dgelfe,"  is  found  in  Arabia  Felix.  They  are 
lofty  in  stature,  with  long  ears,  narrow  in  the  chest,  but 
are  deep  in  the  girth,  swift,  high-strung  animals,  and 
capable  of  supporting  hunger  and  thirst  for  a  longtime. 
The  second  breed,  named  "  Seclaoni,"  is  reared  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  desert  and  resembles  the  "  Dgelfe," 
but  is  not  considered  so  valuable.  The  third  breed, 
"  Mefki,"  is  handsome,  resemWing  the  Andalusian 
horse  in  figure,  but  not  remarkable  for  speed.  The 
fourth,  called  "  Sabi,"  resembles  the  "  Mefki."  The 
fifth,  named  "  Fridi,"  are  quite  common,  but  apt  to  be 
vicious.  The  sixth  breed,  named  "  Nejdi,"  is  from 
the  neighborhood  of  Bussorah,  is  considered  equal  to 
the  first  named  breed.  Other  writers  make  men- 
tion of  but  three  distinct  breeds,  to  which  they  attrib- 
ute names  different  from  those  above  given. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  pure  bred  Ara- 
bian may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

He  stands  from  14  to  15  hands  in  height,  the  dif- 
ference depending  mainly  on  the  country  in  which 
he  is  bred,  and  the  amount  of  good  food  he  is  given 
as  a  colt.  In  shape  he  is  like  the  English  Thorough- 
bred, but  with  certain  differences.  The  principal  of 
these  is,  as  might  be  expected,  in  the  head,  for  when 
there  is  a  mixture  of  blood,  the  head  almost  always 
follows  the  least  beautiful  type  of  the  ancestors. 

The  head  of  the  Arabian  is  larger  in  proportion 
than  that  of  the  English  Thoroughbred,  and  is  extra- 
ordinary for  its  beauty.  The  ears  are  fine  and  beau- 
tifully shaped,  but  not  small.  The  eye  is  large  and 
mild;  the  forehead  prominent;  the  neck  is  light;  the 
shoulder  is  good ;  the  fore-arm  in  the  best  specimens 
is  of  great  strength,  the  muscle  standing  out  with 
great  prominence.  He  is  well  ribbed  and  stands 
higher  at  the  croup  than  at  the  wither.  The  tail  is 
set  on  high,  but  not  on  a  level  with  the  croup.  The 
tail  is  carried  high,  both  walking  and  galloping,  and 
this  point  is  much  looked  to  as  a  sign  of  breeding. 
The  hind-quarter  in  the  Arabian  is  much  narrower 
than  in  our  horses,  another  point  in  breeding 'which 
indicates  speed  rather  than  strength.  The  line  of  the 
hind-quarter  is  finer,  the  action  freer,  and  the  upper 
limb  longer  in  proportion  than  the  American  race 


HORSE. 


685 


horse.  The  hocks  are  larger,  better  let  down, 
and  not  so  straight.  The  cannon-bone  is  shorter. 
The  legs  are  strong,  but  with  less  bone  in  pro- 
portion than  back  sinew.  The  hoofs  are  round 
and  large,  and  very  hard.  In  disposition  the  Ara- 
bians are  gentle  and  affectionate ;  they  have  no  fear 
of  man,  and  will  allow  any  one  to  come  up  and  take 
them  by  the  head  when  grazing.  They  are  never 
vicious,  shy  or  show  signs  of  fear.  The  colors  mostly 
prevalent  among  them  are  bay,  gray  and  chestnut. 
Occasionally  a  black  is  found. 

The  B.^rb.  This  is  an  African  horse,  and  derives 
its  name  from  Barbary,  the  country  where  it  is  found. 
Barbary  embraces  the  States  of  Tunis,  Triix)li,  Algiers, 
B'ez  and  Morocco,  all  lying  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  to  the  west  of  Egypt. 

In  height,  he  is  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  hands ;  his 
chest  is  round ;  his  shoulders  are  broad  but  light,  and 
somewhat  obliquely  sloping;  his  withers  are  thin  and 
rather  high;  his  loins  are  straight  and  short;  his 
flanks  and  ribs  are  round  and  well  developed ;  his 
haunches  are  strong;  his  croup  is  somewhat  too  long 
for  nice  corresjwndence  with  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  his 
quarters  are  muscular  and  full ;  his  legs  are  clean 
and  the  tendons  are  clearly  marked  ;  his  pasterns, 
like  his  croup,  are  somewhat  too  long  and  slanting, 
but  not  so  much  so  as  to  amount  to  real  defect;  and 
his  feet  are  sound  and  of  good  shape.  But  his  head 
is  especially  beautiful.  It  is  small  and  lean,  while 
the  ears  are  of  medium  size  and  admirably  placed. 
The  mane  is  rather  meager;  but  the  neck  rises  boldly 
from  the  withers,  and  gives  an  impression  of  ease  and 
grace  in  carriage. 

In  spirit  and  fleetness  he  is  not  regarded  as  the 
equal  of  the  Arab,  much  less  of  the  real  Thorough- 
bred ;  but  in  a  certain  native  vigor  and  in  form  he  is 
superior. 

Canadian  Horse.  French  horses  were  brought 
over  into  Lower  Canada  in  the  early  settlement  of 
that  colony,  and  formed  the  principal  horse  stock  of 
Canada.  The  rigor  of  climate  and  scanty  fare  have 
somewhat  reduced  their  size  from  that  of  their  French 
ancestors;  still  they  retain  the  same  strong  make-up 
and  general  characteristics,  so  that  they  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  any  other  breed  as  readily  as  daylight 
can  be  distinguished  from  darkness.  They  consti- 
tute a  hardy  race  of  easy  keepers,  with  a  remarkably 
sound  constitution,  and  live  to  a  great  age.  From 
their  strong,  compact  form,  they  can  command  their 
strength  to  the  best  advantage.  There  is  nothing  but 
the  mule  that  will  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  hard 
work  equal  to  the  Canadian  French  pony.  They 
have  done  more  to  establish  the  trotting  horse  of  the 
United  States  than  they  have  ever  had  credit  for. 
The  cross  of  that  breed  with  those  ujxDn  this  side  of 
the  line,  on  account  of  their  sound  constitution,  has 
proved  the  salvation  of  several  other  breeds. 

Alexander's  Pilot,  Jr.,  the  founder  of  a  family  of 
trotters,  was  got  by  the  French  pacer  Pilot,  that  was 
converted  into  a  trotter.  Pilot,  Jr.,  was  the  sire  of  the 
dam  of  Maud  S  and  many  other  distinguished  trot- 


ters. The  original  Pilot  was  imported  from  Canada 
into  Kentucky,  and  numbers  among  his  descendants 
Bonesetter,  Pilot  Temple,  Tatler  and  Tackey,  who 
owed  their  great  speed  and  value  to  the  French  pacer 
Pilot.  Alexander's  Norman  was  got  by  a  half-breed 
French  horse — the  Morse  horse.  He  was  the  sire  of 
Lulu,  record  2:15.  Red  Jim,  the  fastest  three-year- 
old  of  his  time,  inherits  the  blood  of  Norman;  Black- 
wood, the  fastest  three-year-old  of  his  day,  was  a  son 
of  Norman.  Davy  Crockett,  a  French  pacer,  was  the 
progenitor  of  Legal  Tender,  Red  Cloud,  Red  Cross, 
and  some  of  the  best  horses  of  his  day  and  generation. 
Copper  Bottom,  a  French  pacer,  did  much  to  improve 
the  trotting  stock  of  Kentucky.  Blue  Bull,  it  has 
been  claimed,  was  sired  by  a  French  pacing  stallion. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  Blue  Bulls  in  the  2:30 
class.  Columbus  was  a  French  pacer,  brought  from 
Canada  into  the  States,  and  converted  into  a  trotter; 
he  was  the  sire  of  Young  Columbus,  that  has  filled 
the  Northern  States  with  trotters.  There  are  hosts  of 
the  decendants  of  old  Columbus  to  be  found  in  the 
2:30  class. 

The  black  mare  Kate,  bred  in  Canada,  sired  by  a 
French  stallion,  has  dropped  five  colts  to  Hamble- 
tonian  that  have  trotted  better  than  2:30.  Three  of 
them  are  on  record — Bruno,  2:29}^;  Breese,  2:24; 
Young  Bruno,  2:22^;  the  other  two,  Brunette  and 
Daniel  Boone,  are  ([uite  as  fast,  and  have  trotted  in 
public  better  than  2:30.  From  the  strict  technicahries 
of  racing  rules  they  have  never  been  put  on  the  record 
for  what  they  have  performed.  Susy,  the  dam  of 
Henry  Clay,  was  a  French  mare,  from  whose  lineage 
sprang  Geo.  M.  Patchen,  Lucy  and  American  Girl. 
Gift,  one  of  the  most  promising  colts  of  Mambrino 
Pilot,  was  out  of  a  French  pacing  mare.  The  dam 
and  grandam  of  Mambrino  Gift,  had  a  French  cross, 
as  well  as  his  grandsire  and  his  dam's  grandsire. 
This  stallion  had  the  gift  of  trotting  in  2:20.  Crobeau, 
St.  Laurence,  Grey  Eagle,  Andrew  Jackson,  Canada 
Chief,  Whirlwind,  Snow  Storm  and  Cceur  de  Lion, 
were  French  trotting  or  pacing  stallions,  brought  over 
from  Canada  into  the  United  States,  and  they  per- 
petuated the  trotting  or  pacing  element  to  a  large 
number  of  their  representatives. 

The  claims  of  the  French  Canadian  to  public  favor 
rest  upon  their  capacity  for  all  work,  as  the  general 
purpose  horse.  Their  sound  body,  wind  and  limb  is 
a  constitutional  inheritance  that  is  propagated  from 
generation  to  generation.  This  gives  them  an  advan- 
tage for  hard  service  over  other  breeds  of  less  consti- 
tutional vigor.  They  are  so  formed  that  they  can  use 
their  strength  to  the  best  advantage.  They  will  per- 
form more  labor,  at  less  expense  for  keeping,  than  any 
other  breed  of  horses  of  equal  weight.  Their  legs  are 
more  perfect  than  any  other  breed.  They  will  be 
found  hard  and  dry  to  the  touch  under  a  shaggy  coat 
of  hair.  These  levers  are  comixssed  of  solid  bone 
and  firm,  matted  sinews,  that  seldom  spring  at  the 
knee,  cock  at  the  ankle,  or  throw  out  curbs  or  spavins. 
Their  feet  are  unexceptionable.  Soft  feet  have 
proved  the  ruin  of  many  highly  pampered  breeds. 


686 


HORSE. 


They  are  short-coupled  from  the  knees  and  hocks 
down,  which  gives  good  purchase  power.  The  strong, 
muscular  thighs  and  fore-anns  complete  the  limbs 
and  make  them  strong  enough  to  support  the  body 
under  heavy  loads,  over  hills  and  hollows,  without 
.  tiring  out  or  breaking  down.  The  first-class  Canadian 
French  pony  will  weigh  about  1,200  pounds,  which  is 
large  enough,  with  their  powerful  form,  to  draw  a  dray 
or  any  other  heavy  draft ;  and  small  enough  to  be 
active  for  the  plow,  the  reaper,  mower,  light  buggy,  or 
family  carriage. 

The  prevailing  color  is  black,  but  browns  and  chest- 
nuts are  frequently  found,  sometimes  sorrels  and  duns 
and  occasionally  a  dark  iron-gray,  with  black  legs. 

Canadians  are  long-lived,  easily  kept  and  capable 
of  the  greatest  endurance.  They  are  heavy  enough 
for  the  purposes  of  the  farmer  and  as  roadsters.  While 
they  are  not  regarded  as  rapid  travelers,  they  main- 
tain a  reasonable  rate  of  speed,  say  six  miles  an  hour 
for  long  journeys,  and  continuously,  and  this  while 
carying  a  heavy  weight.  It  is  nothing  for  them  to  go 
fifty  miles  a  day  for  many  days  in  succession. 

Few  horses  are  entitled  to  more  consideration  at 
the  hands  of  those  who  would  obtain  the  best  medium- 
sized  and  easily  kept  animals  for  the  farm,  and  for 
medium  heavy  and  moderately  rapid  draft.  The 
breed,  chiefly  in  a  mixed  state,  is  widely  spread  in 
the  Northern  and  Eastern  States. 

Cleveland  Bays  have  long  been  celebrated  as  one 
of  the  best  breeds  for  draft.  They  were  originally 
bred  in  Yorkshire,  England.  The  Cleveland  Bay 
horse  was  capable  of  carrying  a  great  weight  and  of 
maintaining  under  it  a  rapid  rate  of  speed.  A  lighter 
horse  and  one  better  adapted  to  the  carriage  was  pro- 
duced by  crossing  the  Cleveland  mare  with  a  large 
thorough-bred  stallion.  The  Cleveland  Bays,  in  their 
pure  state,  are  nearly  extinct,  yet  from  them  a  very 
superior  animal  has  descended,  which,  after  several 
steps  and  gradations,  has  settled  down  into  a  family 
common  throughout  many  portions  of  England. 

Writing  of  their  origin.  Prof.  Lx)w  says :  "  It  is  the 
progressive  mixture  of  the  blood  of  horses  of  higher 
breeding  with  those  of  the  common  race  that  has  pro- 
duced the  variety  of  coach  horse  usually  termed 
Cleveland  Bay.  About  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
Cleveland  became  known  for  the  breeding  of  a  super- 
ior class  of  powerful  horses,  which,  with  the  gradual 
disuse  of  the  heavy  old  coach  horse,  became  in  request 
for  coaches,  chariots,  and  similar  carriages.  The 
district  of  Cleveland  owes  its  superiority  in  the  pro- 
duction of  this  beautiful  race  of  horses  to  the  posses- 
sion of  a  definite  breed,  formed  not  by  accidental 
mixture,  but  by  continued  cultivation." 

As  to  the  purity  of  the  blood  of  the  present  stock  of 
Cleveland  Bays,  or  the  distinctiveness  of  the  breed, 
some  doubt.  As  above  remarked  in  their  pure  state 
they  are  quite  if  not  altogether  extinct.  On  this  sub- 
ject the  editor  of  the  Breeders  Gazette,  under  date  of 
Feb  16,  1882,  makes  the  following  remarks.  The 
first  article  was  in  answer  to  an  inquiry  as  to  the  pe- 
culiar characteristics  of  the  Cleveland  Bays,  the  use 


to  which  he  is  adapted,  and  "  Is  there  such  a  thing  as 
a  breed  of  Cleveland  Bays  ?" 

'' '  Many  years  ago  there  was  a  classof  horses  bred  in 
portions  of  England,  notably  in  the  vale  of  Cleveland, 
in  Yorkshire,  known  as  Cleveland  Bays,  and  generally 
recognized  as  a  distinct  breed.  They  were  espe- 
cially adapted  to  use  on  the  coach.  All  modern 
writers,  so  far  as  we  are  aware,  agree  in  stating 
that  no  such  breed  is  now  recognized  in  England, 
and  that  the  Cleveland  Bay,  if  it  ever  existed  as 
a  breed,  has  become  extinct.  The  so-called  Cleve- 
land Bays  of  the  present  day  are  what  would  be  called 
in  this  country,  grades, — that  is,  they  are  produced 
by  breeding  large,  stylish,  high-stepping,  well-bred 
mares  to  Thorough-bred  stallions.  We  can  breed  just 
as  good  and  just  as  pure  Cleveland  Bays  in  this 
country,  and  of  substantially  the  same  blood  as  any 
that  are  bred  in  England.  We  have  the  same  material 
from  which  to  make  the  cross,  or  rather  the  grade.  • 
We  have  just  as  good  and  as  stout  Thorough-bred  sires, 
and  certainly  we  can  find  mares  equally  as  well 
adapted,  with  which  to  make  the  cross  that  pro- 
duces the  so-called  Cleveland  Bay  in  England.' 

"We  based  ouropinion  as  given  above  largely  upon 
information  obtained  through  personal  interviews  with 
many  intelligent  English  and  Scotch  breeders,  but 
more  especially  ujxin  the  fact  that,  nowhere  in  all  our 
reading  of  British  agricultural  papers  within  the  past 
ten  years,  have  we  seen  an  editorial  allusion  to  the 
Cleveland  Bays  as  a  distinct  breed  ;  neither  have  we 
seen  them  mentioned  in  any  of  the  reports  of  horse 
shows  in  that  country.  Clydesdales,  Cart-horses, 
Suffolks,  and  Thorough-breds  are  often  mentioned ;  and 
hunters  and  coach  horses  are  also  alluded  to,  but 
in  no  reports  do  we  find  a  reference  to  the  Cleveland 
Bay.  The  nearest  approach  that  we  have  been 
able  to  find  to  a  recognition  of  the  Cleveland  Bay 
as  a  breed  in  any  English  agricultural  paper  with- 
in ten  years  past,  is  the  following  from  the  London 
Live-Stock  Journal  oi 'iio\zmh&r  1 8th,  188 1  :" 

" '  The  Cleveland  that  some  people  write  about  is 
not  a  Cleveland ;  it  is  only  the  nearest  approach  to 
what  the  Cleveland  was  Hke.  If  there  is  such  a  thing 
as  a  pure  Cleveland  the  owner  should  stick  to  him; 
the  breed,  it  is  possible,  may  be  resuscitated.' 

"  And  the  Mark  Lane  Express  of  about  the  same 
date  qualified  a  reference  of  the  same  sort  by  the 
query  '  if  there  be  such  a  breed  ? ' 

"  In  comfirmation  of  this,  Youatt  &  Bum,  Youatt 
&  Spooner,  Prof  Low  and  '  Frank  Forrester,'  all  treat 
of  the  Cleveland  Bay  as  an  extinct  breed.  'Frank 
FoiTCster '  (Henry  William  Herbert),  the  most  recent 
of  these,  writers,  in  Vol.  II,  page  20,  of  his  great  work, 
sjjeaks  at  length  of  the  course  of  breedingwhich  have 
rendered  the  Cleveland  Bay  extinct  as  follows : 

"'  The  first  gradation,  when  pace  became  a  desidera- 
tum with  hounds,  was  the  stinting  of  the  best  Cleve- 
land Bay  mares  to  good  Thorough-bred  horses,  with  a 
view  to  the  progeny  turning  out  hunters,  troop-horses, 
or,  in  the  last  resort,  stage-coach  horses,  or,  as  they 
were  termed,  machiners.  The  most  promising  of  these 


5 


n 


'^     i 


r 
> 

o 

so 
> 
■< 


688 


HORSE. 


half-bred  colts  were  kept  as  stallions ;  and  mares,  of 
the  same  type  with  their  dams,  stinted  to  them,  pro- 
duced the  improved  English  carriage  horse  of  fifty 
years  ago. 

'"The  next  step  was  the  putting  the  half-bred  fillies, 
by  Thorough-breds  out  of  Cleveland  Bay  mares,  a 
second  time  to  Thorough-bred  stallions,  their  progeny 
to  become  the  hunters,  while  themselves  and  their 
brothers  were  lowered  into  the  carriage  horses;  and 
the  half-breed  stallions,  which  had  been  the  getters  of 
carriage  horses,  were  degraded  into  the  sires  of  the 
new,  improved  cart-horse. 

" '  From  this,  one  step  more  brings  us  to  the  ordinary 
hunter  of  the  present  day,  of  provincial  hunting  coun- 
tries, for  light  weights,  and  persons  not  willing,  or  able, 
to  pay  the  priceof  Thorough-breds.  These  are  the  prod- 
uce of  the  third  and  fourth  crosses  of  thorough  blood 
on  the  improved  mares,  descended  in  the  third  or 
fourth  degree  from  the  Cleveland  Bay  stock,  and  are 
in  every  way  superior,  able  and  beautiful  animals,  pos- 
sessing speed  and  endurance  sufficient  to  live  with 
the  best  hounds  in  any  country,  except  the  very  fast- 
est, such  as  the  Melton  Mowbray,  the  Northampton- 
shire, and  perhaps  the  Vale  of  Belvoir,  where  the 
fields  are  so  large,  and  the  land  all  in  grass,  and 
the  scent  so  fine  that  the  fox-hunting  in  them  is  in 
fact  steeple-chasing ;  so  that  no  fox  can  live  before 
the  hounds  on  a  fine  scenting  day  above  half  an  hour, 
nor  any  horse,  except  a  Thorough-bred,  live  even  that 
time  with  the  hounds,  having  fourteen  stone  or  up- 
ward on  his  back. 

" '  No  sort  of  breeding  in  England  is  so  profitable  as 
this.  The  breeder  is  comparatively  secured  against 
anything  like  ultimate  loss,  while  he  has  a  fair  chance 
of  drawing  a  capital  prize,  in  the  shape  of  a  first-rate 
hunter  or  a  carriage  horse  of  superior  quality ;  and  it 
is  to  the  breeding  of  such  a  class  of  animals  that  the 
attention  of  the  farmers,  in  horse-breeding  countries, 
is  wholly  directed  at  this  date. 

" '  For  this  reason  one  has  no  more  pure  Cleveland 
Bays,  the  use  of  the  stallion  of  that  breed  being  en- 
tirely discontinued  ;  large,  bony,  slow  Thorough-breds 
of  good  form  and  great  power,  which  have  not  suc- 
ceeded on  the  turf,  having  been  substituted  for  them, 
even  for  the  getting  of  cart  and  fanning-team  horses ; 
and  the  farmers  finding  it  decidedly  to  their  advan- 
tage to  work  large,  roomy,  bony,  half  or  two-thirds  bred 
mares,  out  of  which,  when  they  grow  old,  or  if  by 
chance  they  meet  with  an  accident,  they  may  raise 
hunters,  coach  horses,  or,  at  the  worst,  charges,  or  ma- 
chiners,  rather  than  to  plough  virith  garrons  and  weeds, 
the  stock  of  which  would  be  valueless  and  worthless, 
except  for  the  merest  drudgery. 

"  '  Since  the  authorities  above  referred  to  all  sub- 
stantially agree  with  Mr.  Herbert  that  there  are  now 
"  no  more  pure  Cleveland  Bays,  the  use  of  the  stallion 
of  that  breed  having  been  discontinued,"  we  recom- 
mend that  our  critics  turn  their  batteries  upon  them 
awhile,  and  "give  us  arest."  ' 

"  We  do  not  deny  that  many  most  excellent  and 
well-bred  animals  have  been  imported  and  sold  as 


Qeveland  Bays — animals  that  are  well  calculated  to 
improve  the  stock  of  farm  horses  in  almost  any 
neighborhood. " 

..In  a  very  thorough  encyclopedia  on  domestic 
economy  published  in  England  half  a  century  ago, 
we  find  in  a  reference  to  the  Cleveland  Bay  breed, 
which  it  denominates  Cleveland  or  Yorkshire  Bays, 
that  "  they  have  long  been  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
best  breeds  in  the  island  for  draft ;  but  they  are  said 
to  have  degenerated  flat."  This  work  also  says,  in 
speaking  of  the  coach  horse,  "it  cannot  Vje  called  a  par- 
ticular breed;  but  the  origin  of  the  superior  kind  is  the 
Cleveland  Bay,  confined  principally  to  Yorkshire  and 
Durham,  and  now  difficult  to  meet  with  in  either 
country." 

A  very  intelligent  gentleman,  well  known  as  a 
writer  upon  live-stock  matters  in  Great  Britain,  writ- 
ing from  that  country  in  response  to  a  personal  in- 
quiry concerning  the  present  status  of  the  Cleveland 
Bays,  says,  in  substance,  that  of  late  a  demand  for  the 
old  sort  of  Cleveland  Bays  has  sprung  up,  and  the 
breed  is  in  a  fair  way  to  be  resuscitated.  He  thinks 
there  is  material  enough  left  to  operate  on,  and  says 
that  "the  Cleveland  is  undoubtedly  the  produceofthe 
Thorough-bred  horse  (race-horse  or  hunting  stallion) 
on  the  North  country  cart  mares;  this  was  the  origin 
of  the  breed,  and  it  was  created  for  coaching  purposes. 
The  coaches,  toward  the  last,  required  faster  horses, 
and  these  were  superseded  by  the  railway.  So  the 
Cleveland  fell  into  desuetude.  Now  they  are  wanted 
again  for  fast,  heavy  town  work." 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  origin  of  this  horse 
or  the  various  gradations  through  which  it  has  passed, 
it  is  certain  that  the  Cleveland  Bays  of  the  present 
day  are  a  most  excellent  and  superior  stock,  worthy 
the  attention  of  the  best  breeders.  As  roadsters  they 
occupy  the  front  rank,  are  of  uniform  color,  build  and 
disposition. 

We  present  a  fine  specimen  (Prince  Minister)  of  the 
Cleveland  Bay  on  the  next  page.  He  is  owned  by  W. 
M.   Field  &  Bro.,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

Clydesdale  Horse.  Though,  no  doubt,  as  the 
Stud  Book  indicates,  Clydesdale  horses  are  bred  all 
over  Scotland,  the  area  to  which  the  true  Clydesdale 
is  confined  is  very  limited.  The  Clyde  Valley  on 
either  side,  as  high  as  Biggar,  Renfrewshire,  the 
northern  district  of  Ayrshire,  Kintyre,  in  Argyleshire, 
part  of  Dumbartonshire,  a  small  piece  of  Surling- 
shire,  parts  of  Wigtonshire,  and  Kircudbrightshire, 
the  border  part  of  Dumfriesshire  and  Cumberland 
comprise  most  of  the  farms  where  the  tenants  have 
any  pretensions  to  Clydesdale,  or  rather  draft-horse 
breeding. 

The  Clydesdale  is  the  product  of  certain  Scottish 
mares  with  Flanders  stallions.  In  color  bays  and 
browns  predominate,  with  usually  some  white  in  the 
face  or  on  the  feet.  In  height  he  ranges  from  15:3  to 
1 7 :r,  with  an  occasional  one  at  nearly  18  hands,  and 
in  weight  from  1,500  to  2,100  pounds,  with  an  occa- 
sional horse  2,400  or  2,500  pounds.  He  is  heavier- 
boned  than  any  other  breed,  according  to  his  weight, 


HORSE. 


(Aq 


particularly  in  his  limbs,  which  are  of  great  width, 
flat,  cordy  and  hard.  Ringbones,  bone-spavins, 
splints,  and  such  diseases  of  the  bony  structure,  are, 
with  him,  in  his  native  country,  entirely  unknown. 
The  hoofs  are  good  size,  deep,  well-shaped,  nne- 
grained,  firm  and  tough.  He  has  a  prominent  eye, 
fine  head,  well-shaped  neck,  which  is  well  set  upon 
magnificent  shoulders.  His  barrel  is  round  and 
straight,  with  none  of  the  paunchy  appearance  ;  body 
generally  long,  and  the  quarters  immense.  The 
whole  muscular  structure  is  of  prodigious  develop- 
ment, and  with  none  of  the  stall-fed  and  flabby  ap- 
pearance so  common  in  some  families  of  the  draft 
horse  ;  his  mane  and  tail  heavy  and  usually  inclined 
to  curl.  The  back  of  the  legs,  from  the  knee  and 
hocks  to  the  fetlock  is  covered  with  quite  long  hair,  a 
characteristic  very  highly  prized  by  the  Scotchman, 
being  evidence  of  the  purity  of  the  blood.  He  is 
kind  and  gentle  in  disiX)sition,  but  spirited,  and  with 
great  nerve,  vim  and  energy. 

It  is  said  that  one  of  the  ancient  kings  required  the 
bishops  to  see  that  good  stallions  were  kept  in  each 
diocese  to  propagate  a  good  race  of  horses  for  agri- 
culture and  other  work  purposes.  Later,  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton  sent  to  Flanders  for  a  Flemish  stallion, 
which,  crossed  ujxju  the  mares  sprung  from  the  horses 
kept  as  above  referred  to,  became  the  fountain  head 
of  the  Clydesdale.  The  estate  of  the  Duke  of  Ham- 
ilton is  in  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  from  which  came 
the  name  "Clydesdale." 

From  the  valley  of  the  Clyde,  the  breeding  of  this 
horse  gradually  spread  over  a  large  part  of  Scotland, 
and  has  found  its  way  to  American  shores. 

We  give  an  illustration  of  a  Clydesdale  stallion, 
Rhoderick  Dhu,  owned  by  Powell  Bros.,  Springboro, 
Pa.  He  is  a  good  representative  of  the  Clydesdale 
breed.    See  page  701. 

CoNESTOGA  Horse.  This  horse  was  bred  in  the 
valley  of  Conestoga,  Pa,,  many  years  ago.  They 
are  supixssed  to  be  descended  from  Flemish  and  Dan- 
ish cart-horses,  brought  by  the  early  German  settlers 
to  that  district.  It  is  a  very  large,  muscular  animal, 
often  reaching  17  hands  and  upwards,  and  closely 
resembles  the  heaviest  breeds  of  German  and  Flem- 
ish cart-horses.  They  are  used  in  Pennsylvania 
chiefly  to  the  wagon,  and  are  good,  honest  workers, 
much  quicker  and  lighter  in  their  action  than  might 
be  expected  from  their  weight. 

English  Draft  Horse.  The  improvement  in  the 
breed  of  heavy  horses  in  England  was  principally 
effected  by  the  importation  of  a  race  of  black  horses 
from  Belgium  and  Holland.  They  are  hardly  known 
in  this  country  as  a  distinct  breed,  although  they  have 
undoubtedly  exercised  more  or  less  influence  on  the 
work  horses  of  this  country.  In  England  they  are 
divided  into  three  sub-families:  First,  the  heavy, 
massive  horse,  reared  in  the  rich  marshes  and 
plains  of  the  midland  counties  expressly  for  the  I^on- 
don  brewers ;  second,  the  smaller-sized,  but  still  tol- 
erably heavy  horse,  generally  employed  for  agricul- 
tural purposes;  a  strong,  compact  animal,  but  slow  in 
44 


action  ;  and  third,  a  lighter  and  more  active  animal. 
The  modern  English  Draft  horse,  however,  is  as  much 
different  from  those  of  one  hundred  years  ago  as  the 
modern  Thorough-bred  is  superior  to  his  ancestors  of 
two  hundred  years  ago.  The  last  fifty  years  has 
marked  an  era  in  the  breeding  of  draft  animals,  as 
has  the  last  one  hundred  years  in  the  breeding  of 
Thorough-breds.  So  that  in  the  Draft  horse  good  feet 
and  legs  are  of  the  utmost  importance;  the  shoulders 
should  be  oblique,  in  order  that  the  animal  may  have 
free  and  safe  action.  The  stallion  should  have  a  well- 
arched  chest,  long,  lean  head,  and  clear,  prominent 
eye ;  added  to  this,  there  must  be  great  bone,  sup- 
ported by  strong  sinews,  with  plenty  of  muscle,  and 
the  animal  should  be  so  good  a  feeder  that  it  will 
carry  plenty  of  weight  to  assist  all  this. 

In  speaking  of  the  English  Cart-horse  of  60  years 
ago,  of  which  the  modern  English  Draft-horse  (in 
America  as  well  as  in  England)  is  an  improvement, 
the  English  Cart-Horse  Stud  Book  says : 

"With  very  few  exceptions  (and  those  exceptions 
chestnut),  black,  dark  brown  and  gray  are  the  only 
colors  met  with  in  descriptions  of  Draft  stallions  living 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century.  Gray 
horses  seem  to  have  been  more  common  in  countries 
south  of  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  coats  of  many  of  the  so-called  black 
horses  had  interspersed  therein  a  considerable  sprink- 
ling of  white  hairs,  and  they  were  occasionally  de- 
scribed as  grays ;  there  is  one  instance,  about  40  years 
ago,  of  an  Oxfordshire  horse  being  sometimes  described 
as  a  black  and  at  another  period  as  a  gray.  The  head 
was  large  in  all  its  dimensions,  well  placed  on  the 
neck  by  strong,  broad  and  deep  attachment;  the  fore- 
head and  face  wide,  expressive  and  intelligent ;  a  side 
view  of  the  jaws  and  muzzle  represented  those  parts 
to  be  remarkable  for  depth ;  the  ears  were  small  and 
carried  slightly  outwards ;  the  eyes  somewhat  small, 
not  prominent,  but  generally  mild  and  moderately  in- 
telligent in  expression ;  the  nostrils  and  mouth  large, 
firm,  and  well  closed ;  the  neck  was  long,  arched,  and 
remarkable  for  its  depth,  and  for  the  strength  of  its 
insertion  between  the  shoulder  blades.  The  shoulders 
were  massive,  muscular,  upright,  low  and  thick  at  the 
withers,  thrown  well  outwards  beyond  the  insertion  of 
the  neck  by  the  front  ribs  being  properly  arched.  The 
fore-arm  was  long,  strong  and  muscular,  the  knee 
broad  and  flat  on  all  its  aspects ;  the  fore  and  hind 
cannons  short  and  thick,  frequently  measuring  upward 
of  12  inches  in  circumference,  covered  with  coarse 
skin  and  having  a  beefy  appearance  and  touch,  more 
marked  in  advanced  age  than  in  youth.  The  hocks 
were  of  rather  defective  fonnation,  but  showing  little 
predisposition  to  disease,  generally  too  short  and  round 
and  not  sharply  defined.  The  breast  wide  and  full  of 
muscle,  indicative  of  great  strength  rather  than  quick 
movement;  the  back  longer,  narrower,  and  dipping 
rather  too  much  behind  the  withers.  The  dock  strong 
and  thick,  with  powerful,  broad  attachment  to  the 
trunk.  The  growth  of  hair  ujx)n  these  old  stallions 
was  remarkably  luxuriant,  that  of  the  mane  and  tail 


690 


HORSE. 


being  abundant,  strong  in  texture,  glossy,  and  very 
often  several  feet  in  length.  The  cannons,  fetlocks, 
and  coronets,  both  fore  and  hind,  were  garnished  with 
a  profusion  of  coarse,  long  hair,  distinctive  of  the  Cart- 
horse breed.  The  silky  growth  in  corresponding  situ- 
ations of  the  present  day  has  probably  become  thus 
modified  from  the  admixture  of  extrinsic  blood,  from 
local  influences,  from  altered  methods  in  the  system 
ofrearing  and  managing  young  stock,  or  from  a  combi- 
nation of  two  or  all  of  those  causes. 

As  an  illustration  of  the   English   Draft-horse  we 


Justin  Morgan,  a  schoolmaster,  in  Vermont.  The 
founder  of  the  family,  or  strain,  was  got  by  a  horse 
called  "True  Britain,"  which  was  said  to  have  been 
stblen  from  a  British  officer  during  the  Revolution, 
and  whose  pedigree  was  therefore  lost.  From  him 
were  descended,  more  or  less  remotely, "  Black  Hawk," 
"Ethan  Allen,"  "American  Eagle"  and  a  host  of 
horses  celebrated  for  gameness  and  many  of  them  for 
fast-trotting  powers.  He  is  generally,  though  not 
universally,  admitted  to  be  very  stout  and  enduring, 
with  good  action,  especially  in  the  trot,  and  great 


Fig.  13. — l^orman  Mar*%. 


give  a  picture  (Fig.  14)  of  Grand  Duke,  a  noble 
specimen  of  the  breed.  He  is  owned  by  W,  M.  Field 
&  Bro.,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

Morgan  Horse.  While  many  deny  that  this  is 
really  a  distinct  breed,  yet  «o  marked  are  their  char- 
acteristics and  so  different  are  they  in  some  particulars 
from  other  racers,  that  they  seem  fully  entitled  to  be 
considered  as  a  distinct  breed.  He  was  kept  pure  in 
its  own  district  for  more  than  half  a  century,  and  de- 
scended from  a  single  horse,  in  the  possession  of  Mr. 


hardiness  of  constitution.  He  shows  very  little  evi- 
dence of  pure  blood;  indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
reverse  is  the  case,  as  he  invariably  possesses  a  thick 
and  long  mane  and  tail,  with  a  considerable  curl  in 
both,  signs  which  may  be  truly  said  to  be  fatal  to  his 
claims. 

In  height  he  seldom  exceeds  15  hands.  His  frame 
is  corky,  but  not  remarkably  well  put  together,  there 
being  generally  a  deficiency  in  the  coupling  of  the 
back  and  loins.    The  head  is  not  extremely  small, 


HORSE. 


691 


but  there  is  no  superfluous  muscle  or  fatty  matter 
about  it;  the  face  is  straight,  the  forehead  broad,  the 
ears  are  small,  fine,  and  set  far  apart,  the  nostrils  are 
wide,  the  lips  are  close  and  firm,  the  muzzle  is  small, 
the  eyes  are  not  large,  but  very  dark,  prominent,  set 
wide  apart,  and  full  of  animation.  The  back  is  short; 
the  shoulder-blades  and  hip-bones  are  large  and 
oblique,  the  loins  broad  and  muscular ;  the  body  is 
long,  round,  deep  and  closely  ribbed  up;  the  chest- 
bone  is  prominent,  the  chest  wide  and  deep,  the  legs 
seem  rather  short  for  the  height,  but  they  are  close- 
jointed,  and  though  thin,  they  are  very  wide,  hard, 
clean  and  very  powerful ;  the  feet  are  small  and  round; 
the  hair  is  short  and  flossy  at  almost  all  seasons  ;  the 


porters  and  breeders  of  French  horses  in  this  country. 
He  says,  in  speaking  of  the  Nonnan  horses,  that  they 
are  "  so  called  from  the  fact  that  they  were  bred  in 
Normandy,  and  existed  there  a  distinct  breed  for 
many  years  before  they  became  scattered  throughout 
the  other  district?  in  France.  They  are  now  known 
by  various  names  peculiar  to  the  departments  in 
which  they  are  found.  In  Boulogne  they  are  known 
as  Boulonnais;  in  Normandy,  as  Augerons ;  in  Picardy, 
as  Vimeux;  and  in  Artois  and  French  Flanders,  as 
Hammonds.  They  are  all  descendants  of  the  Nor- 
man race,  to  which  they  are  indebted  for  all  their 
good  qualities  as  draft  horses.  There  are  various 
other  names  by  which  Norman  horses  are  known  in 


Fig.  h.— Norman  Siailion. 


fetlocks  are  moderately  long  and  there  is  some  long 
hair  up  the  backs  of  the  legs. 

Their  peculiar  adaptability  to  all  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  the  farmer  is  such  that  they  enjoy  a  high 
degree  of  favor.  As  a  breed,  they  are  usually  long- 
lived,  and  this  constitutes  one  of  their  great  points  of 
excellence. 

Norman  Horses.  No  breed  of  horses  has  at- 
tracted more  attention  in  this  country  during  the  last 
50  years  than  the  Norman  horses  from  France.  There 
has  been  much  discussion  regarding  the  use  of  the 
diff"erent  names  applied  to  these  French  horses.  We 
quote  the  words,  in  describing  this  magnificent  breed, 
and  giving  an  account  of  its  origin,  etc.,  of  Mr.  E. 
Dillon,  of  Bloomington,  111.,  one  of  the  largest  im- 


France,  but  the  families  we  have  nanked  are  the  most 
renowned  in  commerce. 

"  Brittany  (a  division  in  France,  situated  on  the 
Western  coast)  furnishes  the  Perche  farmers  with  the 
greatest  number  of  colts  suitable  for  omnibus  horses. 
This  Percherizing  business  has  been  carried  on  ex- 
tensively in  Perche;  and  the  large  number  of  Perch- 
erized  animals  which  the  Perche  farmers  have  thrown 
uix)n  the  market  under  the  name  of  Percherons,  has 
established  that  name  for  all  omnibus  horses  in 
France,  regardless  of  where  they  are  bred  or  raised. 
Brittany  furnishes  the  Paris  market  with  as  good 
omnibus  horses  as  Perche  does,  and,  although  they 
are  bred,  raised  and  sold  by  the  Breton  farmers,  when 
they  go  in  the  Paris  market  they  are  called  Percherons. 


693 


HORSE. 


"  French  draft  horses  are  generally  known  through- 
out the  world  as  Norman  horses.  It  is  the  name  that 
was  given  to  the  renowned  heavy  horses  in  Normandy 
many  centuries  ago,  and  has  been  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation.  The  name  Percheron- 
Norman  is  an  American  invention ;  there  are  no  horses 
in  France  known  as  Percheron-Normans.  There  is 
no  difference  between  the  draft  horses  now  found  in 
Perche  and  those  found  in  other  localities  in  France. 

"  The  ancient  race  of  heavy  horses,  known  for  ages 
thtoughou  the  world  as  Norman  horses,  originated  in 
Normandy  during  the  days  when  chivalry  flourished 
and  the  iron-clad  Norman  knights  wielded  the  heavy 
javelin  and  the  ponderous  battle-ax.  The  heavy 
Norman  war-horse  originated  in  a  cross  of  the  heavy 
gray  horses  of  Lombardy,  of  Persian  descent,  and  the 
black  Vandal,  the  native  stock  of  the  north  of  France 
and  the  Netherlands.  This  cross,  under  a  favorable 
system  of  breeding  and  the  influence  of  the  fine 
climate  and  rich  productive  soils  of  Normandy,  orig- 
inated a  race  of  gigantic  horses  that  has  ever  been 
the  glory  of  France  and  the  envy  of  other  nations. 

"  For  many  years,  during  the  reign  of  the  Norman 
kings,  these  mighty  horses  were  used  exclusively  as 
war  horses ;  in  the  course  of  time,  however,  the  in- 
vention of  gunpowder  brought  fire-arms  into  use,  and 
they  gradually  took  the  place  of  the  heavy  spear  and 
battle-ax  in  warfare.  There  was  no  longer  a  demand 
for  those  giant  horses  for  war  purposes ;  but  the  de- 
mands of  war  had  created  in  the  Norman  war  horse 
those  qualities  that  pre-eminently  fitted  him  for  agri- 
cultural purposes ;  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  he 
became  an  agricultural  horse,  a  position  he  has  hon- 
orably held  from  that  time  to  the  present. 

"  Agriculture  in  France  advanced  with  civilization ; 
and,  as  the  inhabitants  began  to  turn  their  attention 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  they  very  naturally 
looked  to  Normandy  for  their  supply  of  horses.  Thus 
the  old  Norman  race  became  scattered  throughout 
the  different  departments  in  France,  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  all  the  families  of  draft  horses,  not 
only  in  France,  but  throughout  the  world. 

"The  description  of  these  horses  are  as  follows: 
Average  height,  full  16  hands;  head  short,  thick, 
wide  and  hollow  between  the  eyes ;  jaws  heavy;  ears 
short  and  pointed  well  forward;  neck  short  and  thick; 
heavy  mane  and  tail ;  rump  steep,  and  divided  by  a 
deep  furrow ;  quarters  very  broad ;  chest  deep  and 
wide;  tendons  large;  muscles  excessively  developed ; 
heavy,  flat,  bony  legs,  very  short,  particularly  from  the 
knee  and  hock  to  the  fetlock,  and  thence  to  the  top 
of  the  hoof,  which  is  partly  covered  with  long  hair.  A 
horse  is  a  Norman  just  in  proportion  as  he  fills  the 
above  description,  no  difference  by  what  name  he 
may  be  known  in  France." 

We  give  an  illustration  in  Fig.  r3  of  two  Norman 
mares,  imported  from  France  in  1877,  by  E.  Dillon  & 
Co.,  Bloomington,  111.  They  weigh  1,940  and  1,950 
pounds,  and  are  certainly  magnificent  specimens  of 
the  Norrrian  French  breed. 

Fig.  14  represents  a  Norman  stallion,  imported  in 


1 880  by  same  parties  as  the  Norman  mares.  He  is  a 
dark  dapple  gray  in  color,  and  is  certainly  a  splendid 
specimen  of  the  Norman  breed. 

Percheron  Horses.  We  cannot  go  into  a  lengthy 
discussion  upon  the  name  or  names  which  properly 
belong  to  the  two  varieties  of  French  horses  now  in 
this  country.  In  the  previous  section  we  give  Mr. 
Dillon's  views  uix)n  this  point,  but  others  differ  with 
him.  Indeed,  much  has  been  written  and  said  upon 
this  subject  pro  and  con  by  the  best  informed  men  of 
the  country.  In  fact,  so  difficult  did  it  seem  to  draw 
dividing  lines  that  the  editor  of  the  "  Percheron  Nor- 
man Stud-Book"  was  at  a  loss  to  know  what  should 
constitute  fitness  for  entry.  The  plan  finally  adopted 
was  to  give  a  full  account  of  the  course  of  breeding 
and  crossing  practiced  in  France,  and  admit  to  reg- 
istry all  horses  imported  from  France  as  Percheron, 
Norman,  Percheron-Norman,  and  Norman-Percheron. 
The  two  are  so  mingled  inFrance;  and  as  the  French 
utterly  ignore  pedigrees,  the  question  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily settled  there.  It  is  claimed  that  the  Percheron 
is  a  stock  peculiar  to  La  Perche,  a  district  in  France. 
He  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  a  descendant  of  the 
pure-blood  Arabian,  crossed  with  a  stock  of  heavy 
draft  horses  existing  in  that  part  of  France  prior  to 
the  Crusades.  Others  think  the  native  race  referred 
to  was  the  old  war  horse  of  the  Normans.  It  was  heavy, 
bony  and  slow,  good  for  cavalry  use  during  the  days 
of  chivalry,  when  the  carrying  of  a  knight  and  his 
heavy  mailed  armor  required  an  animal  of  great 
strength  and  power  of  endurance.  One  author  as- 
serts that  the  Percheron  is  descended  from  a  re- 
mote cross  between  the  Andalusians  (after  their 
commixture  with  the  Morocco  Barbs)  and  the 
Normans;  and  this  somewhat  fanciful  reason  is  given 
for  the  active  agency  of  man  in  bringing  it  about; 
that  the  Norman,  though  powerful,  was  too  slow  for  a 
fully  caparisoned  knight,  the  Andalusian  or  Spanish 
Barb  was  too  light,  and  a  cross  was  effected  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  a  horse  that  combined  speed 
with  power. 

The  old  Norman  stock  is  said  to  have  transmitted 
to  this  race  their  extraordinary  bone  and  muscle, 
while  the  Arab  or  Andalusian,  or  whatever  may  have 
been  the  cross,  give  the  spirit  and  action.  The  Nor- 
man has  been  described  as  being  capable  of  carrying 
great  burdens  at  a  reasonable  rate  of  speed;  to  have 
been  large,  compact,  muscular,  and  possessing  the 
greatest  endurance. 

We  understand  of  the  two  varieties  of  French 
horses,  that  they  are  but  different  strains  of  one  breed, 
and  scarcely  differ  more  than  different  specimens  of 
other  breeds  of  either  horses  or  cattle.  Those  of  the 
Percheron  type  are  smaller,  more  active,  exceedingly 
muscular  and  powerful,  having  good  trotting  action, 
fast  walkers,  weighing  1,250  to  1,600  pounds.  The 
Normans  will  weigh  1,700  to  2,000  pounds,  have 
similar  characteristics  of  a  lower  degree — that  is, 
walk  well,  trot  finely,  are  docile,  powerful  and  well 
formed. 

Indeed,  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  the 


HORSE. 


693 


Percheron,  or  the  distinct  features  between  it  and  the 
Norman,  or  the  proper  naming  of  the  two,  it  is  evi- 
dently a  pure  race,  one  capable  of  producing  and  re- 
producing itself  unchanged  through  a  long  succession 
of  years,  and  without  deterioration  of  qualities  when 
like  sires  are  bred  to  like  dams. 

For  hard  work  on  ordinary  fare  the  Percheron  is 
unequaled,  and  his  energy  and  endurance  are  won- 
derful. He  will  keep  his  condition  where  another 
horse  would  die  of  hard  work  and  neglect.  Though 
full  of  spirit,  unflinching  under  even  painful  effort,  he 
is  yet  docile. 

Ponies.  Of  the  numerous  breeds  of  ponies  the 
only  ones  worthy  of  mention  here  are  the  Indian 
pony,  the  Mexican  Mustang  and  the  Shetland.  In 
whatever  manner  the  pony  was  originally  produced, 
in  its  primary  form,  or  subsequently  established  in  all, 
or  any  one,  of  its  self-producing  varieties,  is  impossible 
to  decide,  and  it  is  useless  to  speculate. 

Indian  Fony,  which  seldom  or  never  exceeds  thir- 
teen hands  in  height,  is  remarkable  for  activity  and 
strength,  as  compared  with  its  size,  appearing  to  be 
almost  overwhelmed  with  its  rider,  whoSe  feet  nearly 
touch  the  ground,  yet  moving  under  its  load  with  free- 
dom. It  has  a  high  crest,  and  a  flowing  mane  and  tail, 
with  a  proud  carriage  of  the  head  of  a  very  pleasing  char- 
acter. The  body  is  strongly  built,  and  the  legs  and  feet 
are  made  of  the  most  lasting  materials.  Large  num- 
bers of  them  run  wild  in  the  prairies  of  the  North- 
west. They  are  thought  to  be  a  degenerated  Norman, 
having  sprung  from  horses  of  that  stock  brought  to 
Canada  by  the  first  French  immigrants,  and  allowed 
by  some  means  to  escape  into  the  forests.  Wander- 
ing, from  generation  to  generation,  in  those  cold  re- 
gions, and  under  circumstances  altogether  unfavorable 
to  the  production  of  generous  growth,  they  have 
become  dwarfed  and  in  other  particulars  modified 
as  to  form.  They  seem  in  their  present  state  to  be 
a  perfectly  distinct  animal,  and  they  possess  many 
points  of  excellence.  They  are  found  in  the  Upper 
Mississippi  country,  on  the  borders  of  Canada,  and 
west  of  the  great  lakes,  and  are  used  chiefly  by  the 
different  tribes  of  northern  Indians.  Great  herds  of 
them  are  found  in  a  wild  state  on  the  northwestern 
prairies. 

They  are  a  larger  animal  than  the  Mustang,  and  in 
most  respects  far  superior  to  him.  Though  he  is  to  be 
considered  a  true  pony,  he  is  often  thirteen,  sometimes 
even  fourteen,  hands  high.  The  body  is  very  strongly 
built,  being  round-ribbed,  short-barreled,  and  with 
powerful  limbs.  The  neck  is  thick  and  short ;  the 
legs  are  covered  with  thick  hair,  and  seem  somewhat 
heavy  and  clumsy,  but  they  are  as  firm,  muscular, 
iron-like  and  sound  as  those  of  the  Shetlands.  The 
mane  is  very  heavy,  often  falling  on  both  sides  of  the 
neck,  while  the  forelocks  cover  the  eyes,  and  give  a  sort 
of  shaggy  appearance  about  the  upper  portion  of  the 
the  head  ;  the  tail  is  also  heavy  and  generally  inclined 
to  be  wavy.  They  have  a  high  crest  and  quite  a 
proud  carriage  of  the  head.  They  are  docile,  intel- 
ligent, sure-footed,  capable  of  enduring  all  the  rigors 


of  a  northern  winter,  and  able  to  perform  long-con- 
tinued journeys,  at  a  moderate  pace,  while  carrying 
or  drawing  disproportionate  burdens. 

Their  courage  is  so  high  that  they  do  not  readily 
succumb  to  any  hardship,  however  trying  its  nature, 
and  though  coupled  with  poorness  and  scantiness  of 
fare. 

Mexican  Mustang,  one  of  the  most  widely  known 
and  distinct  of  American  ponies,  is  found  chiefly  on 
the  prairies  of  Texas  and  Mexico.  His  origin  is  doubt- 
ful, though  it  is  affirmed  that  notwithstanding  his 
diminutive  size,  and  some  striking  points  of  degen- 
eracy, there  is  clear  indication  of  Spanish  origin.  It 
is  difficult,  however,  to  account  for  the  difference  be- 
tween him  and  other  wild  horses  left  or  lost  upon  the 
American  continent  by  the  early  Spanish  discoverers 
and  conquerers.  They  are  the  smaller  of  our  ponies, 
of  very  slight  limbs,  often  ugly  and  disproportionately 
made,  with  long  back,  slender  and  weak  ]X)steriors. 
Their  hoofs  are  often  badly  formed,  tending  to  flat- 
ness and  irregularity.  Their  heads,  however,  though 
long,  are  lean  and  well  shaped,  and  their  nostrils  are 
wide.     Their  manes  and  tail  are  fine. 

Shetland  and  Scot  Ponies  are  the  most  remark- 
able of  all  the  European  pony  races,  and  best  adapted 
for  one  of  the  principal  uses  to  which  ponies  are  ap- 
plicable. They  are  narives  of  all  the  northern  Scot- 
tish isles,  but  are  found  of  the  smallest  size  and  of  the 
most  perfect  form  in  the  extreme  northern  isle  of  Yell 
and  Unst.  None  of  the  Shetlanders  exceed,  in  the 
average,  nine  or  ten  hands,  that  is,  from  three  feet  to 
three  feet  four  inches  in  height,  and  none  are  consid- 
ered truly  bred  which  exceed  eleven  hands  or  three 
feet  eight  inches.  Many  are  found  which  do  not  ex- 
ceed 30  or  32  inches,  and  which  are  consequently 
inferior  in  size  to  some  of  the  largest  Newfoundland 
dogs.  Their  characteristic  form  is  a  round,  closely 
ribbed-up  barrel,  a  well-laid,  sloping  shoulder,  but 
thick  rather  than  fine,  and  with  little  elevation  of  the 
withers;  a  short,  thick  neck,  covered  with  redundant 
masses  of  coarse  mane,  scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the 
lion,  a  well-shaped,  lean  and  bony  head.  The  ears 
are  unusually  small,  erect  and  well  placed;  the  eyes 
large,  clear  and  intelligent.  Their  loins  are  superb, 
so  that  their  breadth  bears  no  small  proportion  to  the 
entire  height  of  the  animal.  Sway-backs  and  flat 
sides  are  unknown  to  the  race.  Splints,  curbs,  spav- 
ins, windgalls,  thorough-pins,  ringbones  and  navicular 
diseases  seem  to  be  things  utterly  foreign  to  the  Shet- 
lander.  Their  hardihood  and  spirit  are  wonderful.  In 
their  native  isles  they  run  wild  on  the  hills,  never 
herded,  sheltered  nor  fed,  but  picking  up  a  hardy  live- 
lihood from  the  tender  shoots  of  the  heather,  and  the 
coarse,  innutritions  grass  which  grows  among  it.  In 
winter  he  is  often  obliged  to  scrape  off  the  snow  to  get 
at  this.  Even  when  domesticated  their  fare  is  but 
little  improved.  Oats  are  a  luxury  unknown,  and  a 
few  bundles  of  wild  meadow  hay  or  barley  straw  fur- 
nish a  dainty  bouquet  to  the  wee  Shetlander.  His 
speed,  of  course,  is  not  great,  but  he  will  go  along  at 
a  sort  of  a  waddling  run  under  a  weight  which  it 


694 


HORSE. 


would  bother  some  horses  to  carry,  that  is  to  say,  from 
150  to  200  pounds,  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles  an 
hour,  and  will  accomplish  his  50  miles  between  sun- 
rise and  sunset  with  a  heavy  weight  on  his  back.  For 
little  boys  and  girls  learning  to  ride  the  Shetlander  is 
perfection,  for  he  is  very  docile,  intelligent,  affection- 
ate and  gentle.  The  colors  are  generally  black,  dark 
brown  and  a  sort  of  rust-colored  sorrel.  Whites  and 
grays  are  exceedingly  rare,  and  blacks  are  considered 
the  best  of  the  race.  Shetland  jxinies  of  the  true 
breed  are  not  often  imix)rted  into  America,  although 
of  late  years  a  good  many  of  the  larger  or  Scottish  or 
Welsh  jxjnies  are  being  introduced,  and  if  black,  are 
often  erroneously  called  Shetlands. 

Thorough-bred  Horse.  The  following  is  ex- 
tracted from  an  excellent  article  on  the  Thorough-bred 
horse  read  before  the  convention  of  stock  breeders  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  Jan.  20,  1882,  by  Gen.  W.  H. 
Jackson,  of  Tennessee.  The  subject  was  so  fully  and 
fairly  treated  that  we  can  do  no  better  than  take  lib- 
eral extracts  from  it : 

"Among  all  the  numerous  varieties  of  domestic 
animals  which  a  benevolent  Providence  has  created 
for  the  use  of  man,  the  blood  horse  stands  pre-eminent 
— without  a  compeer  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

"The  uninitiated  may  ask  what  you  mean  by  a 
Thorough-bred  or  blood  horse.'  I  mean  the  horse 
which  traces  back  with  certainty,  through  a  long  line 
of  distinguished  ancestry,  to  the  beautiful  and  game 
little  creatures  which  were  imixjrted  into  England  from 
the  deserts  of  Arabia  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  How  they  came  to  Arabia,  or  by  what  means 
they  had  been  brought  to  tlie  degree  of  perfection 
they  possessed  at  that  early  period,  I  am  not  able  to 
answer. 

"  In  beauty  the  Thorough-bred  is  without  a  rival  in 
the  equine  family;  a  coat  as  fine  as  satin;  his  eye  in 
reixise  as  mild  and  gentle  as  the  lamb ;  under  excite- 
ment as  bright  as  the  eagle  and  as  bold  as  the  lion, 
denoting  the  energy  of  his  nature ;  his  skin  as  thin 
and  elastic  as  the  fawn ;  his  form  as  perfect  and  well- 
placed  as  beaudfuUy  defined  muscles  can  make  it. 
This  is  his  exterior,  or  that  which  is  visible  to  the 
naked  eye ;  but  there  is  an  interior  or  invisible  struc- 
ture that  contributes  more,  perhaps,  to  his  jxjwers  than 
even  his  perfect  exterior  formation.  His  large  heart 
and  capacious  lungs  give  him  the  wind  of  the  high- 
bred hound;  his  large  blood-vessels  and  soft,  thin  skin 
enable  him  to  throw  off  the  excess  of  heat  that  must 
be  generated  by  great  and  rapid  exertion,  especially 
in  a  heated  atmosphere;  his  muscles  firm  and  beauti- 
fully defined,  with  bone  of  ivory  texture,  all  combine 
to  give  him  strength,  endurance,  action  and  beauty, 
far  exceeding  all  of  his  race. 

"  The  uninstructed  in  this  particular  branch  of  an- 
imal industry  may  inquire,  'How  do  you  know  of  this 
intemalandhivisiblestructure?'  The  veterinary  surgeon 
will  answer:  'Bydissectionof  blood  horses  we  find  uni- 
versally large  hearts,  capacious  blood-vessels,  thin  skin 
and  ivory-like  bone,  possessing  solidity  and  consequent- 
ly strength  far  superior  to  coarse  breeds.'    Therefore, 


when  we  know  that  the  pedigree  is  pure,  we  also  know 
that  this  perfect  internal  structure  exists.  From  the 
time  of  the  introduction  of  this  horse  into  England 
to  the  present,  the  best  talent  of  intelligent  breeders 
has  been  zealously  and  energetically  employed  through- 
out the  world,  aided  too,  by  all  the  leading  Govern- 
ments (except  our  own),  to  develop  and  improve  this 
noble  animal.  They  have  not  failed.  By  attention 
to  his  comfort,  with  a  liberal  supply  of  proper  food 
from  infancy  to  maturity,  his  size  has  been  enlarged ; 
consequently  his  speed  and  strength  increased; 
though  beautiful  when  brought  from  his  native  desert, 
he  has  attained  such  perfection  in  symmetry  and 
strength  that  breeders  of  the  present  period  are  puz- 
zled to  know  what  further  improvements  can  be  an- 
ticipated. 

"The  many  admirable  qualities  I  claim  for  this 
magnificent  animal  do  not  constitute  his  chief,  nay, 
nor  his  greatest  value;  his  high  mission  is  to  improve 
all  the  equine  race.  The  pure  and  unadulterated 
blood  that  flows  in  his  veins,  improves  and  gives  ad- 
ditional value  to  all  the  horse  family.  To  the  child's 
pony  it  imparts  more  action,  sprightliness  and  beauty; 
to  the  saddle-horse  more  action,  durability  and  style; 
to  the  trotter — a  class  of  animals  at  present  so  highly 
prized,  and  for  which  such  fabulous  prices  are  paid — 
this  blood  is  indispensable,  for  without  it,  with  all  his 
strength,  when  pressed,  his  muscles  will  tire,  and  he 
will  grow  weak  for  want  of  breath,  the  natural  result, 
not  of  his  exterior  formation,  but  of  his  defective  in- 
ternal organization. 

"  I  quote  from  Col.  John  P.  Reynolds,  then  editor 
of  the  National  Live-Stock  Journal.,  published  at  Chi- 
cago, on  this  subject,  as  follows  :  '  So  far  as  we  are 
advised  and  believe,  there  is  no  individual  fast  trotter, 
nor  admitted  family  of  trqtters,  whose  blood,  if  known, 
is  not  traceable  in  part  to  the  Thorough-bred.  In  other 
words.  Thorough-bred  blood,  if  notthe  foundation,  the 
sine  qua  non  of  speed  at  trot,  and  we  may  add,  at  any 
other  gait,  is  always  present  where  speed  is  found. 
There  is  no  speed  without  blood,  and  we  think  the 
inference  fair  that  none  is  expected.'" 

"  The  question  is  frec[uently  asked,  With  all  the  per- 
fection you  claim  for  the  blood  horse,  do  you  esteem 
him  the  horse  of  all  work?  I  answer.  No.  The  horse 
of  all  work  is  a  misnomer :  no  such  horse  or  breed 
exists.  The  horse  is  now  an  inhabitant  of  all  coun- 
tries, of  nearly  every  clime,  from  the  torrid  to  the 
frigid  zone,  used  by  all  people  (civilized),  under  varied 
and  totally  different  circumstances  and  for  different 
purposes.  Of  course  no  single  animal  or  breed  can 
be  best  adapted  to  all  these  various  circumstances  and 
conditions  ;  but  I  affirm  that  he  is  better  adapted  to  a 
greater  variety  of  uses  than  any  of  his  race. 

"  The  veteran  breeder.  Gen.  Harding,  after  an  ex- 
perience of  forty  years,  says :  '  The  best  and  most 
durable  plow  horse  I  ever  owned  was  a  thorough-bred. 
On  a  hot  day  and  in  high  corn  (the  most  severe  test 
for  farm  stock)  he  could  kill  all  the  horses  and  mules 
that  could  keep  up  with  him,  without  any  injury  to 
himself.     The  best,  most  active  and  durable  saddle 


I 

n 
r 
< 

a 

O 
> 

w 

> 

r 
o 


I 


696 


HORSE. 


horse  I  ever  owned  was  a  blood  horse.  I  rode  this 
horse  until  he  was  twenty-four  years  of  age  before  he 
ever  fell  with  me,  or  made  a  bad  blunder.  I  then  set 
him  free  and  had  the  pleasure  of  providing  for  his  com- 
fort for  several  years  after.' 

'■  The  best  harness  horses  I  have  used  were.well- 
bred.  I  find  them  more  sensible  and  more  bold, 
consequently  more  safe  and  reliable.  The  best  mules 
I  ever  worked  were  from  Thorough-bred  mares ;  in- 
deed, no  animal  is  more  improved  by  a  dash  of  blood 
than  the  mule.  It  imparts  to  him  the  action  and 
spirit  which  he  so  greatly  needs.  To  form  an  idea  of 
the  wonderful  jxiwers  of  the  blood  horse  we  will  sup- 
pose his  weight  nine  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  this 
being  about  the  weight  of  the  average  race-horse.  By 
the  strength  of  his  muscle  he  carries  this  weight,  to- 
gether with  his  rider  (one  hundred  and  ten  pounds), 
makingten  hundred  and  sixty  pounds, — not  on  a  down 
grade,  but  on  a  horizontal  line,  a  mile  in  1:39?^,  al- 
most equaling  the  power  of  steam.  Of  all  animated 
nature,  tlie  feathered  tribe  alone  can  equal  his  speed. 
If  we  imagine  a  feathered  monster  of  equal  weight  I 
doubt  much  whether  he  could  surpass  him  in  his 
flight.  Persons  not  versed  in  the  art  of  breeding  this 
animal  have  but  an  imperfect  idea  of  his  history,  or  of 
all  the  care  and  labor  bestowed  in  its  preparation, 
from  the  Arabs  down  to  the  present  time. 

"The  English  Thorough-bred  is  descended  from  the 
Darley  Arabian,  imported  into  England  in  1703,  being 
then  four  years  old,  and  the  foundation  of  the  present 
improved  stock  of  English  race-horses  is  to  be  at- 
tributed to  the  Darley  and  Godolphin  Arabian, 
though  previous  to  the  importation  of  the  Darley  into 
England,  several  Barbs,  Turks,  and  Arabians — mares 
as  well  as  horses — had  been  brought  into  the  country 
and  crossed  on  each  other;  but  none  of  them  had 
been  able  to  establish  any  imposing  reputation  by 
imparting  to  their  stock  that  size,  bone,  strength,  and 
substance,  those  extraordinary  and  unequaled  powers 
of  speed  and  continuance  which  were  afterwards  at- 
tained through  the  agency  of  this  noble  animal. 

"  For  the  benefit,  and  I  hope  for  the  pleasure  of  my 
hearers,  I  will  append  here  the  description  of  the  two 
stallions — the  Darley  and  Godolphin. 

"  The  Darley  Arabian  was  a  bay  horse,  fifteen 
hands  high,  strongly  and  elegantly  formed,  with  a 
blaze  in  his  face,  and  his  near  fore-foot  and  both  hind 
feet  white. 

"The  Godolphin  Arabian  followed  the  Darley 
twenty-five  years  later,  and  though  he  enjoyed  greater 
reputation  than  the  Darley — many  writers  of  that  day 
attribute  his  success  to  the  advantage  of  the  labors 
and  improvements  of  stock  accomplished  by  the  Dar- 
ley. Flying  Childress  and  Eclipse,  the  swiftest  be- 
yond a  doubt  of  all  quadrupeds  at  that  time,  were  the 
son  and  grandson  of  the  Darley  Arabian.  The  Godol- 
phin was  an  entire  brown  bay  in  color,  fifteen  hands 
m  height,  of  great  substance,  of  the  truest  conforma- 
tion for  strength  and  action,  bearing  every  indica- 
tion of  a  real  courser,  a  horse  of  the  desert.  He  had 
mottles  on  the  buttocks  and  crest,  with  a  small  streak 


of  white  upon  the  hinder  heels.  He  was  imported 
into  France  from  some  capital  or  royal  stud  in  Bar- 
bary.  He  is  said  to  have  been  foaled  in  1724.  Mr. 
Q)ke  brought  him  over  from  France  and  gave  him  to 
William,  master  of  St.  James  Coffee  House,  who  pre- 
sented him  to  the  Earl  of  Godolphin.  He  is  said  by 
French  writers  to  have  been  bought  for  eighteen  louis, 
about  $75.  He  died  in  1753— the  most  successful  as 
a  stallion  of  any  foreign  horse  before  or  since  imported 
into  England.  To  sum  up  from  my  reading  I  think 
the  English  race-horse  derives  much  of  his  beauty  and 
speed  from  the  Arabian ;  his  strength  and  stride  from 
the  Barb ;  and  his  size  and  height  from  the  Turk. 

"  The  first  Thorough-bred  horses  imported  to  this 
country  were  Bulle  Rock,  imported  in  1730,  foaled* 
1718,  and  tracing  back  to  1689,  1686,  and  1584;  and 
Dabster,  imported  in  1741.  Both  of  these  horses  were 
imported  to  Virginia.  Since  that  date  millions  have 
been  expended  in  the  importation  of  stallions  and 
mares  from  England  and  France. 

"  I  present  here  a  list  ot  those  horses  imported  to 
this  country  which  have  left  the  most  lasting  impress 
upon  the  blood  stock  of  America,  named  in  the  order 
of  merit,  viz:  Diomed,  Glencoe,  Priam,  Leamington, 
and  Bonnie  Scotland.  The  most  noted  of  our  native 
stallions  are  Sir  Archy,  Medoc,  Lexington,  Vandal, 
Longfellow,  Virgil,  Enquirer. 

"  The  most  noted  of  the  brood  mares  of  England 
have  been  Pocahontas  by  Glencoe,  Queen  Mary  by 
Gladiator,  and  Alice  Hawthorne  by  Melbourne  or 
Windhound. 

"  The  most  noted  mares  imported  to  this  country  are 
Gallopade,  Britannia  and  Weatherwitch. 

",The  most  noted  of  native  mares  are  Reel  by  Glen- 
coe, Magnolia  by  Glencoe,  Picayune  by  Medoc,  Mad- 
eline by  Boston,  Sally  Lewis  by  Glencoe,  Maggie  B. 
B.  by  imp.  Australian,  Madeira  by  Lexington,  Nevada 
by  Lexington,  Nantura  by  Brawner's  Eclipse,  Susan 
Ann  by  Lexington,  Vesper  Light  by  Childe  Harold, 
Forfaletta  by  Australian,  and  Florine  by  Lexington." 

The  color  of  the  Thorough-bred  horse  is  now  gener- 
ally bay,  brown  or  chestnut,  one  or  other  of  which  will 
•  occur  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred.  Gray  is 
not  common,  but  sometimes  appears.  Black  also 
occasionally  makes  its  appearance,  but  not  more  fre- 
quently than  gray.  Roans,  duns,  sorrels,  etc.,  are  now 
quite  exploded,  and  the  above  five  colors  may  be  said 
to  complete  the  list  of  those  seen  on  the  race  course. 
Sometimes  these  colors  are  mixed  with  a  good  deal  of 
white,  in  the  shape  of  blazes  on  the  face,  or  white  legs 
and  feet;  or  even  all  these  marks  may  occur.  Gray 
hairs  mixed  in  the  coat,  are  rather  approved  of  than 
otherwise,  but  they  do  not  amount  to  a  roan. 

The  texture  of  the  coat  and  skin  is  a  great  proof  of 
high  breeding,  and  in  the  absence  of  the  pedigree 
would  be  highly  regarded  ;  but  when  that  is  satisfac- 
tory it  is  no  use  descending  to  the  examination  of  an 
inferior  proof,  and  therefore,  except  as  a  sign  of  health, 
the  skin  is  seldom  considered.  In  all  Thorough-bred 
horses,  however,  it  is  thinner,  and  the  hair  more  silky 
than  in  common  breeds ;  and  the  veins  are  more  appar- 


HORSE. 


697 


ent  under  the  skin,  partly  from  its  thinness,  but  also 
from  their  extra  size  and  number  of  branches. 

The  mane  and  tail  should  be  silky  and  not  curly, 
though  a  slight  wave  is  often  seen.  A  decided  curl  is 
almost  universally  a  mark  of  degradation,  and  shows 
a  Sain  in  the  pedigree  as  clearly  as  any  sign  can  do. 

Vermont  Draft  Horse.  This  is  a  celebrated 
family  of  draft  horses  long  existing  in  Vermont,  and 
less  marked  in  their  distinctive  features  than  they 
were  before  the  introduction  of  railroads.  The  pecul- 
iar characteristic  of  these  horses  is  the  shortness  of 
their  backs,  the  roundness  of  their  barrels  and  the 
closeness  of  their  ribbing-up.  So  striking  is  this 
that  they  much  resemble  ponies,  yet,  when  approached, 
they  are  found  to  be  16  hands  high,  and  often  over. 
Of  their  ongin  but  little  is  known,  but  it  is  very  likely 
that  the  old  Suffolk  Cart-horse,  imported  into  Massa- 
chusetts in  1 82 1,  the  Cleveland  Bay  brought  there  in 
1825,  and  the  Thorough-breds  introduced  three  years 
later,  and  with  the  best  stock  of  the  district  produced 
this  breed.  These  noble  horses  filled  an  important 
sphere  before  the  days  of  railroads.  The  lighter  ones 
were  driven  to  stage  coaches,  so  common  then.  The 
attention  given  to  the  Morgan  horse  seems  to  have 
been  to  the  detriment  of  this  stock,  as  they  are  now 
seldom  met  with  in  anything  like  their  original  excel- 
lence. 

Breeding.  No  question  is  of  more  vital  import- 
ance to  the  majority  of  farmers  in  the  United  States 
than  that  connected  with  the  rearing  and  use  of  stocks, 
especially  the  horse.  We  have  very  fully  treated 
of  the  principles  of  breeding  under  that  head,  to  which 
we  refer  the  reader,  and  to  attempt  to  discuss  the  im- 
jwrtance  of  rearing  the  best  animals  possible  under 
the  circumstances,  would  be  to  discuss  a  question 
universally  accepted.  A  few  observations,  however, 
may  be  in  place  upon  horses  intended  for  different 
uses. 

The  most  profitable  horses  to  raise  are  those  that 
will  do  the  most  service  and  keep  on  the  least  amount 
of  food.  Good  draft  horses  have  good  constitutions 
and  will  perform  a  vast  amount  of  heavy  work  with- 
out tiring  out  or  breaking  down.  They  have  a  full 
developed  chest  to  hold  and  digest  their  food,  and 
will  keep  fat  at  hard  work  on  a  reasonable  amount 
of  food.  They  require  weight  and  large  muscular 
development  to  give  strength  to  move  heavy  loads. 
They  do  not  require  speed,  and  it  need  not  be  culti- 
vated in  this  class,  except  the  fast  walk.  They  are 
always  in  demand,  and  find  a  ready  sale  at  good 
prices.  Take  a  drove  of  draft  horses  to  any  large 
market  and  they  will  sell  for  about  $250  per  head  as 
an  average,  which  will  pay  a  profit  on  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. Other  breeds  would  eat  their  heads  off 
before  they  would  find  a  purchaser  in  the  same 
market  at  a  lower  price. 

The  vast  imports  and  exports  of  heavy  goods  in 
commercial  dealings  require  strong,  powerful  horses 
to  distribute  them  to  the  consignee,  or  to  start  them 
off  from  the  consignor,  and  the  draft  horse  has  become 


the  favorite  medium  to  facilitate  the  intt/change  of 
these  commodities. 

The  road  horse  is  an  indispensable  agent  in  all 
active  business  pursuits.  They  will  always  be  in 
demand  for  commercial  traffic  and  domestic  inter- 
course in  every  civilized  community  devoted  to  com- 
merce and  manufactures,  and  in  all  enlightened 
nations  whose  enterprising  people  have  increased  the 
national  wealth  by  encouraging  commercial  industry 
and  facilitating  the  mutual  exchange  of  manufactured 
commodities.  The  first-class  roadster  is  valuable  for 
fine  style  and  rapid  movement.  Their  splendid  form 
and  superlative  action  gives  them  an  exchangeable 
value  that  will  pay  a  profit  on  the  cost  of  production. 

In  breeding  first-class  road  horses,  many  of  them 
will  turn  out  to  be  fast  trotters.  The  breeder  will 
realize  a  fortune  on  those  that  strike  the  key-note  to 
the  tune  of  2:20  on  the  race-course.  Flora  Temple, 
with  a  record  of  2:19^,  sold  for  $8,000  when  an  old 
mare.  Dexter,  record  2:17  ^,  brought  $33,000  when 
in  the  prime  of  life,  and  in  the  palm  of  his  triumphs 
as  champion  of  the  turf.  Young  Pocahontas,  record 
2:26^,  sold  for  $25,000,  on  the  reputation  of  her  cele- 
brated mother.  Jay  Gould,  record  2:215^,  brought 
$30,000  on  his  own  reputation.  The  breeder  only 
wants  to  produce  a  few  of  the  famous  champions  to 
become  as  rich  as  Croesus,  who  built  the  great  temple 
of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

The  carriage  horse  has  come  into  general  use  in 
most  families  that  can  afford  the  luxury.  They  have 
usually  been  bred  from  a  cross  between  the  Thorough- 
bred and  Draft  horse.  The  object  of  the  grade  is  to 
retain  the  strength  of  the  Draft  horse,  and  to  quicken 
the  movement  by  the  superior  action  of  the  race-horse. 
When  they  are  brought  up  to  the  standard  of  great 
weight  carriers  at  a  good  rate  of  speed  they  are  called 
carriage  or  coach  horses.  Their  high-stepping  action, 
good  size  and  commanding  form  are  ornaments  to  the 
gentleman's  carriage.  So  long  as  the  public  prefer 
this  class  of  stout  travelers  for  domestic  use  there  will 
be  a  demand,  and  it  will  require  a  large  number  to 
supply  the  demand  of  an  increasing  market. 

There  is  another  class  of  useful  horses  that  may  be 
called  the  farmer's  horse  for  all  work.  They  are  a 
cross  between  a  draft  and  a  road  horse.  The  cross 
lightens  the  carcass  and  improves  the  action.  They 
are  strong  enough  for  heavy  work,  and  quick  enough 
for  active  road  service.  They  are  adapted  to  all  kinds 
of  farming,  and  suited  to  carry  the  products  of  agricul- 
ture to  market.  They  are  raised  at  light  expense, 
keep  easy,  perform  avast  amount  of  labor,  and  live  to 
an  advanced  age.  There  is  no  class  so  well  adapted 
to  a  broken,  hilly  country  as  the  horse  of  all  work. 
They  may  become  the  staple  production,  in  the  horse 
kind,  of  the  rural  economist  of  the  Northern  States. 

Breeding  is  the  art  of  so  coupling  animals  and 
of  so  rearing  them  as  best  to  fit  them  for  the  purposes 
for  which  they  are  intended.  The  fact  early  became 
known  that  characteristics  of  the  parents  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  offspring;  hence  the  sayingis  true  enough 
among  wild  animals,  that  like  produces  like.     A  criti- 


698 


HORSE. 


cal  study  of  the  form  and  proportions  of  an  animal 
with  a  view  to  their  adaption  to  the  desired  end  is  nec- 
essary to  anyone  who  seeks  to  excel  in  the  art  of 
breeding  animals.  The  object  of  breeding  being  to 
improve  the  animals  bred  in  such  qualities  as  have  a 
definite  value  in  the  market,  the  breeder  must  work 
strongly  to  obtain  high  developments  in  some  particu- 
lar quality.  The  time  has  long  since  passed  when 
mediocrity  in  several  essentials  and  excellence  in 
none  will  be  accepted  by  the  buyer. 

The  standard  of  excellence  of  the  true  breeder 
must  be  high  and  well  defined;  in  other  words  he 
must  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  various  points  of  the 
perfect  animal,  and  strive  to  attain,  slowly  it  may  be, 
but  surely,  to  that  perfection.  This  will  require  in  him 
a  keen  eye,  quick  to  detect  faults,  and  also  to  recog- 
nize all  good  qualities  as  they  present  themselves. 
Beyond  and  back  of  eye-sight,  he  should  have  good 
judgment,  by  which  he  comprehends  the  causes  that 
are  at  work  to  produce  good  or  ill  effects,  and  if  jx)ssi- 
ble  he  should  be  able  to  control  the  forces  with  which 
he  has  to  deal.  Any  exterior  points  of  beauty,  as  to 
outline  or  color,  should  not  lead  him  to  sacrifice  the 
deep  fundamental  qualities  \x\xm  which  the  great 
value  of  well-bred  animals  always  rest.  Lastly,  he 
should  not  hope  to  produce  an  animal  that  is  the  best 
for  everything. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  breeding  horses  is  to 
select  the  best  animals,  and  the  first  indispensable 
'  quality  in  such  animals  is  a  good  constitution.  With- 
*DUt  this  as  a  foundation,  all  attempts  to  perfect  a  race 
■•of  horses  will  be  a  failure.  The  animal  that  is  select- 
ed for  a  breeder  should  have  a  deep  chest,  strong 
loins,  good  limbs  and  feet.  The  nervous  tempera- 
ment of  the  animal  should  by  no  means  be  overlooked. 
The  eyes  should  be  wide  apart,  full  and  clear.  The 
ears  should  set  apart,  not  lopped  like  those  of  a  mule, 
nor  pricked  forward  like  the  rabbit's.  To  these  points 
of  a  good  constitution  and  a  fine  nervous  tempera- 
ment, add  all  the  symmetry  you  can.  Make  sure  of 
good  size;  never  take  a  mare  weighing  less  than  1,000 
to  1,200  pounds,  and  not  below  15^  to  16  hands 
high.  The  fault  with  most  of  the  horses  bred  in  the 
past,  is  that  they  have  been  too  small. 

The  next  requisite  is  blood.  Having  selected  your 
mare,  never  take  any  but  a  fixed  blooded  stallion. 
When  you  have  the  qualities  already  described,  breed 
early  so  that  your  colt  may  get  a  good  growth  before 
flies  bother  it  and  its  mother. 

In  regard  to  breeding,  breed  near  enough  to  secure 
the  desired  qualities,  and  when  once  secured,  to  re- 
tain them;  but  do  not  breed  nearer  than  first  cousins 
if  you  can  avoid  it.  If  "  in-and-in-breeding  "  is  fol- 
lowed more  closely  than  this,  and  persisted  in,  the  colt 
will  be  either  stillborn,  or  if  living  will  be  a  cripple. 

Never  sell  the  best  animals.  When  a  man  has  dis- 
posed of  his  best  breeding  mare,  he  will  advance  in 
his  work  on  the  same  principle  that  the  "  frog  jumped 
out  of  the  well  "  one  step  ahead  and  two  backward. 

It  is  poor  ix)licy  to  go  to  the  city  and  buy  a  broken- 
down  mare,  thinking  to  make  a  breeder  of  her.    In  a 


great  majority  of  cases  you  will  only  breed  defective 
animals. 

Blind  mares  are  almost  sure  to  have  colts  which  go 
blind  at  an  early  age.  Select  good  sound  mares  and 
breed  to  good  stallions,  if  they  do  cost  10  or  15  dol- 
lars more  than  a  <  omraon  scrub,  and  you  will  have(a 
colt  to  be  proud  of  if  you  want  light  carriage  horses 
breed  mares  of  about  i,ooo  or  1,100  of  good  style, 
to  Thorough-bred  stallions,  which  weigh  from  1,100  to 
1,200.  If  breeding  for  any  other  purpose,  breed 
good  heavy  mares  to  some  full-blood  stallion ;  the  best 
are  among  the  Normans,  Clydesdales,  English  Draft 
and  Cleveland  Bay  horses.  Take  which  you  fancy 
most.  Never  breed  to  a  vicious  brute  of  a  stallion,or 
a  mare ;  if  you  do  the  colt  will  be  dangerous.  In  se- 
lecting a  stallion  select  one  of  proud  bearing,  with  a 
lean  head,  open  nostrils,  full,  lustrous  eyes,  wide  be- 
tween eyes,  light  neck,  well  arched ;  short  back,  but 
long  under,  broad  hijis,  flat  lean  leg,  well  muscled, 
good  round  hoofs  (the  harder  the  better),  soft  skin, 
fine  hair,  not  too  long,  and  you  have  the  ideal  horse. 

Perhaps  not  half  the  farmers  who  take  their  mares 
to  a  stallion  give  fair  consideration  to  tlie  gait  of  the 
horse,  especially  to  his  walk.  A  careful  calculation  of 
the  time  spent  on  a  walk  by  the  fami  horse,  as  com- 
pared to  the  time  used  at  other  gaits,  would  show  that 
the  walk  is  nearly  the  constant  gait — constant  at  the 
plow,  also  at  the  harrow,  the  corn  planter,  and  the 
seeder.  In  hauling  the  hay,  grain,  or  any  other  com- 
modity to  market  the  walk  is  always  the  gait.  It  is 
not  used  only  when  returning  with  the  empty  wagon, 
or  when,  occasionally,  a  team  is  hitched  to  the  family 
carryall.  A  very  fast  walker,  under  the  saddle,  will 
make  very  nearly  or  quite  five  miles  an  hour.  Such 
a  horse  at  his  work  would  make,  say  three  and  a  half 
miles,  while  a  slow  walker  would  not  come  within  one 
mile  of  this  speed  taking  the  day  through.  When  a 
horse  is  offered  in  the  market,  his  rapid  walking  stride 
commends  him  to  buyers,  partly  because  all  men  like 
a  horse  that  walks  fast  and  partly  because  a  good 
walker  is  clever  at  all  gaits. 

To  breed  a  rapid  walker,  look  well  to  the  shoulder, 
that  it  is  not  too  upright ;  neither  must  the  breast  be 
too  broad.  The  rapid  walker  is  not  likely  to  be  a 
lazy  horse,  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  usually  shows 
spirit;  sometimes  he  shows  high  mettle.  These  qual- 
ities all  tell  in  judging  his  value  in  the  market,  be- 
cause they  add  to  his  show  qualities,  if  he  has  any, 
and  to  his  tendency  to  progression  when  hooked  up; 
and  there  is  no  class  of  buyers  that  object  to  a  horse 
because  he  is  not  slow  enough.  It  is  easy  to  get  slow 
horses,  and  horses  that  go  slow  at  all  gaits ;  but  now 
that  nearly  everything  goes  by  steam  except  the  horse, 
the  nearer  this  useful  animal  comts  to  doing  this  the 
more  attention  he  will  attract,  and,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  the  more  money  he  will  bring.  Especi- 
ally do  express  companies,  omnibus  companies,  whole- 
sale dealers  who  deliver  to  trains,  men  who  haul  by 
the  load,  and  all  n.en  except  s[X)rting  characters,  prize 
a  horse  largely  for  the  speed  he  makes  at  that  very 
useful  gait."  the  walk." 


HORSE. 


699 


r 


One  or  other  of  the  parents  should  be  of  mature 
age,  and  if  a  very  young  mare  is  chosen,  the  horse 
should  not  be  less  than  eight,  ten  or  twelve  years  old. 
If  both  are  very  young  or  very  old  the  product  is  gen- 
erally small  and  weakly.  A  great  many  of  our  best 
performers  on  the  turf  have  been  got  by  old  stallions; 
but  their  mothers,  with  few  exceptions,  were  young. 
The  rule  generally  adopted,  is  to  wait  till  the  mare  is 
three  years  old  before  breeding  from  her,  and  then  to 
put  her  to  a  horse  of  at  least  full  maturity, — that  is  to 
say,  seven  or  eight  years  old.  The  necessity  for 
health  in  each  parent  should  be  considered,  and  it 
will  be  found,  the  preponderance  of  either  over  the 
form  and  temper  of  the  progeny,  will  fall  to  that  one 
which  has  the  superior  purity  of  blood ;  and  there- 
fore, if  the  breeder  wishes  to  altar  in  any  important 
particular  the  qualities  possessed  by  his  mare,  he 
must  select  a  horse  which  is  better  bred.  Neither  a 
large  nor  a  small  sire  or  dam  will  perpetuate  the  like- 
ness of  himself  or  herself,  unless  descended  from  a 
breed  which  is  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

Management  of  Brood  Mares.  All  mares  are 
the  better  for  slow  work  up  to  within  two  months  of 
foaling,  but  they  should  not  be  ridden  or  driven  so  fast 
as  to  cause  exhaustion." 

Farm  mares  are  generally  used  to  within  a  few  days 
of  their  time,  care  being  taken  to  keep  them  at  light 
work. 

■  The  time  of  sending  the  mare  to  the  horse  will 
vary  with  the  purpose  for  which  her  produce  is 
intended.  If  for  racing,  it  is  desired  that  she  should 
foal  as  soon  as  jxjssible  after  the  first  of  January,  and 
as  she  carries  her  foal  about  eleven  months,  the  first 
time  of  her  being  "  in  use  "  after  the  first  of  Febru- 
ary is  the  period  chosen  for  her.  All  other  horses 
take  their  age  from  the  first  of  May;  and  as  this  is  the 
time  when  the  young  grass  begins  to  be  forward 
enough  for  the  use  of  the  mare,  the  breeder  is  not 
anxious  to  get  his  foals  dropped  much  before  that 
time.  As,  however,  mares  are  very  uncertain  ani- 
mals, he  will  do  well  to  take  advantage  of  the  first 
opportunity  after  the  first  of  March;  as  by  putting  off 
the  visit  to  the  horse,  he  may  be  disappointed  alto- 
gether, or  the  foal  may  be  dropped  so  late  that  win- 
ter sets  in  before  it  has  strength  to  bear  it.  (See 
table,  page  144.)  The  foregoing  remarks  apply  to 
maiden  mares  only;  those  who  have  dropped  a  foal 
are  generally  put  to  the  horse  nine  or  ten  days  after- 
wards, when  almost  every  mare  is  in  season.  For 
this  reason  valuable  Thorough-bred  mares  are  often 
sent  to  foal  at  the  [jlace  where  the  sire  stands  who  is 
intended  to  be  used  next  time.  The  traveling  to  him 
so  soon  after  foaling  would  be  injurious  to  both  the 
dam  and  her  foal,  and  hence  the  precaution  named  is 
adopted.  The  mare  then  remains  to  be  tried  at  in- 
tervals of  nine  days,  and  when  she  is  stinted,  the  foal 
is  strong  enough  to  bear  any  length  of  journey  with 
impunity.  Mares  and  their  foals  sometimes  travel  by 
road  twenty  miles,  or  even  more,  for  this  purpose,  but 
they  do  not  often  exceed  that  distance.  About 
fifteen  miles  a  day  is  quite  as  much  as  a  nine-days- 


old  colt  can  compass  without  injury,  and  that  done 
very  quietly,  the  mare  being  led  at  a  slow  pace  all 
the  way. 

After  having  been  served  by  a  horse,  the  mare 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  idle  awhile,  as  conception 
will  be  far  more  apt  to  take  place  if  she  is  left  alone. 
If  put  to  brisk  motion,  or  to  any  strain  immediately 
after  copulation,  she  is  very  apt  to  fail  of  concep- 
tion. She  should  also  be  kept  away  from  string- 
proud  or  badly  castrated  geldings,  not  only  at  this 
period  but  during  her  entire  pregnancy,  as  they  are  apt 
to  worry  her  to  the  casting  of  the  conception,  or  at  a 
later  period,  to  slinking  the  foal. 

After  she  has  been  allowed  a  reasonable  season  of 
quiet,  moderate  work  will  be  rather  beneficial  than 
injurious ;  and  this  may  be  kept  up  until  about  the 
time  of  foaling.  Special  care  should  always  be  exer- 
cised to  guard  her  against  being  kicked,  heavily 
thrown,  or  inordinately  strained  in  any  way. 

It  sometimes  occurs  that  at  thetime  of  foaling,afalse 
presentation  is  made,  producing  difficulty  of  delivery; 
but  no  reliable  instructions  can  be  here  given  as  to 
what  course  to  pursue  in  these  cases  ;  and  it  is  best 
to  seek  the  aid  of  some  skillful  veterinary  surgeon. 

The  mare  which  has  had  a  colt  will  be  found  in 
season  some  time  within  the  next  thirty  days,  and  she 
ought  to  go  to  the  horse  at  this  time  if  she  is  to  be  bred 
at  all.  The  ninth  day  after  foaling  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  the  right  time.  Whenever  indications  of 
heat  are  discovered,  the  matter  should  not  be  delayed, 
as  the  season  may  pass  off  and  not  return.  After- 
putting,  the  days  of  trial  are  the  ninth,  then,  if  she 
refuses,  the  seventh  after  this,  and  upon  a  second 
refusal,  the  fifth  after  this,  which  is  sufficient  to  prove 
her. 

When  about  the  tmie  of  pregnancy  is  passed,  more 
than  ordinary  pains  should  be  taken  with  the  mare, 
for  it  is  at  this  time,  if  ever,  that  she  is  most  likely  to 
slink.  Excitement  of  every  kind  is  a  fertile  source 
of  "  slippin'  "  the  foal,  and  anything  which  is  at  all 
likely  to  have  that  effect  should  be  avoided.  The 
smell  of  blood  is  said  to  have  a  prejudicial  influence 
in  this  way,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  one  mare  mis- 
carrying will  in  some  mode  affect  others  in  proximity 
to  her.  Possibly  the  same  cause  may  act  on  all ;  but 
it  seems  to  be  generally  concluded  that  the  act  is 
generally  contagious,  either  from  what  is  called  sym- 
pathy, or  some  other  inexplicable  way.  If  a  mare  has 
"slipped"  a  foal  in  a  previous  pregnancy,  double  care 
should  be  taken,  as  she  will  be  far  more  likely  to  do  so 
again  than  another  which  has  hitherto  escaped  the 
accident.  It  occurs  most  frequently  about  the  fourth 
or  fifth  month ;  therefore  extra  care  should  be  taken 
at  that  time.  The  suspected  individual  should  be  kept 
quiet  by  herself;  but  it  is  better  to  allow  her  the  nin 
of  a  small  retired  pasture  than  to  confine  her  to  the 
barn,  where,  for  want  of  exercise,  she  will  become 
restless  and  anxious.  Purging  physic  should  not  be 
given  unless  it  is  absolutely  necessary;  and  if  the 
bowels  are  so  confined  as  to  require  some  stimulus  of 
this  kind,  and  bran  mashes  and  other  changes  in  the 


yoo 


HORSE. 


food  fail  to  produce  any  effect,  choice  should  be  made 
of  the  mildest  aperient  which  is  likely  to  answer  the 
purpose. 

Treatment  after  Foaling.  In  a  healthy  state  the 
mare  very  soon  recovers  the  efforts  which  she  has 
made  in  bringing  forth  the  foal,  and  in  fine  weather 
she  may  be  allowed  to  enter  the  meadow  on  the  sec- 
ond day  afterward,  which  is  generally  soon  enough  to 
suit  the  strength  of  the  foal,  though  occasionally  the 
young  animal  is  very  active  within  six  hours  after  it 
comes  into  the  world.  For  a  month  or  six  weeks 
the  mare  and  foal  are  better  kept  in  a  meadow  by 
themselves.  , 

During  the  remainder  of  the  time  of  suckUng,  no 
special  treatment  is  required  except  to  see  that  the 
mare  is  well  fed  and  well  protected  from  the  weather. 
At  weaning-time  she  sometimes  requires  a  dose  or 
two  of  cooling  medicine;  but  generally  she  is  so 
nearly  dry  that  no  interference  is  required. 

For  further  knowledge  as  to  the  care  of  the  colt 
while  young,  see  Animals,  page  12. 

If  the  colt  is  healthy  and  thriving,  he  should  be 
weaned  when  from  five  to  six  months  old.  If  he  con- 
tinues with  the  dam  after  this  period  he  is  an  un- 
necessary burden  to  her.  If  at  this  time  the  mother 
is  inclined  to  furnish  milk  so  copiously  as  to  render 
the  udder  painful  to  her,  care  should  be  taken  that  it 
does  not  result  in  inflammation.  If  necessary  to  pre- 
vent this,  draw  away  the  milk  by  hand  once  a  day 
'  for  a  few  days.  Keep  her  on  dryer  food  than  usual, 
<and  at  more  than  ordinarily  steady  work.  This  will 
'have  a  tendency  of  preventing  the  secretion  of  the 
usual  quantity  of  milk,  and  the  udder  will  soon  dry. 

Care  of  the  Colt.  It  matters  little  what  the 
breed,  or  how  well  born,  if  the  colt  does  not  have  the 
proper  care  he  can  never  amount  to  much.  Starve  a 
colt  in  his  first  year,  and  he  is  spoilt  forever.  No 
subsequent  treatment,  however  judicious,  can  redeem 
the  neglect  of  his  early  yputh ;  the  sinking  loin,  the 
worn  look,  the  spindle  shanks  too  surely  attest  the 
treatment  he  received  in  infancy,  whatever  his  original 
caliber  may  have  been. 

Very  much  of  the  future  value  and  size  de- 
pends on  the  condition  in  which  they  are  kept  the 
first  winter.  They  should  always  be  provided  with 
comfortable  quarters;  that  is,  a  dry,  warm  stable, 
with  a  window  having  a  southern  exposure,  if  possible. 
They  should  not  be  kept  tied  up  continually,  but 
allowed  the  range  of  a  yard  during  the  day  time,  and 
especially  during  the  pleasant  weather,  that  they  may 
exercise  as  much  as  they  please ;  observing  that 
there  is  no  projecting  rail,  stake,  or  bit  of  board 
against  which  they  may  injure  themselves  by  run- 
ning, as,  when  at  play,  they  perform  with  a  reckless- 
ness scarcely  equaled  by  any  other  domestic  animal. 

Treat  them  kindly,  occasionally  feeding  a  little 
from  the  hand,  and  thus  gain  their  confidence. 
Break  them  to  the  use  of  the  halter ;  lead  them  about 
by  it;  tie  them  up  for  a  few  hours  when  you  are  busy 
about  the  barn,  and  until  they  will  stand  quietly  do 
not  leave  them  unwatched  but  a  short  time  at  once, 


for  it  is  difficult  imagining  what  position  they  may 
not  get  into. 

There  is  but  little  or  no  use  breaking  them  to  the 
use  of  the  bit  until  at  least  one  year  old,  and  at  the 
age  of  two  is  a  better  time  to  commence  the  opera- 
tion of  bitting  and  checking  up.  By  exercising  a 
little  patience  and  kindness,  a  colt  may  just  as 
easily  be  brought  up  as  a  pet,  and,  in  one  sense  of 
the  word,  be  broken  ere  it  is  hitched  to  a  vehicle,  as 
to  be  necessitated  to  call  into  requisition  the  services 
of  a  horse-tamer. 

Castration.  This  operation  should  be  performed 
at  a  rather  early  age,  yet  not  before  they  are  one  year 
old.  They  will  then  retain  more  of  the  natural  vigor 
and  style  of  the  entire  horse.  The  latest  and  one  of 
the  best  methods  of  castrating  colts  or  horses  of  any 
age,  is  with  the  castrating  ecrasseur  (Fig.  17).  Di- 
rections accompany  each  ecrasseur. 

In  the  case  of  colts  and  old  horses  the  structures 
are  tough  and  the  cords  strong ;  consequently  clamps 
(Fig.  18)  are  necessary,  so  that  the  circulation  may 
be  entirely  stopped. 

The  clamps  should  have  a  small  jxirtion  of  red 
precipitate  and  corrosive  sublimate  sprinkled  on  the 
inside,  first  wetting  the  clamps.  The  operation 
should  be  performed  as  follows :  Cast  the  horse  or 
colt  and  fasten  him  securely,  having  everything 
ready,  a  keen,  round-pointed  knife,  clamps  and  cords. 
Seize  the  scrotum,  and  make  a  clean  cut  through  the 
integuments  and  well  into  the  testicle,  and  in  a  line 
so  the  cut  shall  be  parallel  to  the  median  line  or  line 
dividing  the  scrotum.  Clean  the  envelope  of  the  test- 
icle, leaving  it  as  near  intact 
as  possible,  as  the  envelope 
must  remain  with  the  animal. 
Draw  the  testicle  out,  put  a 
clamp  on  the  cord  and  seiz- 
ing the  other  end  of  the  clamp 
with  a  pair  of  pincers  (Fig.  16), 
press  it  strongly  together,  and 
tie  securely  with  a  wax  thread. 
Proceed  the  same  with  the 
other.  The  horse  may  then 
be  allowed  to  get  up.  In  thir- 
ty-six to  forty-eight  hours  the 
sticks  or  clamps  are  to  be  re- 
moved. 

In  castrating  do  not  be  afraid 
to  make  an  extensive  cut,  and 
do  not  leave  the  cord  too  long, 
else  it  may  be  strangulated, 
and  fever  and  inflammation 
ensue.  If  this  should  unhap- 
pily occur,  enlarge  the  opening 
and  push  up  the  cord.  If 
there  is  formation  of  matter, 
hasten  it  by  fomentation  with 
warm  water.     When  a  free  ex- 

udation  of  cream-like  matter  is 

Fic.  16.- Carfra/<Bi-/'/«-«».  established,  the  animal  will  go 
on  to  recovery  as  granulation  progresses.     If,  how- 


702 


HORSE. 


ever,  the  work  has  been  properly  done,  the  animal 
will  suffer  little  inconvenience,  and  nothing  more 
need  be  done. 

The  best  time  for  castrating  colts  and  horses  is 
from  the  middle  of  May  to  the  first  of  June,  in  the 
North,  and  in  the  South,  about  the  time  the  young 
grass  is  a  free  bite. 

Breaking.  If  a  colt  is  never  allowed  to  get  an 
advantage,  it  will  never  know  that  it  possesses  a 
power  that  man  can  control;  and  if  made  familiar 
with  strange  objects,  it  will  not  be  skittish  and  ner- 


UYim'Yfuni 


Fig.  17. — Ecrasseur. 

vous.  If  a  horse  is  made  accustomed  from  his  early 
days  to  have  objects  hit  him  on  the  heels,  back  and 
hips,  he  will  pay  no  attention  to  the  giving  out  of 
harness,  or  wagons  running  against  him  at  an  unex- 
pected moment.  A  gun  can  be  fired  from  in  front  of 
a  horse,  an  umbrella  held  over  his  head,  a  buffalo 
robe  thrown  over  his  neck,  a  railroad  engine  pass  close 
by,  his  heels  be  thumped  with  sticks,  and  the  animal 


Fig.  \i.— Clamps. 

take  it  all  as  a  natural  condition  of  things,  if  only 
taught  by  careful  management  that  he  will  not  be 
injured  thereby. 

Commence  handling  the  young  foals  from  their  very 
birth.  They  are  much  more  easily  gentled  and  halter- 
broken  during  the  first  few  months  than  at  any  subse- 
quent period,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  longer  it  is  deferred 
the  more  difficult  the  work  becomes.  The  easiest 
way  in  the  world  to  break  a  colt  to  the  haller  is  to  tie 
him  in  the  stall  by  the  side  of  his  dam,  and  to  lead 
him  by  her  side  occasionally  when  she  is  taken  out  for 
work  or  exercise.  The  time  thus  employed  is  never 
missed,  and  many  a  young  thing  that  might  otherwise 
grow  up  wild,  vicious,  and  unruly,  is  made  gentle,  kind 
and  tractable. 

Many  a  fine  horse  is  ruined  before  it  becomes  a  horse 
at  all,  and  the  owner  can  charge  his  loss  upon  the 
mismanagement  of  the  colt  at  the  time  of  breaking. 
We  have  seen  colts,  after  remarkable  patience  with  the 
stupidity  or  viciousness  of  those  breaking  them,  at 
last  resort  to  kicking  or  balking,  through  fear  or  in 
self-defense ;  and  in  many  cases  the  defect  is  lasting. 

A  verv  great  mistake  is  to  let  the  colt  run  wild  from 


the  time  it  is  foaled  until  it  reaches  the  proper  age  for 
breaking.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  colts  that  are 
as  wild  as  hawks  because  they  have  never  been  even 
fondled,  much  less  familiarized  with  the  touch  of  any 
part  of  harness.  Very  naturally  such  a  colt  is  handled 
with  difficulty  and  danger  when  the  attempt  to  break 
it  is  made.  -Such  a  result  is  utterly  inexcusable,  forit 
is  rather  a  pleasure  than  otherwise  to  familiarize  the 
colt  with  being  handled,  and  the  accomplishing  of 
that  object  should  be  begun  at  once,  and  the  breaking 
of  the  colt,  in  the  proper  sense,  should  be  commenced 
as  soon  as  it  is  weaned, — that  is  to  say,  it 
should  be  accustomed  to  the  halter,  to  being 
led  about,  and  even  tied  up  for  short  per- 
iods. The  surcingle  can  be  applied  and  any- 
thing that  can  be  done  without  injury  to 
the  colt  to  accustom  it  to  the  touch  of  har- 
ness, should  be  done,  gradually  of  course; 
for  not  only  would  nothing  be  gained  by 
doing  everything  at  once,  but  the  irritation 
that  would  be  caused  might  be  injurious 
to  the  young  animal.  After  the  first  year 
the  breaking  should  be  more  in  earnest.  The  colt  can 
then  be  bitted.  Select  a  much  smaller  bit  than  is  gen- 
erally used  and  one  that  will  not  hurt  the  animal's 
mouth.  A  wooden  bit  is  a  good  thing  to  commence 
with.  When  he  has  become  accustomed  to  the  bit, 
which  he  will  in  a  few  days,  it  is  advisable  to  fasten 
ropes  to  it,  and  extend  them  to  a  loose  girth  over  the 
back,  attaching  them  thereto.  Thus  harnessed  he 
may  be  driven,  as  it  were,  over  a  field,  the  trainer 
pulling  the  ropes  occasionally.  Portions  of  the  har- 
ness can  be  very  soon  placed  upon  him,  and  by  the 
time  the  colt  is  really  old  enough  for  use  he  will  be 
pretty  thoroughly  "taught,"  if  such  a  course  is  fol- 
lowed. In  handling  a  colt,  or  for  that  matter  a  horse, 
we  never  want  to  forget  our  first  duty  is  to  gain  the 
animal's  confidence,  and  that  in  the  next  place  the 
animal  cannot  do  anything  if  it  does  not  understand 
what  is  wanted  of  it.  An  inconipetent  trainer  at- 
tempts to  induce  the  animal  to  do  a  certain  thing, 
and  because  it  does  not  understand  what  is  required 
of  it,  and  consequently  cannot  do  it,  the  trainer  flies 
into  a  passion,  the  animal  becomes  excited,  loses  con- 
fidence both  in  itself  and  in  the  trainer,  and  great 
injury  is  done.  No  man  is  fit  to  handle  a  horse, 
much  less  a  colt,  who  has  not  just  as  much  patience 
as  a  competent  teacher  has  with  a  child.  He  should 
proceed  just  as  a  teacher  proceeds.  The  teacher  ex- 
plains and  explains  until  the  child  grasps  the  idea, 
knowing  that  the  child  can  do  nothing  until  the  idea 
is  grasped,  and  if  the  child  is  very  stupid  so  much 
more  patience  is  necessary  and  given. 

Frequently  we  hear  men  swearing  at  a  horse  and 
lashing  him,  because  he  does  not  do  what  he  does  not 
understand.  A  man  that  will  whip  a  horse  under 
such  circumstances,  is  foolish  enough  to  swear  at  a 
tree  because  it  does  not  fall  when  he  tells  it  to.  If 
we  cannot  be  gentle  and  patient  we  have  no  business 
to  touch  a  colt,  whatever  else  we  may  think  (jurselves 
competent  to  train.     A  trainer  needs  but  three  moral 


HORSE. 


703 


requisites,  namely,  firmness,  steadiness  and  patience. 

The  regular  training  of  a  colt  or  filly  should  begin 
at  the  age  of  two  years  past.  There  are  many  ur- 
gent reasons  for  this ;  first,  the  animal  has  neither  the 
full  strength  nor  the  disposition  to  resist  that  it  will 
have  at  a  more  mature  age ;  second,  it  is  more  tract- 
able, and  will  acquire  its  lessons  more  easily ;  third, 
it  will  not  have  contracted  habits  of  self-will  difficult 
to  be  broken  off;  and  fourth,  lessons  in  flexions  of  the 
body  may  be  taught  that  will  naturally  increase  its 
usefulness  in  whatever  direction  it  may  be  wanted. 

The  first  lesson  for  any  use  is  implicit  and  perfect 
obedience  to  the  will  of  the  master.  This  thor- 
oughly accomplished,  the  rest  of  the  task  will  be  com- 
paratively easy,  as  it  is  only  a  question  of  time.  It 
is  supposed  the  animal  is  entirely  free  from  acquired 
vice  that  it  has  been  halter  broken,  and  taught  to 
stand  quietly  at  the  end  of  the  halter,  to  follow 
quietly,  to  lead  by  the  side  of  the  master,  and  to  stand 
quietly  in  the  stable. 

The  next  step  is  to  procure  a  bitting  bridle,  also  a 
strong  bridle  with  a  heavy,  smooth  snaffle  bit,  with  a 
tongue  piece  and  keys  depending  from  the  center  of 
the  bit ;  it  must  also  have  a  check  rein  that  may  be 
lengthened  or  shortened,  and  two  side  straps,  one 
on  each  side.  The  harness  is  simply  a  very  wide, 
strong  surcingle,  with  padded  back-piece,  having  at 
the  top  a  strap  and  buckle  to  form  a  loop  for  the 
check  rein,  and  also  a  buckle  on  each  side  of  the  sur- 
cingle in  which  to  buckle  to  side  straps.  To  the 
rear  of  the  pad  of  the  surcingle  is  attached  a  back 
strap  and  round  crupper  strap,  the  latter  to  buckle 
and  unbuckle. 

Take  the  harness,  and  approaching  the  colt  in  the 
stall,  let  him  smell  it  until  satisfied,  then  put  it  on 
without  undue  haste  or  fuss.  If  the  colt  is  nervous 
or  skittish,  talk  to  him  and  take  time.  The  harness 
on,  put  on  the  bridle,  giving  plenty  of  length  to  the 
check  rein  and  side  straps,  so  the  colt  will  not  be  un- 
duly hampered,  and  let  it  out  in  a  smooth,  tight  yard, 
following  it  about  with  the  whip  under  the  arm. 
Sometimes  a  strong  colt  will  struggle  and  sweat  vio- 
lently, but  if  he  has  been  properly  handled  heretofore, 
he  will  take  the  subjection  as  a  matter  of  course.  Let 
him  exercise  an  hour  a  day  for  a  few  days,  tightening 
the  check  rein  and  side  straps  gradually,  until  his 
head  is  brought  into  a  proper  position,  but  not  a  con- 
strained ixjsition.  When  he  ceases  to  fret  at  the  har- 
ness, pass  the  snap  of  a  leading  rope  through  the 
near  ring  of  the  bit  and  snap  it  into  the  off  one. 
This  rope  should  be  about  fifteen  feet  long.  Taking 
the  end  in  hand,  exercise  the  colt  in  a  circle,  allowing 
him  to  walk  if  he  will.  When  somewhat  tired  let  him 
stop  and  stand  in  front  of  him,  say  Come,  tapping 
him  lightly  on  the  fore-legs  with  a  whip.  If  he  pulls, 
hold  him  firmly,  but  without  undue  violence  while  he 
resists,  tapping  him  on  the  fore-legs  at  intervals,  using 
the  word  Come.  He  will  soon  find  the  way  to  escape 
the  whip  will  be  to  get  near  you.  Then  fondle  him 
and  give  him  a  trifle  of  sugar  or  salt,  and  let  him  fol- 
low to  the  stable.     So  proceed  from  day  to  day,  exer- 


cising him  in  a  circle  both  to  right  and  left  (lunging 
it  is  called),  gradually  increasing  his  pace  to  a  fair 
trot,  until  he  will  work  as  you  want  him,  turning  at 
the  word  to  the  right  or  left  circle,  or  to  stand  and 
come  to  his  master  at  the  word  of  command. 

Rarey  System  of  Breaking.  If  the  colt  is  properly 
educated  during  its  early  life,  tiie  right  course  pur- 
sued, as  previously  directed,  there  will  be  no  occasion 
for  a  violent  process  of  training.  When  this  is  not 
the  case,  however,  and  the  colt  is  wild  and  vicious, 
there  is  no  mode  to  break  him  equal  to  the  one  in- 
vented by  John  S.  Rarey,  of  Ohio.  Novel  and  extra- 
ordinary to  a  degree  bordering  on  the  marvelous 
were  the  exhibitions  which  he  gave,  both  in  America 
and  Europe,  in  the  management  of  this  noble  animal. 
Wondering  and  delighted  crowds  attended  these  ex- 
hibitions in  all  the  principal  cities  in  this  country  and 
abroad.  Crowned  heads  and  titled  dignitaries  were 
among  the  gifted  champion's  most  enthusiastic  audi- 
tors. As  this  system  is  so  remarkable  and  so  effect- 
ive, we  shall  give  both  a  sketch  of  it  and  describe 
the  method. 

The  apparatus  that  is  required  is,  first  of  all,  an 
ordinary  snaffle  or  straight  bit  in  the  mouth,  without 
which  nothing  can  be  done  with  a  vicious  horse. 

The  manner  of  getting  this  bit  in  the  mouth  is  dif- 
ferent and  great  difficulty  is  ofttimes  experienced. 
Rarey  sometimes  used  guide  ropes  fastened  to  the 
head  of  the  animal  and  held  by  grooms  on  each  side. 

The  second  part  of  the  apparatus  is  the  leg-strap 
for  the  near  fore  leg.  This  is  very  similar  to  a  stirrup- 
leather,  which,  with  the  addition  of  a  strong  loop,  can 
be  made  to  answer  the  same  purpose  very  well. 
Before  applying  this  strap,  which  at  once  makes  the 
horse  harmless  for  offense,  he  must  be  rendered 
approachable,  which  in  ordinary  animals  is  effected 
merely  with  the  aid  of  the  bridle.  As  soon  as  this  is 
done  the  horse  is  innocent  of  all  mischief,  except  with 
the  teeth,  for  he  cannot  kick  on  three  legs,  and  even 
his  mouth  may  be  kept  away  from  the  operator  by 
drawing  on  the  off  rein. 

To  bring  him  to  speedy  submission  the  other  leg 
sh6uld  also  be  confined,  which  is  effected  by  first 
buckling  on  a  surcingle,  as  represented  in  the  fol- 
lowing engraving,  and  then  catching  the  off  fetlock  in 
the  running  noose  of  another  leg-strap,  composed  of  a 
long  strap  with  a  loop  at  one  end 

Provided  with  this  second  strap  in  his  pocket,  and 
having  already  applied  the  first  strap  and  surcingle, 
the  subject  under  manipulation  is  either  induced  to 
drop  his  off  foot  into  the  noose  or  it  is  slipped  around 
his  ankle,  while  the  off  rein  is  held  by  the  other  hand 
to  keep  the  teeth  off  the  operator.  As  soon  as  this 
loop  is  firmly  drawn  around  the  leg,  the  other  end  is 
slipped  through  the  surcingle  under  the  belly,  and 
entire  control  of  the  horse  is  only  a  work  of  time. 

With  a  violent  horse,  it  is  always  best  to  let  him 
feel  his  want  of  [xiwer  for  doing  mischief  with  the  near 
fore  leg  strapped  up  and  the  slight  degree  of  fatigue 
which  a  few  minutes  hopping  will  produce,  before  the 
second  strap  is  called  into  play.     When  this  is  done 


704 


HORSE. 


and  the  second  strap  applied  and  slipped  through 
the  surcingle,  the  rein  is  taken  in  the  left  hand  and 
gently  jerked,  to  make  the  horse  move,  which  he  can 


Fig.  io.— 'Horse  in  the  Po-wer  of  his  Master, 

do  only  by  raising  the  off  fore  leg  off  the  ground  in 
the  action  known  as  hopping.     The  moment  this  be- 
gins the  right  hand  firmly  draws  the  off  leg  up  to 
the  surcingle,  and  keeps  it  there,  when  the  horse 
must  either  bound  into  the  air  on  his  hind  legs  or 
he  must  go  down  on  the  ground.     See  Fig.  21. 

To  avoid  mischief,  therefore,  the  yard  where 
the  operation  is  carried  on  should  be  thickly  bed- 
ded with  straw,  for  no  knee-caps  are  stout  enough 
to  protect  the  joints  from  injury  on  hard  ground, 
nor,  if  they  escape  being  bruised,  will  the  shock 
to  the  body  on  falling  be  at  all  safe.  Even  straw 
can  hardly  be  relied  on,  if  the  floor  beneath  is  ■ 
of  brick,  stone,  pebbles,  or  hard  natural  soil,  for 
it  is  apt  to  give  way  during  the  struggles  of  the 
horse,  and  allow  the  knees  to  reach  it  without  the 
intended  protection.  A  good,  solid  bed  of  ma- 
nure, which  is  always  to  be  had  where  horses  are, 
spread  at  least  a  foot  thick  all  over  the  yard,  and 
over  this  clean  straw,  is  the  most  desirable  place. 
When  the  horse  bounds  into  the  air,  plunges  and 
falls  on  his  knees,  the  chief  art  of  managing  him, 
or  this  part  of  the  process  of  breaking  him,  is  to 
keep  a  firm  hold  of  the  strap  attached  to  the  off 
leg  close  to  the  surcingle ;  the  hand,  being  pro-  ^ 
tected  by  the  glove,  can  easily  prevent  it  from 
slipping  through  during  the  struggles  of  the  horse, 
and  at  the  same  time  serves  as  a  starting  point 
for  the  operator,  so  that  he  can  follow  the  movements 
of  the  bounding  animal  in  whatever  direction  he  may 
progress.     The  operator  must  on  no  account  attempt 


to  stand  away  from  his  patient,  nor  must  he  advance 
before  the  girth-place,  but  keeping  close  to  this  he  is 
in  no  danger,  provided  he  has  the  sense  and  the 
ability  to  give  way  if  the  horse  should  throw 
himself  down  toward  his  side.  Therein,  being 
still  held  in  the  left  hand,  prevents  the  horse 
falling  away  from  the  operator  and  is  also 
used  by  him  as  a  means  of  guiding  the  ani- 
mal, if  he  happens  to  progress  in  a  direction 
which  is  not  desired.  Nothing  else  is  to  be  at- 
tempted till  the  horse  has  quite  exhausted  all 
his  energies,  which  those  possessed  of  high 
courage  will  soon  do;  but  low-bred  animals 
are  very  apt  to  turn  sulky,  and,  refusing  to 
plunge,  remain  on  their  knees,  in  spite  of  every 
kind  of  stimulus  which  can  be  given  them  short 
of  severe  punishment  with  the  whip,  which 
must  be  avoided  as  opposed  to  the  principles 
on  which  the  whole  process  is  founded.  By  tak- 
ing time  with  these  low-bred  animals  they  may 
always  be  made  to  tire  themselves,  for  the 
kneeling  position  is  very  irksome  to  them, 
and  the  most  stubborn  will  give  a  plunge  now 
and  then  to  relieve  themselves.  Sooner  or  later, 
varying  from  ten  minutes  to  two  or  three 
hours,  the  tail  begins  to  tremble,  the  flanks 
heave,  and  a  profuse  perspiration  breaks  out, 
which  are  signs  that  the  horse  himself  desires 
the  incumbent  position ;  and  if  he  does  not  lie 
down  of  his  own  accord,  he  may  be  pulled 
over  by  the  hand  of  the  operator. 

A  second  or  two  after  the  horse  has  gone  down,  let 


Fig.  91. — The  Horse  Bounding  on  his  Hind  Legs. 

him  raise  his  head,  and  then  drag  it  down  again  to 
the  ground  by  the  mane.  On  repeating  this  once, 
twice,  or  thrice,  the  animal  will  give  in  as  far  as  that 


i 


HORSE. 


70s 


part  is  concerned ;  and  being  rewarded  with  a  pat  of 
the  hand,  the  head  remaining  on  the  ground,  that 
part  is  gentled.     Now  remove  the  leg  straps,  lift  the 


Fro.  22. —  The  Iforse  on  his'  Kntes   ready  to  Fait  on  his  Side, 

fore  legs,  separately,  and  let  them  fall  to  the  ground, 
gently  patting  them,  and  they  are  gentled.     Then  go 
round  to  the  back,  proceed  to  gentle  the  hind  limbs  in 
the  same  manner,  when  you  may  perform  all  the  usual 
"clap-traps  "  of  putting  your  head  between  the  legs, 
knocking  the   hind  and  fore    shoes    to- 
gether, standing  on  the  body,  etc.  While 
in  this  state,  the  horse  lies  in   the   atti- 
tude and  with   the   expression  which   is 
very  well  represented  in  the  accompany- 
ing sketch,  and  there  he  will  gladly  lie  as 
he    is  permitted  to  do  so.    But  he  is  not 
to  be  allowed  to  recruit  his  jx)wers,  and 
as  soon   as  you   have  gone  through  the 
tricks  above  mentioned,  make  him   rise; 
call  for  a  saddle ;  in  every  case  show  it 
to  the  horse,  jnit  first  on  his  head,  then 
on  his  neck,  and  then  in  its  proper  place; 
then  mount  and  the  horse  will  move   off       ^ 
as  tamely  as  an  old  horse   for  years   ac-     :5 
customed  to  the  saddle. 

By  this  plan  it  is  indisputable  that  any 
active  man  of  good  temper  but  jxDssessed 
of  firmness  and  courage,  and  accustomed 
to  deal  with  horses,  may  gain  such  a  con- 
trol over  even  the    most   vicious.      This 
manner  of  breaking  acts  by  producing  in 
the  horse  a  comixjund  feeling  of  fear  and 
gratitude,  the  former  being  the  result  of 
the  animal's  fruitless  efforts  to  get  rid  of  the  controll- 
ing hand  of  man,  and,  the  latter  being  established, 
from  finding  that  same  hand  relieve  him  of  his  straps 
and  then  caress  and  gentle  him. 
45 


Breaking  with  a  Halter.     For  the  breaking  of 
ordinary  colts  other  methods  are  much  better  than 
that  of  Rarey's.     His,  however,  is  much  quicker,  and 
for  breaking  cavalry  or  circus   horses 
his  method  is  not  excelled.     We  give 
another   method  of    breaking  a   colt. 
This  with  the  halter  only.     This  op- 
eration is  often    accompanied   with 
danger,  unless  proper  steps  are  taken 
to  avoid  it.  Our  experience  has  taught 
us  that  it  is   well    to  be  governed  by 
these   rules.      First,    provide    against 
accident  yourself.  Second,  secure  your 
horse    against    possibility    of    injury. 
Third,  accomplish  your  desire  with  the 
animal  in  the  quickest  time  possible,  to 
render  the   lesson   a   permanent  one. 
Having  these  rules  in  view,  we  proceed 
as  follows :     Take  a  round  stick,  one 
inch  or  one  inch  and  a    half    in   di- 
ameter, the  length   of  which  is  to  be 
governed  by  prospect  of  danger  from 
the  viciousness  or  nervousness  of  the 
colt.  Commence  by  driving  a   shingle 
nail  three  inches  from  the  end,  drive 
another  about   seven  or  eight  inches 
from  and  in  a   straight   line  with  the 
first,  leaving  the  nails  far  enough   out, 
so  that  you  can  hang  ujxjn  your  halter.      Then   take 
a  common  halter,  made  of  rope,  which   has  a    run- 
ning noose,  made  as  follows :    Tie  a  hard  knot  on  the 
end  of  your  rope;  about  eight  inches  from  the   first 
make  another,  and  about  twenty  inches  from  the  sec- 


Tke  Horse  Tamed. 


ond,  make  another;  put  the  end  knot  through  the 
third,  drawing  the  third  tight,  then  draw  the  other  end 
of  the  rope  which  is  intended  for  the  stale  of  the 
halter,  through  the  second  knot ;  this  will  form  the 


7o6 


HORSE. 


noose.  Place  the  head-piece  of  the  halter  on  the 
nails,  turning  them  upwards  for  security  in  holding  it 
on.  You  are  now  ready  to  commence  operations  with 
the  colt,  in  doing  which  it  is  necessary  to  understand 
the  fact  that  curiosity  is  a  very  strong  trait  in  the  horse, 
and  when  not  overcome  by  fear  or  some  other  power- 
ful influence  is  sure  to  prevail.  You  can  test  this,  if 
you  choose,  by  placing  your  hat  or  handkerchief  on 
the  end  of  your  stick,  and  holding  it  toward  the  colt. 
He  may  at  first  show  symptoms  of  alarm,  but,  by 
holding  it  towards  him  and  moving  it  gently,  the  colt 
will  naturally  use  his  own  way  of  examining  it,  by 
reaching  out  his  nose  and  probably  touching  it.  He 
will  soon  become  accustomed  to  the  stick,  and  mani- 
fest the  same  curiosity  in  regard  to  the  halter.  You 
will  now  take  the  halter  with  the  noose  well  loosened, 
holding  the  end  of  the  stick  and  the  halter  strap  in 
both  hands.  The  halter  hanging  on  the  nails  as  be- 
fore suggested,  move  it  gently  toward  the  colt, 
giving  it  a  small  swinging  motion;  and  holding  the 
stick  pretty  well  up  over  the  head,  the  colt  will  now 
extend  his  nose  to  examine  the  halter,  and  while  his 
attention  is  attracted  by  its  swinging  motion,  pass  the 
head-piece  gently  over  the  ears,  and  turning  the  stick 
half  around,  drop  it  on  his  neck,  then  with  a  quick 
motion  drop  the  stick  and  pull  up  on  the  strap,  and 
your  colt  is  haltered.  You  may  now  lay  the  stick 
aside. 

Having  your  colt  haltered,  your  next  object  is  to 
teach  him  its  use.  Take  a  position  about  opposite  his 
shoulder,  still  keeping  at  a  distance  in  order  to  secure 
your  own  safety,  as  well  as  not  to  alarm  the  colt  too 
much.  Give  him  a  short,  quick  pull  toward  you,  suffi- 
cient to  move  him,  immediately  slackening  your  pull. 
The  object  in  doing  this  is  to  teach  him  that  you  have 
the  power  to  move  him ;  and  by  slacking  immediately 
you  do  not  give  him  time  to  resist;  which,  if  the 
pull  were  steady,  he  will  do,  even  to  the  extent  of 
throwing  himself.  Repeat  the  side  pulls  a  few  times, 
till  his  disposition  to  resist  grows  weaker.  You  will  re-  . 
peat  the  operation  on  the  other  side,  alternating  from 
side  to  side  at  every  pull,  but  always  avoiding  a 
straight-forward  pull.  As  you  operate,  gradually  but 
slowly  keep  shortening  your  hold  on  the  halter  strap, 
until  at  last  you  can  place  your  hand  on  his  nose, 
with  which  he  will  examine  it,  that  organ  being  the 
one  made  use  of  by  all  horses  to  test  the  danger  or 
harmlessness  of  substances,  which  alarm  them.  As 
he  becomes  accustomed  to  your  presence,  which  he 
will  soon  do,  if  you  are  gentle,  you  will  then  proceed 
to  caress  him  over  the  face,  gradually  extending  your 
hand  down  over  his  neck,  being  cautious  not  to  touch 
his  ears.  As  soon  as  he  begins  to  be  restive  or  cringe 
under  your  hand,  remove  it,  and  gently  place  it  again 
on  his  face,  repeating  the  former  operation,  extending 
the  hand  farther  and  farther  at  each  repetition,  until 
he  becomes  calm.  You  will  now  slacken  the  halter  a 
little  on  his  nose,  and  by  tying  a  knot  through  the 
noose,  you  will  avoid  hurting  him,  as  the  halter  will 
not  tighten  on  his  nose. 

Remember  that  up  to  this  point  you  have  not  hurt 


the  colt,  and  have  therefore  not  called  out  any  undue 
resistance  on  his  part.  The  main  objection  to  a  rope 
halter  is,  that  it  is  sometimes  used  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  hurt  the  colt.  We  obviate  this  objection,— first, 
by  the  short  pull  and  slackening  up  before  resistance 
is  excited;  second,  by  tying  the  knot  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, so  that  the  noose  cannot  tighten  around  the 
nose.  At  any  time  after  this,  when  you  can  safely  do 
so,  you  may,  if  you  please,  change  for  a  leather  halter. 

You  will  now  step  back  and  repeat  the  pulling  op- 
eration, being  careful  to  get  aside  pull,  and  to  change 
sides  at  each  alternate  pull.  The  reason  for  working 
on  both  sides  is,  that  in  this  as  well  as  in  other  lessons 
in  which  you  attempt  to  instruct  the  horse,  there  are 
two  sides  to  teach.  What  he  learns  to  do  on  one  side, 
must  by  the  same  process  be  learned  on  the  other,  in 
order  to  have  the  same  understanding  of  what  is  re- 
quired of  him.  The  reason  in  avoiding  a  forward  pull 
is  that  you  cannot  easily  move  him  in  that  direction, 
and  he  only  learns  your  weakness  by  your  unsuccess- 
ful attempts.  As  you  move  from  side  to  side,  if  the 
colt  be  inclined  to  move  before  you  pull  up  on  the 
halter,  instead  of  pulling,  step  forward  and  caress  him 
gently  over  the  face  or  withers,  always  encouraging 
the  animal  to  do  what  is  required  of  him.  By  the  side 
pulls  he  is  compelled  to  come,  and  by  rewarding  him 
for  coming  towards  you,  the  animal  learns  your  mean- 
ing and  knows  that  by  obeying  he  gains  your  approval, 
and  he  willingly  obeys.  Should  the  colt  prove  of  a 
stubborn  disposition,  and  refuse  to  move  as  you  de- 
sire, take  hold  of  the  halter  strap  with  your  left  hand, 
about  a  foot  from  the  head,  and  with  your  right  hand 
seize  him  by  the  tail,  and  give  him  a  few  sharp  turns 
around,  pulling  the  head  towards  you,  at  the  same 
time  giving  him  an  occasional  kick  with  the  side  of 
your  foot  across  the  buttock.  This  lesson  will  teach 
the  colt  that  he  can  move,  and  that  you  have  the 
power  to  move  him  whenever  you  choose.  Now  re- 
peat the  side  pulling  as  before,  and  if  he  remains 
stubborn,  repeat  the  operation  of  turning  twice  or 
or  three  times.  By  this  time  he  will  probably  appear 
to  brighten  up,  and  show  signs  of  being  willing  to 
step.  If  he  should  not,  you  will  take  a  bow-top  whip 
in  your  right  hand,  and  holding  the  halterstrap  in  your 
left  hand,  stand  opposite  his  left  shoulder,  reach  the 
whip  across  and  tap  him  gently  on  the  right  hip,  at 
the  same  time  giving  a  slight  pull  on  the  halter.  If 
he  starts  with  this  movement,  caress  him  and  repeat 
as  before.  If  he  does  not  start,  use  a  little  more  force 
with  the  whip.  If  he  is  still  stubborn,  and  does  not 
show  signs  of  moving,  talk  kindly  to  him  and  step 
back  for  a  few  moments,  allowing  him  to  get  quiet,  if 
he  be  angered,  as  the  reason  for  this  conduct  is  that 
the  colt  is  frightened,  and  he  can  only  be  assured  that 
you  do  not  mean  to  injure  him,  by  your  kind  and  pa- 
tient usage.  As  soon  as  he  becomes  calm,  you  hav- 
ing taught  him  that  he  is  not  to  be  hurt,  he  will  likely 
move  in  whatever  direction  you  ask  him.  When  he 
steps  readily,  you  may  tie  up  your  halter  strap  and  let 
him  go.     This  will  do  for  the  first  lesson. 

The  colt  should  now  be  left  alone  for  half  an  hour. 


HORSE. 


707 


until  he  recovers  from  his  excitement,  when  you  can 
repeat  the  lesson.  As  soon  as  he  obeys  the  side  pull 
readily,  you  may  then,  and  not  before,  commence  to 
teach  him  to  obey  the  forward  pull.  If  he  leads,  no 
matter  how  little,  caress  him,  and  repeat,  being  care- 
ful to  not  pull  too  hard. 

If  he  does  not  move  with  a  reasonable  pull,  give  him 
two  or  three  short  side  pulls,  and  try  the  straight  for- 
ward pull  again.  In  a  short  time,  by  this  usage,  he 
will  lead  willingly.  It  is  necessary  to  avoid  giving  a 
determined  pull  forward,  as  it  is  likely  to  not  succeed, 
and  by  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  move  the  colt,  he 
is  only  taugiit  your  weakness,  and  by  inflicting  pain 
uixjn  hun,  he  will  naturally  pull  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  whatever  causes  the  pain.  I5y  teaching 
him  to  refuse  in  this  way,  you  are  apt  to  learn  the 
cok  the  habit  of  halter-pulling.  You  are  now  ready 
for  hitching  the  colt  in  the  stall. 

The  stall  should  be  a  common  one-horse  stall,  about 
four  feet  wide;  should  be  prepared  by  having  two 
staples  driven  in  the  rear  end  of  the  stall,  one  on  each 
side,  so  that  a  jxsle  or  rope  can  be  stretched  across, 
about  the  height  that  the  breeching  would  be  on  the 
colt  if  harnessed.  You  will  now  lead  the  colt  into 
the  stall,  and  some  assistant  can  be  called  to  put  up 
the  rope  or  jx)le.  Should  no  one  be  at  hand,  you  can 
do  it  yourself  by  putting  the  halter  strap  through  the 
ring  or  tying  place,  and  hold  the  end  in  your  hand, 
being  careful  to  not  tie  the  halter  until  after  the  pole 
or  rope  is  up.  The  object  for  not  tying  the  halter  be- 
fore putting  up  the  [xile  is  that  by  holding  the  end  of 
the  stra])  in  the  hand,  should  the  colt  attempt  to  pull 
back,  you  can  step  forward,  and  tlie  strap  slipping 
through  the  ring,  you  will  avoid  hurting  the  colt's 
head  with  the  halter.  You  can  at  the  same  time  pat 
and  caress  him,  thus  assuring  him  that  he  is  not  to  be 
hurt.  The  reason  for  putting  up  tlie  obstruction  be- 
hind before  tying  is  Ijecause  you  thereby  avoid  the 
risk  of  the  colt  through  fear,  or  pain,  where  the  halter 
presses  on  the  iiead  of  halter  pulling.  When  once 
tied,  should  he  attempt  to  back  out  of  the  stall,  he 
will  come  against  the  rope  or  jxale,  and  step  forward, 
instead  of  hurting  his  head  with  the  halter  and  pull- 
ing harder  to  get  free  from  what  hurts  him.  In  re- 
moving the  colt  from  the  stall,  be  sure  and  untie  the 
halter  before  removing  the  obstruction  in  the  rear,  and 
for  the  first  few  days  be  careful  to  not  tie  him  where  he 
can  have  a  chance  to  pull.  By  observing  these  rules 
for  a  few  days  there  is  no  danger  that  the  colt  will 
ever  becom(^a  halter-puller.  Bear  in  mind  that 
during  the  entire  process  of  handhng  the  colt,  it  is 
proper  and  necessary  to  speak  to  him  in  a  mild  and 
gentle  manner,  for  the  puqMse  of  familiarizing  him 
with  your  voice,  and  as  a  partial  guard  over  your 
own  temper.  Never  speak  sharp  or  over  loud,  but 
gently  and  firmly,  always  connecting  the  command 
with  whatever  motion  you  make,  to  cause  the  colt  to 
obey.  For  instance,  in  your  side  pulls  you  combine 
the  words  "  come  here;"  this  kept  up  will  learn  the 
colt  to  come  at  that  command. 

To  Accustom  the  Colt  to  the  Bit.     Place  on  the  colt 


an  ordinary  head-stall  with  a  joint  bit,  without  check- 
strap  or  reins  ;  allow  it  to  remain  on  a  few  minutes, 
then  remove  it;  put  it  on  again,  allowing  it  to  stay  on 
a  short  while;  then  remove  it  again,  thus  putting  it  on 
and  off  at  short  intervals  for  a  couple  of  days;  the  colt 
becomes  used  to  the  bit,  and  is  not  likely  to  become 
alarmed  on  being  drawn  up  by  the  bitting  bridle.  As 
soon  as  the  colt  shows  no  signs  of  alarm  at  the  bit 
being  placed  in  his  mouth,  he  is  ready  for 

The  Bitting  Attach?iient.  Take  a  leather  girth  with 
crupper  and  check  hook,  and  a  ring  in  each  side,  ten 
inches  from  check  hook.  Use  a  common  head-stall 
with  two  small  loops  on  the  head-piece,  so  that  the 
check  can  run  up  between  the  ears.  Use  a  joint  bit. 
Take  a  small  cotton  rope,  16  feet  in  length,  place  the 
middle  of  the  rope  on  the  check  hook,  then  pass  the 
ends  through  the  loops  on  head-piece,  then  through 
the  rings  of  the  bit,  and  bring  one  end  back  on  each 
side  and  tie  it  slackly  to  the  side  rings.  Put  a  small 
sliding  loop  on  the  checks  upon  the  forehead,  to 
keep  them  together,  leaving  it  slack  enough,  so  the 
checks  will  work  easily  back  and  forward  when  the 
colt  moves  his  head.  The  advantage  that  this  bitting 
attachment  has  over  all  others  is  that  when  on  the 
colt,  and  drawn  up  tight,  he  has  the  jxiwer  of  holding 
his  head  in  almost  any  position ;  he  can  raise  or  lower 
it,  or  turn  to  either  side,  the  check  not  being  fastened 
at  the  girth,  runs  around  to  suit  whatever  position  the 
colt  chooses  to  hold  his  head  in.  This  change  of 
position  rests  the  muscles  of  the  colt's  neck,  and  in- 
stead of  overtaxing  those  muscles,  as  done  by  the 
ordinary  bitting  rig,  they  are  developed,  and  tHfe  colt 
learns  to  carry  a  graceful  head  with  a  well-curved 
neck,  and  always  gives  him  a  good  mouth.  We  have 
never  known  a  colt,  which  was  bitted  with  this  bit- 
ting attachment,  to  become  a  bit-lugger;  and  by 
being  able  to  move  his  head  from  one  position 
to  another,  all  danger  of  the  colt  throwing  himself 
backwards  is  avoided.  It  is  necessary  to  caution  the 
reader  against  the  use  of  the  common  old-fashioned 
bitting  rig,  as  we  have  never  known  any  good  results 
from  its  use,  and  have  known  of  serious  damage  to  be 
done  by  it.  The  bitting  rig  referred  to  is  made  and 
used  as  follows :  The  old-time  horse-breaker  would 
take  a  rope  surcingle  and  crupper,  with  rope  bridle, 
and  straight  side  reins;  having  this  rig  placed  upon 
the  colt,  he  will,  in  order  to  teach  him  to  hold  up  his 
head,  check  him  up  tight,  drawing  his  head  up  in  the 
desired  position  at  once.  With  this  torturing  con- 
trivance he  turns  the  colt  loose  in  a  yard,  and  will 
allow  him  to  run  for  several  hours  at  a  time,  with- 
out even  unchecking  him.  When  he  returns  to  take 
up  his  colt,  quite  probably  he  will  find  him  in  a  cor- 
ner of  the  yard,  with  his  mouth  open,  standing  in  a 
sleepy  ]X)sture,  with  the  whole  weight  of  his  head  rest- 
ing upon  the  bit.  The  colt  does  this  in  order  to  rest 
the  overtaxed  muscles  of  his  neck,  and  to  relieve  the 
pain  caused  by  the  head  being  drawn  up  and  held  in 
one  position.  The  old-fashioned  breaker  will  wonder 
at  the  sleepy  attitude  assumed  by  the  animal,  and 
resolves  next  day  to  compel  him  to  hold  up  his  head 


I 


HORSE. 


709 


by  still  tightening  the  rein,  and  will  persist  in  so  doing 
until  the  colt,  whenever  bridled,  will  push  his  head 
almost  to  the  ground,  in  order  to  rest  its  weight  ujx)n 
the  bit.  How  can  a  man  expect  that  an  animal  so 
timid  and  sensitive  as  a  horse  can  be  brought  into 
voluntary  obedience  with  a  harsh  rope  encircling  the 
body,  and  burying  itself  in  the  tender  flesh  of  the  back 
and  tail,  so  that  at  every  move  the  torture  to  which  he 
is  exjxjsed  is  increased;  and  in  many  cases  that  have 
come  under  our  notice,  the  colt,  in  order  to  free  him- 
self from  such  misery,  would  rear  up,  throw  himself 
violently  backward,  and  bringing  his  high-checked 
head  in  contact  with  the  ground,  he  would  either 
kill  himself  instantly  or  by  violence  of  the  blow  bring 
on  an  attack  of  phrenitis,  or  an  abscess  on  the  brain. 
In  order  to  teach  the  colt  what  is  required  of  him  we 
must  use  great  gentleness,  and  not  allow  anything  to 
touch  him  that  will  cause  pain  or  alarm. 

Hmv  to  Bit  the  Colt.  In  placing  the  bitting  at- 
tachment ufxjn  the  colt,  care  should  be  taken  that  no 
part  of  it  be  tightened  enough  to  alarm  or  hurt  the 
animal.  The  bridle  should  be  carefully  put  on,  buck- 
ling the  throat-latch  loosely,  so  that  when  the  head 
is  drawn  in  by  the  check,  it  will  not  choke  him.  In 
checking  him  for  the  first  time,  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  tie  the  side-reins  to  the  rings  of  the  surcingle, 
leaving  them  long  enough  that  the  colt's  head  will  not 
be  drawn  any  out  of  his  natural  way  of  holding  it.  In 
this  way  you  can  leave  the  attachment  on  about  half 
an  hour,  then  remove,  allowing  the  colt  to  go  free  a 
short  time,  when  you  may  put  it  on  again.  The  sec- 
ond time  put  it  on,  drawing  the  reins  a  little  tighter, 
but  only  allowing  it  to  remain  on,  say  five  minutes, 
when  you  will  uncheck;  in  a  few  minutes  check  him 
up  again,  making  the  side-reins  a  little  tighter,  being 
careful  to  uncheck  him  as  soon  as  the  colt  shows  signs 
of  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  rein,  and  not  until 
then.  The  reason  for  not  unchecking  him  while  he 
refuses  to  rein  is  that  we  desire  to  teach  him  that, 
while  he  remains  stubborn,  he  cannot  be  released  from 
the  restraint  of  the  bridle.  After  using  him,  as  above 
described,  for  a  few  times,  the  side  lines  may  then  be 
taken  from  the  side  rings  of  the  surcingle,  and  the 
right  side  rein  drawn  around  the  check-hook  and  fas- 
tened by  a  knot  to  the  left  side  rein ;  thus  by  placing 
the  side  reins  uixjn  the  check  hook,  the  colt  is  en- 
abled to  move  his  head  into  any  [xjsition  he  chooses, 
and  the  rope  not  being  fastened  stationary  at  any 
place,  will  slip  around  to  suit  his  convenience. 

On  this  account  this  attachment  can  be  left  on  longer 
than  any  other  in  general  use,  witliout  tiring  the  colt's 
neck.  It  should  not,  however,  be  allowed  to  remain 
on  for  more  than  half  an  hour  at  the  most,  without 
unchecking,  and  the  tightness  of  the  check  to  be 
governed  by  length  and  form  of  the  neck  and  shoulder. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  in  bitting  colts,  all 
that  can  be  done  is  to  teach  them  to  rein  as  far  as 
their  form  will  allow.  We  cannot  take  a  colt  with  a 
straight  shoulder  and  a  short,  chubby  neck,  and  teach 
him  to  rein  as  gracefully  as  one  with  a  well-slanted 
shoulder  and  a  long,  curved  neck;  and  should  his  head 


be  drawn  up  and  held  in  such  a  position  by  the  check, 
the  result  would  be  that  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
would  be  strained  and  the  colt  would  carry  his  head 
more  awkward  than  before.  After  using  the  colt  as 
described  for  several  days,  you  may  proceed 

To  Harness  the  Colt.  You  will,  by  having  the  colt 
well  bitted,  overcome  a  great  part  of  the  difficulty 
attending  in  harnessing  him.  In  the  first  place,  you 
have  taught  him  by  your  gentle  treatment  that  by 
handling  him  he  is  not  to  be  hurt;  next,  by  having 
the  bridle,  surcingle  and  crupper  on  you  have  him 
partly  harnessed,  and  he  becomes  partly  aware  of 
what  the  harness  is  for.  Use  a  neck  collar, 
place  your  harness  on  gently,  being  careful  that 
no  part  be  allowed  to  hurt  or  scare  him.  Let  the  colt 
stand  in  the  stall,  say  half  an  hour,  then  remove  the 
harness.  When  convenient  put  on  the  harness  again, 
letting  him  stand  as  before,  then  remove.  The  next 
time  place  on  the  harness,  drawing  the  breeching 
straps  through  the  side  buckles  of  the  tugs  and  buckle 
them  moderately  tight,  so  that  both  the  breeching  and 
collar  will  press  against  the  body;  after  doing  this  a 
few  times  you  may  commence  to  drive  him  with  lines. 
The  lines  should  be  put  through  the  side  loops  of  the 
harness,  instead  of  the  terrets,  and  buckled  to  the  bit- 
rings.  By  having  a  line  on  each  side,  and  kept  down 
by  the  side  loops  of  the  harness,  you  can  prevent  the 
colt  from  turning  around  toward  you.  You  will  then 
move  him  gently  forward,  occasionally  turning  him 
from  side  to  side  by  the  use  of  the  lines.  When  he 
gets  so  that  you  can  start  and  stop  him  at  will,  you 
may  start  and  stop  him  often,  being  sure  that  you  can 
combine  the  word  "whoa"  with  the  pull  which  you 
give  to  stop  him.  By  using  him  in  this  way  about 
three  days,  he  will  likely  obey  the  rein. 

To  Hitch  up  the  Colt.  If  you  want  to  hitch  him 
single,  it  would  be  necessary  to  accustom  him  to  draw- 
ing before  hitching  him  to  a  wagon ;  this  may  be  done 
by  tying  a  piece  of  rope  about  six  feet  long  to  each  tug 
and  getting  a  l)oy  to  hold  each  one ;  you  can  drive 
the  colt  forward,  allowing  the  boys  to  pull  gently  back 
on  the  tugs,  gradually  pulling  harder,  until  he  will 
pull  the  boys  around  easily.  The  object  of  this  is, 
that  should  the  colt  become  alarmed  and  try  to  kick 
and  free  himself,  the  boys  can  let  go  and  he  is  the 
same  as  if  never  hitched  up;  you  therefore  avoid  the 
danger  of  your  colt  becoming  a  kicker  or  of  breaking 
your  wagon.  When  he  draws  the  boys  around  easily, 
you  may  then  take  a  piece  of  scantling,  about  seven 
or  eight  feet  long,  and  tie  a  trace  to  each  end  and 
allow  him  to  drag  that  around  for  awhile.  As  soon 
as  he  does  this  willingly,  which  will  take  two  or  three 
lessons,  you  may  then  hitch  him  to  a  wagon.  Before 
hitching  him,  lead  him  up  to  the  wagon  and  allow 
him  to  examine  it.  Rattle  the  thills  and  shake 
the  wagon,  thus  making  him  accustomed  to  the 
rattle  and  noise.  Lead  him  into  the  thills  and  allow 
him  to  examine  it,  until  he  is  assured  that  the  object 
which  he  so  much  dreaded  is  not  calculated  to 
hurt  him.  When  all  symptoms  of  fear  have 
subsided,    you    may     then,     and    not     until    then, 


k 


7IO 


HORSE. 


proceed  to  hitch  him  to  the  wagon.  In  driving  him 
for  the  first  few  times,  a  level  piece  of  ground  should 
be  selected,  and  backing  or  turning  carefully  avoided, 
if  possible.  One  mile  is  sufficient  distance  to  drive 
the  first  time,  after  which  you  can  by  degrees  increase 
the  distance,  gradually  toughening  the  colt  to  his  work. 
When  it  is  convenient  to  hitch  the  colt  double,  and 
we  consider  that  the  safest  way  of  hitching  him  for 
the  first  time,  hitch  him  along  with  a  well-broke  horse, 
putting  the  colt  on  the  off-side.  Having  your  colt 
harnessed,  you  will  then  buckle  a  strap  around  the 
left  front  footlock  of  the  colt,  in  which  there  is  an  inch 
ring;  to  this  ring  you  will  attach  a  line,  pass  the  line 
through  the  belly-band,  fetching  it  up  outside  the  trace, 
and  holding  it  with  the  lines  in  your  right  hand. 
You  will  then  drive  them  around,  and  should  the  colt 
struggle  to  get  away,  or  act  in  any  way  unruly,  pull 
up  on  the  foot-strap  and  hold  his  foot  up  until  he 
remains  quiet  on  three  legs.  After  he  becomes  quiet 
you  will  then  start  him  up,  always  stopping  him  by 
pulling  up  his  foot — bringing  him  to  a  standstill  on 
three  legs.  A  couple  of  lessons  of  this  kind  will  suf- 
fice. You  then  have  him  ready  to  hitch  to  the  wagon. 
After  driving  around  a  little  as  before,  hitch  and  get 
into  the  wagon,  holding  the  foot-strap  in  your  hand. 
You  now  start  up  the  team,  walking  them  along  slowly, 
and  stopping  occasionally,  always  using  the  word 
"whoa"  distinctly.  You  will  now  find  that  the  colt  is 
under  perfect  control,  and  that  by  those  proceedings 
there  is  no  danger  of  injuring  him.  It  may  seem 
strange  to  the  reader  that  the  colt,  when  on  a 
walk  or  run,  can  be  safely  drawn  to  a  halt  on  three 
feet,  but  it  has  never  occurred  in  the  experience  of  the 
author  that  a  colt,  or  horse  either,  stumbled  or  fell  when 
stopped  in  that  manner.  When  the  colt  moves  along 
quietly,  it  will  then  be  well  to  hitch  him  up  twice  every 
day  for  about  a  week,  giving  him  short  and  lively  drives, 
until  he  learns  to  obey  the  reins  and  the  word  "whoa." 
You  may  then  change  sides  with  him,  in  order  to 
teach  him  to  go  on  both  sides, — always,  when  chang- 
ing, removing  the  strap  to  the  inside  foot.  When  the 
colt  becomes  accustomed  to  being  handled  and  driven 
freely,  you  may  hitch  him  either  double  or  single,  as 
he  is  then  fit  to  drive. 

Learning  to  Back.  This  should  not  be  attempted 
until  the  colt  is  thoroughly  tought  to  drive,  obey  the 
pull  of  the  lines,  and  stop  readily  at  the  word  "  whoa.  " 
The  reason  for  not  attempting  to  learn  him  to  back 
sooner  is,  that  it  is  necessary  to  first  confirm  the 
habit  of  going  and  turning  to  either  side  at  the  pull  of 
the  rein,  so  that  he  will  not  confound  backing  with 
those  other  movements.  By  so  doing,  you  will  avoid 
the  risk  of  learning  the  colt  to  run  back,  throw  him- 
self down,  or  balk.  When  he  has  been  driven  enough 
to  warrant  you  in  learning  him  to  back  safely,  you  will 
then  put  on  a  common  bridle,  and  commence  by 
standing  in  front  of  him,  taking  hold  of  the  side  reins 
and  pulling  back  gently,  and  firmly  using  the  word 
"  back,"  just  as  he  is  in  the  act  of  stepping  back. 
When  he  will  step  back  readily  by  pushing  steadily 
backward  on  the  reins,  you  may  then  put  on  lines  and 


take  your  position  behind  him,  having  the  reins 
through  the  shaft  loops,  of  the  harness,  and  held  well 
down  on  the  sides,  to  prevent  him  from  turning  around 
towards  you.  Have  him  loosely  checked.  As  you 
step  behind  him,  pull  gently  on  the  lines,  saying 
"  back,"  slackening  up  immediately,  when  he  obeys. 
A  half  an  hour's  exercise  is  usually  enough  at  a  time, 
repeating  the  lesson,  until  he  backs  readily.  Always 
select  a  favorable  piece  of  ground  on  which  to  back 
him,  such  as  down  hill,  so  that  the  wagon  will  back 
easily.  Always  preserve  your  temper  in  handling  the 
colt,  for  in  losing  your  temper  you  lose  control  of 
the  animal,  which  by  kind,  patient  usage  is  only  too 
willing  to  become  your  servant.  When  he  will  drive 
quietly,  you  may  proceed. 

How  to  Train  to  the  Saddle.  This  should  not  be 
done  until  the  colt  has  been  thoroughly  bitted  and 
taught  the  use  of  the  reins.  Begin  the  lesson  in  the 
barn-yard  or  some  other  enclosure.  Place  on  him  a 
common  riding  bridle.  Draw  the  reins  tight  over  the 
top  of  the  neck,  and  tie  a  knot,  so  that  he  will  be 
checked  up  slightly.  Stand  on  the  left  side  opposite 
his  shoulder.  Throw  a  webbing  line  over  his  shoul- 
der, letting  it  hang  down  by  the  side  of  his  off  fore 
leg.  Then  gently  caress  the  leg  until  he  becomes 
calm,  and  quietly  tie  the  webbing  around  the  right 
fore  fetlock.  Should  he  be  restive,  and  prevent  you 
from  tying  the  line  upon  his  fetlock,  or  attempt  to 
strike  or  kick  at  you,  take  him  by  the  head  and  tail 
and  give  him  a  few  lively  turns  around.  While  he  is 
disconcerted  by  this  movement,  stoop  down  quickly, 
but  gently,  and  tie  the  line.  Having  the  foot-strap 
tied,  you  will  then  take  hold  of  the  near  rein,  about 
six  inches  from  the  head,  and  pull  the  colt  toward 
you,  causing  him  to  wheel  in  that  direction;  and  when 
he  moves  readily,  pull  up  on  the  foot-strap,  so  as  to 
fetch  him  to  a  stand-still  on  three  legs ;  repeat  this 
until  he  will  stop  readily  by  pulling  up  his  foot. 

The  lesson  taught  here  is  that  the  colt  cannot  get 
away  while  one  foot  is  off  the  ground,  and  he  learns 
that  by  being  brought  to  a  halt  in  that  way,  he  is  not 
to  be  hurt ;  so  the  danger  of  plunging,  when  you  after- 
wards attempt  to  ride  him,  is  avoided. 

By  pulling  the  foot-strap  across  his  back,  the  colt 
gets  accustomed  to  bearing  up  the  weight.  By  pulling 
his  foot  up  and  back,  he  has  not  got  the  ability  to 
throw  himself  backwards,  and  combining  kind  usage 
with  this  mode  of  controlling,  your  desire  is  accom- 
plished more  readily  than  in  any  other  way  known. 
Now  draw  up  the  foot,  taking  a  short  hold  uixjn  the 
foot-strap  with  your  right  arm  well  extended  across 
the  colt's  back,  and  your  left  hand  holding  the  rein 
upon  his  neck.  You  will  now  make  a  motion  as  if 
going  to  get  on.  First,  get  up  so  that  you  can  lie 
across  his  back.  As  soon  as  he  becomes  quiet  with 
you  in  this  jxjsition,  get  off;  second,  get  up  far  enough, 
so  that  you  can  lay  your  right  leg  along  his  hip.  While 
in  this  position,  caress  until  he  becomes  calm,  and 
slip  off  again.  The  third  time,  by  the  aid  of  an  assist- 
ant, catching  with  his  right  hand  your  left  foot,  and 
with  his  left  your  knee,  and  lifting  up,  you  can  light 


HORSE. 


711 


easily  in  the  desired  position  upon  the  colt's  back.  Be- 
ing seated  upon  his  back,  you  will  caress  him  until 
he  becomes  used  to  your  position ;  you  will  then  let 
his  foot  down,  and  move  him  to  the  right  and  left  by 
pulling  first  on  one  rein,  then  on  the  other.  Always 
be  careful,  while  turning  a  colt  around,  to  pull  only 
one  rein  at  a  time ;  for  by  pulling  on  both  reins  he  may 
acquire  the  habit  of  running  back  and  sulking.  When 
you  move  him  a  few  times  from  right  to  left,  you  may 
then  urge  him  forward.  If  he  should  remain  stubborn 
or  refuse  to  move,  take  a  bow-topped  whip,  hold  it  in 
your  right  hand  along  with  the  foot-strap  and  tap 
him  gently  across  the  right  hind  thigh.  By  using  him 
in  this  way,  he  will  soon  comprehend  what  you  re- 
quire of  him,  and  you  will  easily  accomplish  your 
desire.  Only  ride  him  a  short  distance  for  the  first 
few  times,  and  always  repeat  the  lesson  with  the 
foot-strap  until  you  can  ride  with  perfect  safety. 
There  are  several  other  ways  adapted  for  riding  the 
colt,  but  we  give  this  as  the  only  way  whereby  a  wild 
colt  can  be  ridden,  insuring  safety  to  both  colt  and 
operator. 

Bad  Habits  or  Vices.  Horses,  notwithstanding 
their  many  excellent  qualities,  are  likewise  subject, 
more  or  less,  to  defects  and  disagreeable  habits,  termed 
vices.  Of  these,  restiveness  is  one  the  most  dangerous, 
and  is  generally  the  consequence  of  bad  temper  or 
bad  training.  It  appears  in  the  form  of  kicking,  rear- 
ing, plunging,  or  bolting,  and  but  rarely  admits  of  a 
cure.  A  good  and  determined  rider  may,  for  a  time, 
conquer  a  horse,  but  he  generally  returns  to  his  old 
tricks  the  first  opportunity ;  and  the  best  thing  that 
can  be  done  with  a  very  restive  horse,  in  most  cases,  is 
to  turn  him  over  to  some  other  work.  Biting  is  a  fault 
that  is  not  easily  corrected,  and  which  requires  cer- 
tain precautions  to  guard  against.  Kicking  is  another 
fault  for  which  there  is  rarely  any  cure,  particularly  if 
not  taken  in  time ;  it  is  very  bad  in  the  stable,  but 
kicking  in  harness  is  much  worse.  Irritability  in  clean- 
ing is  most  generally  the  consequence  of  a  tender  skin 
and  bad  management.  Viciousness  to  shoe  is  likewise 
usually  owing  to  want  of  skill  in  managing,  but  should 
be  corrected,  since  owing  to  it  lameness  is  often  occa- 
sioned, and  not  by  any  fault  of  the  smith.  Crib-bit- 
ing is  a  troublesome  fault,  and  difficult  to  prevent; 
the  horse  will  not  only  bite  and  destroy  his  wooden 
manger,  but,  if  it  is  lined  with  iron,  he  will  bite  it  and 
injure  his  teeth,  as  well  as  disperse  and  lose  his  feed. 
The  best  remedy  appears  to  he  muzzle  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  pick  up  his  food,  but  not  to  allow  him 
to  lay  hold  of  the  manger.  Some  horses  will  not 
readily  lie  down  at  night,  and  stand  still  till  their  legs 
swell ;  sometimes  a  fresh,  well-made  bed,  and  casting 
him  loose,  will  tempt  him.  Pawing  is  a  bad  habit 
which  some  horses  have  in  the  stable,  by  which  they 
destroy  their  litter,  and  also  the  floor ;  shackles  are  the 
best  remedy.  Rolling  in  the  stable  is  another  bad 
habit,  which  must  be  prevented  by  not  allowing  him 
sufficient  length  of  collar-rein.  Shying  is  a  vice  wliich 
may  be  cured  by  a  good  horseman,  except  it  be  owing 
to  a  defect  of  sight.     Slipping  the  collar  in  the  night 


is  a  trick  that  some  horses  are  very  clever  at ;  by  this 
they  sometimes  get  at  food  and  gorge  themselves,  01 
do  some  mischief.  Tripping  is  a  dangerous  fault, 
sometimes  owing  to  lameness ;  a  known  stumbler  is 
never  safe  to  ride. 

Shying  generally  arises  from  timidity,  but  some- 
times it  is  united  with  cunning,  which  induces  the 
animal  to  assume  a  fear  of  some  object  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  finding  an  excuse  for  turning  round.  The 
best  plan  to  adopt  with  such  an  animal  is  to  take  as 
little  notice  as  possible  of  the  shying,  and  when  the 
horse  begins  to  show  alarm,  speak  encouragingly  to 
him,  and  if  necessary,  use  the  whip  or  spurs.  Never 
chastise  him  after  he  has  passed  the  object,  but  use 
every  means  to  induce  him  to  go  up  to  it. 

A  horseman  should  never  ''  shy  "  himself  when  the 
horse  shies,  or  show  the  least  nervousness,  or  notice 
it  in  the  horse,  and  far  less  punish  him  for  it.  When- 
ever he  notices  his  horse  directing  his  ears  to  any 
point  whatever,  or  indicating  the  slightest  dispo- 
sition to  become  afraid,  let  him,  instead  of  pulling 
the  rein  to  bring  the  horse  towards  the  object  causing 
its  nervousness,  pull  it  on  the  other  side.  This  will 
instantly  divert  the  attention  of  the  horse  from  the 
object  exciting  his  suspicion,  and  in  ninety-nine  cases 
out  of  a  hundred  the  horse  will  pay  no  more  atten- 
tion to  the  object,  from  which  he  will  fly  away  if 
forcibly  driven  to  it  by  pulling  the  wrong  rein.  With 
some  young  horses  this  fault  is  the  result  of  nervous- 
ness, and  when  that  is  the  case  the  remedy  is  in 
strengthening  the  nervous  system.  A  young  horse 
given  to  this  fault  must  be  handled  gently  but  firmly. 
When  it  has  an  opportunity,  for  instance  when  under 
the  saddle,  and  has  plenty  of  room,  it  will,  if  allowed 
to  get  off  at  a  distance  and  do  so,  turn  round  and 
look  at  the  object.  This  action  indicates  that  if 
it  could  be  brought  up  to  the  object  and  shown  that 
it  was  harmless,  all  would  be  right;  and  that  is  true. 
Perhaps  no  better  direction  can  be  given  for  remedy- 
ing this  fault  than  to  lead  or  drive  the  horse  up  to 
the  object  when  it  is  practicable.  Judgment  must 
always  be  used.  Sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  whip 
the  animal  up  to  the  object,  but  the  way  nine-tenths  of 
drivers  do,  is  to  whip  the  horse  after  he  has  passed 
the  object,  a  most  reprehensible  thing  to  do.  If  the 
horse  is  frightened  the  fright  cannot  be  whipped  out 
of  him,  and  the  whipping  is  rather  associated  in 
his  mind  with  the  danger  he  thinks  he  has  incurred, 
and  not  being  able  to  sejiarate  the  two,  he  becomes 
confirmed  in  the  belief  that  he  was  right  in  suspect- 
ing that  he  would  be  harmed.  If  the  horse  is  per- 
mitted to  pass  the  object  without  being  driven  up  to 
it,  that  should  be  the  end  of  it.  No  amount  of  whip- 
ping, or  swearing,  or  jerking  the  mouth  will  do  any 
good. 

The  driver  of  such  a  horse  needs  to  keep  himself 
well  in  hand,  and  if  one-half  the  drivers  would  devote 
two  minutes  of  attention  to  themselves  and  one  to 
their  horses,  there  would  not  be  so  many  horses  ad- 
dicted to  tricks  and  faults.  Keep  a  steady  rein,  speak 
kindly  to  the  horse,  and  use  such  means  as  judgment 


712 


HORSE. 


will  suggest  to  show  the  horse  that  its  fears  are  ground- 
less, is  the  best  advice  that  can  be  given. 

Stumbling  arises  from  a  variety  of  causes,  and  the 
nature  of  any  particular  case  should  be  thoroughly 
investigated  before  any  remedy  is  attempted.  Some- 
times it  is  merely  dependent  upon  a  law  or  "  daisy- 
cutting"  action,  and  then  it  is  possible  that  it  may 
not  be  attended  with  danger.  We  have  known  many 
horses  which  would  stumble  at  least  every  half-mile, 
but  yet  they  would  travel  for  years  with  sound  knees, 
the  other  legs  always  being  ready  to  catch  the  weight. 
In  other  cases  a  stumble  would  only  occur  at  rare  in- 
tervals, but  if  the  trip  was  made  it  was  rarely  recov- 
ered, and  a  fall  was  almost  sure  to  follow.  Again,  it 
happens  with  some  horses  that  when  they  are  fresh 
out  of  the  stable  their  action  is  high  and  safe,  but 
after  a  few  miles  the  extensors  of  the  leg  tire  and  they 
are  constantly  making  a  mistake.  Inexperienced 
judges  are  very  apt  to  examine  the  action  of  the  fore 
legs  alone,  while  that  of  the  hind  quarter  is  of  quite 
as  much  importance  to  safety,  and  is  more  so  as  re- 
gards the  ease  of  the  rider.  Lameness  is  a  frequent 
source  of  a  fall,  from  the  tendency  to  put  the  foot  too 
soon  to  the  ground  in  order  to  take  the  weight  off  the 
other.  And  lastly,  u])right  pasterns  will  produce 
stumbling,  when  the  shoulders  are  so  formed  that  the 
foot  is  put  down  too  near  the  center  of  gravity. 

The  best  plans  for  remedying  these  several  condi- 
tions are  as  follows  :  If  the  cause  is  weakness  of  the 
extensors,  no  care  can  be  of  much  service;  all  that 
can  be  done  is  to  be  on  the  look-out  for  a  trip,  and 
then  take  the  weight  off  the  fore  quarter  as  much  as 
{X)ssible  by  sitting  well  back,  at  the  same  time  using 
such  an  amount  of  sudden  pressure  on  the  bit  as  to 
cause  the  horse  to  exert  himself,  without  any  attempt 
to  keep  up  the  head  by  mechanical  force,  which  is  an 
impossibility.  When  laziness  is  the  cause,  the  stim- 
ulus of  the  spur  or  the  whip  will  suffice ;  and  it  often 
happens  that  a  horse  is  safe  enough  at  his  top  pace, 
while  a  slower  one  is  full  of  danger.  In  lameness,  of 
course,  the  only  remedy  is  to  wait  till  the  foot  or  feet 
are  sound  again. 

Rearing  is  seldom  met  with  excepting  among  raw 
colts.  When  existing  in  an  aggravated  form  it  is  a 
most  dangerous  vice.  An  effectual  remedy  is  to  deal 
the  horse  a  very  severe  blow  between  the  ears  as  he 
rises.  Another  plan  is  to  wait  until  the  horse  is  just 
on  the  balance,  then  slip  off  the  left  side  and  pull  him 
over,  learning  him  a  lesson  he  will  not  soon  forget. 
The  ordinary  running  martingale  is  used  with  success 
to  keep  down  the  rearer. 

Kicking.  Severity  is  the  only  remedy,  and  a  strong 
application  of  the  whip  down  the  shoulder  the  best 
means  of  using  it.  At  the  same  time  the  snaffle  reins 
ought  to  be  firmly  held  and  by  their  means  the  head 
kept  up. 

Bucking  and  Plunging.  Simply  saw  the  mouth 
with  a  twisted  snaffle  and  the  bucking  and  plunging 
may  be  stopjjed  at  once. 

Balking.  There  are  a  thousand  remedies  to  break 
a  balky  horse.  We  will  give  a  number  of  them.   Nine 


cases  out  of  ten  the  whip  is  not  a  successful  remedy. 

If,  perchance,  you  have  an  apple  or  potato,  give  it 
to  the  horse:  at  the  same  time  gently  caress  him 
for  a  few  moments  and  start  him  agfiin. 

Pat  the  horse  upon  the  neck,  examine  the  harness 
carefully,  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other, 
speaking  encouragingly  while  doing  so ;  then  jump 
into  the  wagon  and  give  the  word  Go;  generally  he 
will  obey. 

Another  way  is  by  taking  him  out  of  the  shafts  and 
making  him  go  around  in  a  circle  until  he  is  giddy. 
If  the  first  dance  of  this  sort  does  not  cure  him,  the 
second  will. 

To  cure  a  balky  horse,  simply  place  your  handover 
the  horse's  nose  and  shut  off  his  wind  till  he  wants  to 
go,  and  then  let  him  go. 

The  brains  of  a  horse  seem  to  entertain  but  one 
idea  at  a  time;  therefore,  continued  whipping  only 
confirms  his  stubborn  resolve.  If  you  can  by  any 
means  give  him  a  new  subject  to  think  of,  you  will 
generally  have  no  trouble  in  starting  him.  A  simple 
remedy  is  to  take  a  couple  of  turns  of  stout  twine 
around  the  fore-leg,  just  below  the  knee,  tight  enough 
for  the  horse  to  feel,  and  tie  in  a  bow-knot.  At  the 
first  check  he  will  go  dancing  off,  and  after  going  a 
short  distance  you  can  get  out  and  remove  the  string 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  tendon  in  your  further  drive. 

Take  the  tail  of  the  horse  between  the  hind  legs, 
and  tie  it  by  a  cord  to  the  saddle-girth. 

Tie  a  string  around  the  horse's  ear  close  to  his  head. 

Getting  Cast  in  the  Stall.  This  is  a  habit  attended 
with  great  danger,  as  we  have  known  many  valuable 
horses  to  be  injured  by  it.  To  prevent  it,  tie  your 
halter  strap  just  long  enough,  so  that  the  colt  can  just 
touch  its  nose  to  the  floor ;  tie  a  rope  to  the  headstall 
of  the  halter,  just  back  of  the  ears,  and  attach  it  to  a 
staple  directly  above  the  colt's  shoulder  in  the  upper 
joists.  Have  this  rope  long  enough  to  allow  him  to 
lie  down,  but  not  long  enough  to  let  him  touch  the 
side  of  his  head  to  the  floor.  He  cannot  roll  over 
while  his  head  is  kept  off  the  floor.  In  preventing 
him  from  rolling  for  some  time,  he  will  forget  the 
habit. 

Crowding  and  Cringing.  If  the  colt  crowds  or 
cringes  upon  your  entering  the  stall,  you  will,  as  you 
enter,  gently  caress  him,  gradually  assuring  him  that 
you  do  not  intend  to  hurt  him.  Proceed  to  enter  the 
stall,  being  careful  to  avoid  loud  or  sharp  words,  and 
on  entering  feed  him  something  out  of  your  hand.  If 
this  means  is  not  sufficient,  take  a  long  bow-topped 
whip  and  stand  far  enough  behind  him  to  be  out  of 
reach  of  kicking,  reach  up  by  his  side  and  tap  him 
gently  on  the  shoulder.  Continue  tapping  him  until 
he  moves  over  to  the  other  side  of  the  stall,  being  very 
careful  not  to  strike  hard  enough  to  hurt  him,  and 
always  combine  the  words  "  stand  around "  with  the 
motion  of  the  whip.  When  he  stands  around,  advance 
and  caress  him,  and  repeat  on  the  other  side.  In  a 
few  lessons  he  will  stand  around  by  the  simple  motion 
of  the  hand  and  allow  you  to  enter  the  stall. 

Halter  Fulling.    Put  on  a  leather  halter  and  a 


HORSE. 


713 


surcingle.  Then  take  a  rope  about  20  feet  long,  place 
the  middle  of  the  rope  under  his  tail,  the  same  as  a 
crupper,  bring  the  rope  up  along  the  back,  crossing  it 
over  a  few  times,  to  prevent  it  from  sliding  down  on 
his  hips.  Pass  the  ends  through  under  the  surcingle, 
then  one  along  each  side  of  the  neck  and  through  the 
side  rings  of  the  halter,  and  tie  to  the  manger,  about 
the  same  length  as  if  tying  him  with  the  halter  strap. 
You  may  then  do  whatever  causes  him  to  run  back 
and  pull  at  the  halter.  When  he  pulls,  instead  of  the 
halter  hurting  his  head,  which  would  cause  him  to 
pull  harder,  the  pull  comes  under  his  tail,  which, 
to  get  rid  of,  he  would  spring  forward.  This  method 
is  perfectly  safe  and  effectual.  The  author  has  never 
tried  it  on  a  horse  that  it  did  not  stop  from  pulling  at 
the  halter  in  less  than  one  day.  Another:  Attach  a 
pulley  to  a  rafter  of  the  stable  above  where  the 
horse  stands;  then  take  a  long  rope,  attach  a  weight 
of  about  50  [xDunds  to  one  end,  draw  the  other  end 
over  the  pully  and  down  through  the  rack,  or  through 
a  hole  in  the  floor,  pass  it  through  the  ring  or  place 
of  tying  and  tie  it  to  the  halter.  When  the  colt  pulls 
back,  the  weight  will  rise  and  allow  him  to  go  back 
without  much  of  a  struggle,  and  when  he  ceases  strug- 
gling to  free  himself  the  weight  on  the  other  end  of 
the  rope  will  pull  him  back  to  his  place.  This  will 
break  up  the  habit,  but  is  not  considered  as  safe  or 
effective  as  the  first. 

Pawing.  This  is  a  very  disagreeable  habit  and 
gives  the  colt  or  horse  a  great  amount  of  unnecessary 
labor,  and  keeping  all  who  live  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  stable  awake  by  the  continual  pound- 
ing kept  up  through  the  night.  Bore  a  half-inch  hole 
in  each  side  of  the  stall,  opposite  or  a  little  in  front  of 
where  the  fore  legs  stand,  put  a  rawhide  in  each  hole 
and  wedge  them  in  tight,  allowing  the  top  ends  to 
reach  out  to  the  middle  of  the  stall.  When  he  paws, 
he  will  catch  the  rawhide  with  the  foot  with  which  he 
paws,  and  in  fetching  it  back,  the  end  of  the  rawhide 
will  hit  him  on  the  other  shin,  causing  him  to  lift  up 
the  other  leg  quickly  and  stand  on  the  one  with  which 
he  paws.  He  will  soon  learn  that  whenever  he  paws 
he  will  get  whipped  on  the  other  leg,  and  gives  up 
the  habit. 

Kicking  at  Night.  A  great  many  horses  injure 
themselves  by  this  habit.  When  once  the  habit  is 
fully  established,  the  proprietor  is  likely  any  morning, 
on  entering  the  stable,  to  find  the  stalls  kicked 
down,  the  horse's  legs  badly  swelled,  and  perhaps  a 
leg  broken.  He  will  probably  consult  some  "  horse- 
tamer  "  on  the  subject,  and  the  kicking-block  or  the 
sand-bag,  or  some  other  implement  of  torture,  will  be 
applied,  all  of  which  will  render  the  horse  a  more  con- 
firmed kicker  at  each  application.  The  only  remedy 
for  this  habit  that  has  come  under  our  notice  is:  Take 
a  piece  of  two-inch  plank  six  feet  long  and  fifteen  or 
sixteen  inches  wide,  bore  a  hole  through  it  edgeways, 
two  feet  from  one  end;  set  to  upright  studs  directly 
behind  the  stall  and  the  width  of  the  stall  apart ;  bore 
a  hole  in  each  of  tlie  studs,  five  feet  from  the  floor; 
now  take  an  iron  rod  and  put  it  through  the  hole  in 


one  of  the  studs,  then  through  the  hole  in  the  plank, 
and  then  through  the  hole  in  the  next  stud.  Having 
this  done,  you  will  have  the  plank  so  that  when  the 
horse  kicks  and  hits,  the  plank  will  swing  back- 
wards and  forwards.  You  will  then  bore  a  hole 
through  the  plank  about  two  or  three  inches  from  the 
top  end  ;  take  a  little  tree,  about  the  size  of  a  fish-jx)le, 
leaving  all  the  brush  on  it,  put  the  end  of  it  into  the 
hole  in  the  plank  and  wedge  it  tight.  Have  it  so  that 
the  bushy  part  will  be  over  the  horse's  back  when  he 
stands  in  the  stall.  When  he  kicks  this  plank  he 
will  put  it  into  a  swinging  motion,  and  every  time  it 
swings  the  brush  will  whip  him  over  the  back.  He 
will  soon  find  out  that  to  kick  will  be  only  to  get 
whipped  over  the  back  with  the  brush,  and  in  a  few 
nights  will  give  over  the  habit. 

Shouldering  is  an  attempt  to  crush  the  leg  of  the 
rider  against  a  wall,  which  some  ill-tempered  horses 
are  fond  of  doing.  It  is  easily  avoided  by  putting  the 
horse's  head  around  to  the  wall  instead  of  from  it. 

Putting  Tongue  out  of  Mouth.  To  prevent  this, 
take  a  thick  piece  of  patent  harness  leather,  about 
four  inches  long  and  two  inches  wide.  Cut  off  the 
ends  rounding;  near  the  edge  on  each  side  punch 
two  holes,  through  which  put  a  leather  string,  and  tie 
it  on  top  of  a  joint-bit.  When  you  put  in  the  bit, 
place  this  on  top  of  the  tongue;  take  the  side  pieces  of 
the  head-stall  up  pretty  well.  This  will  prevent  him 
from  running  his  tongue  out  over  the  bit.  If  he  runs  it 
out  under  the  bit,  use  a  straight  one,  bore  two  holes 
through  the  bit  from  the  under  side,  about  an  inch, 
and  three-fourths  apart.  To  these  attach  a  piece  of- 
large  wire,  bringing  it  under  in  the  shape  of  the  bowl 
of  a  spoon.  When  you  put  on  the  bit  pull  the  tongue 
through  between  this  wire  and  the  bit,  seeing  that  the 
space  is  large  enough  for  it  to  sit  easy.  These  plans 
will  soon  break  up  this  bad-looking  habit. 

To  Break  from  Pulling  Back.  Take  a  long 
halter,  pass  the  strap  through  the  hole  in  the  ix)st,  then 

between  the  fore- 
legs and  over  the 
surcingle  next  to 
the  belly,  and  tie 
to  the  fetlock  of 
the  right  hind  foot, 
as  shown  in  Fig. 
25.  Hitch  the 
horse  or  colt  in 
this  manner  for  a 
few  times,  and  he 
will  be  entirely 
broke  from  the  bad 

Fig.  ^^.—  Tied  to  Prevent  Pulling  Back,      habit. 

Running  Away.  When  there  is  plenty  of  room 
apply  the  whip  and  let  him  run;  but  unfortunately 
runaway  horses  generally  choose  a  crowded  thorough- 
fare to  mdulge  their  fancies  in.  The  most  essential 
part  of  the  treatment  of  a  runaway  is  the  proper  selec- 
tion of  a  bit,  which 'Should  be  sufficient  to  control  him 
without  exciting  opixssition  from  the  pain  it  gives. 
Runaway  horses,  which  could  not  be  cured  in  any 


714 


HORSE. 


way,  have  been  easily  and  perfectly  managed  and  en- 
tirely and  permanently  cured  by  placing  a  leather 
hood  on  the  head-stall  in  such  a  manner  that  when- 
ever the  horse  starts  to  run,  a  cord  pulls  the  hood 
over  his  eyes.  As  soon  as  he  finds  that  he  is  blinded 
completely,  he  will  slacken  his  pace  and  soon  come 
to  a  halt,  or  if  he  does  not,  run  him  against  some  ob- 
ject that  will  give  him  a  brushing,  and  he  will  soon 
get  tired  of  the  trick. 

Feeding.  In  adaptmg  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
horse  feed  to  the  wants  of  each  horse,  regard  must  be 
paid  first  of  all  to  the  small  size  of  this  animal's 
stomach ;  secondly,  to  the  work  for  which  he  is  de- 
signed, and  thirdly,  to  the  peculiar  constitution  of 
each  individual.  The  horse  should  never  be  allowed 
to  fast  any  long  period,  if  it  can  possibly  be  avoided, 
it  being  found  from  observation,  that  at  the  end  of 
four  hours  his  stomach  is  empty,  and  the  whole  frame 
becomes  exhausted,  while  the  appetite  is  frequently 
so  impaired  if  he  is  kept  fasting  for  a  longer  period, 
that  when  food  is  presented  to  him  it  will  not  be 
taken. 

The  kind  of  work  for  which  a  horse  is  intended 
affects  not  only  the  quantity  of  food  required,  but 
also  its  quality.  Thus  very  fast  work,  as  in  racing 
and  hunting,  strains  the  muscular  system  as  well  as 
the  heart  and  lungs  to  the  utmost,  and  therefore  the 
food  which  is  best  fitted  for  the  development  of  the 
former  to  the  highest  degree  consists  of  those  kinds 
•  which  present  the  elements  contained  in  the  muscular 
^tissues  in  the  largest  proportions  consistent  with  the 
•due  perfonnance  of  the  digestive  powers.  These  are 
found  in  oats  and  beans;  but  nature  herself  teaches 
every  animal  instinctively  to  keep  within  such  Hmits 
as  are  safe,  and  hence  it  is  found  that,  though  every 
horse  will  greedily  devour  a  peck  or  a  peck  and  a 
half  of  corn  daily,  yet  he  will  not  go  beyond  this  quan- 
tity, even  though  it  is  not  sufficient  for  his  wants,  and 
in  spite  of  his  being  deprived  of  every  other  kind  of 
food.  The  demands  of  his  muscular  system  are  sup- 
plied by  the  corn;  but  there  are  certain  saline  matters 
in  hay  which  are  not  found  in  the  former,  and  being 
necessary  for  the  performance  of  several  important 
functions,  the  stomach  receives  its  warning  through 
the  appetite,  and  no  more  corn  is  received  into  it.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  hard-worked  horse  fed  on  hay 
alone  craves  for  corn,  and  will  greedily  devour  almost 
any  quantity  put  in  his  manger  until  he  upsets  his 
digestive  powers,  when  the  appetite  for  it  ceases.  It 
is  found  by  experience  that  a  certain  proportion  of  hay 
and  corn  is  best  adapted  to  each  horse  according  to 
the  work  he  has  to  do,  and  his  own  particular  consti- 
tution, so  that  in  laying  down  rules  for  feeding,  it  is 
necessary  first  of  all  to  ascertain  what  demands  will 
be  likely  to  be  made  upon  the  system. 

Lastly,  the  peculiar  constitution  of  each  horse  must 
be  studied  before  it  can  be  known  whether  the  average 
quantity  and  quality  of  food  which  will  suit  the  ma- 
jority of  horses  doing  the  same  kind  of  work,  will  be 
enough  or  too  much  for  him.  Some  washy  animals 
pass  their  food  through  them  so  quickly  that  they  do 


not  absorb  from  it  one-half  of  the  nutritive  elements 
contained  in  it.  These  must  be  fed  largely  if  they 
are  kept  at  work,  and  those  articles  of  food  must  be 
selected  for  them  which  have  a  tendency  rather  to 
confine  the  bowels  than  to  relax  them.  Independently 
of  this  extreme  case  it  never  can  with  certainty  be 
pronounced  beforehand  what  amount  of  food  will  keep 
an  untried  horse  in  condition,  but  in  a  large  stable  an 
average  can  easily  be  struck,  and  it  is  this  quantity 
alone  which  can  be  estimated  here.  The  blood  of  a 
horse  fed  on  highly  nitrogenized  food  does  not  differ 
on  analysis  from  that  of  another  which  has  been  kept 
on  the  opposite  kind  of  diet.  Physiological  research, 
however,  tells  us  that  muscle  is  chiefly  comjx)sed  of 
fibrine,  and  that  every  time  a  bundle  of  its  fibers  con- 
tracts, a  certain  expenditure  of  this  material  is  made, 
calling  for  a  corresponding  supply  from  the  blood, 
which  cannot  be  afforded  unless  the  food  contains  it. 
Hence  the  badly-fed  horse,  if  worked,  soon  loses  his 
flesh,  and  not  only  becomes  free  from  fat,  but  also 
presents  a  contracted  condition  of  all  his  muscles.  And 
thus  science  is  confirmed  by  every-day  experience, 
and  the  fact  is  generally  admitted,  that  to  increase  the 
muscular  powers  of  a  horse  he  must  have  a  sufficient 
supply  of  nitrogenized  food. 

The  nutrition  of  muscle  requires  fibrine,  but  in  ad- 
dition the  brain  and  nerves  must  be  supplied  with 
fatty  matter,  phosphonis  and  albumen.  The  bones 
demand  gelatine  and  earthy  salts,  and  the  mainten- 
ance of  heat  cannot  be  effected  without  carbon  in 
some  shape  or  other.  But  it  is  chiefly  with  nitrogen- 
ized food  that  we  have  to  deal  in  considering  the 
present  question,  there  being  plenty  of  the  other  sub- 
stances mentioned  in  all  the  varieties  of  food  which 
are  not  largely  composed  of  fibrine.  It  may  therefore 
be  taken  for  granted  that  the  hardly  worked  horse 
requires  oats,  together  with  such  an  amount  of  hay  as 
will  supply  him  with  the  starch,  guni,  sugar,  fat,  and 
saline  matters  which  his  system  requires,  while  on 
the  other  hand  the  idle  animal  does  not  use  his  mus- 
cular system  to  any  extent,  and  therefore  does  not 
require  much  if  any  oats. 

Oats  are  extensively  used  for  horse  feed  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world  in  connection  with  hay  or 
straw.  They  are  very  nutritious,  containing  743  parts 
out  of  1,000  of  nutritive  matter.  Oats  for  feeding 
should  be  old  and  heavy.  New  oats  will  weigh  more 
than  old,  bulk  for  bulk,  but  the  excess  of  weight  con- 
sists mostly  of  water.  New  oats  are  not  so  easily 
masticated  as  the  old,  as  they  are  generally  soft  and 
form  a  sticky  pulp  under  the  horse's  teeth,  and  are 
much  more  difficult  of  digestion  than  the  old.  Indeed, 
new  hay,  new  oats,  and  especially  new  corn,  should 
never  be  fed  to  a  horse  except  in  small  quantities  if 
anything  better  can  be  obtained.  The  habit  of  some 
farmers  of  feeding  soft  corn  to  horses  is  extremely 
bad  and  even  dangerous,  as  it  has  caused  the  death 
of  many  a  fine  animal.  Old  corn  is  very  much  safer 
and  better  in  every  respect. 

In  some  countries  barley  is  much  used  as  food  for 
horses.     In  Syria  and  Turkey  nearly  all  the  horsee 


I 

H 
O 

c 
a 
r 
w 


7i6 


HORSE. 


are  fed  on  it,  and  they  are  in  general  very  hardy,  and 
capable  of  enduring  very  severe  exercise  without  ex- 
hibiting symptoms  of  fatigue.  Boiled  barley  is  some- 
times found  very  effectual  in  restoring  weak  horses  to 
strength  and  vigor.  The  best  way  it  can  be  given  to 
horses  which  are  recovering  from  an  attack  of  disease, 
is  in  the  form  of  mashes,  hay  being  also  given  to  pre- 
vent  relaxation  of  the  bowels. 

Peas  are  sometimes  used  as  food  for  horses,  but 
their  use  is  not  general,  and  they  are  not  considered  a 
desirable  kind  of  provender.  In  i,ooo  parts  they  con- 
tain 577  of  nutritive  matter  They  should  be  bruised 
and  ground  before  being  used,  as  when  they  are  fed 
whole  they  are  not  easily  masticated,  for  they  slip 
away  from  under  the  teeth  of  the  horses.  Some  horses 
have  died  after  eating  a  heavy  meal  of  peas.  In  such 
cases  a  jxist-mortem  examination  has  shown  that  the 
stomach  has  been  burst  by  the  swelling  of  the  peas. 
This  fact  will  be  sufficient  to  point  out  the  necessity  of 
caution  in  the  use  of  peas  as  food  for  horses.  They 
are  nutritious  and  strengthening,  but  more  than  ordin- 
ary caution  is  required  in  managing  them. 

Carrots  are  much  esteemed  for  horses,  but  they 
should  be  given  in  moderation,  and  in  connection  with 
other  food.  When  given  in  large  quantities  they  cause 
inflammation  of  the  eyes  and  a  sluggishness  of  spirit. 
A  small  quantity  given  in  connection  with  the  usual 
amount  of  hay  and  oats  has  an  excellent  effect  on 
the  health  of  the  horse,  promoting  digestion,  impart- 
'  ing  a  fine  gloss  to  the  coat,  and  improving  his  con- 
'dilion  in  every  way.  Some  persons  feed  horses 
'exclusively  on  carrots,  at  certain  seasons,  and  consider 
them  valuable  provender,  but  the  majority  of  intelli- 
gent observers  prefer  giving  them  in  small  quantities 
in  connection  with  other  food. 

When  hay  is  scarce  and  dear,  chopped  straw  may 
be  substituted  for  it  without  having  any  visible  effect 
on  the  condition  of  the  animals  fed  with  it. 

In  feeding  oats  in  the  bundle  cut  the  straw  about 
an  inch  long,  mix  corn  meal  and  bran  in  about  equal 
quantities  as  to  weight,  so  that  each  horse  has  about  a 
bushel  of  cut  feed  and  three  quarters  of  the  meal  and 
bran  twice  in  each  day ;  200  pounds  per  week  of  this 
mixture  of  corn  meal  and  bran  added  to  the  cut  feed 
will  keep  a  pair  of.  working  horses  in  the  best  con- 
dition. It  is  less  than  two-thirds  cost  keeping  them 
on  uncut  dry  and  whole  grain.  The  human  stomach 
will  bear  hunger  far  better  than  that  of  the  horse,  and 
if  the  rider  feels  his  appetite  keenly,  he  may  be  satis- 
fied the  animal  which  carries  him  is  still  more  in  want 
of  food;  some  washy  animals  pass  their  food  through 
them  so  quickly  that  they  do  not  absorb  from  it  one- 
half  of  the  nutritive  elements  contained  in  it.  These 
must  be  fed  largely,  if  they  are  kept  at  work,  and 
those  articles  of  food  must  be  selected  for  them  which 
have  a  tendency  rather  to  confine  the  bowels  than  to 
relax  them. 

In  order  to  feed  a  farm  horse  so  that  he  can  work 
safely  and  comfortably,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  less 
hay  and  more  grain  than  most  farmers  furnish.  The 
hay  should  be  cut  and  moistened  with  warm  water.  If 


meal  is  fed,  it  should  be  sprinkled  upon  and  mixed 
with  the  cut  hay.  If  oats  are  used  instead  of  meal, 
they  may  be  given  with  the  hay  or  after  it  has  been 
eaten.  The  feeding  should  be  regular  and  no  dry  hay 
should  be  furnished  between  meals.  When  the  horse 
is  hard  at  work,  the  quantity  of  meal  or  oats  should 
be  increased,  but  no  more  hay  should  be  given  than 
usual.  A  few  roots  will  be  a  good  addition  to  the  diei. 
Carrots  are  specially  beneficial.  After  extreme  hard 
work,  a  warm  mash  may  be  given  with  benefit.  Still, 
it  is  not  best  to  drive  or  work  horses  up  to  the  point 
of  exhaustion.  It  will  certainly  injure  and  may  spoil 
them. 

Hard  driving  after  hearty  eating  is  more  injurious 
than  hearty  eating  after  hard  driving.  A  farm  horse 
assigned  to  the  unaccustomed  task  of  making  a  long 
journey  should  be  allowed  his  own  time  for  it;  start 
early,  drive  moderately,  giving  him  an  early  and  long 
nooning,  with  a  good  rubbing  down  before  feeding.  If 
the  end  of  the  journey  cannot  be  reached  early  in  the 
evening,  stop  for  supper,  and  after  another  rest  he 
may  be  driven  a  few  miles  farther.  A  case  of  extreme 
necessity  only,  can  justify  driving  a  horse  in  the  eve- 
ning that  has  worked  hard  all  day. 

Long  fasts,  followed  by  heavy  feeds,  is  a  sure  way 
to  bring  on  colic  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  which 
may  be  entirely  prevented  by  an  opiX)sice  system  of 
management.  Some  disapprove  of  giving  cooked  or 
steamed  food  to  farm  horses ;  but  our  experience  has 
long  since  convinced  us  that  it  is  not  only  a  useful 
auxiliary  to  the  dietary  of  the  stable,  but  even  an  in- 
dispensable article.  During  summer  and  autumn, 
horses  are  chiefly  fed  on  green  food,  and  a  sudden 
change  to  dry  is  not  advisable.  Not  only  the  working 
horses,  but  the  young  colts,  should  be  well  cared  for. 
It  is  the, worst  policy  in  the  world  to  let  farm  stock 
get  too  low  in  flesh ;  for  it  will  cost  about  double  the 
money  and  trouble  to  bring  them  up  again  that  it 
would  have  done  to  keep  them  so.  They  should  be 
kept  in  a  thriving  state  steadily  from  their  birth. 
They  should,  besides,  be  housed  in  comfortable,  well- 
ventilated  stables.  Certain  it  is,  that  many  first-rate 
farmers  keep  their  horses  in  an  open  yard,  with  sheds 
around.  They  will  tell  us  that  consequently  their 
horses  never  suffer  from  cold.  Still  it  is  a  question 
whether  it  be  not  cheaper  in  the  end  to  have  them 
properly  housed  during  the  winter,  as  there  is  not  then 
the  same  exhaustion  of  animal  heat,  which  requires 
an  additional  amount  of  nutrition  to  maintain. 

This  point,  as  well  as  the  general  principle,  will  be 
found  discussed  at  length  in  the  article  Feeding  Ani- 
mals. 

Watering.  The  water  which  is  given  to  the  horse 
will  materially  affect  his  condition  if  it  is  not  suitable 
to  him  in  quality  and  quantity,  or  if  he  is  allowed  to 
take  it  when  heated  by  work.  Thirst  is  most  distress- 
ing to  this  animal,  and  if  he  has  not  his  water  regu- 
larly when  his  stomach  demands  it,  he  will  not  only 
refuse  his  solid  food,  but  he  will  drink  inordinately 
when  he  has  the  opportunity,  causing  colic  or  founder 
to  supervene. 


ttORSn. 


717 


It  is  not  desirable  to  have  the  water  standing  in 
the  barns  for  the  horses  to  drink  at  will;  this  luxury  is 
so  often  abused  by  the  troughs  being  allowed  to  get 
into  a  foul  and  dirty  state  that  it  is  best  to  do  without 
them  altogether.  Moreover,  water  standing  in  a 
stable  readily  absorbs  any  ammonia  or  other  gases, 
and  it  is  therefore  rendered  unsuitable  for  the  horses 
to  drink ;  for  this  reason  water  that  has  stood  in  a  pail 
in  a  stable  over  night  is  not  fit  to  drink.  Those  who 
contend  for  this  constant  supply  have  overlooked  the 
fact  that  the  horse  when  he  first  comes  into  the  stable 
is  unfit  to  be  allowed  to  "take  his  fill,"  and  yet  he 
will  be  sure  to  do  so  if  the  water  tank  is  open  to  him. 

If,  after  feeding  hay  and  then  oats,  we  allow  the 
horse  to  take  a  large  drink  of  water,  a  considerable 
part  of  the  oats  will  be  carried  by  the  water  into  the 
intestines,  and  we  get  little  of  the  advantage  of  feed- 
ing the  oats  after  the  hay.  If  such  a  drink  is  taken 
soon  after  eating  hay  alone,  the  effect  will  not  be  so 
injurious,  because  hay  does  not  need  so  long  a  time 
for  digestion  as  grain.  If  only  one  or  two  quarts  of 
water  are  allowed,  it  will  pass  the  food  in  the  stomach 
without  changing  its  position  to  any  great  extent. 
When  the  stomach  has  got  rid  of  a  considerable  part 
of  its  contents  it  seems  a  difficult  matter  for  it  to  force 
out  the  remainder,  and  fermentation  and  colic  some- 
times result.  A  drink  of  water  at  such  a  time,  by 
carrying  on  the  substance  which  has  remained  long 
enough,  relieves  the  condition. 

The  quantity  of  water  which  will  be  imbibed  by 
horses  varies  more  than  that  of  their  solid  food,  yet 
ignorant  men  are  apt  to  give  all  alike.  If  salt  is 
given,  it  will  produce  considerable  thirst  at  first,  but 
after  a  time  the  effect  ceases  and  in  the  long  run  will 
not  make  much  difference.  Green  food  will  also 
make  less  alteration  in  the  desire  for  water  than  might 
be  expected,  and  it  is  necessary  to  be  cautious  in  the 
allowance  of  water  to  horses  which  have  begun  to  eat 
green  grass,  for  if  given  in  the  usual  quantity,  when 
the  stomach  is  full  of  green  food,  it  will  very  prob- 
ably bring  on  an  attack  of  colic.  As  a  rule,  no  horse 
should  goto  any  moderately  fast  work  with  more  than 
half  a  bucket  of  water  in  him,  and  that  should  be 
swallowed  at  least  half  an  hour. 

The  quality  of  water  best  suited  to  the  horse  is  one 
moderately  soft,  but  it  should  not  be  rain-water  col- 
lected in  tanks,  which  soon  becomes  full  of  decom- 
posing vegetable  matter.  Most  horses  are  accustomed 
to  hard  water,  and  a  change  to  that  which  is  soft  must 
be  carefully  avoided  when  work  is  to  be  demanded  of 
them.  Thus,  in  sending  horses  used  in  fast  work  from 
home  when  they  have  been  accustomed  to  either  kind 
of  water,  it  often  happens  that  their  health  is  upset, 
and  this  is  quite  as  likely  to  occur  when  the  change 
is  from  hard  to  soft  as  from  soft  to  hard  water.  Train- 
ers of  valuable  race-horses  are  so  aware  of  this  fact, 
that  irrespective  of  the  risk  of  [xiisoning,  which  they 
thereby  avoid,  they  take  water  with  them. 

The  proper  temperature  of  the  water  given  in  the 
stable  is  a  matter  of  serious  importance,  and  the  effect 
of  a  bucketful  of  cold  water  to  a  horse  just  come  in 


from  his  work  is  very  serious.  Even  in  a  state  of  rest 
cold  water  will  often  produce  cramp  or  colic,  so  that 
careful  hostlers  never  give  it  without  warming  it, 
either  by  the  addition  of  a  little  hot  water,  called  "  tak- 
ingoff  the  chill,"or  by  letting  it  stand  for  some  hours  in 
the  stable  or  saddle  room.  If  the  former  method  is 
adopted,  it  should  not  be  made  to  feel  actually  warm, 
for  in  that  state  it  nauseates  a  delicate  feeder,  but  it 
should  barely  have  the  chill  taken  off,  so  that  in  dip- 
ping the  hand  into  it  no  sensation  of  cold  is  produced. 
How  TO  Use  a  Horse.  On  this  subject  we  can  do 
no  better  than  to  quote  from  Henry  William  Herbert: 
"It  is  not,  after  all,  every  one  who  owns  a  horse," 
says  Mr.  Herbert,  "that  knows  how  to  use  him,  whether 
for  his  own  pleasure  or  the  horse's,  which  is,  in  other 
words  the  owner's  best  advantage.  Nor  is  it  very  easy 
to  lay  down  rules  how  a  horse  should  be  used,  consid- 
ering the  many  different  purposes  for  which  horses  are 
kept,  the  different  natures  and  constitutions  of  the  ani- 
mals, and  the  different  circumstances  of  their  owners. 

"Horses  may,  in  general,  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
— ^those  kept  for  work,  and  those  kept  for  pleasure. 
In  the  former  class  may  be  included  farm-horses, 
stage,  coach  and  omnibus  horses,  team-horses  em- 
ployed in  the  transportation  of  goods  and  moving 
heavy  and  bulky  masses,  car  men's  horses,  and  lastly, 
the  road  horses  of  all  professional  men,  who,  like  law- 
yers, doctors  of  medicine,  and  the  like,  are  compelled 
to  drive  or  ride  many  hours  per  diem  regularly,  in  the 
performance  of  their  business. 

"In  the  latter  class  may  be  included  race-horses, 
match  trotters,  private  gentlemen's  saddle-horses, 
carriage-horses,  or  roadsters,  and  many  other  animals 
belonging  to  business  men,  which  being  employed 
during  half  the  time  or  more  in  actual  service,  are 
used  during  spare  hours  on  the  road  for  purposes  of 
amusement. 

"With  regard  to  the  first  class  of  these  horses,  the 
exigencies  of  the  business  to  which  they  are  applied 
are  for  the  most  part  such  as  to  supersede  and  over- 
ride all  rules.  In  some  cases  the  natural  hours  of 
the  day  and  night  have  to  be  reversed,  and  the  ani- 
mals are  called  upon  to  do  their  work  by  night,  and 
to  rest  and  feed  by  day.  Under  these  circumstances  it 
may  be  laid  down  as  an  immutable  law  that  at  whatever 
hour  the  horses  are  to  be  worked,  they  must  have  full 
time  beforehand  to  digest  their  food  and  water;  they 
must  be  carefully  cleaned,  and  made  comfortable;  they 
must  have  sufficient  intervals  for  halting  and  baiting 
on  the  road,  must  be  cleaned  and  well  fed  during  the 
intervals  of  work,  and  must  have  ample  time  for  un- 
disturbed repose.  The  distance  which  horses  in  per- 
fect condition  can  go  upon  the  road  varies  greatly 
with  the  powers  of  the  animal,  the  degree  of  pains 
bestowed  on  him,  the  skill  of  his  driver,  and  the 
amount  of  his  load,  as  well  as  the  state  of  the  roads. 
But  it  may  be  taken  as  a  rule  that  strong,  able  horses, 
of  moderate  speed,  can  travel  forty  miles  a  day,  with 
a  moderate  load,  without  distress,  for  many  days  in 
succession.  It  may  be  observed  that  it  is  the  better 
way  to  start  at  an  easy  pace  when  on  a  journey,  to 


7.8 


HORSE. 


increase  it  slightly  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  again 
to  relax  it  before  coming  in  at  night,  in  order  to  allow 
the  animals  to  enter  their  stables  cool,  in  good  order, 
and  ready,  after  a  short  rest  and  cleaning,  to  feed 
Avith  an  appetite. 

"  It  may  also  be  observed,  in  this  point  of  view,  that 
it  is  a  mistake  to  fancy  that  horses  are  benefited  by 
being  driven  or  ridden  very  slowly  when  they  have  a 
long  distance  to  perform.  If  a  horse  has  to  get 
over  forty  miles  in  a  day,  the  roads  being  good,  the 
temperature  of  the  day  pleasant,  and  the  load  not  ex- 
cessive, he  will  do  it  with  more  ease  and  less  incon- 
venience to  himself,  going  at  the  rate  of  seven  or  eight 
miles  an  hour,  and  doing  the  whole  distance  in  five 
or  six  hours,  with  a  single  stoppage  in  the  middle  of 
the  day  to  feed  and  rest,  than  if  he  be  kept  pottering 
along  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  miles,  and  be  kept  out 
of  his  stable  hungry,  thirsty  and  leg-weary  for  a  longer 
time. 

"  Farm-horses,  whose  work  is  necessarily  slow  and 
continuous,  lasting  ordinarily  from  sunrise  to  sunset, 
with  the  exception  of  a  mid-day  halt  for  baiting,  are 
under  different  circumstances.  Their  work  being 
always  slow,  and  rarely  if  ever  severe  at  the  moment, 
or  toilsome  except  from  its  long  duration,  they  need 
not  be  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  fast-working 
horses,  of  being  fed  long  before  they  are  put  to  work 
and  allowed  to  evacuate  their  bowels  thoroughly  be- 
fore being  harnessed.  They  may,  therefore,  be  fed 
and  watered  at  the  last  moment,  and  put  to  slow  work 
immediately,  and  will  rarely  take  harm  from  traveling 
on  full  stomachs.  In  the  same  manner,  when  they 
are  loosed  at  noon-day,  being  rarely  overheated,  after 
a  slight  rest  and  a  slight  rubbing  down — which,  by 
the  way,  they  rarely  receive — they  may  take  their 
mid-day  feed  without  delay  and  without  fear  of  evil 
consequences.  In  like  manner  may  be  treated  car- 
men's horses,  and  team-horses,  the  labor  of  which  is 
heavy  and  continuous  rather  than  rapid.  All  horses, 
however,  whatever  the  work  to  which  they  are  applied, 
should  have  ample  time  to  rest  at  night,  and  should  be 
thoroughly  rubbed  down,  dried,  clothed  and  made  com- 
fortable before  feeding  them  and  closing  the  stables 
for  the  night,  and  the  more  so  the  more  trying  the 
day's  work. 

"  With  regard  to  pleasure  horses,  which  are  usually 
in  the  stables,  more  or  less,  20  hours  out  of  every  24, 
that  are  only  taken  out  for  the  gratification  of  the 
owner  at  such  times  as  it  suits  his  humor  or  neces- 
sity, they  should  never  be  taken  out  and  driven  fast 
on  full  stomachs,  which  can  always  be  avoided  by 
letting  the  groom  know  in  case  they  will  be  required 
at  an  unusual  hour  or  for  unusual  work — when  he  can 
adapt  his  feeding  hours  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
case. 

"  When  harnessed  and  ready  for  a  start  the  driver 
should  mount  his  seat  quietly,  gather  his  reins,  and 
get  his  horses  under  way  slowly  and  gradually,  by 
speaking  or  chirruping  to  them,  never  starting  them 
with  a  jerk  or  striking  them  with  a  whip,  allowing 


them  to  increase  their  pace  by  degrees  to  the  speed 
required,  instead  of  forcing  it  on  a  sudden. 

"  It  is  far  better  for  horses  to  drive  them  steadily  at  a 
regular  pace,  even  if  it  be  ten  or  twelve  miles  an  hour, 
than  to  send  them  along  by  fits  and  starts — now  spin- 
ningthem  over  the  road  at  sixteen  or  eighteen  miles,  now 
plodding  along  at  six  or  seven ;  and  of  two  pairs  of 
horses  driven  the  same  distance,  after  the  two  differ- 
ent methods,  that  which  is  driven  evenly  will  at  the 
end  of  the  day  be  comparatively  fresh  and  comfort- 
able while  the  other  will  be  jaded  and  worn  out. 

"  In  regard  to  punishment,  the  less  that  is  adminis- 
tered the  better.  A  sluggish  or  lazy  horse  must,  it  is 
true,  be  kept  up  to  his  collar  and  made  to  do  his  share 
of  the  work,  or  the  free-goer  will  be  worn  out  before 
the  day  is  half  done,  and  for  this  the  whip  must  be 
occasionally  used.  Even  good  and  free-going  horses 
will  occasionally  be  seized  with  fits  of  indolence,  at 
moments,  induced  perhaps  by  the  weather,  and  it 
may  be  necessary  to  stimulate  them  in  such  cases; 
again  at  times  when  roads  are  bad,  when  time  presses 
and  certain  distances  must  be  accomplished  within 
certain  limes,  recourse  must  be  had  to  punishment; 
as  it  must  also  in  cases  where  the  animals  are  vicious 
and  refractory,  and  where  the  master  must  show  him- 
self the  master.  Still,  as  a  general  rule,  punishment 
should  be  the  last  resort.  It  should  never  be  at- 
tempted with  a  tired,  a  jaded,  or  an  exhausted  horse; 
for  to  apply  it  in  such  cases  is  utter  barbarity,  little  or 
no  immediate  advantage  is  gained  to  the  driver,  while 
it  may  probably  result  in  the  loss  of  an  excellent  ani- 
mal. It  is  common  to  see  horses  punished  for  stum- 
bling, and  punished  for  starting;  and  whenever  a  new 
horse  which  one  may  chance  to  be  trying  starts  off 
into  a  gallop  after  committing  either  of  these  offenses, 
one  may  be  sure  he  is  an  habitual  starter  or  stumbler, 
and  that  he  has  frequently  undergone  chastisement 
for  them,  and  undergone  it  in  vain.  It  is  altogether 
an  error  to  punish  for  either  starting  or  stumbling;  the 
one  is  the  effect  of  fear,  which  cannot  be  cured  by 
the  whip;  the  other,  in  most  cases,  of  malformation  or 
of  tenderness  in  the  foot,  which  certainly  cannot  be 
treated  successfully  by  chastisement,  which,  in  fact, 
aggravates  and  confirms  instead  of  alleviatingor  curing. 

"  In  speaking  of  driving  at  an  equal  pace  we  would 
not,  of  course,  be  understood  to  mean  that  horses 
should  be  driven  at  the  same  gait  and  speed  over  all 
roads,  and  over  grounds  of  all  natures.  Far  from  it. 
A  good  driver  will  while  going,  always  at  the  rate  of 
10  miles  (we  will  say)  an  hour,  never  perhaps  have  his 
horses  going  exactly  at  the  same  rate  forany  two  consec- 
utive twenty  minutes.  Over  a  dead  level,  the  hardest 
of  all  things  except  a  long  continuous  ascent  of  miles, 
he  will  spare  his  horses.  Over  a  rolling  road  he  will 
hold  them  hard  in  hand  as  he  crosses  the  top  and 
descends  the  first  steep  pitch  of  a  descent;  will  swing 
them  down  the  remainder  at  a  pace  which  will,  jump 
them  across  the  intervening  flat  and  carry  them  half 
way  up  the  succeeding  hill,  and  will  catch  them  in 
hand  again  and  hold  them  hard  over  the  top,  as  we 
have  shown  before. 


HORSE. 


715 


"Horses  in  traveling  should  be  watered  about 
once,  with  not  to  exceed  two  quarts,  after  every  ten 
miles,  or  every  hour,  if  one  be  traveling  fast;  and  if 
traveling  far  they  should  be  well  fed  once  in  the  mid- 
dle of  their  journey.  This  jwint,  however,  has  been 
discussed  already  under  the  head  of  feeding. 

"  In  closing  we  would  say,  always  remember  in  using 
a  horse  that  it  cannot  be  done  with  too  much  cool- 
ness, too  much  gentleness,  too  much  discretion,  or  too 
much  kindness. 

"There  is  no  better  beast  in  the  world  than  ahorse, 
nor  any  one  which,  though  often  most  cruelly  misused 
by  man,  so  well  deserves,  and  so  amply  by  his  ser- 
vices repays,  the  best  usage." 

For  full  directions  for  Driving,  see  that  article. 

Stabling  and  Grooming.  In  a  climate  so  uncer- 
tain, changeful,  and  in  which  the  extremes  of  cold  and 
heat  are  so  great  as  in  the  greater  portion  of  the 
United  States,  the  question  of  stabling  is  of  greatest 
importance.  It  is  a  matter  of  much  regret  that  so 
many  of  the  farmers  of  America  make  such  poor  pro- 
vision for  their  horses.  The  stables  are  often  so  illy 
ventilated,  or  not  ventilated  at  all,  that  the  ammoni- 
acal  vapors  and  stifling  odors  from  the  urine  and 
excrement  and  decom]X)sed  vegetable  matter  engen- 
der the  worst  forms  of  disease.  The  same  laws  affect 
alike  the  health  of  the  horse  and  his  master;  and  that 
of  farm  horses,  as  well  as  farm  laborers,  would  often 
be  much  worse  than  it  is  were  it  not  for  the  large  pro- 
lx)rtion  of  time  spent  by  each  in  the  open  air.  The 
subject  of  stabling  and  the  manner  of  the  construction 
of  the  stable  is  fully  treated  under  head  of  Barn. 

As  to  grooming,  little  need  be  said.  When  at  work 
the  farm  horse  needs  more  care  and  attention  than 
they  generally  receive.  Not  only  should  their  feeding 
and  watering  be  regular,  and  of  the  proper  sort  and 
quantity,  but  they  should  be  kept  clean  and  comfort- 
able. After  working  in  the  mud,  their  legs  should  lie 
washed  clean,  wiped  and  rubbed  until  dry.  On  the 
subject  of  grooming  Youatt  says: 

"  Of  this  much  need  not  be  said  to  the  agricultur- 
ist, since  custom,  and  apparently  without  ill  effect, 
has  allotted  so  little  of  the  comb  and  brush  to  the 
farmer's  horse.  The  animal  that  is  worked  all  day 
and  turned  out  at  night,  requires  little  more  to  be 
done  to  him  than  to  have  tlie  dirt  brushed  off  his 
limbs.  Regular  grooming,  by  rendering  his  skin  more 
sensible  to  the  alteration  of  temperature  and  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather,  would  be  prejudicial.  The 
horse  that  is  altogether  turned  out  needs  no  grooming. 
Tlie  dandruff  or  scurf  which  accumulates  at  the  roots 
of  the  hair  is  a  provision  of  nature  to  defend  him  from 
the  wind  and  the  cold." 

This,  however,  which  may  be  true,  and  correct  as  of 
the  horse  that  is  turned  out  every  night  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  and  feeds  only  on  grass,  with 
some  slight  addition  of  oats  and  mashes,  certainly  is 
not  applicable  to  the  farm-horses  of  the  United  States, 
which  are,  for  the  most  part,  if  not  altogether,  stabled 
for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  or  in  winter  at  least; 
fed  on  artificial  food :  kept  warm,  to  a  certain  extent ; 


and  which,  of  course,  must  be  cleaned  daily,  especially 
after  severe  work  or  exposure  to  wet,  if  they  are  to  be 
kept  in  health  and  working  condition. 

"  It  is  to  the  stabled  horse,"  Youatt  continues, 
"highly  fed,  and  little  or  irregularly  worked,  that 
grooming  is  of  the  highest  consequence.  Good  rub- 
bing with  the  brush  or  the  currycomb  opens  the  pores 
of  the  skin,  circulates  the  blood  to  the  extremities  of 
the  body,  produces  free  and  healthy  perspiration,  and 
stands  in  the  room  of  exercise.  No  horse  will  carry  a 
fine  coat  without  either  unnatural  heat  or  dressing. 
They  both  effect  the  same  purpose,  but  the  first  does 
it  at  the  expense  of  health  and  strength ;  while  the 
second,  at  the  same  time  that  it  produces  a  glow  on 
the  skin,  and  a  determination  of  the  blood  to  it,  rouses 
all  the  energies  of  the  frame.  It  would  be  well  for 
the  proprietor  of  the  horse  if  he  were  to  insist,  and  to 
see  that  his  orders  are  really  obeyed,  that  the  fine 
coat  in  which  he  and  his  groom  so  much  delight  is 
produced  by  honest  rubbing,  and  not  by  a  heated 
stable  and  thick  clothing,  and,  most  of  all,  not  by 
stimulating  or  injurious  spices.  The  horse  should  be 
regularly  dressed  every  day,  in  addition  to  the  groom- 
ing that  is  necessary  after  work." 

In  speaking  of  grooming,  Herbert  says:  "  It  is  true, 
in  a  measure,  that  the  necessity  of  regular  dressing, 
wisping,  currying,  brushing  and  hard  rubbing  is  far 
greater  in  the  case  of  highly  pampered  horses,  fed  in 
the  most  stimulating  manner,  principally  on  grain, 
kept  in  hot  stables,  always  a  little  above  their  work, 
and  ready  at  all  times  to  jump  out  of  their  skins  from 
the  exuberance  of  their  animal  spirit ;  yet  it  is  neces- 
sary to  all  housed  and  stabled  horses;  and  the  farmer, 
no  less  than  the  owner  of  fast  trotters,  w;ll  find  his 
advantage  in  having  his  horse  curried  and  washed 
before  feeding  in  the  morning  in  the  increased  play  of 
his  spirit  and  in  the  gayety  and  fitness  of  the  animal 
for  his  work;  and  if,  when  he  brings  him  in  at  night, 
reeking  with  sweat,  drenched  with  rain  or  snow,  his 
thighs  and  belly  plastered  with  thick  mud,  and  his 
legs  covered,  as  cart-horses'  legs  mostly  are,  with 
thick  hair,  saturated  with  cold  water  and  clogged  with 
particles  of  mud  and  sand,  he  neglects  to  have  him 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  made  dry  and  comfortable  for 
the  night,  he  not  only  commits  an  act  of  gross  cruelty, 
but  wholly  disregards  his  own  interest.  Unless  a 
horse  be  cleaned  and  groomed  when  in  such  a  con- 
dition, he  cannot  be  kept  in  health;  and  if  he  be 
fed  freely  in  such  a  state, — although  the  cart-horse  is 
less  liable  to  such  ailments,  from  his  hardier  habits 
and  less  impressive  constitution, — the  chances  are 
that  soon  he  will  be  attacked  by  inflammation  of  the 
bowels,  or  lungs,  or  with  spasmodic  colic — the  race- 
horse, fast  trotter,  or  highly  bred  and  highly  fed  road- 
ster would  be  so  attacked,  to  a  certainty — and  the 
failure  to  dry  and  cleanse  the  legs  of  such  a  horse, 
especially  if  there  be  a  draft  of  cold  wind  blowing 
upon  the  heels  from  a  crevice  under  the  stable  door, 
as  is  generally  the  case  in  common  farm  stables,  will 
be  almost  certainly  succeeded  by  that  troublesome, 
dangerous    and    foul  disease  known  as  'grease,'  or 


720 


HORSE. 


more  commonly  in  America  as  '  the   scratches,'   etc. 

"  When  the  weather  w  ill  pemiit  the  horse,"  says 
Mr.  Youatt,  "  to  be  taken  out,  he  should  never  be 
groomed  in  the  stable,  unless  he  be  an  animal  of 
peculiar  value,  or  placed  for  a  time  under  peculiar 
circumstances.  Without  dwelling  on  the  want  of 
cleanliness,  when  the  scurf  and  dust  that  are  washed 
from  the  horse  lodge  in  his  manger  and  mingle  with 
his  food, — experience  teaches,  that  if  the  cold  is  not 
too  great,  the  animal  is  braced  and  invigorated  to  a 
degree  that  cannot  be  attained  in  the  stable  by  being 
dressed  in  the  open  air.  There  is  no  necessity,  how- 
ever, for  half  the  punishment  which  many  a  groom 
inflicts  upon  the  horse  in  the  act  of  dressing,  and 
especially  on  one  whose  skin  is  thin  and  sensitive. 
The  currycomb  should  be,  at  all  times,  lightly  applied. 
With  many  horses  its  use  may  be  almost  dispensed 
with ;  and  even  the  brush  need  not  be  so  hard,  nor 
the  bristles  so  irregular  as  they  often  are.  A  soft 
brush,  with  a  little  more  weight  of  the  hand,  will  be 
equally  effectual  and  a  great  deal  more  pleasant  to 
the  horse.  A  hair-cloth,  while  it  will  seldom  irritate 
or  tease,  will  be  almost  sufficient  with  horses  which 
have  a  thin  skin  and  which  have  not  been  neglected. 
After  all,  it  is  no  slight  task  to  dress  a  horse  as  it 
ought  to  be  done.  It  occupies  no  little  time,  and 
demands  considerable  patience  as  well  as  dexterity. 
It  will  be  readily  ascertained  whether  a  horse  has 
been  well  dressed,  by  rubbing  him  with  one  of  the 
fingers.  A  greasy  stain  will  detect  the  idleness  of  the 
groom.  When,  however,  the  horse  is  changing  his 
coats,  both  the  currycomb  and  the  brush  should  be 
used,  as  lightly  as  possible." 

In  ordinary  cleaning,  in  the  morning,  the  head 
should  be  first  dressed.  The  hair  should  be  lifted 
and  deranged  lightly,  not  stretched  or  torn  with  the 
currycomb,  and  then  rubbed  well  in  all  directions, 
both  against  and  across  the  grain  of  the  hair,  as  well 
as  with  it,  until  it  is  entirely  clear  from  dust  and 
dandruff.  The  ears  should  be  gently  pulled  and 
stripped  with  the  hand,  from  the  roots  to  the  points, 
and  the  whole  head  should  then  be  washed  smoothly 
and  evenly,  as  the  hair  ought  to  lie.  The  neck,  back, 
shoulders,  loins,  croup  and  quarters  follow,  the  same 
plan  being  used,  except  that  in  dressing  these  parts, 
while  the  comb  is  used  lightly  and  dextrously  with 
one  hand,  the  brush  is  employed  in  removing  the 
scurf  with  the  other.  The  flexures  of  the  skin  at  the 
insertion  of  the  limbs  are  parts  which  require  especial 
care,  as  the  dust  is  most  apt  to  collect  in  these  places. 
This  done,  the  horse  must  be  thoroughly  wisped  all 
over  with  bunches  of  dry  straw,  till  his  coat  is  quite 
clean  and  glossy,  when  it  may  be  gone  over  for  the 
last  time  with  a  fine,  soft  brush,  or  a  light  duster. 

HOW  TO  B  UV  A    HORSE. 

This  subject  is  certainly  deserving  the  attention  of 
the  farmer,  even  though  he  breeds  and  raises  more 
horses  than  he  buys.  The  farmer  should  know  most 
thoroughly  the  horses  that  he  breeds.  Indeed,  he 
should  be  a  competent  judge  of  this  noble  animal.  In 


buying  a  horse  the  first  things  to  be  considered  are, 
the  use  for  which  he  is  needed,  and  the  amount  of 
capital  to  be  expended  for  him.  These  points  having 
been  settled  there  are  many  other  things  to  be  ob- 
served in  buying  a  horse.  Buy  only  of  resjXJnsible, 
well  known  men.  Remember  that  no  matter  what 
conditions  horses  may  be  in,  a  certain  class  of  horse 
traders  always  attempt  to  put  them  off  for  what  they 
are  not.  In  buying  of  such  men  you  cannot  rely  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  upon  what  they  tell  you,  but 
must  risk  your  judgment.  Even  then  the  horse  is 
handled  with  such  skill  that  the  shrewdest  judges  are 
often  deceived.  Another  ix)int  to  be  observed  is  to 
never  buy  a  horse  because  he  is  offered  at  a  price  evi- 
dently far  below  his  real  value.  When  a  horse  is  of- 
fered at  what  seems  to  be  a  sacrifice  to  his  owner, 
rest  assured  that  he  has  some  disagreeable  vice,  or 
is  permanently  unsound. 

In  reference  to  the  uses  for  which  a  horse  is  de- 
sired a  few  observations  may  be  made  with  profit,  as 
the  different  kinds  of  horses  have  different  points  of 
excellence  and  distinct  qualifications.  The  regular 
farm  horse  requires  strength,  quickness,  activity,  har- 
dihood and  courage.  Light,  shambling  nags  are  not 
suited  to  turn  up  a  good  broad-shoulder  furrow  to  the 
action  of  the  winter's  frost.  The  heavy  draft-horse  re- 
quires only  great  power  and  weight,  with  fast  walking 
action,  or  a  moderate  trot,  and  with  an  easy  moving 
action  to  himself.  The  carriage  horse  is  an  entirely 
different  animal  in  shape,  action,  etc.  Size,  symmetri- 
cal figure,  stylish  action  and  a  moderate  stroke  of 
speed  must  be  his  chief  characteristics..  The  light 
harness  horse  is  still  different  from  the  carriage  or 
family  horse.  He  must  have  more  style,  be  capable 
of  faster  speed,  greater  endurance,  and  have  a  good 
mouth.  The  saddle  horse  is  the  most  difficult  to  se- 
lect. He  should  be  handsome,  have  a  showy,  stylisli 
action,  must  be  sure-footed,  have  a  fine'mouth,  excel- 
lent temper,  abundance  of  courage  and  perfectly  docile. 
Above  all,  however,  he  must  be  an  easy  mover,  both 
to  himself  and  to  his  rider. 

For  hard  labor  never  purchase  a  narrow-chested  ani- 
mal. It  indicates  weakness  of  lungs,  and  those  liable 
to  inflammation.  For  a  saddle  horse,  however,  avoid 
a  very  broad-chested  animal,  though  sometimes  they 
are  found  to  be  good  trotters.  A  medium  between  the 
narrow  and  broad  chest  will  be  found  the  most  perfect. 

What  a  Horse  Should  Be.  In  summing  up  the 
physical  structure  of  what  a  horse  should  be  we  quote 
from  Henry  William  Herbert.  On  this  subject  he  says: 

"The  points  of  the  physical  structure  of  a  horse  on 
which  the  most,  indeed  the  whole  of  his  utility  de- 
pends, are  his  legs.  Without  his  locomotors,  all  the 
rest,  however  beautiful  it  may  be,  is  nothing  worth. 
Therefore,  to  these  we  look  the  first.  The  fore  shoul- 
der should  be  long,  obliquely  set,  with  a  considerable 
slope,  high  in  the  withers  and  thin  above.  The  up|5er 
arm  should  be  very  long  and  muscular ;  the  knee  broad, 
flat  and  bony;  the  shank  or  cannon  bone,  as  short  as 
may  be,  flat,  not  round,  with  clean,  firm  sinews ;  the 
pastern  joints  moderately  long  and  oblique,  but  not 


HORSE. 


721 


too  much  so,  as  the  excess  produces  springiness  and 
weakness  ;  the  hoofs  firm,  erect,  or  deep,  as  opposed  to 
flat;  and  the  feet  generally  large  and  round.  In  the  hind 
legs,  the  quarters  should  be  large,  powerful,  broad, 
when  looked  at  in  profile,  and  square  and  solid  from  be- 
hind. The  hams  should  be  sickle-shaped,  not  straight, 
and  well  let  down,  so  as  to  bring  the  hocks  well 
toward  the  ground.  The  hocks  should  be  large  and 
bony,  straight,  not  angular  or  con  vexly  curved  in  their 
posterior  outlines;  the  shanks  corresponding  to  the 
cannon  bones,  short  and  flat ;  and  the  hind  feet  simi- 
lar in  form  to  the  front.  The  back  should  be  short 
above,  from  the  point  of  the  withers  and  shoulder- 
blade,  which  ought  to  run  well  back  to  the  croup.  The 
barrel  should  be  round,  and  for  a  horse  in  which 
strength  and  quickness  are  looked  to  more  than  great 
speed  and  stride,  closely  ribbed  up. 

"  A  horse  can  scarcely  be  too  deep  from  the  top  of 
his  shoulder  to  the  intersection  of  his  fore  leg — which 
is  called  the  heart-place — or  too  wide  in  the  chest,  as 
room  in  these  parts  gives  free  play  to  the  most  im- 
portant vitals.  The  form  of  the  neck  and  setting  on 
of  the  head  are  essential  not  only  to  the  beauty  of  the 
animal,  but  to  the  facility  and  pleasure  of  riding  or 
driving  him ;  hence  a  horse  with  an  ill-shaped,  short, 
stubborn  neck,  or  an  ill-set-on  head,  cannot  by  any 
ixjssibility  be  a  pleasant-mouthed  horse,  or  an  easy 
one  to  manage.  The  neck  should  be  moderately  long, 
convexly  arched  above  from  the  shoulders  to  the  crest, 
thin  where  it  joins  the  head,  and  so  set  on  that, 
when  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  the  bit,  it  forms  a 
semicircle,  like  a  bended  bow,  and  brings  the  chin 
downward  and  inward  until  it  nearly  touches  the 
chest.  Horses  so  made  are  always  manageable  to  the 
hand.  The  converse  of  this  neck,  which  is  concave 
above  and  struts  out  at  the  windpipe  like  a  cock's 
thropple,  is  the  worst  jx)ssible  form ;  and  horses  so 
made  almost  invariably  throw  up  their  heads  at  a  pull, 
and  are  those  most  exceptionable  of  brutes,  regular 
star-gazers.  The  head  should  be  rather  small,  lean, 
lx)ny,  not  beefy,  in  the  jowl ;  broad  between  the  eyes ; 
and  rather  concave,  or  what  is  called  basin-faced, 
than  Roman-nosed,  between  the  eyes  and  nostrils. 
The  ears  should  be  fine,  small  and  pointed;  the  eyes 
large,  clear  and  prominent,  and  the  nostrils  wide  and 
well  opened.  A  horse  so  framed  cannot  fail,  if  free 
from  physical  defects,  constitutional  disease  and  vice, 
to  be  a  good  one  for  any  purpose — degrees  of  strength, 
lightness  and  speed  being  weighed  in  accordance 
with  the  pur[X)se  for  which  he  is  desired." 

Color.  Much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  colors  of 
horses  by  many  persons;  indeed,  long  experience  has 
shown  that  certain  tints  are  usually  accompanied  by 
certain  qualities  of  person  or  disiX)sition.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule  dark-colored  horses  are  the  best,  but  blacks 
form  an  exception,  as  they  are  extremely  variable. 
Light  shades  appear  unfavorable  to  strength  and 
durability.  Bay  is  a  prevailing  tint,  and  is  generally 
admired;  it  admits  of  many  shades;  there  are  bright 
bays,  dark  and  dappled  bays ;  the  latter  is  esteemed 
for  beauty;  brown  bay  is  valued  for  service,  and  con- 
46 


sists  of  bay  and  black  in  variable  proportions ;  all 
bays  have  black  manes  and  tails.  (See  article  Bay.) 
Brown  horses  are  highly  prized;  the  dark  varieties 
have  sometimes  beautiful  tan  markings.  (See  Brown, 
page  151.)  Chestnut  is  also  a  good  color,  but  is  said 
to  be  less  depended  upon  than  some  others.  The 
sorrel  is  a  variety  of  the  chestnut,  but  not  a  favorite  one. 
Dun  is  a  color  that  has  several  varieties,  the  mane 
and  tail  sometimes  lighter  and  sometimes  darker  than 
the  body,  with  frequently  a  black  list  along  the  back; 
they  appear  to  be  of  all  qualities.  White  horses  are 
not  in  much  estimation,  neither  is  it  a  very  common 
color  for  young  horses;  but  some  become  white 
through  age.  Black  is  a  very  usual  color,  and  seems 
to  be  an  original  tint.  The  tempers  of  black  horses 
vary  extremely,  being  either  sluggish  or  too  fiery.  It 
is  seldom  that  a  horse  entirely  black  is  seen;  there  is 
usually  some  spot  of  white  in  the  forehead,  or  a  few 
white  hairs  on  the  breast.  The  roan  is  a  mixture 
with  white  hairs.  Gray  horses  are  of  many  shades, 
compounded  of  black  and  white ;  there  are  the  iron 
grays  and  dappled  grays.  Various  other  names  for 
mixtures  are  enumerated,  scarcely  possible  to  define. 

Examining  a  Horse.  The  criteria  of  the  qualities 
of  horses  are  derived  from  inspection  and  trial.  To 
judges  their  outward  appearance  affords  a  pretty  just 
indication  of  their  powers,  and  a  moderate  trial  usually 
enables  the  same  judgment  to  decide  on  the  disposi- 
tion to  exercise  such  powers.  The  qualities  indicated 
by  color  have  been  already  noticed.  The  strength 
may  be  judged  of  by  the  general  form.  The  spirit, 
vigor,  or  mettle,  as  it  is  termed,  are  best  ascertained 
by  trial.  A  horse  of  vigor  and  true  courage  is  highly 
valued,  and  shows  his  mettle  only  when  it  is  required 
of  him.  He  walks  securely  and  deliberately,  and 
moves  with  readiness  as  well  alone  as  in  company. 
Without  requiring  the  whip,  he  will  go  from  the  walk 
to  the  gallop,  and  as  easily  from  the  gallop  to  the  walk 
again,  champing  the  bit  and  trotting  glibly.  He  is  at- 
tentive and  cheerful ;  loves  to  be  caressed  even  when 
on  his  journey.  He  is  easily  managed,  good-tempered, 
and  quiet  under  difficulties.  A  hot,  fiery  horse  is 
as  objectionable  as  one  of  true  courage  is  desirable; 
he  is  known  by  his  disinclination  to  stand  still,  and 
by  his  mettle  being  raised  by  the  slightest  exercise, 
especially  when  in  company.  Such  horses  are  not 
safe;  they  are  impetuous,  difficult  to  manage,  and  are 
easily  frightened. 

In  examining  a  horse  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing, 
look  at  him  standing  quietly  in  his  stable,  to  see  he  has 
no  trick  like  that  of  putting  one  hind  foot  over  the 
other.  In  doing  this  he  often  cuts  the  fore-part  of 
his  hind  foot  with  the  sharp  calks  of  his  shoe,  thus 
making  him  lame  perhaps  for  months.  A  stable  ex- 
amination is  the  best  for  observing  indications  of 
wind-sucking,  crib-biting,  chronic  cough,  the  state  of 
respiration,  and  for  discovering  vice.  For  this  pur- 
pose always  have  a  horse  shown  quietly ;  when  there 
is  much  noise  and  bustle  there  is  generally  some- 
thing wrong,  and  when  the  animal  is  agitated  slight 
lameness  will  escape  the  eye. 


HORSE. 


723 


The  first  thing  to  be  observed  is  that  when  stand- 
ing evenly  the  weight  is  thrown  equally  on  both  feet. 
If  there  be  any  complaint  in  the  fore-feet,  one  will 
probably  be  "pointed,"  that  is,  extended  before  the 
other,  or  he  will  frequently  alter  the  jMsition  of  them, 
taking  one  up  and  setting  the  other  down  ;  or  the 
hind  legs  will  be  brought  under  the  body  to  relieve 
the  fore-feet  of  some  jxirtion  of  the  weight.  Any  of 
these  symptoms  will  direct  your  attention  to  the  feet 
when  you  see  him  out. 

Respiration.  To  judge  of  his  respiration,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  be  acquainted  with  the  indications  of  health. 
Observe  if  the  flank  alternately  rises  and  falls  with 
regularity.  In  health  the  respiration  of  the  horse  is 
from  four  to  eight  per  minute,  average  six,  in  the  day 
time ;  during  sleep  it  is  seldom  more  than  four.  If 
quicker  than  ordinary,  it  betokens  present  fever ;  other 
symptoms  will  be  developed,  such  as  increased  pulse, 
heat  of  mouth  and  dullness,  while  the  delicate  pink 
appearance  which  the  membrane  covering  the  parti- 
tion of  the  nostrils  assumes  in  health,  will  be  increased 
in  color.  But  if  none  of  these  symptoms  of  ill  health 
are  present  and  yet  the  horse  heaves  at  the  flank  more 
than  ordinary,  if  the  weather  be  moderate,  and  the 
stable  not  oppressively  hot,  it  is  probable  such  a  horse 
is  thick-winded. 

When  inspiration  appears  to  be  performed  readily 
and  quickly  as  in  health  by  a  single  action,  but  expir- 
ation with  difficulty  by  an  irregular  and  prolonged 
movement,  or  double  action,  the  respiratory  muscles 
appearing  as  if  interrupted  in  the  act  of  expel- 
ling the  air,  and  then  the  flank  drops  suddenly,  it  is  a 
symptom  of  broken  wind.  His  cough  should  then  be 
tried.  The  cough  of  a  broken-winded  horse  is  a 
peculiar  low,  hollow  grunt,  difficult  to  describe,  but 
when  once  heard  easily  recognized.  It  can  generally 
be  elicited  by  pinching  the  larynx  or  trachea,  though 
occasionally  this  fails,  for  some  sound  as  well  as  bro- 
ken-winded horses  cannot  be  made  to  cough  at  all. 
In  these  cases,  when  there  is  any  irregularity  in 
the  movement  of  the  flank,  which  would  lead  to  the 
suspicion  of  broken-wind,  and  there  is  unusual  hard- 
ness of  the  wind-pipe,  which  doe*»not  give  way  on 
pinching,  it  may  be  taken  as  a  symptom  of  disorgan- 
ization, in  addition  to  the  broken-wind.  See  page  197. 

Man^e.  Iftliehairis  rubbed  off  in  some  places, 
especially  about  the  head,  flanks  and  tail,  or  he  is 
observed  rubbing  himself  against  the  sides  of  the  stall, 
there  is  danger  of  his  being  mangy;  and  in  this  case 
his  coat  will  be  found  rough  and  staring. 

Kieking  and  Biting.  The  absence  of  the  vice  of 
kicking  and  biting  may  be  inferred  from  the  manner 
of  the  gr(X)m  when  entering  the  stall,  and  by  the  quiet 
method  with  which  he  unclothes  and  dusts  him  over 
and  combs  out  his  mane  and  tail.  If  he  be  a  biter, 
his  head  will  probably  be  tied  short  to  the  neck,  or  the 
groom  will  seize  hold  of  him  short  by  the  halter  or 
bridle,  sometimes  giving  him  a  shake  or  looking  sternly 
at  him.  Desire  to  see  his  hind  and  fore-feet,  and  by 
the  manner  in  which  he  permits  the  groom  to  lift 


them,  a  guess  may  be  made  as  to  his  quietness  to 
groom  his  heels  or  shoe. 

While  the  horse  is  in  the  act  of  being  led  out  of  the 
stable  to  the  light,  closely  observe  his  manner  and 
action;  if  the  ears  move  in  quick  changes  of  direc- 
tion, as  if  alarmed  at  every  noise,  and  he  hangs  back 
on  the  halter,  raising  his  feet  higher  than  ordinary,  and 
putting  them  down  as  if  fearful  and  uncertain  of  his 
step,  it  leads  us  to  suspect  his  eyes,  though  some- 
times these  symptoms  will  be  observed  when  the  eyes 
are  perfect,  if  the  stable  has  been  a  dark  one. 

Lameness.  When  the  horse  is  shown  out,  notice  if 
he  stands  firm  on  his  feet,  with  his  weight  thrown 
boldly  on  his  back  sinews  and  pasterns.  If  there  is 
any  appearance  of  shaking  or  tottering  of  the  fore 
limbs,  indicative  of  grogginess,  it  will  be  endeavored 
to  be  disguised  by  the  groom  continually  pulling  at  the 
bit  to  make  him  shift  his  legs  and  stand  advantage- 
ously. A  lame  horse  is  never  permitted  to  stand  still 
a  moment,  and  the  groom,  though  pretending  to  soothe, 
is  in  reality  agitating  him,  while  the  shrewd  and  crafty 
seller  will  most  probably  endeavor  to  withdraw  your 
scrutiny  from  the  defective  ix)int  by  calling  your  atten- 
tion to  his  spirit  or  playfulness.  If  any  of  these 
maneuvers  are  apparent,  be  upon  your  guard.  The 
groggy  horse  inclines  a  little  forward  at  the  knee,  or  it 
is  readily  bent  by  the  least  touch  behind,  he  rests  his 
weight  on  his  toes,  and  when  standing  undisturbed 
brings  his  hind  legs  under  him.  Some  young  horses, 
before  they  had  been  backed,  have  this  deformity  from 
malformation  of  the  knee;  but  if,  in  addition  to  this 
bending  forward,  there  is  any  tremulous  motion  of  the 
limbs,  it  is  a  decided  proof  of  the  existence  of  that 
most  destructive  affection,  navicular  disease.  What- 
ever his  age,  he  should  be  rejected. 

Another  deception  is  effected  by  standing  a  horse 
up  hill ;  the  shoulder  is  made  more  sloping,  and  deal- 
ers, to  give  that  appearance,  desire  the  near  leg  to 
stand  before  the  other. 

Though  the  dealer  is  perfectly  justified  in  these 
little  maneuvers  to  show  off  his  goods  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, more  especially  in  so  fancy  an  article  as  a 
horse,  which  is  no  more  than  is  done  and  allowed  by 
every  tradesman,  the  prudent  purchaser  will  not  please 
his  eye  at  the  expense  of  his  judgment,  but  see  the 
horse  on  level  ground,  and  with  his  feet  placed  even. 

General  Action.  When  brought  out,  do  not  allow 
him  to  be  jockeyed  in  his  paces.  Take  your  stand  on 
one  side  of  the  road,  and  let  him  walk  naturally  and 
cpiietly  by;  then  turn  and  walk  by,  showing  his  other 
side.  Now  stand  behind  and  have  him  walk  off  in 
front  of  you  and  from  you  ;  then  turn  and  walk  toward 
you.  Observe  if  he  goes  freely  and  easily  and  plants 
his  hind  feet  in  the  tracks  of  his  fore  feet.  Next,  have 
him  trotted  by  you,  and  back  and  forth,  watching  his 
action  closely. 

Taking  our  position  in  front  of  the  horse,  we  exam- 
ine his  fore-legs, — that  they  are  in  proper  jMsition; 
that  there  is  no  weakness  in  the  pasterns,  or  enlarge- 
ment of  the  fetlocks ;  and  that  the  feet  are  of  the  same 
size,  and  stand  square  to  the  front. 


724 


HORSE. 


Should  one  of  the  fore-feet  be  much  affected,  it  will 
be  evident  by  the  up-and-down  motion  of  the  head, 
and  the  different  degrees  of  force  with  which  he  puts 
his  feet  to  the  ground.  Horses  that  are  lame  before 
drop  their  heads  when  stepping  on  the  sound  leg,  and 
raise  it  when  the  weight  is  thrown  on  the  lame  leg ; 
but  when  they  are  lame  behind,  the  action  (though 
not  perceptible)  is  reversed;  they  throw  up  their  head 
a  little  when  the  sound  leg  comes  to  the  ground, 
and  depress  it  when  the  lame  leg  propels  the 
body,  and  the  motion  of  the  lame  leg  is  slow,  while 
the  sound  one  is  jerked  quickly  forward  to  sustain 
the  weight. 

When  both  fore-feet  are  equally  tender,  which  is 
not  uncommon  in  groggy  horses,  it  is  more  difficult  to 
judge  of  his  action  ;  it  is  not  uneven,  and  the  limp  is 
not  perceptible,  but  he  steps  short  and  feelingly, 
with  a  general  appearance  of  contraction.  Dishonest 
dealers,  at  fairs  and  auctions,  resort  to  a  scheme  by 
which  groggy  lameness  is  disguised  in  one  leg  by 
making  the  motion  even.  It  is  known  in  various 
parts  by  the  slang  terms  of  diamonding,  beaning,  bal- 
ancing or  wedging.  It  is  performed  by  removing  the 
shoe  of  the  sound  foot,  and  paring  out  the  sole  until 
it  yields  to  the  pressure  of  the  thumb.  The  shoe  is 
then  replaced,  and  a  wedge  of  wood,  a  pebble  or  a 
bean  is  driven  in  between  the  sole  and  the  shoe,  until 
sufficient  pain  is  produced  to  make  the  horse  equally 
lame  on  both  legs.  Although  the  lameness  is  less 
evident,  yet  a  person  accustomed  to  the  action  of 
horses  will  easily  detect  it ;  and  if  the  animal  is 
allowed  to  stand  undisturbed,  it  will  be  evident  that 
something  is  wrong  by  his  repeatedly  shifting  his  legs. 

Another  trick  of  some  dealers  to  conceal  lameness, 
or  to  give  an  appearance  of  energy  to  the  sluggard  or 
worn-out  horse,  is  the  torture  of  the  lash,  termed 
firing.  The  poor  animal,  previously  to  being  shown, 
is  so  barbarously  flagellated  that  under  the  influence 
of  terror  of  the  further  application  of  the  whip,  his 
attention  is  withdrawn  from  the  disease,  he  feels  not 
the  lesser  pain,  but  trots  off  heedless  of  his  lameness, 
or  at  least  showing  it  much  less.  Whenever  there  is 
much  punishment,  or  a  threat  of  it,  while  showing  a 
horse,  be  sure  there  is  something  to  conceal. 

In  his  trot,  if  the  action  is  good,  the  foot  is  boldly 
delivered  with  what  may  be  almost  termed  an  allegro 
movement.  Its  course  is  straightforward  and  down- 
ward, not  dishing  to  either  side ;  the  motion  should 
be  from  the  elbow  as  well  as  the  knee,  the  hind-legs 
gathered  well  under  the  body,  following  with  regularity 
and  precision  ;  the  toes  fairly  raised  from  the  ground, 
and  spread  pretty  accurately  in  the  impress  of  the 
fore-feet ;  if  they  pass  beyond  they  are  likely  to  over- 
reach. In  the  trot,  he  should  go  lightly  with  the  fore- 
feet, but  strike  the  ground  energetically  with  the  hind, 
taking  a  long,  darting  stride. 

Though  the  best  horse  may  stumble,  if  after  trip- 
ping he  springs  out  as  if  he  feared  the  whip  or  spur, 
you  may  justly  suspect  him  of  being  an  old  offender, 
which  will  induce  you  to  look  at  his  knees  and  head. 
Observe  that  he  goes  clear  in  all  his  paces,  and  that 


one  leg  does  not  interfere  with  the  other ;  horses  that 
go  very  near  are  more  likely  to  cut  when  tired. 

The  carriage  of  the  head  and  tail  are  points  to 
which  the  eye  of  a  good  judge  will  be  directed.  If 
the  tail  goes  to  and  fro  when  in  action,  like  the  pen- 
dulum of  a  clock,  it  is  a  good  sign  of  blood  and 
steadiness. 

He  should  now  be  mounted,  and  the  trial  be  re- 
peated on  the  stones  or  hard  road,  or  what  is  prefer- 
able, on  a  rough  and  stony  declivity,  for  there  are 
many  cases  of  slight  lameness  which  do  not  show  on 
soft  ground,  at  a  walking  pace,  or  when  the  horse  is 
unburdened.  If  he  step  away  boldly,  the  toe  in  a 
direct  line  with  the  body,  the  knee  fairly  bent,  and  his 
foot  up  and  planted  firmly  down  again  upon  the 
ground,  fearlessly  and  flat,  without  any  dropping  of 
his  head,  you  may  conclude  him  sound  in  action. 
His  hind-legs,  well  lifted  up  and  tucked  well  under 
him,  should  follow  his  fore-legs  with  regularity ;  and 
if  in  running  him  up  hill  he  goes  without  drag- 
ging his  toe,  you  may  infer  the  same  behind.  In  the 
gallop,  if  he  takes  up  his  legs  quick  and  dashes  in  his 
haunches,  not  bringing  his  hind-legs  after  him,  his 
action  is  good.  During  this  display  of  action,  the  ex- 
aminer will  have  an  opportunity  of  judging  of  the  per- 
fection of  his  wind ;  if  he  does  not  ride  the  animal  him- 
self he  should  stand  close  to  the  horse  at  the  moment 
he  comes  into  the  gallop. 

Geiieral  Health.  We  judge  of  the  general  state  of 
the  animal's  health  by  his  breathing  condition,  the 
brightness  of  his  eye,  the  color  of  the  membrane  lin- 
ing the  lid,  and  that  of  the  membrane  lining  the 
nostril,  which  in  health  is  of  a  pale  pink.  If  it 
is  a  florid  red,  there  is  excitement  of  the  system; 
and  if  it  is  a  pale,  approaching  to  white,  it  is  a  sign  of 
debility.  Each  nostril  should  be  alternately  closed 
by  the  hand  to  ascertain  that  the  air  passages  are  not 
obstructed  by  polypus  or  enlargement  of  the  turbina- 
ted bones. 

Glanders.  If  there  is  any  increased  discharge  from 
the  nostrils,  you  will  probably  be  told  it  proceeds  from 
slight  cold  ;  in  that  case  an  accelerated  pulse  and 
affection  of  the  eyes  are  usually  concomitants ;  never- 
theless, as  a  precautionary  measure,  the  branches  of 
the  under  jaw  should  be  felt  for  enlargement  of  the 
glands;  if,  although  enlarged,  they  are  movable  and 
tender,  it  is  probably  nothing  more  than  a  catarrhal 
affection.  And  here  it  may  be  necessary  to  observe 
that  in  deciding  upon  the  disease  with  which  the  horse 
is  afflicted,  it  is  requisite  to  bear  in  mind  the  age  of 
the  animal.  In  examining  the  head  of  a  young  horse, 
should  the  space  between  the  branches  be  hot,  tumid 
and  tender,  the  membraneofthe  nose  intensely  red,  with 
profuse  discharge  from  both  nostrils,  and  cough  and 
fever  present  itself,  we  may  more  than  suspect  stran- 
gles. Where,  however,  there  is  neither  cough  nor  fever, 
but  one  nostril,  and  that  the  left,  afiected,  the  dis- 
charge lighter  in  color,  and  almost  with  small  circular 
ulcers,  having  abrupt  and  prominent  edges,  there  can 
be  no  second  opinion  on  the  subject. 

But  we  caution  the  inexperienced  examiner  not  to 


HORSE. 


725 


mistake  the  orifice  of  the  nasal  duct,  which  is  situ- 
ated in  the  inner  side,  just  within  the  nostril  on  the 
continuation  of  the  common  skin  of  the  muz- 
zle, and  which  conveys  the  tears  from  the  eye 
into  the  nose,  for  an  ulcer;  and  warn  him,  in  all 
suspicious  cases,  to  be  careful  lie  has  no  chaps  or  sore 
plAces  on  his  head  or  face,  as  this  dreadful  disease  is 
unquestionably  communicable  to  the  human  being. 
As  few  persons  will  buy  a  horse  with  any  symptoms  of 
actual  disease,  however  slight,  if  they  can  help  it,  the 
inquiry  is  better  left  to  a  professional  man  in  case  any 
of  these  symptoms  make  their  appearance  after  pur- 
chase. 

Crest,  Skin,  Teeth  and  Eyes.  His  crest  should 
feel  hard  and  full,  and  firmly  and  closely  attached  to 
his  neck ;  if  it  be  lax,  he  is  out  of  condition.  His 
skin  should  feel  kind  and  look  glossy,  and  the  mus- 
cles of  the  body  feel  hard  and  spongy  to  the  touch. 
In  the  old  horse  the  head  grows  lean  and  fine,  and 
the  features  more  striking  and  blood-like,  the  neck 
fine,  withers  short,  and  the  back  sinks ;  the  lips  ex- 
hibit a  lean  and  shriveled  appearance,  and  the  lower 
lip  hangs  considerably  below  the  upper.  In  youth 
they  are  round  and  plump,  and  meet  together,  and 
the  ridges  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  will  be  found 
prominent.  In  age,  the  middle  of  the  nose  will  some- 
rimes  be  found  indented  by  the  long-continued 
pressure  of  the  nose-band  of  the  head-stall.  In  lift- 
ing his  lip,  if  the  incisor  teeth  shut  close,  even,  and 
perpendicular,  he  is  young.  As  he  grows  older,  they 
project  forward  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  the  un- 
der and  upper  edges  do  not  meet  with  evenness,  the 
upper  projecring  over  the  under  teeth.  The  longer 
his  teeth  are,  the  gums  being  dry  and  shrunk  from 
them,  the  more  advanced  he  is  in  age.  Examine 
the  teeth  and  see  that  they  are  sound,  strongly  set 
and  even. 

As  to  the  age,  this  is  readily  told  by  the  teeth  till 
seven  years  old,  unless  they  are  "bishoped."  It  is 
usual  for  jockeys  to  call  a  horse  eight  when  he  is  all 
the  way  from  ten  to  twenty,  but  an  adept  can  give  a 
pretty  shrewd  guess  as  to  this,  for  after  ten  years  old 
the  eyes  begin  to  sink,  gray  hairs  come  into  the  head 
and  there  is  a  want  of  youthful  look  and  vivacity. 

If  there  are  any  marks  of  extraordinary  wear  in  the 
central  teeth  there  is  reason  to  suspect  crib-biting, 
and  in  old  cribbers  the  outer  edge  of  the  front  teeth 
are  worn  away,  and  little  pieces  are  sometimes  broken 
off  by  the  attrition  against  the  manger;  if  such  is  the 
case,  look  to  the  neck  for  marks  of  the  "crib-biting 
strap. 

Now  look  at  his  eyes  and  make  a  motion  with  your 
hand  toward  them,  as  if  you  intended  to  strike.  If 
he  winks  quickly,  or  draws  the  head  back,  the  vision 
maybe  depended  on  generally  as  good,  and  no  blind- 
ness in  him.  The  eyes  should  be  moderately  ])rom- 
inent.  Sunken  eyes  are  apt  to  get  blind  as  the  horse 
grows  old,  and  often  characterize  a  vicious  temper. 

Thick  Wind,  Roaring,  etc.  The  thick-winded 
horse  breathes  with  difficulty,  and  is  soon  distressed. 
The  flanks  heave  much  and  rapidly '  there  is  some 


little  noise,  but  the  laborious  heaving  of  the  flank  is 
the  principal  indication.  A  horse  unused  to  exer- 
cise, or  if  fat,  or  exercised  on  a  full  stomach,  will 
show  symptoms  of  thick  wind  ;  and  it  has  been  ob- 
served of  great  feeders,  who  never  breathe  freely 
until  they  have  gone  a  mile  or  two,  or  begin  to  sweat, 
that  they  are  able  to  do  more  work  than  others  that 
do  more  labor  under  the  same  difficulty. 

Avoid  all  defects  of  wind,  and  be  sure  the  defect 
has  not  been  temporarily  covered  up.  A  whistler  or 
roarer  may  exhibit  no  indications  of  his  infimiity  at  a 
slow  pace,  or  up  to  a  certain  speed.  Let  him  go 
beyond  that  and  it  is  readily  apparent.  Broken  wind 
is  an  incurable  infirmity.  A  horse  may  make  more  or 
less  noise  and  not  have  broken  wind,  yet  such  indica- 
tions should  be  regarded  with  suspicion.  He  then 
should  be  tried  by  a  brushing  gallop. 

The  only  other  simple  and  pracrical  plan  to  get  at 
the  state  of  the  breathing  is  the  common  way  of 
making  the  horse  cough,  which,  if  gross  and  accom- 
panied by  a  short  groan,  is  conclusive,  and  the  char- 
acteristic grunt  when  alarmed  is  not  to  be  misunder- 
stood. But  the  cough  is  not  always  marked,  and 
therefore,  as  a  test,  infallible.  If,  then, there  is  any  cause 
for  doubt  and  suspicion,  it  is  better  to  call  in  a  profes- 
sional n.an,  more  especially  as  the  slighter  affections 
are  apt  suddenly  to  terminate  in  the  greater,  without 
much  warning,  in  a  very  short  time. 

Look  for  External  Blemishes.  We  now  proceed  to 
search  for  blemishes  and  those  indications  of  unsound- 
ness, which  are  apparent  to  external  examination, 
bearing  in  mind  any  symptoms  or  suspicious  appear- 
ances in  his  action,  that  may  lead  us  to  suspect  par- 
ticular parts,  which  should  then  be  subjected  to  the 
severest  scrutiny.  Any  scars  about  the  head  should 
direct  attention  to  the  knees,  or  they  may  lead  one 
to  suspect  there  may  have  been  an  attack  of  megrims 
or  staggers. 

The  neck  should  be  searched  to  ascertain  that  both 
jugular  veins  are  perfect,  which  is  discovered  by  press- 
ing on  the  lower  part  of  the  neck,  with  sufficient  force 
to  stop  the  return  of  blood  from  the  head ;  if  the  vein 
be  perfect  it  will  fill  and  swell  from  that  point  upward 
toward  the  head.  The  loss  of  one  of  them,  if  recent, 
predisposes  the  horse  to  staggers  or  ajMplexy,  and 
he  cannot  be  turned  out  to  grass  or  straw  yard  with- 
out risk.  The  withers  should  be  examined  for  bruises 
from  the  saddle,  as  he  is  unserviceable  as  long  as  heat 
or  swelling  continues. 

The  slightest  tendency  to  sore  back  makes  a  horse 
unserviceable  for  many  months,  and  not  unfrequently 
causes  him  to  rear  and  plunge  on  mounting.  The 
shoulders  should  be  examined  for  tumors.  If  there 
are  any  marks  of  setons  or  blisters  about  the  jxjints, 
it  is  probable  he  has  been  treated  for  shoulder  lame- 
ness, and  the  attention  of  the  examiner  will  be 
directed  to  the  foot,  which,  r.inety-nine  times  out  of  a 
hundred,  is  the  seat  of  lameness  before.  If  that  is 
found  round  and  strong,  with  the  heels  high,  we  may 
suspect  navicular  disease. 

The  chest  and  breast  should  also  be  searched  for 


726 


HORSE. 


marks  of  rowels,  setons  and  blisters,  for  the  remains 
of  them  render  it  probable  that  the  horse  has  been 
under  treatment  for  inflamed  lungs  or  chest  affections, 
and  should  in  prudence  direct  the  purchaser  to  ascer- 
tain by  a  smart  gallop  whether  the  mischief  is  of  a 
permanent  nature,  more  especially  if  the  horse  is  nar- 
now-chested. 

Examination  of  the  Legs.  Look  at  his  fore  legs  and 
notice  if  he  has  strong  knee  joints,  and  that  they  are 
not  sprung.  Examine  the  hind  legs  closely  above 
and  below  the  hocks  for  any  swellings,  and  especially 
for  curbs  and  spavins.  Now  look  at  all  the  pastern 
joints  and  see  if  clear  of  cuts  from  interfering,  or  if 
there  are  any  scars  on  them  in  consequence  of 
this.  The  pastern  should  be  rather  short  for  a  car- 
riage-horse, and  not  much  sloping.  If  the  latter  are 
long  and  elastic,  they  are  apt  to  give  out  at  a  hard 
pull.  In  a  race-horse  such  pasterns  are  less  objec- 
tionable. In  a  heavy  draft  animal  they  are  un- 
pardonable. 

In  inspecting  tlie  leg,  the  eye  alone  should  not  be 
trusted,  particularly  in  hairy-legged  horses ;  but  after 
minutely  comparing  the  appearance  of  the  two  limbs, 
the  hand  should  be  deliberately  passed  down  both 
shanks  before  and  behind ;  any  difference,  before  or 
behind,  ix)ints  to  a  deviation  from  health. 

In  the  sound,  flat  limb  the  tendon  is  well  defined, 
perfectly  distinct,  and  has  a  hard,  tense  feel  that  re- 
sembles the  touch  of  a  cord  tightly  strung.  If  the 
back  sinews  feel  thick,  the  flexor  tendons  and  their 
sheaths  swelled  and  rounded,  leaving  no  distinctive 
marks,  as  it  were,  between  the  one  and  the  other,  but 
all  swelled  into  one  mass  with  the  bone,  great  mis- 
chief has  at  some  time  happened;  either  some  of  the 
ligaments  have  been  ruptured,  or  there  has  been  in- 
flammation, eff"usion  and  adhesion  of  the  vaginal 
bursae  or  synovial  sheaths  of  the  flexor  tendons;  or 
such  relaxation  has  taken  place  from  strain  and  sub- 
sequent inflammation  as  will  always  keep  him  weak. 
When  the  injury  is  recent,  it  is  accompanied  with 
more  or  less  swelling,  heat  and  lameness;  by  time 
and  treatment  the  first  are  removed,  but  the  swelling 
remains,  and  the  thickening  of  the  tendons  shows  the 
mischief  that  has  been  done.  Whenever  there  is 
manifest  alteration  of  structure  here,  and  yet  the 
animal  is  apparently  sound  in  action,  the  purchaser 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  soundness  is  often  the 
effect  of  rest,  and  should  the  animal  be  again  put  to 
work  he  will  become  lame.  And  bear  in  mind  in 
such  case  you  cannot  return  him,  for  no  man  in  his 
senses  would  give  a  special  warranty  against  it. 

Every  excrescence  on  the  cannon  bone,  in  horse- 
man's language  is  termed  a  splint.  The  true  splint 
is  in  fact  a  local  conversion  into  bone  of  a  part  of  the 
temporary  cartilage  connecting  together  the  large 
and  small  metacarpal  bones.  The  inflammation  is 
set  up  by  concussion  or  strain.  Horses  are  lame 
from  them  while  there  is  inflammation  in  the  cartil- 
age. But  when  the  tumor  is  formed,  the  inflam- 
mation has  subsided,  and  the  periosteum  has 
accommodated  itself  to  the  enlargement,  the  horse  is 


no  longer  lame,  nor  more  likely  to  become  lame  from 
that  splint  than  one  without;  the  same  causes  that 
produced  the  first  may  produce  a  second. 

The  splint,  if  so  large  as  to  interfere  with  action, 
rendering  the  horse  liable  to  strike,  is  objectionable, 
or  so  near  the  knee  or  ligaments  as  to  interfere  with 
their  freedom  of  action;  otherwise  they  are  of  vfery 
little  consequence  beyond  the  blemish  destroying  the 
line  of  beauty.  The  worst  splints  are  those  not  dis- 
cernible but  by  the  lameness  they  produce. 

Any  marks  of  firing  or  blistering  should  make  the 
purchaser  cautious,  and  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
cause  of  the  treatment ;  after  blistering,  the  hair  is 
sometimes  a  shade  different  in  color,  and  stares  a 
little,  is  shorter  and  bristly,  and  wants  the  natural 
gloss. 

The  fetlock  joint  from  being  the  principal  seat  of 
motion  below  the  knee,  and  from  its  complicated 
structure,  is  particulaily  subject  to  injuries.  The  fet- 
lock should  be  subjected  to  the  strictest  examination 
for  enlargements,  which  are  best  ascertained  by  care- 
fully comparing  them  with  each  other,  as  any  differ- 
ence in  size  is  indicative  of  strained  or  even  ruptured 
ligaments,  and  consequently  permanent  weakness  of 
that  important  part.  If  the  injury  is  recent,  there 
probably  will  be  heat,  and  pain  on  pressure ;  and  any 
signs  of  blistering  or  other  treatment,  though  no  en- 
largement or  lameness  is  apparent,  should  induce  the 
buyer  to  view  the  animal  with  the  utmost  suspicion. 

If  there  are  any  sore  or  callous  places  about  the 
fetlocks  or  pasterns,  he  is  a  cutter,  and  possibly  the 
marks  of  the  foot  may  be  visible.  If  there  is  no  mal- 
formation to  account  for  it,  it  may  have  been  done 
when  fatigued  or  it  may  have  arisen  from  improper 
shoeing  ;  his  feet  should  then  be  examined. 

If  an  old  offense,  he  may  probably  have  a  peculiar 
shoe,  rather  thicker  and  narrower  in  the  web  on  the 
inside  than  the  outside,  and  nailed  only  on  the  out- 
side of  the  foot  and  around  the  toe ;  or  the  opposite 
shoe  is  found  filed  away  or  beveled  off",  with  the  hoof 
projecting  a  little  over  the  shoe.  Where  the  feet, 
though  well  formed,  are  placed  closer  than  desirable 
in  narrow-chested  horses,  and  therefore  apt  to  cut, 
particularly  when  tired,  we  sometimes  find  a  shoe  is 
adopted  thinner  on  the  inside  than  the  outside. 

At  other  times  various  ingenious  devices,  calcu- 
lated rather  to  increase  than  remedy  the  evil,  Have 
been  resorted  to,  such  as  putting  on  shoes  narrower 
on  the  inside,  and  set  within  the  crust,  and  the  wall 
of  the  quarters  reduced  in  thickness  by  the  rasp.  If 
none  of  these  schemes  have  been  resorted  to,  to  ob- 
viate the  defect,  the  horn  of  the  opjxisite  foot  will 
sometimes  be  found  polished  by  the  attrition;  for  it  is 
not  the  shoe  that  cuts  once  in  a  hundred  times,  but 
the  hoof  In  horses  that  interfere,  we  generally  find 
the  inside  quarter  lower  than  the  outer,  or  the  toes 
turned  outwards,  the  fault  being  in  the  leg  that  re- 
ceives the  mischief  while  sustaining  the  weight,  not 
in  the  foot  that  gives  the  blow.  The  tired  horse 
throws  his  legs  about,  and  frequei\tly  cuts  himself; 
and  it  is  the  fault  of  most  young,  uneducated  horses, 


HORSE. 


727 


especially  if  they  have  been  backed  or  inconsiderately 
worked  too  early. 

The  pastern  is  the  seat  of  a  bony  tumor  termed  ring- 
bone. It  is  the  result  of  inflammation  and  partial 
conversion  into  bone  of  that  portion  of  the  cartilages 
of  the  foot  which  rise  above  and  nearly  encircle  the 
coronet.  These  cartilages,  extending  backward  con- 
siderably beyond  the  coffin-bone,  form  the  elastic 
frame  of  the  posterior  parts  of  the  foot ;  they  here 
take  on  the  name  of  the  lateral  cartilages.  When 
once  ossified,  inflammation  is  set  up  in  this  part; 
from  its  tendency  to  spread  around  the  pastern  joint, 
it  has  taken  its  name  of  ring-bone.  Ujxin  the  in- 
tegrity of  these  parts  depend  the  elasticity  and  con- 
sequent usefulness  of  the  foot.  However  triflng  the 
apparent  alteration  of  structure,  it  is  a  serious  detrac- 
tion from  the  efficiency  of  a  hack;  though  on  soft 
ground,  at  a  slow  pace,  the  draft  horse  will  work  ap- 
parently sound. 

The  feet  are  often  passed  over,  but  a  thorough 
examination  of  these  is  of  the  utmost  imixsrtance. 
They  should  be  reasonably  large,  the  hoofs  clear  and 
tough,  free  from  cracks,  not  shelly,  and  well  set  up  at 
the  heels;  otherwise  they  will  soon  wear  down  on 
pavements  or  hard  roads,  and  the  horse  become 
foot-sore.  If  always  to  be  kept  in  the  country  to  work 
on  a  farm  or  dirt  roads,  low  heels  are  not  so  objection- 
able ;  lastly,  regard  the  inside  of  the  hoofs  and  see 
that  they  are  free  from  corns,  and  that  there  is  a  good- 
sized  frog  to  soften  the  jar  to  the  leg  when  the  foot 
stamps  on  the  ground. 

The  best  way  of  judging  whether  there  is  any  mal- 
formation of  the  feet,  either  natural  or  the  result  of 
disease,  is  to  front  the  horse  and  compare  the  two  feet 
together.  Small  feet  are  objectionable,  and  so  a  very 
large  foot  that  is  disproixjrtionate  to  his  size  is  to  be 
avoided. 

Its  wall  should  be  round,  smooth,  level  and  of  a 
shining  dark  color ;  full  in  front,  of  a  proper  obliquity, 
and  free  from  ribs  or  seams,  and  perfectly  cool.  Its 
proper  obliquity  ought  to  be  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  plane  of  the  shoe.  If  the  angle  is  materially  less, 
the  sole  is  flat,  or  perhaps  convex ;  if  the  angle  ex- 
ceeds it,  the  foot  is  contracted. 

When  the  outward  line  or  profile  of  the  hoof  is 
irregular,  it  marks  what  is  called  a  "shelly  foot."  This 
is  decidedly  bad.  If  there  are  any  protuberances  or 
rings  around  it,  they  indicate  that  the  feet  Jiave  been 
affected  with  fever  to  such  a  degree  as  to  produce  an 
unequal  growth  of  horn,  which  fretjuently  leaves  some 
injurious  consequences  in  the  internal  part  of  the 
hoof,  such  as  a  dejwsition  of  lymj^h  between  the  horny 
and  cartilaginous  processes,  which  connect  the  foot 
and  hoof  together.  If  there  is  any  depression  or  hol- 
low it  betrays  separation  of  the  foot  from  the  hoof, 
and  sinking  of  the  coffin  bone,  and  the  sole  will  be 
found  bulging. 

No  man  should  trust  to  a  superficial  judgment  of 
the  foot,  for  though  he  may  see  the  form  and  shape 
of  the  foot  to  be  promising,  yet  there  are  other  things 
to  be  considered.     It  may  be  well   formed,  yet  thin 


and  weak;  and  those  feet,  externally  the  most  perfect, 
are  sometimes  contracted  internally,  and  are  liable  to 
the  insidious  affection  termed  navicular,  or  joint  cap- 
sular disease.  Contraction  is  a  serious  defect ;  it  is 
apparent  and  general,  or  occult  (hidden)  and  partial. 
But,  though  a  contracted  foot  is  often  an  indication 
of  past  disease,  and  there  is  a  diminution  of  elasticity, 
it  by  no  means  follows  that  it  is  an  unsoundness,  or 
incapacitates  a  horse  from  work.  With  care  such 
feet  will  work  soundly  to  the  end  of  their  lives ;  for 
this  change  in  shape  has  been  effected  by  gradual  and 
slow  absorption  and  deposit;  so  that  nature  has  had 
time  to  adapt  the  internal  parts  and  accommodate 
itself  to  the  change,  for  elongation  of  the  foot  has 
taken  place.  When  such  feet  feel  hotter  than  ordin- 
ary, distrust  should  be  awakened,  more  especially  if 
there  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  temperature 
of  one  and  the  other.  If  there  is  indisputable  point- 
ing, then  the  horse  is  unsound. 

The  inner  quarter  hoof  must  be  most  minutely 
inspected  for  sand-crack;  and  it  is  not  always  easy, 
without  minute  scrutiny,  to  detect  a  sand-crack, 
where  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  conceal  it.  A 
month's  run  in  marshy  ground  will  often  close  it  up, 
and  low  dealers,  particularly  at  fairs  and  markets, 
and  others  who  gain  a  livelihood  by  dealing  in 
"  screws,"  have  a  knack  of  neatly  covering  the  crack 
with  pitch,  and  the  foot  oiled,  so  as  adroitly  to  conceal 
the  crack.  Any  oily  appearance  about  the  hoof  should 
excite  suspicion,  and  any  fissure  at  all  resembling 
sand-crack  should  cause  the  horse  to  be  peremptorily 
rejected.  Cracks  indicate  a  dry  and  brittle  hoof. 
The  heels  should  be  examined  for  any  cracks,  or  ap- 
pearance of  heat  and  tenderness,  as  they  are  exceed- 
ingly troublesome  to  cure. 

The  frog,  in  its  healthy  state,  must  be  firm  yet 
pliable  and  elastic.  If  there  is  any  smell,  or  if  on 
squeezing  the  frog  matter  exudes,  there  is  a  thrush. 
By  many  people  thrushes  are  considered  of  little  im- 
jx)rtance ;  but  the  pus  proves  there  must  have  been 
inflammation;  and  knowing  that  when  a  horse  with 
a  thrush  steps  on  a  stone,  he  frequently  drops  with 
the  pain  as  if  he  was  shot,  to  the  peril  of  his  rider 
and  the  ruin  of  his  knees,  it  must  be  adihitted  they 
are  serious  objections  in  a  saddle-horse.  If  it  can  be 
ascertained  that  they  are  not  of  long  standing,  or  that 
the  horse  has  been  placed  in  a  situation  so  as  to  favor 
their  approach,  such  as  confinement  in  a  hot,  moist 
litter,  they  are  of  no  more  consequence  than  so  much 
diminution  in  his  price  will  cover  the  expense  of  keep 
and  attendance  while  healing;  but  when  a  thrush  ac- 
companies a  foot  smaller  than  usual,  the  heels  wind 
in,  and  the  frog  is  rotten,  let  him  go  as  he  will,  he  will 
not  long  remain  sound. 

The  sole  of  the  foot  should  be  subject  to  close 
examination.  In  its  healthy  and  natural  state  it  is 
inclined  to  be  concave;  but  if  in  connection  with  high 
heels  an  extraordmary  concavity  is  present,  it  is  a 
sign  of  internal  contraction ;  if  the  sole  is  morbidly 
thick,  and  does  not  give  way  during  great  exertion, 
the  elasticity  of  the  foot  must  be  diminished.     If  the 


728 


HORSE. 


sole  is  less  concave  than  natural,  or  approaching  to 
flat,  the  foot  is  weak. 

If  the  foot  appears  to  have  been  cut  unusually  deep 
at  the  angles  where  the  shoe  meets  the  inside  heel,  or 
if  there  is  any  peculiarity  of  shoeing  at  that  part,  the 
examiner  may  infer  that  all  is  not  right,  and  that  he 
has  corns ;  and  if  he  waits  for  the  proof,  send  for  the 
farrier  to  remove  the  shoe.  The  stifle  is  very  rarely 
diseased,  but  it  should  be  examined  for  enlargement  or 
any  marks  of  firing  or  blistering  ;  and  the  groin  should 
not  be  overlooked  for  rupture. 

The  hock  is  one  of  the  most  important  joints  in  the 
animal  machine,  and  should  always  undergo  a  most 
rigid  examination  previous  to  purchase,  as  from  its 
complicated  structure,  and  the  work  it  has  to  perform, 
it  is  the  seat  of  lameness  behind  in  nine  cases  out  of 
ten. 

When  standing  behind  the  horse,  if  one  of  the 
hocks  is  diseased,  the  observer  will  perceive  the  bone 
does  not  incline  gradually,  as  in  the  sound  limb,  but 
there  is  an  abrupt  prominence.  Though  to  the 
unpracticed  eye  this  is  not  always  perceptible  on  com- 
paring them,  yet  by  passing  the  hand  down  the  inside 
of  both  hocks  this  abruptness  will  be  felt.  If  there  is 
any  tenderness  or  heat  on  pressure,  or  the  marks  of 
recent  cutting  on  the  inside  of  the  fetlock,  or  unequal 
wear  of  the  shoes,  'especially  at  the  toe,  you  may  sus- 
pect spavin.  Sometimes  both  hocks  present  an 
enlarged  appearance,  though  there  is  neither  heat, 
pain  nor  lameness  (for  hock  lameness  is  frequently 
intermittent);  such  hocks  should  always  be  looked 
uiK)n  with  suspicion;  they  are,  in  fact,  unsound;  for 
though  the  animal  may,  with  natural  malformation  or 
exosteal  growth,  the  result  of  disease,  discharge  his 
usual  functions  through  life  without  a  return  of  lame- 
ness in  careful  hands,  yet  the  probability  is  he  will- 
fail  if  called  ujxin  for  any  unusual  exertion,  and  that 
one  day's  extra  work  will  ruin  him  forever.  In  this 
case  the  examiner  must  be  guided  by  circumstances; 
if  the  horse  has  e.Kcellencies  which  counterbalance 
the  defect,  the  price  is  correspondingly  low,  and  if  the 
work  required  is  but  moderate,  he  may  be  serviceable 
for  many  a  year. 

Curb.  Curb  is  a  longitudinal  swelling  at  the  back 
of  the  hind  leg,  three  or  four  inches  below  the  hock, 
seen  best  from  the  horse's  side ;  the  enlargement  is 
the  result  of  a  sudden  strain  of  the  annular  ligaments, 
or  inflammation  of  the  sheaths  of  the  tendon.  It  is 
attended  with  a  good  deal  of  lameness  and  swelling 
at  first,  but  when  this  has  subsided,  and  if  any  time 
has  elapsed  without  a  recurrence  of  the  lameness,  it 
is  of  no  more  consequence  than  the  unsightly  blemish; 
but  it  should  be  remembered  that  curby  hocks  are 
liable  to  spavin. 

Thoroughpin  is  situated  above  the  hock  joint,  be- 
tween the  flexors  of  the  hock  and  foot,  projecting  on 
each  side;  it  is  of  the  same  nature  as  wind-galls, 
being  an  enlarged  mucous  capsule,  and  is  indicative  of 
severe  work  or  over-exertion. 

Bog  or  Blood  Spavin,  is  a  swelling  situated  in 
front  of  the  hock,  towards  the  middle  of  the  joint;  it 


is  also  an  enlarged  mucous  capsule,  but  deeper  seated, 
over  which  one  of  the  subcutaneous  veins  passing, 
the  blood  in  which  becoming  obstructed  in  the  return, 
increases  the  size  of  the  tumor. 

Back.  If  he  backs  with  difficulty,  his  hind  quarteis 
swaying  from  side  to  side,  and  when  compelled  to 
retrograde  suddenly  he  appears  as  if  about  to  fall,  he 
has  received  some  injury.  Some  horses  cannot  be 
irade  to  back,  but  when  urged,  rear  on  their  hind 
legs.  His  loins  should  be  searched  for  marks  of 
setons,  or  blisters.  Among  stable-men  it  is  termed 
"chinked  in  the  chine,"  or  rigged  in  the  hock. 

If  the  tail  lifts  hard  and  stiff,  it  is  usually  an  evi- 
dence of  a  strong  back  and  quarters.  If  it  lifts  quite 
limber  and  easily,  the  reverse  is  apt  to  be  the  case. 

Examination  of  the  Eyes.  The  horse  should  now 
be  returned  to  the  stable  for  the  purjx)se  of  examining' 
his  eyes,  the  most  favorable  position  for  which  is 
about  half  a  foot  within  the  stable  door.  There 
should  be  no  back  or  side  lights,  or  the  rays,  falling 
between  the  examiner  and  the  animal,  will  prevent 
him  seeing  distinctly.  The  head  should  be  so  placed 
that  a  moderate  light  should  fall  on  the  eye  of  the 
horse,  and  the  quantity  of  light  can  be  easily  regulated 
by  bringing  the  horse's  head  more  or  less  forward, 
until  it  is  placed  in  the  most  favorable  direction  for 
observation. 

Though  every  horseman  can  detect  absolute  blind- 
ness, yet  the  eye  of  the  horse  is  susceptible  of  so 
many  diseases,  in  which  defective  vision  or  partial 
blindness  exists  in  such  a  form,  long  before  the  sight 
is  lost,  that  it  requires  not  only  more  observation  than 
most  people  imagine,  but  a  person  unacquainted  with 
its  anatomical  structure,  and  the  different  appearances 
it  assumes,  cannot  perceive  it  at  all.  There  are  cer- 
tain forms  of  the  eye,  and  structural  peculiarities,  that 
show  a  constitutional  pre-disjxjsition  to  disease;  thus, 
small,  sleepy  eyes,  of  a  bluish-grey  color,  or  when 
they  have  a  flat,  retracted  and  sunken  appearance,  or 
those  of  a  longish,  oval  figure,  are  predisposed  to 
ophthalmia;  or  when  the  eyes  appear  full,  with  a  fleshy 
circle  around  them.  These  are  all  symptoms  of  badness 
of  eye,  and  are  the  forerunners  of  blindness,  particu- 
larly in  the  heads  of  coarse  and  fleshy  horses,  with 
heavy  countenances,  who  usually  go  blind  with  cata- 
racts at  seven  years  old. 

Slight  thickenings  of  the  lid  or  puckering  toward 
the  inner  comer  of  the  eye,  a  difference  in  size,  a 
cloudiness  or  dullness  of  the  iris,  are  several  indica- 
tions of  disease  that  a  purchaser  should  beware  of 

In  examining  the  eyes,  both  must  have  an  equal 
degree  of  light ;  if  any  difference  is  apparent  between 
them,  one  must  be  diseased.  The  cornea,  or  trans- 
parent part  of  the  eye,  should  be  perfectly  clear. 

Specks  are  best  detected  by  standing  at  the 
shoulder;  if  one  is  evident,  and  it  can  be  clearly 
proved  to  be  no  more  than  the  effect  of  accident,  no 
importance  need  be  placed  on  it.  But  it  is  im[X)s- 
sible  to  ascertain  this;  and  therefore  the  safest  course 
is  to  assume  that  natural  irritability  and  consequent 
inflammation  of  the  eye  is  the  cause. 


ir. 

o 

X 
H 


O 


73° 


HORSE. 


If  there  is  an  excess  of  tears,  it  denotes  debility, 
and  should  occasion  a  more  than  ordinary  scrutiny; 
in  fact,  all  horses  with  weeping,  dull,  cloudy  eyes, 
should  be  rejected  as  unsound. 

It  may  be  remarked,  as  a  general  rule,  that  all  dis- 
eases of  the  eye  are  incurable.  Have  nothing  to  do 
with  a  horse  when  the  slightest  trace  of  disease  of  the 
eye  is  visible,  as  it  is  imjxsssible,  from  a  super- 
ficial examination,  to  distinguish  between  simple 
ophthalmia  and  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva,  the 
cause  of  which  has  been  a  blow,  or  the  introduction 
of  some  irritating  matter,  such  as  a  piece  of  dirt  or 
hay-seed,  which  is  curable  by  simple  means,  and  the 
specific  ophthalmia,  as  spontaneous  affection,  which 
ultimately  terminates  in  cataract  and  blindness. 

Viewed  in  front,  the  depths  of  the  eye  should  be 
looked  into ;  then  sidewise,  which  will  assist  in  ascer- 
taining the  clearness  and  absence  of  specks  on  or 
within  its  surface. 

The  iris  varies  very  little  in  color  in  the  horse, 
though  it  bears  some  analogy  to  the  color  of  the  skin. 
It  is  rarely  lighter  than  a  hazel,  or  darker  than  a 
brown,  except  in  milk-white,  cream-colored  or  pied 
horses,  when  it  is  white,  and  they  are  termed  wall- 
eyed. If  it  is  a  pale,  variegated,  cinnamon  color,  it  is 
good. 

It  is  important  that  the  oval  shape  of  the  pupil  be 
perfect,  for  if  any  irregularity  or  uneveness  is  per- 
ceived, it  is  a  symptom  that  the  organ  has  received 
partial  injury.  In  looking  into  the  depth  of  the  eye 
through  the  pupil,  in  a  strong  light,  it  should  exhibit 
a  lively  bluishness ;  in  a  moderate  light,  it  should  be 
perfectly  transparent;  if  milky  or  turbid,  it  is  the 
remains  of  former  inflammation,  which  will  probably 
recur. 

In  bringing  the  horse  out  of  the  stable  to  the  light, 
if  the  pupil  is  large  it  is  a  bad  sign ;  by  alternately 
shading  and  admitting  light,  if  it  enlarges  and  lessens 
under  its  stimulus,  it  is  an  infallible  sign  the  eye  is 
good.  But  if  the  retina  is  unmovable,  the  pupil  larger 
than  natural,  and  of  one  invariable  size  when  shaded 
or  exposed  to  intense  light,  though  no  disorganization 
is  apparent,  the  eye  appearing  bright,  of  a  peculiar 
glossy  aspect  and  of  a  greenish  color,  the  animal  is 
blind  from  the  disease  termed  "  glass-eye  " — a  palsy 
of  the  optic  nerve. 

A  decided  cataract,  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline 
lens,  or  its  capsule,  is  easily  detected ;  but  when  very 
small  they  may  escape  observation.  It  appears  as  a 
cloudy  or  pearly-white  substance  within  the  pupil 
towards  the  bottom  of  the  eye.  If  the  pupil  be  round 
instead  of  a  flat  oval,  it  is  an  indication  of  cataract ; 
when  there  is  the  slightest  deep-seated  cloudiness,  the 
eye  should  be  condemned  ;  but  if  there  is  any  white 
object  before  it,  such  as  a  white  hat,  neckcloth,  waist- 
coat, or  wall,  the  reflection  on  the  cornea  produces  a 
mark  having  so  much  the  appearance  of  a  cataract  as 
to  have  misled  many  an  experienced  observer.  There- 
fore, before  deciding,  hold  the  crown  of  a  black  hat 
against  the  eye  and  observe  at  the  same  time  if  the 
mark  disappears,  which  it  will,  if  it  is  only  a  reflection. 


The  Horse  Bought.  If  your  examination  has 
proved  satisfactory  and  you  decide  on  purchasing, 
before  you  part  with  your  money  learn  something  of 
the  seller.  For,  should  your  bargain  not  turn  out  as 
you  anticipate,  upon  further  acquaintance,  trial,  and 
second  examination,  you  will  know  what  chance  of 
remedy  you  have  against  the  vendor. 

The  horse,  if  returned,  must  of  course  be  in  the 
same  condition  in  which  he  was  received,  except  so 
far  as  the  disease  for  which  he  is  returned  may  have 
progressed  in  the  meantime.  It  is  advisable  to  inquire 
of  the  seller  how  he  has  been  accustomed  to  diet  and 
clothe  the  animal;  whether  his  feet  were  stopped; 
and  the  same  treatment  should  be  pursued  till  his 
soundness  is  ascertained. 

Beware  of  putting  a  saddle  on  a  new  horse  that 
does  not  fit  him;  while  the  question  of  soundness  is 
still  doubtful,  it  is  far  better  to  use  the  saddle  he  has 
been  accustomed  to.  If  his  back  becomes  galled 
while  trying  him,  which  is  not  an  unusual  occurrence, 
the  dealer  will  object  to  taking  him  back  unless  full 
compensation  is  made— and  reasonably  so,  for  he  is 
unfitted  for  sale  or  for  work  until  it  has  healed,  which 
is  not  to  be  effected  in  a  day ;  and  it  is  also  a  point 
for  calculation,  whether  he  may  not  chance  to  fall 
sick  while  standing  in  high  condition  in  the  stable ; 
in  which  case  the  dealer  would  be  subjected  to  heavy 
loss.  It  is  therefore  not  prudent  to  remove  his  shoes, 
or  in  fact  to  do  anything  with  the  animal  which  may 
cause  doubt  or  cavil,  until  you  have  finally  decided 
upon  keeping  him. 

Guaranty.  When  a  horse  is  purchased  with  the 
conditions  that  he  is  warranted  sound,  free  from  vice, 
or  quiet  to  ride  and  drive,  and  of  certain  age,  the 
warranty  must  either  be  in  writing  or  given  in  the 
presence  of  a  third  person.  To  be  on  the  safe  side 
and  to  save  future  litigation,  have  a  plainly  written 
guaranty  given  you.  The  following  is  a  simple  form 
of  warranty : 

$75.00.  Chicago,  June  i,  1882. 

Received  of  John  Chapman  seventy-five  dollars,  for  a  bay  gelding, 
by  Lance,  warranted  five  years  old,  free  from  vice,  sound,  and  quiet  to  ride 
and  drive.  T.  D,  TRENOR. 

It  is  important  to  observe  that  the  age,  freedom 
from  vice,  quietness  to  ride  and  drive  should  be  men- 
tioned, because  warranty  as  to  soundness  alone  does 
not  include  these.  Many  disputes  have  arisen  as  to 
what  is  legal  soundness  or  unsoundness.  A  horse  is 
considered  sound  in  which  there  is  no  disease  nor  any 
alteration  of  structure  which  impairs  his  natural  use- 
fulness, and  he  is  unsound  if  he  labors  under  any  dis- 
ease, or  had  any  accident  that  has  impaired  his 
natural  usefulness  by  an  alteration  of  the  structure  of 
any  part  of  his  body.  The  term  unsoundness  does 
not  apply  to  any  original  defect  in  the  temper  of  the 
horse,  or  any  deficiency  in  the  strength  or  power  of  the 
animal.  The  principal  circumstances  which  consti- 
tute unsoundness,  besides  the  great  number  of  actual 
diseases,  are  broken  knees,  which  may  indicate  a 
stumbler,  though  not  always ;  for  any  horse  may  meet 
with  an  accident,  and  the  knee  may  now  be  quite  well, 
though  it  requires  great  judgment  to  distinguish  in 


HORSE. 


73r 


this  case.  Contraction  of  the  foot  is  sometimes,  but 
not  always,  unsoundness;  for  it  is  occasionally  natural 
and  not  a  fault. 

The  following  defects  are  considered  unsoundness  : 
Lameness,  through  any  cause;  pumiced  foot;  sand- 
crack;  spavin;  splint;  thickening  of  the  back  sinews 
of  the  leg ;  thrush  ;  ossification  of  the  cartilages  of  the 
foot ;  defects  or  diseases  of  the  eyes  ;  coughs  ;  roaring ; 
broken  wind  or  any  defect  of  the  lungs  ;  quidding  or 
imperfect  mastication;  crib-biting;  biting;  kicking. 
Corns  are  considered  as  constituting  unsoundness,  but 
they  must  be  discovered  within  a  short  time,  say  a 
few  days  of  the  purchase ;  curbs  constitute  unsound- 
ness ;  founder  is  unsoundness  whether  it  produces 
lameness  or  not ;  quittor  may  render  the  horse  per- 
manently unsound  ;  ring-bones  and  side-bones  con- 
stitute unsoundness ;  string-halt;  breaking  down,  even 
though  the  horse  has  recovered  so  as  not  to  go  lame  ; 
farcy  and  glanders  ;  grease  and  mange ;  megrims,  if 
it  can  be  shown  the  horse  had  an  attack  before  the 
sale;  cataract  however  slight;  broken  knees,  when  the 
jointis injured;  balking ;  rearing;  shying  when  habitual ; 
weaving  in  the  stable,  that  is,  the  horse  throwing  his 
head  and  body  from  side  to  side  with  a  peculiar  mo- 
tion. 

Clipping  the  hair  of  the  horse  is  practiced  but  little 
outside  of  the  cities.  Even  in  these  centers,  where 
horses  used  for  fast  driving  receive  the  best  of  atten- 
tion, many  contend  that  it  is  cruel,  others  claim  that 
-when  the  horse  is  humanely  treated,  when  he  is  driven 
from  one  warm  stable  to  another,  and  is  never  sub- 
jected to  stoppage  under  uninclosed  sheds  or  in  the 
open  air,  undoubtedly  clipping  him  in  the  winter 
season,  when  he  is  devoted  to  fast  work,  is  a  decided 
benefit.  Under  other  circumstances,  there  are  so 
many  benefits  and  so  many  injuries,  pro  and  con,  that 
clipping  will  forever  remain  a  debatable  practice,  on 
the  ground  of  prejwnderating  cruelties  and  abuses. 
The  objections  become  less  jXDtent  as  we  consider  the 
turf  horse.  He  is  the  object  of  more  tender  nursing 
and  more  scientific  cafe.  Clipping  the  turf  horse, 
therefore,  is  attended  with  the  least  possible  amount 
of  abuse.  He  is  provided  with  a  warm  box  and  a 
multiplicity  of  comfortable  blankets,  that  buckle  closely 
about  his  throat,  chest,  body  and  limbs.  He  is  never 
tied  after  a  severe  drive,  particularly  in  winter,  in 
front  of  club  houses,  exposed  to  cold  winds,  provoca- 
tive of  congestion,  that  terminates  either  in  founder, 
or  lung  fever,  or  inflammation  of  the  stomach,  bowels, 
or  kidneys,  as  the  constitutional  weakness  or  the  sys- 
tem may  locally  determine.  But  his  winter  work, 
whether  it  be  fast  or  jogging,  is  begun  and  ended  with- 
out intermission,  and  his  treatment  is  indicated  by  ex- 
treme anxiety  to  prevent  any  injurious  results. 

The  mere  operation  of  clipping  is  as  painless  as 
that  of  cutting  the  human  hair.  Some  horses  are  ex- 
ceedingly restive  during  the  process,  simply  because 
of  the  tickling  sensation  to  their  more  susceptible 
nervous  organization. 

Necessarily,  in  clipping  horses,  machines  for  that 


purpose  had  to  be  improvised.     There  are  now  in  the 

market  clipping  ma- 
chines of  many  patterns 
and  for  any  use  desired. 
We  here  illustrate  some 
of  the  best  make,  and 
speak  of  their  leading 
features. 

The  principal  features 

of  the  clipper  represent- 

ij  o        tr       r-j-j.j.        cd  by  Fig.  31  are  the 

Fig.  29. — Power  Horse  Clipper,  ■'  b     J 

double  set  of  teeth,  self-sharpening  and  visible  plates, 


Fig.  30. — Handle  of  Power  Horse  Clipper. 

the  arch  spring  pressing  the  plates  firmly  together. 

The  Power  Horse  Clip- 
per has  vibrating  cutters, 
and  the  jx)wer  is  conveyed 
from  the  balance  arm  to  the 
handle  by  a  belt.  It  also 
has  the  advantage  of  being 
noiseless. 

Fig.  30  represents  the 
handle  of  the  "  Power  Horse 
Clipper  "  with  rotary  cutters 
complete. 

Fig.  33  is  a  representa- 
tion of  a  pair  of  clipping 
shears  with  leather-covered 
handles.  They  are  a  use- 
ful and  necessary  article  in 
clipping  the  horse. 

Another  necessary,  or  at 
least  very  convenient  arti- 
Fic  y.— Horse  Clipper.       cle  ill  dipping  hotses,  is  the 
circular  comb,  illustrated  by  Fig.  32. 

Clipping  may  be  done,  however,  with  a  comb  and 
two  or  three  pairs  of  variously  curved  scissors  and  a 
singeing  lamp,  which  must  be  used  at  least  to  re- 
move any  loose  hairs  which  may  have  escaped  the 
blades  of  the  scissors.  Two  men  generally  work  to- 
gether, so  as  to  get  the  operation  over  in  from  16  to 
20  hours,  which  time  it  will  take  to  clip  the  average- 
sized  horse  properly.  While  the  process  is  going  on, 
the  horse  ought  to  be  clothed  as  far  as  possible,  care- 
ful men  removing  only  so  much  of  the  quarter  piece 
as  is  sufficient  to  expose  the  part  they  are  working  at, 
and  no  more. 


732 


HORSE. 


After  the  removal  of  a  long  coat  of  hair,  the  animal 
must  not  be  kept  standing  out  of 
doors,  even  blanketed,  and  extra 
protection  in-doors  should  be  giv- 
en. In  trimming,  the  jaws,  nos- 
trils and  ears  can  be  singed  with  r: 
a  small  lamp.  The  tail  should  be 
carefully  combed  out  and  great 
care  taken  in  its  trimming,  for  the 
tail  and  mane  are  two  great  ob- 
jects of  admiration  in  the  horse. 

The  process  of  clipping  should 
certainly  be  discouraged  among 
farmers.  Horses  that  are  driven 
to  town  and  left  to  stand  for  hours 
sometimes,  should  never  be  rob-  ^'c-  i^^.-circuUr  Comb. 
bed  of  the  protection  given  by  nature.  It  is  only  in 
cities  where  careful  and  conscientious  grooms  have 
constant  care  of  the  animal  it  should  be  practiced. 
Trimming.  Some  degree  of  trimming  is  generally 
necessary  to  all  horses  required  to  look  well,  and  great 
care  should  be  observed  in  the  operation  when  carried 
to  any  great  degree,  especially  when 
trimming  the  hairs  on  the  nostrils, 
jaws  and  ears.  These  may  be 
singed,  but  the  nostrils  must  not  be 
touched  inside,  as  the  internal  hairs 
are  clearly  a  protection  of  the  deli- 
cate lining  membrane  of  the  ear 
from  the  cold  and  wet.  The  long 
bristles  of  the  nostrils  may  either 
be  cut  off,  pulled  out,  or  singed  off, 
but  the  first  plan  is  the  easiest  and 
the  most  humane.  There  are,  also, 
some  bristles  about  the  eyes  which 
are  generally  removed,  but  it  is 
very  doubtful  whether  many  an 
eye  would  not  be  saved  from  a 
blow  in  the  dark  if  they  were  left 
untouched.  The  hair  which  grows 
an  inch  or  more  in  length  beneath 
the  jaw,  being  of  the  same  nature 
as  the  rest  of  the  coat,  can  only  be 
singed  off  with  advantage,  and  it 
should  be  done  as  fast  as  it  grows, 
especially  if  the  singeing  is  not 
universal,  or  there  will  be  a  differ- 
ent color  presented  in  these  parts. 
Nothing  gives  a  horse  such  a  low-bred  appearance  as 
a  goat-like  beard;  and  the  trimming  of  this  part  alone 
will  completely  alter  the  character  of  the  animal, 
where  the  hair  has  been  at  all  long. 

The  legs  are  trimmed  partly  by  singeing,  and  partly 
either  by  clipping  or  pulling  out  the  hairs.  Great 
dexterity  is  required  to  manage  this  performance  in  a 
workmanlike  manner,  so  as  to  avoid  the  stale  and 
post-like  appearance  which  is  presented  by  a  leg  clip- 
ped all  over  (without  a  corresponding  clipping  of  the 
body),  and  at  the  same  time  to  remove  all,  or  nearly 
all,  the  superfluous  hair.  In  the  summer  an  undipped 


Fig. 


■i%.— Clipping 

Shears. 


leg  is  totally  inadmissible,  and  even  from  the  legs  of 
a  badly  bred  horse  the  hair  may  be  pulled,  by  grad- 
ually working  at  it  for  a  little  time  every  day  with  the 
fingers,  armed  with  powdered  resin.  This  prevents 
the  hair  slipping  through  them,  and  by  its  aid  such  a 
firm  hold  may  be  obtained  that,  as  we  said  before, 
perseverance  will  enable  the  groom  to  clear  the  legs 
entirely,  with  the  exception,  generally,  of  a  strong  lock 
of  hair  behind  the  pastern.  When  this  is  very  obsti- 
nate, it  is  allowable  to  use  the  scissors  to  clear  away 
the  hair  below  the  horny  growth  which  is  found  there; 
but  there  should  always  be  left  a  slight  fringe  round 
this,  so  as  to  avoid  the  sharp  and  stiff  outline  pre- 
sented by  the  clipped  leg.  In  the  winter,  the  anns 
and  backs  of  the  knees,  as  well  as  the  breast  and  the 
insides  of  the  quarters,  will  generally  want  singeing, 
whether  the  body  is  submitted  to  the  lamp  or  not ; 
but  in  the  summer,  even  if  any  long  hairs  are  left 
there,  they  are  easily  removed  by  the  hand  armed 
with  resin.  Unless  general  clipping  or  singeing  is 
practiced,  the  front  surfaces  of  the  legs  do  not  require 
trimming  at  any  season  of  the  year. 

The  mane  is  not  now  usually  cut,  but  formerly  it 
was  a  very  common  practice  to  "  hog  "  it,  that  is,  to 
cut  it  to  a  sharp-ix)inted  ridge,  sticking  straight  up- 
wards from  the  crest,  and  giving  that  part  the  appear- 
ance of  extraordinary  height.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  mane  is  very  thick,  and  then,  for  the  sake  of 
appearances,  it  is  necessary  to  thin  it,  which  is  done 
by  twisting  a  small  lock  at  a  time  round  the  comb, 
and  pulling  it  out;  this  gives  some  little  pain,  but 
apparently  not  much,  and  evidently  not  more  than 
the  trimming  of  the  legs,  and  not  so  much  as  in  pull- 
ing out  the  feelers  or  bristles  growing  out  from  the 
nostrils.  A  small  lock  of  mane  is  generally  cut  just 
behind  the  ears  where  the  head  of  the  bridle  rests,  as 
it  would  otherwise  lie  beneath  that  part  in  an  untidy 
manner. 

In  trimming  the  tail,  various  methods  are  adopted, 
when  it  is  cut  square ;  for  if  the  hairs  are  allowed  to 
grow  to  the  full  length,  no  interference  is  necessary 
beyond  an  occasional  clipping  of  their  points  to  pre- 
vent them  from  breaking  or  splitting.  A  square  tail, 
however,  whether  long  or  short,  demands  the  careful 
use  of  the  scissors  or  knife,  without  which  the  horse 
to  which  it  belongs  is  sadly  disfigured.  Two  modes 
are  practiced  :  in  the  first,  the  tail  is  carefully  combed 
out,  and  then,  allowing  it  to  fall  in  its  natural  position, 
it  is  gathered  up  in  the  hand  just  above  the  part  to 
be  cut  off,  and  here  a  sharp  knife  is  drawn  across  it 
backwards  and  forwards,  without  notching  it,  till  it 
passes  clean  through.  The  tail  is  then  released,  and 
any  loose  hairs  projecting  are  removed  with  the  scis- 
sors. The  second  mode  is  not  so  easy,  but  when  well 
carried  out  is  more  satisfactory  to  the  eye,  inasmuch 
as  it  is  capable  of  giving  a  sharper  and  more  defined 
edge  to  the  square  tail.  As  in  the  first  method,  the 
tail  is  carefully  combed  out ;  it  is  then  held  by  an 
assistant's  hand,  placed  beneath  the  root  of  the  dock, 
as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  jx)sition  which  it  assumes 
in  the  animal  out  of  doors.     While  thus  poised,  the 


HORSE. 


733 


operator  takes  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors,  and  holding 
the  blades  horizontally  open,  he  insinuates  one  of 
them  through  the  middle  of  the  tail  at  the  place  to  be 
cut,  passing  it  straight  backwards,  and  cutting  the 
hair  quite  level  from  the  central  line  to  the  outside  on 
his  own  left.  Then,  reversing  the  blades,  and  keep- 
ing to  the  same  level,  he  cuts  towards  the  right,  and 
if  he  has  a  good  eye,  and  can  use  his  hands  in  accord- 
ance with  its  dictates,  he  will  have  presented  a  very 
prettily  squared  tail.  On  the  other  hand,  if  these 
organs  are  defective,  or  if  he  wants  experience,  he 
will  have  notched  the  end  of  the  tail  in  a  most  un- 
sightly manner.  For  the  mode  of  docking  the  tail  see 
Dock,  page  325. 

To  make  the  mane  lie  smoothly  on  its  proper  side, 
which  it  sometimes  obstinately  refuses  to  do,  it  must 
be  plaited  in  small  locks,  and  the  ends  loaded  with 
lead,  if  it  cannot  be  made  to  lie  down  without.  An 
experienced  groom,  however,  will  generally  succeed  in 
so  managing  the  plaits  that  they  lie  close  to  the  neck, 
which  is  all  that  can  be  effected  by  the  aid  of  lead, 
but  sometimes  the  hair  is  so  obstinate  that  nothing 
else  will  effect  the  object  in  view. 

Docking.  For  the  mode  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion see  the  article  Dock. 

Shoeing.  The  varied  uses  to  which  the  horse  has 
been  subjected  since  taken  from  a  wild  condition, 
and  the  willing  and  cheerful  manner  with  which  he 
has  undergone  fatigue  and  performed  duties  which  are, 
one  would  think,  quite  foreign  to  his  nature,  have  cer- 
tainly all  been  owing  to  his  combined  and  imequal 
quality  of  strength,  courage,  speed,  fidelity  and  obe- 
dience, as  well  as  docility;  and,  though  his  great 
value  has  mainly  depended  upon  a  just  disposition  of 
these,  yet  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  to  the  presence 
of  a  wonderfully  contrived  foot,  the  horse  largely 
owes  his  exalted  position  over  all  those  creatures  which 
have  submitted  themselves  to  domestication  and 
toil  for  the  human  species.  It  may  be  said  that  with 
the  horse  in  a  state  of  nature  the  hoof  requires  no 
protection,  and  before  paved  and  hard  roads  were 
made,  probably  no  defenses  were  contrived  for  the 
protection  of  the  feet  of  the  horse,  and  the  first  that 
were  made  use  of  appear  to  have  been  copied  from 
those  of  his  master.  A  sort  of  sandals  are  mentioned 
as  occasionally  employed  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and 
by  the  Romans  as  late  as  Constantine,  and  these 
were  stiffened  by  plates  of  iron,  and  sometimes  orna- 
mented with  the  precious  metals.  The  injurious  ef- 
fects of  fastening  with  thongs  have  given  place  in 
modern  times  to  the  present  method  of  nailing  on 
iron  shoes ;  and  Beckman  states  that  the  first  account 
of  the  modern  horse-shoe  occurs  in  enumerating  the 
furniture  of  the  Emperor  Leo,  of  Constantinople;  but  it 
was  not  until  long  afterward  that  its  use  became  gen- 
eral. It  was  first  introduced  in  England  by  William 
of  Normandy,  and  of  course  came  to  our  shores  with 
the  early  pilgrims. 

Even  in  the  most  favored  countries  the  usefulness 
of  the   horse-shoe  can  be  but  limited  without  some 


means  of  protecting  the  hoof  from  undue  wear  and 
doubtless  this  fact  was  soon  recognized  by  the  people 
who,  at  a  very  early  period,  trained  and  employed 
this  animal,  and  who,  no  doubt,  were  compelled  to 
resort  to  various  devices  to  protect  it  from  inefficiency 
from  this  cause.  For,  with  the  increasing  spread  of  civ- 
ilization, the  demands  ujxju  the  services  of  the  horse 
became  more  urgent,  and  the  diversities  of  climate  to 
which  he  was  carried,  as  well  as  of  races  which 
resulted,  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that  greater  wear 
and  modification  in  nature  and  consistency  of  the 
hoof  would  render  some  kind  of  defense  absolutely 
necessary. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  horse's  foot  was  designed  to 
meet  every  natural  demand,  so  far  as  the  weight  and 
movements  are  concerned,  but  when  a  heavy  load  is 
imposed  on  his  back,  or  attached  behind,  and  when 
he  is  compelled  to  travel,  particularly  over  hard  roads, 
in  all  kinds  of  weather,  nature's  arrangements  are 
overtaxed,  and  the  wear  of  the  hoof  is  greater  than 
repair.  Consequently,  art  must  step  in  to  assist  na- 
ture. It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  great  injury  results 
from  shoeing. 

The  injurious  effects  of  bad  shoeing  only  require  to 
be  pointed  out  to  excite  every  endeavor  to  avoid 
them,  and  the  importance  of  shoeing  is  evinced  by 
the  great  pains  that  have  lately  been  bestowed  on 
the  subject.  There  are  some  circumstances  in  the 
common  practice  of  country  smiths  which  ought  to 
be  guarded  against  by  every  one  who  possesses  a 
horse  likely  to  come  under  their  hands  ;  but  the  shoes 
at  present  made,  and  their  mode  of  shoeing,  are  in 
in  general  nearly  always  objectionable. 

Many  persons  are  very  careless  as  to  the  state  of 
the  horse  s  feet  and  his  shoes.  The  shoes  are  often 
worn  till  they  drop  off"  in  the  middle  of  a  journey, 
and  time  is  lost,  the  foot  broken  or  destroyed,  and, 
very  likely  the  horse  lamed.  If  the  horse  be  doing 
little  work,  perhaps  the  shoes  are  left  on  too  long,  and 
the  horn  is  suffered  to  grow  so  as  to  accumulate  too 
much;  then  the  horse's  action  is  fettered  ;  he  cannot 
step  out;  he  cannot  place  his  foot  firmly  on  the 
ground,  and  he  is  very  liable  to  corns.  Hence  at 
certain  intervals  the  superfluous  horn  must  be  pared 
away ;  a  month  is  the  usual  time ;  some  may  go  five 
weeks.  If  the  heels  are  weak  or  the  seat  of  corns, 
the  shoes  may  require  removal  every  three  weeks. 
If  the  shoes  of  fast  workers  are  not  worn  at  the  end 
of  a  month,  the  feet  should  be  pared  and  the  old 
shoes  replaced. 

Almost  all  of  the  myriad  diseases  of  the  horses'  foot, 
such  as  contractions,  corns,  quarter  and  toe-crack, 
drop-sole  and  pumice-foot,  thrush,  bent-knee,  inter- 
fering, stumbling,  etc.,  are  caused  by  indolent  and 
ignorant  shoeing.  The  frog  and  sole  are  soft  and 
cheesy,  and  yield  readily  to  the  blacksmith's  knife, 
leaving  a  clean,  white  surface  ;  hence  they  are  whit- 
tled and  shaped  without  reference  to  the  divine  pur- 
pose in  their  location  and  form. 

The  part  of  the  hoof  which  suffers  most  from  un- 
due wear,  is  that  which  was  intended  to  encounter  it, 


734 


HORSE. 


the  wall ;  and  when  this  is  too  much  worn  the  sole 
becomes  broken  around  its  margin  and  sensitive 
parts  within  wounded  and  contused.  Therefore,  all 
that  the  hoof  requires*  in  order  to  enable  the  horse 
to  remain  serviceable,  is  merely  some  kind  of  protec- 
tion for  the  lower  border  of  the  wall ;  but  this  protec- 
tion should  not  be  heavy,  else  the  muscles  which 
were  destined  to  move  a  marvelously  light  foot  will  be 
unduly  strained,  as  will  also  tendons  and  ligaments ; 
for  the  muscles  (the  moving  power  of  the  limb)  are 
all  situated  at  the  upper  part  of  the  leg  and  act  upon 
short  levers,  the  mechanical  means  being  designed 
rather  for  speed  than  strength.  This  protection  must 
be  durable ;  it  should  not  damage  or  interfere  with  the 
functions  of  the  foot,  but  allow  every  part  to  perform 
its  office  unimpaired ;  it  ought  to  be  easily  applied,  and 
secure  when  attached  to  the  foot ;  it  should  not  render 
the  animal  less  sure-footed,  if  possible,  than  before  it 
was  applied ;  and  finally  itoughttobe  simple  and  cheap. 

The  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  shoe  is  a  subject 
of  much  moment.  It  is,  of  course,  commenced  by 
pulling  off  the  old  shoe.  It  is  better  not  to  take  more 
than  one  off  at  a  time ;  otherwise  the  horse  is  apt  to 
break  away  the  edges  of  the  horn  while  standmgon  the 
bare  ground  or  pavement.  In  removing  the  old  shoes 
which  were  fastened  by  nails  clinched,  great  care 
should  be  taken  by  the  smith  to  raise  the  clinches 
thoroughly,  or  file  them  off,  until  the  shoe  can  be  taken 
off  easily,  instead  of  wrenching  them  off  with  violence, 
as  is  sometimes  done,  by  which  the  nail  holes  are  en- 
larged, and  the  future  hold  weakened  by  portions  of 
the  crust  being  detached;  and  the  horse  shows  by  his 
flinching  how  much  he  suffers  by  this  violent  operation. 

When  the  foot  is  tender,  or  the  horse  to  is  be  exam- 
ined for  lameness,  each  nail  should  be  partly  punched 
out,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  no  stubs  remain  in 
the  crust,  the  source  of  future  annoyance.  Next,  the 
rough  edges  of  the  crust  should  be  rasped,  which 
prevents  its  breaking  away  when  set  down,  and  also 
detects  any  stubs  of  old  nails  left  behind,  and  re- 
moves loose  portions  that  would  hold  gravel,  either 
of  which  might  turn  the  nail  that  may  be  introduced. 
The  whole  thickness  of  the  crust,  be  it  more  or  less, 
ought  to  be  left  perfectly  flat  for  the  bearing  of  the 
shoe.  Habit,  and  a  correct  eye,  can  detect  any  in- 
equalities in  this  surface,  without  a  momentary  appli- 
cation of  the  heated  shoe  to  try  the  bearing  parts,  as 
is  usually  done,  and  which,  if  the  shoe  be  also 
previously  tried  with  a  plain  iron,  may  very  well  be 
avoided.  Nevertheless,  the  outcry  raised,  against 
this  practice  is,  in  a  great  measure,  unnecessary;  for, 
unless  the  shoe  be  very  hot,  and  held  on  too  long,  no 
harm  probably  results  from  its  application.  In  com- 
mon rough  shoeing,  also,  this  error  is  infinitely  less  than 
the  application  of  the  unequal  pressure,  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  prevent,  would  prove. 

Some  claim  that  the  portion  of  sole  between  the 
bars  and  quarters  should  be  always  pared  out ;  and, 
if  properly  done,  is  the  surest  preventive  against 
corns.  The  heels  should  be  an  object  of  great  atten- 
tion, and  ought  to  be  carefully  reduced  to  the  general 


level  of  position  which  it  may  be  supposed  the  hoof 
was  originally  placed  in,  and  which  may  always  be 
judged  by  observing  the  line  of  the  pasterns  with  it. 
It  is  of  great  consequence  that  the  inner  heel  should 
not  be  reduced  beyond  the  outer,  for  its  natural  weak- 
ness gives  it  a  tendency  to  increased  wear ;  instead, 
therefore,  of  paring  both  equally,  in  case  the  outer  is  the 
highest,  pare  only  the  outer;  and  moreover  set  the 
shoe  very  lightly  on  the  inner  heel.  A  want  of  atten- 
tion to  this  circumstance  of  inequality  in  the  heels 
lays  the  foundation  for  corns  and  splints. 

The  paring  of  the  insensible  frog  is  an  important 
part  of  the  process  ;  but  it  is  highly  improper  to  cut  it 
much  away,  as  is  the  practice  of  some  smiths,  par- 
ticularly when  employed  by  dealers  to  give  an  appear- 
ance of  "  opening  the  heels ;  "  nor  should  it  be  pared 
too  much,  since  it  is  intended  by  nature  as  a  resisting 
prop  to  support  the  internal  parts  of  the  foot  from 
pressure  ;  it  ought  not,  however,  to  be  suffered  to  pro- 
ject too  much.  The  most  judicious  mode  is,  instead 
of  beginning  with  the  frog,  to  attend  first  to  the  crust, 
sole  and  heels,  and  then  a  mistake  in  paring  the  frog 
is  less  likely  to  arise ;  for  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  that  when  the  frog  is  a  very  little  beyond  the 
level  of  the  return  of  the  heels  and  the  crust,  it  is  as 
large  as  it  ever  ought  to  be ;  and  the  heels  of  the  shoe 
will  raise  it  up  enough  for  protection  against  too  much 
wear,  but  will  not  elevate  it  against  a  proper  share  of 
pressure.  With  respect  to  the  intermediate  portion  of 
horny  substance  that  fills  up  the  angles,  it  should  be 
moderately  pared  out  in  every  instance,  for  it  is  the 
seat  of  corns ;  and  if  accidental  pressure  alight  and 
remain  there,  a  corn  is  the  inevitable  consequence.  If 
even  a  small  particle  of  gravel  should  lodge  here,  each 
step  forces  it  farther;  and  as  soon  as  it  has  reached 
the  sensible  parts,  inflammation  and  suppuration  ensue. 

Sometimes,  with  a  view  to  prevent  slipping,  two 
projections,  or  calks,  are  raised  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  of  the  shoe,  and  these,  though  they  may  to 
a  trifling  extent  answer  their  purpose,  nevertheless 
throw  the  foot  and  limb  into  a  most  unnatural  and 
uncomfortable  position,  the  pain  and  inconvenience  of 
which  we  may  realize  by  walking  in  very  high-heeled 
boots.  These  mutilations  and  their  consequences  are 
quite  common,  and  one  can  scarcely  pass  a  horse  in 
the  street  without  noticing  them.  Great,  clumsy,  un- 
sightly masses  of  iron,  the  weight  of  which  is  perfectly 
outrageous,  are  attached  to  the  feet  of  horses  which 
have  to  travel  sometimes  at  a  rapid  pace,  carrying  or 
drawing  heavy  loads.  This  weight  is  not  only  injurious 
to  the  feet,  through  the  strain  it  imposes  on  them,  but 
is  extremely  fatiguing  to  the  muscles,  so  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  animal's  power  is  expended  in  carrying 
about  unwieldy  clogs  of  iron. 

The  foregoing  are  only  some,  nut  all,  of  the  evils  of 
shoeing  as  commonly  practiced,  even  as  late  as  this, 
the  nineteenth  century ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that 
they  are  verj'  serious,  and  sooner  or  later  lead  to  pain- 
ful traveling  for  the  horse,  as  well  as  impaired  effi- 
ciency;   and  yet  this  art  which  the  farrier  makes  so 


^fasaJ^^^^l P^ 


73<5 


HORSE. 


difficult  and  costly,  both  directly  and  indirectly,  should 
be  neither. 

To  shoe  a  horse  properly,  if  we  take  observations 
and  study  of  nature's  plans  into  consideration,  is  cer- 
ta^jily  not  a  very  difficult  operation ;  and  neither  need 
it  be  a  very  expensive  one.  The  object  should  be  to 
protect  the  hoof  from  wear — nothing  more;  and  in 
doing  so  we  ought  to  maintain  the  integrity  and  sound- 
ness of  the  hoof,  while  we  do  not  overburden  or  dis- 
turb the  natural  direction  of  the  foot  and  limb ;  and  as 
a  secondary  object,  we  should  endeavor  to  increase 
the  animal  s  foothold  on  the  ground,  if  possible.  The 
first  object  is  attained  by  leaving  the  sole,  frog  and 
bars  in  their  natural  condition ;  for  when  they  have  ac- 
quired a  certain  thickness  the  outer  surface  falls  off  in 
flakes  and  dead  horn,  so  that  they  never  become  too 
thick.  It  is  different  with  the  wall,  which  would  grow  to 
an  indefinite  length,  because  it  isnot  thrown  offin  flakes 
and  the  shoe  prevents  it  from  being  worn.  This, 
therefore,  every  time  the  horse  is  shod,  has  to  be  re- 
duced in  length  at  its  lower  border  to  a  degree  corre- 
sponding with  the  growth  which  has  taken  place  since 
the  previous  shoeing. 

The  unmutilated  hoof  only  requires  as  much  iron 
as  will  protect  the  lower  border  of  its  walls,  say  for  a 
month  or  six  weeks,  and  insure  security  of  foothold, 
nothing  more ;  and  all  beyond  this  is  loss  or  injury ; 
while,  if  possible,  the  sole  and  frog  should  be  allowed 
to  play  their  part.  With  regard  to  security  of  foot- 
hold, and  adding  to  the  horse's  power  in  draft,  partic- 
ularly with  those  horses  which  travel  at  a  slow  pace 
with  heavy  loads  in  our  cities,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  calks  are  necessary ;  but  their  utility  is  greatly 
diminished,  and  they  do  harm  to  the  limb  and  joints 
if  a  toe-piece  is  not  added. 

The  horse's  foot  is  naturally  broad  at  the  heel,  and 
has  a  wide  elastic  frog,  intended  to  take  all  the  jar 
from  the  foot.  If  a  shoe  has  a  high  or  projecting 
heel  the  frog  is  not  allowed  to  touch  the  ground,  and 
becomes  dried  and  shriveled,  the  heel  contracts  and 
pinches  the  coffin-bone,  and  the  motion  of  the  unsup- 
ported bones  within  the  hoof  produces  ulceration  of  the 
heels  in  the  form  of  corns;  or  acting  upon  the  dead, 
dry,  unsupported  frog  and  sole,  so  that  drop-sole  or 
pinched  foot  results. 

Farmers  are  apt  to  insist  on  having  their  horse's 
shoes  "  put  on  to  stay,"  making  this  point  the  only 
one  insisted  upon.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  hoof 
soon  renders  the  best  shoe  unfitted  for  the  foot.  Shoes 
for  farm  horses  should  be  so  put  on  that  they  will 
stay  tight,  or  nearly  so,  for  five  or  six  weeks,  and  then 
be  taken  off  and  refitted.  It  causes  the  expense  of 
"  setting  "  some  five  or  six  times  more  during  the  year, 
but  saves  many  a  lameness,  besides  keeping  the  feet 
always  sound. 

On  the  question  of  horse-shoeing  Professor  Slade, 
of  the  chair  of  Agricultural  Zoology,  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, makes  the  following  observations : 

"  Horse-shoeing,  in  the  estimation  of  many  intelli- 
gent people,  is  invested  by  certain  mysterious  princi- 
ples, a  knowledge  of  which  they  have   neither  the 


courage  nor  the  disposition  to  acquire.  They  are  be- 
wildered by  the  numerous  theories  and  arguments 
which  are  advanced  for  this  or  that  mode  of  proced- 
ure, until  they  give  over  the  subject  in  despair,  and 
leave  it  in  the  hands  of  those  who  know  even  less  than 
themselves.  This  obscurity,  however,  vanishes,  if, 
laying  aside  all  theories,  the  matter  is  presented  in  a 
simple  and  intelligent  manner,  Jjased,  as  it  should  be, 
upon  anatomy  and  physiology. 

"  Let  us  consider,  in  the  first  place,  whether  shoe- 
ing is  necessary  in  all  cases,  and  if  necessary,  how  it 
shall  be  done.  In  the  undomesticated  condition  of  the 
horse,  the  equilibrium  between  the  growth  and  wear 
of  the  hoof,  which  is  but  a  horny  appendage  to  the 
skin,  is  exactly  maintained ;  but  when  subjected  to 
labor  upon  hard  and  stony  roads,  this  balance  is  de- 
stroyed, and  the  wear  exceeds  the  growth.  Hence 
arose  the  necessity  of  providing  a  defense  against 
this  excessive  wear,  resulting  in  the  application  of  a 
metallic  rim  to  the  edges  of  the  ground  surface  of  the 
hoof.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  art  of  the  farrier. 
Under  certain  circumstances,  however,  as  in  strictly 
rural  districts,  upon  soft  and  sandy  roads,  this  excess 
of  wear  does  not  occur ;  and  I  am  persuaded  that  in 
many  cases  shoeing  might  be  entirely  dispensed  with, 
much  to  the  relief  of  man  and  beast.  Especially 
in  the  case  of  a  young  animal  that  has  never 
been  brought  to  the  forge,  the  feet  are  eminently 
fitted  by  nature  to  a  certain  amount  of  hard  usage, 
and  we  but  blindly  follow  a  custom  when  we  subject 
him  to  the  constant  wearing  of  shoes.  Even  during 
the  winter  months,  and  upon  slippery  roads,  the  un- 
shod horse  will  in  most  cases  do  his  full  share  of 
labor,  as  any  one  can  testify  who  has  had  expe- 
rience. 

"  The  preparation  of  the  hoof  for  the  shoe  where 
this  last  is  actually  required,  is  of  vastly  more  import- 
ance than  the  particular  kind  of  shoe,  and  necessi- 
tates, first  and  above  all  things,  the  proper  leveling  of 
the  hoof.  When  the  unshod  foot  comes  to  the  ground 
every  part  of  its  surface  sustains  some  of  the  weight, 
and  also  undergoes  an  amount  of  wear.  The  mo- 
ment, however,  that  a  shoe  is  apphed  the  weighty  is 
unequally  distributed,  especially  when  armed  with 
high  calkins,  and  the  growth  of  the  horn  exceeds  its 
wear,  obliging  the  removal  of  the  shoe  at  stated 
intervals,  and  the  reduction  of  the  foot  to  its  normal 
condition. 

"  In  the  young  animal,  shod  for  the  first  time,  we 
have  the  appearance  presented  by  a  perfectly  normal 
foot,  which  requires  no  preparation  whatever  for  the 
proper  application  of  the  shoe,  beyond  slightly  lev- 
eling with  the  rasp  the  ground  surface  of  the  outer 
crust.  In  the  case  of  the  horse  that  has  previously 
been  shod,  it  will  be  found  that  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  the  excess  of  horn  which  is  to  be  removed 
exists  at  the  toe.  The  wear  at  this  point  is  prevented 
by  the  firm  nailing  of  the  shoe,  and  the  consequent 
absence  of  all  attrition  ;  while  at  the  heels  constant 
friction  goes  on  between  the  two  opposing  surfaces, 
owing  to  the  non-use  of  nails,  and  modifies  the  growth. 


HORSE. 


737 


The  amount  of  this  friction  may  readily  be  seen  by 
examining  the  foot  surface  of  any  iron  shoe  that  has 
been  worn  for  the  usual  length  of  time.  In  so  import- 
ant a  matter  as  bringing  the  foot  to  a  proper  level  we 
must  be  governed  by  certain  rules.  Any  excess  of 
growth  at  the  toe  renders  the  pasterns  more  oblique, 
and  consequently  throws  greater  weight  upon  tendons 
and  ligaments  at  the  jx)sterior  portion  of  the  limb, 
whereas  too  great  height  of  heels  throws  undue  vio- 
lence upon  the  bones  and  joints  of  the  extremities. 
Both  of  these  conditions  must  be  guarded  against. 
Sufficient  accuracy  of  level  may  be  attained  by  the 
experienced  eye,  either  in  looking  across  the  upturned 
foot,  or  by  viewing  it  on  the  ground  either  from  the 
front  or  at  the  side  of  the  animal.  In  this  last  posi- 
tion the  ground  surface  of  the  foot  should  present  a 
level  parallel  to  a  line  drawn  transversely  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  pasterns,  or  what,  perhaps,  may  constitute  a 
more  practical  rule  to  the  majority  of  readers,  the  sur- 
face of  the  outer  rim  or  crust  of  horn  should  be  brought 
to  a  level  with  the  firm,  unpared  sole.  The  sole  re- 
quires no  reduction  whatever,  and  should  be  left  un- 
touched. Nature  provides,  by  a  process  of  exfoliation, 
for  any  excess  of  growth,  and  it  needs  no  argument 
to  convince  the  unprejudiced  that  we  cannot  improve 
ujx)n  her  plans.  Those  who  advocate  the  removal 
and  paring  out  of  the  sole  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a 
supposed  elasticity  to  this  part,  forget  that  by  so  do- 
ing they  take  away  the  natural  defense  against  injury 
and  disease,  for  which  no  substitute  can  be  em- 
ployed. 

"  The  frog  is  also  to  be  retained  in  its  full  integrity, 
requiring  neither  paring  nor  cutting,  however  great  the 
temptation  to  do  these  may  be.  The  almost  universal 
custom  of  destroying  the  natural  buttresses  which  ex- 
ist at  the  iX)sterior  portions  of  the  foot  by  cutting  deep 
notches  in  them  is  as  irrational  as  it  is  barbarous.  No 
process  could  be  devised  which  would  lead  more 
speedily  or  surely  to  the  contraction  and  consequent 
destruction  of  all  the  tissues  of  this  region,  than  this 
■'opening  up  of  the  heels.'  I  have  never  yet  met  with 
the  man  who  could  offer  a  satisfactory  reason  for  this 
mutilation  of  the  foot. 

"  Rasping  the  crust  of  the  hoof  should  never  be 
allowed.  The  removal  of  the  external  horny  fillers 
expose  those  beneath  to  atmospherical  influences 
when  they  are  not  fitted  for  such  an  exposure,  where- 
by the  crust  is  weakened,  rendered  brittle,  and  liable 
to  crack.  Moreover  this  process  of  rasping  removes 
the  natural  external  polish  which  gives  such  a  beauti- 
tiful  surface  to  the  healthy  foot,  and  which  no  substi- 
tute in  the  form  of  oil  or  blacking  can  supply.  The 
very  existence  of  such  a  polish  or  varnish  is  ignored 
by  many  farriers,  who  mercilessly  rasp  the  entire  wall 
and  think  to  conceal  their  ignorance  by  giving  it  a 
coat  of  some  vile  compound. 

"Thus  it  is  seen  to  what  a  simple  and  perfectly 
plain  operation  the  preparation  of  the  foot  for  the  shoe 
is  reduced,  and  it  is  this  preparation  which,  after  all, 
constitutes  the  important  part  of  the  science  of  shoe- 
ing.    If  no  mutilation  of  the  foot  is  practiced,  either 


before  or  after  the  application  of  the  shoe,  it  cannot 
be  doubted  that  the  organ  is  in  a  condition  best  fitted 
to  withstand  the  amount  of  labor  and  strength  re- 
quired of  it.  The  form  and  kind  of  shoe,  the  fitting, 
the  treatment  of  limbs,  etc.,  are  all  imix)rtant,  but 
secondary." 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
form  of  the  shoe,  and  not  entirely  without  success ; 
but  it  must  be  observed  that  no  form  of  this  defense 
for  the  foot  can  be  adopted  as  a  universal  pattern; 
and  it  is  only  by  understanding  the  anatomy  of  the 
the  foot,  and  the  defects  and  diseases  to  which  it  is 
liable,  that  the  peculiar  form  can  be  devised  best 
suited  to  each  animal.  As  a  general  principle,  the 
form  of  the  defense  should  be  adapted  to  the  foot, 
and  the  foot  should  not  be  altered  to  the  shoe ;  yet, 
in  some  cases  of  diseased  feet,  even  this  rule  admits 
of  modification.  The  foot  of  an  unshod  horse  expands 
as  soon  as  it  is  placed  upon  the  ground  and  has 
received  its  share  of  the  weight  of  the  body;  but  when 
such  foot  is  bound  within  a  solid  lim  of  iron  firmly 
round  the  horny  crust,  the  expansion  being  thus  pre- 
vented, reaction  takes  place,  and  turgescence  of  the 
blood-vessels,  by  which  heat  is  evolved,  and  the  horny 
segment  so  heated  contracts  its  dimensions,  and  thus 
presses  painfully  w\yox\  the  sensitive  part,  and  dis- 
organization is  the  ultimate  consequence.  To  form  a 
horse-shoe,  therefore,  such  as  will  protect  the  foot 
effectually,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  left  in  full 
lx)ssession  of  its  natural  elasticity  and  expansive  prop- 
erties, has  been  the  aim  of  many  veterinarians  and 
many  ingenious  smiths;  but  perhaps  nothing  has  yet 
been  contrived  completely  adapted  to  the  natural 
action  of  the  horse's  foot. 

There  are  many  gcwd  shoes  in  use,  and  if  one  can 
not  be  bought  to  fit  the  foot,  instead  of  cutting  and 
rasping  the  foot  to  fit  the  shoe,  it  is  best  to  have  it 
made.  In  doing  so,  remember  the  points  we  have 
mentioned.  As  a  general  rule,  varying,  of  course, 
with  the  rapidity  of  the  growth  of  the  shell,  and  the 
kind  of  work  required  of  the  horse-shoe,  it  should  be 
re-set  after  five  or  six  week's  wear. 

Colts  should  not  be  shod  at  all  uptil  they  come  to 
rapid  and  long-continued  hard  work  on  hard  roads, 
and  then  only  shghtly.  Leave  the  hind  feet  bare  and 
shoe  the  fore  feet  with  tips  that  only  cover  the  toe. 

Management  of  Feet.  In  the  stable-horse  the 
feet  require  constant  care,  for  they  are  not  only  arti-  • 
ficially  shod,  but  they  are  allowed  to  stand  on  material 
which  is  a  much  worse  conductor  of  heat  than  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  by  nature  designed  to  bear  them. 
Hence,  if  neglected,  they  either  become  hard  and 
brittle,  or  they  are  allowed  to  be  constantly  wet,  and 
then  the  soft  covering  of  the  frog  is  decomjxjsed  and 
emits  a  disagreeable  smelling  discharge,  which  soon 
wastes  it  away,  leaving  no  other  protection  to  the 
sensitive  organ  beneath,  and  constituting  what  is 
called  an  ordinary  thrush.  It  is  found  by  experience 
that  not  only  must  the  shoes  be  renewed  as  they  wear 
out,  but  even  if  no  work  is  done  they  no  longer  fit 


738 


HORSE. 


at  the  expiration  of  about  three  weeks,  and  they  must 
then  be  removed  to  allow  of  a  portion  of  the  sole  and 
crust  being  cut  away  before  they  are  again  put  on. 
The  groom  must  therefore  attend  to  the  following 
points :  First,  to  prevent  the  feet  from  becoming  too 
dry;  secondly,  to  take  measures  against  their  becom- 
ing thrushy  from  wet ;  thirdly,  to  see  that  the  shoes 
are  removed  at  the  end  of  every  three  weeks,  or  more 
frequently,  if  necessary ;  and  fourthly,  examine  care- 
fully every  day  that  they  are  securely  nailed  on  with- 
out any  of  the  chnches  having  started  up  from  the 
surface,  so  as  to  endanger  the  other  leg. 

Dryness  of  the  feet  is  prevented  by  the  use  of  what 
is  called  stopping,  which  is  composed  either  of  cow- 
dung  alone,  or  cow-dung  and  clay  mixed,  or  cow-dung 
and  pitch.  If  three  parts  of  cow-dung  and  one  of  clay 
are  used,  the  feet  may  be  stopped  twice  a  week.  On 
the  night  before  shoeing,  every  horse  will  be  the  better 
for  having  his  feet  stopped,  the  application  softening 
the  horn  so  as  to  allow  the  smith  to  use  his  knife  to 
slice  it  without  breaking  it  into  crumbling  fragments. 

Thrushes  are  prevented  by  keeping  the  frogs  free 
from  ragged  layers  of  the  elastic  substance  of  which 
they  are  partly  composed,  and  at  the  same  time  main- 
taining a  dry  state  of  the  litter  on  which  the  horse 
stands.  The  grand  principle  is  to  prevent  thrush 
rather  than  cure  it ;  but  when  horses  are  brought  or 
come  home  from  grass  with  it,  the  curative  method 
must  be  carried  out,  which  see,  under  head  of 
Thrush,  in  this  article. 

The  removal  of  the  shoes  at  regular  intervals, 
whether  they  are  worn  out  or  not,  is  a  most  important 
part  of  the  groom.  On  examining  the  shape  of  the 
foot,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  diameter  of  the  circle  in 
contact  with  the  shoe  is  greater  than  that  of  the  cor- 
onet, and  hence,  as  the  shoe  is  forced  away  from  its 
original  position  by  the  growth  of  the  horn,  it  confines 
the  walls  to  the  extent  of  the  difference  between  the 
diameter  of  the  foot  at  its  old  position  and  that  of  the 
part  which  it  now  occupies.  For  this  reason  a  shoe, 
when  it  has  not  been  removed  at  the  end  of  a  month, 
will  be  found  to  lie  within  the  heel  of  one  side  or  the 
other,  by  which  to  some  extent  contraction  is  pre- 
vented, but  at  the  expense  of  the  heel,  into  which  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  of  shoe  has  entered.  This 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  corns,  and  horses  which  have 
once  been  subject  to  that  disease  should  have  their 
shoes  removed  once  a  fortnight. 

Every  morning  when  the  feet  are  picked  out  it  is 
easy  to  look  the  shoes  over  and  feel  if  they  are  tight. 
The  clenches  also  ought  to  be  examined,  and  if  they 
are  not  raised  at  all  it  may  safely  be  predicted  that 
the  day's  journey  will  be  completed  without  the  shoe 
being  lost.  A  raised  clench  may  severely  cut  a  horse 
on  the  inside  of  the  other  leg,  and  in  those  who  are 
predisposed  to  "  speedy  cut"  it  may  cause  severe  in- 
jury, and  perhaps  cause  a  fall  of  the  most  dangerous 
character. 

General  Hints.  Match  horses  with  reference  to 
size  and  motion  particularly ;  to  color  if  you  can,  and 
have  the  other  requisites. 


Always  have  inside  lines  on  double  team  quite 
long,  and  back-strap  short. 

Never  check  a  horse  if  you  wish  to  have  him  last 
long,  except  while  training. 

Feed  in  low  mangers,  water  and  oats  to  be  given 
first,  hay  afterward. 

If  worked,  very  little  water  to  be  given  in  the 
night. 

Stop  at  the  top  of  a  hill,  and  let  your  horse  get 
breath. 

The  shoe  should  fit  the  foot,  not  the  foot  fit  the 
shoe.     Never  cut  the  bars  or  frogs. 

Wet  the  hay  and  not  the  oats  for  a  coughing 
horse. 

Never  let  a  horse  stand  long  facing  a  cold  wind. 

Feed  light  when  changing  feed. 

When  training  in  a  building,  have  carriages,  etc., 
removed. 

Always  approach  a  strange  horse  near  the  shoulder. 

Use  but  a  few  words  with  a  horse,  but  have  them 
understood. 

Be  earnest  and  prompt,  but  not  harsh. 

Teach  before  whipping,  and  when  whipping  do  it 
to  frighten,  not  to  enrage. 

Never  jump  from  a  wagon  when  your  horse  is  run- 
ning away.  More  lives  and  limbs  are  lost  in  that  way 
than  by  remaining  in  the  wagon. 

Throw  away  the  blinds. 

Burn  the  cruel  check-rein. 

Warm  the  bits  in  frosty  weather. 

Protect  the  head  in  hot  weather  with  green 
branches. 

Do  not  strike  them  when  they  stumble  or  scare. 

Do  not  cut  off  the  tail  in  fly  time,  and  in  muddy, 
wet  weather  keep  it  nicely  tied  as  shown  by  Fig.  34,' 


Fig.  34. — Horse  Tail  Tie. 

which  represents  a  tie  manufactured  by  W.  P.  Emmert, 
Chicago,  111.  Any  one  can  put  it  on  or  take  it  off 
quickly  and  without  trouble,  and  the  cost  is  trifling. 

Do  not  cut  the  frog  of  the  foot,  in  shoeing,  more 
than  possible. 

Change  the  diet  of  the  horse  if  you  would  keep 
him  in  good  condition. 

After  work,  in  the  evening,  wash  your  horse's 
shoulders  clean  with  salt  water.  If  farmers  commence 


HORSE. 


739 


this  practice  a  couple  of  weeks  before  hard  work  be- 
gins in  the  spring,  keeping  it  up  during  the  first  month 
of  the  spring  plowing,  their  horses  will  suffer  very  little 
from  sore  shoulders  if  the  collars  are  only  half-way 
decent. 

Never  startle  a  horse  by  striking  him  suddenly  or 
unexpectedly.  This  caution  is  specially  important  if 
he  has  a  blind  bridle. 

Uniformly  gentle  treatment  ^vill  secure  faithful  and 
steady  work.  Anger,  severity  and  sudden  jerking  en- 
danger your  harness,  your  vehicle  and  your  life,  be- 
sides permanently  injuring  your  horse. 

Wash  the  inside  of  the  collar  frequently  with  cas- 
tile  soap-suds,  and  when  it  has  thoroughly  dried 
gently  warm  the  leather  and  soak  it  with  oil,  so  as  to 
soften  it.  But  do  not  allow  any  oil  to  remain  on  the 
surface  of  the  leather  unabsorbed. 

Do  not  be  tempted  by  extra  pay  to  overload  your 
team.  Overloading  occasions  blindness,  spavin, 
splint,  glanders,  farcy  and  other  painful  and  fatal 
disorders,  and  thus  risks  the  loss  of  your  capital,  be- 
sides injuring  yourself  by  encouraging  a  cruel  dis- 
lX)sition. 

See  that  the  harness  fits  easily  in  every  part,  and 
that  the  shoes  are  tight  and  well  put  on.  If  there 
are  chains  connected  with  any  part  of  the  the  har- 
ness, let  them  be  well  covered  \vith  soft  padded  leather 
or  fur. 

Let  your  tones,  in  addressing  the  horse,  be  always 
gentle,  soothing  and  pleasant.  Pat  him  often,  and 
encourage    every  sign  of  attachment  that  he  gives. 

Curry,  rub  and  clean  well  and  thoroughly,  at  least 
once  every  day.  The  effect  is  worth  half  the  feed. 
A  dirty  coat  and  skin,  when  the  animal  is  deprived  of 
exercise  in  pasture  and  of  rolling  on  the  grass,  can- 
not fail  to  produce  disease. 

In  hot  weather,  keep  a  wet  sponge  on  the  head  of 
the  horse  or  mule ;  cool  the  mouth  and  face  with  wet 
sponges ;  furnish  drinking  water  often,  and  sponge 
the  legs  and  such  parts  as  are  liable  to  chafe  by  per- 
spiration or  othenivise;  drive  slowly,  and  lessen  the 
weight  usually  imposed  in  cooler  weather;  see  that 
the  harness  is  not  unnecessarily  cumbersome  and 
heavy  ;  the  discomfort  may  be  materially  relieved  by 
taking  off  the  eye-blinds,  which  are  useless  append- 
ages, and  cause  much  annoyance  to  the  animal. 

In  icy  weather  keep  your  animal  sharp  shod,  re- 
newing the  sharpening  as  often  as  the  shoes  become 
blunt.  A  few  dollars  expended  in  this  way  will  un- 
doubtedly save  your  horse  from  serious  injury,  and 
perhaps  from  loss  of  life. 

Standing  on  fermenting  manure  softens  the  hoof, 
produces  thrush  and  brings  on  lameness.  Keep  the 
litter  dry  and  clean,  and  cleanse  the  stall  thoroughly 
every  morning. 

Sharp  bits  make  the  mouth  tender  at  first,  and 
afterwards  callous  so  that  the  horse  becomes  un- 
manageable. 

If  your  horse  kicks  and  plunges  on  mounting,  look 
to  the  stuffing  of  your  saddle,  and  see  if  it  has  become 
hard  and  knotty  with  use. 


Keep  your  wheels  well  greased,  and  thus  reduce 
the  labor  of  drawing  the  load. 

Keep  the  feet  well  brushed  out,  and  examine  every 
night  to  see  if  there  is  any  stone  or  dirt  between  the 
hoof  and  the  shoe.  Change  the  shoe  as  often  as 
once  a  month. 

Disease  or  wounds  in  the  leet  or  legs  soon  become 
dangerous  if  neglected. 

\Vhen  a  horse  is  fatigued  and  hot  from  labor,  walk 
him  about  till  cool ;  groom  him  quite  dry,  first  with  a 
wisp  of  straw,  and  then  with  a  brush ;  rub  his  legs 
well  with  the  hand,  to  remove  any  strain ;  soothe  the 
animal,  and  detect  thorns  and  splinters,  and  give 
him  his  grain  as  soon  as  he  is  cool,  dry  and  willing 
to  eat. 

On  the  evening  before  a  long  journey  give  double 
feed ;  on  the  morning  of  starting  give  only  half  a 
feed  of  grain,  or  a  little  hay. 

When  horses  are  long  out  at  work  provide  them 
with  nose-bags  and  proper  food.  The  nose-bag  should 
be  leather  at  bottom  and  of  basket-work  or  open  text- 
ure above.  On  coming  home  give  a  double  feed  of 
grain. 

Lead  the  horse  carefully  into  and  out  of  the  stable. 
Accustom  him  to  stand  quite  still  till  you  are  seated. 
Start  at  a  walk,  and  go  slowly  the  first  and  the  last 
mile. 

Never  use  the  whip  if  you  can  help  it.  It  will  then 
always  be  available  as  a  last  resource. 

Be  always  on  your  guard,  just  feeling  the  mouth 
with  the  bit,  lightly  and  steadily. 

If  a  horse  shies,  neither  whip  him  nor  pat  him,  but 
speak  encouragingly,  and  let  him  come  slowly  to- 
wards the  object. 

If  you  value  your  own  Hfe,  the  lives  of  others,  or 
your  horse,  never  drive  fast  in  the  dark,  or  in  town. 

Never  add  your  own  weight  to  a  load  that  is  already 
heavy  enough.  Get  out  and  walk  when  you  ascend  a 
hill.  If  you  stop  on  a  hill,  put  a  stone  behind  the 
wheel. 

Never  tease  or  tickle  the  horse. 

A  good  horse  blanket  does  not  cost  much,  and  is  a 
good  investment.  Horses  suffer  much  from  cold  when 
left  unblanketed  after  being  driven,  and  contract  dis- 
eases that  result  in  the  disabling  or  death  of  the 
animal.  Some  stables  are  nothing  but  poles  between 
wide  spaces.  We  have  heard  about  stables  being 
made  too  warm  for  horses ;  but  if  they  be  properly 
ventilated  there  is  very  little  danger  of  this.  Take 
your  hatchet  and  nail  a  few  clapboards  over  the 
cracks ;  build  a  straw  shed  if  you  can  do  no  better; 
in  half  a  day  you  can  make  a  whole  winter  full  of 
comfort  for  the  faithful  beast  that  does  such  a  great 
variety  of  valuable  labor. 

Many  men  proceed  to  scratch  horse's  legs  with  a 
new,  sharp  cuny-comb,  and  then  get  angry  if  the 
horse  does  not  patiently  endure  this  torment.  A  new 
curry-comb  should  never  be  used  on  a  horse's  leg. 
In  fact,  it  is  only  in  extreme  cases  that  the  legs  should 
be  curried  with  any  kind  of  a  comb.  A  bunch  of  hay 
or  straw  and  a  good  brush  is  all  that  is  necessary  ex- 


740 


HORSE. 


cept  in  extraordinary  cases.  We  consider  a  good 
brush  indispensable;  and  in  this,  as  in  everything  else, 
the  best  is  the  cheapest.  We  have  found  it  to  be  a 
good  plan  to  make  a  scraper  of  oak,  and  scrape  the 
mud  off  their  legs  at  night  when  put  in  the  stable. 
This  saves  much  time  in  the  end.-  Some  horsemen 
wash  the  mud  off,  but  this  is  a  bad  plan,  cooling  the 
extremities  and  making  the  skin  tender  and  the  pores 
open. 

The  eye  of  the  horse  is  very  sensitive,  and,  stand- 
ing out  from  the  head,  is  extremely  liable  to  injury. 
Blindness  among  horses  is  very  prevalent.  How 
many  horses  we  see  whose  eyes  have  been  "  knocked 
out."  Generally  this  is  done  by  some  person  in  a  fit 
of  anger  ;  sometimes  sharp  projections  are  left  in  the 
stable  against  which  the  horse  unfortunately  strikes  its 
eye,  destroying  all  use  and  value  of  that  organ.  It  is 
cruel  and  a  sin  to  strike  a  horse  over  the  head,  and 
sinful  carelessness  to  leave  nails  and  other  sharp  pro- 
jections in  the  stable. 

Do  not  put  a  collar  on  over  a  horse's  head.  Did 
you  ever  notice  that  the  eye  of  the  horse,  like  that  of 
the  giraffe,  stands  out  from  the  surface  of  the  head  1 
As  both  depend  ujxsn  their  heels  for  defense  it  is  nec- 
essary that  they  should  see  behind  them  as  well  as  in 
front ;  and  this  is  secured  by  placing  the  eye  out  from 
the  face.  It  is  almost  an  impossibility  to  put  a  collar 
on  over  a  horse's  head  without  bruising  or  injuring 
the  eyes. 


Fig.  ■ic,.—Musilt /or  Horse. 

Gedney's  improved  wire  horse  muzzle  (Fig.  35), 
which  is  made  of  the  best  material,  is  now  in  general 
use  at  the  racing  stables.  It  is  recommended  for  its 
ventilation,  cleanliness  and  durability. 

For  record  of  the  rime  made  by  the  fastest  horses, 
both  trotting  and  running,  see  Speed. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Their  Causes,  Symptoms  and  Remedies. 

The  diseases  of  the  horse  are  numerous,  as  the  pres- 
ent artificial  mode  of  his  life  and  his  complicated 
structure  might  lead  one  to  suspect.  External  dis- 
eases and  cases  of  unsoundness  are  much  more  easy 
to  understand  than  those  which  are  internal,  which 


can  only  be  conjectured  from  symptoms.  In  general 
there  are  two  obvious  indications  of  disease —  a  refusal 
to  work  and  a  refusal  to  feed.  Lameness  speaks  for 
itself;  but  there  may  be  something  the  matter  with 
his  collar  or  part  of  his  harness.  Every  farmer  should 
acquire  some  skill  in  detecting  the  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease, and  should  know  how  to  treat  the  most  ordinary 
complaints;  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
difficulty  of  treating  a  sick  horse  is  not  only  as  great, 
but  in  one  respect  greater  than  that  of  treating  a 
human  patient,  since  he  cannot,  like  the  latter,  de- 
scribe his  sensations.  The  methods  of  recognizing 
and  distinguishing  diseases  of  horses,  as  well  as  cattle, 
are  very  fully  treated  on  page  197,  where  we  refer  the 
reader. 

Before  the  veterinary  art  became  a  distinct  profes- 
sion, the  ignorant  farrier,  pretending  groom,  or  shoe- 
ing smith,  were  all  that  the  owners  of  horses  had  to 
consult;  and  the  fate  of  these  animals  was  commen- 
surate with  the  wretched  treatment  they  were  subjected 
to.  These  men,  without  any  scientific  education, 
often  committed  the  greatest  blunders,  though  they 
frequently  performed  cures,  as  is  the  case  with  other 
quacks. 

That  portion  of  this  article  treating  of  the  causes 
and  symptoms  of,  and  giving  the  remedies  for,  all  the 
principal  diseases  that  the  horse  is  subject  to,  has 
been  carefully  collected  from  the  best  of  most  modern 
authors  of  both  continents,  and  revised  and  enlarged 
by  an  eminent  veterinary  physician  and  surgeon  of 
large  experience,  and  a  gentleman  of  modern,  original 
and  progressive  views  in  the  veternarian  art.  He  has 
successfully  treated,  in  the  most  simple  and  practical 
manner,  many  diseases  that  have  heretofore  baffled 
the  skill  of  the  veterinary  world.  Among  these  is 
tetanus,  or  lock-jaw,  of  which  he  effectually  cured  1 1 
cases  of  the  13  treated  within  less  than  three  years, 
with  apparently  a  simple,  yet  powerful  remedy.  This 
and  the  novel  manner  of  administering  it  won  for  him 
much  favor.  He  has  also  saved  the  lives  of  many 
noble  animals  by  an  operation  called  tracheotomy, 
by  the  use  of  the  trocar  in  flatulent  colic,  and  per- 
formed many  other  critical  surgical  operations  most 
successfully ;  he  has  also  most  signally  brought  to  a 
successful  termination  quite  a  number  of  cases  of 
cerebro-spinal  meningitis,  big  head,  etc.  We  speak 
of  these  things  that  those  who  consult  this  article  for 
the  treatment  of  their  horses  may  have  all  confidence 
in  the  remedies  prescribed. 

Several  of  the  favorite  remedies  with  which  this 
veterinarian  has  performed  these  cures  have  never 
before  been  given  to  the  public.  They  are  the  result 
pf  many  years  of  hard  study  and  practice  of  the  pro- 
fession, and  up  to  this  period  he  has  reserved  them 
for  his  own  use.  Several  of  these  he  has  frequently 
refused  liberal  offers  for.  He  has,  however,  incorpor- 
ated them  in  this  article. 

In  explanarion  of  the  system  of  medication  adopted 
here  we  have  but  to  remark  that  it  has  been  this 
veterinarian's  motto  during  his  long  and  successful 
practice  to   stand   as   nature's  hand-maid    and   en- 


HORSE. 


741 


deavor  to  assist  her  by  removing  obstructions  and 
aiding  her  in  hamiony  with  her  laws,  instead  of  trying 
either  to  reverse  them  or  to  prove  a  hindrance.  He 
has  ever  guarded  against  the  barbarous  treatment 
which  results  as  the  cause  of  disease,  by  weakening 
the  vital  energies  of  life,  as  practiced  by  the  schools 
of  the  past.  Indeed,  he  has  done  much  toward  arresting 
the  streams  of  blood  that  has  for  centuries  flowed  in 
consequence  of  an  evil  system  of  medication.  He 
regards  drastic  cathartics,  firing  and  the  indiscrimin- 
ate use  of  the  strong  liquid  blisters  as  articles  of  an 
ignorant  and  barbarous  age.  For  years  he  has  en- 
deavored to  help  others  to  usher  in  a  milder  and  more 
rational  system  of  medication. 


go  without  any  medicine  than  to  dose  him  with 
"every  man's  remedy,"  with  thejexpectation  that  some 
of  them  will  hit  the  case  and  bring  about  the  desired 
result;  and  many  valuable  horses  are  killed  by  the 
over-anxiety  of  the  proprietor,  who  will  allow  medi- 
cines to  be  administered  without  having  the  faintest 
idea  of  the  ailment,  or  what  particular  remedy  is 
adapted  to  the  case.  By  a  careful  perusal  of  the 
diagnosis  given,  a  correct  study  of  the  symptoms 
shown  by  the  horse,  a  fair  understanding  of  rules  laid 
down  for  recognizing  and  distinguishing  diseases  on 
page  220,  and  observing  the  principles  of  administering 
treatment  and  the  various  methods  as  given  on  pages 
216,  217,  218  and  220,  the  reader  may  venture  to  pre- 


FiG.  Tf>-—Ext€rnaC  Manifestations  0/  Some  0/ the  Diseases  0/ the  f/orst. 


Technicalities  and  obscure  language,  such  as 
quacks  frequently  used  in  order  to  cover  their  ignor- 
ance, are  not  used  in  this  work.  Nothing  but  plain, 
comprehensive  language  is  employed,  so  that  all  may 
understand  and  no  mistakes  be  occasioned. 

With  a  word  on  the  general  treatment  of  this 
noblest  of  beasts  when  in  ill  health,  we  will  proceed  with 
the  treatment  of  diseases,  giving  them  in  their  alpha- 
berical  order.  To  treat  diseases  properly,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  reader  to  give  particular  attention  to 
the  symptoms,  so  that  he  may  form  a  correct  diagnosis 
of  the  diseases  and  prescribe  the  medicines  adapted 
thereto.  It  is  in  this  parricular  that  the  most  mistakes 
occur,  where  non-professionals  find  it  necessary  to 
treat  sickness.     It  is  much  better  to  allow  a  horse  to 


scribe   for  horses  with   a   fair  prospect  of  success. 

External  Manifestations  of  Disease.  Before 
entering  upon  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  horse, 
we  wish  to  present  an  illustration  of  some  of  the 
principal  diseases  of  the  bones  and  tissues,  showing 
their  location  and  speaking  of  general  character  and 
causes.  The  explanation  of  the  letters  and  figures 
indicated  on  the  cut  (Fig.  36)  is  as  follows : 

A.  Caries  or  Ulceration  of  the  Jaw.  Ulcer- 
ation of  the  lower  jaw  sometimes  ends  in  mortification. 
Caused  by  bruises  from  barbarous  bits  and  curb-chains. 

B.  Fistula  of  the  Parotid  Duct.      Fistulas  are . 
caused  by  bruises  or  undue  compression  of  the  parts 
producing  inflammation  and  abscess.  • 


742 


HORSE. 


C.  Bony  Excrescence,  or  exostosis  of  the  lower 
jaw.  A  blow  ujxjn  a  bone  will  produce  inflammation, 
followed  by  exostosis  (long  growth  through  increased 
nutrition),  that  of  the  joints  being  very  painful. 

D.  Swelling  by  pressure  of  the  bridle,  causing 
inflammation  and  sometimes  tumors. 

E.  Poll  Evil.  This  is  exactly  similar  in  its  nature 
to  fistulous  withers,  being  produced  by  a  blow  on  the 
prominent  ridge  which  is  situated  on  the  top  of  the 
poll. 

F.  Inflamed  Parotid  Gland.  Caused  by  a  bruise 
or  compression. 

G.  Inflamed  Jugular  Vein.  Caused  in  various 
ways ;  often  by  carelesssness  after  bleeding. 

H.  Fungus  Tumor,  produced  by  pressure  of  tne 
collar;  the  result  of  galls  and  subsequent  want  of  care 
and  inattention. 

I.  Fistula  of  the  Withers,  generally  caused  by 
pressure  of  the  saddle. 

J.  Saddle  Gall,  caused  by  a  bad-fitting  saddle. 

K.  Tumor  of  the  Elbow,  caused  generally  by 
interference  of  the  shoe  in  lying  down  :  sometimes  by 
a  blow. 

L.  Induration  of  the  Knee,  caused  by  blow  in 
falling. 

M.  Clap  of  the  Back  Sinews,  caused  by  severe 
€xertion  in  running  and  leaping,  destroying  the  integ- 
rity of  the  sinews  of  the  leg. 

N.  Mallenders,  scurfy  manifestations  of  flexions 
of  the  knee,  sometimes  becoming  cracked  and  itchy. 

0.  Splint,  caused  by  blows,  etc.,  on  the  shins, 
more  often  by  using  the  horse  too  young.  They  are 
to  be  dreaded  as  interfering  with  the  action  of  the 
sinews. 

P.  Ringbone,  caused  by  starting  heavy  loads,  or 
excessive  pulling  in  going  up  hill,  or  bruises. 

Q.  Tread  upon  the  Coronet,  the  contusion  of 
the  shoe  of  the  one  foot  by  treading  on  the  other, 
causing  larceration  of  the  coronet  and  of  the  horn  of 
the  hoof. 

R.  QuiTTOR,  confined  pus  from  prick  of  the  sole, 
corns,  or  injury  to  coronet. 

S.  Quarter  Sand  Crack.  Imperfect  secretion 
caused  by  dryness  of  the  hoof;  rupture  of  the  laminae. 

T.  Contracted  Hoof,  or  ringed  hoof  of  a  foun- 
dered horse.     The  result  of  laminitis. 

U.  Capped  Hock.     Injuring  the  point  of  the  hock. 

V.  Sallenders.  Scurfy  eruptions  on  the  seat  of 
flexion  of  the  hock ;  similar  to  mallenders. 

W.  Spavin.  Inflammation  causing  painful  bony 
enlargement,  sometimes  stiff  joint;  caused  by  blows, 
slipping  and  hard  work,  often  from  weak  limbs. 

X.  Curb.  Inflammation  and  lameness  of  the 
posterior  part  of  the  hock,  ending  in  bony  formation ; 
caused  by  wrenching  or  straining  the  limb,  or  bruise. 

Y.  Swelled  Sinews,  caused  by  strains  or  bruises, 
producing  inflammation  and  ending  in  enlargement. 

Z.  TnrCK  Leg,  caused  by  various  injuries  to  the 
joint.  Any  inflammation  may  result  in  a  thickening 
of  the  integuments. 

1.  Grease,  caused  by  debility,  excessive  labor  and 


neglect,  filthy  surroundings,  from  stoppage  of  the 
secretions.  Scratches  are  from  the  same  cause,  as 
working  in  the  mud  without  proper  cleaning,  etc. 

2.  Toe  Sand  Crack,  caused  by  the  same  difficulty 
as  quarter  sand  crack. 

3.  Quarter  Crack.     See  Sand  Crack. 

The  last  two  are  occasioned  generally  by  severe  labor 
of  animals  not  strong  in  the  feet,  by  which  the  walls  are 
ruptured,  by  breaking  the  hoof  with  the  calk  of  another 
foot.  False  quarter  is  occasioned  by  the  absence  of  the 
outside  and  harder  portion  of  the  hoof 

4.  Ventral  Hernia.  Rupture  by  which  the 
bowel  lies  next  the  skin.  When  hernia  is  accom- 
panied with  strangulation  it  becomes  dangerous 

5.  Rat  Tail,  loss  of  the  hair  of  the  tail. 

For  more  extended  facts  relative  to  the  symptoms, 
causes  and  treatment  of  these  disorders,  we  refer  the 
reader  to  each  subject  in  its  alphabetical  order  in  this 
article.  We  wish  here  to  observe  that  besides  the 
remedies  prescribed  for  the  respective  diseases,  the 
horse  must  have  the  best  jxjssible  care — warm,  dry, 
clean,  well-ventilated  quarters,  good,  nourishing  food, 
pure  water  and  rest. 

Prevention  of  Disease.  A  word  should  be 
said  in  reference  to  the  prevention  of  diseases,  which, 
if  strictly  observed,  the  farmer  will  seldom  need  the 
aid  of  the  veterinarian. 

When  a  horse  is  simply  out  of  health  and  spirits, 
without  showing  symptoms  of  any  specific  disease, 
he  should  be  allowed  to  rest  and  have  a  change  of 
food,  and,  if  possible,  of  location.  Nature's  own 
remedy,  rolling,  should  never  be  denied  a  horse,  no 
matter  what  hi&  ailment.  In  acute  diseases  and 
serious  accidents,  unless  the  farmer  has  had  unusual 
experience  and  knows  exactly  what  to  do,  he  should 
call  the  best  veterinarian  in  reach.  Fanners  who  are 
far  removed  from  such  a  physician  would  do  well  to 
purchase  a  set  of  remedies,  with  the  accompanying 
directions,  which  will  enable  them  to  use  thern  intelli- 
gently. Large  doses  of  powerful  remedies,  adminis- 
tered by  inexperienced  owners,  or  equally  ignorant 
country  "boss  doctors,"  will  be  apt  either  to  injure  or 
kill  the  animal. 

There  are  two  classes  of  farmers  who  do  great  in- 
justice to  horses.  One  neglect  their  animals  or  abuse 
them,  producing  many  diseases  from  which  they  suffer 
or  die ;  the  other  class  are  always  dosing  or  doctoring, 
using  ointments  or  jxjuring  drugs  into  them  of  the 
medicinal  properties  of  which  they  now  nothing. 
Farmers  spend  hundreds  of  dollars  upon  condition 
powders  and  other  useless  drugs.  We  often  see 
horses  overworked,  exposed,  or  improperly  fed  and 
cared  for.  Many  times  these  animals  are  kept  in 
this  condition  and  dosed  with  medicine,  with  an 
imagination  or  hope  that  they  can  create  an 
unnatural  appetite,  purify  the  blood,  loosen  the  skin, 
smooth  the  hair,  or  give  good  health  and  spirits. 
This  is  all  useless  and  expensive.  There  are  quack 
doctors  all  over  the  country  who  want  to  sell  useless 
ointments,  condition  jxiwders,  and  all  sorts  of  nostrums, 
simply  to  make  money  out  of  the  farmer,  and  not 


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HORSE. 


that  his  horses  need  them.  The  same  farmer  who 
purchases  these  will  frequently  produce  all  the  dis- 
eases his  horse  has  by  bad  management.  Medicines 
do  not  cure  bad  treatment  or  prevent  it,  and  nothing 
but  good  treatment  will  permanently  relieve  the  horse. 
Horses,  like  men,  require  the  observance  of  proper 
rules  and  laws  of  health,  without  which  medicines  are 
valueless.  The  sensible  farmer  realizes  the  truth  of 
this  assertion,  and  governs  himself  accordingly. 

Medicine  Case.  Every  farmer  who  has  much  to 
do  with  horses  should  provide  himself  with  the  princi- 
pal medicines  required  and  a  pocket-case  of  instru- 


FlG.  37. — Pocket  Case, 

ments.  With  a  case  of  this  kind  the  farmer  is  enabled 
to  perform  many  simple  operations,  which,  in  the 
absence  of  the  same,  he  will  be  at  the  expense  of 
employing  a  veterinary  surgeon  to  do. 

Abdomen,  Dropsy  of  the.  This  is  a  collection 
of  water  in  the  abdomen  which  is  generally  the  re- 
sult of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum,  a 
tough,  white  membrane  which  lines  the  abdomen  and 
embraces  the  bowels  within  its  folds.  When  this 
membrane  has  been  subjected  to  violence  and  is 
associated  with  a  local  inflammation  of  the  muscular 
tissues,  the  effusion  is  directed  inward. 

Sometimes  it  arises  from  obstructed  circulation 
caused  by  diseases  of  the  liver,  lungs,  or  heart,  and 
again  from  a  jxior,  watery  state  of  the  blood,  superin- 
duced by  exhaustion  or  by  scanty  and  innutritions 
food.  It  is  more  frequently  found  in  old  than  in 
young,  vigorous  animals. 

Symptoms.  Generally  a  low  state  of  health  pre- 
cedes the  more  unmistakable  manifestations  ;  there  are 
thirst  and  loss  of  appetite ;  the  pulse  is  hard  and 
small ;  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  pale;  the  eye  is 
dry ;  the  head  droops ;  there  is  a  condition  of  weak- 
ness and  languor;  and  there  are  some  signs  of  heart 
and  liver  diseases;  pressure  upon  the  abdomen  is  so 
painful  as  to  cause  a  groan. 

Sometimes  there  is  local  dropsy  of  the  sheath,  legs 
and  breast,  as  well  as  of  difficulty  in  breathing.  In 
the  chronic    stages     of    the   disease    the    progress 


is  slow,  but  the  belly  becomes  more  and  more 
baggy,  and  in  some  instances  the  hair  of  the  tail 
comes  away  easily  or  drops  out,  showing  that  the 
skin  and  capillary  glands  of  that  part  of  the  body  are 
affected. 

The  presence  of  the  water,  when  it  has  collected 
in  any  considerable  quantity,  may  be  detected  by 
placing  the  ear  to  the  abdomen  and  having  some  one 
slap  the  horse  on  the  opposite  side  with  the  open 
palm. 

In  mares  this  enlargement  of  the  belly  is  sometimes 
mistaken  for  a  pregnant  condition,  but  it  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  a  fluctuating  feeling 
which  follows  a  pressure  upon  the  parts  with 
the  fingers,— a  sort  of  fluid  motion,  as  of 
water  forcibly  displaced. 

Treatment.  If  it  is  known  to  proceed  from 
local  injuries,  or  from  diseases  of  the  vital 
organs,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  adopt  any 
course  of  treatment,  unless,  indeed,  the  pri- 
mary disease  itself  can  be  removed ;  but  when 
it  depends  upon  inflammation  of  the  peri- 
toneum, or  when  it  results  from  bad  or  defi- 
cient food  and  unwholesome  surroundings, 
place  the  horse  in  a  good,  dry  and  well  venti- 
ated  stall,  feed  him  generously,  and  give  him 
the  following   tonic  ball  night  and  morning: 

4  drachms  golden  seal, 
I  ounce  powdered  digitalis, 
J^  ounce  sulphate  of  iron. 

The  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  dropsy 
of  the  brain,  except  wetting  the  head. 

Albuminous  Urine.     See  Urine. 

Amaurosis.  See  diseases  of  the  Eye  in  this 
article. 

Ankles,  Swelled.  This  affection  invariably  arises 
from  a  diseased  condition  of  the  feet.  Its  origin 
may  .  sometimes  be  traced  to  diseases  of  the 
navicular  and  lower  pastern  joints,  but  is  known  to 
proceed  for  the  most  part  from  the  hoof  rot.  It  seems 
occasionally,  however,  to  result  from  a  plethoric 
condition  of  the  general  system,  a  superabundance  of 
blood,  hard  work,  severe  strains,  etc. 

Symptoms.  Confined  almost  wholly  to  the  ankle 
joints.  It  is  not  difficult  of  detection, — the  only  point 
of  importance  being  to  determine  whether  the  swell- 
ing is  merely  spasmodic  and  temporary,  or  whether  it 
is  the  result  of  a  primary  disorder  which  requires 
attention.  It  is  generally  perceptible  of  a  morning, 
and  disappears  during  the  day,  because  exercise  re- 
stores healthful  action  ;  but  when  there  is  really  dis- 
eased condition  of  the  bottom  of  the  foot,  the  fever 
caused  thereby  inflames  the  membrane  of  the 
joint,  under  the  skin,  while  the  horse  is  inactive,  and 
the  swelling  again  takes  place.  If  the  ankles  present 
a  swollen  appearance  from  morning  to  morning,  at- 
tention should  be  directed  to  discover  the  real  condi- 
tion of  the  foot,  and  appropriate  treatment  must  be 
resorted  to  before  the  disease  takes  the  chronic  and 
more  advanced  form  of  swelled  legs,  cracked  heels  or 
scratches. 


HORSE 


745 


Treatment.  If  the  swelling  proceeds  from  plethora 
or  too  great  fullness  of  the  general  system,  give  an 
occasional  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  to  reduce  the  ten- 
dency to  inflammation,  and  feed  upon  green  and  suc- 
culent food.  If  it  proceeds  from  soreness  of  the 
bottom  of  the  foot,  apply  the  same  treatment  as  for 
grease  and  scratches,  every  day  for  four  days ;  then 
omit  for  two  days  and  apply  again.  If  there  is  any 
appearance  of  thrush  or  cracked  heels,  treat  as 
directed  for  the  removal  of  these. 

Aphthae  or  Thrush.  This  is  a  disease  of  the 
mouth  and  occurs  among  sucking  animals  and  young 
horses. 

Symptoms.  White  patches  will  appear  on  the 
tongue,  cheeks  and  lips,  which  assume  a  whitish  color, 
caused  by  a  fungoiy;  growth.  The  lips  swell;  the 
tongue  hangs  out  of  the  mouth ;  vesicles  form  con- 
taining a  clear,  gelatinous  fluid.  At  length  these 
burst ;  crusts  form  and  recovery  ensues. 

Treatment.  To  purify  the  blood  and  promote  the 
general  health,  give  the  following: 

I  ounce  hypo-sulphite  of  soda; 

1  ounce  powdered  sassafras  bark  ; 

2  ounces  powdered  golden  seal  ; 
4  drachms  of  cream  tartar  ; 

I  ounce  flowersof sulphur. 

Mix,  divide  into  four  portions  and  give  one  every 
night  in  scalded  shorts,  allowing  it  to  get  cold.  Or 
give  it  in  cold  gruel  as  a  drink. 

Take  i  oimce  of  powdered  borax  and  3  ounces  of 
molasses;  mix  and  apply  with  a  soft  brush,  or  soft 
piece  of  cloth.     Give  the  animal  soft  feed  or  grass. 

Arteries,  Enlargement  of  the.  Dilatation  of  the 
arteries  is  rarely  found.  It  is  a  thinning  and  weak- 
ening of  the  coats  of  the  vessels,  sometimes  to  burst- 
ing, causing  a  pulsating  tumor  containing  blood. 
Severe  strains  in  the  vicinity  of  an  artery,  blows, 
kicks,  stabs,  or  weakening  from  overstretching,  as  in 
fatty  degeneration,  are  the  causes.  In  the  mesenteric 
arteries  of  horses,  they  are  common  from  immature 
worms  in  the  circulation. 

Symptoms.  There  is  a  soft,  fluctuating,  visible 
tumor  if  near  the  surface,  which  may  be  reduced  by 
pressure,  but  which  instantly  re-appears. 

Treatment.  Treatment  is  not  successful  except 
when  near  the  surface.  Then  steady  pressure  by  a 
pad  if  taken  early  will  sometimes  cause  its  disappear- 
ance. An  animal  with  enlargement  of  the  arteries  is 
unsound  and  should  never  l)e  bought.  The  same 
rule  applies  to  all  diseases  of  the  heart. 

Big  Head  and  Big  Jaw.  These  are  but  one  form 
of  disease,  only  located  in  different  parts.  When  the 
upper  jaw  becomes  the  seat  of  affection,  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  facial  bones  will  be  observed,  the  attention 
will  be  attracted  by  the  unnatural  appearance  of  the 
face.  We  might  say  at  the  outset  that  the  disease  is 
incurable,  in  so  far  as  the  enlargement,  dilation  and 
softening  of  the  Jaw  bone  are  concerned;  yet,  like  spav- 
in, ring-bone  and  various  other  diseases,  they  may  be 
relieved  so  that  the  animal  may  be  able  to  perform 
his  ordinary  duties. 

It  finally  breaks  out  in  small  holes,  which  discharge 


a  thick  pus,  and  at  last  ends,  if  not  treated  oppor- 
tunely, in  a  complete  decay  of  the  bone.  The  bone 
continually  enlarges,  and  cells  or  channels  are  formed 
as  the  minute  bony  plates  become  thinner  and  thinner 
till  the  structure  can  be  easily  cut  with  a  knife  or 
crushed  with  the  fingers.  The  interstices  are  filled 
with  a  red  bloody  mass. 

In  some  cases  the  ligaments  and  tendons  are  sep- 
arated by  decomposition  of  the  bone,  and  crumblings, 
dislocations  and  fractures  take  place  for  want  of  firm 
attachment  for  these  supporting  ligaments. 

The  primary  cause  of  the  disorder  is  not  known, 
but  it  may  have  been  hereditary.  In  speaking  of  this 
disease  Prof  Dadd  says:  "In  certain  localities,  under 
the  ordinary  mode  of  feeding  and  general  manage- 
ment, we  grant  that  at  first  the  disease  might  have 
had  an  accidental  or  spontaneous  origin,  and  finally 
become  permanent  and  transmissible.  For  example, 
glanders  and  farcy  afford  illustrations  of  a  spontane- 
ous disease  becoming ^^ntagious  and  transmissible. 
There  must  have  been  a  time  when  neither  of  the  two 
latter  diseases  existed  ;  hence,  when  the  first  subject 
became  glandered,  he  could  not  have  taken  it  by  in- 
fection or  contagion,  but  it  must  have  had  a  sixinta- 
neous  origin,  and  finally  became  permanent.  We  do 
not  pretend  to  urge  that  the  active  disease  itself  is 
transmissible ;  yet,  in  certain  cases,  a  predisposition 
is  transferred  to  the  progeny.  This  may  be  called  the 
predisposing  cause ;  the  ordinary  exciting  causes  are 
those  which  disturb  and  derange  the  digestive  func- 
tion. The  digestive  or  nutritive  function  is  deranged 
both  by  excessive  and  defective  functional  labors,  or  by 
the  animal  existing  on  food  that  does  not  contain  the 
necessary  amount  of  nitrogenous  or  muscle-making 
matter.  This  is  the  case  when  Indian  corn  isusedas 
food  for  a  great  length  of  time.  It  is  hard  to  digest, 
is  deficient  in  nitrogen,  and  almost  always  over-dis- 
tends the  stomach;  for,  when  submitted  to  the  action 
of  heat  and  the  gastric  fluids,  it  increases  in  bulk  to 
about  five  or  six  times  its  original  capacity.  I  have 
noticed  that  where  much  whole  corn  is  fed,  as  in  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  the  disease  is  most  prevalent.  Associ- 
ated with  the  predisposing  causes  are  others — for 
example,  hard  usage,  sore  abuse,  and  bad  stable  man- 
agement." It  is  difficult  to  assign  any  reason  why 
the  general  predisposition  should  be  determined  pri- 
marily to  the  face. 

Symptoms.  Before  the  visible  swelling  of  the  face 
there  will  generally  be  evident  weakness,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, laziness ;  a  slight  suffusion  of  the  eyes  with  tears 
— one  or  both  according  as  one  or  both  sides  of  the 
facial  bone  is  affected ;  then  a  swelling,  about  half 
way  between  the  eye  and  the  nostril,  small  and  hard, 
but  gradually  increasing  in  size.  If  the  swelling  is 
pressed  upon  with  some  force  the  horse  will  wince 
with  pain,  but  gentle  rubbing  seems  to  give  ease.  The 
lower  jaw,  under  the  chin,  will  next  appear  thickened  ; 
a  degree  of  general  stiffness  sets  in  ;  at  last  the  joints 
are  swollen,  and  seem  puffed  up  with  wind ;  the  horse 
rapidly  fails  in  flesh ;  and  the  head  becomes  enor- 
mously swollen,  and  finally  breaks  into  little  openings 


746 


HORSE. 


which  discharge  a    pus   of    a  very    offensive   odor. 

Treatment.  It  is  well,  perhaps,  to  warn  the  reader 
in  the  outset  not  to  do  any  of  those  foolish  things 
which  characterized  the  old  practice,  such  ,as  boring 
into  the  diseased  part  and  injecting  corrosive  poison ; 
laying  open  the  jaw  and  sawing  out  a  portion  of  the 
bone;  blistering,  burning,  etc.  The  disease  is  not 
local,  but  constitutional,  and  though  perhaps  having 
no  other  visible  manifestation  than  on  the  face,  it  has 
extensive  connection  with  various  portions  of  the 
frame,  so  that  purely  local  treatment  is  of  little  conse- 
quence. 

The  first  step  will  be  to  see  that  the  patient  is  well 
stabled  or  otherwise  cared  for  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year,  and  put  upon  a  systematic  course  of  food, 
drink,  and  moderate  exercise  in  the  sun.  Give  him 
from  five  to  seven  quarts  of  oats  per  day,  and  if  these 
are  boiled  and  mixed  with  a  little  wheat  bran,  all  the 
better.  When  green  vegetables  can  be  had,  they 
should  be  fed  liberally,  to  coun^ract  a  sort  of  scorbutic 
or  scurvy  tendency  which  marks  this  disorder.  Apples, 
beets,  carrots,  turnips — whatever  fruit  or  vegetable 
you  can  get  him  to  take  is  good.  When  seasonable, 
put  him  ufKDn  a  bountiful  pasture. 

Give  the  following  dose  night  and  morning  in  such 
food  as  he  will  most  readily  eat :  J^  ounce  stramo- 
nium seed ;  also  take  i  drachm  corrosive  sublimate, 
finely  pulverized ;  add  i  drachm  Venice  turpentine, 
and  apply  every  two  weeks,  greasing  between  times. 

Bladder,  Inflammation  of  the.  A  disease  very 
rare  in  animals,  and  when  occurring,  the  effect  of  vio- 
lent external  injury,  or  the  result  of  irritating  medi- 
cines, as  croton  oil,  cantharides,  administered  by  the 
ignorant. 

Symptoms.  The  principal  symptom  is  frequent 
urination  accompanied  by  straining  and  pain.  Some- 
times the  urine  dribbles  away,  involuntary  or  not,  as 
the  case  may  be.  It  appears  that  the  least  distension 
of  the  bladder  causes  pain ;  hence  the  effort  to  keep 
it  empty.  The  urine  is  usually  high  colored,  or 
rather  of  a  dull  red  color. 

As  a  sure  test,  grasp  the  horse  by  the  mane,  half- 
way between  the  head  and  shoulder,  with  the  left 
hand,  place  the  right  hand  under  the  flank  when  all 
nervousness  has  passed,  press  more  or  less  strongly 
on  the  abdomen.  If  inflammation  be  present,  the 
animal  evinces  intense  pain.  If  the  muscles  be  tense 
and  hard  there  is  no  inflammation.  A  better  treat- 
ment is  to  insert  the  hand  into  the  rectum  up  to  the 
elbow,  turn  the  hand  down  and  see  if  there  is  more 
heat  than  need  be. 

Treatment.  Give  full  doses  of  opium,  2  drachms, 
to  relieve  pain.  Give  linseed  tea,  milk,  and  white  of 
eggs  beaten  up  with  water  as  drinks.  As  a  laxative 
to  relieve  the  bowels  give  i  to  2  pints  of  olive  oil  as 
may  be  needed.  Inject  into  the  bladder  the  follow- 
ing, if  you  have  an  instrument: 

I  drachm  opium, 

I  drachm  gum  arable, 

I  pint  blood-warm  water. 

In  severe  cases,  the  ammoniacal  blister  may  be  ap- 


plied (see  Fig.  39),  if  there  is  paralysis  of  the  parts, 
with  or  without  fomentations. 


Fig.  -y).— Application  of  Ammoniacal  Blister, 

The  acute  symptoms  having  subsided,  give  small 
doses  of  copaiva  i  to  2  drachms,  or  buchu,  2  to  3 
drachms,  as  may  seem  to  be  needed.  Let  the  animal 
drink  slippery-elm  bark.  Give  soft  or  sloppy  diet 
with  linseed  tea  or  other  mucilaginous  drinks. 

Bladder,  Rupture  of  the.  This  difficulty  oc- 
curs only  in  the  female,  except  in  stricture,  the  result 
of  difficult  parturition.  The  animal  strains  violently, 
and  on  examination  a  red,  tumid,  rounded  mass  is 
shown  between  the  lips  of  the  vulva. 

Treatment.  Wash  the  parts  carefully  with  tepid 
water,  in  which  an  ounce  of  laudanum  has  been 
mixed  with  each  quart.  Then  return  carefully  by 
pressing  the  center  of  the  mass  inwards  to  correct  the 
eversion.  The  difficulty  will  be  in  returning  it  through 
the  neck  of  the  bladder.  There  will  be  more  or  less 
inflammation  and  softening;  therefore,  care,  judg- 
ment and  time  must  be  used  not  to  tear  the  tissues. 
If  there  is  renewed  straining,  place  a  truss  or  com- 
press the  vagina. 

Bladder,  Stone  in  the.  This  is  a  formation  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  common  chalk  held  together 
by  the  secretion  of  the  mucous  membrane.  Cystic 
calculus  may  be  present  for  a  long  time  before  the 
animal  shows  symptoms  of  its  presence. 

Symptoms.  Frequent  endeavors  to  urinate  will  be 
made.  The  urine  is  of  a  whitish  color  and  is  voided 
in  small  quantities,  abdominal  pains  are  present,  the 
back  is  hollowed,  often  the  point  of  the  penis  is  con- 
stantly exposed,  and  going  down  hill  the  horse  often 
stops  suddenly,  pawing,  kicking  at  the  belly,  rolling, 
lying  down  and  getting  up  quickly,  are  symptoms  gen- 
erally present. 

Mr.  Youatt  says  that  "the  symptoms  of  stone 
in  the  bladder  much  resemble  spasmodic  colic,  ex- 
cept that,  on  careful  inquiry,  it  will  be  found  that  there 
has  been  much  irregularity  in  the  discharge  of  urine, 
and  occasional  suppression  of  it.  When  fits  of  ap- 
parent colic  frequently  return,  and  are  accompanied 
by  any  peculiarity  in  the  appearance  or  the  discharge 
of  the  urine,  the  horse  should  be  carefully  examined. 
For  this  purpose  he  must  be  thrown.  If  there  is  stone 


HORSE. 


747 


in  the  bladder  it  will,  while  the  horse  lies  on  his  back, 
press  on  the  rectum.  Several  cases  have  lately  oc- 
curred of  successful  extraction  of  the  calculus,  but  to 
effect  this  it  is  always  necessary  to  have  recourse  t5 
the  aid  of  a  veterinary  practitioner." 

Treatment.  Administer  2  drachms  of  muriatic 
acid  in  a  pail  of  water  once  a  day ;  by  these  means 
the  calculi  may  be  dissolved.  Should  this  fail,  the 
operation  of  lithotomy  is  necessary,  by  which  the  stone 
can  be  removed.  This,  however,  is  the  business  of 
a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Preventive  Measures.  The  seed  of  Jamestown 
weed,  or  thorn-apple,  has  been  given  with  good  effect 
in  preventing  the  formation  of  large  calculi.  Give 
an  ounce  of  the  powdered  seed  in  the  feed  every  day 
until  six  doses  are  given.  In  connection  with  this 
give  the  following : 

I  ounce  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
I  ounce  oil  juniper, 
I  ounce  oil  of  sassafras, 
4  ounces  sweet  spirits  of  niter. 

Form  into  four  doses,  and  give  one  morning  and  night 
for  two  days.  Animals  predisposed  to  gravel  should 
be  fed  on  sound  hay  from  old  meadows,  sound  grain 
and  watered  only  with  soft  water. 

Bleeding.  This  relic  of  barbarism,  so  far  as  do- 
mestic practice  of  medicine  is  concerned,  has  been 
entirely  discarded.  In  veterinary  practice  it  has  grown 
into  great  disrepute,  and  is  looked  upon  by  the  pro- 
fession of  to-day  as  needful  only  in  rare  cases,  and 
indeed,  by  some,  as  never  required.  Upon  this  sub- 
ject Prof.  McClure  says : 

"  Avoid  these  measures  and  substitute  a  rational 
and  successful  system  of  treating  the  diseases  of  your 
animals.  Ascertain  whether  your  horse  is  suffering 
from  a  disease  of  an  exalted  or  inflammatory  kind; 
substitute  aconite,  pure  air  and  cold  water  for  bleed- 
ing, and  in  a  few  hours  you  will  have  no  cause  to  regret 
the  change.  If  the  disease  be  of  a' depressed  kind, 
accompanied  with  weakness  and  debility,  give  nux 
vomica,  iron  and  a  generous  diet.  If  the  disease  be 
an  eruptive  fever,  give  sulphite  of  soda  to  purify 
the  blood.  In  rheumatism,  administer  colchicum 
and  carbonate  of  soda.  In  mange,  apply  the  sul- 
phuret  of  ]X3tassa  to  the  skin,  and  thereby  destroy 
the  small  insects  which  cause  the  trouble. 

"  In  hard  swellings  use  the  preparations  of  iodine, 
to  cause  their  absorption.  In  lameness,  allow  absolute 
and  entire  rest,  and  apply  hot  or  cold  applications  and 
slight  irritants  to  the  parts,  to  remove  the  products  of 
the  sprain.  Ascertain  the  cause  of  disease,  and  hav- 
ing found  it,  have  it  removed,  and  the  effects  will 
cease.  If  the  animal  be  costive  from  eatingdry,  con- 
centrated food,  remove  it  by  giving  green  feed  or  bran, 
but  do  not  give  physic.  If  diarrhoea  be  present, 
leave  it,  at  least  for  a  time,  to  itself,  as  it  is  nature's 
plan  of  getting  rid  of  the  offending  matter.  But,  if 
it  should  continue,  chalk  and  opium,  as  an  astringent, 
are  what  is  wanted.  The  reader  cannot  fail  to  see 
how  simple,  and  his  experience  will  demonstrate  how 
successful,  these  measures  are  in  arresting  and  curing 
the  diseases  of  all  our  domestic  animals. 


Undoubtedly  Prof.  McClure 's  theory  is  an  excellent 
one,  yet  many  good  veterinarians  regard  the  useof  the 
lancet  as  necessary  in  some  rare  cases.         ' 

These  are  brain  disorders  and  some  form  of  inflam- 
matory disease.  The  jugular  vein  is  the  one  to  be 
bled  from,  and  when  the  object  is  to  deplete  the  sys- 
tem, two,  three  and  even  four  quarts  should  be  taken. 
Sometimes  even  six  or  seven  quarts  must  be  taken 
from  a  large,  plethoric  animal.  Always  catch  the 
blood  in  a  vessel,  as  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  much 
we  take. 

First  moisten  the  hair  and  smooth  it  down.  By 
pressing  on  the  jugular  vein  along  the  neck,  below 
the  sjxit  selected  for  the  incision,  it  will  soon  rise  up 
prominently.  In  bleeding,  always  make  the  incision 
in  the  line  of  the  vein,  neVer  across  it.  Make 
the  incision  large,  but  never  through  both  walls  of  the 
vein.  When  sufficient  blood  has  been  taken,  raise 
the  lips  of  the  vein  between  the  fingers,  thrust  a  pin 
through  and  wind  some  thread  dipped  in  the  blood 
about  it  to  hold  it.  In  a  couple  of  days  the  pin  may 
be  withdrawn. 

In  staggers  and  diseases  of  the  brain  it  is  usual  to 
bleed  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 

Whenever  a  horse  is  to  be  bled  it  is  better  to  blind- 
fold him,  since  it  prevents  his  starting,  and  thus  caus- 
ing a  miss  with  the  lancet  or  fleam  in  the  hands  of  an 
inexpert  person. 

Bleeding  from  the  Nose.  This  often  occurs 
from  various  injuries  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nostrils,  from  hard  pulling  up  hill,  too  tight  a  collar, 
and  from  other  causes,  especially  if  the  animal  be 
full  of  blood.  In  these  cases  the  bleeding  is  from  one 
nostril  and  in  drops,  accompanied  by  sneezing.  If 
the  bleeding  comes  from  the  lungs,  it  will  be  bright 
red  and  frothy,  and  there  will  be  a  cough.  If  from 
the  stomach,  it  will  be  black,  clotted,  sour  and  accom- 
panied by  retching. 

Treatment.  In  simple  cases  tie  the  head  up 
as  high  as  possible,  blow  strong  alum  water  from  a 
tube  at  each  inspiration,  and  if  obstinate,  plug  the 
nostrils  with  pledgets  of  tow.  Give  internally  one 
scruple  of  acetate  of  lead,  to  be  followed  in  half  an 
hour  with  another  if  necessary.  Inject  well  up  in  the 
nostrils  a  weak  solution  of  muriatic  tincture  of  iron. 

If  both  nostrils  are  involved,  and  the  flow  is  con- 
tinuous, only  one  nostril  must  be  stopped  at  a  time, 
unless  tracheotomy  is  jjerformed,  since  the  horse  can- 
not breathe  through  the  mouth. 

Blind  Staggers.     See  Staggers  in  this  article. 

Blistering.     See  page  218. 

Bloody  Urine.     See  Urine  in  this  article. 

Bog,  and  Bog  Spavin.     See  Spavin  in  this  article. 

Bots.  For  a  description  of  the  fly  that  causes 
the  bots  in  horses  and  the  manner  in  which  it  gets 
into  the  stomachs,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  article 
on  Gad-fly.  So  long  as  the  animal  is  in  perfect  health, 
they  do  little  if  any  harm  while  in  the  stomach.  But 
in  case  of  disease  or  insufficient  food  they  may  be- 
come  troublesome.     Much   has   been  written  upon 


748 


HORSE. 


the  subject  as  to  whether  bots  were  a  source  of  pain 
or  injury  or  not.     Prof.  Dadd  says : 

"Veterinary  surgeons  have  long  since  discarded 
the  absurd  notion  that  bots  are  the  cause  of  pain  and 
and  suffering  to  horses.  In  fact,  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  them  assert  that  these  little  creatures, 
with  their  rough  exterior,  are  rather  beneficial 
than  otherwise,  and  that,  by  friction  and  irritation, 
they  arouse  the  sluggishness  of  the  stomach,  and  thus 
promote  digestion.  Persons  unacquainted  with  these 
facts  are,  therefore,  apt  to  attribute  effects  during  life 
to  causes  which  happen  after  death,  and  consequently 
the  poor  horse  has  to  be  dosed  with  all  sorts  of 
nostrums." 

Upon  the  same  subject  Mr.  Percivall  said : 

"  You  may  boldly  assert  that  bots  are  in  nowise  in- 
jurious. Still  you  cannot  persuade  the  world  so,  and 
therefore  you  must  be  prepared  to  meet  the  complaints 
of  those  unbelievers  who  will  now  and  then  declare 
that  their  horses  have  bots  which  must  be  got  rid  of. 
But  I  know  of  no  medicine  that  has  the  power  of 
destroying ;  and  even  if  we  ixjssessed  such,  I  am  not 
sure  that  we  could,  even  when  dead,  detach  them 
from  the  cuticular  coat  of  the  stomach,  to  which  they 
are  attached  by  small  horns." 

In  speaking  of  the  location  of  the  bot  and  its  re- 
markable ix)wer  to  resist  the  action  of  medicines, 
Prof.  Dadd  says: 

"He  maybe  said  to  be  a 'slow  coach,'  and  when 
once  located  in  the  stomach  of  a  horse,  he  generally 
makes  it  his  abode  for  a  season  at  least.  He  is  a 
sort  of  aristocratic  entozoon.  He  lives  in  the  upper 
region,  the  stomach.  He  seldom  condescends  to  mix 
with  the  lower  orders  that  infest  the  alimentary 
regions.  The  little  creature  seems  to  exercise  con- 
siderable tact  in  selecting  his  location.  Although  he 
has  but  a  squatter's  title  to  it,  yet  it  is  best  and  safest 
in  the  whole  diggings.  He  is  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  stomach,  where  the  fluids  (jxiisons  or  medicines) 
with  vHiich  you  are  about  to  coax  or  drive  him  off,  are 
inoperative  (for  they  merely  give  him  a  sort  of 
shower-bath)  and  pass  immediately  through  the 
stomach  into  the  intestines,  where  all  the  fluid  a  horse 
drinks  is  generally  found ;  therefore  they  cannot  act 
on  the  bot.  Then,  again,  he  is  located  on  the  cuticu- 
lar coat  of  the  stomach,  a  membrane  as  insensible  as 
the  hoise's  hoof,  and  therefore  not  liable  to  become 
diseased,  nor  to  be  acted  on  by  either  medicine  or  bot 
nostrums.  You  may  kill  the  horse  by  the  same,  but 
the  bot,  being  within  his  own  castle,  can  refuse  what- 
ever you  offer  him. 

"We  cannot  make  medicine  act  on  the  external 
surface  of  the  bot,  for  it  does  not  absorb  fluid ;  it  is 
impervious.  These  creatures  have  been  put  into 
muriatic  acid,  and  kept  there  for  a  time  without  being 
injured.  You  may  put  them  into  new  rum,  and  keep 
them  for  weeks,  and  on  taking  them  out  and  exposing 
them  to  the  sun's  rays,  they  will  manifest  vitality. 

"We  often  hear  wonderful  stories  related  of  bots 
burrowing  through  the  coats  of  the  stomach.  This, 
we  think,  rarely  takes  place  while  the  horse  is  alive. 


That  cavity  is  the  home  of  the  bot,  its  natural  habita- 
tion; for  we  know  of  no  other.  Here  it  generally 
remains  until  it  is  capable  of  exercising  an  indepen- 
dent existence.  In  this  situation  the  little  creature 
is  too  comfortably  located  to  burrow  through  the 
stomach  into  a  cavity  where  it  might  perish  for  want 
of  food.  If  the  time  has  arrived  for  it  to  vacate  its 
stronghold,  instinct  teaches  it  the  most  safe  and  ex- 
peditious route,  which  is  through  the  alimentary  canal. 
Turn  a  horse  out  to  grass  in  the  spring,  or  give  him 
some  green  fodder  in  the  stable,  and  the  bots  will 
soon  leave  him,  if  they  are  matured ;  otherwise  they 
must  remain  until  that  period  arrives,  unless  nature 
has  some  work  for  them  to  perform.  We  shall  not 
contend  that  bots  are  never  found  in  the  abdominal 
cavity,  for  some  persons  have  testified  to  the  fact;  but 
during  a  practice  of  several  years,  and  having  op- 
portunities of  making  many  post-mortem  examinations, 
we  have  not  yet  been  able  to  observe  the  phenomenon, 
except  in  cases  of  ruptured  stomach.  Still,  a  few 
solitary  cases  are  on  record,  and  hence  it  remains  for 
us  to  explain  how  they  got  there."  * 

In  the  spring  when  the  horse  is  hungry  and  there 
is  indication  of  intestinal  difficulty,  they  may  be  sus- 
pected. If  the  horse  turns  up  his  upper  lip,  and  if 
the  edges  of  the  tongue  are  red  and  fiery-looking,  it 

will  be  evi- 
dence of  their 
existence.  The 
only  remedy 
for  ridding  the 
system  of  them 
is  to  turn  the 
horse  to  grass 
in  May.  At  this 
lime  physic  will 
hasten  them 
away.  They 
may  also  be 
hastened  by  the 
following:  pop- 
lar bark  and 
rock  salt,  J^ 
ounce  each,  3 
times  a  day.  A 
ViQ.  ^o.—Tim  Bet  Fly.  Strong  decoc- 

I.  The  female  about  to  deposit  an  egg.  ^q^     of    WOmi- 

a.   1  he  egg  magnined.        3.    1  he  bot.  . 

4.  The  chrysalis.  5.  The  male  fly.     WOod    IS    alsO   a 

good  vermifuge,  used  as  an  injection. 

As  a  preventive  against  bots,  keep  .the  long  hairs  of 
the  jaws,  breast  and  fore-Umbs  trimmed  close,  and 
apply  a  litde  oil  daily;  and  brush  off  any  eggs  that 
may  be  found.  Animals  kept  in  stables  and  well- 
groomed  are  seldom  troubled  with  bots. 

When  ready  to  pass  away,  they  sometimes  cause 
irritation  of  the  bowels  and  anus  by  sticking  there. 

Bowels,  Inflammation  of  the,  or  Enteritis. 
This  most  painful  and  dangerous  malady  is  often 
brought  on  by  sudden  changes  from  heat  to  cold. 
Horses  are  sometimes  driven  fast  and  compelled  to 
draw  heavy  loads,  undue  exertion  quickens  the  cir- 


HORSE. 


749 


dilation,  the  blood  is  driven  to  the  skin  and  copious 
perspiration  is  the  result.  The  animals  are  hitched 
to  a  post,  or  perhaps  put  into  the  stable,  or  let  stand, 
facing  a  cold  wind.  The  heat  of  the  body  produces 
evajwration,  and  cold  of  the  lowest  degree  ensues. 
Tlie  animals  shiver,  the  blood  is  repelled  to  the  in- 
ternal organs,  the  intestines,  being  debilitated  by 
fatigue,  are  prepared  for  inflammation,  and  enteritis 
is  the  result.  Colic  wrongly  treated  or  prolonged,  or 
congestion,  may  end  in  enteritis. 

Symptoms.  The  horse  appears  heavy  and  dull, 
picks  over  his  food,  shivers,  rolls,  plunges  and  kicks, 
bringing  the  hind  feet  up  to  the  belly;  the  breathing 
is  quickened,  the  mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  the  pulse  is 
quick  and  wiry,  the  legs  and  ears  are  cold,  pressure 
on  the  abdomep  gives  pain. 

Treatment.  The  animal  should  be  placed  in  a 
roomy  box-stall,  the  legs  should  be  bandaged  with 
flannel  bandages,  the  body  should  be  warmly  clothed. 
The  speedy  use  of  the  lancet  is  here  called  for  ;  open 
the  jugular  and  abstract  Yi  gallon  of  blood.  Give 
upo)i  Ihe  tongue  every  hour  for  the  first  three  hours 
lo  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite;  or,  laudanum,  2 
ounces ;  aconite  root  in  jx^wder,  J^  drachm ;  tincture 
belladonna,  5  drops ;  water,  i  j)int.  Take  aqua 
ammonia  2  parts,  and  water  i  part;  saturate  a  woolen 
cloth,  large  enough  to  cover  the  abdomen,  in  the 
mixture ;  hold  the  cloth  under  the  abdomen  by  means 
of  a  blanket  folded  and  held  up  tight  by  girths.  See 
page  670.  This  blister  often  acts  quick,  and  one  must 
examine  it  often.  Throw  up  copious  injections  of 
soap  and  water  gruel.  Tobacco-smoke  injections  are 
also  beneficial;  avoid  purgatives.  Hay  and  bran 
should  not  be  given.  Boiled  roots  should  constitute 
the  food  on  recovery,  after  which  a  few  ground  oats 
may  be  added.  The  iX)st-mortem  examination  alone 
shows  the  violence  of  the  disease.  The  intestines  are 
black  and  swollen,  often  presenting  a  greenish  hue. 
Their  structure  is  destroyed.  They  tear  upon  the 
slightest  touch,  and  are  gorged  with  inflamed  blood. 
Prompt  and  energetic  treatment  is  required  to  check 
a  disease  whose  ravages  will  take  the  life  of  so  power- 
ful an  animal  in  so  short  a  time.  The  disease  runs 
its  course  in  from  8  to  12  hours. 

Brain,  Abscess  of  the.  Man's  brutality  often 
brings  about  this  serious  affliction.  Almost  every 
person  deems  himself  ecjual  to  the  task  of  breaking 
and  training  his  own  colts.  It  is  customary  to  begin 
this  operation  by  bitting  the  animal.  A  surcingle, 
crupper  and  bridle  are  placed  ujx)n  it;  the  reins  are 
tightened  and  the  head  is  drawn  up  to  suit  the  vanity 
of  its  proprietor.  The  torture  of  a  living  body  is  an 
expensive  mode  of  gratifying  vanity.  The  animal, 
trying  to  free  itself  from  torture,  throws  itself  back- 
wards. The  head  being  checked  up  is  the  first  part 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  earth ;  the  concussion  is 
liable  to  create  an  abscess  on  the  brain.  Sometimes 
teamsters  gratify  their  passions  by  striking  the  horse 
upon  the  head  with  the  butt  end  ol  a  whip,  and  abscess 
on  the  brain  is  the  result. 

Symptoms.     The  animal  for  some  time  is  dull  and 


stupid;  at  length  it  falls  down  and  commences  dash- 
ing its  head  upon  the  ground.  While  life  lasts  this 
dreadful  occupation  is  carried  on,  nor  can  any  power 
quiet  the  sufferer  until  death  closes  the  scene.  No 
treatment  is  of  any  use ;  but  as  a  matter  of  charity  the 
horse  should  be  killed,  that  his  sufferings  may  be 
ended. 

Brain,  Dropsy  of  the.  This  is  the  termination 
of  some  disorder  in  the  brain  itself,  or  the  membranes 
surrounding  it.  The  immediate  causes,  or  the  excit- 
ants to  its  development,  are  various,  as  castration, 
foot  puncture,  staggers,  acute  diseases  of  the  stomach, 
defective  nutrition,  etc. 

Symptoms.  At  first  an  unnatural  sleepiness  will 
appear,  with  apparent  unconsciousness  and  a  tendency 
to  reel  when  moving  on  foot.  The  pupil  of  the  eye 
is  perceptibly  dilated ;  the  animal  breathes  in  a  hard 
and  grunting  way ;  he  tosses  his  head  about  and 
throws  it  upward  or  backward,  as  though  in  much 
pain.  When  down,  with  neck  lying  prone,  as  is  often 
the  case,  he  will  sometimes  raise  his  head,  then  drop 
it  spasmodically,  beating  it  upon  the  ground.  If 
unrelieved,  convulsions  finally  set  in  and  death 
ensues. 

Treatment.  If  the  head  is  hot  with  fever,  denoting 
an  acute  attack,  sjxjnge  frequently  with  cold  water 
and  see  that  the  bowels  are  kept  moderately  open. 
If  there  is  decided  constipation,  as  is  sometimes  the 
case,  use  an  injection  of  soap-suds  at  intervals,  until 
the  bowels  are  moved.  Then  give  the  following,  in 
doses  of  two  ounces,  morning  and  evening  : 

4  ounces  fluid  extract  of  buchu, 
2  ounces  iodide  of  potassium, 
6  ounces  water, 

4  drachms  hypo-sulphite  soda, 
I  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Clothe  the  body  well;  keep  cold-water  bandages 
constantly  on  the  head.  Continue  this,  keeping  the 
horse  from  labor  and  as  quiet  as  possible,  until  all 
symptoms  of  feverishness  disappear  from  about  the 
head  and  the  unnatural  torpor  no  longer  manifests 
itself. 

Brain,  Inflammation  of  the.  Of  all  diseases  ro 
which  the  horse  is  liable,  this  is  the  most  terrible. 
The  symptoms  commence  with  loss  of  spirit ;  the 
animal  is  dull  and  stupid;  the  horse,  which  was  for- 
merly a  willing,  and  obedient  slave,  seems  altogether 
changed.  The  lines  may  be  tugged,  the  whip  a[)plied, 
the  voice  of  the  driver  may  bawl  in  the  highest  key, 
and  the  usage  which  fonnerly  would  strike  the  timid 
creature  with  terror  now  seems  to  be  unheeded.  The 
eyes  have  a  vacant  stare,  the  membranes  of  the  nose 
are  much  reddened,  the  pulse  is  quick  and  full,  the 
appetite  is  lost.  Ultimately  the  mad  stages  come  on. 
The  animal  is  unconscious  of  its  surroundings  and 
seems  bent  on  self-destruction. 

Treat?nent.  If  observed  in  its  earliest  stages,  before 
violent  frenzy  attacks  it,  resort  may  be  had  to  bleed- 
ing. Open  both  jugulars  as  quickly  as  possible  and 
allow  both  streams  to  flow  until  the  animal  falters. 
Give  the  following  ball:  Aloes,  i  ounce;  croton  oil, 
10   drops;  ginger  and  gentian,   of  each   i  drachm; 


75° 


HORSE. 


molasses  or  honey  sufficient  to  form  a  ball.  Give 
upon  the  tongue  every  two  hours  tincture  of  aconite, 
lo  drops,  until  the  pulse  vibrates  more  naturally. 
Bags  of  ice,  or  cloth  saturated  with  cold  water,  should 


Fig.  41. — A  Horse  Mad  with  Injlamination  0/  tKe  Brain^  or  Phrenitis. 

be  kept  upon  the  head.     Give  cold  water  to  drink. 


made  in  blowing  soap-bubbles.  In  extreme  cases  the 
breathing  becomes  extremely  laborious,  the  cough  is 
constant  and  distressing,  the  legs  are  extended,  and  at 
length  the  animal  dies  of  suffocation. 

Treatment.  The  first  step  is  to  find  the 
extent  of  the  inflammation.  Never  bleed. 
Clothe  the  animal  warmly  and  give  an 
injection  of  warm  water  to  relieve  the 
bowels.  Avoid  all  strong  purgatives.  In 
fact,  give  none  unless  the  bowels  are  de- 
cidedly bound  up.  Let  the  food  be  soft 
and  laxative,  green  grass  in  summer,  or 
mashes  and  gruel  in  winter.  For  the 
throat,  scalded  soft  hay  fastened  by  band- 
ages will  be  good.  Wash  the  neck  with 
a  weak  decoction  of  tobacco  as  hot  as  it 
can  be  borne.  When  dry,  shave  the 
hair  from  the  chest  and  apply  a  blister  of 
better  strength  than  that  advised  for  chest 
founder.     The  following  will  be  good  : 

I  ounce  aqua  ammonia  ; 

I  ounce  powdered  cantharides  ; 

I  ounce  powdered  resin  ; 

4  ounces  lard  oil. 

Melt  the  resin  and  lard  together,  add 
the  cantharides  and  stir  until  it  sets  to- 
gether. Apply  to  the  chest  and  throat  if 
the  case  is  desperate.  If  only  irritation  is 
desired,  the  following  will  be  good  : 


The  most  nutritious  food  should  be  given  on  recovery, 
but  only  in  very  small  quantities.  Should  the  animal 
recover,  treat  it  very  kindly  ;  any  thing  which  excites 
it  is  liable  to  bring  on  another  attack.  In  ninety-nine 
cases  out  of  a  hundred,  however,  relief  will  come  in 
death.  Phrenitis  is  caused  by  blows  upon  the  head, 
powerful  stimulants,  over-feeding,  etc. 

Broken  Hock,  Broken  Knees  and  Broken  Wind: 
see  respective  subjects  in  this  article. 

Bronchitis.  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
embrane  lining  the  bronchial  tubes,  or  air  passages 

the  lungs.  Exposure  of  a  heated  and  steaming 
horse  to  chill  or  over  exertion,  and  leaving  the  horse 
in  the  stable  when  the  system  is  quite  relaxed,  or  rid- 
ing to  town  and  leaving  a  horse  in  the  cold  and  wind, 
while  the  owner  is  making  himself  comfortable,  are 
the  chief  causes  of  bronchiris.  There  is  first  a  cold, 
enlarged  glands  and  swelled  throat.  The  inflamma- 
tion extends  down  from  the  larnyx  through  the  trachea 
into  the  bronchial  tubes  and  air  passages  of  the  lungs, 
and  ends  sometimes  in  confirmed  and  incurable  bron- 
chitis. 

Symptoms.  In  the  acute  stage  there  is  difficulty 
and  rapidity  of  breathing,  from  the  filling  of  the  mem- 
branes with  blood  and  the  consequent  diminishing  of 
the  size  of  the  tube.  After  a  rime  mucus  is  formed 
and  increases  the  difficulty  of  breathing  and  causes  a 
cough.  The  pulse  will  be  60  or  70  beats  per  minute; 
the  cough  will  become  hard  and  dry,  and  the  sound  in 
the  throat  will  be  ratding,  and  after  the  secretion  of 
mucus  a  gurgling  sound  will  be  given  similar  to  that 


4  ounces  lard  oil  ; 

I  ounce  turpentine  ; 

6  drachms  powdered  cantharides. 

Shave  the  hair  and  apply  by  rubbing  in. 
Brushing,  or  Speedy  Cut.  This  is  a  bruise,  abra- 


FiG.  42. — A  Case  of  Incurable  Bronchitis. 

sion  of  the  skin,  or  contused  wound,  produced  by  the 
shoe  of  one  foot  striking  the  opposite  fetlock  ankle,  or 
even  the  knee.  It  is  more  owing  to  weakness  than 
other  causes,  though  a  horse  striking  once  is  more 
liable  to  the  same  injury  thereafter.  It  is  really  the 
foot  that  is  resting  on  the  ground  that  causes  the 
hurt,  from  its  being  put  down  out  of  the  proper  line. 
Treatment.  For  horses  of  slow  or  moderate  driv- 
ing, the  difficulty  is  confined  to  striking  the  ankle  and 
below.  The  usual  remedy  is  to  cause  the  horse  to  set 
his  foot  in  proper  line  by  raising  that  side  of  the  shoe, 


752 


HORSE. 


thus  throwing  the  inside  of  the  ankle  slightly  up. 
Any  common-sense  blacksmith  should  know  how  to 
do  it.  For  fast  horses  the  limbs  must  be  further  pro- 
tected by  means  of  pads  (see  Fig.  43)  and  other 
f,SfBJSsSBi®g|!i^^  appliances  to  be  found  at 
all  saddlery  establish- 
ments. 

Burns  AND  Scalds  sel- 
_dom  occur  in  horses  on 
the  farm  or  employed  on 
the  road.     They  are,  how- 
Yia.  ^■i.—Anku  Pad.  ever,    of  frequent   occur- 

rence where  horses  are  employed  about  mills  or 
factories  where  steam  is  used;  or  in  iron  foundries 
and  in  cities. 

Treatmenl.  Sprinkle  common  baking  soda  thickly 
on  the  part,  or  moisten  with  water  into  a  thick  paste 
and  bind  or  lay  it  over  the  injury.  For  slight  bums 
which  sometimes  cover  alarge  surface,  there  is  nothing 
better  than  several  coats  of  thick  white-lead  paint  laid 
on  with  a  brush;  cover  the  whole  with  cotton  and 
bind  on  close.  Sometimes  indolent  sores  follow  burns 
and  scalds.  If  so,  the  ulcers  should  be  well  and 
carefully  washed  with  tar  water,  and  the  following 
mixture  dusted  over  the  parts :  i  ounce  oxide  of  zinc ; 
2  ounces  powdered  starch.  Mix  i;jtimately  and  sprin- 
kle on  thickly  to  form  a  crust.  Whertever  the  moisture 
appears  through,  keep  adding  the  mixture  until  the 
crust  becomes  permanent  and  fixed.  In  chronic 
cases,  sprinkle  the  part  with  powdered  slippery  elm, 
charcoal,  golden  seal  and  powdered  myrrh. 

Among  the  best  treatments  for  burns  is  an  applica- 
tion of  one  pint  of  linseed  oil  and  half  a  pint  of  lime 
water,  stirred  together,  or  rather  whipped  (as  cooks 
usually  do  eggs)  till  the  mixture  is  like  thick  cream. 
This  is  to  be  applied  for  a  few  days ;  then  the  sores 
are  to  be  dressed  with  green  ointment. 

Cancer,  Epithelial,  is  a  nipple-like  cancer,  which 
sometimes  appears  on  the  lips  of  horses.  It  should  be 
promptly  removed  with  the  knife,  after  which  the  part 
should  be  burned  over  with  lunar  caustic. 
,  Canker.  ~  This  is  a  fungoid  secretion  into  the 
horny  sole  of  the  foot,  from  whence  fungoid  granula- 
tions start  up.  The  fluid  secreted  has  an  offensive 
smejl  and  often  the  horn  sloughs  off  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  fungus  is  secreted  in  the  largest  quantity 
near  the  edge  of  the  sole,  and  the  granulations  at- 
tain their  greatest  size,  as  the  papilla  are  largest  in 
that  region.  Canker  is  generally  the  result  of  neg- 
lected thrush,  and  often  baffles  all  attempts  to  cure. 
It  may  arise  from  the  prick  of  a  nail. 

Symptoms.  It  is  most  prevalent  in  heavy,  coarse- 
boned  horses.  The  frog  will  become  large,  sjxjngy, 
and  covered  with  a  fungous  growth  of  cheesy  text- 
ure, and  throwing  out  an  abundant  colorless  bad 
smelling  liquid.  If  cut  away  it  will  again  quickly 
spring  into  growth.  The  discharge  is  more  offensive 
I  than  in  thrush,  and  the  disease  more  obstinate,  often 
resisting  treatment  a  long  time. 

Treatment.     The  horse  must  be  kept  in  a  clean, 


dry,  well  ventilated  stable.  All  diseased  portions  of 
the  hoof  must  be  neatly  pared  off  so  far  as  the  knife 
may  be  able. 

The  cure  consists  in  destroying  the  fungoid  granu- 
lations. Thus,  in  cutting  do  not  be  alarmed  at  the 
sight  of  blood  from  the  canker.  Over  the  well  por- 
tion of  the  hoof  apply  corrosive  liniment  and  cover 
the  diseased  parts  with  the  following : 

1  drachm  carbolic  acid, 
%  ounce  chloride  of  zinc, 
4  ounces  flour. 

As  the  canker  improves,  the  dressings  may  be  ex- 
tended to  the  third  or  fourth  day,  and  during  the 
whole  time  of  treatriient  the  horse  should  be  liberally 
fed,  and  be  exercised  for  an  hour  every  day. 

Capped  Hock  :  see  Hock. 

Caries.  This  term  means  an  ulceration  of  the 
bone.  The  most  frequent  form  of  caries  is  seen  on 
the  lower  jaw-bone.  Caries  of  the  lower  jaw  bone, 
between  the  tushes  and  grinders,  is  caused  almost 
wholly  by  the  barbarous  use  of  bits  and  curb-chains. 
Injury  is  also  sometimes  inflicted  ujxjn  the  bony  plate 
of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  by  pressure  of  the  curb,  when 
a  tight  nose-band  keeps  the  mouth  shut  down.  The 
gums  of  the  lower  jaw  are  very  often  hurt,  and  not 
unfrequently  the  bone  itself  is  so  bruised  as  to  result  in 
this  ulceration.  When  this  is  the  case  the  gum,  unless 
forcibly  opened,  must  slough,  so  that  the  injured 
portion  of  the  bone  can  be  cast  off.  Thus  a  stinking  sore 
is  made,  and  one  of  long  continuance,  as  the  sealing 
of  the  bone  and  the  escape  of  the  loosened  particles 
is  a  tedious  process. 

Symptoms.  Examine  the  gums,  and  if  it  is  a  bruise 
the  spot  will  appear  of  a  different  color  from  the  adja- 
cent parts,  and  pr.essure  upon  it  will  cause  the  animal 
to  wince  with  pain.  On  contact  with  the  bit,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  mixture  of  blood  and  watery  matter, 
and  some  of  this  escapes  constantly  while  the  horse 
is  in  use. 

Treatment.  When  the  discharge  has  somewhat 
thickened,  and  is  peculiarly  offensive  to  the  smell, 
showing  that  the  bone  is  decaying  and  that  nature  is 
making  an  effort  to  cast  off  the  injured  portion,  wash 
it  out  with  the  syringe,  several  times  a  day,  with  the 
following  solution: 

1  scruple  chloride  of  zinc, 

4  drachms  essence  of  anise  seed, 

1  pint  warcr. 

If  treatment  is  deferred,  however,  till  there  is  an 
open,  ulcerous  gum,  with  existence  of  proud  flesh, 
push  a  stick  of  lunar  caustic  deep  into  tlie  unhealthy 
granulation  in  the  cavity,  so  as  to  destroy  it.  Then 
keep  down  the  fungous  growth  by  the  use  of  the 
caustic,  day  after  day,  until  the  stinking  discharge  has 
ceased.  This  will  not  be  until  the  bone  has  ceased 
to  scale  away ;  and  the  wound  may  now  be  safely  left 
to  heal. 

A  cure  effected,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  select  a 
bit  that  shall  press  upon  another  part  of  the  mouth  or 
one  that  will  not  hurt  the  mouth.     The  bit  may  be 


HORSE. 


7s; 


covered  with  a  rubber  covering,  as  shown  by  Fig.  44 
^^^^^^^The  snaffle  may  be  used  with 
^^^^^^^''*""^  comparative  safety  where  the  curb 
Fig.  44.-Cw<-r>r/;:V.  has  inflicted  serious  hurt. 

If  the  upper  teeth  be  ulcerated  to  any  extent,  a 
fetid  discharge  will  run  from  the  nostrils  upon  the 
side  on  which  the  diseased  teeth  are  situated.  This 
has  often  been  mistaken  for  glanders  by  ignorant 
persons.  If  caries  of  the  bones  of  the  head  exists, 
the  swelling  of  the  head  will  be  enormous.  It  is  then 
termed  Big-head,  which  see,  page  759. 

Chest,  Dropsy  of  the  Skin  of  the.  This  is  an 
effusion  of  fluid  underneath  the  skin  of  the  chest ;  and 
it  is  a  sftquel  to  various  diseases — beginning  generally 
to  manifest  itself  only  after  the  animal  is  reduced  to  a 
debilitated  state.  It  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  the 
spring  and  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  at  the  time  of 
changing  the  coat. 

Symptoms.  A  swelling  appears  in  the  chest  and 
somewhat  between  the  fore  legs ;  and  its  dropsical 
character  may  be  known  by  its  yielding  to  pressure  of 
the  fingers  with  a  fluctuating  feeling. 

Treatment.  If  it  is  the  accompaniment  of  any 
more  general  disorder  the  first  thing,  of  course,  is  to 
remove  that  primary  disease.  Meanwhile  if  the  fluid 
accumulates  in  any  considerable  quantity,  draw  it  off" 
with  the  trocar ;  and  if  there  is  not  too  much  soreness, 
subject  the  part  to  regular  and  moderately  vigorous 
friction  occasionally  for  some  days.     Give 

Ya,  ounce  hyposulphite   soda, 
I  drachm  cream  tartar, 
I  ounce  sweet  spirits  nitre. 

Diuretics  are  always  good  in  these  dropsical  com- 
plaints. It  is  important  that  the  bowels  be  kept  reg- 
ular, and  that  good  nutritious  food,  as  boiled  oats  or 
boiled  barley,  with  wheat  bran,  be  given  regularly, 
and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  nourish  well.  Give  4 
drachms  of  gentian  every  other  day  for  a  week  or  two. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  these  medicines  are 
to  be  given  only  in  case  there  is  no  treatment  in  prog- 
ress for  a  more  general  disorder. 

Chest  Founder:  see  Founder  (Chest). 

Choking.  This  very  rarely  occurs  in  horses,  though 
frequently  in  cattle.  When  it  occurs  in  a  horse,  and 
he  be  a  spirited  animal,  and  the  substance  be  high 
in  his  gullet,  there  is  little  chance  of  saving  his  life. 
Choking  occurs  in  two  distinct  forms.  The  high 
choke,  when  the  substance  is  lodged  in  the  throat  or 
neck,  and  the  low  choke,  when  the  substance  is  lodged 
in  that  part  of  the  gullet  lying  low  within  the 
chest.  In  high  choke,  the  animal  may  die  in  a  few 
minutes;  in  low  choke,  there  is  not  such  special  need 
of  haste. 

Symptoms.  There  is  intense  distress ;  the  head  is 
raised  ;  there  is  slavering,  violent  coughing  and  con- 
tinual efforts  to  swallow. 

Treatment.  Examine  carefully  the  furrow  on  the 
left  side  of  the  neck  for  the  substance.  If  solid,  en- 
deavor to  press  it  upwards  with  the  fingers  on  each 
side.  If  not,  endeavor  to  extract  it  by  putting  a  ball- 
48 


ing  iron  into  the  mouth  to  hold  it  open ;  pull  out 
the  tongue ;  pass  the  hand  into  the  throat  and  en- 
deavor to  dislodge  it  with  the  finger,  the  head  being 
held  out  in  a  straight  line  with  the  neck.  If  this  do 
not  succeed,  and  the  obstruction  is  in  the  gullet,  and 
is  clear  of  the  windpipe,  procure  a  probang,  oil  it 
thoroughly,  cast  the  horse,  put  the  balling  iron  in  the 
mouth,  introduce  the  probang,  and  by  steady  pressure 
for  a  few  seconds  at  a  time,  endeavor  to  move  it.  If 
it  moves,  continue  the  pressure  until  it  is  pushed  into 
the  stomach. 

If  the  substance  is  so  firmly  held  that  the  probang 
will  not  move  it,  the  mass  must  be  cut  down  uiX)n 
and  taken  out.  Let  an  assistant  press  the  off-side  of 
the  neck  to  get  as  much  bulge  as  ix)ssible.  Then 
with  a  bold  cut  of  a  sharp  knife,  cut  through  skin, 
tissues  and  gullet,  to  the  mass,  with  an  ample  cut, 
and  remove ;  bring  the  edges  of  the  gullet  together, 
stitch  them  with  fine  cat-gut  or  strong  silk,  and  then 
the  wound  in  the  skin.  The  difficulty  here  may 
cause  subsequent  stricture  of  the  gullet,  which  may 
thereafter  prevent  the  animal  swallowing  solid  food. 
In  any  event  only  semi-liquid  food  should  be  given 
for  ten  days  after  choking,  or  until  the  animal  seems 
well. 

In  desperate  cases,  where  there  is  instant  danger  of 
death  from  choking,  take  a  small  needle,  run  through 
the  integuments  on  each  side  of  the  wound,  and  tie 
to  a  portion  of  the  mane  to  keep  the  integuments 
from  closing  over  the  orifice. 

The  Low  Choke.  This  is  where  the  obstruction  is 
low  in  the  gullet,  or  in  the  thoracic  portion  of  the 
oesophagus.     In  this  form  there  is  great  distress,  but 


Fig.  4S-—The  Low  Choke. 

the  head  is  not  held  so  high;  saliva  runs  from  the 
mouth,  and  the  discharge  is  copious  from  the  nose; 
if  the  animal  attempts  to  drink  the  water  is  cast  forth 
from  the  nose;  the  breathing  is  laborious,  the  flanks 
tucked  up,  the  back  reached,  and  the  animal  shows 
symptoms  of  great  distress. 

Treat?nc/tt.  Give  a  gill  of  linseed  or  lard  oil  once  an 
hour,  and  between  these  doses,  every  hour,  the  fol- 
lowing anti-spasmodic: 

1  ounce  tincture  lobelia, 

2  ounces  sulphuric  ether 
2  ounces  laudanum, 

]4  pint  water. 

Use   the   probang  carefully  after  such  anti-spas- 


754 


HORSE. 


modic.  If  the  whole  of  the  dose  is  apparently 
returned,  administer  chloroform  from  a  sponge,  by  in- 
halation, until  entire  insensibility  is  produced.  Then 
extend  the  head,  insert  the  probang,  well  oiled,  and 
use  steady  but  constant  pressure,  until  the  substance 
moves.  It  may  take  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  or  more. 
When  the  substance  moves  do  not  use  much  violent 
pressure,  but  move  it  carefully  until  it  enters  the 
stomach,  care  being  taken  not  to  force  the  instrument 
too  far,  and  thus  wound  that  organ,  remembering 
always  that  sudden  violence  may  bring  on  spasmodic 
action,  in  which  case  efforts  must  cease.  Violence 
may  also  rupture  the  oesophagus. 

Colds  in  horses,  as  in  the  human  family,  are  usually 
the  result  of  improper  care  or  undue  exposure.  Tak- 
ing a  horse  from  a  hot,  ill-ventilated  stable,  and 
allowing  him  after  driving  to  become  cold,  is  one 
prolific  cause  of  colds.  There  are  so  many  means  of 
causing  this  disability  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
enumerate  them.  If  the  attack  is  light,  all  that  will 
be  necessary  will  be  to  clothe  the  animal  warmly  and 
relax  the  bowels  with  a  warm  mash,  and  give  rest  for 
a  few  days. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  attack  is  prolonged  and 
severe.  The  appetite  ceases, 
the  coat  roughens,  parts  of 
the  body  are  hot  and  others 
cold,  the  membrane  of  the 
nose  at  first  dry  and  pale, 
with  the  facial  sinuses  clogged, 
at  length  terminating  in  a 
discharge  more  or  less  great, 
but  without  improving  the 
health  of  the  horse. 

Treatment.  Keep  the  ani- 
mal warmly  clothed,  in  ample 
box  stall,  with  plenty  of  bed- 
ding. If  the  cold  does  not 
.  ^t.-A  Hor..^M  Cold,  give  way  in  a.  few  days  after 
the  first  attacK,  and  the  symp- 
toms are  as  we  have  indicated,  or  if  the  membranes 
of  the  nose  are  dry,  make  a  sack  of  coarse  gunny  cloth, 
large  enough  so  it  may  fit  the  nose  properly,  but 
enlarging  to  the  bottom  and  two  feet  or  more  long, 
with  a  sUt  covered  with  a  flap  in  the  side,  half  way 
down.  Put  into  the  bag  half  a  peck  or  more  of  coarse 
pine  sawdust  or  bran,  with  which  half  an  ounce  of 
spirits  of  turpentine  has  been  thoroughly  mixed.  Place 
the  bag  on  the  nose,  as  shown  in  the  cut  in  the 
next  column.  Fig.  48. 

Turn  two  gallons  hot  water  into  the  slit,  and  every 
twenty  minutes  repeat,  allowing  the  bag  to  remain  on 
an  hour  each  time ;  use  this  six  times  a  day  until  the 
discharge  begins.  When  water  runs  freely  from  the 
nose,  three  times  daily  will  be  enough.  Let  the  food 
be  good  scalded  oats  or  other  like  food,  with  mashes, 
if  the  bowels  are  constipated. 

An  animal  with  this  kind  of  a  cold  should  not  be 
put  to  steady  work  until  entirely  recovered.  The 
result  of  protracted  cold  is  great  weakness,  and  work 
before  recovery  often  leads  to  disease  of  the  air  pas- 


FlG. 


sages  and  lungs.     If  there  is  much  fever  give  the 
following : 

2  drachms  sptf  its  ammonia, 
2  drachms  ether, 
10  drops  tincture  aconite. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  little  gruel  twice  a  day.     If  the 

throat  is  involved 
poultice  it  with 
linseed  meal,  in 
which  a  little 
mustard  has  been 
mixed.  When 
the  symptoms 
,    .       ,  ,  give  way  and  im- 

Via.^'j.— Head  ivith  Lymthalic  Gland  0/  the  '     .       , 

Throat  Swollen.  provemcnt     b  e- 

I.   The  enlarged  lymphatic  within  the  jaw.       gms.     Or    if    the 

appetite  is  not  good,  prepare  the  following : 

1  drachm  golden  seal, 

2  oz.  powdered  gentian, 

2  oz.  carbonate  ammonia. 

Form  this  into  a  mass  with  linseed  oil  and  molasses, 
divide  into  eight  parts  and  give  one  twice  a  day.  If 
the  cold  becomes  chronic  it  ends  in  catarrh.  When 
there  are  catarrhal  symptoms  and  sore  throat,  give 
the  following: 

I  drachm  extract  belladonna, 

I  drachm  Indian  hemp, 

a  drachms  powdered  camphor, 

4  drachms  nitre, 

I  drachm  blood  root. 

Mix  in  water  and  give  as  a  drench,  and  give  one 
every  three  or  four  hours. 
In  inveterate  or  chronic  cold 
there  is  a  discharge  and 
swelling  of  the  lymphatic 
gland.  We  give  a  cut  show- 
ing the  enlargement  of  the 
lymphatic  gland  in  chronic . 
cold.  If  the  appetite  keep 
good  nothing  more  need  be 
done;  but  on  the  contrary,  if 
the  breathing  quicken  and  the 
appetite  be  poor,  and  debility 
be  setting  in,  tonics  and  stim- 
ulants will  be  necessary.  Get 
the  following  medicine  and 
give  one  powder  morning, 
noon  and  night,  mixed  with  a 
little  cold  water,  and  drench  F,<..,5._;v,„„5^^^„^^^„„. 
the  horse  with  it.  Take  ing Horse wuh  coid. 
powdered  gentian  root,  powdered  pimenta  berries, 
powdered  carbonate  of  ammonia,  of  each  two  ounces. 
Mix  and  divide  into  twelve  powders.  When  the 
appetite  improves  give  good  feed,  but  not  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  bring  on  indigestion.  Give  green  feed  if 
it  can  be  had. 

Colic,  Flatulent.  This  is  an  accumulation  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  caused  by  the  decomposition 
of  food.  It  is  a  disease  of  frequent  occurrence  among 
horses,  always  sudden  in  its  attack  and  very  dangerous, 
often  resulting  fatally.  Green  grass,  clover,  carrots 
and  turnips  are  said  to  occasion  it,  yet  it  sometimes 


HORSE. 


755 


appears  in  stables  where  nothing  but  corn  and  hay 
are  fed. 

It  may  be  the  result  of  some  other  disease,  or  ap- 
pear as  a  consequence  of  the  spasmodic  form,  or  may 


Fig.  49. — Horse  in  the  Last  Stages  0/ Flatulent  Colic. 

be  produced  by  the  same  causes  as  those  assigned  to 
the  acute  form. 

Symptoms.  The  expression  of  pain  is  constant  but 
not  so  acute ;  the  pulse  is  rapid  and  feeble,  wth  difficult 
breathing ;  the  feet  and  ears  are  cold  ;  the  abdomen 
is  tense  and  swollen,  and  it  sounds  drum-like  when 
struck.  The  animal  is  weak  and  sometimes  deliri- 
ous ;  the  intestines  are  painful. 

Treatment.  Be  careful  about  giving  purgatives ; 
act  by  injections  of  soap-suds  and  oil  of  turpentine, 
removing  the  impacted  contents  of  the  rectum  with 
the  well  oiled  hand.  Give  the  following  injection : 
Yi  pint  oil  of  turpentine,  i  quart  of  soap-suds.  Re- 
peat in  half  an  hour  if  necessary.  This  operation 
requires  not  a  little  skill  and  courage.  Give  the  pa- 
tient a  large  stall,  plenty  of  bedding  and  administer 
the  following  drench : 

1  ounce  fluid  extract  golden  seal, 

2  ounces  fluid  extract  Jamaica  ginger 
I  ounce  hyposulphite  soda, 

4  ounces  of  water. 

Dissolve  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  in  water,  then 
add  the  other  ingredients  to  it.  The  dose  may  be 
repeated  should  it  be  necessary. 

Give  easily  digested  food ;  avoid  large  draughts  of 
water  and  over-feeding ;  give  good  grooming ;  blanket 
if  necessary  and  keep  the  circulation  active  by  hand- 
rubbing  of  the  body  and  limbs.  The  following  is  a 
remedy  that  seldom  fails  to  give  relief:  Take  two  or 
three  ounces  chloroform  and  the  same  of  sulphuric 
ether.  Pour  on  a  sixinge  or  handkerchief  and  hold 
to  the  nose  until  the  patient  is  etherized. 

This  is  a  disease  that,  unless  relief  is  speedily  afford- 
ed, will  prove  fatal.  Should  the  remedies  presented  fail 
to  give  relief  an  operation  must  be  performed.    Where 


the  sound,  when  tapping  the  flank  with  the  knuckler,  is 
most  drum-like,  force  in  a  trocar  into  the  distended 
bowels,  and  hold  it  there  until  all  the  gas  has  es- 
caped*  The  location  may  also  be  indicated  by  meas- 
uring an  equal  distance  from  the 
haunch-bone  and  the  short  rib,  and 
not  too  high  upon  the  back.  Should 
you  not  have  a  trocar  at  hand, 
sharpen  a  knife  and  insert  it.  When 
the  trocar  or  knife  is  removed  put  a 
piece  of  sticking  plaster  over  the 
wound.  I  have  never  failed  to  relieve 
the  animal  by  this  operation,  except  in 
two  cases  outofalarge  number  treated. 
I  have  often  used  my  pocket-knife  in 
performing  the  operation.  The  main 
point  to  be  observed  in  treating  colic 
is  to  relieve  pain.  This  done  for  a  time 
the  animal  will  doubtless  recover. 

Colic,  Spasmodic.  Colic  is  of  two 
kinds,  spasmodic  or  flatulent,  the  lat- 
ter of  which  is  treated  above.  Spas- 
modic colic  is  the  result  of  cramps  or 
spasmodic  contractions,  causing  severe 
pain,  with  tendency  to  inflammation. 
It  is  known  as  cramp,  fret,  gripes,  etc. 
It  arises  from  various  causes,  such  as  fast  driving, 
drinking  cold  water  when  heated,  change  of  food, 
washing  the  belly  with  cold  water,  etc.  When  early 
treated  this  affection  is  quite  tractable,  but  should 
wrong  treatment  be  practiced,  or  the  case  be  neglected, 
the  most  serious  results  may  be  looked  for. 

Symptoms.  All  at  once  the  horse  that  a  few 
moments  ago  was  well,  apparently,  shakes  his  head, 
leaves  his  feed,  looks  around  at  his  flank,  mostly  at 
his  right  side,  and  scrapes  the  ground  with  his  front 
foot,  and  strikes  his  belly  with  the  hind  foot,  lying 
down  and  suddenly  getting  up,  rolling,  or  lying 
stretched  out  for  an  instant,  then  suddenly  rising. 
There  may  be  frequent  small  discharges  from  the 
bowels  and  bladder. 


Fig.  50.— 7"**  First  Stage  0/  Spasmodic  Cotic. 

Treatment.  If  the  disease  be  wrongly  treated  the 
pulse  soon  becomes  wiry,  the  pain  becomes  more 
acute,  the  animal   lies   down,   rolls   upon   its  back, 


756 


HORSE. 


partial  sweat  bedews  the  body,  the  legs  turn  cold  and 
the  enteritis  sets  in ;  at  this  point  the  treatment  is 
very  uncertain.     Relieve  the  pain  by   means   of  an 


r?7^5i^"' 


Fig.  51. — Second  Stage  0/  Spasmodic  Colic. 

opiate,  and  cause  movement  of  the  bowels.  To  do 
this,  in  mild  cases,  the  following  will  be  good  in  con- 
nection with  injections  of  warm  water : 

1  ounce  tincture  lobelia, 
J^  to  I  ounce  laudanum, 
4  to  5  drachms  aloes,    , 
I  pint  hot  water, 
I  ounce  spirits  turpentine. 

Cool  as  quickly  as  possible  and  give  every  two  hours. 
If  there  is  abundant  formation  of  gas,  give  the  fol- 
lowing promptly: 

1  ounce  aromatic  ammonia, 
I  ounce  sulphuric  ether, 
ij^  ounces  warm  water, 
I  ounce  hyposulphite  soda. 

Mix,  and  give  at  once.     Another  colic  drench  in 
good  repute  is  the  following: 

I  ounce  tincture  assafoetida, 
I  ounce  sulphuric  ether, 
z  ounce  laudanum, 
I  ounce  tincture  lobelia. 

Put  in  I  Yz  pints  of  hot  water;  cool,  add  the  other 


Fig.  52. — Last  Stage  0/  Spasmodic  Colic, 

ingredients,  and  give  immediately.     If  relief  is  not 
obtained,  give  as  second  dose,  the  following : 

I  oun«e  sulphuric  ether, 

Yt  ounce  laudanum, 

5^  ounce  spirits  camphor, 

5^  ounce  essence  peppermint, 

Yi  ounce  chloroform. 

Mix  in  a  pint  of  gruel. 


Contraction  of  Hoof.     See  Hoof 
Corns  are  simply  a  congestion  of  the  parts,  caused 
by  either  bruise  or  pressure  of  the  contracted  hoof 

Causes.  In  general,  the  production  of  corns  may 
be  laid  to  the  charge  of  the  horse-shoer,  and  some- 
times to  the  owner  allowing  the  horse  to  go  too  long 
before  the  shoes  are  removed,  or  before  the  foot  has 
grown  from  the  shoes.  Sometimes  there  is  an  inflam- 
mation, owing  to  the  formation  of  matter,  which  works 
out  either  at  the  top  of  the  hoof  or  at  the  toe,  from 
the  formation  of  a  fistula.  Then  it  is  Quittor.  They 
may  be  found  on  either  side  of  the  heel,  but  usually 
on  the  inner  or  weaker  side. 

Symptoms.     There  will  be  flinching  when  the  walls 
of  the  hoof  and  sole  are  seized  and  strained  with  the 
pincers    (see    Fig.  53),   thus 
revealing  on  which  side  and 
the  locality  of  the  com. 

The  toe  will  be  pointed 
when  at  rest,  and  with  the 
heel  slightly  raised.  In  mo- 
tion the  gait  will  be  short  and 
stumbling.  If  it  has  pro- 
ceeded to  suppuration,  the 
pain  will  be  so  extreme  that 
the  horse  will  fear  to  put  the 
foot  to  the  ground.  If  there 
is  a  horny  tumor  forming, 
it  may  be  known  upon  paring 
the  hoof  by  the  appearance  of 
a  white,  sjwngy,  horny  forma- 
tion, as  in  sand-crack. 

Treatment.  If  the  corns 
proceed  from  other  diseases, 
causing  contraction  and  other 
disabilities  of  the  hoof,  re- 
move these  causes  and  the 
corns  will  disappear.  If  the 
corns  proceed  from  a  simple 
and  recent  bruise,  which  is 
generally  the  case,  remove  the 
shoe  and  rasp  down  the  bear- 
ing surface  of  the  heels,  so 
there  may  be  no  pressure;  that  is,  the  heels  should 
be  rasped  lower  than '  the  other  bearing  surfaces. 
If  there  is  inflammation,  let  the  hoofs  rest  in  cold 
water,  or  keep  them  moist  with  a  wet  cloth,  and  the 
sole  with  a  soft  sponge,  or  the  whole  hoof  may  be 
enveloped  in  a  large  sponge  cut  to  fit.  The  animal 
should  wear  a  bar  shoe,  arranged  to  avoid  pressure  on 
the  parts  affected.  When  the  foot  ceases  to  be  ten- 
der, keep  the  hoof  and  sole  smeared  with  the  follow- 
ing ointment,  to  render  it  soft  and  promote  healthy 
growth : 

I  ounce  Venice  turpentine, 
J^  ounce  tallow, 
t  ounce  oil  turpentine, 
4  ounces  beeswax. 

Use  the  horse  at  light  work  until  fully  recovered. 
If  the  difficulty  be  found  to  be  a  suppurating  corn, 
one  containing  matter,  the  hoof  must  be  cut  down  to 
let  all  the  matter    escape ;  cut  away   all  the  horn 


53. — Hoof-seurctiini^ 
Forceps^ 


rS^ 


■^S^^^i^^yi^#^P^&— ^pJbA 


i 


I 


^ 


^ 


7S8 


HORSE. 


that  has  become  separated  from  the  quick,  and  pare 
away  all  the  horn  around  the  parts  to  a  thin  edge. 
Poultice  the  part  with  a  linseed  poultice,  renewed 
until  there  is  no  longer  tenderness,  and  the  surface  is 
smooth  and  healthy.  Then  put  on  a  bar  shoe  with  a 
leather  sole,  and  fill  the  space  from  behind  with  tar, 
held  in  place  with  a  stuffing  of  tow.  Give  entire 
rest  and  no  pressure  on  the  heel  until  the  sole  of  the 
foot  has  grown  out  naturally. 

If  the  corn  has  become  a  tumor  it  should  be  cut 
out,  and  the  same  treatment  pursued  as  advised  for  a 
corn  that  has  formed  matter. 

Old  corns  sometimes  result  in  disorganization  of 
the  parts,  or  death  of  a  portion  of  the  heel,  disease 
of  the  bone  of  the  foot,  or  ulceration  of  the  cartilage. 
For  the  treatment  of  this  stage,  see  Quittor. 

Cough  is  a  symptom  of  a  chronic  disease  of  the 
respiratory  organs,  as  tubercles  of  the  lungs,  thicken- 
ing of  the  lining  membranes  of  the  windpipe,  and  en- 
largements   of    the 
glands  of  the   neck. 
Cough  is  an  attendant 
upon    so    many   dis- 
orders of  the  air  pas- 
sages, from  the  most 
trivial    difficulty     in 
teething  to  glanders, 
that    it   should    not 
Fig.  54.— -4  Horse  Quidding.  be  Overlooked  in  the 

diagnosis  of  diseases ;  and  so  many  diseases  leave 
the  patient  with  a  chronic  cough  that  its  symptomatic 
stages  should  be  carefully  observed. 

Coughing  tends  generally  to  a  thickening  of  the 
membranes.  When  the  membrane  covering  the 
larnyx  becomes  thickened,  the  cough  becomes  chronic. 
The  chronic  cough,  resulting  from  colds,  is  hard 
and  metallic.  For  this  rub  the  following  on  the 
throat  and  around  the  windpipe  once  in  ten  days : 

15  drops  Croton  oil, 
I  ounce  glycerine, 
I  ounce  soap  liniment  (opodeldoc). 

Give  twice  a  day,  for  a  week,  the  following : 

40  drops  diluted  Prussia  acid, 
I  ounce  niter, 
I  ounce  bicarbonate  soda, 
I  quart  water. 

If  this  does  not  give  relief,  the  following,  valuable 
for  irritable  chronic  cough,  the  result  of  influenza  or 
sore  throat,  may  be  used : 

Yi  ounce  chlorate  potash, 

%  drachm  tincture  belladonna. 

J^  drachm  tincture  lobelia. 

Give  two  times  a  day  in  water  or  gruel  and  note 
results,  ceasing  after  a  week  or  ten  days,  if  no  im- 
provement ensues.  For  cough  and  sore  throat,  when 
first  discovered,  take : 

I  drachm  powdered  camphor, 

1  drachm  extract  of  belladonna, 

2  ounces  sweet  spirits  niter. 

Give  in  a  pint  of  cold  gruel  three  times  a  day.  Tar 
water  is  well  known  to  be  valuable  in  obstinate  colds. 

Cramps.  The  equine  family  are  very  frequently 
attacked  with  cramp  of  the  muscles  of  the  hind  legs, 


and  the  symptoms  which  usually  accompany  it  are 
very  similar  to  what  is  usually  present  in  cases  of 
dislocation  of  the  patella — so  much  so  that  one  is 
often  mistaken  for  the  other.  The  animal  thus 
affected  has  great  difficulty  in  lifting  the  leg  off  the 
ground,  and  when  he  succeeds  in  this  effort  the  leg  is 
thrust  backward  in  a  rigid  manner,  it  being  out  of  his 
power  to  extend  the  limb  forward. 

Treatment.  Clothe  the  body  warmly,  find  the  seat 
of  the  difficulty  by  feehng  of  the  parts  until  the  sore 
place  is  touched.  Wash  the  parts  with  salt  water 
and  rub  dry.     Then  apply  the  following  liniment : 

I  part  sulphuric  ether, 
I  partsolution  of  ammonia, 
I  part  spirits  of  camphor, 
I  part  olive  oil, 
I  part  oil  cedar. 

Rub  it  in  well,  and  hold  a  hot  iron  or  brick  to  the 
parts  to  heat  it  thoroughly. 

Crib  Biting.  This  is  not  a  disease,  but  a  vice — a  bad 
habit,  which  the  horse  has  learned,  of  sucking  wind 
into  the  stomach  by  placing  his  lips  against  the  man- 
ger. The  habit  has  been  so  strong  in  some  horses 
that  when  they  could  get  no  place  to  press  the  lips 
against,  they  have  stooped  down  and  placed  the  lip 
against  the  arm  of  their  own  front  leg.  This  vice  is 
sometimes  called  wind-sucking. 

Causes.  Idleness,  indigestion,  and  learning  it 
from  other  animals  in  the  same  stable. 

Prevention.  Keep  horses  in  loose  boxes,  or  other 
places  where  there  are  no  fixtures  but  the  walls;  reg- 
ular feed  and  regular  work. 

Treatment.  Do  not  let  the  horse  stand  in  the 
stable  twenty  hours  out  of  twenty-four.  Feed  him 
regularly,  and  work  him  as  regularly.  Turn  the  ani- 
mal  to  pasture,  and  when  he  is  brought  home  in  the 
fall  of  the  year,  have  a  loose  box  prepared  for  him 
without  any  fixtures,  as  manger,  trough  or  rack. 
Place  his  hay  upon  the  floor,  and  his  oats  or  corn  in 
a  small  trough,  and  remove  it  as  soon  as  he  is  done. 

Curb  is  a  swelling  in  the  middle  of  and  just  be- 
hind the  lowest  part  of  the  hock  joint. 

Causes.  This  is  another  mark  with  which  cruelty 
characterizes  the  obedience  of  its  subject.  The  his- 
tory of  nearly  every  horse  in  the  land  is  a  struggle  to 
exist  against  human  endeavors  to  deprive  it  of  utility. 
Nearly  every  horse-owner  imagines  that  the  animal 
over  which  he  has  authority  possesses  superior  powers 
of  action  and  strength,  and  to  gratify  his  folly,  the 
animal  is  pushed  over  rough  roads  at  his  utmost  speed, 
or  compelled  to  show  his  superiority  by  dragging 
heavy  loads.  The  creature  seems  to  comprehend  and 
derive  gratification  from  obeying  the  desire  of  its 
superior,  and  it  complies  with  his  wishes  without  a 
thought  of  prudence  for  its  own  personal  safety.  In 
its  efforts  to  propel  its  body,  or  perhaps  a  ponderous 
load  along  an  uneven  surface,  injury  is  inflicted  upon 
the  perforans  tendon  or  its  investing  sheath,  inflam- 
mation starts  up  and  curb  is  the  result. 

Symptoms.  There  is  heat,  inflammation,  tender- 
ness, lameness,  and  a  tendency  to  knuckle  forward  at 
the  fetlock  and  an  enlargement  on  the  back  part  of 


HORSE. 


759 


the  hock  joint,   usually   about  six  inches   below   it. 

Treatment.  Absolute  rest,  a  high-heel  shoe,  and 
cold-water  bandages,  generally,  will  remove  the  diffi- 
culty if  applied  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease.  Af- 
ter the  lameness  becomes  decided,  apply  the  fol- 
lowing :  2  ounces  tincture  arnica  in  i  pint  of  water. 
Apply  three  times  a  day.  After  the  disease  becomes 
chronic,  take  red  biniodide  i  part  to  8  of  lard,  rub 
the  parts  well  twice  a  week,  greasing  between  times 
with  hog's  lard. 

Diabetes,  or  Profuse  Staling,  called  by  various 
names,  as  diuresis,  diabetes  insipidus,  poluria,  etc.,  is 
simply  an  excessive  secretion  of  urine,  causing  loss  of 
flesh,  weakness,  and  at  length  terminating  in  exhaus- 
tion and  a  general  breaking  down  of  the  system. 

Symptoms.  There  is  excessive  thirst,  profuse  and 
frequent  staling  of  pale-colored  urine,  thin  and  with 
little  odor,  loss  of  condition  and  spirits ;  the  appetite 
fails;  the  skin  is  hard  and  dry;  the  hair  harsh;  the 
pulse  will  be  weak,  whether  fast  or  slow ;  depraved 
appetite  for  licking  noxious  substances. 

Treatment.  Change  the  food  at  once ;  well  seasoned 
hay  and  grain,  with  linseed  tea,  given  freely  in  the 
drink.  The  horse  must  not  suffer  from  thirst,  but 
inordinate  drinking  should  not  be  allowed.  The  fol- 
lowing will  be  a  good  formula,  to  be  given  three  times 
a  day  in  water: 

2o  grains  iodine 

1  drachm  iodide  of  potassium, 
f  4  drachms  carbonate  of  soda, 

3  drachms  fluid  extract  witch-hazel. 

Another  good  formula,  to  be  given  once  a  day,  or  in 
bad  cases  twice  daily,  is  the  following: 

3  drachms  fluid  extract  witch-hazel, 
30  grains  iodine, 

2  drachms  sulphate  of  iron, 
Yi  ounce  powdered  gentian, 

I  drachm  Collinsonia. 

Give  the  above  as  a  ball,  made  with  molasses  and 
linseed  meal.  If  four  or  five  doses  do  not  show 
decided  effect,  discontinue.  Six  or  seven  days  should 
effect  a  cure. 

DiARRHCEA  is  a  Condition  of  frequent  watery  dis- 
charges from  the  bowels,  and  may  be  produced  by 
many  causes,  as  irritating  and  indigestible  food,  worms, 
severe  purgations  by  medicines,  disorders  of  the  liver, 
or  constitutional  tendency.  The  owner  of  the  animal 
must  find  the  cause  before  proceeding  intelligently  to 
give  relief  The  most  we  can  do  is  to  give  some 
general  indications.  From  whatever  cause,  however, 
the  diarrhoea  may  arise,  treatment  that  will  allay  pain 
is  demanded. 

Treatment.  Sometimes  diarrhoea  is  an  effort  of 
nature  to  rid  the  body  of  injurious  matter.  Early  in 
the  effort  give  the  horse  one  pint  of  linseed  oil ;  or  if 
an  active  purge  be  required,  a  pint  of  castor  oil.  If 
the  diarrhoea  does  not  cease,  check  it  with  i  ounce 
slippery  elm  bark,  glycerine  one-half  pint,  laudanum 

1  ounce.     If  the  difficulty  refuse  to  give  way,  doses  of 

2  scruples  of  tannin  may  be  given,  or,  doses  of  3 
drachms  of  catechu  every  hour  until  checked.  The 
ox  requires  double  the  dose.  Follow  with  tonics,  say 
4  drachms  of  gentian  daily,  or  i  ounce  of  Peruvian 


bark,  with  sound,  easily  digested  food.  If  caused  by 
bad  water,  throw  a  handful  of  charcoal  in  the  water 
before  giving  it  to  drink.  The  following  will  be  found 
beneficial  in  the  several  cases  mentioned. 

For  sour  and  fetid  discharges  mix  the  following 
ingredients  in  the  food  twice  or  thrice  daily: 

J4  ounce  gum  arabic, 
1  ounce  powdered  chalk, 
I  ounce  bisulphate  of  soda. 

For  sour  discharges  with  griping,  take  the  following, 
formed  into  a  ball  with  linseed  meal    and   molasses : 

I  drachm  powdered  opium, 
I  drachm  powdered  chalk, 
20  drops  carbolic  acid. 

When  the  result  of  medical  purging,  the  following: 

1  ounce  gum  arabic, 
3  ounces  laudanum 

2  ounces  powdered  chalk,  * 
}^  ounce  bayberry  bark. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  quart  of  thin  starch  or  flour  gruel. 
Astringent  injections  may  be  given  as  follows; 

2  ounces  laudanum, 

a  drachms  acetate  of  lead, 

I  quart  starch  water. 

Dislocations  in  the  horse  are  rare,  and  when  they 
occur  are  difficult  to  manage,  except  with  the  aid  of  a 
veterinary  surgeon.     See  the  article  Dislocation. 

Treatment.  In  any  case  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
put  the  joint  in  place — not  always  an  easy  matter. 
The  means  to  be  employed  are  so  different  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  state  them,  only  in  a  general 
way.  If  inflammation  and  swelling  have  set  in,  it 
must  be  reduced  by  cold-water  applications  or  hot 
water  fomentations.  Then  the  joint  must  be  brought 
to  place  by  traction  and  force.  When  a  starch  band- 
age may  be  employed,  this  should  always  be  used  to 
hold  the  parts  together.  If  not,  the  dislocation  must 
be  splintered  or  padded,  or  both,  to  keep  the  parts 
intact  and  in  place.  The  slings  (see  Fig.  69.)  should 
always  be  employed  to  rest  the  horse  when  they  may 
be  had.  This,  with  cooling  lotions,  rest,  proper  care 
and  feeding,  will  insure  recovery. 

Distemper,  or  Strangles,  an  eruptive  contagious 
fever,  characterized  by  swelling  in  and  between  the 
bones  of  the  lower  jaw,  terminating  in  an  abscess.  It 
is  most  prevalent  among  colts,  although  horses  are 
sometimes  subject  to  it.  This  is  supposed  to  be  a 
disease  to  which  all  horses  are  subject  once  in  their 
lives,  some  distinguished  veterinarians  claiming  that 
few,  if  any,  escape  it,  should  they  live  to  the  age  of 
ten  years.  There  are,  however,  in  our  opinion,  many 
horses  which  escape  it.  Distemper  is  undoubtedly 
one  of  the  evils  of  domestication,  and  generally  re- 
sults from  poor  diet,  foul  air  and  bad  management. 
Indeed,  if  it  is  not  actually  generated  by  filth  and  un- 
cleanness  in  the  stables,  the  disease  is  certainly 
aggravated  by  causes  producing  miasma  and  bad  air 
in  the  stables.  Therefore  cleanliness  is  essential  not 
only  as  a  means  of  preventing  disease,  but  in  render- 
ing it  of  a  mild  type  when  it  breaks  out.  When  it  once 
breaks  out  all  the  animals  in  the  stable  are  likely  to 
be  infected  with  it,  unless  they  have  already  had  it. 
Colts  and  young  horses  will  take  it  from  older  ones 
more  easily  than  older  ones  from  the  young. 


760 


HORSE. 


Take  a  colt  from  its  mother,  whose  milk  contains 
all  the  elements  for  sustaining  life  and  developing  the 
organization  of  the  young  subject,  and  place  it  on  a 
diet  of  hay  or  like  unnutritious  trash,  a  whole  truss  of 
of  it  would  not  give  one-half  the  nutriment  contained 
in  a  quart  of  its  mother's  milk.  However  profitable 
and  well  adapted  hay  may  be  for  stock  of  mature 
growth  and  powerful  digestive  organs,  it  is  a  sad  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  will  do  for  the  young. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  distemper  is  more  surely 
communicated  at  an  early  than  a  late  stage,  and  in 
a  certain  form  more  readily  than  in  others.  Distem- 
per will  assume  the  herpetic  character,  simulate 
farcy  and  glanders,  settle  in  the  mesenteric  glands, 
or  may  follow  castration.  In  regard  to  contagion  may 
be  mentioned,  as  most  readily  communicable,  that 
fonn  of  distemper  which  assumes  the  character  of 
eruptions  on  the  lips,  nose  and  pituitary  membrane. 

Horses  will  contract  the  disease  from  others  when 
at  a  distance.  It  is  supposed  to  be  communicated 
both  by  actual  contact  and  also  from  gemis  proceed- 
ing from  the  breath.  Hence,  when  once  it  breaks 
out,  at  the  first  symptoms,  isolate  the  sick  animal  or 
animals,  and  fumigate  the  stable  thoroughly  and 
daily. 

To  do  this,  fill  the  stable  with  tobacco  smoke,  both 
the  stable  from  whence  the  sick  horses  have  been 
taken,  and  the  place  where  they  are  confined  during 
treatment.  Let  the  smoke  be  so  thick  as  to  be  quite 
inconvenient.  Make  all  the  animals  inhale  as  much 
as  possible.  Wash  every  part  of  the  stable,  and 
especially  the  feeding  places  and  hay  racks,  with  a 
strong  decoction  of  tobacco  stems,  using  for  the  pur- 
pose cheap,  rank  tobacco.  Keep  powdered  tobacco 
leaves  in  the  mangers  of  all  the  horses.  This  being 
early  attended  to  its  spread  may  be  generally 
arrested. 

Symptoms.  The  disease  has  three  stages.  In  the 
early  stage  of  the  disease  there  is  a  dry,  hacking 
cough,  and  there  will  be  noticed  a  discharge  from  the 
nose,  first  of  a  thin,  watery  fluid,  succeeded  by  a 
thicker,  purulent  discharge  of  a  whitish  color. 

The  next  stage  of  the  disase  shows  itself  in  a  swell- 
ing of  the  throat.  The  salivary  glands,  which  at  first 
were  inflamed,  are  novt^  closed,  and  pus  is  being 
formed.     At  length  an  abscess  is  formed. 

The  third  stage  is  the  suppurative  stage,  in  vk^hich 
the  abscess  breaks ;  sometimes  there  are  two.  From 
this  time  on,  the  animal  is  in  a  fair  way  to  mend,  and 
every  means  should  be  taken  to  promote  the  dis- 
charge. In  bad  cases  the  suppuration  may  continue 
for  weeks,  and  in  extreme  cases  it  may  continue  for 
months.  From  first  to  last  there  is  a  fever.  The 
pulse  is  quickened  and  hard.  The  appetite  fails, 
both  from  fever  and  inability  to  swallow.  As  the 
fever  increases  the  eyes  become  dull  and  glassy;  the 
hair  is  dry,  will  not  lie  close,  looks  dead ;  and  the 
animal  stands  with  its  head  drooped,  and  the  whole 
appearance  is  stupid. 

Treatment.  Never  bleed  in  any  case,  as  it  is  very 
prostrating.      The  animal  must  be  warmly  clothed 


and  kept  in  a  thoroughly  well  ventilated  but  com- 
fortable stable.  Let  the  food  be  light  but  nourishing. 
Mashes  made  of  oat-meal  and  bran,  also  boiled  oats, 
oat-meal  gruel,  and  hay  tea  should  be  given  for  a 
drink.     Give  the  following  three  times  a  day: 

y^  ounce  golden  seal. 

1  drachm  copperas, 

1  drachm  blood-root, 

4  drachms  hyposulphite  soda, 

1  drachm  gentian. 

Let  all  drink  and  food  have  the  chill 
taken  off  before  giving  it.     If  there  is 
considerable   fever   and    the   tongue   is 
coated,  give  a  little  cream  of  tartar  in 
the  drink.  If  the  limbs  are  cold  bandage 
them  and  hand-rub  to  promote  circula- 
tion.    Give  once  a  day  in  the  food  the 
■S  following :  3  drachms  flower  of  sulphur, 
I  r  ounce  resin.     If  the  tumor  forms,  then 
';^  every  means  must  be  employed  to  cause 
5  it  to  suppurate.     Poultice  the  throat  with 
^  warm   bran   and  corn-meal  mixed.      It 
K  will  be  dangerous  to  scatter  it.     If  the 
T  bowels  are  obstructed,  remove  the  con- 
■g,  tents  of  the  rectum  by  the  following  in- 
a  jection: 


*  4  drachms  powdered  aloes 

1  drachm  common  salt, 

2  pints  hot  water. 

Mix,   and   inject   when   blood   warm. 
When  the  tumor  has  formed  pus  and  is 
nearly  ripe,  which  may  be  known  by  a 
soft  place  where  it  is  working  its  way  to 
the    suface,  open   it  with  a   knife  with 
a  curved-pointed  blade,  and  if  necessary 
increase     the  opening  with   a    button- 
pointed  bistoury,  to   allow   free   exit   of 
matter.     It  will  give  almost  immediate  relief. 
Dropsy  of  the  Brain:  see -page  749. 
Dropsy  of    the   Heart,  Lungs,  Abdomen  and 
Legs:  see   respective  subjects  in  their  alphabetical 
order  in  this  article. 

Ear,  Diseases  of  the.  Injuries  to  the  ear  are  gen- 
erally the  result  of  brutal  treatment.  Twitching  them, 
nipping  and  pulling  upon  them  with  the  blacksmith's 
pliers,  and  blows  upon  the  head  with  cudgels,  from 
the  use  of  the  whip,  the  bite  of  a  dog,  or  from  another 
horse  biting  it,  sometimes  result  in  troublesome 
bruises,  ulcers  and  tumors  that  close  the  auditory 
passage. 

Deafness  may  be  an  organic  defect,  or  it  may  be 
the  effect  of  some  disease  which  has  disordered  the 
head,  and,  by  sympathy,  the  auditory  nerve ;  and  the 
sense  of  hearing  is  no  doubt  dulled  by  old  age,  even 
when  the  horse  may  have  been  well  used  and  reason- 
ably free  from  disease ;  but  it  results  in  most  cases 
from  pulling  the  ears,  cutting  or  clipping  either  them 
or  the  surrounding  skin  to  remedy  supposed  defects, 
and  from  beating  upon  the  head. 

Sometimes  scabby  or  mangy  eruptions  make  their 
appearance  upon  the  tips  of  the  ears  and  spread  down- 
ward, covering  them  entirely  ;  but  this  is  most  proba- 
bly the  accompaniment  of  some  skin  disease. 


HORSE. 


761 


Symptoms.  The  cuts,  breaks  in  the  skin,  or  sutures, 
that  result  from  pulling,  pinching,  and  twitching  are 
readily  discernible,  as  are  also  the  ulcers  or  suppura- 
ting sores  in  which  they  sometimes  end.  When  the 
tendons  which  sustain  the  ear  in  its  upright  position 
are  broken,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  perceiving  it,  as 
the  ear  drops  down  and  flaps  about  with  the  motions 
of  the  head  and  neck. 

Treatment.  A  simple  laceration  of  the  skin,  and 
even  of  the  cartilage,  if  small,  will  require  no  special 
attention  more  than  to  be  treated  as  for  a  common 
sore  by  simple  ointment  and  cleanliness.  Remove 
foreign  substances  by  the  use  of  the  forceps. 

Sometimes  tumors  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  are 
seen  in  the  ear  of  the  horse,  producing  a  kind  of  canker 
in  that  organ. 

Symptoms :  Shaking  of  the  head  ;  will  not  let  much 
famiharity  be  made  with  it ;  running  or  starting  back, 
when  the  collar  or  bridle  is  being  taken  up  over  the 
ears.  Causes  :  Irritation  and  inflammation  of  the 
skin  of  the  ear,  producing  small  pimples  of  proud 
flesh.  Treatment:  Removal  with  the  knife,  scissors,  or 
caustic ;  then  apply  the  simple  ointment  as  for  a  sim- 
ple sore. 

Elbow,  Tumor  or  Capped  Elbow.  This  tumor, 
which  is  situated  at  the  back  point  of  the  elbow  some- 
times grows  to  an  enormous  size,  and  it  is  not  only 
unsightly  but  greatly  interferes  with  the  action  of  the 
elbow  and  its  articulation.  It  is  generally  caused  by 
a  bruise  inflicted  by  the  calkins  of  the  shoe  while  the 
horse  has  slept  with  his  legs  doubled  up  under  him. 
Inflammation  of  the  sub-cellular  tissue  is  established, 
and  that  condition  sets  in  which  gives  rise  to  enlarge- 
ments by  increased  deposit  near  the  part.  It  may  be 
produced  also  by  long  heels,  as  well  as  calkins,  by 
striking  with  the  shod  hind  foot,  by  a  blow,  and  by 
lying  on  uneven  surfaces. 

Symptoms.  A  slight  swelling  of  the  point  of  the 
elbow  is  first  perceived,  and  unless  the  cause  is  re- 
moved this  will  gradually  develop  into  a  large-sized 
'  tumor.  When  of  any  considerable  size,  it  will  contain 
serum,  or  a  watery  matter,  and  has  a  fluctuating  feel- 
ing to  the  fingers.  This  fluid  is  contained  in  tough, 
fibrous  walls,  and  may  remain  for  a  long  time,  or  it 
may  at  last  be  absorbed,  and  leave  a  hard  tunc  or.  At 
this  stage  there  will  of  course  be  no  fluctuation. 

Treatment.  If  discovered  in  its  early  stage,  and 
serum  is  evidently  present,  let  it  out  by  opening  the 
sac  at  the  lower  edge  with  a  keen  knife,  or  a  thumb 
lancet.  Press  upon  it  so  as  thoroughly  to  remove  the 
fluid.  Then,  with  a  small  rubber  syringe,  inject  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  pyroligneous  acid,  linseed 
oil,  and  spirits  of  turpentine.  Before  the  horse  is 
allowed  to  lie  down  again,  make  a  soft  pad,  covered 
with  chamois  skin,  without  a  seam  on  the  outer  side, 
of  such  thickness  as  to  keep  the  shoe  from  striking  the 
elbow  when  the  leg  is  doubled  under  him,  and  tie  it 
securely  around  the  pastern.  This  should  be  on  every 
night ;  and  even  after  cure  is  effected  it  will  be  nec- 
essary for  the  animal  to  wear  this  pad,  to  prevent 
recurrence  of  the  bruise,  or  else  to  have  the  shoe 


shortened.  The  pad  must  be  at  least  two  and  a  half 
inches  thick.  If  it  is  in  its  new  state,  it  can  be  as- 
suaged, by  using  frequently  at  moderate  intervals, 
some  cooling  lotion.  If  large,  watery,  somewhat  pen- 
dant, and  unsightly,  have  an  experienced  surgeon 
remove  it  entirely,  and  then  dress  as  an  ordinary 
wound. 

If  after  it  has  been  opened,  and  the  fluid  pressed 
out,  it  heals  with  large  substance  left  behind,  rub  fre- 
quently with  acetate  of  mercury  until  the  natural  state 
is  restored. 

If  there  is  constipation  or  feverish  tendency  in  the 
animal,  the  care  of  tumors  or  other  local  troubles  will 
always  be  more  difficult  unless  this  tendency  is  re- 
moved by  suitable  purgatives  and  regulated  diet. 

Enlargement  of  the  Heart,  Hock  and  Spleen. 
See  respective  subjects  in  this  article. 

Epilepsy  or  Fits.  Epilepsy  consists  of  a  tempo- 
rary suspension  of  consciousness.  This  disease,  if 
properly  managed,  is  not  often  fatal.  It  varies  in 
duration.  Sometimes  a  horse  will  suddenly  fall,  lose 
all  sensibility  and  consciousness,  exhibit  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  go  into  convul- 
sions, recover,  and  get  up  again  in  the  course  of  ten 
minutes ;  or  he  may  lie  on  the  ground  and  have  a 
succession  of  paroxyms,  which  may  last  for  half  an 
hour  or  more.  If  protracted  beyond  an  hour  or  so, 
the  patient  is  very  apt  to  die. 

The  fit  is  generally  brought  on  by  a  derangement 
in  the  relation  between  the  arterial  and  venous  circu- 
lation within  the  head  and  a  temporary  pressure  on 
the  brain ;  in  other  words,  a  determination  of  blood  to 
the  head.  After  the  horse  has  fallen,  by  his  struggles 
and  herculean  efforts  to  battle  with  the  malady,  al- 
though unconsciously,  he  soon  breaks  out  into  a  pro- 
fuse prespiration.  This  has  the  effect  of  relaxing  the 
capillaries  so  that  the  blood  circulates  more  freely  and 
unifonnly.  An  equilibrium  of  the  circulation  takes 
place,  and  this  is  the  end  of  epilepsy  for  the  time  be- 
ing. But  a  horse  once  having  had  a  fit  of  this  kind 
must  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion;  for  he  is  liable, 
when  under  excitement  from  wanton  punishment,  or 
from  exercising  great  feats  of  strength  in  drawing 
heavy  loads,  to  have  a  re-attack. 

Sympto7?is.  Suppose  the  horse  attached  to  a  vehicle, 
and  traveling  along  at  any  given  pace.  He  gives  a 
sudden,  snorting,  loud  noise,  and  falls  to  the  ground 
instantly,  as  if  felled  by  some  unknown  power.  Here 
he  lies,  to  all  appearance,  totally  unconscious,  vio- 
lently convulsed  in  every  limb,  his  eyes  staring  as 
though  they  would  burst  out  of  their  sockets ;  the 
mouth  foams  with  saliva,  and  violent  convulsions  will 
sometimes  affect  the  whole  frame.  Such  are  the  prin- 
cipal synxptoms  attending  this  formidable  malady. 

Treatment.  So  soon  as  the  horse  falls,  some  hay  or 
straw  should  be  placed  under  his  head  and  around 
him.  Bathe  the  region  of  the  cranium  with  cold  water, 
and  carefully  wash  the  foam  from  his  mouth,  taking 
care  not  to  let  any  water,  hay,  or  dirt  enter  the  nos- 
trils. Never  raise  the  horse  on  his  legs.  Let  him  rest 
quietly  until  consciousness  returns ;  then,  should  he 


762 


HORSE. 


attempt  to  get  up,  help  him.  When  on  his  legs,  deal 
gently  with  him.  Let  the  external  surface  of  the  body 
be  rubbed  until  the  skin  is  dry;  then  administer  two 
ounces  of  fluid  extract  of  valerian,  and  let  the  patient 
be  provided  with  comfortable  quarters.  For  a  few 
days  he  should  be  excused  from  work,  and  be  fed 
lightly.  The  only  way  to  prevent  a  re-attack  is  to 
keep  him  at  light  work,  and  treat  him  in  the  most 
gentle  manner,  both  in  the  stable  and  out  of  it. 

Eve,  Diseases  of  the.  The  construction  of  the 
the  eye,  its  general  appearance,  etc.,  is  fully  described 
in  the  article  on  the  Eye.  It  is  of  paramount  import- 
ance that  the  eye  of  the  horse  should  be  clear,  sound 
and  strong ;  and  though  a  most  delicate  organ  it  does 
not  receive  the  care  from  the  master  of  the  horse 
that  it  should.  The  consequence  of  this  is  many  dis- 
eases of  the  eye  and  frequent  blindness  among 
horses. 

Inflammation  of  the  Haw.  Hooks  is  the  name  by 
which  this  disease  is  frequently  known.  It  consists 
of  inflammation  of  the  membrana  nictitans,  situated 
in  the  corner  of  the  eye,  and  whose  function  it  is  to 
clean  the  eye  of  dirt  and  dust.  The  horse  cannot 
use  any  artifical  means  of  cleansing  foreign  substances 
from  the  eye.  Therefore  nature  has  provided  him 
with  the  haw.  When  inflammation  exists,  the  mem- 
brane swells,  and  protrudes  from  the  corner  of  the 
eye.  Quackery  frequently  sanctions  the  excision  of 
this  important  structure,  thereby  leaving  the  eye  in  an 
impaired  condition  ever  after.  This  method  is  most 
barbarous,  and  would  certainly  not  be  adopted  by  a 
person  with  the  slightest  knowledge  of  the  injury 
that  the  operation  inflicts  upon  the  animal.  Treat- 
ment :    Take 

I  ounce  tincture  of  opium, 
10  drops  tincture  of  aconite, 
I  pint  soft  water;  mix. 

Bathe  the  eye  three  or  four  times  each  day.  The 
bowels  should  be  relaxed  with  one-half  pint  dose  of 
raw  linseed  oil.  The  food  should  consist  of  bran 
mashes. 

Simple  Ophthalmia.  This  is  caused  by  injuries  from 
some  foreign  body  getting  into  the  eye.  A  practice 
commonly  indulged  in  by  teamsters,  that  of  slashing 
the  whip  around  the  animal's  head,  is  frequently  the 
cause  of  the  disease ;  in  short,  anything  which  injures 
the  eye  and  causes  inflammation  of  its  membranous 
investment  is  termed  simple  ophthalmia.  The  eye 
suddenly  closes,  the  lid  swells,  the  membrane  cover- 
ing the  eye  is  of  a  whitish  color  and  is  very  sensitive. 
Treatment:  Bleed  from  the  vein  under  the  eye  and 
apply  the  following  wash  : 

6  drachms  tincture  of  opium, 
a  drachmstincture  of  aconite, 
I  pint  rain-water; 

or,  , 

1  ounce  belladonna, 
I  pint  rain-water. 

Use  either  of  these  washes  three  or  four  times 
each  day.  A  good  plan  is  to  saturate  a  flat  piece  of 
sponge  in  either  of  the  above  lotions  and  bind  it  upon 


the  eye.  Care,  however,  should  be  taken  that  the 
sponge  does  not  become  dry,  as  the  heat  of  the  sponge 
may  cause  more  inflammation. 

Specific  Ophthalmia.  This  is  a  constitutional  disease 
affecting  the  eyes.  Its  origin  has  been .  traced  to  a 
variety  of  causes,  and  various  erroneous  opinions 
have  been  formed  concerning  it.  Some  attribute  it 
to  the  change  of  the  moon,  others  to  wolf-teeth, 
sometimes  called  blend-teeth.  Those  opinions,  how- 
ever, to  the  educated  mind  prove  to  be  nothing  more 
than  the  superstition  of  ancient  farriery.  The  most 
frequent  causes  to  which  science  has  traced  the  afflic- 
tion are :  filthy  stables,  unhealthy  food,  impure  air, 
etc.  Upon  seeing  some  of  the  small,  filthy  prisons  in 
which  animals  are  confined,  we  caniwt  wonder  that 
so  sensitive  an  organ  as  the  eye  would  be  affected. 
Often  the  hovels  in  which  horses  are  compelled  to 
live  have  low  ceilings,  close  walls,  and  the  putrefying 
excrement  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  interior  untu 
some  convenient  time  for  its  removal  arrives.  Prob- 
ably half  a  dozen  huge  pair  of  lungs  inhale  the  stinted 
quantity  of  air  inclosed  within  those  walls.  The  at- 
mosphere becomes  hot,  the  fermenting  manure  sends 
forth  its  ammoniacal  odor,  which,  upon  entering  the 
stable,  often  causes  the  human  eyes  to  water.  Is  it, 
then,  any  wonder  if  the  horse's  eye,  being  constantly 
exposed  to  this  contaminated  atmosphere,  should  be- 
come diseased .'  The  symptoms  are  well  marked,  the 
eye  is  tightly  closed,  copious  tears  flow  from  the  in- 
flamed organ,  the  color  of  the  eye  is  changed  to  a 
whitish  hue,  the  pupilary  opening  is  firmly  closed, 
and  the  animal  strongly  resents  the  admission  of  light 
upon  the  eye.  Specific  ophthalmia  comes  on  period- 
ically, and  generally  terminates  in  blindness  of  one 
or  both  eyes.  Treatment:  Open  the  bowels  with  the 
following  ball : 

,  I  ounce  aloes, 

2  drachms  ginger, 

Honey  and  molasses  sulHcient  to  form  ball. 

Remove  the  animal  to  a  dark  place.  Bleed  from 
vein  running  under  the  eye,  place  a  cloth  over 
the  eyes  saturated  with  cold  water.  Bathe  the  eyes 
with  the  following  lotion:  Tincture  of  opium,  i 
ounce ;  rain-water,  i  pint ;  mix  and  apply  four  or  five 
times  each  day.  Should  the  pulse  be  much  increased 
give  upon  the  tongue  every  two  hours  eight  or  ten 
drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  root. 

Cataract.  Of  this  there  are  four  kinds.  The  cap- 
sular cataract  is  indicated  by  a  white  spot  uix)n  the 
capsule  surrounding  the  lens.  The  turbid  appear- 
ance of  the  fluid  in  which  the  lens  floats  indicates 
milky  cataract.  A  speck  on  the  lens  is  termed  a  len- 
ticular cataract,  and  a  glistening  appearance  behind 
the  capsule  is  termed  a  spurious  cataract.  Cataract 
generally  follows  specific  ophthalmia,  and  little  good 
can  be  accomplished  by  way  of  treatment. 

Gutia  Serena.  This  is  known  as  amaurosis  or 
paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve  or  of  its  expansion  in  the 
retina.  Nothing  can  be  noticed  ujwn  the  eye  to 
cause  suspicion,  yet  the  animal  is  partially  or  totally 
blind,  and  will  run  against  a  building  or  any  other  ob- 
ject which  may  come   in  its  way   and  display   the 


HORSE. 


763 


actions  of  a  blind  horse.  The  best  way  of  detecting 
the  disease  is  by  exposing  the  eye  to  different  shades 
of  light.  When  diseased,  the  pupil  remains  un- 
changed, while  the  sound  eye,  on  exjxjsure  to  strong 
light,  contracts,  and  upon  removing  into  a  more 
shady  place  it  expands. 

Gutta  serena  is  sometimes  called  glass  eye,  incor- 
rectly, however,  as  the  term  is  understood  in  the 
West  and  South.  In  glass  eye,  as  understood  there, 
the  pupil  is  sound  and  perfect,  the  iris  distinct  and 
natural,  but  has  a  white  ring  around  the  cornea.  It 
may  injure  the  sale  of  a  horse,  but  simply  from 
the  singular  expression  it  gives  the  eye  of  the  animal. 
True  gutta  serena,  or  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve,is 
due  to  functional  andorga,nic  disease  of  the  optic  nerve. 
In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  it  may  sometimes 
be  relieved,  but  is  likely  to  occur  again.  In  the  latter 
stages  it  is  incurable.  Causes:  Congestion,  tumors, 
dropsy  or  other  diseases  of  the  brain.  Also  by  injury 
to  the  nerve  of  sight,  by  pressure  or  other  cause,  from 
inflammation,  excess  of  light,  and  may  be  symptom- 
atic, from  indigestion  or  during  gestation.  Treatment: 
Give  the  following:  Powdered  aloes,  1  %  ounces;  ginger 
J^  ounce;  molasses  or  honey,  sufficient  to  form  a  ball. 
Apply  a  bhster  behind  the  eye.  The  food  should 
consist  of  bran  mashes.    No  corn  should  be  given. 

Impedimetit  in  the  Lachrytnal  Gland.  The  lachry- 
mal ducts  of  the  eyes  are  small  canals  leading  from 
the  eyes  into  the  nose.  When  it  is  closed  by  inflam- 
mation or  other  temporary  cause,  the  water  of  the  eyes 
flow  over  the  face  as  shown  in  Fig.  58.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  duct  becomes 
permanently  closed.  The 
usual  remedy  is  to  swab  the 
nostrils  where  the  duct  en- 
ters with  tobacco  water  and 
afterwards  with  clean  wa- 
ter. If  this  does  not  effect 
a  cure  after  two  or  three 
trials,  the  duct  must  be 
opened  with  a  probe. 

The  duct  commences  by 
minute  openings  near  the 
terminations  of  the  upper  and  lower  lids  at  the  inner 
corner  of  the  eye.  It  comes  out  upon  the  dark  skin 
which  lines  the  commencement  of  the  nostrils,  lymg 
on  the  inner  membrane.  A  delicately  thin  elastic 
probe  must  be  used,  and  about  1 2  inches  long,  the 
horse  being  cast  and  securely  fastened.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  introduce  the  probe  both  from  the  cor- 
ner of  the  eye  and  from  the  nostrils.  Next  charge  a 
fine-ix)inted  syringe  with  tepid  water  and  placing  the 
point  into  the  nasal  termination  of  the  duct,  force  the 
water  through.  The  operation  should  only  be  per- 
formed by  a  surgeon. 

Fungoid  Tumors  in  the  Substance  of  the  Eye.  This 
is  a  rare  affection,  and  fortunately  so.  The  causes 
which  produce  it  are  obscure,  but  probably  the  same 
as  in  any  other  cancerous  affection.  The  end  will 
probably  be  death,  for  the  taint  of  the  cancerous  affec- 
tion is  probably  in  the  system.     Upon  close  exaraina- 


FlG. 


58. — Obstruction  of  Lachry- 
tnal  Gland. 


tion,  the  eye  ball  may  be  clear,  but  a  brilliant  yellow 
substance  may  be  seen  at  the  base  of  the  interior. 

If  it  be  not  deemed  best  to  destroy  the  animal,  the 
eye  must  be  extirpated.  Two  knives  are  required,  of 
a  peculiar  shape,  one  of  small  size  and  slightly  bent 
to  one  side  ;  the  other  larger  and  curved  to  one  side 
until  it  nearly  reaches  the  shape  of  a  semi-circle.  A 
sharp  scalpel  (the  knife  ordinarily  used  in  surgical 
operations)  will  also  be  required.  Two  straight,  tri- 
angular pointed  needles  threaded  with  strong  waxed 
twine,  a  curved  needle,  similarly  threaded,  water,  a 
six)nge,  lint,  injecting  tube  and  bellows.  Cast  the 
horse  and  fasten  him  so  that  he  cannot  move.  Pierce 
each  eyelid  with  one  of  the  straight  needles  and  tie 
secure  for  raising  and  holding  the  lids  as  shown  in 
the  cut. 

Let  an  assistant 
then  hold  the  lids 
wide  open.  The 
surgeon  with  the 
straight  knife 
quickly  discribes  a 
circle  around  the 
globe  of  the  eye, 
severingcomplete- 
ly  the  conjunctive 
mucous  m  e  m  - 
brane  of  the  eye. 
He  then  takes  a 
small  curved  blade 
and  passing  i  t 
through  the  d  i  - 
vided  comjunctiva 
tFu,.  y,.-Extirj,atwn  of  the  Eye.  it  is  Carried  around 
the  eyeball  close  to  the  bone,  severing  the  levator  and 
depressor  muscles.  The  cornea  is  then  pierced  with 
the  curved  needle,  in  and  out,  the  thread  drawn  and 
a  loop  fixed.  Then  the  eye  being  drawn  out  as  far  as 
ix)ssible  the  curved  knife  is  passed  around  the  rear 
of  the  eye  with  a  sawing  motion,  the  integuments  are 
severed,  and  the  eye  is  drawn  forth. 

It  is  quickly  done  when  all  things  are  ready,  but 
should  not  be  attempted  except  by  a  competent  sur- 
geon. Some  bleeding  will  follow.  Inject  cold  water: 
if  this  does  not  check  the  hemorrhage,  force  cold  air 
into  the  cavity  with  the  bellows. 
If  this  does  not  avail,  plug  the 
cavity  softly  with  lint,  bandage 
the  wound  to  secure  the  dressing, 
and  leave  the  result  to  the  natural 
process  of  healing.  If  the  animal 
loses  his  eye  and  is  a  valuable 
MiyNDt^''  animal,  and  the  farmer  desires  to 
Fig.  6o.-/ir!'yfc,v./£'^<f.  preserve  his  appeararice,  he  can 
purchase  an  artificial  eye.  Fig.  60  which  greatly 
adds  to  the  animal's  appearance,  and  is  in  common 
use  among  horsemen. 

Worms  in  the  Eye.  These  sometimes,  but  rarely  ap- 
pear and  may  be  extracted  by  a  skillful  puncture.  It 
should  be  undertaken  only  by  a  competent  veterinary 


764 


HORSE. 


or  other  surgeon,  the  horse  first  being  securely  ham- 
pered so  he  cannot  struggle.  Insert  a  seton  three 
inches  under  the  eye  with  needle. 

Sore  Eyes.  In  the  beginning  of  more  serious  dis- 
eases, soreness  of  the  lids  of  the  eyes  is  common.  It 
is  also  produced  by  irritation  of  various  kinds.  In 
inflammation  of  the  eyes,  soreness  of  the  lids  is  always 


Fig.  di.—Srion  NetdU. 

present.  If  from  other  disease,  it  is  sympathetic,  and 
will  pass  away  with  the  disease  itself.  There  is  one 
form,  however,  that  is  characterized  by  a  redness, 
swelling  and  itching,  the  edges  becoming  raw  and 
exuding  matter.  This  must  have  specific  treatment. 
Treatment:  The  horse  should  have  a  laxative  dose, 
if  the  bowels  are  not  in  a  natural  state.  The  follow- 
ing will  be  indicated: 

I  drachm  flowers  of  sulphur, 
3  drachms  powdered  mandrake, 
3  drachms  powdered  aloes, 
I  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Form  this  into  a  ball  with  honey  and  give  as  a  dose. 

In  aggravated  cases  that  will  not  yield  to  treatment, 
and  that  remain  raw  and  exude  matter,  the  edges 
should  be  carefully  touched  with  mercurial  ointment, 
the  utmost  care  being  taken  that  it  does  not  come  in 
contact  with  the  eye. 

During  the  whole  treatment  the  horse  must  be  tied 
up  by  two  lines  to  the  rear  post  of  the  stall,  so  he  can- 
not rub  the  eyes,  and  must  be  fed  from  a  nose  bag. 
Wash  them  with  3  grains  sulphate  zinc  to  i  ounce 
water. 

Weak  Eyes.  Very  many  persons,  otherwise  well 
informed,  when  from  any  cause  the  eyes  of  horses  be- 
come weak,  inflamed,  watery,  or  drop  tears,  suppose 
the  cause  to  be  from  the  natural  weakness  of  the 
sight.  So  "  blind  teeth  "  are  supposed  to  cause  serious 
trouble,  and  even  blindness  in  horses.  Nothing  could 
be  further  from  the  truth.  It  is  exceedingly  rare  that 
horses  have  naturally  weak  eyes ;  it  can  almost  always 
be  traced  to  some  local  cause.  Thus,  watering  of  the 
eyes  is  caused  by  a  stoppage  of  the  lachrymal  ducts 
leading  from  the  eyes  into  the  nostrils,  the  natural 
channels  for  carrying  off  the  superabundant  moisture 
of  the  eye.  Inflammation  of  the  eyes  is  not  uncom- 
mon from  a  turning  in  of  the  eye-lashes.  The  remedy 
is  to  snip  them  off  with  the  scissors. 

"Blind  teeth,"  or  "wolf  teeth,"  as  the  immature 
supernumerary  tushes  are  called,  do  no  injury  what- 
ever. If  it  is  feared  they  may,  it  is  easy  to  take  them 
out  with  a  pair  of  forceps,  or  to  knock  them  out  with 
a  punch  and  hammer. 

Occasionally  a  supernumerary  tooth  is  found  grow- 
ing in  the  upper  jaw,  between  the  first  and  second 
teeth,  and  lapping  over  both  of  them.  This  is  con- 
sidered by  many  persons  as  producing  inflammation 


of  the  eyes.  It  is  true  that  if  pain  results,  the  eyes 
may  be  affected  by  sympathy.  This  tooth  should 
always  be  removed,  and  may  be  done  with  a  strong 
pair  of  forceps.  It  may  cause  distress  from  pain  in 
the  jaw;  nothing  more.  They  occasionally  press 
upon  the  nerve  of  the  eye,  producing  inflammation. 
Colts  are  often  subject  to  inflammation  of  the  eyes 
i  n  a  slight  degree  during 
teething.  Examine  the  teeth, 
lance  the  gums  and  the  eyes 
will  recover.  It  is  a  case  of 
sympathy. 

Foreign  Bodies  wiihin  the 
Eyelids.  When  foreign  bodies, 
such  as  small  particles  of  hay  or 
dirt,  get  within  the  eyelids,  they  create  great  pain,  and 
if  allowed  to  remain  there  produce  a  very  grave  form 
of  disease,  often  ending  in  disorganization  and  total 
blindness.  Should  anything  of  the  kind  be  discovered 
it  may  be  removed  by  raising  the  upper  or  depressing 
the  lower  lids;  then  introduce  and  explore  the  eye- 
ball by  means  of  a  camel's-hair  pencil,  to  which  the 
foreign  body  will  usually  adhere,  when  it  is  easily 
brought  away.  The  parts  should  then  be  sponged 
with  lukewarm  water.  After  the  lapse  of  a  few  hours, 
should  the  membranes  of  the  eye  and  lids  appear 
much  reddened,  use  the  following:  Rose  water,  4 
ounces;  fluid  extract  of  gelseminum,  2  drachms.  Put 
the  patient  on  a  diet  of  sloppy  bran  mash,  and  place 
him  where  the  rays  of  sunlight  shall  not  affect  the  eye. 
Farcy:  see  Glanders  in  this  article. 
Fever,  or  General  Inflammation.  When  from 
any  cause  injury  is  done  to  any  part  of  the  frame,  or 
inflammatory  action  is  set  up  either  in  the  tissues, 
membranes,  or  any  of  the  organs  of  the  body,  heat  is 
produced,  and  this  is  fever.  This  often  becomes  gen- 
eral from  sympathy,  thus  in  a  measure  relieving  the 
pressure  on  the  more  closely  affected  parts.  Fever 
is  not  the  disease  itself,  but  the  result  of  disorganiza- 
tion; a  symptom  of  disease  or  internal  disorder;  in 
fact,  an  abnormal  symptom  arising  from  sympathy  of 
the  system  with  disease  in  the  animal  economy.  Re- 
move the  cause  and  the  fever  will  cease.  We  may 
do  something  to  alleviate  it  in  connection  with  the 
treatment  of  the  disease  itself,  but  we  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  latter. 

In  intermittent  fevers  there  is  a  cold  stage,  a  hot 
stage  and  a  sweating  stage.  These  may  vary  in  suc- 
cession and  degree,  but  the  real  difficulty  is  in  a  mor- 
bid state  of  the  viscera,  but  particularly  of  the  liver 
and  organs  employed  in  the  formation  of  bile,  and  of 
the  mesentery.  In  fevers  the  tongue  is  coated.  But 
no  quack  is  so  ignorant  as  to  suppose  the  fever  can 
be  cured  by  scraping  the  tongue,  and  yet  this  is  fully 
as  sensible  as  to  suppose  fever  to  be  the  disease  itself, 
when  it  is  an  effect  of  disease.  A  rational  system  of 
veterinary  medicine  contemplates,  in  the  treatment  of 
febrile  symptoms,  nothing  more  than  a  kind  of  expect- 
ancy. 

If  the  patient  be  in  the  cold  stage,  administer 
warm  diffusible  stimulants  and  diaphoretics,  aided  by 


^^^^ 


766 


HORSE. 


•warmth  and  moisture  externally ;  friction  on  the  ex- 
tremities, and  if  necessary,  stimulating  applications  to 
the  chests  and  the  extremities.  In  the  hot  stage,  and 
when  the  superficial  heat  of  the  body  is  great,  cooling 
drinks  are  indicated ;  water  acidulated  with  cream  of 
tartar  makes  a  good  febrifuge. 

The  patient  may  be  occasionally  sponged  with 
weak  saleratus  water.  The  alkali  has  a  beneficial  ef- 
fect on  the  cutaneous  vessels,  while  the  water  lessens 
the  temperature  of  the  body.  No  treatment,  however, 
can  be  of  any  rational  use  unless  it  contemplates  a 
restoration  of  the  healthy  equilibrium  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem. Let  the  doctor  treat  the  disease  and  a  good 
attentive  groom  can  manage  the  fever. - 

Firing.  This  subject  is  very  fully  treated  on  page 
462. 

Fistula  of  the  Foot  is  treated  under  the  head 
of  Quittor  on  page  800. 

Fistulous  Withers  is  similar  to  poll-evil,  the  lo- 
cation only  changing;  is  caused  in  like  manner  by 
bruises.  In  the  case  of  fistula,  these  bruises  may 
be  caused  by  a  bad  fitting  collar ;  by  a  lady's  saddle, 
particularly  if  awkwardly  ridden;  by  the  pressing  for- 
ward of  a  man's  saddle,  especially  in  case  of  high 
withers ;  by  striking  the  withers  against  the  top  of  a 
low  door-way;  by  rolling  and  striking  the  withers 
against  some  hard  substance;  by  the  biting  of  another 
horse  and  by  a  blow  of  a  blacksmith's  hammer. 

Symptoms.  The  first  indication  will  be  a  swelling 
on  one  or  both  sides  of  the  withers,  generally  rather 
broad  and  flat.  Upon  examination  with  the  fingers 
this  will  be  found  hot,  tender  and  apparently  deep- 
seated.  If  observed  when  first  formed,  it  will  be  of 
uniform  hardness  throughout ;  if  unattended  to  while 
in  this  state  the  tumor  soon  becomes  an  abscess ;  and 
owing  to  the  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  matter's  es- 
caping (its  natural  outlet  being  at  the  top'  of  the 
shoulder),  the  pus  'sinks  downward  and  the  abscess 
sometimes  becomes  enormous  before  there  is  any 
well  defined  head,  and  before  there  is  any  opening. 
When  it  breaks,  or  is  opened,  a  large  quantity  of  ex- 
tremely offensive  matter  flows  out.  When  the  dis- 
charge has  begun  the  tumor  does  not  begin  to  grow 
healthy  and  heal,  but  the  walls  of  the  opening  thicken 
and  continue  to  discharge  matter,  which  becomes 
more  and  more  offensive.  The  matter  burnDWs  be- 
tween the  shoulder  blades  and  spinal  points  and  ev- 
erything around  seems  to  be  rotting  away ;  and  it  is 
both  difficult  and  dangerous  to  trace  the  opening. 
In  process  of  time  several  holes  will  appear  along  the 
course  of  the  muscles  in  contact  with  original  abscess, 
and  from  each  issues  a  foul  discharge,  till  the  ulcerat- 
ing process  seems  to  extend  itself  to  nearly  all  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder. 

The  health  of  the  animal  may  at  first  be  excellent, 
and  there  may  be  no  lameness;  but  as  the  inflamma- 
tion extends,  there  is  lameness  of  the  shoulder  and 
he  suffers  generally  often  greater.  He  is  averse  to 
motion  and  will  suffer  for  food  and  drink  rather  than 
undergo  the  pain  of  trying  to  reach  and  partake  of  it. 


In  its  worst  stages  the  bones  extending  into  the 
sinuses  decay. 

Treatment.  Be  careful  to  ascertain,  in  the  first 
place,  whether  the  tumor  has  newly  risen.  The  matter 
may  form  in  one,  even  while  it  is  quite  small;  and  it 
is  im}X)rlant  to  know  when  the  knife  may  be  used  to 
advantage. 

If  matter  has  already  formed,  it  can  be  detected 
by  the  somewhat  soft  and  fluctuating  feeling  of  the 
abscess. 


Fig.  t-^.— Slight  Enlargemint  which  may  end  in  Fistulous  Withtrs. 

If  discovered  while  a  new  fonnation,  take  the 
horse  from  work,  if  possible;  if  not,  take  especial 
pains  to  protect  the  injured  point  or  points  from  press- 
ure. A  bruise  at  that  point  of  the  withers  where  the 
collar  rests  will  not  unfit  a  horse  for  the  saddle  unless 
considerable  inflammation  and  extending  soreness 
have  already  set  in ;  nor  will  a  saddle  bruise  farther 
back  on  the  withers  necessarily  unfit  him  for  harness. 
A  recent  swelling  should  be  immediately  treated 
with  limiment  recommended  for  poll-evil ;  this  will 
scatter  the  worst  of  cases  if  used  in  time. 

When  the  tumor  begins  to  soften  and  shows  signs 
of  heading,  have  a  suitable,  fine-pointed,  sharp 
knife.  (See  Abscess  Lancet,  Fig.  56.)  Ascer- 
tain  the  lowest  point  of  the  abscess.     Then  stand 

close  to  his  side, 
near  the  middle,  to 
avoid  both  hind  and 
fore  feet  in  case 
of  kicking  or  strik- 
ing, with  the  back 
of  the  knife  to  the 
shoulder;  point  up- 
ward and  outward, 
stick  at  the  lower 
edge,  and  cut  open 
with  a  free  incision. 
Next,  syringe  the 
abscess  till  it  is  as 
Fig.  fn.— Fistulous  Withers— Worst  Stage,  thoroughly  cleansed 
as  possible  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  water, 
one  part  acid  to  two  of  water.  After  two  or  three 
days,  the  wound  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  by 
syringing  with  warm  soap-suds ;  then  use  the  carbolic 
acid  water  and  salve  dressing ;  and  so  on  till  a  cure 
is  effected. 

The  patient  should  in  every  case  be  turned  out 
to  grass,  as  lowering  the  head  causes  the  matter  to 


HORSE. 


767 


flow  freely  and   the  exercise   taken, — all  has  a  tend- 
ency to  facilitate  a  cure. 

When  the  case  has  become  chronic,  and  holes  in 
considerable  number  have  appeared,  make  a  cut  so  as 
to  reach  the  bones,  and  to  include  in  its  course  as 
many  holes  as  practical.  If  there  are  other  openings 
(particularly  below)  cut  from  them  into  the  main 
incision.  Have  an  assistant  to  press  back  the  sides 
of  the  greater  opening  till  the  matter  is  cleared  out; 
and  if  the  spinous  process  or  points  are  found  to  be 
carious  or  rotten,  nip  off  with  a  pair  of  bone  forceps 
till  the  healthy  bone  is  left ;  the  wound  will  inev- 
itably matter  and  break  through  again,  though  it  may 
for  a  time  appear  to  have  healed.  After  thus  clean- 
ing out  the  bulk  of  the  matter  and  picking  out  the 
bone,  use  the  syringe  and  warm  soap-suds  still  further 
to  clean  the  parts;  then  inject  the  carbolic  solution  as 
previously  directed.  But  instead  of  coal  oil,  use  this 
ointment  once  a  day : 

K  ounce  litharge, 
34  ounce  copperas, 
I  ounce  turpentine, 

1  drachm  carbolic  acid. 
Mix  with  %  pint  hog's  lard. 

The  copperas  must  be  finely  powdered  ;  then  mix 
thoroughly.  When  a  kind  of  thick,  whitish  discharge 
is  observed  to  have  set  in,  discontinue  the  ointment ; 
but  still  wash  or  syringe  thoroughly  at  intervals,  with 
warm  soap-suds.  To  keep  'away  flies  cover  the  wound 
after  each  dressing  with  a  large  cloth  saturated  with 
oil  or  tar,  and  arnica,  equal  parts. 

Should  the  horse  grow  feverish  from  the  effects  of 
blood-poisoning,  which  takes  place  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree  in  this  chronic  stage,  by  reason  of  absorp- 
tion, give  an  alterative  or  tonic  composed  of 

%  ounce  sulphur. 

2  drachms  bloodroot, 
K  ounce  golden  seal, 

5i  ounce  hyposulphite  soda, 

three  times  a  day  in  bran  or  cut  feed. 

In  very  desperate  cases  it  is  sometimes  best,  or 
indeed  almost  indispensable,  to  use  the  rowel. 

The  pipes  (or  sinuses,  as  they  are  sometimes  called), 
the  openings  whence  the  matter  exudes,  take  a  dan- 
gerous direction,  and  tend   from  the  withers  to  the 


Fig.  65. — Seions. 

chest.     Use  an  elastic  probe  to  ascertain  the  direc- 
tion and  the  depth,  and  if  it  is  found  that  cutting 


will    not   answer,   use   the   guarded    setoii  or  rowel 
needle. 

Insert  it  as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  then  give  it  a  firm 
rap  on  the  handle,  so  as  to  force  out  the  cutting 
edge  and  drive  the  point  through  the  flesh.  Knot 
one  end  of  a  long,  slender  tape,  place  the  other 
through  the  opening  near  the  point  of  the  needle  and 
draw  it  through.  Then  tie  a  knot  at  the  other  end,  and 
leave  it.  In  this  way  the  sinus  will  have  an  opening 
below,  and  the  tape  will  act  as  a  drain,  while  tending 
also  by  friction  to  remove  the  hard-lining  of  the  pipe. 
As  soon  as  a  healthy-looking  matter  is  seen  to  be 
issuing  from  the  lower  orifice,  remove  the  seton,  but 
cleanse  occasionally  with  warm  soap  and  water. 
Anoint  the  tape  daily  with 

2  ounces  verdigris, 
1  drachm  red  precipitate 
I  drachm  arsenic, 
I  drachm  alum, 
•  I  drachm  corrosive  sublimate, 

K  pint  of  hog's  lard  ;  mix. 

When  the  party  has  neither  the  ability  nor  boldness 
to  either  cut  or  rowel  for  either  poll  evil  or  fistula,  or 
where  the  sinuses  or  tubes  run  deep,  so  that  it  is  both 
dangerous  and  difficult  to  search  for  them,  a  very 
effectual  remedy  is  to  take 

I  pint  of  strong  vinegar, 
%  ounce  of  litharge, 

e  ounces  muriatic  acid, 
5^  ounce  corrosive  sublimate. 
Finely  pulverize  and  mix. 

Take  a  metallic  syringe  with  a  long  pipe,  inject  a 
small  portion  of  this  mixture  to  the  bottom  of  the  tubes, 
twice  a  week,  until  well.  Do  not  let  the  animal  get 
wet  while  using  this  mixture. 

Fistula  of  the  Parotid  Duct.  The  parotid 
duct,  which  is  formed  by  a  union  of  the  smaller  ducts 
of  the  parotid  gland,  enters  the  mouth  after  it  leaves 
the  gland,  in  front  of  the  large  masseter  muscle  of  the 
cheeks — having  passed  for  some  distance  upon  the 
inner  side  of  the  jaw,  and  then  turned  under  the 
lower  border  of  the  bone.  The  saliva  secreted  by 
the  parotid  gland,  which  lies  at  the  spot  where  the 
neck  joins  the  jaw,  is  poured  into  the  mouth  by  the 
parotid  duct,  to  be  mingled  with  the  food  during 
the  process  of  mastication.  If  the  moAh  of  this  little 
tube  is  closed  in  any  way,  so  as  to  prevent  the  free 
egress  of  the  saliva,  distension  of  the  duct  takes 
place,  and  the  confined  secretion  causes  suffering, 
inflammation  and  finally  rupture.  This  stoppage  is 
sometimes  caused  by  hay-seeds  or  other  particles  of 
food  that  enter  the  mouth  of  the  channel  while 
the  animal  is  feeding.  The  presence  of  food  in  the 
mouth  and  the  motion  of  the  jaw  stimulate  the  action 
of  the  gland,  and  since  the  saliva  thus  secreted  can- 
not escape  by  its  natural  opening,  there  is  constantly 
more  and  more  pressure  until  some  outlet  is  found. 
This,  as  we  have  said,  may  be  by  bursting,  or  it  may 
be  by  external  accident.  A  wound  inflicted  on  the 
jaw  by  any  pointed  instrument,  as  a  hay-fork,  has 
been  known  to  penetrate  the  channel.  The  saliva 
thereupon  pours  through  the  opening,  and  by  its 
constant  flow  it  prevents  the  healing  of  the  wound, 


768 


HORSE. 


so  that  its  edges  speedily  become  hard  and  without 
that  liveliness  essential  to  the  closing  of  punctured 
or  gashed  flesh. 

Symptoms.  The  digestion  becomes  deranged  when 
the  process  of  mastication  is  carried  on  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time  without  the  foods  being  moist- 
ened by  that  secretion  which  the  parotid  duct  in  a 
healthy  condition  furnishes ;  but  the  orifice  in  the 
skin,  under  the  jaw,  or  on  the  cheek  at  the  large  mus- 
cle, discharging  a  liquid  somewhat  resembling  the 
white  of  an  egg,  is  the  unmistakable  indication  of  the 
disorder  under  consideration.  During  the  act  of 
feeding,  this  fluid  is  freely  discharged,  even  some- 
times squirting  from  the  wound,  and  especially  so  if 
the  food  is  dry  and  hard  to  chew.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  in  che\ving  the  horse  uses  the  opjxjsite  side  of 
the  mouth  from  that  on  which  the  opening  occurs, 
and  that  the  process  is  slow  and  difficult.  The  edges 
of  the  wound  soon  become  callous,  the  running  of 
the  stream  down  the  cheek  destroys  the  hair,  and  the 
whole  part  has  a  filthy  and  fistulous  appearance. 

Treatment.  In  the  first  place,  especial  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  animal  during  the  period  required 
for  effecting  a  cure,  upon  food  that  requires  no 
chewing. 

It  should  be  sufficiently  plentiful  and  nutritious  to 
prevent  the  uneasiness  of  hunger.  Soft  mashes  and 
gruels  alone  should  constitute  the  diet.  All  the  treat- 
ment necessary  is  an  injection  of  i  drachm  carbolic 
acid  with  i  pint  water.  Put  a  seton  through  the  duct. 

Flatulent  Colic.     See  page  754. 

Foot,  Inflammation  and  Ulceration  of  the. 
It  is  thought  that  a  rheumatic  constitution  predis- 
poses an  animal  to  this  disease.  Certain  it  is,  that 
highly  organized  and  weak-limbed  animals  most 
usually  suffer  from  it,  probably  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  not  able  to  withstand  an  injury  that  a  stronger- 
limbed  animal  would  do,  especially  when  carrying  a 
bad-fitting  shoe,  or  subject  to  violent  exertion  or  over- 
strain of  any  kind.  Another  very  common  cause  is 
grain  founder.  The  most  common  cause  is  over- 
heating the  animal  and  allowing  him  to  cool  off"  too 
suddenly,  causing  what  is  generally  called  founder, 
but  in  fact  is  inflammation  of  the  laminae  of  the  foot. 
Heat  is  always  present  in  the  inflammatory  stage. 

Symptoms.  The  foot  will  feel  hot,  the  toe  will  be 
pointed,  in  the  stable,  eight  or  ten  inches  before  the 
other,  and  with  the  heel  slightly  raised.  The  animal 
will  be  observed  to  step  short,  and  on  the  toe,  with 
liability  to  stumble  when  first  taken  out  of  the  stable. 
This  will  disappear  as  the  animal  gets  warm,  but  re- 
turn as  soon  as  he  is  cool.  By  bending  the  foot  back 
and  pressing  with  the  thumb  in  the  hollow  of  the  heel 
on  either  side  of  the  flexor  tendon  with  considerable 
force,  it  will  cause  intense  pain.  These  are  all  char- 
acteristic tests. 

Treatment.  If  the  injury  is  new,  the  first  thing  to 
be  done  is  to  reduce  the  inflammation.  Do  this  with 
cold-water  applications  or  any  of  the  remedies  advised 
for  ring-bone,  spavin,  or  other  inflammation.  Give  in 
laxative  doses,  4  drachms  of  aloes;  have  the  shoes 


taken  off"  and  let  the  horse  stand  during  the  day-time 
in  pure,  wet  clay  up  to  the  top  of  the  hoof,  and  at 
night  jxiultice  the  foot.  If  there  is  much  inflam- 
mation, bleed  the  arteries  above  the  coronet.  Keep 
the  horse  perfectly  quiet,  and  if  he  has  a  fast  pulse 
give  an  ounce  of  saltpeter  in  the  drinking  water  night 
and  morning.  At  the  end  of  two  weeks,  or  sooner  if 
the  inflammation  is  gone,  blister  the  coronet  all 
around.     Or,  use  the  following: 

I  ounce  camphor  gum, 

1  ounce  corrosive  sublimate, 

I  pint  oil  turpentine. 

Grind  the  sublimate  thoroughly  in  a  mortar,  and  put 
into  a  strong  bottle;  pour  on  the  turpentine  and  shake 
occasionally.  It  should  be  fit  for  use  in  from  20  to  30 
hours.  This  is  to  be  applied  every  other  day  to  the 
heel  and  bottom  of  the  foot,  first  paring  away  all  scaly, 
ragged  parts  with  instruments  in  cut  shown  by  Fig.  66. 


^^^^^Illiiiifflr 


Fig.  66. — Drawing-  Knives. 

Anoint  the  external  walls  of  the  hoof  with  equal 
parts  of  coal  oil  and  honey,  or  fish  oil.  Heat  it  in 
with  a  hot  iron. 

Foot.  The  following  small  items  on  diff'erent  dis- 
eases and  accidents  of  the  foot,  not  treated  elsewhere, 
we  insert  here: 

JVail  in  the  Foot.  Pull  out  the  nail  and  enlarge 
the  opening  to  allow  escape  of  matter,  but  do  not 
make  the  opening  larger  than  the  head  of  a  nail. 
Then  poultice  the  foot  during  a  day  or  two  with  equal 
parts  of  flaxseed  meal  and  bran,  after  which  tack  on 
a  light  shoe  with  a  couple  of  nails  loosely.  Apply  once 
or  twice  daily  in  the  wound  a  portion  of  tincture  of 
iron,  and  cover  the  hoof  with  a  light  bandage  to  pre- 
vent dirt  from  clogging  up  the  wound.  The  horse 
should  be  kept  in  a  shaded,  cool  place  on  earth  floor, 
and  be  fed  on  loosening  mashes  and  cut  grass  instead 
of  hay.  Give  him  water  at  least  twice  daily  from  a 
bucket. 

£>ry  Rot.  Keep  the  animal  on,  a  clean  floor,  and 
occasionally  remove  all  decayed  horn  without  injuring 
the  vital  parts.  This,  together  with  frequent  applica- 
tions of  tar,  will  be  all  that  is  needed. 

Cracked  Heels.  Apply  a  poultice  made  of  linseed 
meal  i  pint;  bran,  3  pints;  sugar  of  lead,  2  drachms; 
hot  water,  a  suflScient  quantity  to  each  of  the  affected 
parts,  and  continue  this  treatment  for  four  days, 
changing  the  poultice  once  every  1 2  hours.  After  the 
poulticing  has  been  got  through  with,  the  following 
lotion  may  be  applied   to  the  parts   every  night  and 


HORSE. 


769 


morning:  Sulphate  zinc,  i  ounce;  glycerine,  4  ounces; 
water,  12  ounces;  mix.  The  horse  should  have  free- 
dom from  work  until  the  wounds  in  the  heels  are 
thoroughly  healed. 

Brittle  Hoofs.  Equal  parts  of  pine  tar  and  fish  oil 
make  an  excellent  application  for  brittle  hoofs.  It 
may  be  applied  with  a  brush  once  or  twice  a  day. 

Split  Hoof.  Put  in  wood  screws  and  join  the  parts 
or  walls  of  the  hoofs  together  so  they  will  not  work  or 
move  (open  and  shut)  as  the  horse  travels,  and  then, 
as  new  hoof  forms  above,  it  will  remain  whole,  and 
when  it  grows  off — which  will  be  in  about  one  year 
— he  will  have  a  smooth,  sound  hoof. 

Foul  Sheath.  A  horse  with  a  foul  sheath  is  a 
misfortune  to  his  master,  unless  the  difficulty  occurred 
before  purchase. 

Treatment.  Clean  the  sheath  of  all  foul  matter 
with  warm  soap-suds,  removing  all  lumps.  To  wash 
the  sheath,  take  hold  of  the  yard  when  protruded,  and 
without  undue  violence  hold  it  wth  gentle  pulling 
until  there  be  no  resistance,  when  it  may  be  pulled 
out  its  entire  length.  When  washed,  oil  thoroughly 
with  lard.  Every  other  day  or  every  three  days  wash 
again. 


Fig.  67. — Position  A  isumed  by  Horse  Suffering/rom  Grain  Founder. 

Founder,  Chest,  or  Water  Founder.  Nine  times 
out  of  ten,  in  this  case,  the  trouble  will  be  found  in  the 
feet.  When  it  is  not  soreness  of  the  muscles  from 
hard  work,  it  is  rheumatism  in  its  acute  form.  It  may 
be  brought  on  by  suddenly  allowing  the  horse  to  be- 
come chilled  after  heating,  giving  large  drafts  of  cold 
water  when  warm,  or  driving  him  into  cold  water  up 
to  his  belly  when  heated. 

Symptoms.  The  horse  is  dull;  his  coat  may  be 
staring  ;  he  is  stiff  and  moves  unwillingly.  Sometimes 
the  soreness  extends  to  the  limbs ;  there  is  fever  in 
the  parts  affected,  also  sometimes  profuse  sweating 
and  heaving  at  the  flanks  but  the  legs  will  remain 
warm. 

Treatment.  Clothe  the  horse  warmly,  and  put  him 
where  he  may  be  kept  so.  If  the  animal  is  fat,  and 
full  of  blood,  if  there  is  evident  determination  of 
blood,  give  20  drops  of  aconite,  in  a  little  water,  three 
times  a  day. 

Founder,  Grain,  or  Gorged  Stomach.  Gorged 
4'j 


stomach  is  usually  the  result  of  overfeeding,  by  which 
means  the  stomach  becomes  overtaxed  in  its  function, 
or  overburdened  in  its  capacity.  When  engorgement 
of  the  stomach  occurs,  and  is  associated  with  flatu- 
lency, the  sufferings  are  doubly  severe,  because  then 
the  intestines  are  also  the  seat  of  distension,  and  the 
pain  from  that  alone  is  sometimes  terrific. 

Treatment.  The  bowels  should  be  immediately  re- 
lieved by  removing  the  contents  with  repeated  injec- 
tions of  warm  water.  Let  the  animal  be  gently  walked 
about,  and  warmly  clothed  in  cold  weather.  If  discov- 
ered early,  or  before  colic  sets  in,  give  the  following  to 
evacuate  the  bowels  after  having  relieved  them  by  in- 
jections : 

6  drachms  golden  seal  ; 

6  drachms  powdered  aloes  ; 

I  ounce  syrup  of  buckthorn  ; 

I  ounce  tincture  of  ginger  ; 

1  ounce  tincture  capsicum; 

I  ounce  common  salt; 

%  ounce  hyposulphite  soda. 

Give  in  a  pint  of  warm  water,  and  repeat  every  half 
hour. 

Or  administer  the  following  drench : 

1  ounce  extract  of  ginger,  ^ 

2  ounces  fluid  extract  of  golden  seal 
2  tirachms  hyposulphite  of  soda, 

4  ounces  water. 

The  dangers  to  be  apprehended  in  cases  of  this 
character  are  either  rupture  of  the  intesdnes  or  dia- 
phragm. In  either  case,  death  is  sure  and  certain. 
Sometimes,  however,  neither  of  these  ruptures  occurs; 
then  the  distended  intesdnes  exert  such  pressure  on 
the  diaphragm  and  organs  of  respiration  that  the  ani- 
mal dies  of  suffocation  and  loss  of  pulse.  When, 
therefore,  it  becomes  impossible  for  the  patient  to 
swallow  medicine,  in  a  case  of  this  character,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  the  trocar  and  canula,  in  view  of  lib- 
erating the  imprisoned  gas.  The  lack  of  a  little 
knowledge  on  this  subject  has  been  the  cause  of  the 
loss  of  very  many  valuable  horses. 

Founder,  Foot;  Laminitis.  This  is  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  sensitive  larainse  or  inner  portion  of  the 
foot.  It  is  one  of  the  most  painful  maladies  to  which 
this  noble  animal  is  subject.  The  cartilaginous  por- 
tion of  the  foot  being  enclosed  in  a  horny  and  inelastic 
case,  becomes  greatly  inflamed.  Thus  the  secreting 
portion,  which  is  highly  vascular  when  inflamed,  and 
swollen  and  compressed  within  the  horny  wall,  is  ren- 
dered acutely  painful.  Horses  with  hard,  brittle  hoofs 
are  most  liable  to  this  disease.  Man  enslaves  the 
mute  creature  with  a  selfish  view  of  bettering  his  own 
condition,  yet  as  long  as  the  quadruped  moves 
soundly,  no  thought  is  taken  for  the  prevention  of  the 
diseases  to  which  he  is  liable.  Animals  are  allowed  to 
stand  ujxjn  dry  floors,  and  worked  upon  dry  roads, 
without  any  consideration  being  made  for  the  moisture 
which  the  hoof  requires  to  keep  it  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. The  causes  of  laminitis  are:  Driving  far  and  fast 
\x\ton  hard  roads,  watering  while  sweating,  and  stand 
ing  in  a  draught  of  air  while  warm.  So  it  may  be  brought 
about  by  other  diseases,  as  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
especially  when  the  feet  are  prepared  for  its  recep- 
tion, by  allowing  them  to  become  dry  for  want  of  the 


770 


HORSE. 


necessary  moisture.  Heavy  fast  horses  are  especially 
predisposed  to  founder,  and  so  are  those  with  small 
and  deformed  or  large,  flat  feet. 

Sy?nptoms.     There  will  be  general  fever  and  stiff- 
ness and  soreness ;  there  may  or  may  not  be  shiver- 


Fro.  68.—^  Foundered  or  Dead  Lame  Horse. 

ing.  Soon  extreme  tenderness  of  the  feet  follows, 
generally  most  severe  in  the  forward  part,  but  soon  in 
the  heel;  the  pulse  is  strong,  full  and  rapid;  the 
breathing  quickened  with  dilated  nostrils;  the  intens- 
ity of  the  pain  will  often  cause  the  animal  to  groan 
and  to  break  out  into  a  sweat.  If  pushed  backward 
the  horse  will  elevate  the  toes  and  throw  his  weight 
on  the  heels  by  a  peculiar  motion.  The  hoof  and 
frog  will  be  hot  and  very  sensitive  to  pressure,  and 
the  arteries  of  the  pasterns  will  beat  with  violence. 

When  the  inflammation  is  in  the  hind  feet,  which 
is  very  seldom,  the  fore  feet  are  carried  as  far  under 
the  body  as  possible  to  support  the  weight,  while  the 
hind  feet  are  thrown  forward  to  bring  the  weight  upon 
the  heels.  In  either  case,  the  animal  will  often  lie 
stretched  out  for  hours  to  relieve  the  intense  pain  of 
the  feet. 

Founder  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  a  disease 
called  myositis,  an  inflammation  of  the  muscles  of  the 
limbs,  especially  of  the  hind  quarters  and  loins.  They 
should  never  be  so  mistaken,  as  an  observation  of  the 
several  symptoms  will  show.  In  founder,  first  one 
foot  and  then  the  other  is  Hfted  from  the  ground. 
Lying  down  lessens  the  pain  and  the  feverof  the  feet, 
and  the  difficulty  usually  occurs  in  the  fore  feet.  In 
myositis,  both  feet  are  kept  on  the  ground  with  refusal 
to  move  either.  The  animal  will  not  lie  down,  and  if 
thrown  down  the  pain  is  increased  and  the  disease  is 
generally  in  the  hind  quarters. 

In  many  cases  the  symptoms  are  not  so  aggravated 
as  we  have  shown,  but  the  symptoms,  whether  one  or 
more  of  the  feet  are  affected,  are  the  same,  and  often, 
especially  when  repeated  attacks  have  been  suffered, 
leave  the  animal  with  seedy  toe,  pumiced  feet,  corru- 


gated and  otherwise  distorted  hoofs,  and  always  more 
or  less  liable  to  recurrence  of  stiff  spells  during  Hfe. 
Treatment.  In  light  cases,  when  discovered  early, 
clothe  the  animal  warmly,  give  twenty  drops  tincture 
of  aconite  every  two  hours  preceded  by  a  gentle  lax- 
ative, say: 

a  drachms  cream  tartar  , 
2  to  3  drachms  powdered  aloes  ; 
I  ounce  bicarbonate  of  soda  ; 
I  quart  linseed  oil. 

Mix  in  a  pint  of  water  and  give  as  a 
drench.  If  there  is  severe  pain  give  ounce 
doses  of  laudanum  every  hour  until  an  effect 
is  produced. 

As  an  application   to  the  feet  keep  them 

in  large  warm  poultices  of  linseed  meal  and 

water,  or  let  the  feet  be  placed  in  water  kept 

as  hot  as  tlie  animal  can  bear.     Put   him   in 

slings  by  all  means,  if  they  can  be  procured. 

Have  the  shoes  carefully  taken  off  as  soon  as 

the  sedatives  given  will  allow  him  to  bear  the 

pain.     As  early  as  possible  the  animal  should 

be  bled  in  the  veins  above  the  coronet  of  the 

affected  feet.     The  bleeding  will  be  assisted 

by  the  feet  being  placed   in  hot  water,  and 

for  this  reason,  if    for  no  other,  the  slings 

should  be  used  as  quickly  as  jxissible. 

If  at  the  end  of  two  days  the  fever  and  tenderness 

does  not  get  better  pare  down  the  soles  and  open 

them  at  the  toe  to  let  out  any  watery  matter  that  may 

exist,  for  fear  the  horn  may  separate  from  the  quick, 

keeping  on  the  poultices  afterwards  as  before.    When 

the  inflammation   subsides  blister  the  pasterns  and 

apply  corrosive  liniment  to  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and 

keep  the  horse  standing  on  soft  clay,  or  if  in  summer 

time  turn  him  into  a  moist,  soft  pasture. 


Fig.  69. — Slings. 

Frog,  Injuries  of  the.  The  frog  of  the  horse's 
foot  is  especially  liable  to  injury  from  being  bruised 
on  projecting  stones  or  pierced  by  nails  and  splinters. 
It  is  also  liable  to  inflammation  of  the  secreting  mem- 
brane, resulting  in  the  formation  of  matter,  and  to 
canker. 

Treatment.     In  all  bruises  with  soreness  pare  awav 


^ 


tey^^a^ 


'^m^h-^ 


772 


HORSE. 


the  frog  carefully  until  the  difficulty  is  found.  If 
bruised,  treat  it  by  using  the  liniment  recommended 
for  navicular  diseases.  If  pierced  with  some  sharp 
substance,  extract  it  and  inject  tincture  of  aloes  and 
myrrh.  If  the  difficulty  be  thrush,  caused  by  expo- 
sure to  wet  and  filth,  bruise  of  the  frog,  hard  substances 
lodged  in  the  cleft,  or  other  cause,  there  will  be  sore- 
ness of  the  skin  behind  the  cleft  of  the  frog,  and  bad- 
smelling  discharges  from  the  cleft,  with  more  or  less 
lameness.  Wash  the  affected  parts  thoroughly ;  cut 
away  all  ragged  surfaces  and  press  into  the  cleft  of 
the  wound  Venice  turpentine. 

Frost  Bite.  The  results  of  frost  bites  may  appro- 
priately be  termed  chilblains,  which  again  gives  rise  to 
extreme  swellings  of  the  heels  and  back  parts  of  the 
hind  legs,  until  finally  the  skin  gives  way,  terminating 
in  sores  and  ulcers  that  may  at  once  be  taken  for 
scratches.  Injury  from  the  effects  of  frost  is  more 
common  in  the  North  and  West  than  is  generally 
supposed,  and  in  many  cases  rheumatism,  founder, 
and  other  stiff  complaints,  may  be  attributed  to  this 
as  the  predisposing  cause. 

The  causes  of  frost  bites  are  long  exposure  to  cold, 
either  standing  in  the  open  air  or  confined  in  cold 
stables;  standing  in  half-melted  snow  and  slush; 
keeping  young  animals  in  exposed  yards,  where  they 
cannot  take  sufficient  exercise  and  without  sufficient 
food. 

Symptoms.  The  skin  of  the  injured  parts,  in  light 
cases,  turns  purple,  cracks  and  exudes  a  bloody 
serum ;  or  if  severe,  the  skin  and  tissues  beneath  lose 
color  and  become  dead  and  eventually  shrivel.  The 
skin,  especially  of  the  heel,  will  crack,  often  from  one 
side  to  the  other,  refusing  to  heal. 

Treatment.  If  the  limbs  are  simply  chilled,  friction 
will  be  all  that  will  be  necessary.  If  actually  frozen 
the  animal  should  be  warmly  clothed  and  the  frozen 
parts  rubbed  with  snow  until  circulation  is  partly 
restored.  Then  put  the  parts  in  cold  water  and  con- 
tinue rubbing  until  warmth  and  circularion  are  entirely 
restored.  Then  dry  thoroughly  with  cloths  and  hard 
rubbing.  If  the  frosting  has  been  neglected  and  raw 
sores  make  their  appearance,  prepare  the  following: 
Equal  parts  of  lime,  water  and  linseed  oil ;  rub  the 
whole  thoroughly  together  and  apply  twice  a  day  to 
the  raw  or  ulcerated  places. 

Gastritis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Stomach. 
Acute  inflammation  of  the  stomach  very  seldom,  and 
we  might  very  safely  say  never,  occurs  among  horses 
as  a  spontaneous  affection.  Any  thing  which  impairs 
the  digestive  functions  may  produce  this  disease.  It 
is  usually  occasioned  by  irritating  medicines  or  poisons. 

Symptoms.  There  is  a  dry  cough ;  the  membrane 
of  the  mouth  and  nostrils  are  dry  and  pale ;  the 
breath  is  tainted;  the  evacuations  smell  badly;  the 
eyes  are  sunk,  the  coat  dry  and  ragged;  the  horse 
loses  condition  and  becomes  pot-bellied;  the  anus  is 
lax  and  prominent.  The  ordinary  food  will  be  refused 
and  the  animal  will  persist  in  eating  foreign  substances 
— old  lime  mortar,  the  wood-work  of  the  stable,  earth, 
litter  and  bedding. 


Treatment.  To  cure  will  take  time.  Prevent  the 
animal  from  indulging  its  unnatural  appetite.  The 
following  will  be  indicated: 

Yt  ounce  sulphur, 
J^  drachm  bloodroot, 
I  drachm  gentian, 

4  drachms  poplar  bark, 
I  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Give  three  times  a  day  in  food. 

If  the  animal  has  simply  chronic  indigestion — that 
is,  if  the  disease  does  not  show  in  the  severe  form  we 
have  depicted,  to  improve  the  general  health  the  fol- 
lowing will  be  indicated : 

I  ounce  powdered  assafoetida, 

1  ounce  powdered  golden  seal, 
Q  ounces  powdered  ginger, 

2  ounces  powdered  poplar  bark, 

5  drachms  powdered  sulphate  of  iron, 
I  drachm  powdered  red  pepper, 

I  pound  of  oatmeal. 

Mix,  divide  into  sixteen  messes,  and  give  one  every 
night  in  the  food.  By  the  time  the  mixture  is  used 
the  general  health  of  the  animal  will  be  improved. 

Glanders  and  Farcy.  We  here  treat  glanders 
and  farcy  both  under  one  head,  as  they  always  should 
be.  They  are  one  and  the  same  disease  in  different 
stages — or  differently  located,  and  manifested  by 
somewhat  different  symptoms.  For  the  benefit  of  a 
few  "  quacks  "  who  are  a  disgrace  to  the  veterinary 
profession,  and  who  will,  in  the  face  of  all  the  facts  to 
the  contrary,  maintain  that  farcy  is  a  separate  disease 
from  glanders,  and  basing  their  reasons  entirely  on 
what  they  choose  to  call  "farcy  buds,"  we  will  say: 
Those  lumps  are  nothing  more  than  ulcerated  lym- 
phatic glands,  caused  by  the  virus  in  the  system ;  and 
while  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  the  true  veterinarian 
that  those  buds  or  lumps  are  not  always  present  in 
glanders,  they  are  never  found  except  where  glanders 
is  present.  Where  they  are  found  they  require  no 
special  treatment,  as  they  are  the  effect,  and  not,  as 
ignorantly  supix)sed,  the  cause. 

There  can  be  no  better  evidence  put  forward  to 
prove  our  former  statement  correct,  as  regards  the 
identity  of  these  two  diseases,  than  the  following 
well  established  fact,  which  has  been  demonstrated 
time  and  again  beyond  all  doubt.  If  you  take  some 
of  the  virus  from  the  ulcer  of  a  farcy  horse  and 
inoculate  a  sound  one,  the  subject  thus  inoculated 
will,  in  a  few  days,  become  thoroughly  glandered;  and, 
vice  versa,  if  you  take  the  matter  of  a  horse  afflicted 
with  the  glanders  and  inoculate  a  sound  horse  with 
the  virus,  the  victim  will  in  due  time  have  what  is 
termed  farcy,  in  its  most  malignant  form.  With  such 
facts  before  us,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  a  full 
understanding  of  the  highly  contagious  and  infectious 
nature  of  this  loathsome  and  incurable  disease,  we 
have  no  hesitation  in  condemning  all  animals  found 
afflicted  either  with  glanders  or  farcy;  they  should  be 
destroyed  forthwith. 

Glanders  seems  to  be  primarily  a  disease  of  the 
lymphatic  and  nasal  glands,  and  confined  to  them 
in  the  early  stages ;  but  the  more  advanced  stage  is 
an  inflammation  and  ulceration  of  the  absorbent  ves- 
sels of  the  enrire  system,  and  this  stage  is  usually 
termed  by  veterinarians  farcy.  The  disease  is  contagious 


HORSE. 


773 


only  by  inoculation  and  not  inhalation,  but  it  is  doubt- 
less due  far  more  frequently  to  predisposing  causes 
than  to  contagion.  It  is  found  as  a  prevalent  disease 
where  neglect,  filth,  and  foul  atmosphere  exist ;  and 
we  may  reasonably  conclude  that  jx)isonous  inhala- 
tions, acting  upon  the  delicate  and  easily  irritated 
membrane  of  the  nose,  produce  that  incipient  ulcer- 
ation from  which  the  subsequent  general  poisoning 
proceeds.  In  close  stalls,  the  carbonic  acid  given  off 
from  the  lungs  (which  gas  is  of  a  deadly  poisonous 
character),  passes  again  and  again  into  the  lungs, 
mixed  with  other  impurities  of  the  stall  itself;  this  act- 
ing perhaps  more  readily  upon  the  nasal  membrane 
than  uix)n  the  other  linings  of  the  air  passages,  pro- 
duces inflammation.  This  inflammation  may  long 
exist,  and  unsuspected  by  the  ordinary  observer,  till 
some  intense  action  is  set  up,  when  ulceration  takes 
place.  Or  it  may  be  produced  by  anything  that 
injures  and  weakens  the  vital  energy  of  the  membrane, 
as  violent  catarrh,  accompanied  by  long  continued 
discharge  from  the  nostrils,  a  fracture  of  the  bone  of 
the  nose,  and  the  too  frequent  injections  of  stimulat- 
ing and  acid  substances  up  the  nostrils.  Everything 
that  weakens  the  constitution,  may,  under  peculiar 
circumstances,  produce  glanders. 

It  mjist  be  observed  that  its  infectious  nature  is  not 
general,  but  particular,  depending  upon  inoculation 
with  the  matter  exuded  from  glanderous  ulcers,  or  at 
least  from  poison  received  in  some  way  from  the  glan- 
dered  animal  and  communicated  directly  to  a  wound 
or  to  some  delicate  membrane  of  another  horse,  an 
ass,  or  a  human  being.  In  the  first  stage  the  dis- 
charge so  much  resembles  that  which  attends  some 
other  nasal  affection  as  sometimes  to  pass  unnoticed  ; 
but  examination  will  disclose  a  curious  fact  which  has 
not  been  accounted  for :  It  will  be  confined  to  one 
nostril,  and  that,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  the  left. 
Occasionally  it  is  the  right,  very  seldom  both.  This, 
however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  peculiarity  of  the 
first  only,  as  it  is  common  to  every  stage  of  the  disease. 
The  second  stage  is  characterized  by  an  increased 
flow,  and  it  also  becomes  more  mucous  and  sticky, 
while  its  color  changes  from  an  almost  transparent 
clearness  to  an  opaque  whitish  or  yellowish  tinge. 

It  often  begins  now  to  drip  from  the  nose  in  stringy 
clots.  Some  of  the  matter  in  this  stage,  now  more 
actively  poisonous,  being  taken  up  by  absorbents,  af- 
fects the  neighboring  glands.  If  both  nostrils  are 
discharging,  the  glands  within  the  under  jaw  will  be 
enlarged  on  both  sides ;  if  from  one  nostril,  only  the 
gland  on  that  side.  As  other  diseases  will  produce 
these  swelled  glands,  as  catarrh,  for  instance,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  look  for  some  peculiarity  in  order 
to  determine  certainly  as  to  the  existence  of  glanders. 

At  first  the  enlargement  may  be  spread  over  so 
much  surface  as  not  to  make  any  distinctly  marked 
lumps;  but  this  season  changes,  and  one  or  two  small 
swellings  remain,  and  these  are  not  in  the  center  of 
the  channel,  but  adhere  close  to  the  jaw  on  the  af- 
fected side. 

The  absorbents  become    more  and  more  involved ; 


it  seems  now  that  general  ulceration  has  set  in,  and 
the  additional  symptoms  are  henceforth  those  of  farcy. 

To  prevent  its  being  mistaken  in  its  earlier  stages 
for  strangles,  or  distemper,  which  is  sometimes  done, 
the  following  directions  will  suffice  :  The  first  pos- 
itive indication  of  glanders,  is  ulceration  of  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  nostrils.  Unless  this  is  present,  there 
need  be  no  fears  ;  but  if  this  is  present,  accompanied 
with  discharge  and  matter  streaked  with  blood  and 
smells  bad,  the  worst  may  be  expected.  Strangles  is 
peculiar  to  young  horses,  and  at  the  outset  resembles 
cold  with  some  fever  and  sore  throat,  accompanied 
generally  by  distressing  cough  and  some  wheezing. 
The  enlargement  which  sometimes  appears  beneath 
the  jaw  in  strangles  is  not  a  single  small  gland,  but  a 
swelling  of  the  whole  substance  between  the  jaws, 
growing  harder  toward  the  center,  and  at  length,  if  the 
disease  runs  on,  breaking.  In  strangles  the  mem- 
branes of  the  nose  will  be  very  red,  and  the  discharge 
from  the  nostrils  profuse  and  mattery  almost  from  the 
first.  When  the  tumor  has  burst,  the  fever  will  abate 
and  the  horse  will  speedily  get  well. 

To  distinguish  it  from  catarrh  or  cold,  for  which 
also  it  is  sometimes  mistaken,  observe  that  fever,  loss 
of  appetite,  coughing,  and  sore  throat  all  accompany 
catarrh,  whereas  these  symptoms  are  rarely  if  ever 
found  together  in  glanders.  In  catarrh,  the  horse 
quids  his  food  (drops  it  from  his  mouth  partially 
chewed),  and  gulps  his  water.  The  discharge  from 
the  nose  is  profuse  and  sometimes  mattery ;  the 
glands  under  the  jaw,  if  swollen,  are  movable,  while 
there  is  a  thickening  around  them,  and  they  are  hot 
and  tender. 

Treatment.  The  contagious  character  of  glanders 
renders  it  dangerous,  as  has  been  said,  not  only  to  all 
of  the  horse  kind,  but  to  man.  Therefore,  on  its  dis- 
covery, no  time  should  be  lost  in  removing  the  affected 
animal  from  the  ix)ssibility  of  communicating  the  dis- 
order to  another.  If  stabled,  there  should  be  no  con- 
nection whatever  between  his  stall  and  those  of  other 
animals,  as  the  discharge  from  the  nostril  (in  which 
lies  the  danger)  may  be  communicated  through  any 
opening  sufficient  to  allow  any  horses  to  bite  or  nibble 
at  each  other.  If  placed  to  pasture,  it  should  be 
known  that  no  other  horse  is  at  all  likely  either  to  be 
turned  in  with  him  or  to  approach  the  inclosure. 
Remember  that  a  glandered  condition  may  long  exist, 
and  minute  ulcers,  in  the  hidden  recesses  of  the  nose, 
discharge  a  limpid  or  clear  fluid,  without  any  of  the 
active  and  violent  symptoms  being  manifest;  but  that 
all  this  time  the  horse  may  be  able  to  communicate 
the  disease  toothers;  and  that  these  may  die  of  it 
while  he  is  yet  in  reasonably  fair  condition. 

Meanwhile,  swab  out  the  nose  every  day  with  a 
solution  of  pyroligneous  acid,  using  warm  water,  as 
warm  as  the  horse  can  well  bear,  and  putting  in  suffi- 
cient of  the  acid  at  first  to  make  the  solution  of  medium 
strength.  It  should  be  increased  a  little  from  day 
to  day;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  make  it  too 
strong,  as  violent  acid  injections  or  swabbing  solutions 
are  calculated  to  do  harm  rather  than  good.     A  good 


774 


HORSE. 


mop  for  this  purpose  may  be  made  by  attaching  soft 
rags  (old  cotton  cloth  is  best)  to  a  light  stick,  two  feet 
in  length,  so  arranging  the  cloth  as  to  have  it  project 
beyond  the  end  of  the  stick  to  be  inserted,  to  prevent 
any  roughness  that  might  abrade  or  scratch  the  mem- 
brane, and  fastening  very  securely  to  prevent  its 
slipping  off. 

If  this  instrument  is  found  not  to  be  efficacious,  or 
if  the  disease  has  already  developed  into  the  second 
stage,  the  discharge  more  mucous,  sticky  and  stringy, 
with  glands  swollen  and  the  membrane  of  the  nose 
of  a  dark  purple  or  leaden  color,  adopt  the  following 
treatment  and  carry  it  out  energetically  and  persist- 
ently. Make  a  gallon  of  very  strong  decoction  or  tea 
of  tobacco  leaves,  which  keep  ready  for  use.  Put 
enough  of  this  into  warm  water,  as  warm  as  the  horse 
can  well  bear,  and  swab  out  his  nostrils  with  it,  as 
high  up  as  possible,  using  the  mop  as  just  directed. 
Then  put  a  gill  of  this  same  strong  tobacco  tea  into 
a  pint  of  warm  water,  and  drench  him  with  the  solu- 
tion. There  must  be  no  uneasiness  on  account  of 
the  dreadful  sickness  which  this  will  produce.  The 
tobacco  is  necessary  thoroughly  to  relax  the  system 
and  overcome  fixed  or  chronic  tendencies,  and  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  the  glanderous  poison. 
Swab  out  the  nose  every  day  for  eight  or  ten  days, 
and  drench  every  third  day  for  from  two  to  four 
weeks,  or  until  the  discharge  has  ceased  and  the 
ulcers  are  perceptibly,  healing.  Some  veterinarians 
recommend  bleeding  in  this  case,  but  nothing  could 
be  more  ignorant  when  the  vital  energies  are  already 
depressed.  So  for  the  two  first  stages.  If  all  these 
directions,  those  as  to  food  and  care  as  well  as  for  the 
administering  of  medicines  are  faithfully  carried  out, 
they  will  cure  the  majority  of  cases  in  the  early  or 
middle  stages  of  the  disease. 

If  disease  has  passed  into  the  third  stage,  however, 
no  treatment  can  confidently  be  recommended.  So 
doubtful  is  it  as  to  whether  any  remedial  agencies 
will  avail,  that  most  veterinarians  in  the  United 
States  confidently  declare  that  the  best  thing  to  do  is 
to  kill  the  sufferer  in  the  quickest  and  most  humane 
way,  and  bury  him  deep  in  the  ground  beyond  the 
possibility  of  his  contaminating  the  atmosphere  with 
his  decaying  and  poisonous  carcass.  A  horse  affected 
with  this  disease  in  any  stage  is  dangerous  to  the  man 
who  handles  him,  but  he  is  doubly  so,  perhaps,  when 
he  has  become  a  loathsome  object  in  limbs  and  body 
as  well  as  in  head;  and  under  ordinary  circumstances 
it  is  doubtless  best  to  destroy  him  as  quickly  as  jms- 
sible.  In  case  treatment  is  determined  ujxjn,  nothing 
better  than  that  prescribed  for  the  second  stage  can 
be  recommended.  It  remains  now  but  to  suggest 
some  precautionary  measures  to  prevent  contagion 
in  addition  to  those  which  have  already  been  given. 
If  a  stable  is  known  to  have  been  used  by  a  glandered 
horse,  no  other  animal  should  be  allowed  to  occupy 
it  until  the  trough,  the  rack  and  the  walls  have  been 
thoroughly  scraped  and  scoured  with  strong  soap  and 
warm  water.  Then  take  i  pint  of  chloride  of  lime 
and  dissolve  it  in  two  gallons  of  water,  with  which 


thoroughly  saturate  every  part  that  the  horse's  nose 
may  have  touched.  Next,  whitewash  the  walls  inside. 
Then  burn  bridles,  halters,  buckets  out  of  which  he 
has  drunk,  whatever  may  have  been  about  his  head; 
and  if  any  blanketing  has  been  used  have  it  carefully 
washed,  or  burn  it  up. 

Gleet,  Nasal.  This  term  is  used  to  denote  a 
thin  transparent  discharge  from  the  nose.  It  some- 
times follows  distemper,  or  strangles,  and  is  one  of 
the  attendants  on  glanders,  sometimes  running  into  it, 
but  is  generally  the  result  of  neglected  catarrh.  It  is 
in  one  of  its  forms  a  suppuration  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  in  the  facial  sinuses,  producing  distortion 
and  a  terribly  offensive  discharge,  which  may  have 
been  produced  by  a  blow  on  the  face. 

Symptoms.  Discharge  is  not  always  present,  neither 
is  it  uniform.  Sometimes  during  fair  weather  it  will 
be  almost  discontinued.  The  discharge  is  a  thick, 
yellow  mucus  tinged  with  green,  if  the  food  be  grass, 
or  with  the  color  of  the  food.  If  it  becomes  puru- 
lent (from  pus,  matter)  and  tinged  with  blood,  it 
may  end  with  ulceration  of  the  cartilages  of  the  nose, 
and  in  glanders.  If  the  discharge  is  confined  to  the 
left  nostril,  is  tenacious,  elastic,  accumulates  around 
the  edges  of  the  nose,  if  there  is  enlargement  of  the 
lymphatic  submaxillary  gland,  under  and  on  the  side 
of  the  jaw,  it  is  cheaper  to  kill  the  horse,  or  else  call 
in  a  surgeon,  since  for  the  proper  treatment  of  the 
disease  the  trephine  should  be  used,  by  which  a  cir- 
cular piece  of  the  bone  may  be  taken  out  to  facilitate 
treatment. 

Treatment.  In  mild  cases  look  for  decayed  molar 
(grinding)  teeth ;  if  found,  remove  them.  Look  for 
swelling  of  the  frontal  bone,  produced  by  bruises. 
Put  the  horse  where  he  may  be  comfortable  ;  let  his 
diet  be  light,  but  soft ;  fresh  grass  in  summer,  with 
good  food.  Inject  the  nasal  passages  thoroughly 
with  the  following:  r  drachm  blue  vitriol  i  pint 
water. 

Prepare  the  following : 

t  fluid  drachm  carbolic  acid, 
1  pint  water, 
I  drachm  copperas, 
s  drachms  gentian, 
H  ounce  poplar  bark,  , 

3  drachms  hyposulphite  soda. 

Give  three  times  a  day  in  bran  or  feed. 

Goitre,  Enlarged  Glands.  There  are  various 
glands  in  the  throat  that  are  subject  to  enlargement 
from  disease,  and  which  remain  permanent  after  the 
disease  is  passed.  This  is  generally  more  unsightly 
as  a  blemish  than  as  a  real  disability.  In  some  jwr- 
tions  of  the  East  it  is  quite  prevalent.  For  all 
enlargements  of  glands,  tincture  of  iodine  and 
iodide  of  potassium,  added  to  eight  parts  of  hog  lard, 
will  disperse  the  swelling  if  it  may  be  possible. 

In  bronchocele,  or  goitre,  rain-water  only  should  be 
given  to  the  patient  to  drink;  iodine  in  doses  of  lo 
grains  daily  may  be  given  on  an  empty  stomach,  and 
the  swelling  may  be  painted  with  the  tincture.  This 
is  to  be  persisted  in  for  months. 

Grease,  or  Cracked  Heel,  consists  in  a  morbid 


HORSE. 


775 


condition  of  the  sebaceous  glands  of  the  horse's  heels 
and  fetlocks.  It  occurs  in  various  degrees  of  intens- 
ity ;  sometimes  as  a  mere  scurfy  itchiness  of  the  skin 
about  the  fetlocks,  more  commonly  of  the  hind  ex- 
tremities ;  sometimes  attended  with  much  inflamma- 
tion, causing  great  heat,  pain  and  swelling,  and  an 
ichorous,  fetid   discharge;  sometimes  causing  falling 


Fig.   71. — First  Stage  0/ CoH- 
Jirtned  Grease  Cracks, 


Fig.  7a. — Second  Stage  0/  Con- 
Jtrmed  Grease  Cracks. 


off  of  the  hair  about  the  heels,  and  the  formation  of 
deep  cracks  and  fissures,  and  sometimes  becoming 
so  violent  and  inveterate  as  to  cause  eversion  to  the 
sebaceous  glands,  formation  of  granulations  and  secre- 
tion of  pus,  constituting  the  loathsome  complaint 
termed  the  grease. 

Cause.  Grease  is  generally  the  result  of  filth. 
Horses  are  worked  all  day  in  muddy  weather,  and  at 
night  turned  into  a  filthy  stable.  The  animal's  food 
may  be  attended  to,  but  he  is  forced  to  lie  upon  a 
filthy  bed  and  breathe  the  contaminated  air  of  the 
stable.  The  legs  covered  with  mud  become  cold 
from  evaporation.  The  subcutaneous  glands  are  in- 
flamed and  grease  is  established.  To  save  trouble  in 
grooming,  lazy  people  often  clip  off  the  hair  with 
which  nature  has  so  beautifully  adorned  the  horse's 
heels,  thereby  exposing  the  tender  parts  to  the  action 
of  cold  and  wet.  These  parts  being  the  farthest  from 
the  center  of  circulation,  where  the  blood  vessels 
have  to  fonn  several  angles  to  reach  them,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  blood  flows  most  tardily.  Then  is  it 
any  wonder  that  sudden  exposure  would  engender 
disease  ? 

Frequently,  however,  it  may  be  regarded  as  most 
probably  a  secondary  disease,  originating  in  some 
other,  which  has  resulted  fr6m  carelessness  or  inhu- 
man treatment,  or  from  constitutional  weakness. 

It  is  contagious,  but  filth  and  want  of  attention 
will  produce  it  in  nearly  all  horses  similarly  subjected 
to  their  influences. 

Syfnptotns.  It  manifests  nearly  the  very  same 
symptoms  as  thrush,  as  given  on  a  subsequent  page; 
but  there  is  one  striking  peculiarity  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  thrush,  foot-evil  and  other  disorders 
of  the  kind :  the  heel  cracks  open.  In  a  healthy 
state  the  heel  of  the  horse  is  moistened,  and  so  kept 
from  becoming  dry  and  hard,  by  constant  secretion 
and  discharge  of  an  oily  fluid  from  the  cellular  tissues 


under  the  skin.  When  this  is  obstructed,  the  skin 
becomes  dry  and  feverish,  and  looks  scurfy  and  hot. 
It  soon  after  cracks,  and  the  pent-up  oily  secretion, 
now  turned  to  a  foul,  yellowish  water,  flows  out.  As 
the  flow  of  water  increases,  it  becomes  more  and 
more  thick,  and  sticky,  and  stinking;  and  if  not 
attended  to  the  heel  and  sides  of  the  foot  become  an 
ulcerated  mass. 

It  sometimes  manifests  itself  by  oozing  out  a  thin 
matter  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  from  some  deep- 
seated  disease  of  either  the  coffin-bone  or  the  navic- 
ular joint — most  frequently  the  latter.  The  more 
effective  treatment  in  this  case  would  of  course  be 
that  directed  to  the  healing  of  the  primary  disorder. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  necessary  is  similar  to 
that  for  scratches.  In  the  first  place,  see  to.it  that 
the  causes  which  have  induced  it  shall  no  longer 
operate.  If  the  disease  is  secondary,  it  must  be  some- 
what difficult  to  manage;  and  the  animal  should  be 
allowed  to  rest,  taking  only  such  exercise  as  nature 
prompts,  in  an  open  pasture,  except  in  bad  weather. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  confine  him  give  him  a  good 
stable,  dry  litter  and  pure  air.  Remember  that  rest 
is  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  success,  while  constant 
driving  or  any  other  labor  will  most  probably  defeat 
the  ends  of  the  physician. 

If  the  disease  is  not  discovered  in  its  early  stage, 
and  the  general  health  of  the  animal  has  not  suff'ered, 
cleanse  the  parts  well  with  tepid  water  and  castile 
soap,  and  make  occasional  applications  of  the  treat- 
ment recommended  for  scratches.  A  few  applica- 
tions will  generally  be  found  sufficient.  Sprinkle  the 
parts  well  after  application  with  pulverized  charcoal. 

If  the  horse  is  thin  in  flesh  and  in  a  low  state  of 
health  from  the  effects  of  this  disease,  mix  sulphur 
and  rosin,  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts  of  the  former 
to  one  of  the  latter,  and  give  him  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  this  every  third  day  until  he  has  taken  three  or 
four  doses.  Meanwhile,  thoroughly  apply  to  the  parts 
the  treatment  for  scratches,  till  the  disease  is 
thoroughly  conquered.  If  the  liniment  forms  a  scab 
ujxin  the  heel,  so  hard  and  dry  that  the  remedial 
effects  seem  to  cease,  omit  the  liniment  for  several 
days  and  keep  the  heel  well  greased.  The  scab  will 
come  off,  and  then  the  application  of  the  liniment  may 
be  resumed.  This  course  must  be  persevered  in  till 
a  cure  is  effected. 

The  liniment  should  be  applied  at  night,  and  the 
horse  should  not  be  turned  into  pasture  when  the 
grass  is  wet  with  dew  or  rain,— at  any  rate  not  till  six 
hours  after  the  application  has  been  made. 

In  summer,  pasture  will  in  general  afford  sufficient 
food ;  but  in  winter  it  should  be  more  nourishing,  yet 
green  and  succulent  as  far  as  possible.  Roots  and 
good  bran  mashes  ought  to  be  given  in  reasonable 
quantity.  Grain,  as  a  regular  diet  in  this  case,  is 
objectionable,  cm  account  of  its  tendency  to  produce 
inflammation. 

After  three  doses  of  the  sulphur  and  rosin  have 
been  given,  as  directed,  the  following  mixture,  given 
every  night  until  all  traces  of  the  active  disease  hav« 


776 


HORSE. 


disappeared,  will  be  found  an  excellent  tonic  or 
strengthening  medicine,  and  having  the  effect,  too,  of 
giving  healthy  tone  to  the  skin : 

J4  ounce  liquor   arsenicalis, 
I  ounce  of  muriate  of  iron, 
Yx  pint  of  water. 

This  constitutes  a  dose ;  mix  and  give  as  a  drench. 
The  following  may  be  used  for  the  feet : 

8  ounces  tar, 

I  ounce  beeswax, 

I  ounce  rosin, 

X  ounce  alum, 

1  ounce  tallow, 

I  ounce  sulphate  of  iron, 

I  drachm  carbolic  acid. 

Mix  and  boil  oyer  a  slow  fire,  stirring  as  long  as 
dirty  scum  appears,  and  then  add  two  ounces  of 
scrapings  of  sweet  elder. 

Hair,  Falling  Off  of  the.  For  that  unwhole- 
some state  of  the  skin  and  hair  glands  known  by  the 
learned  terms  of  humid  exanthema  and  dry  exanthema, 
that  causes  the  falling  off  of  the  hair,  the  following  is 
an  excellent  local  remedy  when  the  animal  is  not 
under  general  treatment  for  some  disease  primary  to 
the  state  now  under  consideration: 

I  ounce  pulverized  charcoal, 
I  pint  olive  oil, 
5  ounces  pyroligneous  acid, 
I  ounce  common  salt. 

Mix,  and  rub  ujxjn  the  parts  daily  with  a  sponge  or 
a  soft  rag. 

Head,  Big:  see  page  745. 

Heart,  Dropsy  of  the.  The  pericardium  or 
membranous  covering  of  the  heart  is  subject  to 
inflammation ;  by  this  inflammation  and  consequent 
obstructed  circulation  in  the  minute  vessels  that  supply 
it,  an  effusion  takes  place  and  either  thickens  the 
walls  of  the  pericardium  itself,  and  thus  contracts  or 
compresses  the  heart,  or  it  is  deposited  in  the  cavity 
of  the  pericardium  in  quantities  varying  from  a  pint 
to  a  gallon.  This  diseased  condition  is  generally 
found  in  connection  with  dropsy  of  the  chest  or  abdo- 
men. 

Symptoms.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  there 
is  a  quickened  and  irregular  respiration,  with  a  bound- 
ing action  of  the  heart.  As  the  fluid  increases  the 
action  of  this  organ  becomes  feeble  and  fluttering. 
There  is  a  peculiar  expression  of  anxiety  and  alarm  on 
the  countenance  of  the  animal.  If  he  does  not  die  of 
the  disease  before  the  pericardium  is  filled,  violent 
palpitations  and  throbbings  characterize  the  advanced 
stage.  The  breathing  becomes  difficult,  and  when 
the  head  is  raised  there  is  a  tendency  to  faint. 

Treatment.  If  it  is  observed  while  there  is  yet  a 
painful  state  of  the  pericardium  by  reason  of  inflam- 
mation, profuse  effusion  not  having  taken  place,  the 
first  thing  is  to  reduce  the  inflammation  and  allay  the 
pain,  and  thus  forestall  the  further  accumulation  of 
the  fluid.  For  this  purpose  relieve  constipation,  which 
is  usually  found  as  an  accompaniment,  by  moderate 
doses  of  salts  or  of  oil.  Then  give  the  following 
draught  three  times  a  day : 

30  grains  iodide  potassium, 

I  ounce  nitrate  potash, 
15  drops  tincture  aconite, 

I  pint  water. 


The  animal  must  be  kept  comfortable,  according  to 
the  season,  and  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  air 
and  cold  water.  If  there  are  no  indications  of  relief 
within  two  days,  give  the  following  draught: 

20  grains  iodide  potassium, 

4  ounces  solution  acetate  ammonia, 
10  drops  tincture  of  aconite, 
12  ounces  water, 

I  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Repeat  this  after  eight  hours  and  then  leave  off 
the  aconite,  but  conrinue  to  give,  at  intervals,  the 
acetate  of  ammonia  and  water.  If  the  disease  has 
reached  an  advanced  stage  and  the  cavity  of  the  peri- 
cardium is  largely  filled  with  water,  it  is  scarcely  to  be 
hoped  that  the  animal  may  be  saved;  but  even  in 
that  case  the  course  here  prescribed  should  be  adopted, 
unless  there  is  some  more  general  disorder  under 
such  treatment  as  will  render  it  unnecessary  or 
objectionable. 

Heart,  Enlargement  of  the,  is  an  increase  of  its 
muscular  substance  and  may  be  confined  to  one  side 
or  one  ventricle.  Somednies  disease  of  the  valves 
leads  to  enlargement  much  beyond  its  usual  size.  It 
also  accompanies  broken  wind  andotherimpediments 
to  the  free  action  of  the  lungs  and  breathing  tubes. 

Causes.  Long  continued  hard  work ;  chronic  in- 
digestion, or  some  obstruction  to  the  circulation. 

Treatment.  Keep  the  animal  quiet,  and  at  only 
slow,  moderate  labor;  never  overload  or  put  him  to 
speed.  Let  the  diet  be  of  easily  digested  food ;  never 
allow  the  stomach  to  become  overloaded.  Give  twice 
a  day  from  20  to  30  drops  tincture  aconite  root,  as  the 
case  may  need.  If  there  is  broken  wind  or  other  seri- 
ous impediment  to  breathing,  3  to  4  grains  of  arsenic 
in  the  food  has  been  found  useful.  If  the  case,  how- 
ever, be  of  long  standing  or  due  to  permanent  obstruc- 
tion, treatment  must  be  simply  alleviation.  The  case 
will  end  in  death. 

Heart,  Fatty  Degeneration  of  the,  is  occa- 
sioned by  a  change  of  the  muscular  substance  of  the 
heart  to  a  fatty  state,  by  which  the  organ  is  weakened, 
at  length  leading  to  the  rupture  of  its  tissues.  It  is 
not  uncommon  in  high-bred  stock,  including  cattle 
and  swine. 

High  feeding,  inactivity,  want  of  exercise  and 
the  result  of  such  diseases  as  purpura,  scarlet  fever 
and  diseases  which  are  the  result  of  profound  alteration 
of  blood,  are  the  causes  of  this  disease. 

Symptoms.  Debility  in  the  circulation,  irregularity 
and  weakness  in  the  pulse,  lessening  of  the  heart 
sounds,  swelling  of  the  legs  and  someUmes  a  general 
dropsical  condition,  dilatation,  a  want  of  correspond- 
ence between  the  heart  beats  and  the  stroke  of  the 
pulse,  appetite  irregular  and  capricious,  and  the  mem- 
branes of  the  mouth  and  nose  a  rusty  red  color. 

Treatment.  Humor  the  appetite  with  sound,  easily 
digestible  food.  There  is  no  remedy.  Attention  to 
the  general  health,  and  an  ounce  of  chlorate  of  potash 
twice  a  day  in  the  food  may  mitigate  symptoms  when 
more  violent  than  usual.  In  all  heart  or  arterial  dis- 
eases give  rest,  and  in  fattening  stock,  do  so  as 
quickly  as  possible. 


HORSE. 


777 


Heaves  or  Broken  Wind.  This  sad  affliction  is 
often  brought  about  by  the  ill  usage  which  man  im- 
jjoses  upon  the  most  obedient  of  servants.  The  ani- 
mal is  often  compelled  to  eat  food  containing  so  little 
nutriment  that  the  stomach  has  to  be  crammed  to  its 
greatest  capacity  in  order  to  sustain  life.  The  dis- 
tended stomach  presses  ufxin  the  diaphragm;  by  this 
the  expanding  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  lessened  and 
disease  is  provoked.  Again  musty  hay  and  oats  are 
fed,  the  animal  is  imprisoned  within  walls  that  pre- 
vent him  from  breathing  the  pure  atmosphere.  The 
dust  from  the  unhealthy  provender  is  inhaled  into  the 
bronchial  tubes,  the  tissues  of  the  lungs  become  de- 
ranged and  broken  wind  is  the  consequence.  Other 
causes,  however,  aggravate  the  disease,  such  as  vio- 
lent exercise,  while  the  animal's  stomach  is  distended 
with  food  or  water,  etc.  The  affected  animal  heaves 
at  the  flanks,  or,  rather,  performs  what  is  known  as 
abdominal  respiration. 

To  detect  heaves  when  they  are  covered,  the  reader 
should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  natural 
sound  of  the  lungs  when  in  health.  On  applying  tie 
ear  to  the  front  of  the  chest  of  a  broken-winded  horse 
(see  Fig.  73)  an  irregular 
crepitating  sound  can  be 
heard,  which  may  easily  be 
distinguished  from  the  gen- 
tle murmur  of  the  healthy 
lung.  Catch  hold  of  the 
,  halter  on  the  left  side  with 
the  left  hand,  and  pull  the 
head  a  little  around  toward 
that  side,  then  with  a  stick 
about  two  feet  in  length 
F,G.  73.-//<'^"/<.^.a^f*..?.»„rf  make  a  sudden  movement, 
Made  in  theHorst\  Whtdpipe.  as  if  going  to  Strike  tile  ani- 
mal under  the  belly.  This  will  elicit  a  painful  groan, 
which  proves  that  the  wind  is  affected. 

Treatment.  There  is  no  permanent  cure  for  this 
disability.  Food  of  the  most  nutritious  quality  should 
be  given,  such  as  corn,  oats,  beans,  etc.  The  quan- 
tity of  hay  should  be  lessened,  about  six  jwunds  per 
day  being  sufficient,  and  it  should  always  be  wet;  and 
if  sprinkled  with  a  little  resin  and  blood-root  it  would 
be  better.  Water  should  be  given  in  small  quantities, 
from  four  to  six  times  each 
day.  With  each  drink 
mingle  }^  adrachmof  sul- 
phuricacid.  Theoatsand 
hay  should  be  well  sifted 
and  damped.  A  lump  of 
rock-salt  should  be  placed 
in  the  manger.  The  ani- 
mal should  be  allowed  to 
hold  his  head  in  the  easi- 
est possible  position,  and 
not  as  we  often  see,  as  in- 
dicated by  Fig.  74.  With '■'"'■'«•-*'■' -®""'''"<f  ">""'''" '''"''• 
this  usage  and  moderate  work,  a  broken-winded  horse 
can  be  made  serviceable  for  a  long  time. 


Hemorrhage,  Internal.  Internal  bleeding  or 
hemorrhage  is  rare  unless  made  by  puncture  of  some 
of  the  deep-seated  blood-vessels.  The  orifice  leading 
to  the  surface  being  obscure  and  high,  will  of  course 
occasion  internal  bleeding.  When  they  can  be  got 
at  the  remedy  is  of  course  tying.  Punctured  wounds 
do  not  bleed  much,  the  clot  usually  closing  the  orifice, 
assisted  by  the  contraction  of  the  vessel.  In  trans- 
verse or  oblique  clean  cuts  of  an  animal,  causing 
wounds  to  the  imjxjrtant  arteries,  death  must  follow 
unless  they  can  be  cut  down  ujx)n  and  tied. 

Rupture  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  lungs  sometimes 
occurs  from  over-exertion,  and  is  also  common  from 
the  nose.  Or  hemorrhage  of  the  lungs  may  arise  from 
any  pulmonary  complaint  involving  the  blood  vessels. 
In  this  case  it  must  be  determined.  If  the  blood 
comes  from  both  nostrils  and  is  frothy,  it  is  from  the 
lungs.  If  the  horse  has  no  specific  disease  of  the 
lungs,  anj  is  in  full  flesh,  bleeding  from  the  neck 
vein,  a  full  stream,  may  check  the  hemorrhage.  Dig- 
italis in  15-grain  doses  may  be  given.  It  may  give 
present  relief;  but  probably  there  is  no  permanent  cure. 

If  the  bleeding  is  from 
!^^  the   blood    vessels  of  the 
!>*  nose,  a  strong  solution  of 
alum  may  be  syringed  up 
the  nostrils.     If  this  fails 
pour  Y-i  pint  of  boiling  wa- 
ter on  a  drachm  of  matico 
leaves,     and    when     cool 
strain  and  inject  it  up  the 
nostril. 
Chronic  hepatitis  (conges- 
Fi...  ji.-r«t>rnai  Hemorrhage.  ^\q^   ^ud   inflammation  of 

the  liver)  often  results  in  hemorrhage  internally.  The 
symptoms  confirming  this  state  of  things  are,  the 
mouth  cold,  nasal  membranes  pallid,  the  eye  ghastly. 
The  horse  will  look  for  the  seat  of  pain  in  the  right 
side,  and  usually  lies  on  the  left  side  when  down.  The 
head  is  depressed.  As  the  disease  progresses  there  is 
increased  weakness  with  staggering.  The  pupils  of 
the  eyes  are  dilated ;  the  sight  is  bad,  and  if  the  head  is 
attempted  to  be  raised  high  the  animal  instantly  shows 
signs  of  failing. 

Treatment.  Put  the  animal  in  a  roomy  stall,  or 
loose  box.  Keep  the  bowels  regulated  by  grass  and 
bran  mashes,  only  with  nutritious  food  and  as  much 
gentle  exercise  as  the  animal  can  take.  Prepare  the 
following : 

I  ounce  tincture  muriate  of  iron, 
1  ounce  iodide  of  potassium, 
I  quart  liquor  potassae. 

Mix,  and  give  two  tablespoonsfuls  twice  a  day  in  i 
pint  of  water. 

Hernia.  This  is  a  name  given  to  rupture,  which 
see  in  this  article. 

Hide-bound.  This  is  a  common  term  among 
farmers  and  horsemen,  though,  strictly  speaking,  it  is 
not  a  disease,  but  the  result  of  a  diseased  condition 
of  the  general  system  or  of  derangement  of  some  spe- 
cific vital  function.     Anyttiing  that  will  debilitate  the 


I 


778 


HORSE. 


system  will  cause  it.  Poverty  and  cruel  usage — the 
food  being  deficient  in  quantity  or  quality,  and  the 
labor  onerous — bring  onimpaired  digestion  ;  the  blood 
becomes  thick,  dark,  and  feverish,  because  the  secre- 
tive processes  are  sluggishly  performed ;  the  skin 
sympathizes  with  these  internal  disorders,  and  the 
lubricating  fluid  through  the  pores  is  suspended ;  and 
then,  instead  of  remaining  soft  and  pliant,  it  becomes 
dry  and  adheres  to  the  body.  A  disordered  state  of 
the  stomach,  bowels,  and  urinary  and  respiratory  or- 
gans may  be  considered  as  having  produced  it  when 
no  specific  form  of  disease  can  be  discovered  as  ex- 
isting; but  it  is  an  almost  invariable  accompaniment, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  intensity,  of  big  head, 
glanders,  consumption,  and  chronic  dysentery.  The 
fever  in  these  dries  up  the  watery  secretions  and 
shrinks  the  hide. 

Formerly  it  was  supposed  to  be  caused  by  worms  in 
the  stomach  and  alimentary  canal ;  but  Uiis  is  erro- 


FiG.  76. — One  0/ the  Causes  of  Hide-bound  in  the  Horse. 

neous.  Worms  may  of  course  exist  while  the  horse  is 
in  this  state,  but  they  are  rather  a  consequence  than 
a  cause — the  result  of  imperfect  digestion  and  excre- 
tion. The  skin,  as  has  been  elsewhere  stated,  sym- 
pathizes readily  with  the  vital  internal  organs,  and  in 
all  obscure  cases  hide-bound  should  be  considered  a 
symptom  of  disorder  in  these,  and  treated  accord- 
ingly. 

Symptoms.  The  skin  is  dry  and  hard,  and  the  hair 
is  rough  and  rusty.  Adhering  almost  immovably  to 
the  ribs,  legs,  neck — almost  every  part  of  the  body — 
the  skin  cannot  be  caught  up  in  folds  with  the  hand. 
At  times  it  appears  scurfy,  and  theexhalants  (having' 
the  quality  of  giving  out  or  evaporating)  ])our  forth 
unusual  quantities  of  matter,  the  more  solid  ]X)rtions 
of  which  form  scales  and  give  the  horse  a  filthy  ap- 
pearance. The  excrement  or  dung  is  hard  and  black. 

Treatment.  Especial  pains  must  be  taken  to  dis- 
cover, if  jwssible,  what  specific  disease  has  given  rise 
to  this  state  of  the  skin.  If  the  cause  is  obscure,  direct 


the  treatment  to  restoring  a  healthy  condition  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Begin  by  bettering  his  treatment 
in  every  way.  Instead  of  allowing  the  skin  to  grqw 
clogged,  torpid,  and  dead  for  want  of  cleanliness  and 
friction,  he  should  have  regular  daily  currying  and 
brisk  rubbing  with  a  good  brush  or  coarse  cloth,  which 
will  materially  aid  in  restoring  healthy  action  of  the 
skin.  If  it  is  pasture  season,  give  him  a  run  at  good 
grass  during  the  day,  but  stable  at  night  in  a  clean 
stable,  furnished  with  dry  litter,  and  give  him  a  gen- 
erous feed  of  bran  and  oats  or  moistened  bran  and 
chopped  hay.  Mix  with  the  food  the  following  alter- 
ative: 

3  ounces  golden  seal  ; 

3  ounces  poplar  bark  ; 

3  ounces  powdered  sassafras  bark  ; 

3  ounces  sulphur  ; 

3  ounces  salt ; 

e ounces  blood-root; 

I  ounce    balmony  ; 

I  pound  oatmeal. 

Mix  and  divide  into  twelve  doses;  give  one  three 
times  a  day.  A  good  and  sufficient  tonic 
may  be  furnished,  of  which  the  horse  may 
be  allowed  to  partake  as  much  as  the 
system  requires,  by  placing  a  jxjplar  pole 
in  the  stable,  upon  which  he  can  con- 
veniently gnaw.  Should  it  be  during 
the  winter,  it  will  generally  be  found 
necessary  to  begin  the  course  of  treat- 
ment by  giving  a  purgative,  say  two 
ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  which  may  be 
repeated  within  seven  hours  if  it  fails  to 
produce  the  desired  action ;  and  to  feed 
him  on  laxative  food  until 
is  overcome  and  a 
the  bowels  restored. 

Remember  that  dJiC  of  the  very  first 

objects  is  to  establish  regular  action  of 

the  bowels ;  and  then  generous  diet  (let 

it  be   green  and  succulent  if    possible, 

but  at  any  rate  nutritious  without  being 

inflammatory),  with  cleanliness  and  daily, 

regular  friction  of  the  hide  will  do  more  than  medicine. 

Do  not  expect  to  effect  a  speedy  cure  ;  in  any  event, 

the   very  existence  of  hide-bound  indicates   chronic 

disorder,  and  all  chronic  diseases  require  time. 

If  it  is  known  to  be  the  result  of  a  well-defined  dis- 
ease, as  big-head,  glanders,  etc.,  the  treatment  must 
of  course  be  directed  to  the  removal  of  that,  according 
to  directions  elsewhere  given  in  this  work;  and  the 
hide-lx)und  will  disappear  as  its  immediate  cause  is 
removed. 

Hock,  Broken.  The  hock  is  an  imfwrtant  joint  or 
part  of  the  horse,  and  is  the  seat  of  many  diseases, 
causing  lameness.  In  most  cases  of  lameness  of  the 
hind  leg,  the  hock  is  the  true  situation  of  the  trouble. 
Broken  hock  is  a  term  applied  to  breaking  the  cap 
of  the  hock.  The  only  treatment  is  absolute  rest,  the 
application  of  sedative  lotions,  as  laudanum,  equal 
jiarts,  with  water,  to  remove  pain,  and  astringents,  as 
white-oak  bark.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  blister 
near  the  part  to  get  up  counter-irritation,  or  put  in  a 


constipation 
healthful   action  of 


78o 


HORSE. 


seton  below  the  hurt.  The  mode  of  using  a  fixed 
seton  needle,  to  bring  a  wound  together,  in  sewing, 
where  a  proper  crooked,  flat  needle  is  not  at  hand,  is 


Fig.  -j^.^Manner  p/  UsiH,^  II  Seton  Needle. 

here  shown.  It  will  also  serve  to  show  the  manner  of 
using  a  needle  for  a  seton,  to  be  threaded  with  white 
tape. 

Hock,  Capped.  This  is  an  enlargement  at  the 
point  of  the  hock,  caused  by  blows  or  injuries  to  the 
part.  It  sometimes  assumes  large  proportions,  and 
is  at  first  hot  and  tender.  The  common  practice  is 
to  blister  or  to  insert  a  seton.  This,  however,  is 
wrong.  To  blister  or  seton  an  already  inflamed  jiart 
is  still  aggravating  the  injury.  Cooling  embrocations 
should  at  first  be  applied  until  the  heat  and  pain  be 
removed.     For  this  use  the  following  : 

I  ounce  sal  atnmoniac, 
I  I  ounce  nitrate  of  potash, 

'  I  pint  of  water. 

Should  the  enlargement  become  hard,  the  best  way 
is  to  dissect  the  callus  out  carefully.  Dress  the 
wound  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  i  grain  to 
an  ounce  of  soft  water. 

Hock,  Enlargement  of  the.  Inflammation  may 
ensue  from  various  bruises  or  strains.  Rest  and 
fomentations  will  generally  set  this  right  if  taken 
early.  Sometimes,  however,  the  enlargement  will 
continue  to  grow  in  spite  of  all  efforts  to  the  contrary, 
and  until  the  joint  is  involved. 

Symptoms.  There  are  two  forms  of  this  disease. 
In  one,  the  tendons  and  cartilages  only  are  aflTected. 
This  will  generally  yield  to  fomentations  and  a  few 
applications  of  oleate  of  mercury.  If  not,  blister. 
Another  form  is  more  serious.  From  a  severe  blow 
or  other  cause  there  is  a  bruise  of  the  Ixjne,  by  which 
the  investing  membrane,  called  the  periosteum,  is 
either  severely  strained  or  torn  loose,  giving  rise  to  in- 
flammation and  formation  and  dejwsit  of  Ixjny  matter 
on  the  surface  of  the  bone,  sometimes  to  such  a  de- 
gree that  the  parts  are  of  excessive  size  and  the  legs 
so  lame  that  it  is  only  with  great  difficulty  the  animal 
can  walk.  The  animal  may,  indeed,  as  in  cases  of 
bog  spavin,  be  capable  of  doing  farm  work,  but  is  un- 
fit for  driving  on  the  road. 

Treatment.  Precisely  the  same  treatment  must  be 
pursued  as  in  cases  of  bone  spavin. 

Hoof,  Contraction  of  the,  or  Narrow  Heel. 
In  a  healthy  condition  the  hoof  of  a  horse  should  be 
nearly  round.     Whatever  shape  the  hoof  may  assume 


it  is  not  a  disease  in  itself,  but  the  result  of  disease  or 
of  some  disability.  It  is  generally  the  result  of  fever 
in  the  feet  from  injury  to  bones,  ligaments  or  frog,  or 
the  effects  of  founder,  etc.  Contraction  of  the  hoof 
exists  in  nearly  all  diseases  of  the  feet,  and  may  occur 
from  standing  idle  in  the  stable.  So  it  may  result 
from  undue  i)aring  of  the  heels,  the  bars  on  the  frog, 
or  from  a  shoe  remaining  on  so  long  that  the  foot  is 
prevented  from  taking  its  natural  growth. 

Treattnent.  The  only  thing  is  to  remove  the  shoes 
and  round  the  edges  of  the  hoofs  to  prevent  their 
being  broken  or  split.  Anoint  the  external  wall  of  the 
hoof  daily  with  equal  parts  of  coal  oil  and  honey  or 
fish  oil.  In  shoeing,  let  the  shoe  be  without  bevel 
on  its  upper  side,  and  let  the  bearing  be  equal  on  all 
parts  of  the  wall  of  the  hoof.  Fill  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  every  night  with  moist  clay  or  white  lead. 

Hook,  Cracked.  This  is  not  a  rare  ailment  of 
horses.  It  generally  arises  from  weak  and  brittle  hoofs, 
produced  by  a  dry  state  of 
the  hoof,  whatever  may  be 
the  cause,  whether  fever  or 
other  causes  of  degeneration. 
The  prolific  causes  are  drying 
of  the  wall  of  the  hoof,  un- 
even bearing  of  the  shoe, 
calking,  or  other  wounds  or 
injuries  of  the  coronet.  This 
crack  may  be  extended  down 
from  the  coronet  according  to 
the  time  it  may  be  allowed  to 
run. 

Treatment.     If  taken  early, 
a  bar  shoe    having  an  even 
Fig.  7<).— Closing  Craci.     bearing  all  around  will  gen- 
erally relieve  the  difficulty.     In  connection  with  this, 
apply  a  plaster  of  pitch  over  the  injury. 

If  the  crack  becomes  determined,  as  in  the  cut 
given,  it  must  be  kept  closed  together  by  cHnching  a 
thin  nail  with  the  instrument  shown  by  Fig.  80,  on 
each  side  of  the  gap  near  the  bottom  and  top,  or  else 
with    thin  wire  as  shown  in    Fig.  79.      Also  burn   a 


Fig.  80. — Instrument  /or  Closing  Cracks  in  Hoo/s, 

groove  just  below  the  crack  about  an  inch  long  nearly 
down  to  the  quick.  It  is  also  well  to  slightly  blister 
the  coronet  at  the  top  of  the  crack.  Apply  to  the 
parts  Venice  turpentine. 

Hoof  Rot.  This  difficulty,  sometimes  called  ten- 
der feet,  arises  from  diseases  of  various  kinds,  spavin, 
ring  bone,  chronic  founder,  navicular  disease.  There 
is  a  dry,  feverish  state  of  all  the  parts,  and  the  hoof, 
and  especially  the  sole,  becomes  decayed  and  some- 
times perishes  entirely. 


HORSE. 


781 


Sympto?ns.  The  bottom  of  the  hoof  is  dry  and 
chalk-Hke,  so  that  it  may  easily  be  dug  away  with  the 
point  of  a  knife,  or  even  easily  scraped  away.  The 
frog  of  the  foot  diminishes  in  size,  and  the  ankle- 
joints  are  apt  to  swell.  The  horse  steps  short  and 
goes  lame,  if  in  one  foot,  or  if  in  both,  cripples  in  his 
gait.  The  affected  foot  will  be  pointed  forward  to  en- 
able the  animal  to  rest  on  the  sovmd  foot. 

Treatment.  Remove  the  shoe,  pare  away  all  the 
unsound  portions  of  the  hoof  until  all  the  pumiced 
parts  are  got  rid  of;  also  the  frog  and  the  sides  of  the 
hoof.  Stimulate  the  bottom  of  the  hoof  by  washing  it 
with  corrosive  liniment,  used  in  navicular  diseases, 
once  a  day  for  three  days,  heating  it  in  with  a  hot 
iron.  Then  omit  for  two  or  three  days,  and  commence 
again.  During  the  treatment  the  animal  must  be  kept 
in  the  stable,  and  the  feet  should  be  kept  dry.  When 
hoof  rot  is  due  to  other  diseases,  as  ulceration  of  the 
navicular  joints,  it  will  do  no  good  to  follow  the  rule 
laid  down  until  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  is  removed. 

Hydrophobia,  or  Rabies.  There  can  be  but  one 
reason  for  describing  this  disease,  which  is  en- 
tirely beyond  the  reach  of  help,  and  that  is,  that  the 
horse  attacked  with  it  be  destroyed  immediately  on 
its  discovery. 

It  generally  arises  from  the  bite  of  a  dog,  though 
wolves,  foxes  and  cats  are  subject  to  it  by  spontaneous 
generation,  and  this  bite  is  as  fatal  to  another 
animal  and  to  man  as  that  of  the  dog.  The  horse 
need  not  be  absolutely  bitten.  The  licking  of  his 
bridle-bit  sores  at  the  corner  of  his  mouth  by  a  mad 
dog  is  sufficient  to  introduce  the  poison  by  absorp- 
tion ;  and  if  the  horse  by  any  means  chances  to 
take  into  his  mouth  and  stomach,  with  his  food,  the 
saliva  or  spittle  of  a  mad  animal,  he  will  very  prob- 
ably be  attacked,  and  especially  if  the  animal  so 
dropping  the  spittle  is  suffering  with  the  disease  in  its 
violent  stage.  The  jxaison  is  known  to  reside  in  both 
the  spittle  and  the  blood  of  its  victim.  When  once 
the  virus  has  been  generated  in  or  communicated  to 
any  animal,  hot  weather,  abuse,  want  of  water,  want 
of  food,  will  produce  that  feverish  state  which  is  so 
favorable  to  its  development,  and  the  greater  or  less 
time  in  which  it  manifests  itself,  decidedly  in  horses, 
after  inoculation,  is  probably  due  to  the  then  condi- 
tions or  the  absence  of  such.  The  poison  remains  in 
the  system  without  producing  the  jxDsitive  symptoms, 
from  three  to  eight  weeks. 

Since  several  of  the  most  formidable  diseases  have 
recently  been  traced  by  the  microscope  to  the  pres- 
ence of  peculiar  organisms,  it  is  reasonable  to  presume 
that  rabies  also  is  either  due  to  the  presence  of 
microscopic  organisms  or  actually  consists  of  them. 

Symptoms.  Blood  on  the  lips  or  elsewhere,  with 
marks  of  violence,  are  of  course  to  be  regarded  as 
symptopis  of  dog  bite,  if  any  known  occasion  for  such 
a  thing  has  existed  ;  and  for  a  few  days  these  will  be 
the  only  indications.  If  the  horse  is  high  fed  and  full 
of  blood,  and  the  weather  is  hot,  the  poison  may  be- 
gin to  produce  outward  effects  in  from  five  to  ten  days 


by  a  swelling  of  the  bitten  parts,  and  by  a  difficulty 

manifested  in  swal- 
lowing. In  from 
twelve  to  fifteen 
days  there  is  per- 
ceptibly increased 
pulsation, inflamed 
throat,  with  thick- 
ening of  the  mem- 
brane which  lines 
it ;  from  the  fif- 
teenth  to  the 
twentieth  day  the 
stomach   inflames 

Fig.  81. — Countenance 0/  Horse  ivith  A'ui^iVJ.  and     perhaps    TC- 

jects  food;  but  nothing  certainly  can  be  stated  as  to 
this  point,  since  here  the  symptoms  vary  greatly  with 
diff"erent  animals;  in  some  cases  the  appetite  is  vora- 
cious, and  so  morbid  that  the  sufi'erer  will  devour  his 
own  excrement  and  urine.  Sometimes  he  will  exhibit 
burning  thirst  and  drink  freely,  while  again  water  will 
cause  spasmodic  movements  and  be  avoided  with 
horror.  But  in  general  the  appetite  is  destroyed,  and 
that  dread  of  water  which  characterizes  the  disease  in 
man  is  present  in  the  horse. 

In  a  very  short  time  the  indications  increase,  and 
usually  (as  we  have  said,  with  f^U-blooded,  feverishly 
disposed  horses,  at  a  time  of  high  temperature)  before 
the  twentieth  day,  absolute  madness  sets  in.  He  now 


Fu;.  82. — Destructive  Impulse  of  Hydrophobia. 

rubs  the  bitten  parts  against  anything  convenient  with 
increased  violence;  sometimes,  instead  of  rubbing, 
he  will  bite  and  tear  the  wound ;  the  eye  assumes  a 
wilder  and  more  unnatural  appearance;  some  patients 
neigh  speakingly,  shove  out  the  tongue  or  gnash  the 
teeth.  The  progress  of  the  disease  is  now  very  rapid ; 
generally  there  is  profuse  sweating,  suppression  of  the 
urine,  and  inflammation  of  the  parts  of  generation. 
His  countenance  changes  from  a  look  of  anxietyto 
one  of  cunning  and  a  sort  of  grinning  ferocity, 
and  there  is  an  irrepressible  desire  to  bite  man  or  ani- 
mal— whatever  living  thing  may  be  had  within  reach. 
He  gazes  sometimes  at  an  imaginary  object  and  springs 


782 


HORSE. 


and  snaps  madly  at  vacancy ;  his  propensity  to  de- 
stroy grows  with  his  pain,  and  at  last  he  wreaks  his  fury 
upon  inanimate  objects;  the  manger  or  trough,  the 
rack,  whatever  is  seizable  in  his  stall  is  torn  to  pieces 
with  his  teeth  or  smashed  with  his  feet.  If  not  con- 
fined he  darts  ferociously  at  whatever  object  of  attack 
may  present  itself;  has  a  peculiar  dread  of  water ; 
plunges  about  like  a  demon  of  destruction,  snorts, 
foams,  sometimes  uttering  a  kind  of  crying  neigh,  and 
perhaps  beats  himself  to  death  before  the  last  and 
comparatively  helpless  stage  comes  on. 

If  not  destroyed  before  the  disease  has  run  its 
course,  paralysis,  usually  confined  to  the  loins  and 
the  hinder  extremities,  sets  in,  and  involves  with  it  all 
those  organs  which  depend  for  their  nervous  influence 
upon  the  posterior  portion  of  the  spinal  cord.  Unable 
to  stand  upon  the  hind  legs,  the  animal  will  sit  upon 
his  haunches,  and  strike  and  paw  with  his  fore  feet. 
The  suffering  is  sometimes  rendered  more  terrible  by 
tenesmus  or  inaction  of  the  bowels,  which  seem  dread- 
fully oppressed  but  have  lost  the  power  to  act,  wliile 
the  kidneys  are  fevered  and  torpid,  and  the  urine 
ca.iiiot  be  voided. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  disease  is  developed 
by  exertion  and  heat,  when  no  previous  indications 
have  been  manifest,  and  shows  itself  in  a  peculiar 
manner.  The  horse  stops  all  at  once  in  his  work, 
heaves,  paws  nervously,  trembles,  staggers  and  falls. 
In  a  moment  he  will  be  up,  and  may,  if  put  to  it,  pro- 
ceed a  few  moments,  when  he  will  stop,  stare  about 
and  lie  down  again.  This  stage  is  sometimes  mis- 
taken for  blind  staggers,  but  it  may  be  distinguished 
by  observing  that  in  blind  staggers  the  horse  loses 
his  senses,  while  in  hydrophobia  he  is  always  conscious, 
often  actually  intelligent  and  observing. 

Treatment.  This  is  a  disorder  of  so  dreadful  and 
dangerous  a  character  that  some  of  the  ablest  veter- 
inarians do  not  hesitate  to  advise  the  instant  killing 
of  the  sufferer;  and  they  refuse  to  give  any  directions 
for  attempting  a  cure.  When  the  furious  stage  has 
come  on  there  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  demoniac  mali- 
ciousness and  treachery,  with  a  watchful  cunning,  that 
makes  it  hazardous  for  friend  or  stranger  to  trust 
himself  anywhere  within  reach.  It  is  extremely 
doubtful,  too,  whether  recovery  ever  takes  place  after 
the  madness  is  developed.  When  the  animal  is  bitten, 
cauterize  the  part  bitten  with  caustic  or  a  red-hot 
iron.  Then  if  the  animal  shows  unmistakable  signs 
of  rabies  the  safest  and  best  plan  is  to  destroy  him. 

Inflammation  of  the  Absorbents.  Inflam- 
mation of  the  absorbents  {Lymphangitis)  has  a  variety 
of  names,  among  which  are  "weed,"  and  "shot  of 
greasa,"  and  may  be  a  constitutional  case  or  a  mere 
local  affection.  In  its  constitutional  form  it  is  found 
in  "heavy,  lymphatic,  fleshy-legged  horses  that,  hard- 
worked  on  heavy  feed,  are  left  in  the  stable  for  days 
together. 

In  its  local  form  it  is  the  result  of  wounds,  bruises, 
injuries  of  various  kinds,  putrefying  matter  in  and 
around  the  stable.  It  may  occur  from  the  specific 
poison  of  glanders,  etc.,  and  in  the  constitutional  form 


may  go  on  to  abscess,  sloughing  and  unhealthy  sores, 
and  death;  or  the  horse  may  be  left  with  the  limb 
permanently  thickened.  In  the  local  form  there  may 
be  abscess,  diffuse  suppuration,  induration  of  the 
glands,  and  even  the  vessels  and  surrounding  parts. 

Symptoms.  There  will  be  more  or  less  shivering; 
in  bad  cases,  severe,  quickened  breathing;  rapid,  hard 
pulse ;  a  general  feverish  state,  and  fever  in  one  or 
both  hind  limbs.  Enlargements  may  be  detected 
high  up  in  the  groin,  by  the  side  of  the  sheath  in  the 
horse  or  udder  in  the  mare,  and  great  tenderness  of  the 
inguinal  glands.  The  shivering  fits  will  be  succeeded 
by  fever,  with  burning  sweats,  swelled  limbs,  exuda- 
tion and  filling,  sometimes  to  the  body. 

Treatment.  In  mild  cases  give  moderate  and  daily 
exercise,  pay  attention  to  diet,  ventilation,  and  clean- 
liness. If  the  case  is  more  severe,  give  from  4  to  6 
drachms  of  aloes,  apply  warm  fomentations  continu- 
ally to  the  limb,  with  walking  exercise.  The  bowels 
having  been  thoroughly  moved,  give  diuretics,  an 
ounce  of  saltpeter  in  a  gallon  of  water  two  or  three 
times  daily;  or  10  grains  of  iodine.  For  "thick  leg," 
a  chronic  thickening  of  the  limb,  bandage  from  the 
foot  up  when  the  animal  is  in  the  stable,  and  apply 
tincture  of  iodine  for  four  days,  giving  daily  exercise; 
or  rub  the  limb  with  iodine  ointment  and  give  the 
following  once  a  day: 

%  ounce  powdered  resin, 
%  ounce  nitre, 
10  drops  oil  of  juniper, 
I  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Mix  into  a  ball  with  liquorice  powder  and  molasses. 

If  abscesses  form,  open  them  with  a  sharp  knife 
and  dress  with  the  following :  i  ounce  carbolic  acid, 
I  pint  distilled  water.  In  the  local  form  there  will  be 
slight  swelling  of  the  cords  and  redness  in  white  skins. 
The  lymphatic  glands  will  be  enlarged  along  their 
course,  and  become  nodular  or  knotty.  There  will  be 
pasty  swellings  of  the  parts  and  even  erysipelas. 

Treatment.  Give  rest  and  a  purge  of  aloes,  as 
recommended  for  the  chronic  stage.  Wash  the  dis- 
eased limb  with  the  following: 

^  drachm  opium, 
1  drachm  acetate  lead, 
I  drachm  carbolic  acid, 
I  quart  rain-water. 

In  case  of  excessive  inflammation  poultice  with 
flax-seed  or  bread  and  milk;  open  the  suppurating 
parts  to  let  out  the  matter  and  dress  with  carbolic 
solution,  as  in  the  other  form  of  the  disease. 

Inflam.mation  of  Parotid  Gland,  Peritoneum, 
Knee-joint,  BLEEDtNG  of  Rectum,  Stomach  and 
Tongue.     See  the  respective  subjects  in  this  article. 

Influenza,  Pink-eve,  Epizootic,  Contagious 
Catarrhal  Fever,  etc.  This  disease,  which  is 
known  by  the  several  names  above  given,  is  consti- 
tutional, and  is  characterized  by  great  muscular  de- 
bility, loss  of  appetite,  heavy  throbbing  or  beating  of 
the  pulse  at  the  region  of  the  heart;  easily  worried  ;  in 
the  last  stage  the  hind  legs  swell,  the  skin  cracks,  and 
water  runs  out,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  so  mild  as  to 
require  veiy  little  treatment  beyond  ordinary  good 
nursing,   freedom    from    work,   comfort,   cleanliness. 


784 


HORSE. 


^1 


^  plenty  of  ventilation,  and  a  laxative,  nutritious  diet. 
'v.The  cause  of  the  disease  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a 
poison — an  atmospheric  germ,  the  true  nature  of  which 
is  as  yet  but  little  known.  It  is  an  infectious  disease, 
and  is  regarded  by  some  as  being  contagious;  but  in- 
vestigations have  not  yet  proven  its  communicability.. 
The  disease  is  one  which  attacks  all  solipeds,  and  the 
degree  of  its  intensity  is  greater  in  the  ass  than  in  the 
horse  or  mule. 

The  peculiar  characteristic  of  "  pink  eye  "  is  that  of 
great  emaciation,  in  some  cases  the  animals  being  re- 
duced to  mere  skeletons  ;  and  in  these  cases,  of  course, 
convalescence  is  retarded,  and  the  appetite  is  slow  in 
returning.  "  Pink  eye,"  as  a  rule,  is  not  very  fatal, 
but  as  it  is  a  disease  which  is  liable  to  attack  any  of 
the  tissues  of  the  body,  it  may  in  some  outbreaks 
prove  very  disastrous. 

A  frequent  sequel  to  '"  pink  eye  "  is  one  commonly 
called  dropsy.  Most  of  the  cases  prove  fatal.  Owing 
to  the  debilitated  condition  of  the  heart's  action,  there 
may  be  anaemia  of  the  brain,  which  is  also  very  fatal. 

Symptoms.  The  period  of  incubation  of  influenza, 
as  it  is  generally  called,  varies  from  a  few  hours  to  a 
few  days,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  there  are  no 
premonitory  symptoms  shown.  Probably  the  first 
symptom  shown  is  a  staggering  gait,  and  in  some  cases 
the  debility  is  so  great  that  after  an  animal  has  fallen 
down  assistance  is  necessary  to  get  the  animal  on  its 
feet  again.  One  of  the  first  Fymptoms  also  is  sneezing, 
and  in  some  cases  there  is  an  inflammation  of  the  sub- 


FlG.  83. — A    Case  of  Injluenza. 

maxillary  lymphatic  glands.  After  the  first  symptoips, 
or  in  common  with  them,  there  is  an  inflamed  condi- 
tion of  the  conjunctival  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
eyelids,  and  tears  are  observed  coursing  down  the 
sides  of  the  face.  Owing  to  the  inflamed  condition 
of  the  conjunctiva  it  takes  an  unusually  red  or  pink 
color,  and  hence  the  name  of  "pink  eye."  Shortly 
after  these  symptoms  a  nasal  dischaige  is  seen,  which 
at  first  is  thin  and  watery,  but  as  the  disease  pro- 
gresses it  assumes  a  viscid,  thick  and  yellowish  char- 
acter. As  a  rule,  there  is  a  short,  frequent,  feeble  and 
painful  cough,  due  to  the  inflamed  condition  of  the 
respiratory  mucous  membrane,  esj^ecially  that  of  the 
throat.    On  pressure  over  the  region  of  the  larynx  the 


animal  will  evince  pain, -and  a  severe  spell  of  cough- 
ing ensues.  The  head  is  carried  low,  and  in  some 
instances  there  are  indications  of  severe  headache  and 
more  or  less  stupor,  and  in  some  cases  there  are  man- 
ifestations of  frenzy.  The  throat  may  be  so  severely 
inflamed  that  fluids  given  the  animal  will  return 
through  the  nostrils,  and  solid  food  is  taken  with  great 
difficulty.  There  are  febrile  symptoms,  as  elevation  of 
temperature  and  increased  number  of  respirations  and 
pulsations  per  minute.  The  crisis  is  reached  at  from 
four  to  six  days,  and  the  termination  in  from  two  to 
three  weeks  or  more.  As  a  rule,  however,  convales- 
cence is  tedious,  and  the  animal  may  continue  with  a 
cough,  and  be  "  off  his  feed  "  for  months.  In  common 
with  the  symptoms  already  described,  there  may  be 
lung  trouble,  colic,  and  in  fact,  inflammation  of  any 
internal  organ. 

Treatment.  There  are  no  preventive  methods  of 
treatment  known.  As  the  disease  is  a  depletive,  we 
should  not  resort  to  any  exhausting  remedies,  such  as 
bleeding,  purgatives,  etc.  The  disease  is  a  limited 
one,  and  we  should  endeavor  to  keep  up  the  strength 
of  the  animal  by  diffusible  stimulants,  and  afterwards 
tonics.  For  a  good  tonic  and  stimulant  give  the  fol- 
lowing : 

2  ounces  golden  seal ; 

1  ounce  gentian  ; 

2  ounces  carbonate  ammonia  • 

1  ounce  blood-root. 

Form  in  eight  doses  and  give  one  night  and  morning. 

Place  the  animal  in  a  well  littered  stall,  free  from 
drafts  of  air.  Do  not  depend  uixin  strong  physic. 
The  cure  must  be  effected  by  watching  the  symptoms 
and  combating  them.  If  there  is  costiveness  keep  the 
bowels  open  by  injections,  of  two  wine  glasses  full  of 
linseed  oil.  Good  nursing  must  be  constant,  with 
clothing  enough  to  keep  the  animal  warm.  If  the 
cough  is  distressing  prejjare  the  following: 

Ji  ounce  extract  belladonna  ; 

2  drachms  powdered  opium  ; 

3  drachms  campjior  ; 
2  ounces  liquorice  ; 
%  pint  molasses. 

Mix  thoroughly  and  spread  .1  tablespoonful  on  the  tongue  twice  a  day. 

Sometimes  recovery  is  complicated  by  various  dis- 
abilities. If  there  is  dropsy  or  swelling  of  the  legs  or 
sheath,  prepare  the  following : 

I  ounce  iodide  of  potassium 
I  ounce  carbonate  ammonia  ; 
I  ounce  powdered  gentian  ; 
Form  into  eight  balls,  and  give  one  morning  and  evening. 

As  recovery  ensues,  the  food  should  be  nourishing 
and  easily  digested.  The  animal  should  be  induced 
to  take  food  during  the  disease,  especially  in  the  form 
of  nourishing  gruel.  When  the  pulse  changes,  and 
especially  when  it  loses  its  wiry  character;  when  the 
discharge  from  the  nose  becomes  steady  and  copious, 
golden  seal  and  capsicum  in  equal  parts  should  be 
given,  in  t'vo-drachm  doses,  three  times  a  day.  Steam- 
ing with  hot  water  and  vinegar  is  very  good,  and  also 
the  application  of  some  counter-irritant  around  the 
throat.  The  animal  should  have  constantly  before 
him  a  bucketful  of  warm  gruel,  in  which  a  couple  of 
tablespoonfuls    of    nitre    have    been    placed        He 


HORSE. 


78s 


should  also  be  warmly  sheltered  and  clothed,  and  no 
work  whatever  imix)sed  upon  him. 

Intestines,  Parasites  which  Infest  the.  The 
general  symptoms  for  intestinal  worms,  in  large  quan- 
tity, are  general  ill  health.  The  animal  will  lose  con- 
dition ;  the  skin  will  be  scurfy,  dry  and  often  itching; 


Fig.  84. — Colt  Picking  Hair  from  its   Legs,  Giving  Proo/  0/  Worms  ^ 

the  animal  will  become  hide-bound  and  pot-bellied ; 
the  appetite  will  be  irregular  but  voracious ;  there 
will  be  fetid  Ijreath,  diarrhoea,  passing  of  mucus  with 
the  dung,  colicky  pains,  swelling,  itching  and  puffy 
anus,  and  especially  the  passage  of  the  worms  or 
their  eggs  will  be  certain  proof.  The  horse  will  raise 
the  upper  lip  and  rub  it  against  anything  near.  Colts 
will  pick  and  bite  the  hair  from  their  body  and  limbs. 
The  above  cut  will  give  a  good  general  idea  of  an 
animal  suffering  from  worms. 

Besides  the  bot,  already  treated  of,  which  inhabits 
the  stomach,  there  are  those  of  the  intestines  proper. 
These  are  the  tape-worm,  round-headed  and  flat- 
headed,  and  five  species  of  round  worms. 

Treatment.  Vermifuges  are  without  number,  some 
general  in  their  nature  and  others  specific  for  particu- 
lar classes.  When  worms  are  suspected,  and  the 
owner  or  the  animal  is  not  sure  of  the  reality,  it  is 
safe  to  give  a  purge  and  watch  the  droppings.  The 
following  is  a  good  vermifuge  drench : 

1  drachm  copperas, 
I  ounce  oil  turpentine, 
4  drachms  aloes, 
I  ounce  powdered  male  fern, 
20  drops  oil  of  wormseed. 

Give  this  in  a  pint  of  linseed  oil  an  hour  before 
feeding  in  the  morning. 

For  worms  lodging  in  the  gut  near  the  rectum,  give 
an  injection  of  a  strong  decoction  of  wormwood  or 
tansy.  The  prevention  of  worms  is  to  pay  attention 
to  the  water  the  animal  drinks,  and  to  give  sound 
grain  and  hay  as  food,  since  liberal  feeding  and  good 
general  care  will  often  extirpate  the  parasites. 

For  other  vermifuges,  see  article  on  Wonns. 

Irritation  or  Hardening  of  the  Skin  :  see  Skin. 

Itch.    See  Mange. 

Jaundice,  or  Yellows,  a  functional  derangement 
of  the  liver.  In  almost  all  cases  of  liver  disease  the 
50 


visible  mucous  membranes,  the  skin,  the  urine  and 
the  tissues  are  stained  yellow  by  the  re-absorption  of 
bile  already  secreted. 

Causes.  Indigestion,  obstruction  of  the  bile  duct 
from  any  cause,  obstruction  of  the  bowels  hindering 
the  proper  discharge  of  the  bile,  and  undue  secretion 
of  the  bile  in  cases  of  congestion  of  the  liver.  In 
solid-hoofed  animals  the  blood  is  easily  dissolved. 

Symptoms.  There  will  be  a  general  discoloration  of 
the  tissues.  The  mucous  membrane  will  be  yellow  ; 
the  urine  high-colored.  In  obstruction  of  the  bile 
duct  the  dung  will  be  fetid,  and  of  a  clay  color, 
from  being  devoid  of  bile. 

Treatment.  No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down. 
The  following  is  a  good  remedy  for  torpidity  of  the 
liver,  when  there  is  general  dullness  and  bilious- 
ness- 

2  ounces  mandrake, 
I  pound  Glauber  salts, 
I  pound  common  salt, 
I  ounce  essence  of  ginger, 
I  gallon  warm  water. 

Mix  and  give  a  pint  from  one  to  three  times  a  day 
until  a  gentle  but  full  purgation  is  produced.  Follow 
this  up  with  daily  doses  of  one  scruple  of  podo- 
phyllin. 

Jaw,  Bony  Tumor  of  the  Lower.  That  unnat- 
ural enlargement  or  bony  excrescence  of  the  lower 
jaw,  known  by  the  above  name,  is  generally  caused 
by  a  tight  curb-chain  used  with  a  curb-bit  of  such 
leverage  as  to  enable  the  rider  to  inflict  injury  by  vio- 
lent jerking.  The  jaw-bone  is  bruised  and  soon 
enlarges.  The  injured  portion  must  exfoliate  or  scale, 
and  the  presence  of  the  unnatural  substance  under 
the  flesh  and  tendons  give  rise  to  a  foul  ulcer  unless 
steps  are  taken  to  give  relief  while  the  hurt  is  com- 
paratively recent. 

Nature  makes  a  constant  effort  to  heal,  however, 
and  unless  the  tumor  is  irritated  by  passing  particles 

of  bone,  it  partially 
heals,  so  that  an  ob- 
stacle is  interposed 
from  time  to  time  to 
the  escape  of  the 
scales,  and  in  this  way 
an  unnatural  bony 
structure  is  formed  and 
matured  b  e  f o  r  e  the 
bony  tumor  is  entirely 
healed.  To  prevent 
this,  open  with  a  knife 
VK..%i.-TumorCausedbyCurb.chain.  as  soon  as  the  bone  is 

found  to  be  injured,  and  keep  the  wound  open  by 
using  the  elastic  syringe  and  warm  water  until  the 
discharge  has  assumed  an  offensive  odor;  then  syr- 
inge into  it  several  times  daily  the  following: 

1  scnijjle  chloride  linc, 

4  drachms  essence  of  anise  seed, 

I  pint  water. 

Remove  with  a  sharp  knife  all  fungous  flesh  and 
cauterize  with  nitrate  silver. 

When  once  the  bony  excrescence  has  established 


786 


HORSE. 


itself  no  one  but  a  skillful  "eterinarian  should  be  in- 
trusted with  its  removal. 

Kidneys,  Inflammation  of  the.  Nephritis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  kidneys,  is  produced  by  a  variety  of 
causes,  as  blows  on  or  sprains  in  the  region  of  the  loin, 
calculi,  the  excessive  use  of  diuretics  to  which  some 
stable-men  are  prone,  musty  fodder,  or  that  which  con- 
tains irritant  plants. 

Symptoms.  There  will  be  more  or  less  fever,  some- 
times a  hi^h  fever;  colicky  pains ;  looking  at  the 
abdomen,  the  horse  will  lie  down  with  extreme  caution; 
frequent  passages  of  urine  in  small  quantities,  but 
very  high-colored,  sometimes  containing  blood  and 
even  pus;  the  legs  swell  uniformly  from  the  hoofs  up; 
the  pulse  is  rapid,  the  bowels  costive  and  the  breath- 
ing excited;  the  horse  straddles  in  his  gait;  this, 
however,  is  a  general  characteristic  of  all  diseases  of 
the  urinary  organs,  but  in  severe  inflammation  it 
amounts  almost  to  helplessness. 

There  is,  however,  one  test  that  is  constant ;  there 
is  extreme  tenderness  of  the  bony  process  about  six 
inches  from  the  spine  in  the  loins  ;  pressure  over  the 
kidneys  will  show  the  terrible  pain  from  the  crouch- 
ing attitude  the  horse  assumes. 


Fig.  86. — Test  for  Inflamtnation  of  the  Kidneys, 

If  the  urine  is  examined  under  a  microscope,  the 
fibrinous  casts  of  the  kidney  tubes  will  be  found.  In 
chronic  cases,  stocking  of  the  legs,  casts  in  the  urine, 
more  or  less  tenderness  upon  pressure  of  the  loins, 
and  general  ill  health,  may  be  all  that  will  be 
observed. 

Treatment.  In  acute  cases,  if  there  is  a  strong 
pulse  and  the  animal  is  full  of  blood,  for  a  day  give 
25  drops  aconite  every  2  hours.  Give  an  active  ca- 
thartic, as  follows  : 

2  drachms  manarake, 

4  drachms  powdered  aloes, 

I  ounce  glim  arabic. 

Make  into  a  ball  with  linseed  meal  and  molasses. 
Wrap  the  loins  in  woolen  blankets  and  foment 
thoroughly  with  an  infusion  of  a  handful  of  digitalis 
leaves  in  a  pail  of  boiling  water,  putting  it  on  as  warm 


as  the  hand  will  bear  it ;  or  wring  a  sheep-skin  out  of 
hot  water  and  apply  the  flesh  side,  changing  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary.  Give  i  drachm  cream  tartar  in 
a  little  water  3  times  a  day.  After  the  disease  be- 
comes chronic,  blister  over  the  kidneys.  To  assist  the 
evacuation  and  ease  the  pain,  give  injections  of  lin- ' 
seed  tea,  i  quart,  to  which  i  ounce  of  laudanum  is 
added.  Get  up  a  good  sweat  if  possible.  This  will 
relieve  the  kidneys.  Keep  the  bowels  gently  open 
with  laxatives  and  relieve  the  pains  with  anodynes, 
and  as  the  animal  improves,  give  bitter  tonics,  3 
drachms  golden  seal  daily  in  3  doses ;  or  an  ounce  of 
gentian  in  2-drachm  doses  three  times  a  day. 

Knf.es,  Broken.  This  is  a  common  disability  of 
stumbling  horses,  and  of  saddle  horses  kept  for  riding, 
leaping  or  hunting.  A  horse  with  the  scars  of  broken 
knees,  should  never  be  used  as  a  saddle  horse,  unless 
it  can  be  clearly  shown  the  hurt  was  done  accidentally 
in  leaping  uix)n  a  foul  landing  place. 

Sytnptoms.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  find  the  ex- 
tent of  the  injury.  It  may  be  that  it  is  only  a  slight 
bruise  with  or  without  abrasion  of  the  skin.  In  this 
case,  using  the  tincture  of  arnica  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  and  a  cold-water  bandage  if  there  is  heat,  should 
insure  recovery.  Sometimes,  however,  there  is  an 
ugly  lacerated  wound  filled  with  dirt  and  gravel. 

In  this  case  the  parts  must  be  well  washed  by 
repeatedly  filling  a  large  sponge  with  clean,  warm  wa- 
ter and  squeezing  it  drj'  against  the  limb  above  the 
hurt.  Never  under  any  circumstances  put  it  against 
the  hurt.  If  there  is  a  sac  below  the  cut,  containing 
dirt,  it  must  be  carefully  probed  and  opened  from  the 
bottom  with  a  keen,  sharp-pointed  knife.  The  object 
is  that  no  grit  may  remain  in  the  wound  to  prevent  its 
healing.  A  stone  should  be  tied  so  the  sac  may  be 
emptied  of  its  contents  in  the  process  of  suppuration. 
In  three  days  after  the  establishment  of  suppuration 
the  seton  may  be  withdrawn.  The  wounded  parts 
must  be  kept  wet  with  cold  arnica  water,  the  proper 
proportions  being  i  ounce  tincture  of  arnica  to  each 
pint  of  water  used.  Copious  suppuration  having 
been  fairly  established,  discontinue  the  use  of  arnica, 
and  use  instead,  a  solution  made  by  equal  parts  of  oil 
of  tar  and  tincture  of  arnica.  Use  no  bandages. 
Cleanliness  of  the  parts  is  necessary.  These  means 
should  carry  the  knee  to  a  favorable  issue.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  injury  is  so  severe  that  the  ligaments 
and  even  the  joints  are  injured.  It  then  becomes  a 
most  seriouscase.  In  thiseventthe  animal  must  be  put 
into  the  slings,  the  joint  brought  together,  after  being 
thoroughly  cleansed  as  before  stated,  the  parts  must  be 
bandaged  and  astringent  washes  used  to  promote  the 
uniring  of  the  parts,  while  the  same  general  treatment 
is  pursued  with  the  laceration  as  advised  before.  In 
case  the  injury  be  so  severe  as  to  involve  the  joint,  if 
a  veterinaiy  surgeon  cannot  be  had,  the  horse  had 
better  be  killed. 

Knee-joint,  Inflammation  of  the.  Inflammation 
of  the  knee  or  other  joints  may  occur  in  all  stages, 
from  the  most  simple  form  to  those  most  violent,  with 
ulceration  and  the  formation  of  destructive  abscesses. 


HORSE. 


787 


Jarringon  hard  roads,  various  injuries,  such  as  bruises, 
strains,  etc.,  may  cause  this  aihiient. 

Sy?/iptoms.  In  light  cases  the  horse  in  starting 
forward  will  do  so  from  the  knee  and  with  pain.  There 
will  1)6  excessive  flinching  if  the  knee  is  extended  by 
force.  The  animal  stands  square  on  his  feet,  and 
without  inclination  to  raise  the  heel.  In  walking  he 
takes  a  fair  step,  but  carries  the  knee-joint  as  much 
without  bending  as  possible,  and  in  putting  down  his 
foot  exerts  the  greatest  pressure  on  the  heel. 

Treatment.  Take  off  the  shoes.  Treat  the  inflam- 
mation as  directed  in  other  cases;  first  by  hot-water 
emljrocations  perseveringly  applied,  using  laudanum 
as  directed,  if  necessary  to  relieve  pain.  There  must 
be  jierfect  rest,  and  if  the  animal  will  use  the  limb 
put  him  in  slings  and  apply  splints  and  bandages  to 
the  knee.  The  inflammation  having  been  cured, 
blister  the  parts  to  procure  absorption  of  the  fluids ; 
when  the  animal  is  better  let  him  have  the  run  of  a 
quiet  pasture  until  entirely  sound,  or  keep  him  in  the 
stable  with  gentle  walking  exercise  every  day. 

Lampas.  This  is  a  name  given  to  a  slight  enlarge- 
ment, swelling  or  fullness  of  the  bars  of  the  mouth  of 
young  horses,  caused  from  the  changes  of  teething. 


Fir..  88. — Burning  a  fforse^s  Mouth yor  Lampas. 
A  cruel  and  unnecessary  operation. 

and  in  old  horses  the  cause  may  be  indigestion,  etc. 

Colts  from  one  to  five  years  old  are  the  general 
subjects  of  the  affection,  and  to  its  charge  is  laid  a 
good  deal,  which,  if  properly  looked  into,  would  be 
found  to  spring  from  other  entirely  different  causes. 
The  colt  is  taken  in  from  grass,  and  instead  of  the 
juicy  food  which  he  was  accustomed  to  he  is  com- 
pelled to  eat  dry  and  musty  provender,  and  breathe 
the  contaminated  air  of  the  stable.  Should  we 
wonder  if  such  a  change  would  derange  the  digestion 
before  the  system  becomes  adapted  to  its  new  situa- 
tion ?  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  if,  during  the  period  of 
dentition,  the  gums  should  swell  or  the  appetite 
become  impaired  under  such  a  change? 

Treatment.  If  in  young  horses  the  means  advised 
in  dentition,  with  slight  cutting  (scarifying)  of  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  with  a  sharp  knife  or  lancet,  will  suffice. 
In  old  horses  scarification,  with  a  general  attention  to 


the  health  of  the  animal,  will  be  indicated.  In  scari- 
fying, cut  only  about  an  inch  back  of  the  teeth,  and 
never  deep.  Just  behind  the  third  bar  an  artery  lies 
near  the  surface,  difficult  to  manage  if  cut  through. 
Should,  by  accident,  the  artery  be  severed,  put  a 
strong  cord  around  the  upper  front  teeth  close  to  the 
gums,  and  strain  it  as  tightly  as  possible.  This  will 
generally  close  the  orifice  and  stop  the  bleeding.  As 
a  wash  for  the  gums,  the  following  will  be  good:  i 
ounce  chlorate  of  potash,  2  ounces  soft  water. 

It  is  a  sad  fact  that  many  who  handle  and  treat 
this  noble  animal  resort  to  the  barbarous  practice  of 
burning  the  bars  of  the  mouth  for  lampas.  Never, 
under  any  circumstances,  burn  the  mouth.  The 
animal  never  recovers  from  the  effects,  nor  does  he 
ever  forget  or  forgive  the  inhuman  act,  as  is  evinced 
afterwards  by  any  attempt  to  do  anything  about  his 
head.  A  change  to  more  cooling  or  solid  food,  and 
pure  air  in  the  stable,  together  with  moderate  exercise, 
will  often  effect  a  cure. 

Legs,  Swelled.  This  is  a  dropsical  affection  of 
the  limbs.  It  may  be  the  result  of  an  undue  deposit 
of  serum  or  watery  particles  of  blood,  or  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  cellular  tissue  lying  between  the  skin  and 
bones  in  those  parts  of  the  legs  most  destitute 
of  muscles. 

A  jx)or  condition  of  the  blood,  or  feebleness 
from  great  loss  of  it,  may  cause  the  legs  to  swell, 
since  the  fluids  conveyed  \o  the  extremities  by  the 
capillaries  accumulate  there,  because,  in  the 
absence  of  muscular  activity,  the  veins  have  no 
power  to  return  them.  Diseased  kidneys  have  a 
tendency  to  produce  this  disorder  of  the  legs. 

The  inflammatory  type  may  result  from  blows 
U]X)n  the  lower  leg;  from  concussion,  or,  in  gen- 
ii,,, eral,  from  anything  thai  may  arrest  the  action  of 
(/////  the  cellular  tissue  referred  to,  causing  it  to  be- 
A"  ome  dry  and  at  length  actually  inflamed.  It 
lay  also  arise  from  the  shifting  of  inflammation 
om  other  parts,  as  from  the  lungs,  kidneys,  etc. 
Horses  of  coarse  fiber  and  full  habit,  accus- 
tomed to  exercise,  if  allowed  to  stand  idle  several 
days,  will  have  swelled  legs  from  the  accumu- 
lation of  watery  fluid;  and,  if  unattended  to,  the  parts 
may  soon  be  attacked  by  inflammation,  when  the  tis- 
sues become  involved  and  the  disease  assumes  its 
more    serious  type. 

Symptoms.  The  leg  becomes  greatly  swollen  and 
looks  as  though  it  was  stretched  to  its  utmost  tension. 
Occasionally  the  swelling  appears  almost  suddenly, 
and  then  as  suddenly  subsides,  in  which  case  the 
cause  may  be  considered  as  having  but  just  begun  to 
operate,  and  if  then  treated  it  is  easily  managed. 
Again,  it  is  sometimes  sudden  in  its  attack,  and  vio- 
lent; the  skin  is  hot,  dry,  and  extremely  tender, 
the  pulse  is  quick  and  hard,  while  a  peculiar  lameness 
speedily  sets  in.  In  the  more  advanced  stage  of  the 
disease  small  cracks  appear  in  the  skin,  and  from 
these  exudes  a  watery  matter  of  whitish-yellow  color, 
similar  to  that  which  is  seen  in  cracked  heels.  In 
this  case  it  must  be  taken  for  granted  that  no  treat- 


78S 


HORSE. 


ment,  however  skillful,  can  speedily  remove  it ;  that 
the  improvement  must  be  slow,  and  consequently 
much  time  required. 

Trealmeni.  If  the  disease  seems  to  be  merely 
undue  de[X)sit  of  serum,  owing  to  confinement,  noth- 
ing more  may  be  necessary  than  to  give  the  animal  a 
dose  or  two  of  niter,  daily,  to  act  upon  the  kidneys, 
and  to  exercise  him  regularly  to  induce  absorption. 

When  there  is  a  tendency  to  swelled  legs,  which 
manifests  itself  in  the  morning,  but  disappears  during 
the  exercise  of  the  day,  an  excellent  preventive  is  to 
stand  the  horse  in  cold  water  to  his  knees  half  an 
hour  just  before  night,  or  use  the  apparatus  illustrated 
by  Fig.  89,  which  produces  numerous  and  constant 
streams  or  jets  of  cold  water  (or  hot 
for  fomentation)  supplyingitself  upon 
the  syphon  principle  from  a  pail  in  the 
manger.  It  is  fastened  to  the  limb 
J  by  means  of  a  strap  and  buckle. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  dry  the  legs 
thoroughly,  or  the  plan  is  plainly 
objectionable.  If  it  should  be  found 
not  to  yield  to  this,  administer  the 
niter  in  moderation,  as  previously 
directed,  and  exercise  the  horse 
regularly,  causing  him  to  sweat,  both 
of  which  have  a  tendency  to  diminish 
the  accumulated  fluid  and  to  assist 
the  veijis  and  absorbents  in  their 
functions. 

In  case  the  horse  is  in  a  debilitated 
condition,  and  the  swelling  is  mani- 
'^^'^■ll-r^'^ckiv'Ws^^^^^  owing  to  the  sluggishness   of 

Afpar.tlus  /or  1  .  O  111,  .1 

Swriitii  i.tgs.  the  Circulation,  he  should  be  well 
fed  on  nutritious  diet,  and  the  leg  or  legs  should  be 
firmly,  but  not  tightly,  bandaged.  Then  prepare  the 
following — atonic  and  somewhat  stimulating  medicine: 

8  drachms  pulverized  assafortida, 

1  ounce  cream  tartar, 

3  ounces  powdered  gentian, 

2  ounces  African  ginger, 

4  ounces  finely  pulverized  poplar  bark. 

Rub  these  ingredients  together  in  a  mortar  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  Divide  this  into  six  doses  and 
give  one  in  the  food  every  night  till  exhausted.  The 
bandage  should  be  removed  from  time  to  time  and 
the  limb  subjected  to  a  brisk  hand-rubbing,  or  rubbing 
with  medium  coarse  cloth. 

If  the  disease  has  become  chronic  and  the  animal 
is  much  debilitated,  the  f9llowing  more  stimulating 
medicine  should  be  used: 

I  ounce  powdered  golden  seal, 
I  ounce  gentian, 
1  ounce  balmony.  or  snakehcad, 
8  ounces  flax-seed. 

Mix  well  and  divide  into  six  doses,  of  which  give 
one  night  and  morning  in  the  food.  Bandage  and 
rub  alternately,  as  previously  directed.  If  the  disease 
does  not  speedily  show  signs  of  yielding  to  this  treat- 
ment, apply  every  night,  omitting  the  bandage,  the 
following  liniment: 

2  ounces  essence  of  cedar, 
I  ounce  tincture  of  capsicum, 
I  pint  new  rum. 


When  eruption  of  the  skin  has  taken  place,  so  that 
matter  exudes,  and  there  is  much  fever,  the  following 
course  has  been  found  eminently  successful  and 
and  must  be  at  once  adopted :  Mix  finely  pulverized 
sulphur  and  rosin,  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  the 
former  to  one  of  the  latter,  and  give  daily  for  three  or 
four  days  six  ounces  of  this  mixture.  It  should  be 
put  into  meal  or  bran,  and  the  horse  should  be  allowed 
no  other  food  until  he  readily  takes  this.  Bathe  the 
parts  with  the  following,  rubbing  well  three  times  a 
day: 

1  pint  alcohol, 

3  ounces  capsicum, 

2  ounces  spirits  camphor, 

2  ounces  spirits  turpentine. 

In  these  chronic  cases  it  is  best  not  to  feed  on  very 
nutritious,  or  at  least  simulating,  food,  unless  the 
horse  is  in  low  general  condition.  Ordinarily  pastur- 
ing will  be  best,  when  the  season  admits  of  it. 

Liver,  Functional  Diseases  of  the.  The  liver 
is  the  largest  secreUng  gland  of  the  body,  though  not 
subject  to  many  diseases.  Without  it  digestion  and  ani- 
mal heat  cannot  be  maintained,  and  the  waste  or 
effete  matter  cannot  be  removed  from  the  blood.  So, 
therefore,  when  the  liver  is  disturbed  there  can  be  no 
health  in  the  rest  of  the  system.  This  disease  may 
be  known  by  the  J-ellow  hue  of  the  whites  of  the  eyes. 
Symptoms.  In  active  congestions  of  the  liver, 
which  is  the  disease  most  usually  prevalent,  and  this 
principally  in  the  South,  there  may  be  sluggishness, 
irregular  bowels,  abundant  liquid  discharges  of  deep 

yellow  o  r  o  r- 
an  ge -colored 
dung.  There 
will  be  extreme 
and  p  a  i  n  f  u  1 
prostration,  the 
eyes  will  be 
sunken,  the 
pulse  excited, 
and  the  limbs 
will  tremble. 
There  may  be 
colicky  pains. 
If  the  last  ribs 
are  struck  with 

Fig.  90. — Test  9/  Hemorrhage  from  the  Liver,  SOme  force,  ex- 
treme pain  will  be  shown.  If  the  horse  faints  and 
there  is  a  pallid  mucous  membrane,  with  quick  and 
weak  pulse,  it  may  be  conjectured  that  rupture  of  the 
liver  has  taken  place.  In  this  case,  the  end  is  death. 
The  illustration  we  give  will  show  the  test,  alike  for 
ruptured  liver  and  spleen. 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  is  rare  (see  Jaundice). 
If  congestion  has  proceeded  to  inflammation,  the  re- 
gion of  the  last  rib  will  be  very  tender.  There  will 
be  quickening  of  the  ]nilse;  the  mouth  will  Ije  hot 
and  clammy,  the  bowels  may  be  at  first  loose,  yellow 
and  bilious,  but  soon  become  costive.  The  heat  of 
the  body  is  raised,  patches  may  appear  on  the  mu- 
cous membranes,  and  the  limbs,  especially  the  hind 
ones,  will  swell. 


HORSE. 


789 


Treatment.  In  this  case  all  bleeding  should  be 
avoided.  Give  as  a  purge  a  pound  of  sulphate  of 
soda,  aided  by  injections  of  warm  water.  After  the 
bowels  are  opened,  keep  them  so  with  small  doses  of 
Glauber  salts,  6  ounces,  or  cream  of  tartar,  4  ounces, 
daily.  If  the  horse  eat  anything  it  must  be  very 
light  mashes  or  fresh  grass.  As  the  horse  improves, 
give  twice  a  day  2  ounces  Peruvian  bark,  or  2 
drachms  twice  a  day  of  gentian.  Apply  mustard 
poultices  to  the  limbs.  Give  i  pound  of  sulphate 
of  soda  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  deplete  the 
jxjrtal  system  and  liver.  Apply  a  blister  over  the 
region  of  the  liver.  Continue  the  sulphate  of  soda 
in  doses  of  i  to  4  ounces  daily.  Give  three  times 
daily : 

2  drachms  pulverized  mandrake, 

1  drachm  blood-root, 
10  grains  leptandrin, 

2  drachms  golden  seal, 
1  drachm  cream  tartar. 

Lock-jaw,  or  Tetanus.  This  terrible  and  pain- 
ful affliction  may  be  defined  as  a  spasmodic  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  often  confined  to  one 
set  of  muscles  alone.  It  is  so  called  because  the 
first  symi)toms  of  the  violent  spasmodic  affection  are 
detected  in  the  jaw. 

The  case  is  generally  caused  by  wounds  or  other 
injuries.  Often  a  wound  in  the  leg  or  foot,  seemingly 
of  the  most  trivial  character,  as  the  prick  of  a  nail, 
win  cause  it.  It  is  also  produced  by  castration ;  nick- 
ing and  docking ;  by  hard  riding  or  driving,  and  leav- 
ing the  animal  shivering  in  the  night  air.  When  it 
proceeds  from  a  wound,  it  is  called  traumatic;  when 
from  no  apparent  cause,  it  is  called  idiopathic.  It 
rarely  occurs  from  wounds  until  they  are  well  ad- 
vanced toward  being  healed,  though  it  may  display 
its  symptoms  immediately  ujxjn  or  a  month  after  the 
hurt,  but  generally  from  the  sixth  to  the  fourteenth 
day. 

Symptoms.  When  brought  on  by  a  wound,  as  it  gen- 
erally is,  the  animal  shows  symptoms  of  nerv- 
ousness. It  fidgets  in  the  stall,  it  does  not  rest, 
it  becomes  excited  ujxjn  the  approach  of  any  per- 
son. Then  the  legs  become  stiffened  and  the  ani- 
mal can  scarcely  be  made  to  move,  the  nose  is 
extended  forward,  the  tail  is  erect  and  quivering,  the 
ears  are  pointed  forward,  the  body  feels  hard,  the 
membrana  nictitans  is  stretched  across  the  eye, 
the  food  is  not  eaten,  the  jaws  are  tightly  shut.  Any 
noise  or  bustle,  or  any  attempt  to  operate  tijxjn  or 
administer  medicine  to  the  animal,  aggravates  the 
case.  Quietude  is  worth  more  than  medicine.  The 
torture  is  rendered  worse  by  being  compelled  to  move ; 
every  pain  is  felt.  The  frame  is  pressed  together  by 
the  contracted  muscles  as  if  in  a  vise.  Hunger  pre- 
vails, but  the  jaws  are  tightly  locked,  and  the  animal 
cannot  eat.  In  the  earliest  stages  there  will  be 
stiffness  and  rigidity  of  the  muscles  near  the  injury, 
and  the  limb  will  be  moved  with  difiiculty.  There 
will  be  excitement,  the  ears  will  be  ix)inted  forward, 
the  head  elevated,  the  legs  stiff  and  stretched  out ; 
the  horse  will  seem  excited  and  yet  obstinate  to  move  ; 


the  tail  will  quiver  and  the  skin  and  flesh  will  feel 
hard  like  a  board.  The  lower  jaw  being  taken  in  the 
hand  and  the  head  raised,  if  the  haw  projects  over 
the  eye,  you  have  a  case  of  lock-jaw. 

Treatment.  Give  the  animal  a  loose  or  box  stall, 
and  in  the  most  quiet  place  possible,  and  where  it  will 
see  no  one  except  the  attendant.  Place  slings  be- 
neath him  so  he  can  stand  clear  of  them  or  rest  in 
them  at  will.  Remove  all  straw,  litter  or  other  sources 
of  excitement,  and  avoid  all  noise  or  unusual  move- 
ment. Keep  the  stable  darkened  and  without  other 
animals  present.  If  the  disease  is  produced  by  a 
wound  examine  it,  and  if  contracted  or  containing  pus 
(matter)  widen  it,  and  cover  with  a  bread-and-milk 
IXDultice  containing  laudanum  and  belladonna,  and 
give  the  following,  which  may  be  claimed  as  almost  a 
specific  for  this  often  fatal  disease : 

I  drachm  pulverized  assafcetida, 

I  drachm  Indian  hemp, 

I  drachm  opium, 

I  drachm  powdered  capsicum, 

I  drachm  podophyllin. 

Put  all  into  a  large  tablesjxxjn,  take  the  tongue  in 
the  left  hand  and  draw  it  well  out,  run  the  sjxKin  well 
back  over  the  root  of  the  tongue,  turn  it  over,  let  go 
the  tongue  and  draw  out  the  spoon.  Repeat  this 
dose  every  four  hours  for  two  days,  then  three  times  a 
day.  If  the  animal  can  bear  it,  a  thorough  sweat 
with  a  blanket  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and  covered 
with  other  blankets  will  do  good.  Feed  with  nour- 
ishing gruels  if  the  animal  can  swallow ;  if  not,  give 
nourishments  as  shown  in  the  engraving.  Bhster  the 
spine  early  in  the  disease,  and  bathe  the  jaws  well  with 
equal  parts  spirits  of  turpentine,  beef's  gall,  laudanum, 
oil  of  cedar,  tincture  of  lobelia  and  sulphuric  ether. 

Attach  a  horse  catheter  to  a  stomach  pump,  pass 
the  end  carefully  up  the  nostril  and  into  the  gullet  as 
shown.  If  coughing  is  produced,  withdraw  the 
catheter  and  commence  anew.  If  two  feet  are  in- 
serted without  alarming  symptoms,  pump  in  only  a 
quart  of  linseed  oil.     If  the  horse  has  fasted  for  some 


Fici.  <)\.—Mode  0/  Feeding  Horse  Having  Ckranic  Tetanus. 

time,  and  as  the  stomach  can  bear  it,  give  more.  This, 
however,  must  not  be  attempted  while  the  disease 
is  in  its  acute  form,  but  after  the  disease  has  assumed 
a  chronic  form,  it  may  be  resorted  to  by  a  veterinary 
surgeon.  Feed  a  gruel  of  boiled  oats,  corn  meal  and 
wheat  bran. 


79° 


HORSE 


Lungs,  Dropsy  of  the,  results  from  valvular  and 
other  diseases  of  the  heart.  When  the  ear  is  placed 
to  the  chest,  and  the  horse  struck  on  the  other  side  with 
the  open  palm,  the  sound  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
heard  in  pneumonia;  but  it  may  be  distinguished 
from  pneumonia  by  the, entire  absence  of  fever,  which 
characterizes  this.  It  is  usually  beyond  medical  reach. 

Mad  Staggers:  see  Staggers, in  this  article. 

Mallenders.  This  is  a  term  used  by  many 
"  horse  doctors,"  and  contained  in  the  old  books  to 
designate  a  scaly  condition  of  the  skin  back  of  the 
leg  and  opixjsite  to  the  knee.  It  has  a  vague,  uncer- 
tain meaning,  and  therefore  should  never  be  used  to 
designate  a  certain  disease.  Another  term  equally  in- 
definite is  sallenders.  This  means  the  scurvy  patches 
which  ajjpear  in  front  of  the  hock.  Though  not  seri- 
ous, these  are  unsightly,  and  may  result  in  scratches. 

Symptoms.  They  first  begin  as  a  moist  tetter,  apt 
to  escape  observation  until  they  appear  in  a  rough- 
ened state  of  hair  about  the  parts  mentioned,  under 
which  the  skin  is  scurfy,  feverish  and  somewhat  ten- 
der.    Itching  of  much  severity  often  attends  them. 

Treatment.  Attend  to  the  cleanliness  of  the  horse, 
give  moderate  exercise,  and  twice  daily, 

K  ounce  hyposulphite  of  soda 
I  drachm  cream  tartar 
^  bucket  water. 

Rub  the  parts  affected  two  or  three  times  a  day  with 
the  following  ointment : 

4  ounces  glycerine, 

1  fluid  drachm  carbolic  acid, 

2  ounces  olive  oil. 

If  the  scurfy  places  have  developed  into  suppura- 
ting sores,  use,  instead  of  the  ointment,  the  following 
lotion,  saturating  them  well  twice  a  day: 

Yt  pint  animal  glycerine,  • 

^^  ounce  chloride  of  zinc, 
6  quarts  water. 

Mange  and  Itch.  Itch,  mange,  and  scabies  are 
essentially  local  affections  of  the  skin,  occasioned  by 
a  small  mite,  or  parasite,  called  "Sarcoptes  equi,"  of 
which  we  present  by  Fig.  92, 
a  largely  magnified  view  of 
one.  These  breed  and  bur- 
row in  the  skin.  These  para- 
sites may  appear  in  horses 
subjected  to  dirt  and  filth, 
and  dv;bilitated  by  hard  liv- 
ing and  ill  usage,  or  by  total 
neglect  and  lack  of  food.  The 
acarus  produces  mange  in 
the  horse  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  human  parasite 
])roduces  itch  in  man;  but 
it  is  of  a  different  species 
Ki(i.  ,,i.—iuk  Parasiti.  (Sar-  and  frequently  so  large  as  to 
coptes,  or  Acarus  Equi.)  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  eruptions  ensuing  on  the  skin  of  the  horse,  when 
subject  to  this  affection,  are  also  similar  to  that  of 
man,  and  probably  just  as  annoying.  There  are 
many  instances  where  the  itch  from  the  horse  has 
been  transmitted  to  man,  and  when  thus  taken,  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  the  human  itch. 


The  disease  may  be  communicated  to  even  sound 
animals,  in  good  condition;  in  fact,  the  great  majority 
of  cases  are  thus  contracted,  as  comparatively  few 
animals  are  so  utterly  neglected  or  exposed  to  filthy 
influence  as  to  become  in  themselves  the  generators 
of  these  mange -breeding  insects.  Yet,  "  it  is  well 
known,"  sa>s  Prof.  Dadd,  "that  a  healthy  and  clean 
horse  may  stand  for  weeks  near  a  mangy  one  without 
taking  the  disease,  showing  very  conclusively  that  the 
best  preventive  measures  are  those  which  promote 
health  and  cleanliness." 

This  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  contagious  dis- 
eases to  which  the  horse  is  subject,  and  may  be  im- 
parted not  only  to  the  horse,  but  to  cattle,  hogs  and 
dogs,  though  it  is  asserted  by  good  authority  that 
none  of  these  can  in  turn  communicate  it  to  the 
horse.  The  curry-comb,  brush,  collar  or  blanket 
which  has  l)een  used  on  the  mangy  horse  will  produce 
infection  in  another;  and  to  lie  in  the  same  stall  or 
to  rub  where  a  mangy  horse  has  rubbed  himself,  is 
almost  certain  to  communicate  it  unless  the  animal 
exjxjsed  is  exceedingly  healthy  and  in  active  con- 
dition of  body. 

Symptoms.  A  horse  affected  with  this  disease  in 
either  of  its  forms  will  attract  the  attention  of  his  at- 
tendants by  rubbing  himself  whenever  an  opportunity 
is  aflbrded..  The  hair  comes  off,  and  the  outer  skin 
becomes  broken  into  little  scale-like  pieces.  These 
fall  off  or  are  rubbed  off,  and  leave  the  parts  raw  and 
sore.  The  general  appearance  of  the  skin  where  the 
raw  six)ts  are  not  too  numerous,  is  a  dirty  brown,  and 
it  is  loose,  flabby  and  puckered. 

Usually,  where  the  disease  is  engendered  in  the 
animal  itself,  it  appears  first  in  the  neck,  just  at  the 
edge  of  the  mane,  and  on  the  inside  of  the  quarter 
near  the  root  of  the  tail.  From  these  parts  thQ  erup- 
tion extends  along  the  back  and  down  the  side,  sel- 
dom involving  the  extremities,  except  in  the  very 
worst  cases.  Sometimes,  though  rarely,  the  ears  and 
eyebrows  are  attacked  and  left  bare.  When  it  is  the 
result  of  contagion,  the  horse  may  at  first  be  in  health; 
but  the  constant  irritation  makes  him  feverish,  the 
hair  falls  off  as  in  the  first  case  described,  leaving  the 
skin  in  those  places  almost  bare ;  and  little  red  pim- 
ples appear  here  and  there.  Each  of  these  contains 
a  parasite,  and  the  pimples  are  connected  by  furrows 
along  which  the  parasites  have  worked  their  way.  In 
time  they  increase  in  number  and  size,and  from  them 
exudes  a  matter  which  hardens  into  a  scab.  Under 
these  scabs  the  parasites  may  be  found,  upon  remov- 
ing them  and  carefully  examining  in  the  sunlight.  In 
the  early  stage  of  the  disease,  where  it  may  be  sus- 
l^ected,  but  is  not  yet  fully  manifest,  it  may  be  detected 
by  placing  the  fingers  among  the  roots  of  the  mane 
and  tickling  the  skin  with  the  nails.  The  horse  is  so 
sensitive  to  titillation  when  in  this  condition  that  he 
will  thereujxjn  stretch  out  his  neck  and  evince  the 
most  unmistakable  jjleasure  as  long  as  the  tickling 
continues. 

Treatment.  The  most  effectual  preventive,  it  will 
be  readily  inferred  from  the  preceding  statement  of 


HORSE. 


791 


causes,  is  cleanliness.  In  no  case  should  a  healthy 
animal  be  allowed  to  occupy  a  stable  where  a  mangy 
one  has  been  kept  until  it  has  previously  been 
Iwashed  with  water  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphur 
and  chlorideof  lime — say  half  a  [xjund  of  powdered  sul- 
phur and  one  pint  of  chloride  of  lime  to  each  gallon  of 
water.  If  the  stable  is  thoroughly  cleansed  of  loose 
litter  and  dirt,  and  all  parts  that  may  have  been  rub- 
bed against  by  a  mangy  horse  perfecdy  saturated  with 
this  solution  two  or  three  times,  on  as  many  consecu- 
tive days,  there  can  be  no  danger  in  using  it.  Cloth- 
ing, curry-comb,  brush,  etc.,  that  may  have  come  in 
contact  with  such  animal,  should  be  burned  up. 

If  starvation,  weakness,  and  general  ill  condition 
have  caused  the  mange,  a  patent  means  for  its  re- 
moval will  be  found  in  giving  him  clean  quarters  and 
good  nourishing  food,  which,  however,  should  not  be 
at  first  of  a  heating  nature.  Generous  pasturage,  un- 
less the  weather  is  damp,  will  be  sufficient ;  other- 
wise, a  full  supply  of  oats  and  chop  food  should  be 
given.  It  canot  be  too  much  insisted  upon  that  es- 
pecially while  treating  a  horse  for  disease  his  stable 
should  be  dry,  well  ventilated  and  properly  supplied 
with  litter. 

In  cases  of  full  habit  of  body,  where  the  disease  is 
the  result  of  contact,  and  the  presence  of  high  fever 
is  noted,  do  not  bleed  at  all,  but  give  him  20  drops 
tincture  aconite  in  a  little  water,  three  times  a  day. 
The  best  medicine  is  that  which  most  quickly  destroys 
the  life  of  the  itch  parasite. 

Have  the  horse  as  thoroughly  cleansed  of  scab  and 
dirt  as  jMssible,  with  a  wisp  of  hay,  and  by  softly  and 
lightly  using  a  curry-comb.  Then  prepare  a  liniment 
of  the  following  ingredients  and  in  the  proportion  here 
given  for  greater  or  less  quantities : 

2  otinces  of  pyroligneous  acid 

I  quart  .-xnimal  glycerine  ; 

Yi,  pound  of  sulphur  ; 

I  ounce  creosote  ; 

I  pint  turpentine  j 

I  ounce  oil  of  juniper; 

I  pint  linseed  oil. 

Mix  all  together  and  shake  well ;  and  with  this  sat- 
urate the  whole  skin,  as  nearly  as  possible,  rubbing  in 
well  with  a  soft  cloth.  Care  must  be  taken  to  rub  it 
in  thoroughly.  A  litde  well  rubbed  in  is  better  than 
much  merely  smeared  on. 

Leave  him  in  this  condition  two  days;  then  wash 
him  well  with  warm  water  and  soft  soap;  stand  him 
in  the  sunshine  if  the  weather  admits,  and  rub  with  a 
wisp  of  hay  or  with  suitable  cloths  until  he  is  dry ; 
after  which,  anoint  him  pretty  well  all  over  with  the 
mixture  described,  and  rub  it  in.  This  course  should 
be  pursued  until  a  cure  is  effected.  Two  to  four  ap- 
plications will  generally  be  found  sufficient,  even  in 
obstinate  cases,  if  care  is  taken  as  to  food  and  drink. 
The  alterative  will  be  found  beneficial.  Give  three 
times  a  day, 

I  ounce  sulphur, 
%  ounce  gentian, 
Yi  ounce  blood-root, 
Yz  ounce  niter. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  patient  be  not  exposed 


to  rain  or  heavy  dews  while  under  this  course  of  treat- 
ment. 

Megrlms,  a  disease  of  the  brain,  occurring  period- 
ically, especially  in  hot  weather,  on  exposure  to  the 
sun's  rays.  Megrims  differs  from  epilepsy  only  in  the 
absence  of  spasm;  so  for  symptoms  and  treatment  see 
that  disease,  page  761. 

Mouth,  Inflammation  in  and  Around  the.  Irri- 
tation from  wounds,  bruises,  poisonous  or  acrid  plants, 
savage  bites,  injuries  from  the  bit,  twitch  or  rope 
around  the  under  jaw  and  tongue,  the  use  of  calomel 
and  other  drugs,  specific  fevers,  etc.,  may  cause  in- 
flammation in  the  mouth  or  around  it. 

Symptoms.  Difficulty  in  feeding  and  drinking, 
swelling  and  rigidity  of  the  lips,  blisters  or  sores  in 
the  mouth,  swelling  of  the  glands,  etc. 

Treatment.  First  find  the  cause  whether  from  me- 
chanical injury,  irritating  food  or  irritant  drugs.  If 
injured  by  alkalies,  wash  with  vinegar  and  water,  equal 
parts;  if  by  acids,  use  lime  water,  or  a  weak  solution 
of  bicarbonate  of  soda;  if  from  venomous  bites,  apply 
ammonia  and  give  one-half  ounce  of  liquid  ammonia 
internally  to  the  horse.  For  bite  of  venomous  snakes, 
tarantula,  etc.,  cauterize  the  wound,  and  in  addition 
give  whisky  in  full  doses  with  a  strong  decoction  of 
plantain.  If  there  is  simple  inflammation,  open  the 
bowels  with  a  gentle  laxative,  two  ounce  doses  of 
magnesia,  and  wash  with  vinegar  and  honey.  Give 
plenty  of  water  and  soft  food.  If  there  are  ulcers, 
touch  them  witli  a  feather  dipped  in  one  drachm  car- 
bolic acid  mixed  with  one  pint  of  water. 

If  there  is  much  swelling  keep  the  head  tied  up.  If 
tumors  resolving  into  matter  (pus)  appear,  open  with 
a  lancet  or  knife.  If  there  is  sloughing  of  the  parts 
(separation  of  dead  flesh)  wash  with  the  following : 
one  drachm  permanganate  of  potassa;  one  pint  of 
water. 

Mouth,  Scald.  This  is  a  simple  affection  char- 
acterized by  the  horse  slobbering  or  frothing  at  the 
mouth,  as  if  salivated.  Ignorant  use  of  acid  drenches 
or  corrosive  drugs  by  careless  or  ignorant  persons,  is 
the  most  common  cause  of  this  ailment. 

Symptoms.  Mouth  red,  often  raw,  lips  in  constant 
motion,  moving  up  and  down;  saliva  flows  continually, 
showing  the  pain  the  animal  endures. 

Treatment.  Give  well-made  gruel,  either  of  corn  or 
oat  meal,  and  soft  food  if  the  horse  can  take  it.  Boiled 
carrots  are  excellent,  if  the  animal  will  eat  them. 
Prepare  the  following  lotion  : 

3  ounces  glycerine, 

5  ounces  powdered  borax 

2  pounds  of  honey, 

I  gallon  of  boiling  water. 

Mix,  let  it  become  cold ;  hold  up  the  horse's  head 
moderately  and  pour  half  a  pint  into  the  mouth.  At 
the  expiration  of  half  a  minute  allow  the  head  to  grad- 
ually drop  so  the  fluid  may  flow  over  the  inflamed 
surfaces.  This  should  be  repeated  several  times  a 
day.  Allow  the  horse  to  have  a  bucket  of  cold  water 
suspended  or  i)laced  before  him,  to  cool  his  mouth  in. 
Beyond  this  nothing  can  be  done  except  to  attend  t» 


<fr=^^^r=rh 


o 

oi 

M 

u 


■^ 


5^g^3y^ 


HORSE. 


793 


the  general  health  of  the  animal,  which  should  do  no 
work  until  entirely  recovered. 

Nail  Pricking.  The  prick  of  a  nail  in  shoeing, 
or  from  having  a  nail  enterthefoot  in  traveling,  often 
leads  to  the  most  serious  consequences  if  allowed  to 
proceed,  such  as  ulceration,  ending  in  quittor  and 
other  disabilities.  An  animal  being  lame  without 
swelling,  inflammation  or  other  indication  of  strain  or 
bruise,  the  feet  should  be  carefully  examined,  and  t'-ie 
nail  or  other  substance  cut  out,  at  whatever  pains  it 
may  take.     Then  drop  in  the  orifice  muriatic  acid,  and 


Fig.  93. — A   Good  Subject  /or  Bronchitis  or  Founder , 

fill  up  with  Venice  turpentine,  cover  with  tow  and 
give  the  animal  rest  for  a  few  days. 

Nasal  Gleet.     See  page  774. 

Nasal  Polypus.     See  Polypus  in  this  article. 

Navicular  Joint  Lameness.  This  is  commonly 
known  as  coffin-joint  lameness  and  is  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. It  is  confined  to  the  inferior  surface  of  the 
navicular  bone,  over  which  the  perforans  tendon  runs. 
The  seat  of  the  disease  is  confined  to  a  small  place, 
but  by  the  frequency  of  the  parts  being  brought  into 
action,  it  causes  great  inconvenience  to  the  animal. 
The  navicular  (boat-shaped)  bone  is  at  the  navicular 
joint,  which  is  below  the  fetlock  and  in  the  foot. 
Sometimes  this  bone  becomes  diseased,  ulcerates  and 
finally  becomes  fractured;  at  other  times  it  becomes 
the  seat  of  incrustations,  orroughing,  and  thus  irritates 
the  flexor  tendon.  These  affections  always  cause 
pain  and  lameness. 

Navicularthritis  is  simple  inflammation  of  this  joint, 
resembling  laminitis,  and  is  very  painful. 

Symptoms.  The  horse  thus  affected  will  some- 
times show  lameness  at  the  beginning  of  a  journey. 
Sometimes  for  several  miles  the  animal  is  lame,  and 
sometimes  the  lameness  is  always  present.  A  horse 
may  show  symptoms  of  navicular  disease  and  recover 
from  the  first  attack,  but  it  soon  returns  and  the  ani- 
mal is  lame  for  life.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
no  heat  or  swelling  can  be  discovered.     Pressure  be- 


ing made  upon  the  heel,  the  foot  is  quickly  raised 
from  the  ground  but  gently  put  down,  the  toe  always 
touching  first.  The  shoe  is  always  worn  away  at  the 
toe  and  very  little  worn  at  the  heels.  The  horse 
affected  with  navicular  disease  always  stands  ujMn 
the  unaffected  foot,  in  order  to  take  the  weight  of  the 
diseased  member.  Ultimately  the  sound  foot  becomes 
impaired  and  the  disease  is  presented  in  both  feet. 
In  this  case  the  action  of  the  horse  becomes  changed. 
He  steps  short,  scarcely  bending  the  knees,  and  the 
heels  scarcely  touch  the  ground. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  of  this  dis- 
order is  seldom  attended  with  success. 
In  the  early  stages  a  blister  applied  to 
the  posterior  portion  of  the  foot  is  some- 
'imes  of  benefit : 

2  drachms  powdered  cantharides, 
\i  ounce  oil  of  turpentine, 

1  drachm  powdered  euphorbium, 
^^  ounce  oil  of  origanum, 

2  ounces  of  lard  ;  mix. 

Two  days  after  the  application  of  this 
blister,  the  parts  should  be  greased  with 
hog's  lard  or  olive  oil.  Setons  put  through 
the  frog  is  often  of  service.  Neurotomy,  or 
division  of  the  nerve  which  conveys  sensa- 
tion to  the  foot,  when  adopted  in  time, 
is  often  followed  with  good  results, — in 
fact,  it  is  the  only  means  of  relief  which 
can  be  relied  ujxjn.  This  operation,  how- 
ever, should  be  entrusted  only  to  the  skill 
of  a   practical  veterinarian. 

Nose,  Sore.  The  nose  sometimes  be- 
comes sore  from  long-continued  purulent 
discharges  from  any  irritating  substance  introduced; 
but  generally  from  grazing  near  some  irritating  weed 
or  vine.  Jamestown  weed  will  often  [xiison  the  noses 
of  horses,  yet  the  leaves,  buds  and  ix)ds  are  eaten 
with  impunity.  So-called  "sneeze-weed"  will  also 
irritate  the  nose  and  cause  it  to  become  sore.  As  a 
rule,  rubbing  the  nose  with  mercurial  ointment,  in 
which  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  lard  have  been  inti- 
mately mixed,  or  a  weak  solution  of  acetate  of  lead, 
will  effect  a  cure.    Apply  with  a  mop. 

Ossified  Cartilages,  or  False  Ring-bone,  is  a 
disease  to  which  many  horses  are  sometimes  subject, 
and  often  exists  in  connection  with  ring-bone  and 
side-bones.  The  chief  causes  are  jarring,  by  hard 
driving  over  rough  roads,  or  pounding  on  hard  pave- 
ments, or  any  of  the  causes  producing  ring-bone  or 
inflammation  of  the  parts. 

Symptoms.  When  the  difficulty  is  new,  there  may 
be  fever  in  the  parts.  Later  there  will  be  more  or  less 
enlargement  of  the  back  of  the  coronet  and  the  heel, 
the  parts  feeling  hard,  irregular  or  lumpy.  The  horse 
is  not  always  lame,  but  if  driven  over  hard  roads,  the 
horse  will  show  soreness  and  travel  short  after  cool- 
ing off. 

Treatment.  In  old  standing  cases  but  little  can  be 
done;  rubbing  the  parts  with  oleate  of  mercury  will 
reduce  so  much  as  is  not  already  bony  substance.  In 
more  recent  cases,  if  there  is  heat,  bleeding  from  the 


794 


HORSE. 


foot  will  give  relief.  Then  apply  cloths  dipped  in 
cold  water,  to  every  quart  of  which  has  been  added  a 
half-pint  of  tincture  of  arnica.  The  inflammation 
being  reduced,  apply  repeated  dressings  of  biniodide 
of  mercury.  This  will  promote  absorption,  but  a  com- 
plete cure  may  not  be  expected. 

Over-reach.  This  is  the  result  of  driving  faster 
than  the  horse  should  go.  Sometimes  the  horse  fails 
to  lift  the  fore  feet  quick  enough,  and  the  consequence 
is  the  inner  portion  of  the  hind-foot  strikes  the  outer 
side  of  the  coronet  of  the  fore-foot,  or  higher,  often 
producing  a  severely  lacerated  or  contused  wound. 

Treatnunt.  The  only  remedy  is  to  -plip  the  torn 
jxjrtions  away  and  keep  the  parts  washed  with  chlo- 
ride of  zinc,  first  cleansing  the  parts  with  water. 
Treads  from  calking  may  be  treated  by  applying 
oil  of  tar  and  arnica. 

P.\ROTiD  Gland,  Inflammation  of  the.  The 
parotid  gland,  which  lies  in  the  hollow  that  ex- 
tends from  the  root  of  the  ear  to  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw,  sympathizes  with  inflammation  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  throat,  and  becomes  hot,  tender 
and  swollen  in  almost  every  case  of  cold.  It  is 
liable  to  inflammation  also  from  mechanical  in- 
jury, and  from  obstruction  of  its  duct.  In  bad 
cases  of  strangles  or  distemper,  it  will  sometimes 
swell  to  great  size  and  will  break,  a  fistulous 
sore  being  the  termination. 

Symptoms.  When  the  gland  has  become  swollen 
it  is  easily  discernible  by  sight  or  feeling.  There 
is  a  hard  and  painful  lump  beneath  the  ear,  with 
a  softer  feeling  about  its  edges.  The  horse  carries 
his  head  stiffly,  chews  slowly  and  with  difficulty, 
and  has  some  general  fever. 

Treatment.  Place  the  animal  in  comfortable 
surroundings,  attend  to  the  state  of  his  bowels, 
giving  3  ounces  Glauber's  or  Epsom  salts,  in  case 
of  constipation,  and  a  few  warm  mashes.  Mean- 
while, cover  the  affected  gland  with  good  poultice 
until  the  inflammation  is  subdued.  If  it  results  from 
mechanical  obstruction,  that  obstruction  must  be  re- 
moved before  any  permanent  relief  can  be  obtained; 
and  this  may  require  the  removal  of  a  calculus  or 
stone  from  the  parotid  duct,  which  can  be  safely  done 
only  by  an  experienced  surgeon. 

If  attention  is  not  directed  to  the  swelling  until 
matter  is  forming,  allow  it  to  approach  the  surface 
and  come  to  a  head  before  attempting  to  open,  to 
avoid  cutting  any"  of  the  ducts,  which  might  result  in 
a  fistula.  If  the  tumor  becomes  hard  use  iodine, 
almost  to  the  extent  of  blistering. 

Any  wound  inflicted  mechanically,  as  a  cut  into 
the  gland,  or  a  prick  with  a  stable-fork,  must  be 
treated  externally  according  to  its  nature — the  main 
point  being  to  close  it  so  effectually  that  the  salivary 
fluid,  which  it  is  the  office  of  this  gland  to  secrete, 
cannot  escape  through  the  wound. 

Paralysis.  Loss  of  power  of  moving  in  some 
parts  of  the  body.  Paralysis  may  be  confined  to  one 
or  two  legs.      In  such  case  it  is  called  partial  paraly- 


sis. When  the  horse  has  lost  the  power  of  standing, 
and  the  four  legs  are  affected,  then  it  is  complete. 
Usually,  however,  it  is  confined  to  the  hind  parts,  the 
haunches  and  legs,  although  it  is  sometimes  present  in 
both  hmbs  of  one  side.  The  disease  creeps  on  insidi- 
ously. Something  wrong  is  at  first  noticed  in  the  horse's 
manner  of  progressing;  but  with  the  hope  that  the  evil 
will  remedy  itself,  the  proprietor  waits  until  the  disease 
is  thoroughly  established.  The  power  to  move  with 
speed  is  entirely  lost;  the  animal  moves  with  a  roll- 
ing or  unsteady  walk;  sometimes  one  foot  gets  in  the 
way  of  the  other  and  threatens  to  throw  the  animal 
down.  The  horse  which  has  paralysis  is  really  an  ob- 
ject of  pity, — more  so,  when  we  know  that  its  exer- 
tions in  trying  to  please  its  master  has  brought  upon 


Fig.    95- — Horse  Sufferin^^/rom  Partial  Paralysis  of  the  Hind  Le^. 

it  an  injury  which  is  likely  to  remain  with  it  through 
life.  How  sad  it  is  to  contemplate  the  horse  once 
powerful  and  proud,  possessed  of  fleetness  that 
would  outstrip  the  birds  in  their  flight,  reduced  to  a 
pace  which  the  tortoise  could  leave  behind !  Surely 
Euch  an  obedient  and  affectionate  creature  is  worthy 
of  better  usage  than  that  which  destroys  its  fu- 
ture happiness  and  deprives  it  of  the  power  to  serve 
its  superior. 

Palsy  is  principally  confined  to  fast  horses,  or  those 
used  to  extreme  exertion.  It  is  also  occasioned  by 
ergot  in  the  hay  or  grain,  and  is  then  known  as  ergot- 
ism. An  injury  to  the  brain  may  cause  paralysis  of 
the  opposite  side  of  the  body;  and  paralysis  of  the  face, 
body  or  limbs  may  arise  from  pressure  on  the  brain. 
Paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body  may  result  from  dis- 
ordered brain  or  spinal  cord;  and  paralysis  of  the 
face,  ear,  eyelid,  lip,  tongue,  larynx  and  tail  may  arise 
from  local  causes, — a  current  of  cold  air  continually 
striking  a  part,  bad-fitting  bridles,  collars  or  other 
parts  of  the  harness. 


HORSE. 


7  95 


Paralysis  of  the  hind  limbs  may  result  from  injury 
to  the  loin  or  back,  from  indigestion,  from  tumors, 
parasites,  inflammation  or  softening  of  the  spinal 
cord,  from  eating  freshly  ripened  seeds  of  some  of  the 
grasses,  as  Lolium  or  darnel,  flax,  rye  grass,  peren- 
nial rye  grass. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  of  paralysis  is  not  gen- 
erally attended  with  satisfactory  results,  rest,  good 
grooming  and  nourishing  food  being  the  best  mode  of 
treatment. 

If  the  paralysis  proceeds  from  an  incurable  dis- 
ease it  is  to  be  treated  by  cold-water  shocks  and  sub- 
sequent friction  by  rubbmg.  Among  the  best  means 
is  a  current  of  electricity  daily. 

The  folUowing  ball  has  resulted  in  relieving  the 
difficulty  when  it  was  partial  paralysis  of  the  hind- 
legs  : 

J^  ounce  poplar  bark, 
Ji  grain  strychnine, 
ji  grain  iodme, 
I  drachm  golden  seal. 

Work  this  up  into  a  ball  with  powdered  quassia  and 
molasses,  and  give  daily,  gradually  increasing  the 
strychnine  according  to  its  effects,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  three  weeks  one  grain  will  be  given  daily,  and,  if 
good  effects  are  produced,  a  grain  and  a  half  may  be 
given  daily  at  the  end  of  five  or  six  weeks. 

In  the  giving  of  nerve  stimulants,  as  strychnine, 
when  increasing  the  doses  gradually,  if  twitching  or 
slight  cramps  of  the  muscles  are  observed,  cease  giv- 
ing for  a  few  days,  and  then  begin  again  with  the 
smallest  dose.  ' 

Where  paralysis  is  confined  to  the  hind  extremities 
quite  a  number  of  cases  have  been  cured  by  the  fol- 
lowing treatment:     Take 

3  grains  pulverized  mix  vomica, 
J4  ounce  poplar  bark, 
J^  drachm  gentian, 

1  drachm  golden  seal, 

I  drachm  blood -root. 

Give  three  times  a  day  in  bran  or  cut  feed.  Bhs- 
ter  the  spine  well,  keep  the  bowels  loose  and  feed 
good,  nutritious  food. 

Peritoneum,  Inflammation  ok  the.  This  is 
characterized  by  great  pain,  and  is  the  result  of  acci- 
dents and  injuries,  and  at  times  surgical  operations. 

Syinptoms.  There  may  be  colic,  or  steady  pain. 
This  will  be  acute  when  the  affected  parts  are  pressed. 
There  may  be  chill  and  fever  and  loss  of  appetite. 
The  pulse  will  be  rapid  and  hard,  and  the  breath  quick 
and  catching,  but  when  effusion  takes  place  the 
breathing  will  be  deep  and  easier;  the  pulse  will 
soften,  the  belly  will  be  pendent,  and  there  will  be 
fluctuations  when  handled,  from  the  water  contained. 

Treatment.  In  the  early  stages  give  full  doses  of 
laudanum ;  40  drops  fluid  extract  gelseraium  every 
two  hours,  as  may  be  needed  to  allay  pain,  and  keep 
the  bowels  active.  Apply  mustard  poultices  to  the  ab- 
domen. Frequent  injections  of  thoroughly  cooked 
gruel  may  be  thrown  into  the  rectum,  but  until  the 
worst  symptoms  are  passed  the  animal  should  take  no 
food  except  gruel  into  the  stomach. 


In  case  absorption  of  the  effusion  of  water  in  the 
cavity  does  not  take  place,  which  may  be  known  by 
regular  and  ample  staling,  give  6  drachms  nitrate 
potassa,  daily,  until  the  kidneys  act.  If  tonics  seem 
to  be  demanded,  give  daily  doses  of  J^ -drachm  oxide 
of  iron,  and  2-drachm  doses  twice  a  day  of  Indian 
hemp. 

Pleurisy.  This  is  among  the  most  painful  diseases 
the  horse  is  subject  to.  It  is  inflammation  of  the 
fine,  glistening  membrane  covering  the  lungs  and  lin- 
ing the  chest.  The  pleura  becomes  swollen  and 
rough,  inflammation  stops  the  secretion  that  during 
health  smoqfhed  and  lubricated  the  surface  of  the 
membrane,  and  at  every  inhalation  and  exhalation 
those  rough  substancs  are  grated  upon  each  other. 
The  disease  develops  itself  quickly ;  the  violence  of 
the  attack  is  sometimes  so  severe  as  to  be  mistaken 
for  spasmodic  colic.  This  error,  if  made,  will  prob- 
ably prove  fatal  to  the  affected  animal.  A  little  care, 
however,  will  guard  against  such  an  error.  In  colic 
the  pulse  is  natural  or  nearly  so,  the  legs  and  ears  of 
a  natural  temperature,  and  the  fits  are  of  short  dura- 
tion. In  pleurisy  the  pulse  is  full  and  strong,  the 
agony  never  remits,  the  pain  is  continuous,  the  feet 
are  icy  cold,  the  body  is  hot,  the  muscles  corrugate 
frequently  and  partial  sweat  breaks  forth  upon  the 
body.  A  dry  cough  is  often,  but  not  invariably,  pres- 
ent. By  placing  the  ear  against  the  side  a  grating 
sound  is  heard,  which  may  easily  be  detected  from  the 
natural  murmur  of  the  lungs.  Pressure  made  on  the 
interspaces  between  the  ribs  produces  the  most  ag- 
onizing pain.  The  animal  paws  with  the  front  foot, 
expressive  of  acute  pain,  the  breathing  is  short  and 
imperfect. 

Treatment.  The  same  general  care  as  in  bron- 
chitis and  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  to  be  observed. 
If  there  is  a  chill,  wrap  the  horse  completely  in 
blankets  wrung  out  of  hot  water,  and  cover  with  dry 
ones.  When  removed,  do  so  a  little  at  a  time,  rub- 
bing dry,  and  re-clothe  warmly.  If  taken  in  its  early 
stage,  give  J^  ounce  laudar^um,  J^  pint  linseed  oil. 
This  will  often  prove  effective.  If  the  symptoms  in- 
crease, apply  a  strong  mustard  plaster  to  the  chest. 
The  bowels  should  be  kept  moderately  open.  The 
following  will  be  found  excellent  in  place  of  the  last 
named  remedy,  if  there  is  weakness  and  a  rapid  pulse, 
70  to  80,  and  scanty  urine:  %  ounce  tincture  chlo- 
ride iron ;  ^  pail  water.  Give  as  a  drink  twice  a  day. 
The  effusion  of  water  not  yielding,  the  chest  may  be 
tapped  with  a  trocar.  Divide  the  skin  with  a  lancet, 
between  the  eighth  and  ninth  rib  and  near  the  lower 
end.  Be  careful  the  air  does  not  enter.  Draw  oflf 
only  a  part  of  the  water  if  it  produces  a  shock.  In 
this,  one  shouldhave  the  advice  of  a  veterinarian.  Re- 
peat in  24  to  48  hours.  The  animal  should  be  kept 
up  with  sulphate  of  iron,  2  drachms,  twice  a  day,  in 
water,  with  stimulants  and  easily  digestible  and  nu- 
tritious food.  It  is  absolutely  necessary,  after  effu- 
sion of  water  has  taken  place,  that  the  urine  should  be 
passed  freely  to  assist  absorption.    To  this  end  the 


796 


HORSE. 


following   very  valuable  diuretic   may  be   indicated: 

I  drachm  iodide  potassium  ; 
1  drachm  carbonate  ammonia  ; 
jounce  powdered  gentian. 

Give  twice  a  day  as  a  drench  in  a  quart  of  water, 
or  as  a  ball  mixed  with  linseed  meal  and  molasses. 

Do  not  be  persuaded  to  give  any  active  purgative, 
as  it  would  be  jwison  during  pleurisy.  A  yellow  dis- 
charge from  the  nostril,  occasionally  streaked  with 
blood,  an  imploring  and  anxious  cast  of  countenance, 
seeming  to  appeal  to  human  sympathy,  is  seen,  the 
breathing  is  quickened,  the  pulse  grows  fast  and  fee- 
ble, with  a  leaden  color  of  the  nasal  membrane.  All 
indicate  approaching  death.  Pleurisy,  liowever,  ter- 
minates in  hydrothorax  or  dropsy  of  the  chest.  The 
causes  of  pleurisy  are  over-exertion,  colds  aggravated 
by  change  of  temperature,  external  injuries,  broken 
ribs,  etc. 

Pneumonia,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Lungs. 
This  painful  malady  is  brought  on  by  crowding,  a  bad 
system  of  ventilation,  and  sudden  changes  from  heat 
to  cold.  The  horse,  being  driven  far  and  fast,  is  left 
standing  facing  a  cold  wind,  or  perhaps  in  a  pelting 
rain  storm.  The  disease  is  ushered  in  by  a  shivering 
fit;  scarcely  any  pulse  is  felt  at  the  jaw,  but  as  the 
disease  develops  itself  the  pulse  is  fast  and  thready, 
the  mouth  hot,  the  legs  and  ears  deadly  cold,  the  head 
hangs  under  the  manger,  and  on  applying  the  ear  to 
the  side  a  sound  is  heard  similar  to  that  made  by  a 
bellows,  and  the  horse  is  made  with  difficulty  to  move. 
It  may  follow  acute  congestion  of  the  lungs,  this  being 
really  its  first  stage,  though  often  not  noticed  by  the 
ordinary  observer  as  such.  But  congestion  may  occur 
in  its  sudden  and  fatal  form  from  overtaxing  a  fat 
horse,  or  one  otherwise  out  of  condition.  Supjxjse 
from  hard  driving  or  hard  riding  he  hangs  heavily  on 
the  bit ;  droops  and  staggers ;  if  not  pulled  up  he  may 
fall;  or  getting  to  the  stable  he  stands  with  dilated 


Fig.  g6. — CongeatioH. 

nostrils,  extended  head,  quick,  convulsive  or  labored 
breathing,  eyes  staring  and  blood-shot,  his  nasal 
membrane  deep-red  or  blue,  and  pulse  rapid  and 
weak. 

If  such  be  the  case  there  is  no  time  to  lose.  Give 
20  drops  aconite  every  four  hours  in  a  little  water; 
remove  everything  from  the  animal  that  may  impede 


breathing,  and  allow  him  plenty  of  fresh  air.  Give 
an  active  stimulant,  the  easiest  to  be  had, — whisky, 
four  or  five  ounces,  or  a  tumblerful  in  a  half  pint  of 
water.  Give,  also,  wann-water  injections  to  relieve 
the  bowels,  and  also  active  hand-rubbing  of  the  legs, 
to  promote  circulation  to  the  surface,  while  the  body 
is  enveloped  in  blankets  wrung  out  of  hot  water  and 
covered  with  dry  ones.  If  the  patient  does  not  soon 
recover  under  this  treatment,  the  case  will  be  one  of 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms.     If  the  disease  does  not  succeed  to  the 
symptoms  we  have  just  described,  those  of  acute  con- 


tNi?^ 


Fig.  07- — The  Position  Assumed  by  the  Horse  During 
an  Attack  0/ PneUMtonia. 

gestion,  there  will  be  a  chill  with  shivering,  and 
generally  a  dry  cough,  but  deep,  as  though  from  the 
chest.  There  will  be  a  hot  skin,  indicating  fever;  a 
full  but  oppressed  pulse.  The  membranes  of  the 
eyes,  nose  and  mouth  will  be  red,  and  as  the  disease 
advances  a  yellowish  or  whitish  matter  will  come  from 
the  nostrils.  The  horse  will  always  stand  with  the 
legs  wide  apart.  By  striking  the  affected  parts  there 
will  be  flinching  and  even  groaning,  but,  except  at 
the  seat  of  the  disease,  the  chest  will  retain  its  healthy 
sound,  while  the  diseased  parts  will  sound  dull  and 
solid. 

Treatment.  Never  bleed  in  this  case.  Bandage 
the  limbs  to  keep  them  warm  and  give  the  body  such 
clothing  as  the  necessities  of  the  case  seem  to  require. 
Let  the  food  be  simple,  laxative  and  cooling, — bran 
mashes,  boiled  carrots,  linseed  meal  and  soft,  sweet 
hay.  Do  not  check  diarrhoea  or  profuse  staling:  it 
is  an  effort  of  nature  to  relieve  the  system.  If  there 
is  fever,  give  plenty  of  water;  if  there  is  swift  pulse 
and  oppression  of  the  lungs,  give  20  to  30  drops  tinc- 
ture of  aconite  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  or  i  to  2  drachms 
of  tincture  of  veratrum,  in  water,  every  two  hours. 
If  the  pulse  falls — if  there  is  trembling  sweats  and  a 
peculiar  anxious  expression  in  the  eyes,  discontinue. 
If  there  is  great  exhaustion,  give  moderate  doses  of 

I  dr.^chm  golden  seal, 
20  grains  carbonate  ammonia, 
10  grains  capsicum; 

but  discontinue  it  unless  good  effects  are  seen.  If 
there  is  much  weakness,  give  2  drachms  each  of 
camphor  and  carbonate  ammonia,  made  into  a  ball 
with  molasses  and  linseed  meal,  twice  a  day.     In  the 


HORSE. 


797 


case  of  considerable  congestion,  strong  mustard 
poultices  will  be  indicated  to  be  applied  to  the  chest, 
or,  in  extreme  cases,  blister. 

In  this  disease  symptoms  must  be  watched.  Good 
nursing  is  of  especial  value,  and  as  the  animal  begins 
to  recover,  give  soft  and  easily  digestible  food,  and 
assist  the  system  with  golden  seal  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia. 

Poisoning,  Internal.  The  cases  of  internal  poi- 
soning are  more  freciuent,  especially  with  horses,  than 
is  generally  supposed.  Among  the  most  common  are 
those  arising  from  drastic  or  jxjwerful  drugs  blindly 
given  by  the  ignorant,  either  in  disease  or  from  some 
effect  sought  to  be  produced  upon  the  general  health. 
Of  these,  strong  purgatives,  diuretics  and  arsenic  are 
the  most  common. 

We  wish  to  take  this  opportunity  to  again  caution 


I 


Fig.  98. — Horse  Sujferins^/rom  Drastic  Poison. 

our  readers  about  giving  strong  medicines.  Do  not 
rely  too  much  on  art  and  medicine  for  the  cure  of  dis- 
ease. Medicine,  when  properly  given,  undoubtedly 
aids  nature  in  restoring  the  system,  but  as  too  often 
administered  it  is  only  a  curse.  In  the  hands  of  the 
ignorant  it  becomes  a  most  dangerous  weajxjn.  Let 
your  practice  harmonize  with  the  laws  Of  nature ;  aid 
her  in  all  her  ways,  but  never  attempt  to  force  her  to 
adopt  our  system  for  that  of  her  own  :  she  will  never 
do  it. 

Other  causes  of  internal  poisoning,  besides  those 
above  mentioned,  are  from  eating  poisonous  plants, 
either  in  the  hay  or  in  the  pasture,  the  ergot  of  rye  and 
other  grain.  Ergot  sometimes  attacks  the  grasses; 
thus,  smutty  grain,  castor  beans,  hellebore  or  i»ke 
root,  etc.,  may  be  mentioned  as  common.  Among 
minerals,  sulphuric,  nitric  and  muriatic  acids;  and  all 
the  concentrated  vegetable  acids  are  caustic  and 
irritant  jxjisons.  They  are  never  taken  unless  forced 
down.  The  antidote  to  these  is  large  doses  of 
powdered  chalk,  whiting  or  lime  water.  In  the  absence 
of  these  give  weak  lye  until  relief  is  obtained,  and 
follow  witii  a  full  dose  of  linseed  oil. 


Alkalies  destroy  the  tissues.  If  quick-lime,  caustic 
potash,  strong  lye  or  washing  soda  has  been  taken, 
give  vinegar  and  water  to  neutralize  it  and  follow 
with  a  dose  of  oil. 

Horses  that  are  dosed  with  whisky  "  to  give  them 
strength  "  sometimes  show  alcohoHc  poisoning.  Never 
give  it  except  as  a  stimulant,  as  advised  for  disease. 
Forty  grains  of  arsenic  will  kill  a  horse.  The  symp- 
toms are  intense  thirst,  quick,  feeble  pulse,  great  pain 
in  the  bowels,  with  purging  sometimes,  irregular 
breathing,  faintness,  paralysis,  convulsions  and  death. 
Give  full  doses  of  oil,  in  which  is  mi.xed  two,  three  or 
four  spoonfuls  of  carbonate  of  iron,  as  the  case  may 
seem  to  demand. 

Corrosive  sublimate  is  a  fatal  poison ;  a  quarter  of 
an  ounce  will  kill  a  horse.  The  symptoms  are  violent 
pain,  intense  thirst,  effusion  and  blood  discharges 
from  the  bowels,  trembling,  salivation, 
ending  in  stupor  and  death.  Give  the 
whites  of  a  dozen  eggs  stirred  in  a  lit- 
tle warm  water.  Follow  this  with  lin- 
seed tea  or  with  mucilage  of  slippery  elm. 
Litharge  and  sugar  of  lead  are  poi- 
sonous. The  symptoms  are  protruding 
tongue  and  foaming  at  the  mouth,  stag- 
gering and  sometimes  dashing  wildly  to 
and  fro.  Give  large  doses  of  purgatives, 
to  be  followed  by  from  one  to  two  ounces 
of  iodide  of  potash  daily  for  seven  or 
eight  days. 

Keep  the  animal  quiet  and  in  a  dark 
place,  and  give  a  quart  of  sweet  or 
linseed  oil.  Follow  with  powdered  char- 
coal mixed  with  mucilage.  Move  the 
bowels  by  means  of  injections  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and  if  exhaustion  ensues, 
give  stimulants  (whisky)  freely.  Tartar 
emetic  in  doses  of  2  to  4  ounces 
will  sometimes  kill  a  horse.  The  symptoms  are  thirst, 
vomiting  and  purging,  staggering,  colic,  salivation, 
convulsions  and  paralysis.  Give  strong  tea,  followed 
as  soon  as  you  can  get  it,  with  a  decoction  of  white- 
oak  bark.  For  the  vomiting  and  purging,  if  they  con- 
tinue, give  ounce  doses  of  laudanum  in  a  little  water. 
Poisoning  from  aloes,  castor  oil  or  croton  beans, 
is  known  by  excessive  bloody  purging  and  straining, 
cold  ears  and  legs,  hot,  dry  mouth,  and  bloating. 
Give  2  ounces  of  laudanum  in  a  quart  of  linseed  tea, 
and  if  necessary  give  a  like  dose  by  injection. 

In  poisoning  from  ergot  or  other  diseased  and  in- 
jured foods,  give  full  doses  of  linseed  oil,  both  by  the 
mouth  and  as  injections,  with  stimulants  afterwards ; 
and  tonics,  say  8  grains  of  quinine  three  times  a  day, 
during  recovery. 

For  poisoning  by  white  hellebore  or  Indian  poke, 
give  whisky  in  pint  doses.  The  same  means  may  be 
used  in  poisoning  by  laurel,  followed  by  injections  of 
salt  and  water,  and  also  by  linseed  oil  given  as  a 
purge. 

In  case  of  poisoning  by  opium  or  laudanum,  pour 
cold  water  on  the  head  from  a  considerable  height, 


?98 


HORSE. 


and  keep  the  animal  in  constant  motion.  For  poison- 
ing with  Jamestown  weed  (jimson),  known  by  faint- 
ness,  giddiness,  followed  by  convulsions,  paralysis 
and  stupor,  give  a  quart  of  linseed  oil  with  2  ounces 
of  laudanum.  Give  also  an  injection  and  subse- 
quently stimulate  with  pint  doses  of  whisky. 

Tobacco  ix)isoning  is  shown  by  purging,  offensive 
dung,  colic  pains,  weak  pulse,  prostration,  convulsions, 
and  stupor.  Give  a  purge  of  oil,  and  follow  with 
pint  doses  of  whisky  in  slippery-elm  or  linseed  tea. 

Poisoned  Skin.  There  are  many  weeds  and  plants 
that  sometimes  cause  irritation  and  poisoning  of  the 
skin.  The  means  of  cure  is  to  move  the  bowels  and 
apply  some  soothing  wash  to  the  irritated  parts.  For 
injury  from  poison,  wash  with  a  decoction  of  golden 
seal  three  times  a  day,  oiling  the  surface  at  night.  In 
the  morning  wash  away  the  oil  with  soap  and  warm 
water,  and  use  the  golden  seal  again.  A  solution  of 
sugar  of  lead  is  also  a  specific  for  vegetable  ix)ison- 
ingof  the  skin. 

Poisoning  from  Stings.  It  is  not  infrequent  that 
animals  are  badly  stung,  or  bitten  by  venomous  ser- 
pents or  insects. 

P'or  the  stings  of  insects,  as  wasps,  hornets  and 
bees,  wash  the  slings  repeatedly  with  onion  juice  or 
ammonia,  3  parts  to  i  part  of  oil.  Washing  with  salt 
and  water  is  also  an  excellent  remedy. 

In  some  portions  of  the  West,  and  especially  in  the 
South,  gnats  and  certain  species  of  venomous  flies 
come  in  summer.  The  remedy  against  them  is  to  use 
petroleum.  When  these  insects  are  very  bad,  it  is 
usual  to  smear  the  unprotected  part  of  the  animal's 
body  with  a  mixture  composed  of  i  part  of  tar  to  2 
parts  of  lard.  We  prefer  equal  parts  of  petroleum, 
lard  oil  and  tar;  or,  smear  the  sting  with  equal  parts 
of  aloes,  strong  decoction  of  walnut  leaves,  lobelia 
and  capsicum. 

For  the  sting  of  centipedes,  scorpions,  tarantulas 
and  other  venomous  spiders,  give  the  following: 

J^  pint  decoction  of  plantain, 
1  teaspoonful  of  ammonia, 
I  pint  of  whisky, 
I  pint  warm  water. 

Wash  the  bitten  part  with  ammonia  frequently  and 
keep  it  soaked  therewith  by  means  of  a  sponge.  Bites 
by  venomous  serpents  are  to  be  treated  in  the  same 
Way.  The  wound  should  be  well  cauterized,  when 
first  discovered,  with  an  iron  at  a  white  heat. 

Poll-Evil.  This  affection  consists  of  a  deep- 
seated  abscess  or  fistula,  with  numerous  sinuses,  situ- 
ated on  the  back  part  of  the  head,  or  uppermost 
portion  of  the  neck,  immediately  behind  the  ears,  and 
gets  its  name  from  its  location  about  the  poll.  If 
not  attended  to  in  its  early  stages,  the  surface  of  the 
first  bone  from  the  head,  or  that  of  the  joint  between 
the  first  two  bones,  becomes  inflamed,  and  the  joint 
or  joints  involved. 

The  most  frequent  causes  of  poll-evil  are,  the  horse 
throwing  up  his  head  and  hitting  the  beams  of  the 
upper  floor  of  his  stable;  low  doors;  a  blow  upon  the 
poll  by  a  brutal  driver  may  very  readily  produce  it ; 
and   much   slighter  causes,  often  repeated,  result  in 


this  affection ;  as,  forcing  on  of  a  tight  collar  day  after 
day;  hanging  back  and  so  bruising  the  poll  with 
bridle  or  halter.  In  fact,  any  sprain  or  bruise  of  the 
parts  may  bring  it  on,  and  it  is  frequently  the  result 
of  bad  blood. 

Symptoms.  The  first  symptoms  are  shown  by  a  re- 
luctance on  the  part  of  the  affected  animal  to  move 
his  head;  the  nose  is  ixjinted  forward;  the  hay  can- 
not be  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  manger,  from  the 
inability  of  the  horse  to  bend  his  neck;  a  dull  appear- 
ance about  the  eyes;  a  sluggishness  of  movement. 
All  these  are  sometimes  observed  before  any  symp- 
toms of  the  disease  may  be  discovered  about  the  head. 
Sometimes  no  notice  is  taken  of  its  existence  until 
considerable  swelling  and  even  an  unwholesome  dis- 
charge have  set 
in;  but  more  fre- 
quently an  oval 
tumor  is  discov- 
ered, hot,  tender, 
situated  directly  in 
the  region  of  the 
nape  of  the  neck, 
but  generally  in- 
clining to  one  side. 
In  the  milder  form 
this  tumor  is  evi- 
FiG.  Kji).— Poll-Evil  During  Firft  Stage,  dcntly  Superficial, 
and  the  horse  moves  his  head  with  comparative  ease 
and  freedom  ;  whereas,  in  the  more  advanced  stage,  he 
carries  it  stiffly,  and  every  movement  of  it  or  the  neck 
causes  great  pain.  Sometimes  the  disorder  is  so 
deeply-seated  that  the  tumor  is  not  developed 
sufficiently  to  make  much  outward  show.  It  is 
much  likelier  to  discover  itself  plainly  as  a  well- 
developed  swelHng  when  the  hurt  is  superficial.  In 
any  case,  it  must  be  examined  with  the  fingers  to  de- 
termine this  point.  Place  the  fingers  gently  upon  it, 
and  give  the  animal  time  to  recover  from  the  little  scare 
into  which  this  touching  of  a  sore  at  first  gives  him ; 
then  gradually  press  upn  the  part.  If  the  hurt  is  near 
the  surface,  he  will  flinch  quickly ;  if  deeply  seated, 
he  will  be  correspondingly  slow  in  showing  evidences 
of  pain.  If  suppuration  has  already  set  in,  it  can 
readily  be  known  when  near  the  surface  by  a  sort  of 
fluctuating  feeling;  but  this  fluctuation  can  scarcely 
be  felt  at  all  if  the  matter  is  deep-seated. 

Treatment.  If  discovered  when  there  is  nothing 
more  than  a  swelling,  no  matter  having  yet  been 
found,  remove  all  tendency  to  general  feverishness  by 
giving  purgative  medicine  according  to  evident  full- 
ness of  condition.  Allow  the  horse  to  rest  and  put 
him  on  moderately  light  diet.  Then  apply  three  times 
a  day  the  following  absorbent  lotion  : 

1  ounce  spirits  turpentine, 

2  ounces  tincture  iodine, 
a  ounces  oil  cedar, 

a  ounces  sulphuric  ether, 
2  ounces  spirits  camphor. 

As  soon  as  matter  can  be  felt,  have  ready  a  large 
and  very  sharp  knife;  twitch  the  nose  to  prevent 
struggling ;  then  open  with  a  quick,  steady  and  strong 


^^Y=^^S^i^.^=^.rK 


8oo 


HORSE. 


sweep  of  the  blade  through  the  tumor,  being  careful 
to  have  the  wound  open  at  the  lower  point  of  the 
tumor,  so  as  to  provide  for  more  easily 
draining  it  of  matter  that  may  thereafter 
form.  Be  careful  not  to  cut  the  tendinous 
ligament  that  runs  along  the  neck  under 
the  mane.  If  the  matter  appears  to  be  on 
both  sides,  open  the  places  separately,  so 
as  to  leave  this  ligament  undivided.  It 
may,  if  absolutely  necessary,  be  severed 
between  the  second  bone  and  the  head,  and 
the  head  be  not  materially  weakened,  since 
the  stress  is  on  the  second  bone,  and  the 
divided  ligament,  if  healthy,  will  soon  heal 
again ;  but  it  is  best  to  avoid  all  risks ;  and 
if  at  all  convenient,  the  aid  of  an  experi- 
enced veterinary  surgeon  should  be  had 
when  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  the 
knife. 

The  wound  must  now  be  cleansed  by 
being  syringed  daily  with  a  stimulating 
wash  (one-half  dram  chloride  of  zinc  in  one 
quart  of  water),  until  a  healthy  discharge 
sets  in,  and  evidences  of  healing  begin  to 
manifest  themselves.  Nothing  further  will 
then  be  necessary  than  to  keep  the  parts 
clean  by  daily  sponging  with  warm  soap- 
suds. 

Fig.  loo.—Scalpfl, 

It  sometimes  occurs  that  before  remedial  measures 
are  resorted  to,  not  alone  the  fleshy,  but  the  tendinous, 
ligamentary  and  bony  structures  have  become  in- 
volved, and  the  disease  has  assumed  a  desperate 
character.  If  further  neglected,  the  spinal  cord  is 
likely  to  become  diseased,  and  the  case  hopeless.  If, 
upon  opening  a  tumor,  the  matter  is  found  to  flow  in 
great  quantities,  resembling  melted  glue,  with  some- 
thing of  an  oily  consistence,  it  may  be  known  that  the 
disease  is  deep-seated  and  dangerous ;  and  the  probe 
should  be  employed  to  find  whatever  cavities  may 
exist.  If  any  are  found,  the  knife  should  again  be 
employed,  and  another  cut  made,  smooth  down,  and 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  first,  to  prevent  all  rough 
and  hacked  walls,  till  the  lowest  depths  are  reached. 
Then  cleanse  the  wounds  with  warm  soapsuds,  using 
a  good  gum  compress  syringe;  and  dress  with  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  linseed  oil, 
and  pyroligenous  acid. 

In  the  more  desperate  cases,  numerous  openings 
are  formed,  and  these  discharge  a  matter  resembling 
the  white  of  an  egg,  which  adheres  to  the  surrounding 
parts,  and  gives  to  the  animal  a  most  repulsive  ap- 
pearance. In  this  case  the  knife  should  be  used  so 
as  to  take  in  at  one  sweep  the  greatest  number  of 
openings,  and  then  the  other  openings  should  be  con- 
nected by  cuts  with  this  main  channel ;  after  which 
the  wound  should  be  cleansed  as  previously  directed, 
and  dressed  with  the  mixture  prescribed — spirits  of 
turpentine,  honey,  and  tincture  of  myrrh. 

After  matter  has  formed,  the  knife  is  the  last  means 
of  curing  the  horse ;  and,  in  the  hands  of  the  skillful 


man,  it  is  a  merciful  means.  The  operation  is  brief; 
and  the  relief  is  more  speedy  than  can  otherwise  be 
obtained.  Let  no  one  attempt  it  who  is  notacquainted 
with  the  anatomy  of  the  parts. 

A  horse  that  has  once  had  the  poll-evil  should 
never  afterward  have  a  collar  thrust  over  his  head,  or 
be  hauled  around  with  a  halteror  any  other  head-gear 
pressing  upon  the  part.  The  poll  will  long  remain 
tender,  and  a  return  of  the  disorder  is  likely. 
Polypus.  If  this  excrescence  can  be  made  visible  by 
causing  the  horse  to  cough,  it  may  be  removed  by  a 
ligature  or  a  pair  of  polypus  scissors  by  any  physician, 
if  no  veterinary  surgeon  is  at  hand. 

When  the  polypus  is  entirely  concealed  from  view, 
tracheotomy  may  have  to  be  employed  before  an  ex- 
amination can  be  made,  since  the  polypus  may  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  oppress  the  breathing.  Thus,  in  all 
cases  of  [wlypus,  unless  it  be  so  low  that  a  ligature 
can  be  employed  to  strangulate  it  at  the  neck,  it  is 
altogether  better  to  call  on  the  aid  of  a  veterinary 
surgeon. 

Profuse  Staling.  See  Diabetes,  page  759. 
Pumice  Foot.  This  is  usually  the  result  of  neg- 
lected founder.  Sometimes  it  arises  from  bruises 
uix)n  the  inner  sole.  From  injuries  to  the  foot  blood  is 
secreted  between  the  outer  and  inner,  or  sensible  sole. 
Suppurarion  takes  place  and  the  outer  sole  drops  off". 
Little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment.  Careful 
shoeing  affords  the  best  means  of  relief.  See  Hoof 
Rot,  page  780. 

Quarter,  False.  This  difficulty  differs  materially 
from  sand  crack,  inasmuch  as  it  is  a  deficiency  in  the 
growth  of  the  horn  of  the  hoof  extending  from  the 
cotonet  to  the  sole.  It  is  a  gap  in  the  wall  of 
the  hoof  rather  than  a  crack.  It  is  produced  from 
a  deficient  secretion  of  the  horn-making  power, 
owing  to  previous  quittor,  frost-bite  or  other  injury  to 
the  coronet. 

Treatment.  The  principal  means  to  be  used  is 
careful  shoeing  with  a  bar  shoe.  If  the  injury  has 
been  recent,  srimulate  the  coronet  with  a  mild  blister, 
or  if  there  is  a  wound,  cut  the  edges  with  a  knife  and 
dress  with  weak  carbolic  acid  water,  to  induce  a 
healthy  growth  of  horn.  In  old  cases,  all  that  can 
be  done  is  to  fill  the  fissures  with  gutta  percha,  and 
protect  the  weak  hoof  with  a  bar  shoe. 

Quittor.  This  is  caused  by  wounds  upon  the 
sole  or  parts  of  the  sensible  laminae.  It  is  accx)m- 
panied  by  great  pain  and  lameness.  The  inner  por- 
tion of  the  foot  is  chiefly  composed  of  cartilage. 
Cartilage  is  a  non-vascular  substance,  which,  during 
health,  is  without  sensation,  but  in  disease  renders 
the  most  acute  anguish.  The  outer  portion  or  horn 
is  strictly  inorganic,  and  is  incapable  of  action. 
Therefore  any  pus  or  other  foreign  matter,  which  may 
be  deposited  beneath  it,  cannot  penetrate  even  the 
thinnest  layer.  Knowing  this,  the  reader  may  con- 
jecture the  suffering  imposed,  when  suppuration  takes 
place  at  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  being  confined 
within  the  horny  wall  has  to  work  its  way  upwards 
until  it  breaks  out  upon  the  coronet. 


HORSE. 


80 1 


Symptoms.  Quittor  will  be  known  by  a  large  tumor 
being  formed  upon  the  coronet.  The  slightest  press- 
ure upon  the  part  calls  forth  the  most  energetic  re- 
sistance on  the  part  of  the  horse.  A  recent  wound  or 
ordinary  abscess  of  the  coronet  may  be  mistaken  by 
the  inexperienced  for  quittor,  especially  if  any  lame- 
ness attends  it;  but  a  little  examination  will  readily 
disclose  the  true  nature  of  the  case.  From  a  simple 
wound  there  is  not  apt  to  be  a  fetid  discharge  of  so 
unwholesome  a  character  as  that  which  oozes  from 
the  sinuses  of  the  quittor,  and  the  parts  must  be  more 
or  less  swollen,  and  yielding  to  pressure ;  whereas,  in 
ciuittor  the  surrounding  tissue  is  hard,  though  it  has 
taken  on  a  peculiarly  unhealthy  action,  and  probing 
will  discover  the  presence  of  a  sinus  or  of  sinuses  of 
more  or  less  depth.  There  is  almost  always  lame- 
ness ;  the  coronet  is  somewhat  swelled  into  a  ridge 
around  the  top  of  the  hoof,  and  about  the  center  of 
which  one  or  more  small  orifices  are  found,  that  dis- 
charge in  small  quantities  offensive  matter — some- 
times rather  thin  and  watery,  again  thick  and  having 
a  curdled  appearance. 

Treatment.  The  first  step  is  to  discover,  if  possible, 
the  cause;  and  if  this  is  still  operating,  to  make  every 
effort  in  your  power  to  remove  it.  .Sometimes  there 
is  such  swelling  around  the  hoof  and  such  excessive 
tenderness  that  the  animal  cannot  bear  to  have  the 
foot  handled  except  in  the  gentlest  manner.  In  this 
case,  apply  a  good  softening  and  cooling  ixjultice,  and 
keep  hnn  as  still  as  jMssible — renewing  the  iwultice 
as  often  as  it  begins  to  grow  dry  and  hot — until 
the  inflammation  is  something  reduced,  and  the  ex- 
treme tenderness  overcome.  Then  remove  the  shoe 
and  withdraw  every  nail  if  it  can  be  done.  If  the  trouble 
has  been  caused  by  a  nail,  and  the  nail  can  be  re- 
moved, there  is  already  something  of  a  dependent 
opening  made  by  which  the  accumulated  pus  may 
escape,  and  this  opening  must  be  enlarged  by  farther 
paring  away  the  hoof,  so  as  to  reach  the  softer  part, 
that  can  be  more  readily  cut  with  a  keen  knife. 

A  small  probe,  or  bougie,  should  be  inserted  from 
above,  and  worked  to  the  lowest  depths  of  the  sinus. 
If  this  extends  far  towards  the  base  of  the  foot,  the 
prime  object  should  be  to  get  an  opening  from  below 
to  meet  it,  no  matter  what  may  have  been  the  cause 
— whether  a  prick,  a  bruise,  or  irritation  caused  by 
other  foot  diseases.  This  dependent  opening  estab- 
lished and  kept  open,  the  pus  will  in  time  be  evac- 
uated, and  the  foot  will  return  to  its  healthy  state, 
unless  the  joints  have  been  attacked,  which  seldom 
happens,  when  a  cure  is  scarcely  to  be  hoped  for 

If  the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  the  internal  sur- 
face of  the  sinus  or  sinuses  has  become  more  or  less 
callous,  and  a  stimulating  lotion  must  be  injected 
with  a  syringe  every  day,  comiX)sed  of  one  drachm 
chloride  of  zinc  to  one  pint  of  water — increasing  the 
chloride  gradually  to  two  drachms. 

This   treatment   will    suffice.     The   main  trouble, 

however,  is  to  make  the  dependent  outlet.     In  case 

this  cannot  be  done  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the 

sinuses  from  above,  reduce  the  inflammation  by  jxaul- 

51 


ticing,  as   previously  directed,  and    then  inject   this 
somewhat  caustic  solution  into  each  channel  or  pipe : 

5  grains  bichloride  of  mercury, 
I  0!ince  spirits  of  turpentine, 
20  drops  muriatic  acid. 

Sometimes  the  trouble  rises  from  a  gravel  having 
insinuated  itself  between  the  shoe  and  the  sole,  and 
creating  a  bruise  or  corn.  This  may  be  ascertained 
by  removing  the  shoe  and  seeking  for  a  six)t  unnatural 
in  appearance,  hot  and  tender  on  the  sole.  If  found 
it  ought  to  be  pared  down  so  as  to  reach  the  more 
sensitive  part  of  the  foot,  and,  if  possible,  to  discover 
and  liberate  matter. 

In  any  event,  a  complete  cure  requires  much  time 
and  a  more  than  ordinary  exercise  of  patience  and 
care. 

If  the  general  health  of  the  animal  is  scrupulously 
attended  to,  it  will  materially  assist  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  local  disorder. 

Rabies:  see  Hydrophobia,  page 781. 

Rat  Tails  :  see  Surfeit. 

Rectum,  Inflammation  and  Bleeding  of  the,  is 
a  difficulty  that  often  accompanies  or  follows  inflamma- 
tion of  the  bowels.  There  will  be  heat  and  swelling, 
with  or  without  protrusion  and  bleeding  of  the  rectum. 
Wash  the  parts  with  a  weak  solution  of  salt  and  wa- 
ter, and  also  use  injections  of  the  same  as  often  as 
may  seem  necessary.  If  this  does  not  give  relief  add 
a  slight  infusion  of  chlorate  of  potash  and  golden  seal. 

Rheumatism.  Perhaps  in  no  disease  of  this  faith- 
ful servant  of  man  are  there  so  many  mistakes  made 
as  in  rheumatism,  both  in  the  nature  of  the  affection 
and  mode  of  treatment.  Rheumatism  and  founder, 
whether  acute  or  chronic,  are  often  treated  as  the  same. 
The  chief  difference  between  acute  or  inflammatory 
rheumatism  and  acute  founder  is  this:  In  the  former 
there  is  fever,  severe  pain  and  great  excitement,  and 
it  is  located  in  the  joints  of  the  legs ;  while  in  founder 
there  is  pain,  but  no  fever,  and  the  disease  is  confined 
to  the  feet  alone.  In  chronic  rheumatism  such  mis- 
takes may  have  some  excuse,  as  in  it  there  is  no  fever; 
there  is,  however,  an  inability  to  move,  as  if  the  ani- 
mal was  sprained  over  the  loins.  Rheumatism  is  a 
peculiar  form  of  inflammation  attacking  the  fibrous 
structures  of  the  body,  such  as  the  joints,  tendons,  lig- 
aments and  muscles,  and  is  accompanied  by  stiffness, 
pain,  shifting  from  place  to  place.  Exposure  to  cold, 
wet  or  drafts,  especially  when  the  system  is  over- 
worked, are  the  causes  of  this  painful  affection. 

Symptoms.  In  its  acute  form  there  is  dullness,  fol- 
lowed hy  extreme  lameness  in  one  or  more  of  the 
limbs.  There  is  tenderness  and  then  swelling  of  the 
joints,  tendons  or  muscles,  at  first  soft,  then  hard. 
There  may  be  fluctuations  from  excess  of  synovia 
(joint  fluid).  With  the  inflammation  there  is  fever. 
The  pulse  is  full  and  hard ;  the  mouth  is  dry  and 
clammy  ;  there  is  hurried  breathing,  scanty  urine  and 
costiveness. 

In  the  chronic  form  the  symptoms  are  the  same  as 
in  the  acute,  but  not  so  pronounced,  and  in  this  form 


8o2 


HORSE. 


it  is  unattended  with  fever.  It  may  appear  only  upon 
undue  exposure,  or  in  damp,  lowery  weather,  and  dis- 
appear again  upon  the  recurrence  of  fine  weather. 
Chronic  rheumatism  is  also  less  inclined  to  shift  from 
place  to  place. 

Treahnettt.  For  rheumatism  in  its  early  acute  stage 
relieve  the  bowels  by  laxaiive  medicines,  say  4  ounces 
of  aloes.  Put  the  animal  in  slings,  as  for  lock-jaw, 
and  clothe  him  from  the  hoofs  to  the  ears  in  flannel. 
If  practicable  the  first  thing  is  to  fill  the  box  in  which 
the  horse  is  kept  with  steam,  keeping  it  up  for  an 
hour.  If  the  pain  is  extreme  lessen  it  with  ounce 
doses  of  laudanum. 

Give  the  following  three  or  four  tunes  a  day  as  a 
drench  in  a  pint  of  gruel : 

20  drops  extract  gelsemiumf 
I  ounce  bicarbonate  soda, 
1  ounce  salicylic  acid. 

If  this  cannot  be  obtained,  give  the  following,  at  a 
dose,  night  and  morning : 

J^  ounce  powdered  saltpeter, 
I  drachm  powdered  colchicum 
I  ounce  oil  of  turpentine, 
Mix  in  J4  pint  linseed  oil. 

For  rheumatism  in  its  chronic  fonn  the  following 
will  be  found  to  be  valuable,  used  internally : 

I  drachm  tincture  colchicum, 

I  ounce  powdered  carbonate  of  potash, 

1  ounce  powdered  saltpeter, 

2  drachms  iodide  of  potash. 

Give  in  one  and  a  half  pints  of  water. 

As  a  liniment  for  the  joints  and  other  affected  parts, 
to  be  afterwards  wrapped  in  flannel,  the  following  is 
excellent : 

1  pound  compound  soap  liniment, 
a  ounces  liquid  ammonia, 

3  ounces  laudanum, 

2  ounces  tincture  capsicum. 

Rub  in  with  as  much  friction  as  the  horse  can  bear. 

A  soothing  and  stimulating  embrocation,  when  so 
severe  measures  as  the  foregoing  are  not  considered 
necessar)',  may  be  made  as  follows : 

I  part  tincture  capsicum, 
I  part  spirits  camphor, 
1  part  solution  of  ammonia, 
I  part  olive  oil. 

Mix  and  apply  by  rubbing  in. 

RiNG-BoNE.  Ring-bone  is  similar  in  character  to 
bone  spavin :  in  fact  it  is  the  same  disease,  except  dif- 
ferently situated.  It  is  the  ossification  of  the  perios- 
teum on  the  front  part  of  the  foot,  midway  between  the 
pastern  joint  and  the  hoof.  It  will  first  be  dis- 
covered by  a  slight  enlargement,  accompanied  with 
lameness.  If  not  arrested  in  the  early  stage  of  the 
disease,  it  will  not  only  produce  anchylosis  but  the 
osseous  deposit  will  become  very  large,  producing  a 
bad  eye  sore.  In  such  cases,  to  stop  the  bony  growth 
and  remove  a  portion  of  the  enlargement  and  also  the 
lameness,  take  i  drachm  finely  pulverized  corrosive 
sublimate,  add  this  to  3  drachms  of  Venice  turpen- 
tine, mixed  well  together.  Apply  a  teaspoonful  to  the 
enlargement,  rubbing  it  in  well.  Two  applications 
are  sufficient.  Grease  well  with  hog's  lard  two  days 
after  the  application.  This  will  destroy  the  roots  of 
the  hair  and  leave  a  bare  spot,  but  it  is  a  positive  cure. 

Ringworm.  There  are  two  kinds  of  ringworm, — one 


simple,  of  spontaneous  origin,  and  non-contagious; 
the  other  contagious.  The  first  is  usually  the  result 
of  indigestion  or  confinement  in  close  and  foul  apart- 
ments, as  in  filthy  and  ill-aired  stables,  railroad  cars 
or  ship  holds.  The  latter,  or  contagious  kind,  is  found 
on  horses  of  good  condition,  as  well  as  on  diseased 
and  neglected  ones,  and  is  produced  by  vegetable 
parasites  in  the  hairs  and  hair-glands.  It  may  be 
communicated  from  man  to  animals  and  from  ani- 
mals to  man. 

Symptoms.  It  appears  on  the  face,  neck,  shoulders, 
sides,  and  sometimes  elsewhere.  When  non-contag- 
ious, it  may  usually  be  known  by  its  appearing  as  an 
eruption  of  small  blisters,  about  the  size  of  a  wheat 
grain,  on  inflamed  patches  of  skin.  These  assume 
a  circular  fonn;  and  if  not  seasonably  attended  to, 
the  circle  enlarges  and  covers  fresh  jxartions  of  skin. 

The  contagious  type  appears  in  round,  bald  six)ts, 
covered  with  white  scales,  and  surrounded  by  a  ring  of 
bristly,  broken  or  split  hairs,  with  scabs  around  the 
roots,  and  some  eruption  on  the  skin.  These  broken 
hairs  soon  drop  out,  and  a  wider  ring  is  formed.  The 
most  marked  characteristics  of  the  contagious  or 
parasitical  ringworm  is  the  splitting  of  the  hairs  in  the 
ring,  and  the  perfect  baldness  of  the  central  part. 

Occasionally  the  patches,  in  either  form  of  the  dis- 
ease, assumes  an  irregular  rather  than  a  really  circu- 
lar form. 

Any  attack  of  this  sort  is  usually  marked  also  by 
the  horse's  rubbing  and  scratching  himself  against  the 
sides  of  his  stable,  or  convenient  objects  outside;  but 
this  is  not  to  be  depended  ujxjn  as  a  marked  symptom, 
since  it  likewise  indicates  surfeit  and  mange. 

Treatmetit.  If  a  simple,  non-contagious  case,  shave 
the  hairs  as  closely  as  possible  from  the  affected  part, 
and  paint  with  tincture  of  iodine;  or,  if  scratches  or 
little  ulcers  have  appeared  on  the  patch,  rub  it  with 
the  following  stimulating  and  healing  ointment:  10 
grains  nitrate  of  silver ;  i  ounce  lard. 

If  it  is  a  case  of  the  contagious  or  scaly  variety, 
wash  the  patches  thoroughly  with  soft  soap,  and  then 
rub  every  day  with  the  ointment  recommended  for 
mange. 

Roaring,  Whistling,  etc.  This  is  when  a  horse 
emits  any  unnatural  noise  in  traveling,  whether  he 
be  simply  thick-winded  or  emits  the  peculiar  noise 
when  hard  urged,  or  the  sharp  sound  denominated 
whistling  and  piping  similar  to  roaring,  but  a  more 
confirmed  type,  occasioned  by  a  strong  closing  of  the 
rima  glottidis.  Whistlers  are  simply  chronic  or  con- 
firmed roarers,  as  roaring  precedes  whistling.  Both 
impediments  to  breathing  are  produced  Ijy  atrophy  or 
wasring  or  degeneration  of  the  muscles  whose  office  it 
is  to  dilate  the  larynx. 

Thick  wind  is  from  an  inflamed  and  thickened  con- 
dition of  the  smaller  and  lower  branches  of  the  breath- 
ing tubes,  whistling  from  a  narrowing  or  constriction 
of  the  windpipe.  Roaring,  again,  is  of  two  kinds, 
acute  and  chronic.  The  first  is,  in  comparison  with 
the  chronic  and  confirmed  state,  light  and  trivial. 
Fortunately  it  is  comparatively  rare  in  the   United 


HORSE. 


803 


States,  but  quite  common  in  England,  and  essentially 
a  disease  of  high  or  well-bred  horses. 

Causes.  Any  and  all  of  these  impediments  are 
produced  by  various  affections,  and  some  of  them,  as 
thick  wind  and  roaring,  are  considered  by  some  as 
hereditary.  Laryngitis,  distemper,  bronchitis,  pneu- 
monia, tumors,  diseases  of  the  nasal  membranes,  and 
tight  reining  are  the  chief  causes  of  this  affection. 
Roaring  and  whisding  are  decided  unsoundness. 
So  also  should  thick  wind  be  considered,  if  the 
horse  is  to  be  used  for  any  other  than  slow  work. 

Symptoms.  There  are  many  differences  of  opinion 
respecting  wind,  particularly  as  to  whether  some 
horses  are  or  are  not  roarers  and  whistlers.  Generally 
the  examination  of  horses  in  regard  to  the  condition 
of  their  wind  is  conducted  in  a  careless  way,  and  all 
that  is  thought  necessary  in  that  respect  is  to  make 
the  animal  take  a  sudden  inspiration,  generally  by 
holding  him  short  and  striking  him  suddenly,  or 
threatening  to  do  so,  when  it  is  thought,  if  he  is  a 
roarer,  he  will  give  a  prolonged  grunt  characteristic  of 
the  disease.  Animals  that  do  this,  from  the  peculiar- 
ity of  the  noise  they  make,  are  called,  in  the  language 
of  some  horsemen,  "bulls."  However,  this  test  is  a 
most  fallacious  one.  There  are  many  horses  invete- 
rate roarers  that  make  no  grunting  noise  in  being  held 
and  suddenly  struck,  and  that  yet,  on  being  ridden  or 
driven  at  such  a  pace  as  to  accelerate  the  breathing, 
will  be  found  inveterate  roarers.  In  the  majority  of 
instances  those  horses  which  are  called  whistlers, 
from  the  character  of  the  sound  they  make  in  hurried 
breathing,  emit  it  not  on  being  held  still  and  struck; 
to  detect  their  defect,  locomotion,  more  or  less  rapid, 
being  necessary.  The  only  reliable  test  to  ascertain 
whether,  in  obscure  cases,  a  horse  is  either  a  roarer  or 
a  whistler,  is  to  have  him  galloped  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  distress  the  breathing. 

Treattnent.  Remedies  are  of  but  little  avail.  In 
slight  cases  and  during  the  earlier  stages,  swabbing 
the  larynx  with  a  decoction  of  tobacco,  may  be  done 
by  means  of  a  small,  soft  sponge  fixed  on  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  whalebone,  the  sponge  having  a  chord 
attached  and  longer  than  the  handle,  so  as  to  be 
recovered  if  it  comes  off.  Pads  have  been  attached 
to  the  nose-band  of  the  bridle,  so  as  to  lie  on  and 
compress  the  false  membrane  of  the  nose.  These 
have  given  relief  if  the  horse  is  not  required  to  make 
extra  exertion. 

When  roaring  is  caused  by  paralysis  of  the  muscles 
of  the  larynx,  hypodermic  injections  of  strychnine 
every  two  or  three  days  in  half-grain  doses  have  given 
relief.  (See  figure  on  page  230.)  Relief  is  also  some- 
times given  by  rubbing  on  daily,  or  once  in  two  days, 
the  following: 

1  drachm  iodine, 

2  drachms  iodide  potash. 
2  ounces  lard. 

Mix  at  a  heat  little  more  than  to  melt  the  lard  by 
placing  in  a  vessel  of  hot  water.  In  all  of  the  diseases 
mentioned,  good,  easily-digested  food  should  be  given, 
and  sufficient  water  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  sys- 


tem, and  the  animal  should  not  be  put  to  work  within 
an  hour  of  eating  his  food. 

Rupture,  or  Hernia.  Mechanical  violence  is 
done  to  the  stomach  and  bowels  in  various  ways,  but 
in  every  case  the  symptoms  will  be  those  of  severe 
inflammation  of  the  serous  coat,  speedily  followed  by 
death,  if  not  relieved  when  relief  is  jxissible. 

The  rupture  most  commonly  seen  is  of  the  bowels 
and  omentum.  The  omentum  is  the  membranous 
covering  of  the  bowels  or  the  caul.  The  bowels  may 
pass  through  the  caul  by  rupture,  or  the  bowels  and 
involved  caul  may,  it  is  possible,  pass  through  the 
mesentery,  the  membrane  retaining  the  intestines  in 
their  proper  position. 

If  the  rupture  is  into  the  chest,  it  is  called  dia- 
phragmatic, and  may  occur  from  a  violent  shock,  as  in 
leaping  or  in  "'bucking,"  as  jumping  stiff-legged  is 
called.  In  bad  cases  death  is  sudden  from  suffocation. 
In  the  slight  forms  there  may  be  only  difficulty  of 
breathing,  with  lifting  of  the  flanks,  as  observed  in 
heaves.  The  only  remedial  means  to  be  used  are  to 
give  anodynes  and  rest. 

Hernia,  or  injury  to  the  scrotum,  can  always  be 
cured  in  the  male  by  castration.  The  most  simple 
manner  of  operating  on  a  colt  for  successfully  reducing 
umbilical  hernia,  is  as  follows :  It  is  not  necessary  to 
cut  the  colt  or  have  him  submitted  to  any  restraint 
beyond  that  of  having  his  head  held.  The  hernial 
tumor  is  emptied  by  forcing  its  contents  into  the  belly; 
the  loose  integuments  forming  the  pouch  is  gathered 
into  the  left  hand,  while  the  right  surrounds  it  by  a 
ligature  placed  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  abdominal 
parietes,  and  drawn  sufficiently  tight  to  interrupt  the 
circulation.  On  the  second  day  there  is  considerable 
swelling;  around  the  parts  below  the  ligature  it  feels 
cold,  and  often  clammy  and  moist;  when  the  ligature 
has  not  been  sufficiently  tight,  or  the  pouch  so  large 
as  to  require  strong  compression  for  arresting  the 
circulation,  it  is  hot  and  tender.  In  all  cases  more 
than  one  ligature  is  necessary.  Generally,  on  the 
third  day,  the  first  cord  is  loose,  the  circle  it  embraces 
has  been  reduced  partly  by  absorption  and  partly  by 
incision,  and  there  is  no  longer  any  compression.  If 
neglected  after  this,  the  tumor  increases  rapidly  in  size 
and  is  attached  by  a  neck  whose  diameter  is  limited  by 
the  ligature.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  renew  the 
ligature  twice  or  thrice  a  week.  The  second,  third 
and  fourth,  should  so  many  be  required,  must  be 
placed  above  that  which  preceded  and  close  to  the 
abdomen.  The  whole  will  drop  off  in  from  ten  to 
twelve  days,  leaving  a  flat  granulating  surface,  which 
readily  heals.     No  further  treatment  is  required. 

Ventral  hernia  is  known  by  the  contents  being 
movable  and  gurgling  and  easily  pressed  back  to  their 
place.  If  recent,  the  animal  should  be  thrown  on  its 
back,  using  ether  or  chloral  to  keep  it  quiet,  returning 
the  protrusion,  padding  the  orifice,  and  covering  with 
strong  factory  muslin  wound  round  the  abdomen  and 
laced  along  the  back,  the  bandage  being  kept  in  place 
by  bands  fastened  in  front  and  carried  to  a  collar 
worn  on  the  neck.      Except  in  case  of  very  valuable 


8o4 


HORSE. 


animals  treatment  scarcely  pays,  unless  a  veterinarian 
can  be  employed  who  understands  anatomy. 

Salivation.  This  is  an  increased  flow  of  siliva, 
the  result  of  mercury  and  other  medicines.  The 
second  crop  of  white  clover,  late  in  the  fall,  or  after 
slight  frost,  is  a  frequent  cause.  It  occurs  as  a  free 
discharge  of  saliva  in  frothy  masses  or  in  stringy  fila- 
ments, with  frequent  swallowing,  thirst  and  indigestion. 

Treatment.  Remove  the  cause.  If  it  be  from 
alkalies,  wash  the  mouth  with  weak  vinegar ;  if  from 
acids,  use  lime-water;  if  from  caustic  salts,  use  white 
of  egg  or  tea  of  slipp)ery-elm  bark.  If  there  is  inflam- 
mation with  costiveness,  open  the  bowels  with  injec- 
tions of  warm  water  or  soapsuds,  and  wash  the  mouth 
frequently  with  vinegar  and  honey.  If  this  does  not 
effect  a  cure,  wash  the  mouth  with  alum  water.  If 
there  are  ulcers,  touch  them  with  a  feather  wet  with 
the  following:  i  grain  lunar  caustic,  i  ounce  dis- 
tilled water.  If  there  are  tumors  with  pus,  lance 
them ;  if  there  is  sloughing,  wash  with  the  following: 
Strong  decoction  of  golden  seal,  or  i  drachm  carbolic 
acid,  to  I  pint  of  water.  Give  plenty  of  cool  water, 
so  the  animal  may  take  it  at  will,  and  feed  with  soft 
or  boiled  food,  and  if  there  is  much  swelling,  keep  the 
head  tied  up. 

Sallenders:  see  Mallenders,  page  790. 

Sand  Crack.  Sand  crack  is  a  fissure  in  the  hoof, 
which  begins  at  the  coronet,  the  tliin  edge  first  break- 
ing away.  These  are  of  two  kinds,  quarter  crack,  oc- 
curring in  the  inner  quarter  of  the  fore  foot,  and  toe 
crack,  occurring  in  the  toe  of  the  hind  foot.  It  usually 
occurs  in  the  former.  Some  claim  that  the  whole 
diflSculty  is  produced  by  bad  shoeing.  Low  condition, 
impure  state  of  the  blood  and  lack  of  care,  are,  how- 
ever, predisposing  causes. 

Symptoms.  When  the  horse  leans  his  weight  on 
the  hoof  the  crack  will  open,  when  the  foot  is  lifted 
the  crack  will  close.  Sand  and  dirt  work  into  the 
parts,  causing  excessive  pain  and  lameness,  often 
fever  and  the  formation  of  matter. 

Treatment.  In  recent  cases,  before  there  is  much 
inflammation,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  remove  the 
shoe,  cleanse  the  crack  thoroughly,  cutting  into  it  if 
there  is  dirt  or  sand  lodged  inside,  drawing  the  hoof 
together  closely  again  by  the  means  of  two  thin,  clinch 
horse-shoe  nails,  one  at  the  top  and  one  at  the  bottom, 
and  filling  with  the  following  composition : 

I  ounce  oil  of  tar^ 
^  ounce  tallow, 

3  ounces  resin, 

1   ounce  turpentine, 

4  ounces  beeswax. 

Mix  together,  and  fill  the  crack  with  it  quite  warm, 
and  let  it  cool.  The  foot  should  be  protected  so  no 
dirt  can  enter,  and  the  horse  turned  to  pasture  until  a 
new  hoof  has  grown,  placing  a  bar  shoe  on  the  injured 
hoof. 

If  the  crack  is  an  old  one  and  there  is  inflammation, 
the  edges  must  be  pared  and  the  fissures  sufficiently 
laid  bare  so  it  may  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  all  dirt. 
The  crack  must  then  be  thoroughly  fomented  to  re- 
duce the  inflammation,  and  poulticed  until  it  assumes 


a  healthy  appearance.  The  parts  must  then  be 
brought  firmly  together  by  means  of  clinch  nails,  cov- 
ered with  the  same  ointment,  a  bar  shoe  put  on,  and 
a  new  hoof  allowed  to  grow. 

Scarlatina.  This  is  a  modern  disease  in  veter- 
inary practice.  It  is  an  eruptive  fever,  running  a 
fixed  and  difficult  course,  and  is  closely  allied  to  in- 
fluenza. It  generally  attacks  light-colored  horses.  It 
is  attended  by  sore  throat,  slight  fever  and  dry  skin; 
the  glands  of  the  neck  are  slightly  swollen,  and  within 
a  day  or  two  the  lining  membranes  within  the  nose 
and  lips  becon.e  spotted  with  scarlet  the  size  of  a  pea. 
These  soon  run  together.  Great  thirst,  with  a  failing 
appetite,  breath  hot  and  stinking,  are  prominent  symp- 
toms. It  is  not  considered  contagious  in  its  milder 
forms,  but  in  a  malignant  stage  it  would  doubtless  be 
as  much  so  as  the  same  disease  in  the  human  family. 
It  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  mild  form  of  acute 
anasarca,  and  not  entitled  to  be  treated  as  a  distinct 
affection. 

Treatment.  Remove  the  animal  from  its  fellows. 
Give  an  occasional  watery  bran  mash  to  keep  the 
bowels  open,  and  if  it  is  not  found  a  sufficient  laxative, 
give  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts  or  linseed  oil.  Guard 
against  too  active  and  violent  purgatives.  Mix  3 
ounces  liquor  acetate  of  ammonia  with  3  ounces  of 
cold  water,  and  drench  with  this  once  or  twice  a  day, 
according  to  the  violence  of  the  fever,  for  three  days. 
Meanwhile,  sponge  the  elevated  spots  on  the  skin 
with  a  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron  mixed  with  warm 
water;  or,  put  2  ounces  of  hartshorn  (aqua  ammonia) 
into  a_ quart  of  soft  water,  and  use  that. 

There  is  a  tendency  in  this  disease  to  dropsical 
effusions,  and  the  limbs  become  very  much  swollen, 
even  during  the  treatment  prescribed;  by  the  third  or 
fourth  day  a  whitish  mucus  will  begin  to  run  slightly 
from  both  nostrils;  the  scarlet  sjxjts  will  have  spread 
and  become  redder.  Give  now,  night  and  morning, 
]/2  fluid  ounce  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  for  four  or  five 
days.  Discontinue  to  sponge  the  elevated  sjxats,  but 
rub  the  limbs  closely  and  often ;  and  blanket  the 
animal  if  necessary  to  keep  him  comfortable.  The 
niter  acts  as  a  diuretic,  and  the  dose  and  length  of 
time  it  is  given  must  be  regulated  by  the  effect  upon 
the  kidneys.  If  urine  is  voided  too  often  and  too 
freely,  lessen  the  dose,  or  discontinue  it  altogether. 
Follow  this  up  with  a  daily  dose  of  20  grains  of 
sulphate  of  quinine  for  from  three  to  six  days,  and 
continue  to  rub  the  limbs.  When  there  are  signs  of 
returning  appetite,  give  him,  in  addition  to  the  bran 
mashes,  a  few  oats  and  a  daily  small  allowance  of 
hay ;  and  place  him  in  a  small  inclosure,  where  he 
may  have  such  moderate  exercise  as  he  may  be 
prompted  to  take.  Do  not  fail  to  supply  him  from 
the  first  with  all  the  pure  water  that  he  will  drink. 

Scratches:  see  Grease,  page  774. 

Scrofula.  The  horse  is  not  subject  to  this  dis- 
ease as  is  man  and  the  lower  farm  animals,  yet,  that 
he  has  the  germs  of  the  disease  in  his  system,  would 
seem  to  be  indicated  by  ulcers  on  the  liver,  tumors 


HORSE. 


805 


in  the  glands,  and  tubercles  of  the  lungs.  Indeed, 
the  scrofulous  predisposition  is  very  marked  in  cer- 
tain breeds  of  horses.  Such  animals  are  unusually 
prone  to  glanders. 

Shins,  Sore.  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
brane covering  the  shank  bones,  and  is  not  confined 
to  any  particular  classes  of  horses,  though  racing  or 
other  fast-worked  horses  are  more  subject  to  the  affec- 
tion than  are  draft  horses,  the  difficulty  generally 
occurring  before  the  animal  becomes  mature.  The 
cause  is  undoubtedly  over-workuig  and  abuse  before 
the  bones  and  integuments  become  fully  developed. 

Symptoms.  The  lameness  resembles  that  (^splint. 
There  is  swelling  over  the  shin  bone,  which  Ts  tense 
as  though  stretched,  elastic,  and  doughy  to  the  touch. 
There  is  heat  and  tenderness,  and  sometimes  the 
swelling  becomes  excessive,  and  breaks,  but  always 
preserves  its  elastic  feeling.  Or  the  swelling  may  not 
be  extensive,  but  gradually  hardens  through  the  for- 
mation of  bony  matter,  until  at  length  the  pain  disai> 
pears. 

In  these  slight  cases,  the  matter  thrown  out  between 
the  bone  and  membrane  is  generally  converted  into  a 
bony  formation  and  the  skin  remains  permanently 
thickened.  In  severe  cases  the  throwing  out  of  mat- 
ter may  separate  the  membrane  and  the  bone,  and 
eventuate  in  necrosis,  or  death  of  the  bone. 

Treatment.  If  the  difficulty  is  not  severe,  cold 
water  faithfully  applied  during  the  inflammatory 
stage,  and  later,  blisters,  will  be  all  that  will  be  nec- 
essary. In  fact,  treat  it  precisely  as  is  recommended 
for  splint. 

Side-Bones  are  a  species  of  ring-bone.  The  only 
difference  is  that  in  side-bone  the  side  cartilages  of 
the  foot  are  converted  into  bone,  and  do  not,  as  in 
ring-bone,  extend  around  the  coronet,  or  jxjrtion  im- 
mediately about  the  hoof  The  cause  and  treatment 
are  identical  with  those  of  ring-bone,  which  see  on 
page  824. 

Sit-Fasts,  or  Warbles.  When  the  saddle  has 
galled  the  skin  beneath  it  the  inflammation  resulring 
is  called  a  "warble,"  and  if  this  is  neglected,  so  as  to 
cause  a  troublesome  sore,  the  term  "sit-fast'  is  applied. 
The  effect  produced  is  similar  to  a  harness  gall,  and 
there  is  not  the  slightest  necessity  for  invenring  names 
to  distinguish  each  stage  of  cruelty  in  the  rider,  for  if 
attention  is  paid  to  the  warble  no  sit-fast  will  ever 
make  its  appearance. 

Treatment  The  first  and  most  essential  thing  is, 
that  the  animal  shall  be  allowed  to  rest,  or  at  any 
rate  be  subjected  to  such  labor  only  as  will  not  re- 
quire the  same  chafing,  abrading  saddle  or  harness 
which  has  produced  the  trouble.  Then,  if  it  is  merely 
a  gall  or  scald — a  heated,  tender  swelling,  without 
either  suppuration  or  hardness,  bathe  with  cold  salt 
and  water  two  or  three  times  daily.  When  the  heat 
and  tenderness  are  sensibly  reduced,  anoint  occasion- 
ally, until  the  lump  has  entirely  disappeared,  with  a 
mixture  of  etjual  parts  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  si)irits 
of  camphor,  aqua  ammonia  and  oil  of  cedar.     If  it 


has  assumed  the  character  of  a  sit-fast,  do  not  use  the 
knife,  or  try  to  tear  the  dry  skin  away,  but  bathe  with 
warm  soft  water,  and  then  apply  a  poultice.  This 
must  be  repeated  if  necessary  until  the  callous  skin  is 
easily  removed,  and  then  anoint  frequently  until  the 
sore  is  healed,  with  the  following: 

I  drachm  tincture  of  iodine, 

1  drachm  iodide  of  potassium, 
6  drachms  simple  ointment, 

2  drachms  glycerine. 

Skin,  Hardening  of  the.  For  that  hardening  of 
the  skin  which  takes  place  in  consequence  of  the 
pressure  of  some  portion  of  the  harness,  from  cutting 
the  integuments  and  sub-cellular  tissue  from  the  calk- 
ing of  the  shoes,  from  cauterized  fungi,  etc.,  use  the 
following : 

5  ounces  water, 

I  ounce  acetic  acid, 

1  ounce  pulverized  cantharides. 

Mix  and  let  the  mixture  stand  14  days  to  soften. 
Then  filter  through  linen  or  blotting  paper,  and  add 
one  ounce  of  spirits  of  wine.  Apply  occasionally  with 
a  sjx)nge;  or  use  equal  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  and 
olive  oil,  applied  in  the  same  way. 

Spasmodic  Colic  :  see  Colic,  page  755. 
Spavin,  Blood.  This  may  be  defined  as  a  disten- 
sion or  enlargement  (dilatation)  of  the  veins  of  the 
hock  joint,  and  overlying  the  seat  of  bone  and  bog 
spavin ;  a  local  venous  congestion,  caused  generally 
by  swelling,  impeding  the  flow  of  the  blood,  and  often 
connected  with  bog  or  bone  spavin.  It  is  harmless ; 
in  fact  it  may  be  considered  as  accompanying,  or  the 
result  of,  other  disease  of  the  joint. 

Treatment.  In  the  early  stage  cold  water  perse- 
veringly  applied,  followed  by  cooling  lotions,  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  rain-water,  or  one  pint  of  brandy 
to  one-half  pint  of  water,  applied  as  a  lotion.  If  this 
does  not  relieve  the  difficulty,  use  a  strong  infusion  of 
bayberry  bark,  and  considerable  friction  by  the  hand, 
rubbing  with  either  of  the  remedies  named. 
At  last  use  truss  as  represented  by  Fig.   102. 

Spavin,  Bog.  This  is  caused 
by  over-exertion.  Man  loves 
to  boast  of  exploits  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  mute  servants. 
Thus  the  animal  which  is 
made  up  of  timidity  and  affec- 
tion is  chronicled  as  vicious, 
fierce  or  fiery.  He  talks  largely 
of  applying  whip  and  spur  to 
the  brute,  and  in  his  ignorance 
he  thinks  he  has  achieved 
miracles,  by  abusing  a  crea- 
ture which,  had  he  courted 
with  kindness,  would  have 
been  subdued  in  less  time  and 
the  subjection  would  have  a 
more  lasting  effect.  Of  all 
parts  of  the  body,  the  hock- 
joints  are  most  exposed  to  in- 
Fiti.  102.— i>«:'/«  Truss,  jury  wheu  any  undue  exertion 
is  required  of  the  animal.  Bog  spavin  is  a  soft,  puffy 
enlargement  in  the  front  and  inferior  portion  of  the 


8o6 


HORSE. 


hock.  Overwork,  sprains,  injuries  either  from  punct- 
ured wounds,  fractures  or  bruises  are  the  common 
causes. 

Symptoms.  In  its  acute,  early  form  there  is  a  tense, 
puffy,  fluctuating  swelling  of  the  front  and  inside  por- 
tion of  the  hock  at  the  upper  or  principal  point  just 
where  usually  there  is  a  depression.  There  is  also  a 
swelling  behind,  where  thorough-pin  occurs,  but  it  can 
be  pressed  forward,  the  front  swelling  filling  up;  but 
there  is  no  swelling  below  and  behind  the  hock  as  in 
thorough-pin. 

Treatment.  Absolute  rest  and  the  use  of  the  liigh- 
heeled  shoe.  Qjntinued  pressure  on  the  swollen 
parts,  by  means  of  a  truss,  Fig.  102,  or  compress, 
with  cold  water  applications  or  brandy  and  salt.  In 
case  there  is  much  inflammation,  reduce  it  by  means 
of  fomentations  of  water,  and  if  there  is  pain  let  the 
fomentations  be  an  infusion  of  hops.  In  the  latter 
stages  use  tincture  of  arnica  diluted  with  water.  If 
the  case  is  a  bad  one,  when  the  extreme  heat  and  ten- 
derness has  subsided,  a  blister  may  be  applied,  since 
it  sometimes  goes  on  to  ulceration  of  the  joint,  and 
even  to  bony  dejwsit,  destroying  all  movement  of  the 
joint. 

Spavin,  Bone.  When  it  consists  in  the  deposit  of 
bony  matter  alx)ut  the  hock  joint,  and  the  consequent 
cementing  together  of  the  tarsal  bones,  or  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  tarso-metatarsal  joint,  this  disease  is  simi- 
lar to  Ix)g  spavin,  having  essentially  the  same  causes. 
This  form  of  disease  may  exist  in  every  degree,  from 
a  slight  exostosis  near  the  joint  to  such  an  amount  as 
will  entirely  destroy  the  joint,  and  so  invade  the  soft 
tissues  that  the  slightest  movement  is  prxxiuctive  of 
great  suffering. 

Cure  or  alleviation  is  jxsssible  only  in  the  first  stages 
of  the  disease,  so  that  on  the  occurrence  of  lameness 
for  which  the  cause  is  not  ol^vious,  careful  search 
should  be  made  in  the  localities  in  which  splint,  ring- 
bone, or  spavin  may  occur. 

The  attack  of  spavin  is  sometimes  so  slow  and 
blind  that  jockeys  are  often  enabled  to  put  off  a  spav- 
ined horse  on  the  unwary,  the  horse  afterward  going 
dead  lame.  Nevertheless  it  will  show  itself  if  the 
horse  is  allowed  to  cool,  or  ridden  into  water  and 
allowed  to  stand  awhile;  but  in  the  end  the  horse  be- 
comes permanently  lame,  until  the  deix)sit  about  the 
bone  called  anchylosis  becomes  solidified,  when  the 
joint  is  stiff  and  the  lameness  ceases. 

Symptoms.  Lameness  does  not  always  attend  this 
ailment.  When  there  is  swelling,  it  may  be  found  in 
front  and  on  the  inside  and  lower  part  of  the  joint, 
and  may  best  be  seen  by  standing  about  midway  of 
the  body  so  as  to  get  a  side  view  of  the  front  of  the 
hock;  but  when  the  enlargement  is  on  one  side  it  may 
best  be  seen  by  standing  in  front  of  the  horse  and 
looking  back  between  his  legs.  When  the  swelling  is 
in  front  of  the  hock  it  is  most  to  be  feared.  The  ani- 
mal if  turned  from  side  to  side  in  the  stall  moves  stiff 
and  on  the  toe.  The  horse  will  sometimes  jerk  up 
the  limb  as  though  he  had   string-halt.     By  turning 


him  quickly  in  a  small  circle  he  will  carry  the  limb 
more  or  less  stiff,  or  rest  on  the  toe  only. 

Treatment.  In  all  cases,  rest  and  a  high-heel  shoe 
should  be  allowed.  Foment  thoroughly  with  hot  water 
in  which  an  ounce  of  tincture  of  arnica  is  mixed  to 
each  two  quarts  of  water.  Give  four  drachms  of  aloes 
if  the  bowels  are  costive,  and  give  half  an  ounce  to  an 
ounce  of  saltpeter  in  water,  morning  and  night,  until 
free  flow  of  urine  is  had.  When  the  inflammation  has 
subsided  blister.  The  following  will  be  effectual : 
one  part  red  biniodide  mercury,  eight  parts  hog's  lard. 
Apply  twice  a  week  and  grease  between  times  with 
olive  oil  or  lard.  In  no  event,  however,  should  resort 
be  ma^e  to  cutting  away  the  bony  parts  which  have 
formed,  with  mallet  and  chisel,  as  we  hive  seen  them. 
It  is  barbarous,  inhuman,  and  can  do  no  good  what- 
ever. In  young  horses,  if  treatment  be  given  in  time, 
a  cure  may  generally  be  effected.  With  old  horses 
the  cure  is  different. 

Spleen,  Enlargement  of.  The  pancreas  and  the 
spleen  are  subject  to  a  variety  of  diseases,  very  diffi- 
cult to  determine.  The  pancreas  is  a  gland  which 
secretes  the  pancreatic  juice,  by  which  emulsion  takes 
place  with  the  fatty  aliments  by  means  of  a  duct  lead- 
ing into  the  intestines.  The  presence  of  fatty  mat- 
ter in  the  dung  will  imply  a  supjjression  of  these 
juices.  If  there  are  sharp,  colicky  pains  without 
fever,  obstruction  of  the  duct  by  calculi  may  be  sus- 
pected. If  there  is  general  fever,  with  pain  and 
tenderness  behind  the  last  rib  on  the  right  side,  in- 
flammation may  be  suspected. 

For  calculi  use  fomentations  of  hot  water  over  the 
parts  affected,  and  give  anti-spasmodics,  as  hyoscya- 
mus  extract,  2-drachm  doses ;  belladonna,  2-drachm 
doses,  or  tincture  of  lobelia,  i -ounce  doses.  If  there 
is  inflammation,  give  laxative  medicines — \%  ounces 
dandelion.  Blister  the  right  side  and  confine  the  ani- 
mal to  light  diet. 

Splint.  The  name  is  given  to  a  peculiar  enlarge- 
ment generally  found  on  the  outside  of  the  small 
bones  of  the  fore  leg,  and  inside  the  leg.  These  en- 
largements seldom  cause  lameness,  except  while  the 
tumor  is  growing  and  the  periosteum  is  inflamed  by 
the  pressure,  or,  when  the  de[X)sit  is  situated  so  as  to 
interfere  with  the  action  of  the  joint.  Splint  is  caused 
by  kicks  or  other  external  injuries.  The  same  treat- 
ment as  for  bone-spavin  is  called  for. 

Staggers,  Blind  or  Stomach.  Horses  that  are 
great  feeders  are  the  subjects  of  this  disease.  The 
stomach  being  over-gorged  with  food  a  determination 
of  blood  to  the  brain  is  caused.  The  animal  is  dull 
and  sleepy,  and  presses  his  head  against  the  wall,  the 
thirst  is  excessive,  the  eyes  are  dull  and  snoring 
is  heard  at  each  respiration.  Sometimes  the  legs  are 
put  into  motion  as  if  the  animal  was  trotting,  without 
the  head  being  taken  from  the  wall.  At  other  times 
the  sleepy  stage  passes  off,  the  breathing  is  quickened, 
the  eyes  brighten,  the  body  becomes  warm,  perspira- 
tion bedews  the  body,  the  sufferer  gives  expression  to 
his  agony  by  the  most  energetic  action.     The  struct- 


^ — J^ajM^g^Sg' 


8o8 


HORSE. 


Fig.  lo^.-Exfiressiott   Characterisiic 
of  Blind  Staggers. 


ures  surrounding  him  are  destroyed,  and  nothing  can 
quiet  him  until  he  falls  exhausted. 

At  other  times  he  will  rear  up  or  stagger  like  a 
drunken  man,  and  then  fall.  He  often  becomes 
stubborn,  and  will  go  only  his  own  way,  evidently 
unconscious,  and  then  come  convulsions,  followed  by 
insensibility.  When  down,  it  occasionally  happens 
that  he  lies  down  in  this  insensible  state  at  first,  but 

he  usually  struggles  vio- 
lently, then  becomes 
quiet;  gradually  recov- 
ers himself  and  gets  up, 
ready  to  proceed  on  his 
way,  being  yet  dull, 
however,  and  evidently 
affected  by  what  has 
happened. 

Treatment.  When  it 
is  discovered  in  time 
that  he  is  suffering  with 
disordered  digestion  and 
is  constipated,  relieve 
him  from  work  if  pos- 
sible, and  lessen  the 
quantity  of  dry  food.  Turn  him  out  at  night,  at  any 
rate,  even  if  found  necessary  to  have  his  services 
during  the  day.  If  he  can  have  some  continued  rest 
and  the  run  of  a  good  pasture,  or  else  be  well  fed 
with  food  suitable  to  his  condition,  and  well  watered, 
while  occupying  a  roomy,  dry  and  well  ventilated 
stable,  his  chances  for  restoration  to  health  and 
escaping  violent  attacks  altogether,  will  be  greatly 
increased.  Of  course  he  should  have  sufficient  exer- 
cise, but  in  moderation.  If  the  animal  is  young  and 
of  full  habit,  yet  fallen  into  this  disordered  state,  re- 
strict his  diet,  increase  his  exercise  by  degrees  or  turn 
him  out  to  pasture  until  his  normal  condition  of  stom- 
aoh  and  bowels  has  returned.'  In  the  beginning  of 
this  treatment  give  him  the  following: 

I  ounce  salt, 

4  drachms  Castile  soap, 

7  drachms  aloes, 

6  drops  oil  of  caraway. 

Mix  with  mucilage,  or  syrup  sufficient  to  form  a 
drench.  This  amount  constitutes  a  dose.  It  may  be 
repeated  after  twelve  or  fifteen  hours  if  the  first  does 
not  produce  proper  action.  Every  chance  of  even  a 
partial  return  to  usefulness  is  increased  by  rest.  A 
horse  once  affected  in  this  way  should  really  not  be 
driven  again,  though  apparently  recovered  for  the  fit 
is  likely  to  recur,  and  the  driver  may  himself  be  there- 
by seriously  endangered. 

Staggers,.  Mad.     See  Inflammtion  of  the  Brain. 

Stings  and  Bites.  Not  unfrequently  do  we  hear 
of  horses  losing  their  lives  from  irritation  and  fever, 
originating  from  stings  of  bees,  hornets,  etc.  To  re- 
lieve a  case  of  this  kind,  we  use  one  of  the  following 
remedies,  with  which  the  coat  must  be  thoroughly 
saturated :  Solution  of  ammonia ;  weak  carbolic  acid 
wash  (i  ounce  to  a  quart  of  water);  i  pint  of  lime 
water,  in  which  one  drachm  of  carbolic  acid  is  dis- 
solved ;  or  oil  of  lobelia.     In  ordinary  cases,  the  pre- 


ceding direction  properly  carried  out  will  be  sufficient ; 
but  in  more  aggravated  ones,  sixDUge  the  whole  body 
with  lime  water,  and  then  smear  with  linseed  oil.  If 
lime  is  not  accessible,  use  a  weak  solution  of  soda. 
Spirits  of  turpentine  and  laudanum,  in  equal  parts, 
will  give  relief  A  decoction  of  plantain  is  good. 

To  prevent  the  stings  of  gad-flies,  make  a  strong 
infusion  of  the  green  bark  of  the  elder,  and  wash  the 
flanks  before  going  out.  To  prevent  the  bites  of 
buffalo-gnats,  cover  the  parts  most  likely  to  be  at- 
tacked with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  lard,  two  parts  of 
lard  to  one  of  tar. 

Stomach,  Inflammation  of  the,  or  Gastritis. 
Acute  inflammation  of  the  stomach  seldom,  if  ever, 
occurs  among  horses  as  a  sjxjntaneous  affection.  It 
usually  occurs  from  jxjisoning  by  arsenic  given  in  the 
food  by  ignorant  stable-men,  to  make  the  horse  carry 
a  shining  coat  and  foam  at  the  bit.  It  is  also  pro- 
duced by  the  licking  ofexternal  corrosive  applications, 
thus  producing  acute  gastritis. 

When  an  irritating  ixsison  has  been  received  into 
the  stomach,  and  e.xcites  inflammation  there,  or  when 
acute  inflammation  arises  from  any  cause,  the  symp- 
toms which  mark  that  inflammation  are  pain,  distress, 
and  restlessness;  a  loathing  of  food;  for  if  anything 
be  given  by  the  mouth,  it  creates  increased  pain.  The 
animal  breaks  out  in  a  cold  sweat,  lies  down  and 
quickly  rises  again,  becomes  early  and  greatly  pros- 
trated in  strength,  and  has  a  ])ulse  usually  quick  and 
much    oppressed.      Sometimes    purging   sets   in;  at 


Fig.  105. — Horse  Suj^ering  ^roftt  Acute  Gastritis. 

Others,  the  bowels  are  constipated.  The  disease  is 
very  apt  to  run  into  gastro-enteritis — inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  bowels. 

Treatment.  The  first  thing,  if  possible,  is  to  find 
out  what  caused  the  trouble.  If  this  can  not  be  found, 
give  at  once — 

4  ounces  olive  oil, 

3  ounces  ^uIphtlric  ether, 

3  ounces  laudanum, 

4  ounces  carbonate  magnesia, 
I  quart  cold  gruel. 

Mix  and  give  as  a  dose.  If  the  pulse  is  low,  add 
to  the  above  i  drachm  carbonate  of  ammonia.  As 
soon  as  there  is  evidence  of  recover}',  and  in  factwhen- 
ever  the  animal  will  take  it,  thin  starch  or  gruel  of 


irojiSE. 


809 


flour  should  be  freely  given  to  sheathe  the  mucous 
surfaces. 

Stomach,  Gorged:  See  Founder,  Grain,  page  769. 

Stomach,  Rupture  of  the.  When  this  occurs 
there  is  no  art  which  can  prevent  death.  Rupture  of 
the  stomach  is   produced  b)'    working  or  driving   a 


Fig.  106. — Unnatural  Attitude  Indicative  o/  Abdominal  Injury. 

horse  until  he  is   very  hungry  and  then   feeding  or 
watering  unduly.      The  only  symptoms  which  show 
are  violent  colic  and  tenseness  of  tissues.     There  are 
many  ruptures  where  animals  die,  and  the  owner  does 
not   know   the   difficulty.      If  the  mischief  has  pro- 
ceeded to  rupture,  the  animal  may  as  well  be  killed. 
One  of  the    jX3sitions   assumed  by  the 
horse  suffering  from  abdominal  injuries, 
is  this:  he   will  jjersistently   sit   on  his 
haunches,   as    illustrated  above.      Ani- 
mals will  assume   this  position  and  yet 
occasionally  recover.     Another  ixjsition 
assumed  is,  for  the  animal  to  kneel  and 
supiwrt  himself  ujxin  his  hind  legs,  as 
shown  by   Fig.  67.    Still  another  is,  the 
horse  with  a  ruptured  stomach  will  al- 
most invariably  walk  in  a  circle    as  if 
hitched  to  a  threshing-machine.     Such 
unnatural  ]x>sitions  show  the  intense  pain 
which  leads  to  such  attitudes  to  get  relief. 
There  is  no  cure. 

Stomach    Staggers:     see    Staggers, 
page  806. 

Strangles.  See  Distemper. 

String-halt  is  the  sudden   jerking 
up  of  a  hind  limb,  sometimes   both,   in 
succession.     Sometimes    several   efforts 
will    be    made    before    the    animal    can    progress 
at  all.     In  other  cases  the  spasmodic  action  of  the 
hind-leg  is   shown   in    starting  off,    and,  the  animal 
becoming  warm,  it  will  nearly  or  quite  cease.     Some- 
times the  action  is  so  slight  as  to  be  almost  unnoticed. 


and  again  it  may  be  so  strong  that  the  hind  leg  will 
strike  the  belly. 

Veterinary  writers  differ  in  opinion  concerning  the 
cause  and  location  of  string-halt.     Professor  Spooner 
has  traced  it  to  a  morbid  affection  of  the  sacro-sciatic 
nerve.     Percivall  pronounces  it  an  affection  of  the 
posterior  portion  of  the   spinal  column. 
Goodwin  and  Mayhew  favor  the  opinion 
of  the  latter.    Dadd  thought  it   may  be 
the  result  of  hock  diseases,  which  irri- 
tates the  nerves  in    the  vicinity   of   the 
part,  and  thus  affects  that  ixjrlion  of  the 
nervous  system  which  controls  the  mus- 
cles concerned. 

Treatmsnt.  There  is  no  remedy  known 
for  string-halt.  Rest,  keeping  the  bowels 
open  with  2-drachm  doses  of  belladonna 
daily,  will  lessen  the  spasms  for  a  time ; 
but  fatigue  or  nervous  excitement  is 
sure  to  bring  on  a  recurrence  of  the  at- 
tack. A  careful  drufer  will  often  prevent 
the  disability  being  much  shown  by 
being  careful  not  to  excite  or  overwork 
the  horse. 

Surfeit.      This  is  a  rash  which  ap- 
pears suddenly  u[jon  the  surface   of  the 
skin.     The  spots  are  round,  blunt  and 
slightly  elevated.  Sometimes  during  the 
eruption  the  pulse  is  tranquil,  the  appetite  good,  and 
the  general  health  does  not  seem  to  suffer.     In  this 
case  hay  should  be  withheld,  the  quantity  of  oats  in- 
creased, the  stable  should  be  well  ventilated  and  the 
following  drink   given   every   day   for   at   least  two 
weeks : 


Fig.  107.—^  Hortt  Affected  with  Sur/M. 

I  ounce  liquor  of  arsenic, 
J4  ounce  muriated  tincture  of  iron, 
I  quart  water. 

Mix  and  give  one  pint  at  each  dose.  In  other 
cases  the  pulse  sinks,  the  legs  swell  and  the  animal 
shows  symptoms  of  general  debility.     In  the   latter 


8ic 


HORSE. 


case  good  nursing  is  required.  The  cleanliness  of  the 
stable  should  be  attended  to.  The  legs  should  be 
bandaged  and  the  body  warmly  clothed.  Give  the 
drink  recommended  above,  only  give  it  twice  each 
day,  or  give 


2  ounces  nitrate  of  potash, 
6  ounces  sulphur, 

3  ounces  sulphuret  oi  antimony, 

3  ounces  sulphate  of  iron. 

Divide  into  sixteen  powders  and  give  one  night  and 
morning. 

Anoint  the  parts  affected  with 

1  pint  of  sweet  oil  or  hog*s  lard, 
X  fluid  ounce  of  carbolic  acid, 

4  ounocs  of  glycerine; 

or  give  i  drachm  cream  tarta.r  in  one-half  bucket 
water  three  times  a  day.  Keep  him  from  becoming 
costive  by  cooling  and  laxative  food.  See  that 
he  is  comfortably  stabled  if  the  weather  is  at  all 
inclement,  and  give  three  times  a  day — 

2  drachms  levigated  (finely  ground)  antimony, 

3  drachms  niter, 

4  drachms  suiphur, 

4  drachms  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

The  food  should  be  good — if  [xassible,  green  and 
succulent ;  and  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  take 
the  chill  from  water  given  him,  if  the  weather  is  at  all 
cold.  If  the  appetite  is  bad,  place  gruel  in  the  man- 
ger, so  that  he  may  use  it  in  place  of  water  till 
stronger  food  is  relished.  If  it  is  summer,  or  spring  is 
sufficiently  advanced  to  be  mild,  he  may  be  turned  to 
pasture;  but  in  any  event  he  should  be  allowed  to  rest 
during  treatment. 

Sweeny.  A  horse  is  said  to  be  sweenied  when  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder  appear  to  have  perished  and 
the  skin  seems  to  be  attached  closely  to  the  shoulder 
blade.  These  symptoms  may  arise  from  chronic 
lameness  of  the  foot  or  other  part  of  the  limb.  In 
such  case,  of  course  it  is  of  no  use  to  apply  remedies 
to  the  shoulder.  Cure  the  foot,  and  the  shoulder  will 
come  right,  although  stimulants  and  rubbing  will  expe- 
dite it.  But  genuine  sweeny  is  quite  different  from 
the  above,  although  the  appearances  are  the  same.  It 
is  caused  by  hard  drawing  in  a  collar  that  is  too  large; 
or  where  no  whiffletree  is  ever  used,  but  the  traces  are 
hitched  directly  to  the  thills,  as  in  "jumpers,"  as 
they  are  called;  or  by  jumping  fences  or  the  like. 

Symptoms.  The  presence  of  real  sweeny  may  be 
discovered  by  moving  the  horse  in  a  circle,  or  causing 
him  to  step  over  bars,  when  you  can  generally  deter- 
mine the  seat  of  the  lameness. 

Treatment.  By  pressure  on  the  parts,  discover  the 
seat  of  the  inflammation  by  the  flinching  of  the  ani- 
mal. This  found,  reduce  it  by  apphcation  of  cold 
water  to  the  part,  if  in  the  earlier  stages,  and  continue 
until  the  acute  symptoms  have  subsided.  After  these 
have  subsided  exercise  must  be  given  every  day. 
Every  effort  should  be  made  to  increase  the  circula- 
tion over  the  fallen  muscles  by  active  rubbing.  If  the 
case  does  not  yield  to  the  treatment,  and  there  is  de- 
cided wasting,  the  muscles  being  hard,  use  the  fol- 
lowing :   I  ounce  spirits  of  turpentine,  i  ounce  tincture 


cantharides.  This  should  be  rubbed  in  with  consid- 
erable friction  until  nearly  the  excitement  of  a  blister 
is  produced.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  which  will  be 
seldom,  put  in  a  seton,  wet  with  tincture  of  canthar- 
ides, from  the  top  of  the  wasted  muscle  to  the  bottom. 
Light  exercise  should  be  given  every  day. 

Sweeny  of  the  Shoulder.  The  common  effect 
of  all  lameness  and  diseases  of  a  limb  is  a  wasting  of 
the  muscles  connected  therewith.  Therefore  in  all 
sprains  entailing  inflammation  and  continued  disease 
of  a  limb,  and  in  all  injuries  entailing  chronic,  long-con- 
tinued manifestations,  there  will  be  wasting  or  atrophy 
of  the  muscles,  and  in  extreme  cases,  sometimes  per- 
manent contraction,  even  of  the  cords  of  the  limb. 
This  is  sweeny.  It  is  the  result  of  the  disease  and 
not  the  disease  itself. 

Causes.  Overstrain,  hard  pulling  on  uneven 
ground,  by  stepping  into  holes,  etc.,  thus  causing  in- 
jury to  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  particularly 
those  supporting  the  joints. 

Treatmerit.  The  principal  treatment  is  rest.  By 
proper  diet  and  tonics  the  horse  will  gradually  become 
more  and  more  able  to  work.  The  affected  parts  may 
be  bathed  morning  and  evening  with  the  following 
mixture  : 

2  ounces  fluid  extract  of  wormwood, 
2  ounces  extract  of  poppies, 
I  pint  of  proof  spirits. 

Should  the  feet  be  found  too  hot,  bathe  them  with 
tepid  water  or  a  tepid  infusion  of  hops.  There  may 
also  be  given  daily  2  drachms  of  gelsemium  until  the 
febrile  symptoms  subside. 

Teeth  Ache.  The  most  frequent  cause  of  this 
most  afflictive  ailment  is  the  injury  to  the  tooth  by 
biting  on  some  hard  substance,  by  which  the  crusta 
petrosa  is  affected ;  also  the  too  frequent  use  of  acids, 
which  tend  to  injure  the  crystalline  enamel.  The 
horse  sweats  easily  while  at  work,  the  saliva  hangs  in 
tough  streams  from  the  mouth.  The  head  is  some- 
times carried  to  one  side  or  pressed  against  the  wall 
or  manger.  The  food  is  quidded,  that  is,  when  half 
masticated  the  animal  will  relax  its  hold  and  the 
morsel  will  fall  from  its  mouth.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  horse  will  show  no  signs  of  the  ailment.  The 
head  is  carried  gracefully,  the  lips  are  compressed,  the 
saliva  ceases  to  flow  from  them  and  the  food  is 
eaten  with  a  greedy  relish.  The  proprietor  is  praised 
for  the  vigorous  movements  of  his  horse,  but  the 
duration  of  this  period  of  happiness  over  the  animal  is 
only  teniix)rary,  and  in  a  short  time  the  pain  will 
return  with  all  its  former  tortures.  Should  nothing  be 
done  to  relieve  the  suffering,  the  animal  will  soon 
present  a  staring  coat,  a  tucked-up  belly  and  the  skin 
will  adhere  tightly  to  the  ribs.  In  some  CTses  he  will 
be  drowsy,  needing  the  whip  to  urge  him  on,  while  in 
others  he  will  grasp  the  bit  tightly  in  his  teeth  and 
become  almost  unmanagealile.  The  only  cure  is  to 
extract  the  diseased  tooth. 

Teeth,  Decay  of  thk.  Tlie  teeth  of  horses,  under 
an  artificial  system  of  management,  are  quite  subject 


HORSE. 


8ii 


to  decay. 


Usually  this  is  found  in  the  grinders,  al- 
though it  sometimes,  but 
rarely,  occurs  in  the  nip- 
pers. 

Causes.  Anything  that 
will  destroy  the  enamel  or 
corrode  the  teeth,  strong 
mineral  medicines,  fer- 
mentations in  the  stom- 
ach, breaking  of  the  teeth 
by  biting  hard  substances, 
Fig.  ir&.— Horse  with  Toothache,  or  natural  causcs  from  in- 
creasing age. 

Symptoms.  The  most  unmistakable  symptoms  are 
sudden  Jerking  up  of  the  head  when  drinking  cold 
water;  sudden  dropping  of  food  from  the  mouth 
while  eating ;  slavering  ,  exhibition  of  pain  ;  imperfect 
chewing  of  the  food  and  consequent  fiinding  of  whole 
grains  in  the  dung;  indigestion;  unthrifty  state  of  the 

hair  and  skm ;  loss  of 
condition,  generally  with 
swelling  of  the  legs; 
swelling  of  the  jaw-bone 
about  the  carious  tooth ; 
quidding  of  the  partially 
chewed  hay;  accumula- 
tion of  food  around  the 
tooth  and  between  it  and 
the  cheek. 

Treatment.  Put  a  ball- 
ing iron  (Fig.  rog)  in  the 
horse's  mouth  and  exam- 
ine the  jaws  for  broken 
and  decayed  teeth.  If 
suspected,  tap  it  gently. 
If  there  is  inflammation, 
lance  the  affected  parts, 
and  sponge  with  the  tinct- 
ure of  myrrh.  If  t  h  e 
tooth  is  ulcerated  it  is  bet- 
ter to  extract  it  at  once ; 
if  not  it  may  be  cleaned 
with  a  pairof  dental  gouges 
(Fig.  no)  and  the  cavity 
filled  with  gutta  percha.  If 
tender  from  exjxjsure  of 
the  nerve,  it  must  be  re- 
lieved, or  deadened,  with 
crystallized  carbolic  acid 
and  opium,  before  filling. 
Fig.  lot).— Balling  Iron.  As  a  r  u  1  c  in  extensive 
caries,  the  tooth  may  be  extracted.  If  so  the  op- 
ix)sing  tooth  must  be  occasionally  rasped  down.  The 
extracting  of  teeth,  however,  should  only  be  under- 
taken by  a  veterinary  sur- 
geon, except  in  the  case 
of  loose  teeth,  which  may 
be  extracted  with  a  large 
pair  of  forceps.  A  good, 
strong  [jair  of  forceps  (see 
Fig.  Ill)  should  be  used,  and  when  tightly  clasped 


Fig.  ho. — Dental  Coui^es. 


w\ 


around  the  loose  tooth,  should  be  pulled  with  a 
steady,  strong  pull,  and  not  a  quick 
jerk,  as  is  commonly  the  case. 

Teeth,  Scurvy  of  the.  Old 
horses  are  subject  to  deposit  of 
calcareous  matter,  by  which  the 
teeth  become  ridged  with  a  white 
scurf,  extending  down  the  gums,  in- 
flaming them  and  keeping  them 
sore.  This  is  generally  confined  to 
the  front  teeth.  Young  horses  also 
sometimes  suffer  from  this  disability. 

Causes.  Imperfect  digestion  and 
sour  stomach,  evolving  gases,  or 
any  cause  injuring  the  enamel  of  the 
teeth. 

Treatment.  First  find  if  the  sys- 
tem is  in  good  condition.  Put  a 
twitch  on  the  animal's  nose,  and  with 
proper  instruments  remove  the  in- 
crustations. Files,  scrapers  and  fine 
emery  paper  are  the  means  to  be 
used ;  the  teeth  afterward  to  be 
oiled.  In  ordinary  cases  a  stiff 
brush  and  a  mixture  of  tartaric  acid 
and  salt  will  do  it,  rubbing  afterward 
with  clean  hard-wood  ashes.  Keep 
hard-wood  ashes  and  salt  where  the 
horse  may  take  it  at  will. 

Teeth,  Sharp  and  Projecting. 
The  remedy  for  this  disability  will 
be  obvious.  Secure  the  animal,  put 
a  twitch  on  the  nose,  if  a  horse,  and 
a  balling  iron  in  the  mouth,  and  file 
the  teeth   until    smooth   and  even, 

F.G.,M.-ZJ.»/a/.(>-«r."S'"g'''''^sP  "^"^^^  f°''  *^'^  purpose, 
ceps.  flat    and    with    a   slightly    crooked 

handle.    See  Fig.  113. 

Tetter.     See  Surfeit. 

Thorough-Pin.      An  affection  of  the  hock-joint 


FiG.  111.— Dental  Mallet. 

accompanying  bog  and  blood  spavin.  It  is  character- 
ized by  soft,  fluctuating  swellings,  containing  fluid  or 
joint  oil  in  increased  quantity  and  an  altered  quality. 

Symptoms.  Pressure  on  one  side  will  cause  bulg- 
ing on  the  other,  and  pressure  on  both  sides  will 
cause  fluctuation  along  the  tendon  below  and  behind 
the  hock. 

Treatment.  Use  the  same  treatment  as  for  curb ; 
cold-water  bandages  or  hot  fomentations  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease;  also  absolute  rest  and  a  high- 
heeled  shoe.  When  tenderness  ceases  and  lameness 
is  gone,  apply  a  spring  tniss,  so  the  pads  will  clasp 
and  cover  the  puff  on  both  sides,  and  exert  a  pretty 
firm  and  steady  pressure. 


8t3 


HORSE. 


Throat,  Swelled.  The  most  common  cause  of 
xhis  disorder  is  foul  stables.  Few  stables  are  properly 
drained  or  ventilated,  and  the  dumb  slave  is  com- 
pelled after  each  day's  labor  to  stand  in  the  narrowest 
possible  limits.  The  prisoner  is  only  allowed  to 
breathe  a  limited  quantity  of  the  air  which  nature  has 
supplied  in  such  great  abundance  and  in  such  purity. 
The  quantity  of  air  contained  in  a  close  stable  must 


Fig.  113. — Dental  File. 

be  frequently  respired  during  the  night.  The  horse 
being  taken  from  the  hot,  contaminated  atmosphere  of 
the  stable,  and  exposed  to  the  cold,  pure  air  outside, 
although  the  latter  is  much  to  be  preferred,  yet  the 
delicate  structure  of  the  larynx  being  weakened  by 
abiding  in  a  morbid  medium,  when  brought  into  con- 
tact with  the  cold  air,  is  stimulated,  inflammation  is 
produced  and  laryngitis  is  the  result.  The  symptoms 
are  characterized  by  dullness,  there  is  a  slight  en- 
largement of  the  larynx,  the  neck  is  stiff  and  the  head 
awkwardly  carried,  a  short  cough  is  heard  at  almost 
every  respirauon,  and  a  hoarse  sound  may  be  heard 
by  placingthe  ear  against  the  trachea,  the  ])ulse  is  f.ill 
and  throbbing,  the  nasal  membrane  is  of  a  scarlet 
color,  and  any  attempt  to  handle  the  throat  calls  forth 
the  most  energetic  resistance. 

Treatment.  Give  upon  the  tongue  every  two  hours 
ten  drops  tincture  of  aconite,  until  the  pulse  is  ren- 
dered soft.  Apjily  the  nose-bag  and  keep  it  in  almost 
constant  use,  the  application  of  which  is  as  follows: 
take  a  common  bag,  into  which  put  a  yjail  three  parts 
filled  with  bran,  jxjur  sufficient  boiling  water  upon  it 
to  thoroughly  scald  the  bran,  and  apply  it  by  holding 
the  bag  well  up  around  his  nose ;  do  not  be  persuaded 
to  steam  a  horse's  head  with  burned  leather  or  sul- 
phur, as  it  is  injurious  to  the  bronchi  and  lungs.  Next 
procure  a  piece  of  stout  canvas,  one  yard  and  a  quar- 
ter long  and  nine  inches  wide,  three  slits  should  be 
made  at  each  end  a  quarter  of  a  yard  in  length.  The 
middle  part,  or  the  part  not  slit,  should  be  put  under 
the  throat  and  the  tails  tied,  four  in  front  of  the  ears 
and  four  behind.  This  is  termed  an  eight-tailed  ban- 
dage, and  is  the  best  appliance  for  keeping  any 
ajiplication  on  the  throat.  Poultices  of  hot  boiled 
roots  should  be  applied  as  hot  as  can  be  borne  with- 
out scalding,  by  means  of  the  eight-tailed  bandage. 
Or,  ferment  the  throat  with  cloths  wrung  out  of  hot 
mustard  water.  If  there  is  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
])ut  a  teasixwnful  of  the  following  well  back  on  the 
tongue  several  times  a  day  : 

I  drachm  powdered  Indian  hemp  , 
I  drachm  powdered  assafcetida  ; 
1  drachm  blood-root  ; 
%  drachm  powdered  opium. 

In  case  the  disease  becomes  chronic,  the  following 
incitant  to  the  throat  will  be  indicated  : 

I  part  pulverized  cantharides  • 
X  jiart  turpentine ; 
X  part  solution  of  ammonia  ; 
I  part  olive  oil. 
Mix,  shake  the  bottle  before  using,  and  rub  well  in  on  the  throat  daily. 


If  this  does  not  relieve,  apply  the  following  blister: 

t  drachm  Croton  oil  ; 
X  drachm  sulphuric  ether  ; 
10  drachms  alcohol 
Mix,  and  apply  by  rubbing  with  considerable  friction. 

^Vhen  the  symptoms  become  more  favorable,  by  the 
memljranes  of  the  nose  becoming  pale  or  more  natural 
in  color,  by  the  cough  becoming  more  free,  or  louder, 
easier  and  with  less   violent  breathing,  ar.d  by  the 

appearance  of  a  white 
and  thick  discharge  from 
the  nostrils,  put  a  seton 
in  the  throat,  and  allow 
nothing  but  moist  and 
succulent  food.  Move  the  seton  daily  until  healthy 
pus  (matter)  is  formed.  Then  cut  one  of  the  knots 
and  withdraw  it,  and  as  the  horse  recovers  allow  drier 
food — hay  and  grain — l)ut  that  entirely  free  from  dust. 
Thrush.  One  of  the  most  common  of  the  diseases 
of  the  foot  bears  the  popular  name  of  thrush.  Of  its 
exact  nature  and  locality  perhaps  no  two  hippopath- 
ologists  agree.  Mayhew,  Youatt,  Sywoner,  McClure 
and  others  characterize  the  disease  by  one  of  its 
symptoms,  and  speak  of  it  as  "  an  offensive  discharge 
from  the  cleft  of  the  frog,"  to  which  is  somedmes 
added,  "with  disorganization  of  the  horn."  Both 
these  are  symptoms  of  the  real  disease,  which  is  a 
low  fomi  of  inflammation  in  the  soft  tissues  of  a  tender 
frog.  _  It  exists  in  feet  that  have  been  allowed  to 
stand  in  damp,  ill-cleaned  stalls,  where  they  are  con- 
tinually covered  with  wet  manure.  Running  in  a 
wet  yard  predisix)ses  to  it.  Gamgee  describes  thrush 
as  a  "diseased  condition  of  the  villous  membrane 
covering  the  frog,"  and  says  that  it  is,  in  its  usual 
fomi,  produced  by  filth  and  neglect. 

The  true  seat  of  the  disease  is,  we  believe,  Tn  the 
superficial  and  less  fibrous  tissues  of  the  sensirive  frog. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  true  inflammation  exists.  Pain  is 
usually  present  in  inflamed  tissues,  and  thrush  is, 
to  a  remarkable  degree,  a  painful  disease.  One  of 
the  properties  of  the  sensitive  frog  is  to  secrete  the 
tissue  that  becomes  the  horny  frog.  Now,  if,  l)y 
reason  of  local  or  consrilutional  deljility,  the  secretive 
action  of  the  part  is  imperfect — if  the  secreted  matter, 
lacking  vitality  instead  of  producing  horn,  breaks 
down  into  pus,  or  pus  mingled  with  half-fonned  or 
decomixising  horn,  we  should  get  just  the  condition 
we  have  in  thrush. 

In  a  healthy  frog  the  cleft  is  so  perfectly  covered 
over  by  an  arch  of  horn  that  fluid  could  escape  only 
through  an  arrificial  oi)ening;  but  in  this  diseased 
condition  the  horn  is  in  so  imperfect  a  state  from 
defect  in  its  original  secretion,  and  so  disintegrated  by 
the  direct  influence  upon  it  of  the  diseased  secretion, 
that  the  offensive  pus  escapes  freely  from  it. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  contracted  feet  and  too 
great  and  long-continued  paring  of  the  frog  are  the 
main  causes  of  this  disease.  They  undoubtedly  pre- 
dispose to  it,  as  they  contribute,  by  change  of  the  form 
of  the  foot,  to  effect  a  change  in  the  ni.trition  of  the 
organ.  But  thrush  is  seen,  perhaps,  in  a  well-spread, 
open  foot  as  frequently  as  in  a  contracted  one.     Con- 


i 


K?f='^T^S^r=pN 


I 


8t4 


HORSJ^. 


stitutional  condition  has  much  to  do  with  the  local 
manifestation.  An  animal  poorly  nourished  and 
cared  for,  other  things  being  equal,  will  be  more 
likely  to  exhibit  the  disease. 

Any  treatment  that  loses  sight  of  the  constitutional 
condition  will  fail  to  do  its  best  work.  First  of  all, 
the  horse  should  be  placed  in  a  stall  having  a  dry 
floor,  or  on  a  short  and  dry  sward,  covering  a  warm, 
sandy  soil.  Then  he  should  have  a  thoroughly 
nutritious  diet,  and,  if  the  disease  has  been  of  long 
standing,  alterative  and  tonic  medicines  may  be  given. 
Red  bark,  sulphuret  of  antimony  and  nitre,  in  the 
propor.tion  of  two  parts  of  the  first  to  one  part  each  of 
the  last  two ;  or  a  ball,  consisting  of  a  quarter  of  a 
grain  of  strychnine,  half  a  drachm  of  iodide  of  iron, 
half  a  scruple  of  extract  of  belladonna,  and  extract  of 
gentian  and  powdered  quassia  sufficient  to  make  it, 
may  be  given  night  and  morning.  The  foot  should 
be  put  into  a  bath  of  warm  water  and  thoroughly 
cleansed;  all  dust  and  pus  should  be  carefully 
removed  from  the  commissures,  and  the  part  dried 
by  the  use  of  dry  tow.  Then  into  the  crevices  should 
be  poured  once  a  day  a  little  of  a  solution  of  the 
chloride  of  zinc  (3  grains  to  the  ounce  of  water).  The 
foot  is  to  be  kept  shod  with  calkins,  so  that  a  free 
space  may  be  left  under  the  foot  for  the  circulation  of 
the  air.  Cases  will  yield  more  readily  to  simply  con- 
stitutional than  to  simply  local  treatment.  A  judicious 
combination  of  the  two  will  have  the  happiest  results. 

Thumps.  This  is  a  spasm  of  the  diaphragm.  It 
is  produced  by  over-driving  and  oppression,  paraly- 
zing the  accessory  nerve,  which  causes  the  flapping  of 
the  diaphragm. 

Symptoms.  The  action  of  the  heart  will  be  violent 
and  convulsive ;  the  beatings  can  be  seen,  felt  and 
heard.  The  disorder  comes  on  abruptly,  generally 
from  excitement;  excited  eyes;  rapid  breathing  and 
a  more  or  less  diminution  of  the  palpitation.  If  signs 
of  temporary  excitement  are  not  present ;  if  the  attack 
comes  on  slowly,  is  constant  with  aggravated  inter- 
vals;  if  there  is  a  heavy,  prolonged,  unequal  beating, 
with  red  mucous  membranes  and  swelling  of  the  limbs, 
it  may  be  inferred  that  the  difficulty  is  connected  with 
structural  heart  disease. 

Treatment.  Avoid  sudden  excitement  and  over- 
exertion, but  give  gentle  exercise,  stimulants  and 
tonics.  Give  cold  water  with  plenty  of  common  salt. 
If  this  fails  to  give  relief  in  a  few  hours,  then  give 

so  drops  aconite ; 
I  ounce  tincture  lobelia  ; 
z  ounce  laudanum  ; 
I  ounce  sulphuric  ether  ; 
H  ounce  chloroform ; 
Repeat  every  hour  until  relief  is  obtained. 

Tongue,  Inflammation  of  the.  Symptoms.  There 
will  be  difficulty  in  eating  and  drinking;  the  tongue 
will  be  swollen  and  inflamed,  sometimes  hanging 
from  the  mouth.  In  treating,  use  the  same  means 
recommended  for  inflammation  of  the  mouth.  If  the 
tongue  hangs  from  the  mouth,  put  the  end  in  a  bag, 
supported  with  tapes  extending  from  the  comers  of 
the  mouth  and  tied  behind  the  ears. 

Tracheotomy  is  an  operation  to  open  the  windpipe 


in  case  of  closing  by  tumor  or  thickening  of  membrane. 
It  is  performed  only  in  desperate  cases,  where  the 
animal  is  likely  to  suffocate  for  want  of  breath.  The 
operation  should  be  performed  as  follows :  Have  an 
assistant  hold  the  horse's  head  high,  with  the  nose 
extended,  so  as  to  best  stretch  the  skin  of  the  neck. 
Then,  feeling  along  the  neck  for  that  part  least  covered 
with  flesh,  make  a  bold  incision  with  a  sharp  knife — 
one  with  a  round  point  and  thin  being  preferable. 
Make  the  incision  about  four  inches  long,  and  along 
the  central  line  of  the  windpipe  and  down  to  it.  Then, 
with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  pierce  one  of  the  upper 
exposed  rings  of  the  windpipe ;  cut  downward  along 
the  central  line,  dividing  two  or  three  of  them.  Run 
a  crooked  needle  (Fig.  114)  through  the  integu- 
ments on  each  side ;  tie  the  lips  of  the  wound   to   a 


14. — Crooked  Needle. 


bunch  of  the  mane  to  keep  them  from  closing  the 
orifice.  After  the  horse  can  again  breathe  free, 
stitch  up  the  place  and  treat  as  a  common  wound. 

Tumor,  Fungous  Collar.  This,  in  its  nature,  is 
essentially  the  same  as  that  described  as  saddle  gall 
or  sit-fast — ^differing,  however,  in  location  and  specific 
cause.  It  is  an  inflammation  and  swelling  beneath 
the  large,  fat  muscle  that  covers  the  front  of  the 
shoulder,  and  is  caused  by  the  chafing  of  the  collar. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  undertake  farther  descrip- 
tion of  a  well-known  visible  aff"ection.  It  is  usually 
found  near  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  thecharacter 
of  the  tumor  as  to  simplicity  or  severity  can  be  readily 
determined  by  examination.  If  of  considerable  stand- 
ing, it  will  be  found  so  hard  as  to  render  it  almost 
impossible  to  detect  any  fluctuation  that  would  indi- 
cate the  presence  of  matter.  Where  there  is  much 
swelling,  however,  there  is  almost  invariably  matter, 
and  no  cure  can  be  efi'ected  until  this  is  removed.  In 
cases  less  marked  there  will  be  a  small,  hard  or  indur- 
ated lump  without  matter.  Under  similar  conditions 
as  those  mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  it  may 
form  a  leathery  patch  in  the  center  and  become  a 
real  sit-fast. 

Treatment.  The  tumor  must,  if  possible,  be  so 
treated  as  to  leave  no  scar  or  lump,  as  this  would  be 
easily  irritated  by  the  collar  upon  subsequent  use,  and 
prove  a  source  of  constant  trouble.  The  first  thing  in 
order  will  be  to  take  the  horse  from  work,  if  at  all 
practicable.  If  not,  use  a  breast-strap,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent all  further  chafing.  If  the  swelling  is  recent, 
apply  cold  water  often,  or  cover  the  part  with  a  wet 
rag  hung  over  the  shoulders  in  such  a  way  as  to 
remain  in  contact  with  the  swelling.  This  must  be 
kept  constantly  wet  with  water  and  tincture  of  arnica. 

But  if  the  tumor  is  large  and  of  long  standing — 
already  hardened  and  containing  matter  deeply  hid- 
den— open  with  a  knife,  making  a  smooth,  vertical 
cut,  and  of  sufficient  depth  to  thoroughly  evacuate 
the  pus.     Syringe  the  opening  well  every  day  with 


HORSE. 


8iS 


the  following  solution :  Equal  parts  of  pyroligneous 
acid,  spirits  of  turpentine  and  linseed  oil. 

If  the  wound  seems  inclined  to  heal  and  leave  a 
hard  lump  in  doing  so,  discontinue  the  injection  and 
rub  frequently  with  the  following  liniment  to  promote 
the  absorption  of  the  callous  or  gristly  formation :  i 
ounce  iodine,  12  ounces  soap  liniment. 
In  treating  this,  as  in  other  tumors  which 
suppurate,  a  n 
aspirator,  as 
shown  by  Fig. 
115,  will  be 
found  vaklable. 
The  advantage 
of  this  aspirator 
is  compactness. 
Its  bottle  is 
small,  but  never- 
theless it  is  as 
efficient  as  an 
apparatus  with 
a  bottle  of  any 
larger  size.  This 

is    achieved   by  v,^.-,,^.-Aspirator. 

the  hole  in  the  bottle,  at  F,  through  which  the  con- 
tents can  be  emptied  most  conveniently  by  opening 
the  stop-cock  C,  and  removing  the  fitting  D,  con- 
nected with  the  pump  from  the  bottle  B.  The  stop- 
cock at  D  controls  communication  from  the  bottle 
with  the  pump  as  well  as  through  the  needle.  To 
exhaust  the  bottle  of  air  the  stop-cock  C  is  closed  and 
the  stop-cock  at  D  turned,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and 
the  pump  worked.  By  turning  the  stop-cock  at  D 
hori/iontally,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  communi- 
cation through  the  needle  to  the  bottle  is  established. 

Urine,  Albuminous.  This  disability  in  horses, 
characterized  by  a  thick,  ropy,  albuminous  discharge 
of  urine,  is  quite  common  in  its  milder  forms,  being 
an  attendant  on  extensive  inflammation  of  important 
organs,  on  rheumatic  fevers,  and  some  conditions  of 
blood- ix)isoning.  •  It  is  especially  attendant  on  inflam- 


Fig.  zi-j.—Position  Assuinedby  Horse  Having  Albuminous  Urint. 

mation   of    the   kidneys,   both   acute    and    chronic, 
attended  with  degeneration  and  shedding  of  the  epi- 


thelium (the  layers  of  cells)  lining  the  kidney  tubes. 
'Sympto}ns.  There  are  two  special  positions  as- 
sumed by  horses  suffering  from  seveie  secretion  of  the 
albuminous  urine.  One  is  the  stretched-out  position. 
In  the  other  the  back  will  be  roached  as  seen  in 
Fig.  118.  In  its  mild  stages,  the  urine  is  thick, 
ropy,  mucilaginous;  when  it  first  begins  to  flow,  of  a 
reddish-brown  color,  but  changing  to  a  more  natural 
condition,  ending  with  a  whitish  milky  fluid ;  some- 
times the  reverse,  commencing  white.  When  the  dis- 
ease is  farther  advaiiced  the  urine  is  thicker,  more 
deeply  tinged  and  sometimes  offensive  to  the  smell. 
It  may  degenerate  into  a  number  of  forms,  and  finally 
terminate  in  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys. 

Treatmetit.  Place  tlie  animal  where  it  may  be 
comfortable  ;  clothe  warmly.  If  there  is  inflammation 
of  the  kidneys  foment  with  a  sheepskin  wrung  out  of 
hot  water;  or  better,  with  an  infusion  of  a  handful  of 
digitalis  in  a  pail  of  scalding  water,  and  use  other 
measures  recommended  in  this  article.  If  it  be  thought 
necessary  to  liquefy  the  urine,  not  always  beneficial, 
prepare  the  following: 

1  ounce  golden  seal, 

I  ounce  powdered  assafcetida, 

a  ounces  powdered  juniper  berries, 

8  ounces  powdered  poplar  bark, 

I  ounce  copperas. 

Mix,  divide  in  eight  parts,  and  give  one  night  and 
moming  in  the  food. 

The  real  animus  should  be  to  remove  the  cause, 
which,  as  we  have  stated,  is  various.  Attend  to  the 
general  health  of  the  animal,  keep  the  bowels  open 
by  a  free  use  of  bran  mashes  and  other  food  of  an 
opening  nature.  Give  a  laxative  if  necessary — say,  5 
ounces  salts,  and  Peruvian  bark  i  to  2  ounces  daily 
at  two  or  three  doses. 

Urine,  Bloody.  The  causes  of  this  distressing 
disease,  which  consists  of  extravasation  of  blood  from 
the  urinary  organs,  is  often  obscure.  Sprains  or 
bruising  of  the  loins,  stone  in  the  kidneys,  urinary 
passages  or  bladder,  blood-]X)isoning.  Strong  diuretics 
are  operative  in  producing  this  disease 


*<V\\;^®Pi|(^_^_^ 

Fig.  \i%.—Horst  Suffering  from  Bloody  Urine. 

Symptom^.  If  from  local  irritation,  the  blood  being 
in  a  healthy  state,  there  will  be  clots  of  blood  passed 
and  fibrinous  casts  of  the  urinary  tubes  entangling 
blood  globules.  These  may  be  seen  with  a  magni- 
fying glass.     If  there  is   gravel  more  or  less  gntty 


8i6 


HORSE. 


matter  will  be  passed.  If  from  blood-poisoning,  the 
tests  must  be  made  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  from  the 
urine,  who  can  then  prescribe. 

Treatment.  The  general  practice  is  to  give  sound 
food,  good  shelter,  mucilaginous  drinks,  as  linseed  or 
slippery-elm  tea,  or  marsh-mallow  tea ;  also  acid 
astringents,  vinegar,  buttermilk,  a  weak  decoction  of 
white-oak  bark.  If  the  passages  are  profuse  apply 
cold  water  to  the  loins.  If  there  is  inflammation 
foment  with  warm  water,  and  follow  with  a  mustard 
plaster.  If  the  bowels  are  inactive,  give  the  following: 
4  drachms  aloes,  i  ounce  cream  tartar.  Mix  in  one 
and  a  half  pints  of  warm  water  and  give  when  cool, 
aiding  the  operation  by  an  injection  of  one  quart  of 
soapsuds  and  four  ounces  oil  turpentine. 

Urine,  Suppression  of.  This  is  produced  by  par- 
alysis of  the  bladder,  meningitis,  lock-jaw,  severe 
colic,  or  other  acute  diseases,  or  from  irritating  drugs 
given  by  ignorant  stablemen,  so  that  the  operator  must 
be  informed  of  the  nature  of  the  case. 

Treattnent.  If  it  be  caused  by  paralysis  the  urine 
must  be  drawn  off  several  times  a  day  with  a  cathe- 
ter. The  following  will  be  indicated  to  be  given 
internally :  ^  drachm  nux  vomica,  i  pint  water. 
Give  as  a  drench  twice  a  day. 

Another  remedy :  Take  a  hypodermic  syringe. 
Fig.  119,  and  throw  one  half  grain  of  the  following 
under  the  skin,  twice  daily: 

4  drops  sulphuric  acid, 
2  grains  strychnine, 
5^  ounce  alcohol. 

If  the  difficulty  is  due  to  general  weakness  of  the 
bladder,  give  the  following 
stimulant:  20  grains  pow- 
dered cantharides,  i  drachm 
powdered  digitalis.  Make 
into  a  ball  with  soap.  If 
there  is  an  accumulation  of 
hard  faeces  in  the  rectum,  it 
must  be  removed  by  full  in- 
jections of  strong  soapsuds, 
and  if  necessary  removal  of 
the  partially  softened  dung 
with  the  oiled  hand.  If 
there  is  inflammation  of  the 
neck  of  the  bladder,  as 
shown  by  heat,  swelUng, 
tenderness,  give  injections 
of  I  drachm  extract  of  bel- 
ladonna in  a  quart  of  warm 
»^^^g9  fcj  water,  thrown  repeatedly 
^^^^n^  m^  into  the  rectum  of  horses 
^^^^p^  ^  and  into  the  vagina  of 
-^^-^  "  mares.  To  relieve  pain 
give  from  one-half  to  two 
drachms  of  opium,  as  may 

Flo.  iKt—tiypod^rmicSyriHge.hz    needed,  or    one -half 

ounce  of  the  tincture  of  lobelia. 

Veins,  Inflammation    of    the,    or    Phlebitis. 

Horses,  whose  fate  it  is  to  belong  to  men  who  will 

bleed  for  every  ailment,  are  most  subject  to  phlebitis. 


It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  bleed  for  everything 
and  for  nothing.  It  was  not  considered  that  an  ani- 
mal whose  life  was  one  continued  period  of  toil,  was 
more  likely  to  become  the  victim  of  debility  than  of 
repletion.  The  thought  never  occurred  to  the  owner 
that  his  wretched  slave  stood  more  in  need  of  having 
blood  put  into  his  veins  than  taken  out ;  conse- 
quently the  animal  was  subjected  to  the  erroneous 
notion  of  ignorant  humanity.  Fortunately  the  light 
which  science  has  thrown  upon  their  subject,  partially 
renders  bleeding  a  thing  of  the  past,  although  there 
still  exist  people  whom  science  cannot  advance  past 
the  customs  of  ancient  fogyism.  Phlebitis  always  fol- 
lows bleeding.  No  particular  quantity  abstracted  and 
no  condition  of  the  animal  indicates  the  disorder.  It 
has  appeared  in  different  forms  of  the  operation,  and 
all  classes  of  horses  are  alike  subject  to  it.  If  in  the 
opinion  of  some  it  is  found  necessary  to  bleed,  the 
animal  shoi>ld  be  kept  in  a  stall  with  the  head  tied  up 
to  the  rack  for  at  least  a  couple  of  days,  as  exercise, 
and  the  horse  being  allowed  to  hang  his  head  after 
blood  being  abstracted,  have  brought  about  the  disease. 

Symptoms.  The  first  noticeable  symptoms  are :  the 
lips  of  the  wound  begin  to  enlarge  and  separate  and  a 
foul  discharge  issues  from  the  vein.  Next,  a  round, 
hard  enlargement  appears  above  the  opening  as  large 
as  a  hickory-nut  and  the  vein  becomes  swollen  and 
hard,  superior  to  the  orifice.  Next,  abscesses  are  seen 
along  the  line  of  the  vein  which  soon  maturate  and 
send  forth  a  filthy  discharge.  Should  the  case  be  neg- 
lected, the  discharge  becomes  thick,  dark  and  fetid. 
The  animal  grows  dull  and  stupid,  at  length  the  in- 
flammation extends  to  the  brain  and  a  violent  death 
from  phrenitis  relieves  the  sufferer. 

Treatment.  The  treatment  consists  in  blistering 
along  the  line  of  the  diseased  vein  ;  as  soon  as  the  first 
blister  becomes  smooth  apply  another,  and  sometimes 
a  third  one  is  necessary.  The  abscesses  should  be 
opened  with  a  sharp  knife. 

Vermin.  Vermin  are  both  a  cause  and  a  conse- 
quent of  skin  disease ;  and  being  also  bred  in  the 
hairy  covering,  perhaps  in  the  very  skin  itself,  they  are 
properly  treated  in  this  connection.  Every  species  of 
animal  is  more  or  less  troubled  with  his  own  peculiar 
insect  tormenter ;  and  while  no  well  defined  cause 
can  be  assigned  as  to  their  origin,  they  are  almost 
always  found  associated  with  filth  and  squalor. 
They  sometimes,  however,  trouble  animals  of  fair  con- 
dition, and  accustomed  to  reasonable  care,  but  in  this 
case  they  are  generally  caught  by  contact.  Poor,  ill- 
cared  for,  mangy  horses,  colts  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  with  long  uncurried  coats,  and  old  and  feeble 
horses  with  like  rough  and  shaggy  covering,  most 
probably  breed  them;  and  on  these  they  are  most 
frequently  and  plentifully  found. 

The  itching  torment  to  which  they  subject  diseased 
animals  doubtless  intensifies  whatever  disorder 
may  exist,  and  the  very  earliest  opportunity  should 
be  taken  to  eradicate  them  from  the  sufferer.  When 
horses  stand  in  proximity  to  a  hen-house,  they  are 
often  seridusly  annoyed  with  hen  lice,  which  are  even 


HORSE. 


817 


more  tormenting  than  those  peculiar  to  the  horse  him- 
self. 

Sytnptoms.  The  horse  infested  with  vermin  will 
usually  manifest  his  uneasiness  by  biting  and  rubbing 
himself;  but  their  presence  may  be  unmistakably  de- 
tected by  a  more  or  less  careful  examination  of  his 
coat. 

Treatment.  If  the  horse  is  suffering  from  some 
skin  disease  requiring  treatment,  the  means  adopted 
for  this  will  almost  invariably  suffice  of  themselves  to 
remove  the  vermin;  but  where  no  such  disease  exists, 
and  it  is  a  simple  case  of  lousiness,  anoint  him  with 
the  following  salve :  one  drachm  carbolic  acid  crys- 
tals; one  quart  fresh  lard  ;  or  one  ounce  of  sulphur 
to  one  pint  of  lard.  Rub  it  upon  every  part  of  the 
body  thoroughly  ;  wash  with  warm  soapsuds  next  day; 
repeat  if  necessary — at  last  washing  and  drying. 

Attention  to  his  general  health  will  also  be  de- 
manded; and  to  this  end  he  should  be  upon  good 
pasture,  or  a  liberal  supply  of  nourishing  but  not  heat- 
ing food  should  be  given. 

If  it  is  a  case  of  hen  lice,  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  remove  the  horse  from  the  place  infested  with 
these,  and  then  to  anoint  and  wash  as  before  di- 
rected. 

Various  Fractures.  To  fracture  a  limb  com- 
pletely, so  the  leg  hangs  loose,  is  of  so  serious  a  nature, 
in  the  horse,  that  unless  in  the  case  of  a  very  valu- 
able animal  for  breeding  purposes,  it  had  better  be 
killed  at  once. 

Warts.  It  is  difficult  to  point  out  anything  that 
may  be  implicitly  received  as  the  cause  of  these 
excrescences.  They  are  abnormal  growths,  which 
appear  ujwn  all  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  highly 
vascular  and  sometimes  the  source  of  great  annoy- 
ance. The  manner  of  their  formation  seems  to  be 
this:  Knots  fonn  in  the  true  skin  and  gradually  develop, 
being  surrounded  with  a  covering  of  the  scarf  skin, 
sometimes  thickened  and  matted  together,  and  this 
outer  covering  generally  dries  and  splits  into  fibers 
towards  the  top,  while  blood,  in  greater  quantities 
than  usual,  is  sent  to  the  inner  or  vascular  parts,  and 
more  nutriment  is  thus  diverted  than  to  the  surround- 
ing flesh,  so  that  an  upward  or  outward  growth  is  pro- 
moted. Seed  warts  usually  make  their  appearance 
on  the  eyelids,  the  nose,  the  sheath  and  adjoining 
parts  of  the  belly ;  the  encysted  or  sac  warts  on  the 
pasterns,  hock  joints  and  knee  joints,  and  sometimes 
uix)n  the  sheath  and  neighboring  parts.  Unless  warts 
appear  upon  the  penis  they  are  not  injurious  to  health, 
and  at  first  occasion  little  inconvenience,  unless  u|X)n 
the  shoulder  or  some  part  where  harness  or  saddle 
touches  constantly ;  but  they  should  be  removed,  never- 
theless, particularly  the  sac  wart  and  those  seed 
warts  which  manifest  a  tendency  to  enlargement. 

Symptoms.  There  are  two  kinds  of  these  formations, 
one  of  which  is  fibrous,  white  and  gristly  or  cartilagin- 
ous, but  somewhat  spongy  lump,  contained  in  a  sac 
or  cell  which  has  taken  its  rise  from  the  outer  or 
scarf  skin,  and  the  other  is  a  somewhat  cartilaginous 
substance,  not  inclosed  but  adhering  firmly  to  the 
52 


skin — a  hard  excrescence,  the  "  seed  wart,"  which  is 
too  well  known  to  require  description.  It  is  some- 
times difficult  to  distinguish  the  blood  wart,  as  the 
former  is  sometimes  called,  from  the  seed  wart ;  but 
it  generally  presents  a  more  rounded,  smooth  appear- 
ance, and  sometimes  hangs  as  by  a  little  stem,  in 
which  last  case  it  is  readily  known. 

Treatment.  The  best  method  of  treatment,  in  all 
cases  were  the  situation  will  admit,  is  to  take  a  sharp 
scalpel  (Fig.  1 20)  and  cut  the  wart  down   level  with 


Fig.  120. — Scalpel, 

the  surface,  and  then  apply  at  once  tincture  of  iron 
until  the  hemorrhage  is  arrested.  To  prevent  its 
return,  apply  equal  parts  of  powdered  alum,  corrosive 
sublimate  and  arsenic.  Apply  Venice  turpentine  in 
case  the  styptic  should  fail  to  arrest  the  hemorrhage. 
When  the  wart  is  first  removed  with  the  scaljjel,  take 
a  piece  of  iron  and  heat  it  to  a  dull  red  heat  and 
apply  it  well  to  the  parts,  which  will  not  only  close 
the  arteries  and  arrest  the  hemorrhage,  but  will  have 
a  jxjwerful  tendency  to  prevent  their  return.  Where 
the  wart  is  very  large,  and  the  party  lacks  boldness  to 
remove  it  with  the  scalpel,  there  may  be  a  ligature 
tied  tightly  around  the  corn,  and  by  tightening  it 
every  day  the  wart  will  soon  drop  off;  then  treat  as 
above. 

Wind-galls.  Wind-galls  may  arise  either  from 
strains,  over  exertion,  or  dropsy  of  the  parts.  As  a 
rule  they  are  elastic,  round  swellings  on  each  side  of 
the  tendons,  rarely  becoming  solid  from  coagulation 
of  the  lymph,  unless,  as  is  occasionally  the  case,  the 
strain  is  so  severe  as  to  cause  inflammation  of  the 
bone,  ulceration  and  bony  deposit.  They  do  no  injury 
whatever,  and  do  not  cause  unsoundness. 

Trcattnent.  If  the  puffs  (wind-galls)  are  just  appear- 
ing, they  may  be  scattered  sometimes  by  a  strong 
decoction  of  white-oak  bark  and  alum.  They  may  be 
reduced  by  blistering,  from  subsequent  contraction  of 
the  skin,  so  the  liquid  lymph  may  be  drawn  out  with 
a  hyixxlermic  syringe,  after  which  a  wet  bandage 
should  be  applied  over  the  part.  If  there  is  heat  and 
tenderness  in  connection  with  the  wind-galls  it  must 
be  treated  with  fomentations  and  a  high-heeled  shoe, 
as  recommended  for  such  disabilities.  As  a  rule, 
simple  wind-galls,  being  so  common,  often  appearing 
on  colts  and  doing  no  injury,  had  better  not  be  med- 
dled with,  unless  there  is  inflammation  attending 
them. 

Withers,  Fistulous.  See  Fistulous  Withers,  page 
766. 

"Worms.     See  Intestines,  page  7^5- 

Wounds,  Lacerated.  A  lacerated  wound  is  a 
torn  wound.     The  wound  by  treading,  calking  etc.,  is 


8i8 


HORSEBACK  RIDING. 


a  lacerated  wound.  The  tearing  up  of  the  skin  and 
sub-cellular  tissues,  leaving  a  flap,  is  a  lacerated 
wound. 

Treatment.  In  any  wound,  if  feverish  symptoms 
occur,  give  J^-ounce  of  pulverized  saltpeter  in  the 
drink  night  and  morning,  and  adniinist-er  a  moderate 
purge,  unless  the  bowels  are  open,  say  3  drachms 
podophyllin,    i  drachm   cream  tartar,  and   25  drops 


i-'orcefs/or  Lifting  Bleeding  and  Wounded   Blood.l'essets 
so  they  may  be  tied. 

tincture  aconite.  In  the  case  of  any  lacerated  wound, 
ifexteiisive,  clip  away  all  torn  shreds,  bring  the 
edges  nicely  together  and  sew  them  with  fine  catgut, 
or  white  waxed  silk,  and  let  the  subsequent  treatment 
be  as  directed  for  other  wounds. 

Wounds  Penetrating  the  Abdominal  Cavity. 
A  penetrating  wound  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen  is 
generally  followed  by  protrusion  of  the  bowels.  Some- 
times it  is  so  extensive  as  to  allow  a  large  portion  of 
the  intestines  to  escape.  If  so,  they  should  be  sup- 
ported by  a  sheet  fastened  over  the  back  to  prevent 
mjury  by  the  feet  and  the  admission  of  dirt  until  re- 
lief is  given. 

Treatment.  The  horse  should  be  cast,  the  bowels 
washed  with  tepid  water,  the  horse  turned  on  his 
back,  the  intestines  properly  returned  to  their  place  by 
pressure,  and  the  wound  sewed  up  with  catgut,  well 
soaked  in  warm  oil,  and  at  intervals  of  an  inch  apart, 
bringing  the  edges  nicely  together.  Then  encircle 
the  belly  with  a  strong  bandage  properly  fastened,  by 
being  laced  along  the  back.  Empty  the  rectum,  if 
necessary,  by  means  of  injections  of  warm  water  or 
soapsuds,  and  keep  the  bowels  open  by  feeding 
scalded  shorts  pretty  well  salted. 

Wound,  Punctured.  A  nail,  the  ]X)int  of  a  fork, 
a  splint  of  wood,  a  thorn,  or  any  similar  substance, 
makes  a  punctured  wound.  They  are  the  most  dan- 
gerous of  wounds,  from  risk  of  internal  poisoning,  or 
ending  in  fistula,  lock-jaw,  etc. 

Treatment.  First  examine  carefully  by  means  of  a 
probe  for  any  foreign  substance  lodged  inside.  If  found 
remove  it,  even  if  a  clean  cut  has  to  be  made.  A  clean 
cut  is  not  dangerous  unless  an  artery  is  severed.  If 
the  instrument  inflicting  the  wound  was  dirty  or  rusty, 
syringe  the  wound  thoroughly  with  weak  carbolic  wa- 
ter. If  the  wound  heals  kindly,  use  the  dressing  for 
contused  wounds.  If  inflammation  sets  in,  and  mat- 
ter forms  in  a  deep,  narrow  wound,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  enlarge  the  opening  to  let  out  the  pus.  Then 
treat  as  directed  for  contused  wounds. 


Yellows:  see  Jaundice. 

Horseback  Biding.  We  need  not  attempt  to  im- 
press uix)n  minds  of  the  rural  residents  the  impor- 
tance of  this  healthful  and  inspiring  exercise.  It 
certainly  cannot  fail  to  commend  itself  to  those  of 
either  sex  who  attain  any  proficiency  in  the  art.  It  is 
quite  important  that  the  saddle  should  rest  easy  and 
firm  upon  the  horse.  Beneath,  the  saddle  should  be 
well  chambered, — that  is,  it  should  be  wide  over  the 
withers,  and  free  from  stuffing  at  this  point,  and  there 
should  be  a  space  of  at  least  two  inches  between  the 
pads  of  either  side  to  leave  a  free  space  over  the 
horse's  spine,  from  one  end  of  the  saddle  to 
the  other.  The  pads  should  only  be  sufficiently 
stuff"ed  to  protect  the  horse's  back  from  injuiy, 
as  too  much  stuffing,  by  increasing  the  dis- 
tance between  the  rider  and  his  horse,  gives 
an  insecurity  to  his  position.  On  either  side 
of  the  saddle,  just  in  front  of  the  stirrup  bars, 
there  should  be  a  ring  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  to  which  to  attach  the  breast- 
plate, if  it  should  at  any  time  be  necessary  to  use  one. 
There  should  be  two  girths  made  of  the  best  qual- 
ity of  webbing,  good  width,  and  sujjplied  with  strong, 
long-tongued  buckles.  The  stirrup  irons  should  be 
of  sufficient  size  to  permit  the  ball  of  the  foot  to  pass 
through  them  without  difficulty.  A  light  stirrup 
should  be  avoided,  as  it  is  more  easily  lost  by  the  foot 
and  more  difficult  to  recover.  The  crupper  should  be 
used  only  on  such  horses  as  are,  from  their  straight 
shoulder  and  low  withers,  unfit  for  the  saddle.  It  is 
claimed  by  some  that  martingales  should  only  be  em- 
ployed by  unskillful  riders  on  fretful  horses,  their  use 
being  deprecated  as  unnaturally  constraining  the 
movements  of  the  horse.  The  bridle  for  horseback 
riding  is  generally  of  russet  leather,  with  polished 
steel  or  nickel-plated  mountings.  It  should  be  as 
plain  as  possible.  As  to  the  form  of  bit,  much  de- 
pends ujxjn  the  temper  of  the  horse  and  the  condition 
of  his  mouth.  This  matter  is  fully  presented  in  the 
article  Bridle,  commencing  on  page  148.  to  which  we 
refer  the  reader,  in  order  to  prevent  repetition  here. 

To  educate  or  gauge  a  horse  to  certain  modes  of 
travel,  as  well  as  to  hurrj'  him  up  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency, a  spur  is  of  the  greatest  convenience.  The 
new  style,  represented  by  Fig.  2,  is  superior  to  the  old, 
Fig.  I,  in  several  respects,  as  may  readily  be  seen  in 


Fig.  1.— Old  style. 


Fig.  2. — New  Style. 


the  engravings.      The  new  is  small  and  light,  weigh- 
ing less  than  an  ounce,  and  is  easily  carried  in  the 


ffORSEBACX  RIDING. 


819 


Fig.  3. — Thompson^ s  Pocket  Spur. 


pocket,  or  a  pocket-book;  it  allows  the  trovvsers  to 

come  down  full 
length  and  smooth, 
and  can  be  inserted 
into  the  boot  heel 
and  taken  out  with 
readiness,  and,  if 
done  with  care,  many 
hundreds  of  times 
with  one  pair  of  boots 
'  before  the  thread  is 
worn  out. 

The  regular  trot  is 
easy  to  produce,  but 
sometimes,  when  the  canter  has  been  much  adopted, 
it  is  not  so  readily  effected.  The  best  plan  for  riding 
in  the  trot  is  this :  The  foot  should  bear  strongly  on 
the  stirrup,  so  that  the  elasticity  of  the  ankle  takes  off 
the  jar  and  prevents  the  double  rise,  which  in  some 
bad  horses  is  very  apt  to  be  produced.  The  knees 
should  always  be  maintained  exactly  in  the  same 
place,  and  the  legs  be  held  perpendicularly  from  the 
knee  downward.  The  chest  should  be  well  forward, 
the  waist  in,  the  rise  nearly  upright  but  shghtly  for- 
ward, and  as  easily  as  can  be  effected  without  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  rider,  and  rather  restraining  than 
adding  to  the  throw  of  the  horse. 

To  develop  the  canter,  by  restraining  the  gallop, 
there  are  required  good  hands,  a  quiet  seat  and  a  curb 
bit  properly  adapted  to  the  mouth.  To  make  a  horse 
start  off  at  once,  just  at  the  moment  before  starting 
pull  the  rein  and  press  the  heel  on  the  side  opix)site 
to  the  leg  which  it  is  desired  the  horse  should  lead; 
for  every  horse,  in  starting  to  canter  (and  many  even 
in  the  canter  itself),  turns  slightly  across  his  line  of 
progress,  in  order  to  enable  himself  to  lead  with  that 
leg  he  first  throws  forward.  A  similar  process  on  the 
other  side  will  cause  him  to  "change  his  leg," — that 
is,  make  the  other  side  take  the  lead. 

The  gallop  requires  no  special  skill  to  develop,  but 
there  are  two  modes  of  riding  it.  One  is,  to  sit  down 
close  to  the  saddle  and  the  other  to  partially  stand  in 
the  stirrups;  the  former  is  the  most  common  method. 
Mounting.  The  breaking  of  the  horse  to  the 
saddle,  the  mode  of  mounting  to  do  this,  etc.,  is  treated 
on  page  710. 

There  are  two  methods  recommended  for  mounting. 
One  is  to  place  the  left  hand  on  the  withers,  or  grasp 
with  it  the  horn  of  the  saddle,  at  the  same  time  hold- 
ing the  reins  in  that  hand,  while  standing  with  the 
back  towards  the  horse's  head ;  then  place  the  left 
foot  in  the  stirrup  and  spring  up  from  the  ground 
with  the  weight  partly  on  this  stirrup  and  partly  lifted 
with  the  hands.  In  this  process  the  right  hand  first 
grasps  the  cantle  of  the  saddle,  or  is  placed  on  the 
back  of  the  animal  corresponding  to  the  cantle,  and 
as  the  right  leg  is  thrown  over,  the  right  hand  is 
removed  to  the  horn  of  the  saddle  or  to  the  withers. 
The  left  hand  all  the  while  holds  the  reins  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  keep  control  of  the  horse  and  be  ready 
for  guiding  or  checking  him  on  the  instant.     The 


other  method  of  mounting,  recommended  by  Rarey,  is 
to  place  tlie  right  hand  and  arm  over  the  saddle,  with 
your  face  toward  the  horse's  head,  put  the  left  foot  in 
the  stirrup  and  draw  yourself  skillfully  up  into  the 
saddle.  But  by  this  method  one  is  more  apt  to  receive 
a  kick,  if  the  horse  be  vicious. 

The  position  in  the  saddle  is  various,  mainly  accord- 
ing to  the  relative  length  of  the  stirrups.  In  the 
military  style  these  are  comparatively  long,  permitting 
the  body  to  come  well  down  into  the  seat;  but  for 
ordinary  riding  the  stirrups  should  be  adjusted  in  the 
following  manner:  Sit  easily  in  the  saddle  and  let  the 
feet  and  legs  hang  down  passively  as  far  as  they  will; 
then  take  up  or  let  out  the  stirrups  until  their  basal 
portion  is  directly  opposite  the  ankles.  This  enables 
the  rider  to  distribute  his  weight  in  proper  proportions 
between  his  feet,  thighs,  and  seat.  While  riding,  no 
effort  should  be  made  to  move  in  any  direction,  but 
the  body  and  limbs  should  be  permitted  to  follow  the 
motion  of  the  horse.  To  attain  a  position  that  "looks 
well,"  the  aid  of  a  friend  who  is  a  good  horseman  is 
necessary,  for  printed  rules  are  of  no  account.  A 
rider  may  think  he  sits  square  and  all  right  when  in 
reality  he  does  not.  For  most  purposes,  however, 
where  pride  does  not  prompt  one  to  show  off,  the 
rider  will  assume  the  easiest  position  regardless  of 
appearance.  Even  such  a  position,  moreover,  is  diffi- 
cult for  some  persons  to  attain. 

The  most  graceful  manner  of  holding  the  reins  is 
to  hold  them  both  in  the  left  hand,  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  will  be  easy  to  guide  the  animal  ;  but  to  rest 
that  hand  the  right  must  be  used  a  portion  of  the 
time.  Horses  difficult  to  manage  require  both  hands 
to  be  used  at  once  to  some  extent ;  but  such  horses, 
of  course,  do  not  permit  their  riders  to  "show  off" 
much.  The  attainment  of  "good  hands" — that  is, 
the  light  and  delicate  handling  of  the  reins — is,  or 
ought  to  be,  the  aim  of  every  rider.  The  most  deli- 
cate mouth  in  the  world  is  soon  spoiled  by  bearing 
heavily  upon  it,  as  is  generally  the  case.  In  order  to 
keep  a  horse  from  stumbling,  or  falling  into  an 
unnatural  gait,  he  should  be  allowed  to  "  have  his 
head,"  for  this  is  just  as  necessary  as  that  a  man  in 
walking  or  running  should  be  allowed  the  free  motion 
of  his  hands  and  arms.  Bad  riders  use  the  reins  as  a 
means  of  balancing  themselves  in  the  saddle.  As  to 
the  manner  of  using  the  reins  the  late  Henry  William 
Herbert  makes  the  following  observations : 

"  Lightness  of  hand,"  about  which  much  is  said,  is 
really  a  firmness ;  and,  except  with  delicately-formed 
and  perfectly-trained  horses,  a  light  hold  of  the  bit  is 
not  only  dangerous  but  is  injurious  to  the  perfect  action 
of  the  horse.  On  the  road  the  rider  should  always 
maintain  his  horse's  head  in  a  perpendicular  position ; 
this  requires  the  rein  to  be  drawn  to  a  certain  point, 
at  which  it  should  be  constantly  kept,  unless  it  be 
necessary  to  slacken  the  pace.  The  horse  will  soon 
learn  that  it  is  only  within  this  limit  that  he  can  be 
free  from  the  pain  caused  by  the  pressure  of  bit,  and 
by  keeping  his  mouth  just  within  it  he  will  render  the 
hold  a  light  one ;  but  should  he  attempt  to  pass  beyond 


820 


HORSE-BOT— HORSE  CHESTNUT. 


it,  he  should  find  his  rider's  hand  as  firm  and  unyielding 
as  iron.  When  in  this  position,  the  horse  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  the  least  movement  of  the  rider's  hand, 
and  by  an  awkward  motion  he  may  be  thrown  upon 
his  l^aunches,  or  at  least  interrupted  and  confused  in 
his  gait. 

Every  rider  should  be  taught  to  go  through  all  the 
paces,  and  to  jump  the  bar  without  any  reins  in  his 
hand ;  and  when  he  finds  he  is  able  to  do  without 
them,  he  will  learn  to  use  them  only  in  the  way  for 
which  they  were  intended. 

Etiquette  of  Riding.  The  etiquette  of  horseback 
riding  should  be  observed  by  those  who  practice,  it, 
either  for  pleasure  and  exercise  or  as  a  mode  of  travel 
in  pursuance  of  business  or  professional  calls.  There 
are  a  few  observations  we  desire  to  make  in  reference 
to  some  of  the  principal  points. 

Your  left  when  in  the  saddle  is  called  the  near  side, 
and  your  right  the  off-side.  Mounting  is  always  done 
on  the  near  side.  In  doing  this,  put  your  left  foot  in 
the  stirrup;  your  left  hand  on  the  saddle;  then,  as 
you  take  a  spring,  throw  your  right  leg  over  the  ani- 
mal's back.  Remember,  also,  that  the  rule  of  the 
road,  both  in  riding  and  driving,  is,  that  you  keep  to 
the  right. 

In  riding  with  ladies,  recollect  that  it  is  your  duty 
to  see  them  in  their  saddles  before  you  mount ;  and 
the  assistance  they  require  must  not  be  rendered  by  a 
groom ;  you  must  assist  them  yourself. 

The  lady  will  place  herself  on  the  near  side  of  the 
horse,  her  skirt  gathered  up  in  her  left  hand,  her  right 
on  the  pommel,  keeping  her  face  toward  the  horse's 
head.  You  stand  at  its  shoulder,  facing  her,  and 
stooping,  hold  your  hand  so  that  she  may  place  her 
left  foot  in  it ;  then  lift  it  as  she  springs,  so  as  to  aid 
her,  but  not  to  give  such  an  impetus  that,  like  "vault- 
ing ambition,"  she  loses  her  balance  and  "  falls  o'  the 
other  side."  Next,  put  her  foot  in  the  stirrup,  and 
smooth  the  skirt  of  her  habit ;  then  you  are  at  liberty 
to  mount   yourself. 

If  the  lady  with  whom  you  are  to  ride  is  a  good 
horsewoman,  and  her  horse  is  perfectly  trained,  your 
responsibility  is  a  light  and  pleasant  one,  involving 
only  those  usual  attentions  in  mounting  and  dismount- 
ing which  suggest  themselves.  Any  unnecessary  in- 
terference with  the  lady,  or  her  horse,  or  excessive 
solicitude  for  her  safety,  must,  to  a  woman  of  good 
sense,  be  annoying,  and  may  not  unfrequently  be  the 
cause  of  accidents.  As,  however,  a  lady  is  never  so 
well  prepared,  from  her  mode  of  dress,  natural  timid- 
ity and  inferior  strength,  for  the  exigences  of  an  acci- 
dent, or  a  contest  with  a  frightened  horse,  you  should 
always  be  watchful  of  her  horse,  without  appearing  to 
be  so,  especially  when  passing  vehicles  or  unusual 
objects  on  the  road. 

Few  ladies  know  how  to  dress  for  horse  exercise, 
although  there  has  been  a  great  improvement,  so  far 
as  taste  is  concerned,  of  late  years.  As  to  the  head- 
dress, it  may  be  whatever  is  in  fashion,  provided  it 
fits  the  head  so  as  not  to  require  continual  adjustment, 
often  needed  when  the  hands  would  be  better  employed 


with  the  reins  and  whip.  It  should  shade  from  the 
sun,  and,  if  used  in  hunting,  protect  the  nape  of  the 
neck  from  rain.  The  recent  fashions  of  wearing  the 
plumes  or  feathers  of  the  ostrich,  the  cock,  the  pheas- 
ant, the  peacock,  and  the  king-fisher,  in  the  riding 
hats  of  young  ladies,  are  highly  to  be  commended. 

The  hair  should  be  arranged  in  the  firmest  manner 
possible.  If  suited  to  the  style  of  the  lady,  it  may  be 
plaited  at  the  back  and  looped  across,  in  a  manner 
which  will  support  the  hat  and  present  a  very  comely 
appearance.  Or  it  may  be  found  pleasanter  to  turn 
all  of  the  hair  back  to  the  top  of  the  head,  where  a 
high  hat  is  used.  All  loose  arrangements  of  the  hair, 
except  short  curls,  when  they  are  natural,  should  be 
avoided.  But  few  hair-pins  should  be  used,  and 
those  long  and  finnly  woven  into  the  hair. 

Ladies'  habits  are  usually  made  too  long ;  if  the 
extra  length  be  turned  to  a  heavy  hem  at  the  bottom, 
it  will  be  found  much  more  likely  to  stay  well  down 
over  the  feet,  which  is  all  that  is  required ;  weights 
are  unnecessary  and  cumbersome.  A  foot  longer 
than  an  ordinary  skirt  will  be  found  sufficient,  if  the 
material  be  suitable.  Light  cloth  will  be  found  the 
most  appropriate  for  the  skirt,  if  the  color  be  becoming 
and  sufficiently  dark.  For  country  riding  it  may  be 
bordered  a  foot  deep  with  leather.  A  habit  of  the 
same  should  be  worn  in  winter,  adapted  in  shape  to 
the  figure  of  the  lady.  If  she  be  short  and  plump, 
the  more  closely  it  fits  the  figure  the  better,  particularly 
the  sleeves,  which  should  neverbe  large.  If  shebe  slight 
the  dress  may  be  opened  in  front  and  the  sleeves 
loosened  at  the  wrist,  with  white  linen  cliemisette  and 
sleeves.  No  basque,  or  a  very  slight  one,  should  be 
worn,  nor  anything  else  which  will  flutter  in  the  wind. 
No  ornament  is  needed.  A  good  effect  of  color  and 
form  is  all  that  is  seen  or  that  is  desirable. 

Keep  to  the  right  of  the  lady  or  any  ladies  riding 
with  you. 

Oi^en  all  gates  and  pay  all  tolls  on  the  road.  Never, 
under  any  circumstances,  allow  a  lady  to  attend  to 
any  duty  of  this  kind  while  under  your  escort.  You 
must  anticipate  her  every  need,  and  provide  for  it, 
making  her  comfort  your  first  thought. 

If  you  meet  friends  on  horseback,  do  not  turn  back 
with  them  ;  if  you  overtake  them,  do  not  thrust  your 
company  upon  them  unless  you  feel  assured  that  it  is 
agreeable  to  them  for  you  to  do  so. 

If  you  are  on  horseback  and  meet  a  lady  who  is 
walking,  and  with  whom  you  wish  to  speak,  dismount 
for  that  purix)se,  and  lead  your  horse.  To  ]Kit  her  to 
the  inconvenience  of  straining  after  and  shouting  to 
you,  would  be  a  gross  breach  of  manners 

Horse-Bot.  See  Gadfly,  page  553,  and  Bot,  page 
747. 

Horse  Chestnut,  a  tree  of  the  Buckeye  tribe,  note- 
worthy for  the  beauty  of  its  figure,  flowers  and  early 
foliage.  The  wood  is  soft  and  of  little  value.  The 
nuts  contain  much  nutritious  matter,  which  is  com- 
liined  with  a  disagreeable  bitter.  A  valuable  tree  for 
the .  landscape. 


HORSE-FL  V  FAMIL  Y—HORSE-PO  WER. 


821 


Horse-fly  Family.  This  family  comprises  large 
two-winged  insects,  which  in  the  female  have  a  pro- 
boscis enclosing  six  sharp  lancets,  and  in  the  male 
four.  The  eyes  are  very  large  and  cover  almost  the 
entire  head.  These  are  among 
the  largest  of  the  diptera,  and 
'  are  notorious  for  their  attacks 
upon  horses  and  cattle,  piercing 
them  and  sucking  their  blood, 
Black  Horse-fly.  and  causing  them  great  pain. 
The  larvae  live  in  the  ground.  We  give  an  illustra- 
tion by  the  accompanying  engraving  of  the  black 
horse-fly.  This  is  nearly  seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
long  and  expands  nearly  two  inches.  In  this  genus 
are  also  the  orange-beetled  horse-fly  and  the  lined 
horse-fly. 

Horse  Jockey,  a  dealer  in  horses. 

Horse-Power,  as  a  measure  of  force,  the  capacity 
of  raising  33,000  pounds  one  foot  in  a  minute;  a  unit 
or  standard  by  which  the  capabilities  of  steam  engines 
and  other  )jrime  movers  are  measured.  Work  is  an 
exertion   of  pressure    through  space.     The    unit  by 


the  nominal  horse-power.  The  elements  of  its  calcu- 
lation are  the  speed  of  the  piston,  and  the  pressure 
uix)n  it  as  shown  by  the  indicator  card,  or  as  calcula- 
ted by  approximate  rules. 

The  term  "horse-ixiwer,"  inthe  farmingcommunity, 
is  more  generally  understood  to  be  a  machine  to  com- 
municate the  power  of  horses  to  other  machinery. 
Fig.  I  gives  a  cut  of  a  large,  substantial  horse-power, 
such  as  is  used  for  driving  threshers.  It  has  the  great 
advantage  of  working  on  the  wheels  by  which  it  is 
moved  from  place  to  place.  It  has  ample  strength 
for  12  horses,  being  devised  in  competition  withsteam 
power.  The  bull-wheel  is  made  so  strong  as  never  to 
break,  and  at  the  same  time  the  jxjwer  is  compara- 
tively of  light  draft. 

The  "  spur-speed "  mounted  power  of  Nichols, 
Shepard  &  Co  ,  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  is  constructed  on 
the  Woodbury  principle,  possessing  all  the  good  points 
of  the  foregoing,  with  perhaps  some  advantages.  The 
shafts  are  made  of  the  best  quality  of  steel,  the  lower 
friction  pinion  is  provided  with  an  improved  adjusting 
bridge  tree,  by  which  it  can  be  easily  kept  in  g^ar ;  the 
line  shaft  is  so  arranged  that  the  tumbling-rod  can  be 


Fig.  1. — Spur-Speed 

which  quantities  of  work  are  measurable  is  the  labor 
necessary  to  raise  one  pound  through  the  height  of 
one  foot.  The  rate  at  which  workisdoneis  expressed 
in  horse-power,  and  one  horse-power  is  equivalent  to 
the  work  done  by  continuous  exertion  at  the  rate  of 
33,000  ])ounds  raised  through  one  foot  in  one  minute; 
that  is,  to  the  performance  of  33,000  units  of  work  per 
minute.  As  a  horse  can  exert  such  a  force  but  six 
hours  a  day,  one  machinery  horse-power  is  equivalent 
to  that  of  four  and  two-fifths  horses.  "  Nominal  horse- 
lK)wer"is  a  term  still  used  in  England  to  express  cer- 
tain proportions  of  cylinder,  but  of  no  value  as  a 
standard  of  measurement.  The  actual  or  indicated 
horse-power  of  an  engine  is  from  three  to  five  times 


^Mounted  Power. 

attached  at  either  end,  which  is  very  convenient  when 
operating  threshers  with  different  side  gear;  the  line 
shaft  boxes  are  provided  vsith  set-screws  for  properiy 
adjusting  the  line  shaft;  and  a  powerful  brake  is  also 
provided. 

A  fine  example  of  a  sweep  power  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  3,  which  is  a  cut  of  a  horse-jxjwer  manufactured 
by  the  Taylor  Horse-Power  Company,  Chicago.  This 
ix)wer  has  been  well  tested,  having  been  in  use  for 
many  years.  As  can  be  seen  in  the  cut,  it  is  adapt- 
able to  the  various  purposes  of  the  farm,  the  dairy,  etc. 
The  same  company  make  also  a  smaller  sweep  power, 
Fig.  2,  to  be  run  by  one,  two  and  four  horses.    This 


823 


HORSE-RACING— HOR  TICUL  TURE. 


arrangement  of  having  the  gearing  and  tumbling-rod 
overhead  is  patented  by  this  company. 

Tread-jxjwers 
[  possess  an  im- 
portant advan- 
tage for    the 
'  moderate  far- 
mer.    He  may 
!  do  his  threshing 
'  at  any  time  in 
Fig.  1.— Horse  Swte/'  Power.  winter,  Without 

securing  the  large  force  of  laborers  required  to  man  a 
large  machine.  With  lever  powers  six  to  ten  horses 
may  be  employed  and  more  rapid  work  performed. 


Horse-Kacing :    see  Speed. 

Horse-Eadish.  This  popular  salad  for  meats  is 
so  easily  raised,  growing  spontaneously  with  such 
vigor,  that  no  directions  for  its  cultivation  are  re- 
quired. By  cultivation,  however,  the  size  and  quality 
of  the  root  is  somewhat  improved.  The  roots  are  dug 
in  early  spring,  washed  and  grated  to  be  used  as  a 
salad  upon  meats.  It  is  almost  an  equivalent  of  mus- 
tard. Its  leaves  are  also  used  in  making  pickles, 
poultices,  etc.  To  keep  horse-radish  to  use  in  winter, 
take  it  up  in  the  fall  and  put  it  in  the  cellar,  in  a 
large  box  filled  with  earth,  or  put  in  the  cellar  with 
plenty  of  earth  around  it. 

Horse  Rake,  generally  used  for  raking  hay.     The 


Fig.  I.— The  Taylor 

Among  the  tread-powers,  that  made  by  E.  S.  Bris- 
tol &  Co.,  Chicago  (Fig.  5),  is  one  of  the  best. 

Dederick  &  Co.'s,  Fig.  4,  is  also  a  substantial  tread- 
power,  having  wrought  links  and  steel  rods.  The 
speed  is  adjustable  to  any  sort  of  work,  pressing  hay, 
threshing  grain,  sawing  wood,  etc.     The  horses  work 

abreast  on    all  but 
the  four-horse  pow- 
er, in    which   they 
work  two    abreast, 
!  and  the  other  two 
i  behind  them.    The 
j  four-horse  power  is 
J  designed    for  rapid 
y.  and  steady  work,  as 
;the  power  may  be 
I  placed    so    near 
I  level  that  the  horses 
will   walk   all    day 
steady  without  rest. 

^.-Dederirk  b-  Co.'s  Tread  Power.  T^gir  4-horse  pOWer 

is  no  wider  than  two-horse,  but  nearly  twice  the  length. 


Fig. 


Horse  Sweep  Power, 

Long  &  Allstatter  Company,  of  Hamilton,  Ohio,  man- 
ufacture an  excellent  sulky  horse  rake.  Fig.  6,  on 
the  next  page,  plainly  illustrates  the  manner  of  its 
working.  We  also  illustrate  the  wooden  hay -rake  by 
Fig.  I  of  article  on  Hay. 

Horse  Tick.  This  is  one  of  those  tenacious  in- 
sects, about  the  size  of  the  horse-fly,  which  attack  the 
horse.  It  prefers  those  parts  of  this  animal  where  the 
hair  is  thinnest,  and  skin  softest,  particularly  under 
the  belly  and  between  the  hind  legs.  Its  bites  cause 
severe  pain;  indeed,  so  terribly  annoying  is  it  that  it 
will  irritate  the  gentlest  horse  into  kicking,  rendering 
him  almost  uncontrollable.  It  clings  so  tenaciously 
that  its  removal  is  quite  difficult;  nor  is  it  easily  crushed, 
which  should  always  be  done,  however,  on  first  being 
noticed.     Fortunately  they  are  not  numerous. 

Horse  Shoe.     See  page  733. 

Horticulture.  On  page  433  in  the  article  on 
Farming,  we  spoke  of  Horticulture  as  embracing  the 
second  great  division  of  Agriculture,  or  that  which  per- 
tains to  the  forest,  the  orchard  and  the  garden.   These 


HOSE— HO  T-BED. 


823 


include  pomology,  arboriculture,  vegetable  gardening, 
floriculture  and  landscape  gardening.  See  Garden, 
Orchard,  Floricultuie,  Forestry  and  the  respective 
fruits  and  vegetables. 


Fig.  5. — Horst  Triad  Power, 

Hose  (hoze),  covering  for  the  legs;  close-fitting 
trowsers  or  l)reeches,  as  formerly  worn,  reaching  to  the 
knee;  stockings;  also,  flexible  pipe  for  watering  plants 
or  throwing  water  upon  fires,  etc. 

Hospitality.     See  Etiquette. 

Hot-Bed.  About  six  inches  of  soil 
over  about  two  feet  of  well  packed  fresh 
manure,  and  enclosed  so  that  it  can  be 
protected  against  the  excessive  cold  of 
frosty  nights  and  against  rains,  constitutes 
a  hot-bed.  It  is  generally  covered  with 
glass  windows  or  doors.  The  use  of  the 
hot-bed  is  to  "  force  "  the  germination  of 
seeds  in  early  spring,  so  that  the  ]5lants 
will  be  of  some  size  when  the  settled 
warm  weatherof  May  arrives.  It  is  used 
for  lx)th  vegetables  and  ornamental  plants. 
Of  course,  care  will  be  required  to  have 
the  bed  just  warm  enough  to  suit  the 
nature  of  the  plants  to  be  started  in  it, 
and  generally  during  the  day  the  covers 
should  be  tilled  up  a  little  to  let  in  the  air. 
These  covers  should  slope  facing  the 
south,  and  the  lights  in  them  so  arranged  that  they 
will  turn  the  rain,  when  more  is  offered  than  is 
needed  for  the  plants.  The  inexperienced  should  use 
a  thermometer,  as  for  most  vegetables  the  temperature 
should  not  rise  above  85"  during  the  day  or  sink  be- 
low 65°  at  night.     As"  the  heat  of  the  bed  declines 


with  the  age,  fresh  manure  may  be  put  around  the 
outside,  with  closer  watching  of  the  weather;  but 
this  is  seldom  necessary,  as  it  will  generally  last  until 
warm  weather  arrives.  "  Cold  frames  "  are  simply  the 
hot-bed  frames  set  upon  a  warm 
•  spot  of  ground,  and  covered  at 
night  to  preserve  the  warmth 
accumulated  during  the  day. 

The  structure  and  manage- 
ment of  a  hot-bed  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  a  cold  frame, 
treated  on  page  277,  with  the 
exception  that  being  started 
earlier  the  requisite  temperature 
has  to  be  kept  up  by  artificial 
means,  fermenting  manure  be- 
ing relied  upon  for  the  purpose; 
and  the  loss  of  this  heat  has 
to  be  checked  more  carefully 
by  straw  matting,  and  in  the  far 
Norih  by  shutters  also.  T  he 
front  and  back  are  also  niiide 
higher  than  in  a  cold  fran.e. 
Horse  manure  with  plenty  of 
litter  and  about  quarter  its  bulk 
in  leaves,  if  attainable,  all  hav- 
ing been  well  mixed  together,  is 
thrown  into  a  pile,  and  left  for 
a  few  days  until  steam  escapes, 
when  the  mass  is  again  thrown 
over  and  left  for  two  or  three  days  more,  after  which 
it  is  thrown  in  the  j)it  (or  it  may  be  placed  directly  on 
the  surface)  from  18  inches  to  two  feetin  depth,  when 
it  is  beaten  down  v.ith  a  fork  and  trodden  well  to 
gether.     The  sashes  are  now  put  on  and  kept  there 


Fig.  6. — Horse  Sake, 

until  heat  is  developed.  The  first  intense  heat  must 
be  allowed  to  pass  off,  which  will  be  in  about  three 
days  after  the  high  temperature  is  reached.  Now 
throw  on  .six  inches  of  fine  soil,  in  which  mix  a  very 
libernl  supi)ly  of  well  rotted  manure  free  from  all  straw, 
or  rake  in  thoroughly  superphosphate  or  guano  at  the 


824 


HOT-HOUSE— HULLED  CORN. 


rate  of  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre  and  plant  the  seed  as 
in  cold  frame.  Keep  day  temperature  70  to  80  de- 
grees and  don't  allow  it  to  fall  below  55°  at  night.  If 
the  temperature  exceed  75°  the  plants  are  liable  to 
grow  spindling  and  weak.  Do  not  move  the  sashes  to 
give  air  immediately  after  removing  the  mats  in  the 
morning,  lest  the  young  plants  damp  off. 
The  following  variety  of  detail  is  also  good  : 
Select  a  place  well  e.xixjsed  to  the  east  and  south ; 
now  cut  it  out  evenly  with  the  spade  about  18  inches 
deep,  then  fill  one  foot  of  the  depth  with  fresh  horse 
manure  and  litter,  tramping  it  down  well,  and  then 
cover  it  over  with  good,  rich  garden  soil.  Next  pre- 
pare a  frame  and  fit  it  in  the  top  of  the  trench  hav- 
ing the  north  side  the  highest  by  a  few  inches ;  let  the 
bed  stand  open  two  or  three  days  until  it  feels  hot  to 
the  hand,  which,  if  it  does  not  do  in  the  time  stated, 
pour  on  it  a  pail  or  two  of  hot  water,  which  will  soon 
make  it  all  right.  For  the  cover  make  the  frame  to 
fit  the  other  in  the  bed,  have  a  cross-piece  in  the  center 
and  braces  on  the  corners  (it  is  well  to  make  it  strong, 
for  the  frames  will  do  for  many  years).  Take  white 
cloth  (new  or  old  will  do)  for  the  cover,  tack  it  on  the 
frame  even  and  make  a  paint  of  linseed  oil,  one  pint 
with  two  well-beaten  eggs,  mix  and  paint  it  all  over 
the  cloth,  seeing  that  it  is  all  well  saturated,  and  let 
it  dry ;  and  when  the  bed  is  ready  to  sow,  fasten  it  on 
the  other  frame  with  strips  of  leather  for  hinges,  then 
the  wind  cannot  blow  it  off.  Now,  if  the  bed  is  done 
steaming,  even  it  down  nicely,  sifting,  picking  out  all 
stones  and  lumps,  and  finally  sift  over  it  about  an  inch 
of  nice,  rich  soil,  and  it  is  ready  for  the  seeds,  which 
sow  in  even  rows  and  not  too  thick,  for  they  are  very 
sure  all  to  come  up.  Write  the  names  on  a  piece  of 
shingle  to  mark  the  different  sorts.  Some  use  this 
cloth  cover  not  because  it  is  cheaper,  but  because  it 
is  really  the  best.  In  the  use  of  glass  there  is  need 
of  constant  watching  and  care,  or  all  is  lost,  while  with 
this  plan  there  is  no  danger  of  heat  or  damping  off, 
but  the  plants  come  as  if  by  magic,  and  they  are  so 
robust,  and  do  not  feel  the  change  when  transplanted. 
It  makes  a  nice  place  to  set  slips  of  house  plants, 
or  sow  perennials  after  annuals  are  out  of  it. 

Hot-House,  a  green-house  heated  with  fire,  the 
heat  passing  through  pipes  around  the  inside  of  the 
structure.  Heated  water  is  preferable  to  either  steam 
or  hot  air,  as  it  is  more  easily  kept  uniform.  See 
Green-house. 

Houdan  (hoo-dan'),  a  breed  of  the  domestic  fowl. 
See  Fowl,  page  524. 

Hound,  literally  a  dog;  conventionally,  a  dog  of 
several  vtirieties,  which  traces  game  by  the  scent ;  a 
dog  used  for  hunting.  They  are  more  slender  and 
better  built  for  running  than  the  mastiff  and  bull-dog 
kinds,  which  are  better  calculated  for  attacking,  fight- 
ing, killing  or  holding  animals.  See  Dog.  Hound  of 
a  wagon,  is  the  forward  portion,  to  which  the  tongue  is 
attached. 

House:  Sec  Residence. 


Household,  the  family.  "  Household  science,"  those 
sciences  and  arts  which  pertain  to  housekeeping  and 
the  welfare  of  the  family ;  called  also  "  Domestic 
Economy,"  which  see.  A  large  portion  of  this  ency- 
clopedia is  devoted  to  household  science. 

Housekeeping,  taking  care  of  one's  self  and  his  or 
her  family,  furnishing  board  and  lodging,  as  independ- 
ent of  other  families. 

Houseleek,  a  fleshy  plant,  which  is  very  tenacious 
of  life,  often  growing  on  old  walls  and  roofs,  with  no 
roots;  called  also  "  live-for-ever,"  "life-everlasting," 
etc.     Has  been  used  in  Herbal  practice. 

Hovel  (hov'l),  a  shed,  or  rude  building  used  for 
shelter. 

Hoven  (ho'vn),  swelled  or  puffed  out;  applied 
mostly  to  cattle  when  distended  with  gas  from  eating 
too  much  green  food;  colic;  blown.  For  treatment, 
see  pages  230  and  754. 

Huckleberry,  or  Whortleberry,  a  popular  fruit, 
of  several  varieties,  growing  on  shrubs  in  the  Lake  re- 
gion. The  largest  kind  grow  on  low  shrubs,  are 
bluish  black,  with  a  whitish  bloom,  and  are  known 
also  as  blueberries.  The  small,  glossy,  black  sort  is 
the  true  or  black  huckleberry.  These  berries  are  pro- 
duced so  abundantly  by  nature  that  no  attempts  at 
cultivation  in  their  native  region  have  yet  been  made ; 
and  in  other  regions  such  attempts  would  probably 
prove  unremunerative. 

Hulled  Corn.  To  hull  corn  is  generally  regarded 
as  a  tedious  and  dreadful  task,  because  an  effort  is 
made  to  eat  off  the  points  of  the  grain  with  the  lye, 
and  with  weak  lye  at  that.  The  result  is,  that  by  the 
protracted  boiling  the  grain  becomes  saturated  with 
the  lye,  which  has  to  be  "  parboiled  "  out ;  this  cannot 
be  done  perfectly,  and  at  the  same  time  the  richness 
of  the  corn  is  considerably  reduced.  Take  strong  lye 
water,  say  half  as  strong  as  that  which  first  runs  from 
a  leach  tub  of  good  ashes,  heat  it  to  boiling,  throw  in 
the  corn,  and  boil  it  briskly  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  but 
not  a  minute  after  the  hull  begins  to  slip  easily;  take 
it  out  and  immediately  wash  it  in  several  waters ;  it 
is  then  ready  for  the  final  boiling,  and  will  not  need 
parboiling.  In  four  or  five  hours  it  will  be  done,  and 
done  nicely.  The  second  and  third  hour  of  the  boil- 
ing the  corn  swells  very  rapidly,  and  drinks  up  water 
excessively.  Keep  it  well  supplied  with  boiling  water, 
so  that  the  cooking  will  not  be  retarded,  and  watch  it 
closely  that  it  does  not  scorch.  Just  fire  enough  to 
keep  It  boiling  is  sufficient.  Do  not  stir  it.  In  pre- 
paring the  lye,  by  sifting  the  ashes  the  com  can  be 
boiled  with  them  and  much  time  be  saved.  From 
the  time  the  corn  is  poured  into  the  lye  to  the  time  it 
is  put  into  the  water  for  the  final  boiling  need  not  be 
more  than  15  or  20  minutes.  It  is  best  to  prepare 
this  corn  in  freezing  weather,  so  that  it  can  be  kept  in 
a  frozen  state.  When  done  boiling,  pour  it  into  a  tin 
pan  and  set  it  in  a  cold  place  to  freeze.  The  next 
morning,  warm  the  pan  a  little  and  the  com  can  be 


HUMBLE-CO  W— HYDROPHOBIA. 


835 


easily  slipped  out  into  a  clean  tub  or  upon  brown 
paper,  where  it  can  be  cut  into  chunks  of  convenient 
size.  Re-set  it  in  the  cold  place,  and  it  will  be  ready 
for  use  at  any  time.  The  most  healthful  way  to  eat 
it — and  as  palatable  as  any — is  to  thaw  it  and  boil  it 
a  minute  or  two,  in  as  little  water  as  possible,  taking 
care  not  to  let  it  scorch,  and  then  eat  it  with  sweet 
cream  or  rich  milk.  Many  persons  prefer  it  even 
without  salt. 

Hominy  is  prepared  from  coarsely  ground  corn  : 
see  Hominy. 

Humble-Cow,  a  hornless  cow. 

Humbug,  an  imposition  under  fair  pretenses ; 
something  contrived  in  order  to  mislead ;  a  piece  of 
trickery,  a  hoax;  also,  one  who  deceives.  The  term 
is  often  applied  also  to  false  systems  of  doctrine  or 
false  and  plausible  ideas.     See  Swindle. 

Humor  (hu'mor  or  yu'mor),  moisture  or  fluid  in 
the  body;  a  vitiated  or  morbid  animal  fluid,  such  as 
often  causes  an  eruption  of  the  skin ;  also,  the  erup- 
tion itself;  a  rash  ;  state  of  mind,  etc.,  as  good  humor, 
or  bad  humor.     See  Blood. 

Humus  (hu'mus),  a  pulverizable  brown  substance 
formed  by  the  action  of  air  on  solid  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble matter.  It  is  a  valuable  constituent  of  soils,  not, 
however,  directly  nourishing  plants,  but  having  the 
power,  under  moisture  and  heat,  of  rendering  nutrient 
material  soluble  and  available  for  the  plants.  No 
soil  should  be  without  an  abundance  of  humus. 

Hunting  :  see  Guns  and  Gunning. 

Hurdle,  a  texture  of  twigs,  osiers  or  sticks;  a  crate 
of  various  forms  ;  a  movable  frame  of  split  timber  or 
sticks  wattled  together,  serving  for  gates,  inclosures 
and  the  like  :  sometimes  made  of  iron. 

Husbandry,  that  branch  of  agriculture  which  in- 
cludes the  raising  of  farm  crops,  stock,  the  feeding 
and  fattening  of  animals,  dairying,  etc.     See  Farming. 

Husk,  the  external  covering  of  certain  fruits  or 
seeds  of  plants  ;  glume ;  hull ;  rind  ;  chaff";  especially 
the  covering  of  ears  of  corn.  To  "husk"  is  to  strip 
off  this  covering. 

Hyacinth  (hi'a-sinth),  a  very  graceful  plant  of  the 
lily  family. 

Hybernation,  that  state  of  torpidity  into  which 
some  animals  fall  during  a  part  of  the  autumn  and  in 
winter,  but  from  which  they  escape  early  in  the  spring. 
Although  we  are  wholly  ignorant  of  the  cause  of  this 
winter  sleep,  the  effects  and  design  are  well  known. 
It  seems  intended  to  preserve  the  animals  in  situa- 
tions where  they  could  not  have  maintained  their 
existence,  from  the  impossibility  of  finding  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  food.  Accordingly,  all  the  active 
functions  of  life  are  suspended. 

.^t  a  more  or  less  advanced  period  of  the  autumn, 
depending  upon  the  degree  in  which  the  temperature 
is  lowered,  animals  possessed  of  this  peculiar  consti- 
tution seek  to  shelter  themselves  from  the  cold  and 


wind  by  retiring  into  holes  in  the  ground,  walls,  trees 
or  among  bushes.  These  retreats  they  line  carefully 
with  grass,  dry  leaves,  moss  and  other  bad  conduc- 
tors of  heat.  Hybernation  occurs  among  several  of 
the  mammalia,  as  in  the  dormouse,  hedge-hog,  bats, 
Alpine  marmot,  etc.  Animals  with  cold  blood  hyber- 
nate  as  well  as  some  of  the  mammaha.  Many  rep- 
tiles become  torpid  in  cold  climates,  as  well  as  some 
insects  and  worms.  In  general,  however,  the  degree 
of  their  lethargy  is  much  less  profound  than  that  of 
the  hybernating  mammalia.  They  pass  this  period 
without  food,  but  are  not  always  deprived  of  sensa- 
tion and  motion,  even  at  the  freezing  point. 

Hybrid  (hi'brid  or  hib'rid),  the  product  of  cross- 
breeding; the  product  of  mixing  two  species  in  one 
individual ;  mongrel.  A  liybrid  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  corresponds  to  a  mule,  for  example,  in  the 
animal  kingdom. 

Hybridize  (hi' brid-ize  or  hib'rid-ize),  to  cross-breed; 
to  produce  a  new  variety  by  mixing  two  species.  For 
process,  see  Breeding  and  Varieties. 

Hydrangea  (hi-dran'je-a),  a  beautifully  flowering 
plant,  popular  in  house  cultivation.  See  figure  on 
Dage  498. 

Hydraulic  Ram,  an  apparatus  for  raising  water 
several  times  higher  than  its  source  by  employing  the 
momentum  of  the  descending  current  in  successive 
beats  or  strokes. 

Hydro-carbon,  any  oily,  waxy  or  resinous  product 
of  vegetation  which  is  rich  in  hydrogen.  An  essential 
element  in  nutrition. 

Hydrophobia.  Perhaps  the  most  awful  of  all 
diseases  is  that  which  is  derived  from  the  bite  of  an 
animal  suffering  under  dog  madness,  or  rabies,  and 
unluckily  the  apprehension  often  produces  mental 
torture  hardly  less  terrible  than  the  disease  itself. 
It  is  consolatory,  therefore,  to  be  assured  that  the  dis- 
ease in  animals  is  more  rare  than  might  be  inferred 
from  the  constant  cry  of  "  mad-dog"  which  is  raised 
whenever  a  poor  cur,  being  worried  into  a  bad  temper, 
bites  and  foams  at  the  mouth.  Dog-bites  are  extremely 
common:  hydrophobia  one  of  the  rarest  of  maladies. 

The  disease  derives  its  name  from  the  dread  of 
water  which  its  defc^elopment  causes  in  the  human 
subject,  but  rabies  in  the  dog  causes  no  such  dread; 
in  fact  the  dog  generally  seeks  the  water  greedily, 
though  possibly  spasm  may  prevent  him  from  swallow- 
ing it.  The  disease  in  the  dog  ought  to  be  known,  in 
order  that  proper  ])recautions  may  be  taken  against 
them  when  thus  afflicted.  Indeed,  the  subject  is  so 
important  in  respect  of  precaution  that  we  think  it 
necessary  to  give  the  symptoms  of  dog  madness. 
There  are  three  well-marked  stages  of  the  comjilaint 
in  the  dog.  The  first  is  characterized  by  melancholy, 
depression,  sullenness  and  fidgetiness;  the  second  by 
excitement  and  rabid  fury ;  and  the  third  and  last  by 
general  muscular  debilitv  and  actual  paralysis. 

Whether  the  disease  originated  in  the  dog  or  was 
communicated,  the  dog  looks  ill  and  sullen  after  a 


826 


HYDROPHOBIA. 


period  of  incubation  of  very  variable  length ;  he  is 
constantly  agitated,  turning  round  and  round  inside 
his  kennel,  or  roaming  about  if  he  is  at  large.  His 
eyes,  when  turned  on  his  master  or  friends  of  the 
house,  have  a  strange  look  in  them,  expressive  of  sad- 
ness as  well  as  of  distrust.  His  attitude  is  suspicious 
and  indicates  that  he  is  not  well.  By  wandering 
about  the  house  and  yard  he  seems  to  be  seeking  for 
a  remedy  to  his  complaint.  He  is  not  to  be  trusted 
even  then,  because,  though  he  may  still  obey  you,  yet 
he  does  it  somewhat  slowly ;  and  if  you  chastise  him, 
he  may,  in  spite  of  himself,  inflict  a  fatal  bite.  In 
most  cases,  however,  a  mad-dog  respects  and  spares 
the  person  to  whom  he  is  attached.  But  his  agitation 
increases;  if  he  is  in  a  room  at  the  time,  he  runs 
about,  looking  under  the  furniture,  tearing  the  curtains 
and  carpets,  sometimes  flying  at  the  walls  as  if  he 
wished  to  seize  a  prey.  At  other  times  he  jumps  up 
with  open  jaws,  as  if  trying  to  catch  flies  on  the  wing ; 
the  next  moment  he  stops,  stretches  his  neck,  and 
seems  to  listen  to  a  distant  noise.  There  follows 
then  an  interval  of  calm ;  he  shortly  closes  his  eyes, 
hangs  down  his  head,  his  fore-legs  seem  to  give  way 
beneath  him,  and  he  looks  on  the  point  of  dropping. 
Suddenly,  however,  he  gets  up  again,  fresh  phantoms 
rise  before  him,  he  looks  around  him  with  a  savage 
expression,  and  rushes  as  far  as  his  chain  allows  him 
against  an  eneniy  who  exists  only  in  his  imagination. 
By  this  time  already  the  animal's  bark  is  hoarse  apd 
muffled.  Loud  at  first,  it  gradually  fails  in  force  and 
intensity,  and  becomes  weaker  and  weaker,  apparently 
indicating  incomplete  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the 
jaws,  just  as  the  dropping  down  pointed  to  the  paraly- 
sis of  the  muscles  of  the  fore-legs. 

In  some  cases  the  ixjwer  of  barking  is  completely 
lost,  and  his  tongue  hangs  out  through  his  half-opened 
jaws,  from  which  dribbles  a  frothy  saliva.  Sometimes 
his  mouth  is  perfectly  dry  and  he  cannot  swallow, 
although  in  a  majority  of  cases  he  can  still  eat  and 
and  drink.  Although  he  can  no  longer  drink,  people 
are  misled  into  the  belief  that  he  does  so  from  his 
lapping  fluids  with  great  rapidity.  On  close  examin- 
ation, however,  the  fluid  is  found  to  keep  the  same 
level  in  the  vase  which  contains  it,  and  one  can  see 
that  the  dog  does  not  in  reality  swallow, — that  he  does 
not  drink,  but  merely  bites  the  water.  Although  he 
cannot  swallow  fluids,  he  can  still,  in  some  cases, 
swallow  solids,  and  he  may  thus  swallow  anything 
within  his  reach, — bits  of  wood,  pieces  of  earth,  the 
straw  in  his  kennel,  etc.  The  circumstance  is  one  of 
very  great  imjxjrtance  to  bear  in  mind,  because  when 
the  body  of  k  mad-dog  is  dissected,  a  good  many  sub- 
stances which  have  not  been  digested  may  be  found 
in  his  stomach,  and  do  thus  furnish  a  proof  of  his  com- 
plaint. 

One  period  of  the  disease  does  not  pass  suddenly 
into  another,  but  by  an  easy  transition.  Even  in  the 
first  stage,  that  of  depression  and  melancholy,  the 
animal  is  from  time  to  time  very  agitated,  and  shifts 
his  ix5sture.  This  agitation  increases  to  a  consider- 
able degree,  and  in  the  second  stage  constitutes  the 


rabid  fury  which  characterizes  this  period,  together 
with  hallucinations  of  sight  and  hearing.  During  this 
second  period  the  animal  drops  down  in  a  state  of 
exhaustion  after  paroxysms  of  rage ;  he  seems  com- 
pletely prostrate;  his  head  hangs  down,  his  limbs 
give  way  under  him  and  he  can  no  longer  swallow. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  second  stage  the  dog  often 
breaks  his  chain  and  wanders  about,  seize.d  from  time 
to  time  with  paroxysms  of  fury,  and  then  he  stops 
from  fatigue,  as  it  were,  and  remains  several  hours  in 
a  somnolent  state.  He  has  no  longer  the  strength  to 
run  after  other  creatures,  although,  if  he  be  worried, 
he  can  still  find  strength  to  fly  at  and  bite  an  individ- 
ual. If  he  be  not  destroyed  as  he  wanders  about,  he 
generally  dies  in  a  ditch  or  in  some  retired  corner. 
He  apparently  perishes  from  hunger  and  thirst  and 
intense  fatigue. 

What  distinguishes  hydrophobia  from  every  other 
form  of  poisoned  wound  is  the  great  uncertainty  of  its 
period  of  incubation,  and  the  incredible  length  of  time 
during  which  the  poison  may  remain  latent,  and  yet 
ultimately  break  out  in  all  the  virulence  of  the  disease. 
Many  cases  are  recorded  in  which  more  than  a  year 
has  elapsed  between  the  receipt  of  the  injury  and  the 
outbreak  of  the  disease.  The  disease  undoubtedly 
originates  spontaneously  in  the  dog,  but  in  the  human 
subject  it  is  only  known  as  a  consequence  of  inocu- 
lation. 

Like  other  poisons,  except,  perhaps,  those  which 
are  most  virulent,  the  poison  of  hydrophobia  is  very 
uncertain  in  its  action.  Thus,  if  several  persons  be 
bitten,  only  one  may  suffer.  The  disease  begins  not 
uncommonly  with  renewed  irritation  in  the  scar  of  the 
wound,  or  with  irritation  in  the  nerves  leading  from  it, 
testifying  to  the  fact  that  some  morbid  action  is  going 
on  there.  And  there  is  often  a  period  of  sullen 
depression,  a  passion  for  solitude,  and  a  change  of 
temper  and  disposition  exactly  analogous  to  the  first 
stage  of  rabies  in  the  dog.  Feverishness  then  suc- 
ceeds, more  or  less  marked  in  different  cases,  and 
then,  at  a  variable  period,  the  peculiar  and  character- 
istic feature  of  the  disease  manifests  itself,  viz.,  that 
any  attempt  to  swallow  fluids  will  produce  severe 
paroxysms  of  dyspnoea;  and  in  the  worst  cases  these 
paroxysms  are  produced  not  only  by  attempts  at 
drinking,  but  by  swallowing  anything,  and  even  by 
the  sight  or  the  very  idea  of  fluid,  and  in  some  cases 
they  occur  sjxjntaneously.  As  the  case  proceeds  the 
mind,  which  was  at  first  quite  calm  and  reasonable, 
sinks  under  the  agony  produced  by  thirst  and  by  con- 
stant restlessness,  and  the  patient  becomes  more  or 
less  insane,  yet  is  usually  quite  under  control  and 
easily  made  conscious  of  his  own  delusions.  The 
excitement  increases,  the  eyes  become  wild  and  star- 
ing, the  whole  countenance  expressive  of  rage  mixed 
with  terror;  the  patient  is  in  a  constant  state  of 
excitement,  and  gets  hardly  any  sleep,  and  that  little 
is  unrefreshing  and  imperfect.  After  this  stage  of 
excitement  and  mania  often  follows  one  of  exhaustion, 
in  which  the  patient  recovers  his  reason  and  his  ix)wer 
of  swallowing,  but  dies  of  asthenia ;  at  other  times  he 


HYGIENE. 


827 


dies  in  the  furious  stage,  either  exhausted  or  suffo- 
cated. No  instance  of  recovery  has  hitherto  been 
recorded. 

The  disease  has  never,  as  far  as  we  know,  been  pro- 
pagated from  man  either  to  other  men  or  to  the  lower 
animals,  though  the  saliva  of  hydrophobic  men  has 
been  inoculated  for  experiment  into  the  dog. 

Immediate  attention  should  be  given  to  the  bite  of 
a  dog,  in  whatever  condition  ;  but  should  he  exhibit 
any  of  the  symptoms  above  described,  there  is  great 
danger,  should  his  teeth  have  penetrated  the  skin.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  bite  of  a  dog  afflicted  with  rabies 
would  far  more  often  prove  fatal  was  it  not  for  the 
often  heavy  clothing  through  which  the  teeth  pass, 
thus  rubbing  from  the  teeth  the  saliva.  We  give 
numerous  prescriptions  resorted  to  for  relief. 

No.  I.  Take  sweating  baths  and  thus  work  the 
virus  out  of  the  system. 

No.  2,  Take  immediately  after  the  bite,  warm 
vinegar  or  tepid  water,  wash  the  wound  clean  there- 
with, and  dry  it ;  then  pour  upon  the  wound  a  few 
drops  of  hydrochloric  acid,  because  mineral  acids  de- 
stroy the  poison  of  the  saliva.  Take  large  draughts  of 
vinegar  for  a  day  or  two. 

No.  3.  Drink  freely  of  a  strong  decoction  of  white- 
ash  bark,  say  a  gill  three  times  a  day  for  a  week 
or  two. 

No.  4.  One  ounce  of  elecampane  root,  boiled  in  i 
pint  of  milk  until  reduced  to  J^  pint;  take  such  a  dose 
three  times  for  a  week.  The  second  and  third  doses 
may  be  a  little  stronger. 

No.  5.  After  washing  the  bitten  part  with  clean 
water,  poultice  it  with  good  leaf  tobacco,  renewing 
three  or  four  times  a  day  for  a  week. 

No.  6.  Inject  under  the  skin  large  doses  of  mor- 
phine and  give  large  doses  of  jxiwdered  castor,  mixed 
with  sirup. 

No.  7.  Instantly  tie  a  string  above  the  wound,  cut 
■out  the  bitten  part,  or  cauterize  it  freely  with  lunar 
caustic ;  tranquilize  the  system  by  a  suppository  of  10 
grains  of  opium ;  give  a  mixture  of  opium,  ammonia, 
camphor  and  ether;  apply  bladders  full  of  pounded 
ice  to  the  spine,  administer  chloroform,  and  use  the 
hot  bath,  with  all  the  means  and  remedies  advised 
under  Bites,  Stings,  Rattlesnake,  Neuralgia,  and 
Lock-jaw,  which  see. 

Hygiene,  the  laws  of  health, — not  the  "  rules  of 
health,"  as  laid  down  by  some  eminent  physician.  The 
term  refers  to  what  is  really  necessary  to  physical  per- 
fection, and  not  to  any  man's  opinions.  Nearly,  if  not 
quite,  all  the  laws  of  health  come  under  two  heads, 
both  of  which  arenegative,namely,Cleanliness  and  Ab- 
stinence from  Exhaustion,  taking  the  latter  term  in  its 
literal  and  most  extended  sense.  To  any  one  who 
fully  comprehends  the  scope  of  these  two  phrases,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  give  details. 

That  the  principles  of  preserving  health  are  num- 
erous, intricate  and  difficult  to  understand,  and  sub- 
ject only  for  professional  study,  is  an  error.  The  care 
of  the  health  being  in  each  individual's  own  hands 


they  must  of  necessity  be  few  and  simple.  The  doc- 
tor cannot  be  with  you  every  moment,  as  a  mother  is 
with  her  babe.  The  whole  art,  in  fact,  of  preserving 
health  may  be  properly  enough  said  to  consist  in  sup- 
plying what  is  deficient  in  the  system,  and  carrying 
off  what  is  redundant,  in  order  that  the  body  may  be 
habitually  kept  in  its  natural  state ;  and  hence  it  fol- 
lows that  all  the  supplies  from  eating  and  drinking, 
and  all  the  discharges  of  perspiration,  and  by  the  other 
channels  and  distributions  of  nature,  should  be  regu- 
lated in  such  a  manner  that  the  body  shall  not  be 
oppressed  with  repletion,  norexhausted  by  evacuation. 
Of  these  two,  one  is  the  cure  or  antidote  of  the  other, 
every  error  in  repletion  being  corrected  by  a  season- 
able and  congruous  evacuation;  and  every  excess  of 
evacuation,  should,  if  it  has  not  proceeded  too  far,  be 
cured  by  a  gradual  and  suitable  repletion.  This  is  the 
art  of  enjoying  a  life  of  health,  or  of  recovering  lost 
health,  and  preserving  it  whenonceestablished.  "It 
is  health  that  makes  your  bed  easy  and  your  sleep  re- 
freshing;  that  renews  your  strength  with  the  rising 
sun;  that  makes  you  plump  and  comely,  enriching  the 
comple.xion  with  nature's  choicest  colors ;  that  makes 
your  exercise  a  sport,  increases  the  natural  endow- 
ments of  your  mind,  and  makes  the  soul  delight  in 
her  earthly  mansion." 

In  this  article  we  will  attempt  to  enumerate  only 
the  particulars  required  to  set  the  average  reader  to 
looking  in  the  right  direction  at  every  point  of  daily 
life. 

Air.  The  air  we  breathe  should  always  be  pure, 
both  day  and  night,  and  nearly  always  the  out-door 
air  is  much  purer  than  that  indoors,  night  as  well  as 
day.  Many  persons  are  so  afraid  of  catching  "cold" 
that  they  exclude  out-door  air  and  so  pursue  the  surest 
way  to  bring  about  that  malady,  besides  render- 
ingthemselves  effeminate.  While  a  person,  although 
sick  in  bed,  is  kept  warm,  he  cannot  have  fresh  air  too 
constantly,  and  even  a  draft  will  not  hurt  him  so  long  as 
his  face  is  turned  toward  it.  In  foul-smelling  cham- 
bers, do  not  depend  upon  disinfectants  and  deodor- 
izers for  purifying  the  air.  Remove  the  cause  of  the 
impure  air  so  far  as  possible.  Some  impurities  are 
absorbed  by  quicklime,  charcoal,  onions,  etc.  Pure 
air  is  not  only  necessary  for  the  lungs,  but  for  the  skin 
all  over  the  body.  Indeed,  strictly  speaking,  air  and 
sunlight  are  the  only  things  that  "  toughen"  the  skin, 
or  even  the  body;  they  are  the  only  true  "tonics."' 
Frequent  rubbing  the  whole  Txidy  while  exposed 
naked  to  pure  air  and  sunlight  are  the  best  tonic 
baths. 

The  most  prolific  source  of  malaria  (foul  air)  about 
a  residence  is  the  cellar.  No  matter  how  neat  it  is 
kept,  on  entering  it  from  out  doors  one  always  per- 
ceives a  damp,  heavy  odor,  which  indicates  an  at- 
mosphere that  generates  moss,  mildew,  mold,  mush- 
rooms or  fungi,  microscopic  germs,  seeds  of  disease, 
etc.  Many  people  do  not  notice  it  much,  but  an  ex- 
treme case  may  so  call  their  attention  to  it  that  they 
will  ever  afterward  recollect  its  nature  vividly  enough ; 
and  that  is,  if  they  will  pass  along  the  sidewalk  in  the 


828 


HYGIENE. 


business  part  of  a  village,  on  the  lee  side  of  the  build- 
ings, on  one  of  the  warmest  days  in  May,  June,  or 
July,  they  will  almost  constantly  breathe  such  a  rank 
exhalation  from  the  cellars  as  will  nearly  or  quite  turn 
their  stomach  or  take  away  their  appetite  for  dinner. 
After  once  noticing  that  fact,  they  will  be  able  to  per- 
ceive more  or  less  of  the  same  odors  in  every  cellar. 
Such  effluvia  continually  pass  up  through  the  cracks 
of  the  floor  into  the  various  apartrfients  of  the  house, 
and,  combined  with  the  already  confined  and  vitiated 
air  of  the  house,  contaminate  the  lungs,  blood  and 
tissues  of  every  inmate,  rendering  him  or  her  pale, 
weakly,  diseased  and  susceptible  of  severe  attacks  of 
sickness  of  any  kind.  Hence,  office  men  in  the  towns 
and  cities  and  women  everywhere  show  the  effects  of 
such  exposure,  for  "exposure"  it  is,  most  emphatically. 
Burning  sulphur  in  the  cellar,  when  it  is  tightly  closed 
all  around,  is  the  best  way  to  kill  off  all  vegetable 
growths  in  it.  For  health's  sake,  there  never  should 
be  a  cellar, — at  least  under  the  house.  Have  it  any- 
where else ;  have  an  ice-house,  a  conservatory,  any- 
thing, rather  than  a  cellar  under  the  building  in 
which  you  reside.  The  best  way  to  fix  the  ground 
under  the  house  is,  to  first  dig  away  all  the  soil,  and 
then  fill  up  with  clean  yellow  clay,  or  sand  and  gravel, 
heaping  up  a  little  toward  the  center  and  leaving 
space  enough  between  the  surface  of  this  filling  and 
the  floor  to  allow  an  opportunity  to  remove  the  top 
earth  or  sand,  and  renew  with  fresh  once  a  year  or  two. 
It  is  well  to  have  movable  planks  nicely  fitted  around 
the  building  next  the  ground  to  keep  it  warm  under  the 
floor  in  the  winter  time,  and  moved  away  during  the 
summer  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air  underneath. 

Some  houses  are  so  constructed  and  kept  as  to 
generate  a  musty  odor,  even  independently  of  the 
cellar.  Dark,  unventilated  rooms,  rotten  wood  in 
the  floor  and  walls,  wall-paper,  old  and  new,  nasty 
sinks,  foul  cupboards,  closed  cases  and  shut-up  closets, 
all  are  manufactories  of  the  agencies  of  disease  and 
death.  In  every  part  of  a  dwelling,  above  and  below, 
the  air  should  be  as  fresh  and  sweet  as  out  of  doors, 
and  it  is  a  great  deal  more  important,  as  the  family 
pass  the  largest  portion  of  their  time  in  the  house. 

Some  stoves  and  fire-places  are  great  enemies  to 
man.  The  draft  is  not  strong  and  uniform,  especially 
during  the  night  when  a  smothered  fire  is  being  kept 
over,  and  carbonic  acid  and  sulphurous  gases  fill  the 
apartments  where  the  innocent  and  unsuspecting  are 
asleep,  and  commit  irreparable  depredations  upon 
their  constitutions.  In  this  volume  we  tell  how  to 
construct  houses,  sinks,  drains,  cellars,  fire-places, 
stoves,  etc.,  etc.,  with  a  view  to  health  as  well  as  to 
beauty. 

Light.  The  diff'erence  between  the  white,  tender 
potato  sprout  in  the  dark  cellar  and  the  green,  tough 
vine  out  in  the  field,  strikingly  exemplifies  the  hygi- 
enic influence  of  light.  As  remarked  above,  light 
is  essential,  next  to  good  air,  to  a  healthy  condition  of 
the  skin.  So  far  as  concerns  physical  perfection, 
artificial  darkness  should  never  be  resorted  to  except 
'  in  case  of  weak  eyes.     As  to  the  swarthiness  of  the 


skin  resulting  from  exposure  to  light,  this  is  not  the 
place  to  say  anything,  as  we  cannot  argue  the  "  looks  " 
of  any  object.  All  special  rules  necessary  to  the 
preservation  of  the  eyes  are  embraced  in  the  prohibi- 
tion, "Never  strain  the  eyes." 

Heat.  While  it  is  well  for  tne  body  to  be  exposed 
to  some  changes  of  temperature  in  the  atmosphere,  a 
severe  change  is  to  be  deprecated.  As  within  enclosed 
rooms  the  warmer  air  is  always  overhead,  it  should  be 
our  constant  care  to  "keep  the  head  cool  and  feet 
warm "  by  special  appliances.  Out  of  doors  it  is 
always  shghtly  warmer  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
where  the  feet  naturally  are,  than  at  any  jx)int  above 
the  surface.  Our  method  of  dress  in  this  country  is 
far  from  perfect  in  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  as  it  is 
out  of  proportion  and  keeps  some  parts  of  the  system 
too  warm,  or  others  too  cool.  (See  Clothing,  a  little 
further  on  in  this  article.)  In  abnormal  conditions  it 
is  often  necessary  to  heat  up,  by  fire,  friction  exercise 
or  hot  water,  certain  parts  of  the  body,  or  all  of  it,  in 
"  order  to  equalize  the  temperature  and  the  circulation, 
and  thus  restore  healthy  action  to  the  debilitated 
portions.  Heat  is  applied  to  the  body  in  various 
ways,  according  to  the  nature  and  location  of  the 
malady,  as  by  full  hot  baths,  partial  hot  baths,  Turk- 
ish and  vapor  baths,  packs,  fomentations  with  flannels 
wrung  out  of  hot  water,  boiled  meal  or  corn,  India- 
rubber  bags  of  hot  water,  bags  of  sand,  flat-irons,  soap- 
stones,  etc.  Some  of  these  processes,  to  a  certain 
extent,  are  very  simple  and  require  no  description 
here,  while  some  of  them,  to  have  their  best  effect, 
are  too  complicated  to  delineate  in  a  single  article 
like  this,  but  should  be  learned  from  a  professional 
nurse. 

While  in  a  state  of  rest,  as  standing,  sitting  or  lying 
down,  never  suffer  the  wind  to  blow  upon  any  part  of 
the  body,  except  as  it  strikes  the  face  first :  by  the 
latter  provision  one  can  cool  down  in  a  short  time 
from  an  overheated  condition  with  comparative 
impunity.  Walking  or  working  with  a  hot  sun  con- 
stantly shining  on  your  back,  especially  after  a  hearty 
meal  or  when  you  have  on  a  black  coat,  is  very  injuri- 
ous. Nor  should  we  remain  long  in  a  close  room  in 
cold  weather,  after  the  fire  has  gone  out,  as  that  is  a 
very  sure  way  to  "catch  cold,"  while  we  still  feel 
comfortable  and  can  scarcely  imagine  we  are  exjx)s- 
ing  ourselves.  Nearly  all  "colds"  are  caught  in  con- 
fined air,  especially  if  it  be  foul.  Sitting  in  cold 
chairs,  as  the  cane  or  wood-bottomed,  in  cold  weather, 
induces  neuralgia,  rheumatism  and  sciatica  in  the 
hips,  back  and  legs,  lameness  in  the  back  and  various 
disturbances  of  the  bowels,  urinary  system,  liver,  and 
sometimes  even  the  stomach  and  head. 

Food.  As  to  quality,  "absolute  cleanhness"  again, 
and  as  to  quantity,  "  no  exhaustion  " — of  the  stomach. 
Most  persons  will  agree  with  this  maxim  in  general 
terms,  but  when  we  descend  to  particulars,  every  one 
cries  out,  "Let  me  alone;  don't  preach  to  me;  'what 
is  one  man's  food  is  another  man's  poison.'"  Yet 
when  one  is  brought  down  to  a  bed  of  sickness  he  is 
constantly  inclined  to  inquire  of  his  friends  and  of  the 


HYGIENE. 


829 


doctor,  "May  I  eat  this?"  and  "  May  I  drink  that?  " 
Everybody  in  a  state  of  health  is  more  unapproachable 
on  the  subject  of  food  and  drink  than  on  any  other 
thing  in  the  whole  round  of  hygienic  law,  but  sick- 
ness reduces  us  to  submissiveness;  hence,  what  little 
the  physiologists  have  to  say  on  this  topic  must  be 
addressed  to  the  invalid. 

The  most  jxjpular  maxim  is.  Eat  whatever  agrees 
with  you,  and  as  to  quantity,  Stop  a  little  short  of 
satiety.  We  would  add  that,  as  condiments  are  not 
food,  the  less  we  take  of  them  the  better.  Good 
cookery  and  a  proper  degree  of  hunger  supersede  con- 
diments, and  by  this  rule  one  can  "  enjoy  his  victuals  " 
through  a  long  and  happy  life  much  more  than  by 
the  present  practice. 

As  to  time,  we  urge  the  importance  of  not  eating 
when  the  mind  or  the  body  is  excited  or  exhausted 
with  fatigue.  Nor  should  one  rush  into  severe  exer- 
cise, either  of  body  or  mind,  immediately  after  eating, 
especially  with  a  hot  sun  shining  on  the  back.  Piec- 
ing between  meals,  even  by  taking  a  taste,  interferes 
with  digestion,  or  with  the  stomach's  rest.  Many 
persons  can  feel  the  evil  results  of  irregular  eating 
very  definitely.  Drinking  at  meal  times  should  mainly 
be  done  on  first  sitting  down  at  table,  for  copious 
drinking  during  the  progress  of  eating  will  surely  get 
some  of  the  food  down  into  the  stomach  before  it  is 
sufficiently  chewed  and  insalivated.  The  temperature 
of  food  and  drink  should  always  be  moderate, — not 
colder  than  60'^  or  70"  (Fahr.),  nor  warmer  than  about 
los"'. 

A  very  popular  error  on  the  question  of  food  is  to 
reason  that,  because  many  have  eaten  this  and  drank 
that  until  a  very  old  age  with  apparent  impunity,  there- 
fore it  is  not  very  injurious, — at  least  not  injurious 
enough  to  speak  of  "Because  sentence  against  an 
evil  work  is  not  speedily  executed,  therefore  it  is  set 
in  the  hearts  of  men  to  do  evil."  One  individual 
uses  tobacco  and  lives  to  a  good  old  age;  another 
drinks  tea  and  coffee  and  has  average  health  ("  extra 
good  health,"  some  imagine),  until  he  is  90  years  old; 
another  eats  an  abundance  of  pork  and  sausage,  with 
no  apparent  trouble ;  another  drinks  whisky  and  leads 
a  jolly  life  until  nearly  too  years  of  age;  another 
inddlges  in  all  doubtful  things  promiscuously,  with 
no  care  on  his  mind  .as  to  "laws  of  health,"  and 
remains  a  stout  man  until  three-score  and  ten ;  and 
so  on,  with  all  the  foul  substances  in  existence. 
Now,  take  a  second  thought  and  consider  what  pro- 
portion of  mankind,  going  it  rough-and-tumble  in  all 
these  respects,  keep  their  bodies  in  good  trim  until  a 
hundred  years  old,  as  they  should :  very  few,  indeed. 
There  is  something  at  fault. 

The  following  we  believe  are  excellent  rules  or  ob- 
servations on  such  food  as  should  be  given  to  the 
sick,  and  if  observed,  together  with  those  given  above, 
alleviate  much  distress  and  quickly  restore  health. 

I.  Solid  food  should  rarely  be  given  during  the  prog- 
ress of  an  acute  disease,  as  the  stomach  and  digestive 
organs  are  not  in  a  condition  to  furnish  the  fluids  nec- 
essary for  its  proper  comminution,  and  hence  it  does 


not  digest,  but  decomposes,  giving  rise  to  irritation 
and  other  annoying  results. 

2.  As  a  general  rule,  the  severer  the  disease,  and 
the  further  the  system  is  from  a  condition  of  health, 
the  lighter  and  more  diluted  should  be  the  food.  Thus, 
in  a  high  grade  of  fever  or  inflammation,  we  would 
give  whey,  toast-water,  thin  farina,  or  tapioca,  weak 
chicken  or  mutton  broth,  etc. 

3.  In  states  of  great  exhaustion  the  food  should 
be  concentrated,  very  nutritious,  and  yet  deprived,  as 
far  as  possible,  of  all  material  that  cannot  be  appro- 
priated by  the  stomach.  Thus  we  would  give  beef 
essence,  concentrated  chicken  or  mutton  tea,  farina, 
with  milk,  etc. 

4.  In  all  febrile  and  inflammatory  diseases  the 
food  should  be  given  at  that  period  of  the  day  in  which 
there  is  least  vascular  and  nervous  excitement,  and  it 
should  never  be  forced  on  the  patient  when  suffering 
from  high  fever. 

5.  Never  give  food  when  the  patient  is  suffering 
from  severe  pain,  as  at  such  time  it  is  impossible  for 
the  digestive  organs  to  appropriate  it. 

6.  If  the  tongue  is  heavily  coated  with  a  yellowish 
coat,  a  bad  taste  in  the  mouth,  and  a  feeling  of  weight 
and  oppression  at  the  stomach,  it  is  better  not  to  give 
food,  or  at  least  give  it  in  a  fluid  form  and  in  small 
quantities. 

7.  Never  force  food  on  a  patient  when  his  stom- 
ach revolts  at  it,  or  if  it  produces  nausea,  oppression, 
or  pain.  It  is  much  better  to  wait  until  medicine  or 
time  has  placed  the  stomach  in  condition  to  di- 
gest it. 

8.  When  the  digestive  powers  are  much  impaired, 
and  it  is  important  to  give  food  to  sustain  the  strength, 
it  should  be  given  in  small  quantities,  and  at  regular 
intervals,  like  medicines. 

9.  If  there  is  an  absolute  demand  for  nourishment 
to  sustain  the  strength  of  the  patient,  and  it  cannot 
be  given  by  mouth,  it  is  sometimes  5n  excellent  plan 
to  administer  it  as  an  injection. 

10.  Much  care  is  necessary  during  convalescence 
from  disease  that  the  patient  does  not  eat  too  much, 
or  that  which  is  indigestible.  The  digestive  organs 
are  now  enfeebled,  and,  if  overworked,  there  is  not 
only  an  excess  of  imperfectly-elaborated  material  taken 
into  the  system,  but  the  exhaustion  is  extended  to  the 
entire  system,  and  impairs  the  functions  of  other 
organs  and  parts. 

Water,  and  Bathing.  Water  is  the  only  inorganic 
substance  which  all  parties  agree  should  ever  be  taken 
into  the  stomach;  and  where  one  eats  all  the  juicy 
fruits  physiology  prescribes,  and  does  not  inflame  the 
stomach  with  condiments,  he  will  scarcely  ever  be 
thirsty.  Water  is  the  only  neutral  solvent,  and  thus 
the  only  proper  vehicle  of  nutritious  matter  to  the  tis- 
sues and  of  effete  matter  from  them,  as  nitrogen  is  the 
neutral  solvent  and  vehicle  of  oxygen  to  the  lungs  and 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  from  them. 

As  a  beverage  the  qualities  of  water  differ  materi- 
ally. Every  one  is  sensible  of  the  great  difference  be- 
tween that  of  a  soft  and  clear  spring  and  that  of  a 


830 


HYGIENE. 


stagnant  pool.  Many  persons,  much  accustomed 
to  this  simple  beverage,  can  distinguish  flavors 
which  are  not  sensible  to  others.  All  water  in  a 
natural  state  is  impregnated  with  a  certain  proportion 
of  air,  which  is  highly  useful ;  and  of  many  other  sub- 
stances found  more  or  less  in  water,  some  are  harm- 
less, while  others  are  extremely  prejudicial.  For 
further  facts  on  the  composition  and  general  proper- 
ties of  water,  see  the  article  on  Water.  One  can 
scarcely  over-estimate  the  importance  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  pure  water  in  order  to  preserve  health. 

That  the  function  of  perspiration  holds  an  imjxirt- 
ant  relation  in  the  general  economy  to  the  health  and 
well-being  of  the  system  none  will  deny.  Among  the 
means  best  calculated  to  promote  a  healthy  condition 
of  this  function,  that  of  frequent  bathing  may  be 
claimed  among  the  most  valuable  if  not  altogether  the 
most  valuable.  Cleanliness  of  the  body,  it  must  be 
remembered,  is  one  of  the  fundamental  conditions  of 
health,  because  it  is  essential  to  a  healthy  condition 
of  the  skin,  and  consequently  of  the  entire  perspira- 
tory apparatus.  Frequent  bathing  of  some  sort  or 
other  is  to  be  recommended  during  the  entire  year, 
and  especially  should  it  be  observed  during  the  warm 
seasons.  The  condition  of  the  water  for  such  pur- 
poses may  be  warm,  tepid  or  cold,  according  to  the 
time  and  the  inclinations  of  the  individual.  As  a 
general  rule,  however,  the  morning  bath  should  be 
cold  or  cool,  and  the  night  bath  should  be  warm  or 
tepid. 

Of  the  different  modes  of  taking  baths,  there  are 
the  following:  A  "  full  bath"  is  taken  by  lying,  stand- 
ing or  sitting  for  a  few  minutes  with  all  the  body  ex- 
cept the  head  in  the  water.  A  "  half  bath"  is  taken 
by  sitting  in  water  with  the  legs  extended,  so  that  the 
water  covers  only  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  from  the 
waist  to  the  feet.  A  full  "  pack"  is  the  envelopment 
of  the  whole  body  in  bed  clothes  for  a  half  hour  or 
more,  so  as  to  produce  copious  perspiration  and  uni- 
form, vigorous  action  for  expelling  morbific  matters 
from  the  system.  A  cotton  sheet  or  woolen  blanket, 
wrung  out  of  hot  water,  is  placed  next  the  body. 
Sometimes  a  "dry  pack"  is  taken  for  a  similar  pur- 
pose, when  the  hot  wetting  is  omitted.  A  "  half 
pack"  is  the  same,  given  to  the  lower  half  of  the  body. 
A  "  compress"  is  a  wet  cloth,  cotton,  linen,  or  woolen, 
cold  or  hot,  laid  upon  a  part, — not  bound  tightly,  as 
the  word  seems  to  signify.  A  "sitz,"  "sitting,"  or 
"  hip"  bath  is  taken  by  sitting  in  a  tub  (generally  a 
tin  one  made  for  the  purpose)  partly  filled  with  water. 
A  "  vapor"  bath  is  given  in  a  box  so  arranged  that  the 
person  has  his  head  just  outside,  to  breathe  pure  air. 
A  "Turkish"  bath  is  simply  a  universal  hot-air  bath. 
In  this  the  air  is  raised  to  150"  or  over,  which  pro- 
duces copious  perspiration.  Besides  the  above,  there 
are  head  baths,  arm  baths,  etc.,  according  to  the 
locality  treated.  All  these  baths  may  be  medicated, 
or  accompanied  with  electricity,  for  specific  purjwses. 
An  excellent  moderate  morning  bath  may  be  taken 
by  simply  applying  the  water  from  the  wash-bowl 
with  the   hands,  rubbing  vigorously  with   the  hands 


and  afterward  with  a  coarse  towel  until  dry.  Dress 
immediately.  This  simple  bath  opens  the  pores  of  the 
skin  for  the  healthy  action  of  the  perspiratory  function 
and  greatly  invigorates  the  system. 

The  greatest  care  is  required  to  come  out  of  a  bath 
properly.  Almost  every  universal  sweating  bath  cures 
the  "  cold"  for  which  it  is  taken,  except  that  in  many, 
possibly  most,  cases,  the  patient  comes  out  in  such  a 
way  as  to  reproduce  the  "  cold."  He  should,  on  coming 
out,  be  wiped  and  rubbed  with  the  hands  vigorously, 
and  dress  very  warm,  or  get  into  a  bed  and  warm  up 
quickly.  In  either  case  he  should  rest  an  hour  or 
two  after  the  bath.  Nor  should  a  bath  ever  be  taken 
soon  after  a  meal,  or  after  eating  anything  which  it  is 
at  all  difficult  to  digest.  A  cold  bath  should  never  be 
taken  when  one  is  weary  or  exhausted.  "  Going  in 
swimming"  at  the  close  of  a  hard  day's  work,  as 
farmers  sometimes  do,  is  sure  to  do  mischief,  often 
very  severe  mischief  Ordinarily,  from  10  to  12 
a.  m.  is  the  best  time  for  general  bathing.  When 
boys  "  go  in  swimming"  they  generally  remain  in  the 
water  too  long.  The  hint  which  nature  gives  as  to 
the  time  of  coming  out  of  the  water,  is  known  by  a 
sensation  of  passiveness  or  non-resistance.  Indeed, 
it  is  better  to  come  out  before  this  sensation  is  real- 
ized, for  this  condition  is  really  one  of  congestion.  It 
is  no  objection  to  plunging  into  cold  water  that  one 
is  hot  and  covered  with  sweat,  if  he  only  has  a  strong 
sensation  of  resistance  and  activity  at  the  time.  But 
a  minute  or  two,  and  that  of  activity,  is  sufficient  time 
for  a  universal  cool  bath.  In  going  in  to  swim,  it  is 
best  to  wet  the  head  and  upper  part  of  the  body  first. 
Plunging  in  head  foremost  is  a  good  substitute. 

Bath-tubs  can  be  obtained  through  most  dealers  in 
hardware  or  furniture,  made  either  of  tin  or  copper 
lined  with  tin,  or  of  zinc,  all  with  wooden  bottom. 
But  if  a  portion  of  the  bottom  is  bare  metal,  an  oil 
stove  can  be  set  under  to  heat  the  water,  a  great  ad- 
vantage. A  mechanic  can  make  a  bath-tub  or  trough 
out  of  staves,  barrel-fashion,  with  stout  iron  hoops,  at 
a  cost  of  about  $5.  Wood  tubs,  however,  are  not  so 
neat  as  tin  or  zinc,  as  the  woody  tissue  collects  dis- 
ease-matter from  invalids  bathing  in  them  and  ex- 
poses others  to  contagion.  A  vapor-bath  can  be 
cheaply  taken  by  sitting  in  a  chair  while  loosely 
envelojjed  in  quilts,  sheets,  or  blankets,  over  a  pan  of 
hot  water  into  which  heated  bricks  are  thrown. 

Clothing.  In  this  connection  we  can  say  nothing 
about  "fashion;"  we  can  merely  state  what  is  health- 
ful. Clothing  is  worn  mainly  for  keeping  the  body  in 
a  proper  temperature,  but  the  prevailing  modes  often 
fail  to  do  this.  In  men's  habit  of  dress  the  principal 
faults  are,  confinement  of  air  and  exhalations  upon 
the  scalp  by  heavy,  air-tight  hats  or  caps ;  the  upper 
portion  of  the  bosom  and  the  waist  exposed  by  having 
over  them  only  one  thickness  of  cloth,  and  that  cotton, 
while  the  vest  and  pants  together  constitute  several 
folds,  part  of  them  wool,  on  the  abdomen;  hanging 
the  trousers  and  drawers  by  a  belt  around  the  waist 
instead  of  wearing  suspenders  over  the  shoulders; 
wearing  leather  shoes,  often  too  tight.     With  women's 


HYGIENE. 


831 


dress  the  chief  faults,  in  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  are  : 
A  large  body  of  hair  confined  to  one  sjx)!  on  the  back 
of  the  head  ;  too  little  protection  to  the  arms ;  wear- 
ing gloves  too  constantly ;  loading  down  the  waist  by 
suspending  dresses  upon  it,  often  a  superfluity  of  skirts; 
wearing  corsets  and  garters;  tight  lacing;  thin,  hght 
shoes,  generally,  if  not  always,  too  tight,  although  the 
wearer  thinks  them  large  enough. 

As  to  material  of  clothing  next  the  skin,  cotton  and 
linen  are  the  purest,  but  woolen  is  generally  recom- 
mended, on  account  of  its  capacity  to  protect  against 
sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  to  keep  up  activity 
by  friction.  Dyed  material  should  never  be  worn 
next  to  the  body,  as  the  coloring  matter  is  more  or  less 
poisonous.     Not  even  socks  or  hose  should  be  dyed. 

In  respect  to  color,  the  lighter  the  more  healthful, 
the  year  round,  for  several  reasons,  namely:  White 
is  a  reflector  of  heat,  and  thus  preserves  the  warmth 
of  the  body  in  cold  weather  and  excludes  excessive 
heat  in  summer;  light-colored  clothes  show  dirt  sooner 
than  dark-colored,  and  will  therefore  be  washed  oftener 
and  kept  cleaner;  they  have  not  so  much  poisonous 
dye-stuff"  in  them,  and  have  less  capacity  to  catch  in- 
fections. 

Clothing  should  not  remain  packed  in  a  bureau  or 
confined  in  a  closet,  but  promptly  and  thoroughly 
aired  and  sunned ;  nor  should  we  sleep  in  the  same 
undergarment  we  have  worn  during  the  day. 

Children  s  Clothing.  Some  further  hints  and  facts 
on  the  subject  of  clothing  for  children  may  be  found 
useful.  The  practice  of  binding  a  newly-born  infant 
with  bandages  and  flannels,  which  has  rendered 
many  a  healthy  infant  weakly  and  ailing,  has 
happily  gone  out  of  fashion.  Still,  however,  we 
often  see  a  baby  so  loaded  with  clothes  that 
they  almost  equal  its  own  weight,  which  ren- 
ders a  healthy  child  so  tender  and  chilly  that  it 
cannot  bear  the  external  air;  and  if  by  accident  it 
should  be  exposed  to  a  refreshing  breeze,  the  conse- 
quence is  frequently  a  serious  inflammatory  affection 
of  the  lungs  or  bowels.  The  clothes  should  be  in  all 
cases  proix)Btioned  to  the  climate  and  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.  A  newly-born  infant  is  more  sus- 
ceptible than  an  adult  to  changes  of  temperature. 
The  clothing  should  be  loosely  put  on,  so  that  the 
bowels  may  have  room,  the  limbs  liberty  to  act  and 
exert  themselves,  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
through  the  superficial  vessels  may  not  be  impeded, 
for  malformation  or  unnatural  swellings  may  be  pro- 
duced by  partial  compression.  To  this  error  are 
doubtless  attributable  very  many  distortions  and  de- 
formities, particularly  among  females,  who  suffer  more 
in  this  respect  than  the  males.  I'he  great  pleasure 
a  child  manifests  on  being  divested  of  a  superfluity 
of  dress  by  all  its  powers  of  expression  one  would  sup- 
pose sufficient  to  convince  nurses,  were  they  ca])able 
of  making  just  observations,  that  the  free  use  of  its 
muscles  is  both  agreeable  to  its  feelings  and  neces- 
sary for  its  proper  growth  and  strength.  A  flannel 
waistcoat,  without  sleeves,  should  be  made  to  fit  the 
body  and  tie  loosely  behind   with   a   petticoat,  and 


over  this  a  kind  of  gown,  which  in  summer  should  be 
thin  and  light.  The  petticoat  should  not  be  too  long, 
and  the  gown  or  robe  should  be  a  few  inches  longer. 
Shoes  and  stockings  are  often  an  encumbrance.  The 
latter  keep  the  legs  wet  and  nasty  if  they  are  not 
changed  two  or  three  times  a  day,  and  the  former 
frequently  cramp  the  legs  and  hurt  the  feet  so  as  to 
prevent  them  learning  to  walk.  Children  in  this 
simple  dress  would  be  perfectly  easy,  and  enjoy  the 
free  use  of  their  legs  and  faculties.  They  should  be 
put  into  it  as  soon  as  they  are  bom,  and  continued  in 
it  until  they  are  three  years  old,  when  it  may  be  left 
off  for  any  other  more  fashionable  and  genteel.  The 
baby's  clothes  ought  to  be  changed  at  least  once  a 
day.  The  night-clothes  should  be  loose,  and  less  in 
quantity  than  those  worn  during  the  day,  otherwise 
the  child  will  be  very  liable  to  be  affected  with  cold 
and  complaints  of  the  bowels.  Safety-pins  should  be 
used  instead  of  ordinary  pins  in  fitting  on  napkins. 
The  common  practice  of  leaving  the  neck  and  upper 
part  of  the  chest  bare  all  the  year  round  has  been 
very  largely  a  source  of  disease.  The  parents  must 
not,  however,  run  into  the  opposite  extreme  by  over- 
heating the  body.  The  infant's  clothes  should  be 
light,  but  warm  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  season ;  and  the  best  materials  for  this  purpose 
are  flannel  and  calico.  For  some  months  after  birth 
the  infant's  skin  is  peculiarly  sensitive,  so  that  a  shirt 
of  fine  linen  between  it  and  the  flannel  should  be  put 
on.  A  child's  clothes  should  allow  for  growth,  and 
never  be  too  tight  around  the  chest,  arm-holes,  or 
wrists,  and  should  be  easily  put  on  and  taken  off. 
When  the  child  is  short-coated,  socks  should  be  put 
on  which  will  keep  the  legs  sufficiently  warm  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  of  the  weather.  Shoes  should  be 
light  and  pliable,  and  by  no  means  small.  A  child 
should  not  be  short-coated  in  cold  weather.  Garters 
and  tight  stays  are  things  to  be  avoided  in  children's 
clothing. 

Exercise.  Exercise  is  one  of  the  best  means  of 
keeping  the  muscular  system  healthy  and  vigorous. 
Every  part  of  the  animal  system  is  so  intimately  and 
curiously  interwoven  with  every  other  part  that  causes 
affecting  one  affects  the  whole.  If  the  muscular  action 
becomes  enfeebled  for  want  of  proper  exercise  and 
development,  the  digestive  powers  suffer,  and  a  loss 
of  appetite  ensues.  The  necessary  work  of  animal 
combustion  does  not  go  on  with  its  proper  vigor,  the 
blood  circulates  slowly,  the  respiration  grows  imper- 
fect, indigestion  sets  in,  and  all  its  long  train  of  at- 
tendant diseases  and  complaints  begin  more  or  less 
seriously  to  threaten  life. 

Various  Kinds  of  Exercise.  Although  the  kind  and 
degree  of  exercise  should  be  varied  to  suit  the  special 
constitution  concerned,  the  main  object  should  be  to 
bring  the  whole  of  the  muscular  system  into  action 
with  special  reference  to  such  muscles  as  by  the  ac- 
cidents of  occupation  or  position  are  weak  for  want  of 
proper  development.  Walking  agrees  with  almost 
everybody,  but  the  exercise  obtained  by  it  is  chiefly 
confined  to  the  muscles  of  the  loins  and  those  of  the 


«32 


HYGIENE. 


lower  limbs.  Rowing,  fencing,  boxing,  and  other  sports, 
on  the  other  hand,  bring  into  action  the  muscles  be- 
longing to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body.  Excessive 
fatigue  should,  however,  always  be  avoided.  Riding 
is  excellent  exercise,  its  special  advantage  being  that 
of  not  hurrying  the  respiration.  It  calls  almost  all 
the  muscles  into  play,  and  is  extremely  favorable  to  the 
proper  circulation  of  the  blood.  Dancing  is  a  very  use- 
ful exercise,  and  would  be  more  so  if  it  were  not  associ- 
ated with  the  heated  and  dust-laden  air  of  ball-rooms. 
Certain  handicrafts,  such  as  carpentering,  turning  etc., 
afford  useful  exercise.  Gymnastic  exercises,  provided 
they  be  suited  to  the  constitution,  not  over-indulged 
in,  and  not  too  violent,  are  very  valuable.  Excessive 
perspiration,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  injurious;  nor 
must  it  be  forgotten  that  exercises  suitable  for  the 
strong  and  robust  may  be  very  unsuitable  for  others 
whose  constitutions  are  of  a  different  kind.  Bodily 
exercise,  judiciously  regulated,  strengthens  the  whole 
body,  removes  the  causes  of  certain  disorders,  gives  a 
proper  tone  to  the  system,  and  enables  it  to  resist 
contagion.  In  children  it  promotes  growth  in  its  best 
and  most  proportionate  degrees,  for  beauty  and  health 
are  more  intimately  associated  than  many  people  im- 
agine. Jumping,  running  and  wrestling  are  all  good 
in  moderation,  and,  in  excess,  all  equally  bad.  For 
the  delicately  constituted,  exercises  of  this  description 
should  be  carefully  planned,  with  a  view  to  this  or 
that  special  case.  For  strengthening  the  muscles  of 
the  chest,  fencing  is  an  excellent  exercise.  Ba}l  play- 
ing benefits  the  trunk,  chest  and  arms.  Dumb-bells, 
used  in  moderation,  and  when  they  are  not  too  heavy, 
or  when  the  exercises  are  not  too  difficult,  are  very 
useful.  When  they  are  too  heavy,  mischief  is  done. 
Reading,  singing  and  reciting  aloud  exercise  certain 
important  muscles  to  an  extent  which  few  people 
dream  of.  The  lungs  may  be  exercised  both  directly 
and  indirectly, — indirectly  by  means  which  quicken 
and  deepen  the  respiration,  and,  as  in  the  above  exer- 
cises, directly.  Walking  up-hill  is  a  capital  exercise 
for  strengthening  the  lungs,  giving  expansion  to  the 
chest,  promoting  free  circulation,  and  more  completely 
oxygenating  the  blood.'  For  the  same  reason,  playing 
on  wind  instruments  is  often  found  beneficial  if  in- 
dulged in  by  one  free  from  anything  like  active  pul- 
monary disease.  Throwing  the  arms  and  shoulders 
back,  and  while  in  that  position  slowly  inhaling  the 
open  air,  is  to  be  recommended  for  young  persons, 
who  would  find  great  benefit  from  its  daily  practice. 
The  loud  laughter  and  noisy  voices  of  children  serve 
•the  same  beneficial  ends. 

The  best  single  exercise,  which  calls  into  play  all 
the  muscles  and  departments  of  the  human  system 
in  proper  proportion,  is  probably  climbing  a  tree  and 
going  through  all  the  motions  involved  in  gathering 
fruits  and  nuts.  This  is  far  better  than  all  the  gym- 
nastics and  lifting  macliines  ever  invented.  Severe 
exercise  in-doors,  where  the  air  is  more  or  less  confined, 
is  not  so  good  as  that  out-doors.  In  very  foul  air  it  is 
worse  than  no  exercise  at  all.  Walking,  merely  for  the 
sake  of  exercise,  is  not  so  good  as  "  going  somewhere  on 


an  errand."  The  best  thing  in  the  world,  under  this 
head,  is  an  excursion  to  the  wilds  of  nature,  where  one 
can  ramble  at  will.  When  the  noon  hour  arrives  he 
has  a  better  appetite  for  his  dinner  than  he  had 
thought  he  was  capable  of  having.  The  plainest  of 
food  tastes  extraordinarily  good. 

One  should  not  exert  his  utmost  strength  at  the 
first  outset.  As  with  lifting  machines  one  sliould 
make  several  lifts  some  minutes  apart  before  doing  his 
utmost,  so  in  any  other  severe  labor,  he  should  go 
into  it  somewhat  gradually. 

"  Passive  exercise  "  is  that  which  is  received  from 
an  operator.  The  subject,  who  is  an  invalid,  lies  upon 
a  couch,  while  a  friend  rubs,  kneads  and  spats  him, 
either  with  dry  hands  or  with  hands  wet  with  wateror 
medicated  liquid.  This  practice  is  essential  in  nearly 
all  cases  of  sickness,  and  sometimes  indeed  is  the 
only  thing  necessary  to  a  thorough  cure.  It  has  gone 
under  the  names  of  "  kinesipathy,"  "  motorpathy," 
"movements,"  "  Swedish  movements,"  "  manipula- 
tions," "  rubbings,"  "magnetic  treatment,"  etc.  It  is 
often  given  by  Spiritualists,  "  Hygienists,"  and  other 
"  irregular"  practitioners,  generally  with  good  results. 
In  the  cities  there  are  establishments  fitted  up  with 
steam  machinery  for  giving  nearly  all  sorts  of  move- 
ments to  all  parts  of  the  body.  In  most  cases  of  pro- 
tracted sickness  passive  exercise  is  more  important 
than  active,  as  the  latter  is  generally  impracticable. 

Exercise  of  Children.  Without  a  proper  degree  of 
exercise,  all  our  care  in  feeding  and  clothing  infants 
will  not  succeed  to  our  wishes  till,  by  due  degrees,  a 
child  is  brought  to  bear  a  good  deal  of  exercise  with- 
out fatigue.  It  should  be  pushed  forward  and  taught 
to  walk  judiciously,  but  soon,  so  that  at  the  end  of  12 
months  it  may  (if  healthy)  be  capable  of  walking 
alone.  It  is  a  common  error  to  suppose  children  are 
not  to  be  put  on  their  legs  because  they  are  weak,  or 
at  least  bent  or  crooked.  Daily  experience  sliows 
crooked  legs  will  grow  in  time  strong  and  straight  by 
frequent  walking,  and  that  disuse  makes  them  worse. 
The  walks  should  be  increased  gradually  every  day, 
till  they  can  go  two  miles  without  weariness,  which 
they  will  very  well  be  able  to  do  in  three  years,  if 
they  are  properly  accustomed  to  it.  From  this  daily 
exertion  they  will,  from  the  impulse  of  their  own  vigor 
soon  be  found  running,  leaping  and  playing  all  day 
long.  Thus  a  dull,  heavy  child  becomes  playful  and 
sprightly,  and  acquires  good  habits  and  permanent 
health. 

The  rocking,  jolting,  jouncing  and  swinging  of  babes 
is  happily  going  out  of  use.  Tickling  a  babe  by  gen- 
tly scratching  the  soles  of  its  feet  or  manipulating  its 
ribs,  is  also  a  dangerous  piece  of  cruelty. 

Rest.  Naturally,  this  is  an  element  in  exercise, 
for  all  action  has  more  or  less  intensity,  according  to 
the  degree  of  rest  mixed  with  it;  and  exercising  one 
department  of  the  human  system  seems  to  give  rest 
to  the  other  parts,  as  exercise  of  the  muscular  system, 
for  instance,  acts  as  a  sedative  to  the  nervous  system, 
brain  work  rests  the  muscles,  attending  orchard  is  a 
rest  from  field  work,  etc.     After  very  severe  labor  one 


HYGIENE. 


Hi 


generally  "  feels  so  tired  he  can't  rest "  thoroughly. 
It  is  therefore  our  instinct,  under  those  circumstances, 
to  keep  up  a  little  exercise  for  a  time,  and  quiet  down 
gradually.  The  system  cannot  bear  very  sudden  re- 
actions without  injury,  and  it  is  therefore  possible  for 
one  to  undertake  a  rest  which  is  too  sudden,  thorough 
and  radical.  It  is  a  rule,  however,  in  physiology,  that 
one  should  rest  thoroughly,  in  the  course  of  some 
hours, — indeed,  until  he  "  feels  like  "  going  to  work 
again.  Hence  many  laborers  work  too  hard  all  the 
week,  and  not  enough  on  Sunday,  and  on  this  day 
they  feel  stupid. 

Sleep.  No  arguments  are  requisite  to  prove  the 
necessity  of  sleep ;  nor  will  it  answer  any  practical  or 
useful  purjwse  to  enumerate  or  attempt  to  reconcile 
the  various  and  fanciful  speculations  relative  to  the 
causes  of  sleep;  experience  tells  us,  in  a  language 
not  to  be  misunderstood,  that  "  the  chief  nourisher  of 
life's  feast,"  "tired  Nature's  sweet  restorer,  balmy 
sleep,"  cannot  safely  be  dispensed  with  for  any  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  When  its  accustomed  visits 
are  not  paid,  or,  when  paid,  are  not  attended  to,  the 
whole  frame  is  thrown  into  disorder;  the  appetite 
ceases,  the  strength  fails,  the  spirits  become  dejected, 
and  the  whole  body  is  reduced  to  a  state  of  exhaus- 
tion and  misery ;  in  fact,  a  prostration  and  dissolution 
of  all  the  animal  and  vital  powers  seem  likely  to  en- 
sue. And  it  may  be  added  that  nothing  gives  the 
countenance  the  early  appearance  of  age  more  than 
the  want  of  healthy  and  refreshing  sleep.  But  while 
too  great  exertion  or  prolonged  action  enervates  both 
body  and  mind,  exhausts  and  unhinges  all  the  organs, 
and  lays  the  train  for  a  host  of  destructive  evils,  ex- 
cess of  sleep,  or  prolonged  inaction,  is  equally  to  be 
guarded  against ;  it  deadens  and  enervates  the  body, 
and  occasions  a  concentration  of  the  vital  powers  on 
the  brain  or  the  stomach.  On  the  due  equalization, 
therefore,  of  sleep  and  activity,  the  preservation  of 
health  and  strength  depends ;  and  regularity  in  the 
hours  of  rising  and  retiring  to  rest  mainly  contribute 
to  this  preservation.  The  common  abuses  on  those 
jwints  necessarily  induce  numerous  indispositions,  and 
often  serious  diseases.  The  causes  or  circumstances 
which  principally  contribute  to  sleep  are:  good  air, 
labor  or  exercise,  wholesome  diet,  and  regular  habits 
and  hours. 

Various  practices  have  been  recommended  for  pro- 
moting sleep.  Walking  up  and  down  the  parlor  or 
bedroom  before  retiring  is  one  of  the  specifics;  after 
supper  walk  a  mile  is  an  excellent  rule,  and  may  be 
practiced  in  the  house  as  well  as  the  open  air.  Wash- 
ing the  mouth  and  rubbing  the  gums  and  teeth  with 
a  brush  before  going  to  bed,  is  a  wholesome  practice, 
and  has  a  tendency  to  promote  sleep.  Friction,  or  rub- 
bing the  body,  arms,  legs,  soles  of  the  feet,etc.,  with  the 
hard  flesh  brush,  or  a  coarse  towel,  besides  promoting 
the  insensible  perspiration,  is  one  of  the  most  effect- 
ual sedatives  to  repose. 

The  most  imixsrtant  thing  to  observe  under  this 
head  is  to  have  the  sleeping  apartment  clean  and  well 
ventilated.  The  toughness  of  Indians  and  of  pio- 
53 


neers  in  this  country  who  sleep  in  open  rooms  is  pro- 
verbial. But  the  trouble  is,  many  persons  imagine 
they  have  clean  and  well-aired  rooms  when  they  have 
not.  To  meet  this  difficulty,  we  say  to  all,  the  nearer 
you  come  to  sleeping  out-doors  entirely,  and  yet  keep 
comfortably  warm,  the  better  you  do.  No  one  can 
catch  cold  in  bed  so  long  as  he  keeps  himself  warm, 
and  does  not  permit  a  draft  to  strike  him  anywhere 
except  in  the  face.  Some  persons,  who  are  very  par- 
ticular to  keep  all  draft  out  of  the  room,  will  never- 
theless turn  over  so  carelessly  in  bed  sometimes  as  to 
leave  a  hot  and  perspiring  portion  of  the  body  par- 
tially uncovered,  and  hey  "  catch  "  either  a  "cold" 
or  a  rheumatism,  or  some  other  ailment.  To  keep 
the  neck  and  shoulders  and  the  feet  properly  warm 
requires  special  pains  in  the  adjustment  of  the  bed- 
ding. The  covering  should  be  kept  up  close  to  these 
parts,  except  when  the  nights  are  so  warm  and  sultry 
that  one  wants  no  covering  at  all.  The  modern  prac- 
tice of  making  up  a  bed  by  tucking  the  ends  of  the 
quilts  under  the  foot  of  the  ticking  is  all  good  enough 
for  the  day,  and  so  long  as  the  bed  is  not  used ;  but 
to  do  one's  self  justice  when  he  sleeps  in  it  he  must 
jerk  the  covering  loose  from  such  moorings,  that  he 
may  be  able  properly  to  tuck  it  close  around  his  feet 
and  legs. 

The  use  of  feathers  in  bed  and  pillow  ticks  is  hap- 
pily going  out  of  fashion;  and  any  animal  matter, 
either  feathers  or  hair,  is  not  so  pure  and  wholesome 
as  husks,  straw,  moss,  or  other  vegetable  fiber. 

As  to  amount  of  sleep,  the  substance  of  modem 
advice  seems  to  be.  Sleep  all  you  can;  but  commence 
your  sleep  early  in  the  evening.  Surely, to  be  natural, 
or  normal,  we  should  sleep  as  much,  or  nearly  as 
much,  before  midnight  as  after.  Remember  still,  that 
in  announcing  the  demands  of  health  one  cannot 
compromise  with  custom,  or  even  with  emergencies. 
Both  these  often  interfere  with  our  highest  physical 
interests. 

Agreeable  and  lively  conversation,  and  listening  to 
music,  reading,  etc.,  are  often  good  preparations  for 
repose.  Gently  titillating  the  soles  of  the  feet  will 
frequently  produce  sleep.  Again,  when  the  soles  of 
the  feet  are  cold,  no  disposition  to  sleep  can  be  in- 
duced, on  account  of  their  affinity  with  the  brain, 
until  their  natural  warmth  is  restored.  The  best 
means  of  procuring  the  required  warmth  is  to  rub  the 
feet  with  a  hard  brush  or  a  coarse  towel  for  some  min- 
utes before  going  to  bed,  which  will  be  found  a  more 
effectual  method  of  preventing  the  sense  of  coldness 
and  conciliating  sleep,  than  the  immediate  applica- 
tion of  bottles  filled  with  warm  water,  or  anything 
else  actually  hot.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add, 
that  in  order  to  enjoy  sound  and  refreshing  sleep, 
every  object  that  may  excite  unpleasant  ideas  or 
violent  emotions  in  the  mind,  should,  for  some  time 
before  going  to  bed,  be  most  sedulously  avoided.  If 
none  of  these  practices  will  procure  sleep,  then  try 
the  effect  of  conning  orer  some  task  that  in  childhood 
was  apt  to  create  it,  or  of  the  counting  from  one  to 
five  hundred,  or  a  thousand,  or  reciting  any  long  pas- 


834 


HYGIENE. 


sage  from  any  ancient  or  modern  author.  By  these 
means  the  attention  is  diverted  from  uneasy  thoughts, 
and  you  are  overtaken  by  sleep  in  the  midst  of  your 
efforts.  Many  other  methods  may  be  also  adopted 
to  induce  sleep.  For  instance,  reading  aloud  in  a 
slow,  monotonous  manner,  and  the  gentle  noise  pro- 
duced by  vessels  full  of  water,  so  arranged  that  it  may 
fall  drop  by  drop  into  a  sonorous  vessel.  A  continued 
sound  indeed,  if  uniform  and  moderate,  is  well  suited 
to  absorb  the  attention  without  fatiguing  it ;  the  vibra- 
tions of  a  pendulum,  or  the  sound  of  soft,  gentle  mu- 
sic, or  a  long,  uninteresting  recital,  are  often  product- 
ive of  similar  results.  But  it  is  frequently  in  vain 
that  every  means  are  resorted  to  to  induce  the  balmy 
influence  of  repose ;  it  evades,  like  a  fleeting  vision, 
the  feverish  body,  or  the  busy  mind.  In  this  case,  if 
you  find  yourself  restless  from  feverish  heat,  a  parched 
state  of  body,  or  any  other  cause,  or  should  you  be 
awakened  by  any  accident,  and  cannot  easily  get  to 
sleep  again, then  put  into  practice  Dr.  Franklin's  rules, 
viz.,  get  out  of  bed,  beat  up  and  turn  the  pillow,  shake 
the  bed-clothes  well  and  repeatedly,  with  at  least 
twenty  shakes,  then  throw  the  bed  open,  and  leave  it 
to  cool;  and,  in  the  meantime,  take  some  turns  about 
the  room,  till  the  skin  has  dispersed  its  perspirable 
matter,  and  become  sufficiently  cool ;  then  turn  to 
your  bed,  and  you  may  soon  fall  asleep,  and  your 
sleep  will  be  sweet  and  pleasant.  If  the  room  be 
cold,  or  the  season  of  the  year  be  winter  time,  both 
stockings  and  a  dressing-gown  should  be  put  on  while 
you  are  out  of  bed.  There  are  other  various  artificial 
means  of  procuring  sleep,  such  as  opiates,  but  they 
should  be  cautiously  and  sparingly  given,  as  they  can- 
not be  employed  for  any  length  of  time  without  con- 
stitutional inconvenience,  and  even  danger  of  apo- 
plexy and  the  different  kinds  of  paralysis.  Air,  exer- 
cise, wholesome  diet,  and  regular  habits,  will  best  in- 
sure sleep  in  its  natural  form. 

Sleep  is  repelled  and  interrupted  by  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances, as  noise,  light,  sleeping  in  a  new  apart- 
ment, having  slept  during  the  day,  or  just  before  go- 
ing to  bed,  repelled  perspiration,  from  too  great  a 
weight  of  bed-clothes,  mental  disquietude,  over-exer- 
tion, the  nightmare,  deficiency  of  muscular  action, 
drinking  tea,  coffee,  or  any  thin  or  weak  liquor  imme- 
diately before  going  to  bed,  etc.  But  the  more  com- 
mon causes  of  disturbed  and  restless  sleep,  frightful 
dreams,  etc.,  and  which  are  often  erroneously  ascribed 
to  the  vapors  and  other  unfounded  causes,  arise  either 
from  the  defective  state  or  the  derangement  of  the 
functions  of  the  digestive  organs,  or  are  occasioned 
by  the  use  of  heavy  suppers,  malt  and  other  fer- 
mented liquors,  just  before  retiring  to  rest ;  in  which 
last-mentioned  case  no  rest  can  be  obtained  until  the 
first  stage  of  digestion  has  been  performed,  and  the 
stomach  relieved  from  its  crudities.  Though  diges- 
tion is  favored  by  a  state  of  repose,  and  increased 
energy  is  given  to  the  circulation  by  the  concoction  of 
the  food  being  allowed  to  proceed  uninterruptedly, 
yet  the  habit  or  custom  of  indulging  in  diurnal  sleep 
or  taking  a  nap,  as  it  is  called,  after  dinner,  should  be 


avoided  by  every  one  in  good  Tiealth,  and  not  aged, 
or  who  is  of  a  plethoric  habit  of  body ;  for  when  a 
person  is  in  a  recumbent  posture,  and  the  stomach  is 
distended  with  food  or  aliments,  it  is  apt  to  press  on  the 
great  blood-vessels,  by  which  too  much  blood  is  thrown 
on  the  brain,  and  thus  plethoric  headache  or  apoplexy 
is  sometimes  occasioned.  When  habit,  however,  has 
rendered  the  custom  of  napping  after  dinner  almost 
natural,  or  where  nature,  from  extraordinary  fatigue 
or  want  of  rest  during  the  preceding  night,  requires 
some  refreshment,  an  afternoon  nap  may  be  indulged 
in,  provided  that  it  is  taken  in  a  sitting  posture,  with 
the  body  inclining  towards  the  back  of  the  chair,  and 
a  little  turned  to  the  left  side,  with  the  feet  raised  by 
means  of  a  stool  about  four  or  five  inches  from  the 
ground.  Care  also  should  be  taken  that  all  those 
parts  of  the  clothes,  which  are  likely  to  prevent  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  be  removed,  and  the  body 
should  be  well  covered,  by  putting  on  a  great-coat,  or 
some  external  covering,  in  order  to  defend  it  against 
catching  cold,  and  prevent  it  from  becoming  chilled, 
and  the  circulation  checked.  The  same  indulgence, 
provided  it  is  not  carried  to  excess,  and  is  not  likely 
to  break  or  interrupt  their  rest  during  the  night,  may 
also  be  taken  by  the  infirm,  the  delicate,  the  sickly, 
the  care-worn,  or  those  whose  bodies  are  enfeebled  or 
enervated  by  the  relaxing  influence  of  the  weather. 
Persons  advanced  in  years  may  advantageously  sleep 
a  little  after  dinner,  that  the  heat  of  their  bodies, 
which  is  weak  and  feeble,  being  internally  concen- 
trated, may  enable  the  digestion  to  perform  the  better. 
It  has  been  said  that  "  the  most  complete  and  healthy 
sleep  that  can  be  taken  in  the  day,  is  in  summer  time 
out  in  a  field."  It  must,  however,  be  recollected,  that 
though  the  sensation  of  slumbering  on  the  grass  or 
hay  is  exceedingly  pleasurable,  yet  it,  as  well  as  fall- 
ing asleep  on  a  garden  bench,  may  be  attended  with 
injurious  consequences.  Neither  should  we  f  ver  suf- 
fer ourselves  to  "  take  a  foretaste  of  rejxjse,  a  relish- 
ing snatch  of  slumber,"  before  we  go  to  bed,  lest  it 
should  diminish  the  chance  of  getting  sleep  for  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  night. 

Dreaming  and  nightmares  are  always  caused  by  a 
noise  or  some  physical  disturbance  of  the  body.  They 
are  made  more  annoying  by  intense  mental  care  or 
anxiety.  Not  only  late,  heavy  suppers,  but  also  any 
twisted  or  cramped  position  of  the  body  will  create 
disagreeable  dreams  or  nightmare.  If  one's  body 
were  turned  over  every  few  minutes  during  his  sleep, 
these  dreadful  spells  would  be  avoided. 

Electricity.  As  a  hygienic  agent  this  is  recom- 
mended by  many,  opposed  by  some,  and  treated  with 
comparative  indifference  by  nearly  all.  As  a  remedial 
agent  for  some  chronic  affections  it  is  generally  recom- 
mended. The  most  important  of  these  conditions 
are  mentioned  under  the  different  diseases  in  this 
volume.  No  directions  as  to  its  use  are  required 
here,  further  than  the  general  warning  not  to  take 
electrical  treatment  as  strong  as  you  can  for  the 
moment  bear,  else  you  may  cripple  yourself  or  other- 
wise create  a  local  trouble. 


HYGIENE. 


835 


We  wish  to  say  a  word  to  the  farmer  in  the  way  of 
caution  ujx)n  this  jx)int.  The  aggregate  amount 
of  imposition,  petty  swindling,  and  larger  humbuggery, 
now  practiced,  based  upon  "electricity,"  "magnetism," 
"  galvanism,"  etc.,  is  incredible  to  any  one  who  has 
not  watched  the  general  newspaper  advertising,  and 
collected  an  assortment  of  a  class  of  circulars  now 
being  daily  distributed  throughout  the  country  by  the 
ton,  in  the  mails,  from  drug  stores,  shops,  and  in 
various  other  ways.  There  are  now  heralded  electric 
or  magnetic  or  galvanic  bands,  batteries,  belts  and 
brushes,  pills,  potions  and  lotions,  in  infinite  form  and 
variety ;  while  "  electrical  doctors"  rival  Egyptian 
frogs  in  number.  As  the  enormous  expense  of  all  the 
above  is  kept  up  continuously,  there  must  be  an  im- 
mense number  of  people  gulled  into  paying  the  tax  on 
their  credulity,  often  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  comforts 
and  even  necessities  of  daily  life. 

There  is  some  satisfaction  in  the  fact  that  most  of 
these  mechanical  contrivances  sold,  are  in  them- 
selves positively  inert  and  useless,  and  there- 
fore not  injurious ;  while  imaginatively  sick  people, 
and  others  with  slight  nervous  disorders,  are  soothed 
and  comforted,  and  sometimes  actually  cured  through 
their  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  the  otherwise  useless 
nostrums.  Take  an  illustration:  We  know  a  person 
in  good  position,  of  more  than  ordinary  intelligence 
on  most  other  subjects,  who  positively  believes  him- 
self benefited  by  a  large  horse-chestnut  always  carried 
in  his  pocket !  To  lose  this,  and  be  unable  to  get  an- 
other, would  give  him  the  blues,  if  not  bring  on  a 
spell  of  actual  sickness.  Another  person,  of  like  in- 
telligence, has  equal  faith  in  a  combination  of  copper 
and  zinc,  the  size  of  a  silver  dollar,  worn  suspended 
from  the  neck,  and  called  an  "  electric  battery,"  though 
having  no  more  electrical  or  galvanic  or  magnetic 
effect  than  so  much  silver,  iron,  stone,  or  wood, — that 
is,  no  effect  at  all  save  upon  the  imagination. 

There  are  now  half  a  score  or  more  varieties  and 
forms  of  the  wonderfully  be-puffed  and  advertised 
electric  things,  all  equally  nonsensical  and  intrinsically 
useless  so  far  as  electrical  or  magnetic  or  galvanic 
effect  is  concerned.  A  hair-brush,  costing  50  cents 
to  $2,  according  to  the  quality  of  bristles  and  handle, 
if  applied  briskly  to  the  head  may,  and  often  will, 
have  a  soothing  effect,  and  sometimes  reUeve  pain  on 
the  principle  of  "  counter-irritation."  The  effect  may 
be  heightened  if  the  user  can  only  be  persuaded  that 
there  is  some  electrical  or  magnetic  effect.  This  can 
easily  be  done  with  those  not  skilled  in  the  science  of 
electricity.  Conceal  in  the  handle  or  back  of  the 
brush  a  slender  steel  magnet  (or  even  a  bit  of  iron  or 
steel),  and  when  the  brush  is  brought  near  a  small 
IX)cket  compass,  the  concealed  metal  will  disturl)  the 
needle  just  as  a  pocket-knife,  or  scissors^  or  a  nail  will 
attract  and  move  the  needle  of  any  compass.  For 
appearance'  sake,  fine  wire  may  be  mingled  with  or 
substituted  for  part  of  the  bristles,  though  any  wire  in 
a  brush,  however  fine,  we  consider  too  harsh  for  use 
upon  the  delicate  cuticle  that  ought  always  to  exist 
upon  the  human  head. 


The  entire  class  of  fixed  combinations  of  metals  of 
whatever  kind,  whether  offered  by  Boyd,  Elias,  or  any 
one  else,  whether  called  "  electric,'  "  galvanic,"  or 
"magnetic,"  whether  of  American  or  foreign  origin, 
whether  large  or  small,  whether  round  or  oblong,  or 
any  other  shape,  whether  ornamented  with  embossed 
figures  of  devils  or  angels,  with  the  flames  of  Hades 
or  the  lightnings  of  heaven,  are  all  in  reality  just  as 
useful  "electrically," "magnetically," or  "galvanically," 
as  so  much  plain  copper,  or  lead,  or  zinc,  or  silver, 
except  as  they  operate  upon  one's  faith  through  the 
preposterous  claims  put  forth  for  them  in  the  enter- 
prising sellers'  advertisements.  This  faith  is  so  strong 
in  many  people  that  it  is  even  safe  for  the  dealers  to 
promise  to  "  return  the  money"  if  the  purchaser  does 
not  find  benefit — albeit  it  is  easier  in  most  cases  to 
pay  money  than  to  get  it  back  for  "guaranteed"  medi- 
cines and  the  like.  The  man  who  has  got  your 
money  by  ingenuity  will  be  ingenious  enough  to  worry 
you  out  with  pretenses  that  "  it  was  not  used  according 
to  directions,"  or  some  other  subterfuge. 

Magnetism,  animal  or  vital.  Manipulations  are 
already  spoken  of  under  head  of  "  Passive  Exercise." 
How  much  magnetism  is  imparted  by  the  operator  is 
a  mere  theory,  and  therefore  is  without  the  pale  of 
this  volume. 

Cheerfulness.  In  order  to  have  good  digestion 
and  be  perfectly  healthy,  we  are  generally  exhorted  to 
be  cheerful,  and  not  borrow  or  brood  over  trouble;  but 
our  moods  are  so  dependent  upon  physical  conditions 
and  uncontrollable  circumstances,  that  all  exhortation 
of  this  kind  is  useless.  To  be  cheerful  one  must  have 
his  body  right,  and  then  have  "  good  luck  "  generally. 
Next  to  all  other  appliances  in  hygiene,  sociability  and 
frequent  ramblings  through  the  wilds  of  nature  are 
the  best  general  means  of  putting  the  mind  into  good 
humor. 

An  erect  posture  of  the  body,  with  the  head  up  and 
shoulders  well  back,  is  generally  insisted  uiX)n.  All 
sedentary  work  should  be  broken  by  change  as  fre- 
quent as  practicable.  Dosing  to  keep  off"  diseases,  to 
keep  one  in  trim,  tone-up,  etc.,  is  prohibited  by  the 
priests  of  nature.  Moderation,  or  temperance,  in  all 
normal  things,  and  total  abstinence  from  all  abnormal 
or  doubtful  things,  constitute  the "  golden  rule"  of 
physical  morality. 

Hygiene,  Public;  Sanitary  Science.  This  refers 
to  health  laws  which  concern  a  community  as  such, 
and  hence  becomes  a  subject  of  public  legislation. 
Leaving  dead  animals  or  other  foul  matter  above 
ground  where  it  becomes  a  nuisance  to  the  public,  is 
a  moral  and  civil  misdemeanor  of  which  the  public 
must  take  cognizance.  This  is  especially  important 
in  towns  and  cities,  but  even  in  the  country  are  some 
regulations  necessary.  The  propagation  of  contagious 
diseases  also  becomes  a  contraband  of  civil  law.  The 
best  manner  of  disposing  of  excreta  and  all  manures 
and  decaying  rubbish,  and  the  arrangement  of  cess- 
pools, etc.,  are  indicated  in  the  proper  places  under 
head  of  Manure,  Privy,  Cess-pool,  Landscape  Gar- 
dening, Barn,  Drainage,  etc. 


836 


HYFOCHONDRIA—H  YSTERJA . 


Hygienic  system  of  medication.  This  is  treatment 
of  the  sick,  in  all  cases,  by  hygienic  or  normal  means 
only,  excluding  all  drug  medication.  As  we  give,  in 
this  work,  the  "  Hygienic"  prescriptions  as  well  as 
others,  for  certain  diseases,  we  will  greatly  abridge 
matters  by  outlining  the  general  hygienic  treatment  of 
all  diseases  here,  which  is  far  more  important  than 
the  special  appliances : 

1.  Warm  up  or  cool  down  the  body,  or  any  part  of 
it,  by  water,  air,  or  manipulations. 

2.  Whenever  the  body  or  any  .part  is  too  cold  or 
inactive,  warm  it  by  hot  water,  hot  compresses  or  hot 
air,  or  by  rubbing  and  kneading  with  warm  hands,  or 
by  exercise,  generally  passive. 

3.  Reduce  inflammations  by  warm  or  tepid  water, 
sometimes  cool  or  cold  water.  "  Sponge  off""  fever 
patients  as  often  as  is  comfortable  to  them.  This  is 
done  by  wetting  them,  either  by  hand  or  a  sponge  or 
a  towel,  and  wiping  them  off"  very  gently. 

4.  Direct  emetics  and  purgatives  are  given  in  the 
form  of  warm  water.  For  the  former  sometimes  a  quart 
or  more  of  water  is  necessary,  accompanied  by  tickling 
the  throat  with  a  finger  or  a  feather,  kneading  the 
region  of  the  stomach,  etc.  For  a  purgative,  or 
"enema,"  sometimes  a  pint  or  more  of  water  is  neces- 
sary. But  in  either  case,  if  the  water  is  not  soon 
ejected,  no  harm  is  done.  Nausea  is  often  allayed  by 
a  few  sips  of  hot  water. 

5.  For  a  general  purifying  of  the  body,  the  various 
sweating  processes,  described  under  head  of  Bathing, 
in  the  article  on  Hygiene,  are  prescribed.  In  this 
connection  the  most  important  thing  is  to  take  no 
more  impurities  into  the  body,  either  as  medicine  or 
as  food. 

6.  In  dietetics,  eat  or  drink  nothing  that  is  doubtful 
or  disputed,  as  white  flour  bread  (or  anything  else 
made  from  such  flour),  jxsrk,  or  even  flesh  of  any 
kind,  intoxicating  liquors,  beer  or  cider,  tea,  coffee, 
tobacco,  butter,  cheese  and  all  the  condiments,  min- 
eral waters,  "  herb  teas,"  etc. 

7.  Observe  all  the  directions  given  under  head  of 
Hygiene. 

Hsrpochondria,  or  Melancholy,  a  nervous  aff'ec- 
tion  in  which  the  patient  is  gloomy,  and  inclined  to 
imagine  the  most  absurd  things  hapf)ening  to  him.  The 
disease  is  intimately  connected  with,  and  probably 


caused  by  dyspepsia,  disordered  liver,  etc.  All  schools 
of  physicians  unite  in  prescribing  an  out-door  life, 
with  labor  and  cheerful  company ;  or,  an  excursion  by 
camping  out,  "roughing  it,"  etc., — such  things  as  aid 
digestion,  tone  up  the  nervous  system  and  keep  the 
mind  of  the  patient  off"  of  himself.  No  drugs  are  a 
substitute  without  injuring  the  sufferer  in  some  other 
way. 

Hypodermic  Syringe  (hip-o-der'mic  sir'inj),  a 
small  syringe  with  a  beveled,  needle-like  tube,  for 
thrusting  through  the  skin  and  injecting  a  medicated 
fluid,  as  a  morphine  solution,  to  produce  insensibility 
to  pain.  Useful  in  cases  where  the  stomach  cannot 
bear  the  drug.     See  cut,  page  230. 

Hysteria,  or  Hysterics.  This  disease  mostly 
affects  young,  nervous,  single  women.  It  manifests 
itself  by  fits,  often  preceded  by  nervous  lowness,  diffi- 
cult breathing,  sickness  at  the  stomach,  palpitations 
and  a  pain  at  the  left  side,  a  rumbling  noise  in  the 
bowels,  the  sensation  of  a  ball  ascending  to  the  throat, 
with  a  feeling  of  suffocation,  convulsions,  laughing  and 
crying  without  any  apparent  cause.  Almost  every 
part  of  the  nervous  system  is  liable  to  this  affection. 
The  disease  seldom  proves  fatal.  It  is  caused  by 
menstrual  irregularities,  indolence,  irregular  living, 
costiveness,  indigestion,  worms,  obstructed  perspira- 
tion, etc.  An  hysteric  fit  may  be  easily  distinguished 
from  fainting;  for,  in  fainting  the  pulse  and  respira- 
tion are  entirely  stopped ;  in  hysterics,  they  are  both 
perceptible.  The  fit  may  be  prevented  by  the  admin- 
istration of  30  drops  of  laudanum,  and  as  many  of 
ether.  When  it  has  taken  place,  open  the  windows, 
loosen  the  tight  parts  of  the  dress,  sprinkle  cold  water 
oil  the  face,  put  the  feet  and  legs  in  warm  water,  etc. 
Give  a  glass  of  cold  water  when  the  patient  can 
swallow.  Avoid  excitement  and  tight  lacing.  Friends 
should  not  indulge  in  tones  of  sympathy,  but  rather 
in  scolding.  The  general  or  constitutional  treatment 
consists,  of  course,  in  observing  those  specialties 
recommended  under  the  heads  of  Dyspepsia,  Hypo- 
chondria, etc.  When  uterine  disease  exists  in  con- 
nection with  this  trouble,  nine  times  in  ten  it  is  the 
cause  of  it,  and  the  cure  of  one  consists  in  the  cure  of 
the  other.  In  such  cases,  consult  a  good  sur- 
geon, whom,  by  the  way,  it  is  generally  very  difficult 
to  find. 


SlfB^aNt  ce.  Every  frozen  liquid — in  a  more  limited 
sense  frozen  water — is  known  by  the  term 
ice.  As  soon  as  the  temperature  is  raised, 
the  solid  state  again  gives  way  to  the  liquid. 
We  see,  then,  that  ice  is  nothing  but  water  de- 
P  ^  prived  of  its  heat.  The  freezing  of  water  is  a 
^  phenomenon  so  remarkable  that  the  greatest  nat- 
-  uralists  have  thought  it  worthy  of  a  careful  in- 
vestigation. ExixDse  a  glass,  filled  with  water,  to  a 
degree  of  cold  producing  ice.  An  extremely  thin  film 
of  ice  is  observed  first  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
contact  with  the  cold  air.  Slender  threads  of  ice  are 
soon  seen  to  shoot  out  from  the  sides  of  the  vessel, 
generally  forming  with  it  obtuse  or  acute,  seldom  right 
angles ;  from  these  rays,  new  ones  continually  shoot 
out,  till  the  whole  surface  is  covered  with  a  single 
coating.  While  this  process  is  going  on,  a  great  num- 
ber of  air-bubbles  arise,  as  in  boiling,  which  pass  out 
of  the  water  when  the  congelation  is  slow;  but  when  it 
is  sudden,  they  are  frozen  in,  and  by  their  expansion 
cause  rents  in  the  ice.  Although  cold  generally  pro- 
duces contraction,  ice  occupies  a  larger  space  than 
water:  it  is  hence  specifically  lighter  and  floats 
upon  it. 

It  is  well  known  that  stagnant  water  freezes  sooner 
than  flowing  water  ;  perfect  rest,  however,  seems  to  be 
unfavorable  to  freezing,  for  we  know  by  experience 
that  water  perfectly  still  is  not  frozen  when  its  tem- 
perature is  reduced  much  below  the  freezing  point, 
but  a  little  agitation  is  sufficient  to  change  it  into  ice. 
Sea-water,  and  in  general  all  salt  water,  freezes  with 
greater  difficulty,  because  the  salt  and  other  ingredi- 
ents retain  the  caloric  longer.  Salt  is,  moreover, separ- 
ated in  the  process  of  freezing,  and  precipitated  to  the 
bottom;  so  that  drinkable  water  can  be  made  from 
sea-water.  Salts,  however,  produce  a  degree  of  cold 
beyond  the  freezing  temperature,  and,  by  means  of 
them  we  can  cool  water  much  Ijelow  the  freezing  point, 
while  it  still  remains  fluid.  Most  salts  have  this  prop- 
erty, especially  nitre,  muriate  of  ammonia,  and 
common  salt.  A  degree  of  cold  sufficient  for  the 
freezing  of  water  may  be  produced  by  them  in  sum- 
mer or  even  over  a  fire.  Artificial  ice  is  formed,  also, 
by  exposing  pure  water  in  proper  vessels  to  such 
freezing  mixtures.  The  more  severe  the  cold,  the 
greater  the  hardness  and  firmness  of  the  ice.  The 
ice  of  the  jwlar  regions  can  hardly  be  broken  with  a 
hammer.     See  Freezing  point,  page  543. 

Strength  of  Ice.  Ice  two  inches  thick  will  bear 
men  on  foot.  Ice  four  inches  thick  will  bear  men  on 
horseback.     Ice  six  inches  thick  will  bear  cattle  and 


teams  with  light  loads.  Ice  eight  inches  thick  will 
bear  teams  with  heavy  loads.  Ice  ten  inches  thick 
will  sustain  a  pressure  of  1,000  pounds  per  square 
foot.  This  supposes  the  ice  to  be  sound  throughout 
its  whole  thickness,  without  "snow-ice." 

Besides  the  ordinary  signification  of  water  solidi- 
fied by  cold,  ice  denotes  concreted  sugar  and  ice- 
cream. We  give  two  or  three  recipes  for  that  fancy 
dish  called  "ice." 

Lemon  Ice.  Lemon  juice  and  water,  each  J^-pint; 
strong  syrup,  i  pint ;  the  rind  of  the  lemons  should  be 
rasped  off,  before  squeezing,  with  lump  sugar,  which 
is  to  be  added  to  the  juice;  mix  the  whole;  strain 
after  standing  an  hour,  and  freeze.  Beat  up  with  a 
little  sugar  the  whites  of  two  or  three  eggs,  and  as  the 
ice  is  beginning  to  set,  work  this  in  with  the  spatula, 
which  will  much  improve  the  consistence  and  taste. 

Raspberry  or  Strawberry  Ice.  One-half  gallon 
of  the  fruit,  the  juice  of  a  lemon,  a  pound  of  sugar,  or 
I  pint  of  strong  syrup,  J^-pint  of  water.  Rub  the 
fruit  through  a  sieve,  mix  and  freeze. 

Ice- Cream,  frozen  cream,  flavored  and  sweetened. 

Self  Freezing  Ice-Cream.  One  quart  rich  milk, 
8  eggs,  whites  and  yolks  beaten  separately  and  very 
light ;  4  cups  sugar,  3  pints  rich  sweet  cream,  and  5 
teaspoonfuls  vanilla  or  other  seasoning,  or  i  vanilla 
bean,  broken  in  two,  boiled  in  the  custard,  and  left  in 
until  it  is  cold.  Heat  the  milk  almost  to  boiling,  beat 
the  yolks  light,  add  the  sugar,  and  stir  up  well.  Pour 
the  hot  milk  to  this,  little  by  little,  beating  all  the 
while.  Put  in  the  frothed  whites,  and  return  to  the 
fire — boiling  in  a  pail  or  sauce-pan  set  within  one  of 
hot  water.  Stir  the  mixture  steadily  about  15  min- 
utes, or  until  it  is  thick  as  boiled  custard.  Pour  into 
a  bowl  and  set  aside  to  cool.  When  quite  cold,  beat 
in  the  cream,  and  the  flavoring,  unless  you  have  used 
the  bean.  Have  ready  quite  a  quantity  of  ice,  cracked 
in  pieces  not  larger  than  a  pigeon  egg — the  smaller 
the  better.  You  can  manage  this  easily  by  laying  a 
great  lump  of  ice  between  two  folds  of  coarse  sacking 
or  an  old  carpet,  tucking  it  snugly,  and  battering  it, 
through  the  cloth,  with  a  sledge-hammer  or  mallet 
until  fine  enough.  Use  an  ordinary  old-fashioned  up- 
right freezer,  set  in  a  deeppail.  Pack  around  it  closely, 
first,  a  layer  of  pounded  ice,  then  one  of  rock  salt, — 
common  salt  will  not  do.  In  this  order  fill  the  pail; 
but  before  covering  the  freezer  lid,  remove  it  carefully 
that  none  of  the  salt  may  get  in ;  and,  with  a  long 
wooden  ladle,  or  flat  stick,  beat  the  custard  as  you 
would  batter,  for  five  minutes,  without  stay  or  stint. 
Replace  the  lid,  pack  the  ice  and  salt  upon  it,  patting 


837 


838 


ICED  TEA— ICE-HOUSE. 


it  down  hard  oa  top ;  cover  with  several  folds  of 
blanket  or  carpet,  and  leave  it  for  an  hour.  Remove 
the  cover  of  the  freezer  when  you  have  wiped  it  care- 
fully outside.  You  will  find  within  a  thick  coating  of 
frozen  custard  upon  the  bottom  and  sides.  Dislodge 
this  with  your  ladle,  which  should  be  thin  at  the  lower 
end,  or  with  a  long  carving-knife,  working  every  particle 
of  it  clear.  Beat  again  hard  and  long  until  the  cus- 
tard is  a  smooth,  half-congealed  paste.  The  smooth- 
ness of  the  ice-cream  depends  upon  your  action  at 
this  juncture.  Put  on  the  cover,  pack  in  more  ice  and 
.  salt,  and  turn  off  the  brine.  Spread  the  double  carpet 
over  all  once  more,  having  buried  the  freezer  out  of 
sight  in  ice,  and  leave  it  for  three  or  four  hours.  If 
the  water  has  accumulated  in  such  quantity  as  to 
buoy  up  the  freezer,  ix)ur  it  off,  fill  up  with  ice  and 
salt,  but  do  not  open  the  freezer.  In  two  hours  more 
you  may  take  it  from  the  ice,  open  it,  wrap  a  towel, 
wrung  out  in  boiling  water,  about  the  lower  part,  and 
turn  out  a  solid  column  of  cream,  firm,  close-grained, 
and  smooth  as  velvet  to  the  tongue. 

Chocolate  Ice-Cream.  One  quart  of  cream,  i 
pint  new  milk,  2  cups  sugar,  2  eggs  beaten  very  light, 
and  5  tablespoonfuls  chocolate  rubbed  smooth  in  a 
litthe  milk.  Heat  the  milk  almost  to  boiling,  and  ix)ur 
by  degrees  in  with  the  beaten  egg  and  sugar.  Stir  in 
the  chocolate,  beat  well  three  minutes,  and  return  to 
the  inner  kettle.  Heat  until  it  thickens  well,  stirring 
constantly ;  take  from  the  fire  and  set  aside  to  cool. 
Many  think  a  little  vanilla  an  improvement.  When 
the  custard  is  cold,  beat  in  the  cream.   Freeze. 

Lemon  Ice-Cream.  One  quart  of  cream,  2  lemons, 
the  juice  of  i  and  the  grated  peel  of  %,  and  2  cups  of 
sugar.  Sweeten  the  cream,  beat  the  lemon  gradually 
into  it,  and  put  at  once  into  the  freezer.  Freeze  rapidly 
in  a  patent  freezer,  or  the  acid'  is  apt  to  turn  the  milk. 
You  may  make  orange  ice-cream  in  the  same  way. 

Pine-Apple  Ice-Cream.  One  quart  of  cream,  i 
large  ripe  pine-apple,  and  i  pound  of  powdered  sugar. 
Slice  the  pine-apple  thin,  and  scatter  the  sugar  be- 
tween the  slices ;  cover  it,  and  let  the  fruit  steep  three 
hours ;  then  cut  or  chop  it  up  in  the  syrup,  and  strain 
it  through  a  hair-sieve  or  bag  of  double  coarse  lace ; 
beat  gradually  into  the  cream,  and  freeze  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  You  may,  if  you  like,  reserve  a  few  pieces 
of  pine-apple,  unsugared,  cut  into  square  bits,  and 
stir  them  through  the  cream  when  half  frozen. 

Peach  Ice-Cream  is  very  nicely  made  after  the 
preceding  recipe,  with  2  or  3  handfuls  of  freshly-cut 
bits  of  the  fruit  stirred  in  when  the  cream  is  half 
frozen. 

Raspberry  or  Strawberry  Ice-Cream.  One 
quart  ripe  sweet  berries,  i  pound  sugar,  and  i  quart 
fresh  cream.  Scatter  half  the  sugar  over  the  berries 
and  let  them  stand  3  hours ;  press  and  mash  them, 
and  strain  through  a  thin  muslin  bag;  add  the  rest  of 
the  sugar,  and  when  dissolved,  beat  in  the  cream 
little  by  little.  Freeze  rapidly,  opening  the  freezer 
(if  it  is  not  a  patent  one)  several  times  to  beat  and 
stir.  Or,  you  may  have  a  pint  of  whole  berries,  un- 
sugared, ready  to  stir  in  when  the  cream  is  frozen  to 


the  consistency  of  stiff  mush.     In  this  case,  add  a 
cup  more  sugar  to  the  quart  of  crushed  berries. 

These  ices  are  often  colored  by  cochineal,  but  the 
addition  is  not  advantageous  to  the  flavor.  Straw- 
berry or  raspberry  jam  may  be  used  instea,d  of  the 
fresh  fruit,  or  equal  quantities  of  jam  and  fruit  em- 
ployed. Of  course,  the  quantity  of  sugar  must  be 
proportionately  diminished. 

Frozen  Custard  with  Fruit.  One  quart  milk, 
I  quart  cream,  6  eggs,  and  3  cups  sugar  beaten  up 
with  the  yolks,  and  i  pint  peaches,  cut  up  small,  or 
fresh  ripe  berries.  Heat  the  quart  of  milk  almost  to 
boiling,  and  add  gradually  to  the  beaten  yolks  and 
sugar;  whip  in  the  frothed  whites;  return  to  the 
custard  kettle,  and  stir  until  it  is  a  thick,  soft  custard; 
let  it  get  perfectly  cold  ;  beat  in  the  cream,  and  freeze. 
If  you  let  it  freeze  itself  stir  in  the  fruit  after  the  sec- 
ond beating ;  if  you  turn  the  freezer,  stir  in  the  fruit 
when  the  custard  is  like  congealed  mush. 

Tutti  FRUTTr  Ice-Cream.  One  pint  of  milk,  i 
quart  cream,  yolks  of  5  eggs,  beaten  light  with  sugar, 
3  cups  sugar,  i  lemon,  juice  and  grated  peel,  i  glass 
of  pale  sherry,  and  ^  pound  crystallized  fruits, 
chopped.  Heat  the  milk  almost  to  boiling ;  pour  by 
degrees  over  the  eggs  and  sugar,  beating  all  together 
well;  return  to  the  fire  and  boil  10  minutes,  or  until 
set  into  good  custard;  when  cold,  beat  in  the  cream, 
and  half  freeze  before  you  stir  in  a  J^  pound  of 
crystallized  fruit, — peaches,  apricots,  cherries,  limes, 
etc., — chopped  very  fine ;  beat  in  with  these  the  lemon 
and  wine ;  cover  again,  and  freeze  hard.  In  all  fruit 
ice-creams  the  beating  of  the  custard  should  be  very 
hard  and  thorough,  if  you  would  have  them  smooth. 

Iced.  Tea.  As  a  summer  drink  iced  tea  is  becom- 
ing quite  popular.  It  is  eminently  restorative  when 
the  system  is  enervated  by  intense  heat,  but  the  in- 
jurious effects  alleged  against  tea  are  certainly  none  the 
less  diminished  by  its  being  taken  cold. 

loe-House.  Ice  is  not  merely  a  luxury,  but  be- 
comes a  necessity  as  soon  as  its  value  is  known,  and 
the  advantages  and  benefits  to  be  derived  from  an 
abundant  supply  of  ke  on  the  farm  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  Aside  from  its  use  for  the  preparation 
of  articles  for  the  table,  the  numerous  domestic  uses 
to  which  it  is  applied,  such  as  the  preservation  of 
fruits,  butter,  meat,  etc.,  and  the  various  sanitary 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  its  use,  make  a  well-filled 
ice-  house  almost  a  necessity  on  the  farm.  An  ice- 
house can  be  constructed  at  so  small  an  expense,  that 
the  owner  of  every  farm  can  well  afford  one.  Of  course 
the  actual  cost  may  be  large  or  small,  according  to 
the  size  and  style  of  the  structure.  They  may  be 
made  ornamental  or  plain,  above  or  below  ground. 
The  smallest  quantity  of  ice  stored  in  a  house  that 
will  keep  well  through  the  entire  season  is  a  cube  of 
ten  feet ;  the  larger  the  quantity  stored  together  the 
better  it  will  keep.  The  walls  should  be  made  double, 
and  the  space  between  filled  with  dry  tan  bark  or 
sawdust.  This  space  should  be  at  least  twelve  inches 
wide.     The  floor  may  be  made  of  heavy  plank,  earth, 


ICE-HOUSE. 


839 


gravel  or  sand.  There  should  be  a  drain  beneath,  by 
digging  or  boring  a  hole  down  to  the  ground,  unless 
you  have  a  milk-house  attachment.  This  hole  should 
be  filled  with  gravel.  The  floor  should  incline  slightly 
toward  the  drain,  so  that  the  water  from  the  melting 
ice  may  be  readily  carried  away,  while  at  the  same 
time  no  air  is  admitted  to  the  ice  through  the  drain. 
The  several  designs  and  estimates  given  will  serve  as 
a  guide  to  the  builder.  Still  cheaper  plans  might  be 
used  if  the  directions  as  to  the  double  w«.lls,  drainage, 
etc.,  are  followed. 

The  principle  of  preserving  ice  is  to  prevent  the 
heat  from  reaching  it,  and  whatever  will  accomplish 
this  end  is  to  be  adopted.  This  is  the  object  of  the 
filling  between  the  wall  and  the  packing  about  the 
ice.  Whatever  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  therefore, 
is  to  be  selected  for  this  purjxjse.  Keeping  this  prin- 
ciple in  view,  almost  any  man's  ingenuity  can  devise  an 
ice-house  which,  though  it  maybe  unlike  anything  else 


Fig.  i.—lce-House  and  Cool  Chamber. 


that  was  ever  built,  and  very  rude  in  construction, 
will  preserve  the  ice,  and  that  is  all  that  is  wanted. 

Ice  should  be  cut  with  a  saw,  not  with  an  axe,  into 
blocks  of  regular  size,  so  that  they  will  pack  into  the 
ice-house  solidly  and  without  leaving  spaces  between 
them.  If  cut  in  this  manner,  ice  will  keep  perfectly 
well,  if  not  more  than  three  inches  in  thickness ;  but 
a  thickness  of  six  inches  at  least  is  preferable.  It 
should  be  cut  and  packed  in  cold,  freezing  weather, 
and  if,  as  it  is  packed,  a  pailful  of  water  is  thrown 
over  each  layer  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  blocks, 
andexcludethe  air,  it  will  keep  very  much  better  than 
otherwise.  For  a  day  or  two  before  the  house  is  fill- 
ed, it  is  well  to  throw  it  open  in  order  that  the  ground 
beneath  it  may  freeze,  and  it  may  be  left  open  a  few 
days  after  it  is  filled  if  the  weather  continues  cold. 


The  ice-house  should  be  finally  closed  during  cold, 
dry  weather,  and  it  should  be  opened  but  once  in  each 
day  during  the  summer  season,  and  then  a  competent 
man  should  remove  the  necessary  amount  of  cover- 
ing, and  take  out  a  full  supply  for  all  pur^wses;  then 
restore  the  covering,  carefully  packing  it  about  the 
opening,  and  close  the  house  for  the  day.  Much 
waste  follows  frequent  visits  to  the  ice-house,  espe- 
cially by  unskilled  persons,  who  dig  down  to  the  ice 
and,  by  much  tugging,  perhaps  succeed  in  getting 
some  irregular  fragments,  and  then  throw  into  the 
place  from  which  they  took  them  some  lose  sawdust, 
through  which  the  air  penetrates,  and  melts  perhaps 
ten  times  as  much  ice  as  has  been  taken  away  in  this 
very  irregular  manner  of  proceeding.  In  cold  regions, 
where  water-courses  from  which  ice  may  be  cut  are 
scarce,  ice-houses  may  be  filled  by  makmg  large  wa- 
ter-tight boxes  or  troughs,  which  are  filled  with  water 
and  permitted  to  freeze.  As  soon  as  the  water  is 
frozen  solid  the  ice  is  removed, 
stored  in  the  ice-house  and  the 
boxes  re-filled.  In  this  man- 
ner an  ice-house  may  easily  be 
filled  with  pure  ice.  A  huge 
cake  of  ice  may  be  fomied  by 
throwing  on  water  and  allowing 
it  to  freeze.  When  sufficiently 
large  it  may  be  sawed  into 
blocks  and  stored  in  the  ice- 
house. The  blocks  in  the  ice- 
house may  be  all  frozen  to- 
gether, if  the  weather  is  cold, 
by  throwing  water  over  them, 
and  leaving  the  doors  open 
nights. 

The  following  are  some  gen- 
eral principles  to  be  observed 
in  the  proper  construction  of 
any  kind  of  an  ice-house,  and 
all  else  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance. There  must  be  per- 
fect drainage,  and  no  admission 
of  air  beneath,  ample  ventila- 
tion and  perfect  dryness  above, 
and  sufficiently  non-conduct- 
ing material  for  packing  below,  above  and  around 
the  ice,  by  which  its  low  temperature  may  be  pre- 
served. The  best  packing  consists  of  sawdust,  either 
of  pine  or  hard-wood,  spent  tan,  charcoal  powder,  oat, 
wheat  or  buckwheat  chaff,  or  marsh  hay. 

In  Fig.  I  we  give  the  design  of  an  excellent  ice- 
house with  cool  chambers  below.  The  building  is  so 
designed  that  it  not  only  affords  excellent  facilities  for 
keeping  the  products  of  the  dairy  during  the  summer 
months,  but  also  during  winter.  Attention  has  also 
been  given  to  the  exterior  beauty,  and  a  building  of 
this  nature  will  add  greatly  to  the  surroundings  of  the 
farm  home  besides  affording  the  luxury  of  ice  in  sum- 
mer and  being  able  to  preserve  milk,  butter,  fruit, 
meats,  etc.,  during  the  hot  seasons. 

The  principal  requisites  for  such  an  ice-house  as 


840 


ICE-HOUSE. 


represented  in  Fig.  i  are:  A  locality  where  the  ice  can 
be  expeditiously  placed  in  the  upper  part,  and  provis- 
ion for  drainage  to  carry  off  the  waste  from  the  ice. 
A  hillside  is  the  most  convenient  position  for  such  a 
house.  The  method  of  construction  is  the  same  as 
for  any  other  ice-house,  excepting  in  the  floor.  The 
walls  are  double,  and  are  filled  in  between  with  saw- 
dust or  other  non-conducting  material.  The  roof 
should  be  wide  in  the  eaves  so  as  to  shade  the  walls 
as  much  as  possible,  and  it  will  be  found  convenient 
to  have  a  jwrch  around  the  building,  on  a  level  with 
the  floor  of  the  ice-house.  The  floor  of  the  ice-house 
must  be  made  not  only  water-tight,  but  aii^tight.  If 
a  current  of  air  can  be  established  by  any  means 
through  the  floor  of  the  house,  the  ice  will  melt  away 
in  a  very  short  time.  A  double  floor  of  matched 
boards  should  be  laid,  tarred  at  the  joints,  and  be- 
tween the  floors.  The  joists  are  placed  so  that  the 
floor  slopes  from  both  sides  to  the  center,  to  collect 
all  waste  water  from  the  ice.  A  channel  is  made 
along  the  center  to  carry  the  water  to  the  side  of  the 
building,  where  it  passes  off  by  means  of  a  pipe,  with 
an  00  curve  in  it,  to  prevent  access  of  air.     Or  the 

pipe  may  be  brought 
down  through  the 
lower  chamber,  and 
made  to  discharge 
into  a  cistern,  where 
the  water  is  kept  al- 
ways above  the  level 
at  which  it  is  dis- 
charged from  the 
pipe.  The  method 
of  this  arrangement 
^^,  of  the  floor  is  shown 
;^  in  Figure  2,  which 
represents  a  section 

Fig.  2. — Interior  View  0/ Coot   Chamber,    thrOUgh     thC     floOr 

and  lower  chamber.  The  shelves  are  seen  in  place 
upon  the  sides.  Fig.  2. 

The  items  of  material  for  the  construction  of  such 
an  ice-house,  if  on  a  foundation  of  brick  or  stone,  may 
be  estimated  as  follows : 

Feet. 
4  pieces  2  x  8  (laid  on  the  wall  in  the  place  of  sills),  i6  feet  long 
IS  joints  for  lower  floor,  2  x  8,  i6  ft.  long 
12       *'      '*  second     "       2  x  12,    "       " 
7        "      **  ceiling,  2x6,    '*      " 

42  pieces  '*  studding  and  plates,  2  x  6,  16  ft.  long 
40      '*       '*  rafters  and  sundries,  2  X  4,      "       " 
Sheeting  for  roof 
4  M  shingles 

75  pieces  i  x  12,  16  ft.  long,  surfaced  for  siding  and  cornice      1,200 
6^  barn  battens  for  same 
Flooring  for  floors,  ceiling  and  lining  2,000 

The  third  item  in  the  above  bill  provides  pieces  for 
tagging  oii  the  top  so  as  to  make  the  floor  lower  in 
the  center,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  number  of  win- 
dows and  doors  may  be  made  to  suit  location  and 
taste. 

IcE-HotJSE  AND  Refrigerator.  Fig.  3  represents 
an  inexpensive  contrivance  for  keeping  mil*  butter, 
and  other  perishable  articles  in  hot  weather.  Its  size 
may  vary  with  the  wants  of  the  owner,  but  the  larger 
the  ice-chamber  is,  the  less  frequently  it  would  require 


268 
400 
112 
672 
320 
400 


filling,  and  if  sufficiently  large,  it  would  keep  ice  all 

summer.  The  walls  (Fig. 
3)  are  double,  and  filled 
with  sawdust,  as  common 
in  ice-houses.  The  door, 
a,  is  double,  with  a  space 
of  three  or  four  inches  in 
it,  filled  with  sawdust  to 
exclude  the  heat.  Two 
doors,  one  opening  out- 
ward, and  one  opening 
inward,  would  be  more 
perfect.  Whether  one  or 
two,  they  should  be  made 
to  fit  very  closely.  These 
doors  open  into  the  re- 
^  frigerator,  which  is  kept 
Section  of  cool  by  the  ice  above, 
and  it  may  be  lined  with 
joists,  b,  must  be  stout,  so  as  to  hold 


Fig.  3.     Elevation    and 

Ice-house  and  Refrigerator. 


shelves.     The 

several  tons  of  ice  above,  provided  a  large-sized  build- 
ing is  erected.  They  are  cut  down  towards  the  cen- 
ter, so  as  to  form  a  trough  for  the  discharge  of  the 
water  from  the  melting  ice.  On  these  joists  galvanized 
sheet-iron  is  laid.  On  this  the  ice  is  deposited,  and 
the  iron  being  thus  kept  constantly  cold,  cools  the  air 
in  the  apartment  below,  by  the  natural  descent  of  the 
cold  air.  By  sprinkling  sawdust  over  the  iron  floor, 
the  thawing  of  the  ice  will  be  retarded,  and  thus  its 
melting  and  duration  may  be  entirely  controlled,  ac- 
cording to  the  depth  of  this  layer  of  sawdust.  The 
door,  <r,  receives  the  ice,  and  the 
window,  d,  kept  always  open,  is 
for  ventilation.  There  should  be 
one  in  each  end.  The  freer  this 
ventilation,  the  better  the  ice  will 
keep — being  covered  with  eight  or 
ten  inches  of  sawdust.  It  is  better  to  line  it  with  a 
few  inches  of  sawdust  at  the  sides,  in  addition  to  the 
sawdust  walls.     There  is  no  use  in  a  double  roof. 

The  water  from  the  melting  ice  runs  down  into  the 
trough,  and  thence  into  a  lead  pipe,  which,  being  bent, 
as  shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  4,  allows  the  water  to 
escape  freely,  but  excludes  the  warm  air  from  with- 
out. 

Bill  of  Material  for  Above,  the  building  being 
10x12  feet  and  12  feet  high,  the  first  story  7  feet,  and 
the  second  4 : 


Fig.  4.    Section  of  Dis- 
charge Pipe. 


Two  sills  6x8,  12  feet  long,  \ 


Feet. 

Two  sills  6x8,  10  feet  long,  \    '7° 

Eight  sleepers  2x8,  10  feet  long 104 

Nine  joists  2x12,  10  feet  long 180 

Seven  joists  2x6,  10  feet  long,  for  ceiling 70 

Forty-four  studding  2x4, 12  feet  long 352 

Sixteen  pieces  2x4, 14  feet  long,  for  rafters  and  sundries. . .  160 

Sheeting 250 

Two  and  one-half  M  shingles. 


Sid 


ing.. 


650 


Cornice - 100 

Flooring,  for  floors,  ceiling  and  lining 1,200 

One  double  batten  door. 

An  Ice  and  Fruit  House  Combined.  The  prin- 
cipal requisites  for  an  ice-house  with  a  cool  chamber 
below  for  fruit,  are:  A  location  in  which  the  ice  can 
be  handily  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  building, 


i 


ICELAND  MOSS— IMPLEMENTS. 


841 


and  facilities  for  drainage.  A  hillside  naturally  sug- 
gests itself,  and  will,  of  course,  be  used  for  the  pur- 
pose, when  it  can  be.  However,  the  house  can  be 
built  upon  the  level,  and  the  ice  hoisted  to  its  place. 
The  method  of  construction  does  not  differ  from  that 
of  other  ice-houses,  except  that  the  floor  on  which  the 
ice  rests  must  be  water  tight  as  wtU  as  air  tight. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  laying  a  double  floor  of 
matched  boards,  tarred  at  the  joints  and  between  the 
floors.  The  floor  should  be  made  sloping  toward  the 
center,  in  order  that  the  waste  water  may  collect, 
which  is  carried  along  the  channel  to  the  side  of  the 
building,  and  is  thence  carried  off  by  means  of  a  pipe, 
which  should  have  an  xn  curve  in  it  to  prevent  access 
of  air;  or  what  is  still  better,  we  think,  the  water  can 
be  discharged  through  a  pipe  leading  from  the  center 
through  the  lower  room,  into  a  cistern  below,  in  which 
the  water  is  kept  above  the  level  at  which  the  dis- 
charge is  made. 

The  walls  should  be  made  double,  and  filled  in  be- 
tween with  sawdust  or  other  non-conducting  material. 
In  order  to  provide  for  the  weight  of  the  ice  above, 
the  building  must  be  much  stronger  than  the  ordinary 
ice-house.  It  is  advisable  to  have  the  eaves  of  the 
roof  pretty  wide  in  order  to  shade  the  walls  as  much 
as  ixjssible.  It  is  preferable,  when  at  all  convenient, 
to  build  the  lower  part  of  brick  or  stone.  The  upper 
part  may  be  constructed  of  wood,  or  of  any  material. 
Ventilation  in  the  cool  chamber  must  be  provided, 
else  the  fruit  or  vegetables  will  mould.  This  room 
can  also  be  used  as  a  milk  room,  but  should  not  be 
used  for  both  fruit  and  rnilk. 

Iceland  Moss,  a  kind  of  lichen  (li'ken  or  lich'en,  a 
vegetable  growth  somewhat  between  a  moss  and 
mushroom)  from  the  mountainous  districts  of  Europe. 
It  has  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  and  is  used  both  as  a 
tonic  and  as  an  article  of  food.  As  prepared  for  the 
table,  however,  its  bitterness  is  scarcely,  if  at  all,  per- 
ceptible ;  it  has  a  grayish  color,  and  the  flavor  of  new 
rye.  It  is  generally  served  up  in  the  form  of  a  pud- 
ding, blanc  mange  or  jelly,  as  follows:  To  make  one 
pint  of  the  pudding,  steep  2  ounces  of  the  moss  in  3 
pints  of  water  for  an  hour  or  two,  then  simmer  down 
to  about  I  pint;  add  fine  sugar  and  a  little  lemon 
juice.  It  may  be  improved  with  Y-i  ounce  of  isinglass. 
Some  prefer  to  have  the  fibrous  [wrtion  separated  from 
it  by  a  sieve. 

Idiosyncrasy  (id-i-o-sin'cra-sy),  a  constitutional 
peculiarity.  This  term  is  the  best  and  most  common 
name  of  certain  singular  and  unaccountable  features 
in  the  taste  and  susceptibility  of  most  people, — pecu- 
liarities which  are  really  morbid.  We  will  illustrate: 
One  person  cannot  bear  the  taste  of  a  tomato ;  an- 
other cannot  bear  the  smell  of  cheese  without  be- 
coming sick  at  the  stomach;  another  cannot  eat 
at  a  table  where  there  is  a  dish  of  any  kind  of 
fish  prepared ;  another  cannot  bear  the  sight  of 
an  oyster,  either  at  the  table  or  anywhere  else; 
another  cannot  take  this  medicine,  another  cannot 
take  that;  one  has  a  partiality  for  dark  color  in  all 


the  ornaments  of  a  parlor,  another  is  partial  to  green, 
another  to  blue,  etc. ;  one  has  a  singular  passion  for 
singing  only  sad  songs,  or  for  doleful  music;  another 
for  copper  ware  for  all  her  kitchen  utensils;  another 
for  some  other  unreasonable  thing.  Most  persons  are 
more  or  less  affected  with  abnormal  intensity  of  some 
passion,  taste,  like  or  dislike,  which  must  be  regarded 
with  indulgence  for  their  comfort,  but  which  are  to  be 
deprecated  and  worked  against  in  the  science  of  stir- 
piculture  and  rearing  of  children.  From  the  above 
examples  it  will  be  seen  that  idiosyncrasies  are  the  first 
step  in  the  line  of  insanity — the  latter  term  denoting 
the  extreme.  An  idiosyncrasy  in  the  development  of 
a  single  faculty  is  called  "genius." 

Impact,  or  Percussion  ;  the  force  with  which  one 
body  strikes  another.  The  center  of  impact,  or  of 
percussion,  is  that  point  of  a  moving  body  at  which 
its  impetus  is  supposed  to  be  concentrated. 

Imphee  (im'fee),  African  sugar  cane.     See  Cane. 

Implements,  tools,  including  the  larger  apparatus 
in  farming,  as  plows,  harrows,  scythes,  cradles,  etc. 

Progress.  The  civilized  world  is  a  constant  sur- 
prise to  itself  in  respect  to  inventions.  In  the  line  of 
agricultural  implements,  it  is  wonderful  to  contem- 
plate the  strides  we  have  made  within  the  present 
century,  especially  the  last  forty  years.  We  have 
passed  from  the  wooden-moldboard  plow,  of  clumsy 
make,  to  polished  steel,  of  the  neatest  form,  some- 
times operated  by  steam;  from  single-plow  and  hoe 
cultivation  to  fine-toothed  buggy  cultivators ;  from 
sickles,  cradles  and  scythes  to  self-binding  harvesters 
and  mowers  drawn  by  horses ;  from  flails  and  tread- 
ing by  oxen  and  horses  to  steam  threshers  and  sepa- 
rators; from  shelling  corn  an  ear  at  a  time  by  hand 
to  large  machines,  run  by  horse  or  steam  power,  doing 
the  work  of  many  men  ;  from  pitching  hay  by  hand, 
an  hour  or  two  of  the  severest  labor  to  each  load,  to 
hoisting  half  a  load  at  a  time  by  horse  po\\er,  etc.,  etc. 
In  short,  farming  has  changed  from  a  life  of  the  most 
monotonous  drudgery  to  one  comparatively  of  play 
and  romance. 

The  business  of  mannfacturing  farming  tools  and 
machinery  has  become  one  of  the  great  interests  in 
this  country,  and  during  the  last  twenty-five  years  the 
increase  has  been  over  ten-fold.  According  to  the 
census  figures  of  1880,  there  were  1,942  establish- 
ments in  the  United  States  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  these  implements.  Of  these,  265  are  in  New 
York,  221  in  Illinois,  220  in  Pennsylvania,  158  in 
Ohio,  and  143  in  Michigan.  The  aggregate  capital 
invested  in  the  industry  is  $62,315,968,  and  the 
highest  number  of  hands  employed  during  the  cen- 
sus year  was  49,180,  to  whom  $15,496,114  were  paid 
in  wages,  while  $5,791,916  were  expended  for  lumber, 
$18,424,052  for  iron  and  steel,  and  $7,878,202  for 
other  material,  making  the  total  value  of  all  materials 
used,  $32,094,107.  During  1880  the  value  of  all 
agricultural  implements  manufactured  amounted  to 
$69,374,088.  Of  this  vast  sum  the  manufactures  of 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 


842 


INARCH— INDIAN  HEMP. 


and  Wisconsin  aggregated  $45,ooo,ooo,or64  per  cent 
of  the  whole.  In  1850,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
made  most  of  the  implements,  but  to-day  the  prairie 
States  of  Ohio  and  Illinois  have  taken  their  place,  the 
value  of  the  implements  made  in  Ohio  in  i88o  being 
$15,473,825, and  in  Illinois, $14,249, 175;  while  those 
made  in  New  York  were  worth$io,747,766,  and  those 
in  Pennsylvania,  $4,271,212.  Altogether  there  were 
made  of  lighter  implements  1,361,443  plows,  1,244,- 
264  scythes,  437,178  scythe  snaths,  308,732  dozen 
hand-rakes,  211,738  dozen  hay  forks,  and  325,057 
cultivators;  while  of  heavier  implements  there  were 
manufactured  72,000  mowers,  25,537  harvesters,  35,- 
337  reapers,  54,884  reapers  and  mowers  combined, 
10,387  threshers,  10,202  cider  and  wine  mills,  2,356 
cane-mills,  1,460  sirup-evaporators,  11,161  horse-pow- 
ers, 1,412  clover-hullers,  33,453  potato-diggers,  44,370 
corn-huskers,  59,157  corn-shellers,  and  45,412  fan- 
ning-mills. 

The  description  and  care  of  all  farm  implements 
are  given  in  this  volume,  in  alphabetical  order,  but 
we  wish  to  make  a  few  observations  on  the  general 
care  of  farm  implements  and  machinery.  Every  im- 
plement of  a  farm,  especially  every  one  of  the  more 
complicated  and  valuable  class,  ought  from  time  to 
time  be  minutely  inspected,  in  order  that  any  part  of 
it  which  has  received  damage  or  undergone  derange- 
ment may  be  immediately  repaired ;  for  when  even  a 
very  small  or  very  limited  injury  has  been  sustained, 
a  large  portion  of  the  implement  may  soon  become 
seriously  and  extensively  affected,  or  absolutely  the 
whole  be  rendered  unfit  for  use.  All  movable  im- 
plements also  ought,  whenever  they  are  not  wanted, 
to  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  carefully  stored,  the 
larger  ones  in  sheds,  cart-houses  and  plow-houses, 
and  the  smaller  ones  in  the  implement  house.  Ma- 
chines and  implements,  likewise,  which  are  much  ex- 
posed to  the  weather,  ought,  every  two  years  or  so,  to 
receive  a  new  coat  of  paint,  as  a  means  of  protecting 
them  from  the  effects  of  both  drouth  and  rain.  We 
suggest  to  farmers  generally  that  a  little  instruction 
given  to  the  workmen  in  the  use  of  machines,  and 
care  in  preserving  them,  would  add  to  their  efficiency 
and  durability.  Attention  to  washing  implements  and 
machines  before  laying  them  by,  a  little  oil  on  such 
as  have  revolving  wearing  parts,  and  a  coat  of  paint 
occasionally  to  each,  will  cost  but  little,  and  make  the 
difference  between  having  a  machine  ready  for  use  and 
one  covered  with  rust  and  wanting  repair,  just  as  the 
season  for  its  use  commences.  Contrive  by  care  and 
good  management  to  make  the  implements  as  dura- 
ble as  possible.  The  cost  of  this  will  be  trifling  com- 
pared with  the  advantage.  In  order  to  effect  it,  select 
the  most  likely  agricultural  laborer  upon  a  farm,  put 
the  implements  under  his  care ;  make  it  a  strict  rule 
with  all  the  men  that  each  implement  done  with  for 
the  season  shall  be  brought  to  one  particular  place, 
say  near  the  pond  or  pump;  the  man  having  charge 
of  the  implements  must  then  wash  and  clean  them 
well  before  putting  them  into  the  shed,  and  at  a  con- 
venient time,  when  not  otherwise  engaged,  or  during 


weather  when  out-door  work  cannot  be  performed,  get 
them  repaired  and  painted,  if  needed.  At  the  end 
of  this  shed  or  implement  house,  there  might  be  a 
lock-up  workshop,  with  door  to  open  into  the  place, 
with  a  few  tools,  paint  pots,  etc.,  the  expense  of  which 
would  be  nominal  in  comparison  with  the  benefit  de- 
rived. The  man  should  be  encouraged  to  make  his 
duty  a  pleasure,  and  to  feel  a  pride  in  showing  his 
employers,  implements  in  good  order. 

In-and-in  Breeding.     See  page  142. 

Inarch,  to  unite  by  grafting,  as  a  cion,  to  a  stock, 
without  separating  it  from  its  parent  tree;  to  graft  by 
"approach."  After  the  union  is  well  cemented  by 
natural  growth,  the  cion  is  separated  from  its  parent 
stock.  This  process  is  of  no  general  utility,  being 
called  into  requisition  only  for  a  curiosity,  or  to  save 
a  rare  and  valuable  tree. 

Incisor,  one  of  the  front  teeth :  so  named  from 
their  function  as  "cutters." 

Inclined  Plane,  one  which  has  one  side  higher 
than  the  other,  at  least  relatively. 

Incubation,  sitting  over,  as  eggs,  to  keep  them 
warm  until  hatching;  period  of  apparent  repose  of  a 
virus  in  the  system,  between  the  time  of  catching  the 
infection  and  the  breaking  out  of  the  disease ;  as,  for 
example,  the  period  of  incubation  for  the  small-]X)x 
virus  averages  9  to  14  days.  For  incubation  of  fowls, 
see  page  532. 

Indian  Corn.     See  Corn. 

Indian  Mallow.  This  is  that  velvety  weed,  grow- 
ing five  to  six  feet  high,  so  rank  and  so  common  in 
the  rich  and  neglected  corners  of  our  fields,  called  in 
some  places,  "stamp- weed,"  "butter-stamp,"  "button- 
weed,"  "velvet-leaf,"  etc.  Its  tough,  fibrous  bark  is 
found  to  be  nearly  equal  to  hemp  for  rope-making. 
A  process  for  its  manufacture  has  been  invented,  and 
the  experiments  give  promise  of  profitable  results. 
The  plant  will  yield  nearly  twice  as  much  as  hemp 
to  the  acre,  and  its  vigor  is  such  that  its  cultivation  is 
of  the  easiest  kind.  Plow  the  land  deeply  in  the  fall, 
and  lightly  in  the  spring ;  sow  the  seed  at  the  rate  of 
12  to  16  quarts  to  the  acre,  in  the  spring,  in  good  corn 
planting  time,  in  the  same  manner  as  hemp.  In  July 
it  can  be  cut  with  a  common  reaper,  shocked  in  the 
field  the  same  as  hemp,  until  cured,  and  the  first  crop 
water-rotted  also  like  hemp.  After  this  a  second  crop 
will  spring  up  the  last  of  July,  which  may  be  cut  and 
dew-rotted  in  October.  In  cultivation  the  mallow  will 
grow  nine  to  fourteen  feet  high.  The  seed  is  separated 
from  it  the  same  as  hemp.  The  total  cost  of  raising 
and  rotting  is  $20  to  $30  per  ton,  while  hemp  brings 
$250  to  $400  per  ton.  The  crop  is  said  not  to  exhaust 
the  land,  if  the  refuse  is  restored  to  it.  The  fiber  is 
said  to  receive  and  retain  colors  well,  and  is  good  for 
carpets,  rugs,  etc. 

Indian  Hemp,  a  poisonous  East-Indian  plant, 
from  which  hashish  and  some  medicines  are  made ; 
also,  the  name  of  a  semi-poisonous  plant  growing  in 


INDIAN  PONY— INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION. 


843 


the  woods  of  the  United  States,  and  sometimes  used 
in  medicine. 

Indian  Pony  :  see  page  693. 

Indian  Tobacco,  lobelia,  the  celebrated  Thomp- 
sonian  emetic.  '  Grows  sparingly  in  waste  places 
throughout  the  United  States.     See  Lobelia. 

India  Rubber,  gum  elastic,  caoutchouc,  etc.  To 
cement  rubber  which  has  not  been  vulcanized  (hard- 
ened by  comjxjunding  with  sulphur),  melt  together  16 
parts  gutta-percha,  4  parts  India  rubber,  2  parts  com- 
mon calkers'  pitch  and  i  part  linseed  oil,  and  apply 
while  hot.  Also  good  for  leather.  To  fasten  rubber 
to  wood  or  metal,  soak  pulverized  gum  shellac  in  ten 
times  its  weight  of  strong  ammonia,  and  let  it  stand 
3  or  4  weeks,  when  it  will  become  liquid  without  the 
use  of  hot  water.  This  will  soften  India  rubber  and, 
after  volatilization  of  the  ammonia,  become  hard  and 
impenneable  to  gases  and  fluids.  There  are  other 
comjx)unds  to  be  had  through  the  drug  stores,  more 
complicated  in  their  manufacture,  which  are  good 
cements  for  India  rubber. 

Indigenous  Plants,  plants  in  a  wild  or  native 
state.  The  indigenous  plants  of  the  United  States, 
for  example,  are  such  as  grow  naturally  in  the  United 
States,  or  are  not  known  to  have  been  artificially  in- 
troduced from  other  lands. 

Indigestion,  if  not  merely  the  effect  of  another 
disease,  is  best  overcome  by  fasting  and  out-door  life. 
Almost  any  one  of  the  ten  thousand  bitters  and  tonics 
and  stimulants  and  sedatives  and  alteratives  and  other 
medicines  will  give  temjxirary  relief;  but  this  immedi- 
ate effect  is  nearly  always  followed  by  more  troubles 
in  the  same  line  or  some  other. 

Indigo.  Several  varieties  of  this  plant  are  indig- 
enous to  the  Southern  States,  and  one  or  more  in  the 
Northern,  which  yield  inferior  dye.  Its  cultivation  in 
the  South  is  sometimes  remunerative,  but  never  in  the 
North.  The  Indigo  plants  of  the  East  and  the  West 
Indies  are  not  cultivated  in  this  country. 

Indorser,  in  commerce,  one  who  guaranties  the 
payment  of  a  note  or  bill  by  writing  his  name  on  the 
back  of  it ;  also,  one  who  recommends  a  thing  as  true 
or  good. 

Industrial  Education,  training  in  the  industrial 
arts,  as  agriculture,  horticulture,  gardening,  carpentry, 
blacksmithing,  civil  engineering,  and  mechanics  gen- 
erally. The  giving  of  this  kind  of  training  at  public 
schools,  called  colleges  and  imiversities,  is  peculiar  to 
the  present  century,  is  an  outgrowth  of  the  utilitarian 
character  of  the  age  in  Christian  countries,  intensified 
by  reaction  against  the  time-killing  studies  of  the  dead 
languages  and  metaphysics  of  the  dark  ages.  During 
this  transitional  period,  when  so  much  is  said  on  both 
sides  of  this  great  question,  we  cannot  give  in  an  en- 
cyclopedia article  even  an  outline  of  the  controversy  ; 
but  we  feel  abundantly  warranted  to  state  that  the 
almost  universal  sentiment  of  the  farming  community 
and  of  other  laboring  classes  is  in  favor  of  substitut- 


ing manual  training  for  the  old-time  Greek  and  Latin, 
in  all  owx public  schools;  and  accordingly  an  advance 
is  made  in  the  establishment  of  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial schools,  almost  every  State  having  a  college 
of  the  kind  under  its  fostering  care,  as  follows  : 


State. 

Alabama.  .. 
Arkansas.. .. 
California. .. 
Connecticut. 
Delaware  .... 

Florida 

Georgia 


Illinois. . . . 
Indiana. . . 

Iowa 

Kansas . . . . 
Kentucky. 
Louisiana. 
Maine 


Place. 


Name  of  Institution. 


Maryland ...    , 
Massachusetts. 


Michigan  . . 
Minnesota.. 
Mississippi. 


Mii 


Nebraska . 
New  Hampshire 
New  Jersey.. . 

New  y  ork 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania,. 
Rhode  Island. 
South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 


West  Virginia. 
Wisconsin 


.Auburn Agricultural  &  Mechanical  Col.  of  Ala. 

.  Fayetteville Arkansas  Industrial  University. 

.  Berkeley University  of  California. 

.New  Haven Sheffield  Scientific  School. 

.  Newark Delaware  College. 

.  Eaii  Gallic Florida  State  Agricultural  College. 

-Athens University  of  Georgia. 

.Dahlonega '*  ** 

.Urbana Illinois  Industrial  University. 

.La  Fayette Indiana  Agricultural  College. 

Ames Iowa  State  Agricultural  College. 

-Manhattan Kansas  State  Agricultural  College. 

-Lexington Agricultural  &  Mechanical  College- 

-New  Orleans Louisiana  State  Agr'I  &  Mech.  Col. 

.  -Orono Maine  State  College  of 

Agricultureand  the  Mechanical  Arts. 
.  .College  Station.  -Maryland  Agricultural  College. 

.  Boston Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

..Amherst  "  Agricultural  College. 

.-Lansing Michigan  State  Agricultural  College- 

-  -Minneapolis University  of  Minnesota. 

.  -  Oxford University  of  M  ississippi. 

-  -Rodney Alcorn  University. 

.  Columbia University  of  Missouri. 

..Rolla " 

-  Lincoln University  of  Nebraska. 

-Hanover Dartmouth  College. 

-New  Brunswick- -Rutgcr's  College. 

-Ithaca Cornell  University- 

-Chapel  Hill Universitv  of  North  Carolina- 
Columbus Ohio  Agricultural  and  Mech.  Col. 

.Corvallis Cor  vail  is  College. 

-Centre  County .  .-Pennsylvania  State  College- 

. Providence Brown  University. 

.Orangeburgh Claflin  University. 

,  Knoxville Fast  Tennessee  University- 

-Bryan, Texas  Agricultural  and  ^Iech.  Col. 

.Burlington University    of     Vermont    and    State 

Agricultural  College- 

-Blacksburg Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mech  -  Go). 

-Hampton Hampton  Normal  and  Agricult-  Inst . 

-  Morgantown West  Virginia  University- 

. Madison University  of  Wisconsin. 


It  will  be  observed  from  the  foregoing  table  that 
many  of  the  industrial  schools  are  departments  of  the 
old  institutions.  The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at 
New  Haven  is  under  the  supervision  of  Yale  College, 
the  Indiana  Agricultural  College  is  a  department  of 
the  Purdue  University,  etc.  In  the  Congressional 
land  grant  made  about  30  years  ago  to  the  several 
States  for  the  founding  and  sustaining  of  agricultural 
and  mechanical  schools,  it  seems  to  have  been  the 
design  of  the  movement  to  exclude  the  most  useless 
parts  of  the  old  curriculum,  in  order  to  give  room  for 
the  more  modern  and  practical  studies ;  but  the  co"n- 
servativc  element  was  still  formidable  enough  to 
wedge  in  the  proviso,  "  and  not  excluding  other  scien- 
tific and  classical  studies,"  and  thus  practically  com- 
pel the  progressive  masses  to  walk  somewhat  in  the 
old  grooves.  The  work  of  modernizing,  however, 
still  goes  on,  despite  the  whines  and  growls  of  the  old- 
school  educators.  In  the  article  Education,  pages 
383-390  of  this  work,  we  have  sixsken  at  length  on 
some  features  of  a  practical  education. 

Complaint  is  sometimes  made  by  farmers  that  a 
large  proportion  of  the  graduates  of  the  agricultural 
colleges  do  not  return  to  the  fami,  but  go  into  some 
profession  or  fancy  business  not  at  all  akin  to  farming. 
The  fact  they  complain  of  most  surely  exists ;  but 
what  shall  we  do.'     Compel   the   boys  to  return  to 


844 


INE.R  TIA— INHALE. 


farming  ?  or  abolish  the  schools  ?  On  the  other  hand, 
we  may  console  ourselves  that  the  practical  education 
received  by  these  young  men  at  the  agricultural  col- 
leges is  infinitely  better  for  them  than  the  Greek, 
Latin  and  higher  mathematical  education  of  the 
classical  school  is  for  the  farmer,  or,  possibly,  even 
for  the  professional  man  himself 

We  are  aware,  also,  of  the  Justness  of  the  com- 
plaint against  taxing  the  people  for  the  support  of 
schools  of  "  higher  education  "  (Greek,  Latin,  higher 
mathematics,  etc.)  and  of  specialties  in  any  art.  We 
know  that  oft  the  majority  transgress  constitutional 
or  fundamental  rights,  oppress  the  minority  and  make 
unbelievers  in  a  given  measure  sacrifice  their  purse 
for  its  support.  The  best  we  can  hope  for  is  to  con- 
tinue to  complain  and  instruct  in  first  principles  of 
right  until  there  is  a  proper  adjustment.  Taking  the 
history  of  older  nations,  however,  as  a  guide  to 
prophecy,  the  outlook  for  a  perfect  adjustment  of 
rights  seems  gloomy ;  for  it  seems  to  be  characteristic 
of  human  nature  to  get  into  the  mire  on  one  side  as 
fast  as  it  is  pulled  out  on  the  other. 

We  will  not  discuss  here  the  value  of  "  book  learn- 
ing "  in  agricultural  science  (see  page  388),  further 
than  to  observe  that  very  few  persons  are  willing  to  con- 
fine all  their  school  training  and  self-education  to  mere 
money-making  art.  There  are  pleasures  in  scientific 
study  and  mental  discipline  which  are  far  superior  to 
money-making  or  anything  that  money  can  buy.  After 
you  have  made  your  money,  then  what .'  After  you 
have  learned  farming,  followed  farming  and  made  a 
fortune,  what .'  Very  few,  indeed,  know  how  to  spend 
their  money,  or  dispose  of  their  property  after  they 
have  made  it ;  and  it  really  becomes  a  matter  of  con- 
sideration whether  we  should  not  spend  more  time  in 
learning  what  to  do  with  our  money  or  property  than  in 
learning  how  to  accumulate.  It  is  all  of  no  use  to  us 
except  so  far  as  we  expend  it  for  virtuous  pleasure. 
Do  not  forget  the  object  of  hfe  amid  the  turmoil  of 
using  the  means  to  obtain  that  object. 

Inertia,  the  property  or  force  of  matter  by  which  it 
retains  its  state  of  rest  or  motion, — requiring  force  to 
be  started  or  to  be  stopped. 

Infant,  a  child  too  young  to  know  right  from 
wrong ;  in  law,  any  person  not  old  enough  to  vote  for 
or  hold  any  civil  office,  or  hold  property  in  his  own 
trust,  etc.;  a  minor. 

Infection,  the  matter  of  disease,  whether  "  conta- 
gious "  or  not. 

Inflammation,  excessive  vital  action,  attended 
with  swelling,  redness  and  pain.  This  is  particularly 
a  local  inflammation,  being  limited  to  some  part  of 
the  body,  a  general  inflammation  is  mostly  in  thi 
skin  and  mucous  membranes,  and  is  called  a  fever. 
As  a  general  rule,  all  local  inflammations  should  be 
soothed  down  by  fomentations  or  compresses  (wet 
clothes  or  poultices)  of  such  temperature  as  is  most 
■  comfortable  to  the  patient.  Among  the  most  efficient 
drugs  for  allaying  inflammation  are  sugar  of  lead  and 


iodine.  Tincture  of  iodine  will  scatter  most  of  them  ; 
put  a  drop,  more  or  less,  on  the  place  once  or  twice  a 
day  and  they  will  gradually  disappear.  Even  a  schir- 
rous  tumor  may  be  scattered  with  it.  It  will  some- 
times arrest  what  would  have  been  a  cancer,  and 
ought  to  be  kept  in  every  house.  The  bottle  must 
have  a  glass  stopper,  for  it  very  soon  eats  up  the  cork. 
Sugar  of  lead  will  act  in  many  cases,  but  iodine  is 
both  safer  and  better.  People  who  are  hable  to  these 
thingsoughtto  eat  but  little  grease  or  sugar  in  any  form, 
and  no  buckwheat  or  spices  or  stimulating  food  of  any 
kind.  Of  course,  it  is  understood  in  all  the  above 
that  so  long  as  the  cause  of  the  inflammation  exists 
there  will  be  trouble.     See  also  part  affected. 

Influenza  (in-flu-en'za),  a  violent  form  of  catarrh, 
which  occurs  with  great  suddenness,  and  is  accom- 
panied with  debilitating  fever.  It  often  occurs  in  the 
manner  of  an  epidemic,  affecting  many  persons  or 
animals  in  a  community  at  once.  The  term  is  very 
loosely  applied  to  several  forms  of  disease  attended 
with  catarrhal  discharges,  especially  among  horses. 
See  Catarrh,  page  195.  For  influenza  in  the  horse, 
see  page  782. 

Infusion,  the  medicated  liquid  obtained  by  soak- 
ing or  steeping  in  it  some  organic  substance.  No 
particular  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  quantity 
of  each  article  required.  It  will,  however,  serve  as 
some  sort  of  guide,  that  we  generally  use  from  one  to 
two  ounces  of  aromatic  herbs  and  roots  to  every 
quart  of  fluid.  A  bitter  infusion,  such  as  wormwood 
or  camomile,  requires  less  of  the  herb.  All  kinds 
of  infusions  can  be  rendered  palatable  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  small  quantity  of  honey  or  molasses.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  human  palate  is  a  good  criterion ; 
for  if  an  infusion  be  too  strong  or  unpalatable  for  a 
man,  it  is  unfit  for  cattle  or  sheep. 

An  infusion  of  either  of  the  following  articles  is 
valuable  in  colic,  both  flatulent  and  spasmodic,  in  all 
classes  of  animals ;  caraway,  peppermint,  spearmint, 
fennel  seed,  angelica,  bergamot,  snakeroot  of  several 
kinds,  anise  seed,  ginseng,  etc. 

Inhale,  to  draw  into  the  lungs,  by  the  breath. 
Medicated  vapor  of  many  kinds  are  invented  for  in- 
halation, in  the  treatment  of  throat  and  lung  com- 
plaints, but  very  few  of  them  are  either  safe  or  efficient. 
The  substances  generally  used  for  this  purpose  are 
vinegar,  camphor,  benzoin,  ether  and  chloroform,  the 
two  last  being  used  as  anaesthetic  agents  to  induce  in- 
sensibility, and  are  inhaled  by  an  apparatus  specially 
adapted  for  the  purpose;  the  others  are  generally 
thrown  into  boiling  water,  and  the  watery  fumes, 
charged  with  the  medicament  employed,  are  inhaled 
through  a  tube.  Great  relief  is  often  found  in  con- 
gestive asthma  from  inhalation  of  steam  or  smoke;  for 
this  purpose  an  inhaler  should  be  half  filled  with 
boiling  water  mixed  with  about  a  dessert-spoonful  of 
strong  acetic  acid  or  half  a  drachm  of  sulphuric  ether 
or  a  few  drops  of  creosote,  which  being  jwured  on  the 
hot  water  and  the  lid  finiily  secured,  the  patient  is  to 
adjust  the  mouthpiece  to  his  lips,  and  slowly  inhale 


INJECT— INSANIT  Y. 


845 


the  impregnated  vapor  that  rises  through  the  tube, 
retaining  the  steam  as  long  as  convenient  in  the 
mouth.  Whatever  article  is  used  for  the  inhalation, 
the  quantity  employed  should  be  steadily  increased, 
and  the  operation  always  commenced  with  a  small 
dose.  Inhalation  of  the  steam  of  plain  warm  water, 
sage  or  balm  tea,  or  a  decoction  of  camomile  and 
poppy-heads,  [xsured  into  the  inhaler,  will  often  afford 
very  great  relief,  and  more  particularly  when  used  al- 
ternately with  any  of  the  above  articles — acetic  acid, 
ether,  etc.  See  also  the  respective  diseases,  either  of 
man  or  beast,  where  inhalation  may  be  practicable. 

Inject,  to  throw  in ;  in  medical  treatment,  to  force 
medicated  fluid  under  the  skin  (see  Hypodermic  Syr- 
inge) or  throw  water  or  other  fluid  into  the  bowels 
(rectum)  by  a  syringe. 

Injection,  a  throwing  in,  as  fluid  into  the  bowels 
or  under  the  skin;  a  clyster;  an  enema.  A  common 
enema  is  an  injection  of  tepid  water,  to  relieve  consti- 
pation or  diarrhoea. 

Ink,  To  Make.  Although  at  the  present  day  it  is 
generally  cheaper  to  buy  ink  at  the  book  or  drug- 
stores, a  ten-cent  bottle  at  a  time,  than  to  make  ink 
at  home,  we  give  two  or  three  of  the  best  recipes  for 
making  ink. 

Recipe  for  black  ink  that  will  not  freeze :  Five 
ounces  extract  logwood,  J^  ounce  bichromate  of  potash, 
y^  ounce  prussiate  of  potash,  2  gals,  alcohol.  Put  the 
logwood  in  the  alcohol  cold,  bring  to  a  boil,  then  put 
in  the  bichromate  and  prussiate  of  jxstash,  and  boil 
five  minutes. 

Or,  mix  with  a  gallon  of  pure  soft  water,  and  stir  in 
well,  1 2  ounces  of  coarsely  ix)wdered  Aleppo  galls ;  6 
of  chipped  logwood;  5  of  protosulphate  of  iron ;  5  of 
gum  Arabic  ;  and  two  of  dry  sugar. 

Indelible  Ink.  Six  cents' worth  of  lunar  caustic; 
I  drachm  of  salt  of  tartar,  one  quarter  of  an  ounce  of 
gum  Arabic. 

Sympathetic  or  Invisible  Ink.  Onion  juice,  or 
lemon  juice,  or  sulphuric  acid  and  sugar,  or  blue  vi- 
triol and  sal  ammoniac,  etc.,  will  be  invisible  until 
heated.  Other  substances,  when  used  in  writing,  are 
invisible  until  moistened  with  water  or  some  chemi- 
cal solution. 

Ink  Stains,  To  Eradicate:  see  Stains. 

Inoculate,  to  insert  eyes,  or  buds ;  to  bud.  See 
Budding.  In  medical  language,  it  is  to  propagate  a 
disease  by  the  transfer  of  its  virus  to  another  individ- 
ual,— also  called  "vaccination." 

Insanity,  literally,  want  of  mental  soundness. 
We  have  a  number  of  terms  in  the  English  language 
denoting  various  degrees  of  insanity ;  as  genius,  idio- 
syncrasy, eccentricity,  peculiarity,  simple-mindedness, 
imbecility,  mental  aberration,  derangement,  unsound- 
ness of  mind,  craziness,  frenzy,  foolishness,  doltish- 
ness  (dunce,  blockhead,  etc.),  folly,  want  of  balance, 
furor,  stupidity,  melancholy,  mania  or  madness  (see 
Monomonia),  idiocy,  etc.,  besides  several  terms  from 


other  languages,  as  non  compos  mentis,  insipientia, 
dementia,  etc.  There  are  also  numerous  slang  phrases, 
as  "  kink  in  the  head,"  "  bee  in  the  bonnet,"  "cracked 
brain,"  "off  his  balance  or  pegs,"  "cranky,"  beside 
himself,"  "out  of  his  mind,"  etc.,  etc.  Most  of  these 
terms  are  too  much  used  in  scoffing,  being  applied  to 
sound  men  and  women  who  simply  differ  from  us  in 
opinion.  The  more  ignorant  and  uncultured  one  is, 
the  more  he  is  given  to  applying  these  epithets  to 
men  of  wisdom. 

Idiocy  applies  to  one  who  is  born  with  so  little  in- 
tellect as  to  be  irresponsible  for  his  acts,  and  insanity 
to  one  ujxDn  whom  mental  unsoundness  has  been  in- 
duced some  time  after  birth.  The  latter  is  sometimes 
curable,  the  former  never.  A  person,  moreover,  may 
be  physiologically  insane  and  not  legally  so ;  that  is, 
he  may  be  partially  insane,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to 
be  irresjx)nsible  for  his  actions;  he  may  still  know  right 
from  wrong ;  and  so  far  as  he  does  know  right  from 
wrong,  he  is  not  "insane"  ia  the  sense  of  the  law. 

Practically,  the  most  important  things  for  us  all  to 
know  are  the  signs  of  in-coming  insanity ;  for  it  gener- 
ally creeps  on  so  slyly  that  the  family  or  inmates  of 
the  house  where  the  patient  resides  have  a  deal  of 
trouble,  explaining  and  quarreling,  etc.,  before  it  is 
fully  determined  what  is  the  difficulty.  Difference  of 
opinion,  accompanied  with  ugliness  of  temper  or  un- 
willingness to  compromise,  is  not  evidence  of  real  in- 
sanity, although  it  is  of  wickedness;  but,  as  medical 
jurists  have  already  agreed,  the  first  reliable  evidence 
of  real  insanity  is  the  commission  of  acts  (or  omission) 
which  are  clearly  aimless  and  cannot  be  regarded  by 
any  one  as  effecting  any  good  whatever  for  the  subject 
himself;  as,  eating  clay  or  sand,  pricking  the  skin  in 
various  places  as  if  only  to  see  it  bleed,  unnecessarily 
freezing  or  burning  one's  self,  standing  with  arms  ex- 
tended, beatingthe  ground,  making  constantly  an  un- 
musical noise,  saying  things  that  have  no  sense, 
remaining  disagreeably  silent  and  sullen,  persisting  in 
ridiculous  jxjstures,  etc.  Of  course  the  acts  of  those 
who  are  near  the  dividing  line  between  sanity  and  in- 
sanity will  be  confusing,  and  there  are  indeed  many 
people  at  that  ix)int.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  their 
acts  from  those  of  a  dunce  or  an  unusually  depraved 
person.  In  nature  there  is  no  more  definite  line  be- 
tween sanity  and  insanity  than  there  is  between  heat 
and  cold,  although  the  terms  in  both  instances  are 
of  opposite  meaning.  No  person  becoming  insane 
will  ever  acknowledge  himself  becoming  so,  but 
rather  regard  most,  if  not  all,  other  peoples  a  insane. 
This  conduct  may  in  fact  be  regarded  as  a  second 
evidence  of  approaching  insanity. 

As  insanity  is  nearly  always  due  to  the  action  of 
physical  causes  since  the  birth  and  childhood  of 
the  patient,  the  treatment  consists  mainly  in  ferret- 
ing out  the  causes  and  removing  them;  and  the 
treatment  is  therefore  physical  rather  them  men- 
tal. The  most  common  causes  are  dyspepsia,  dis- 
ordered viscera,  uterine  diseases,  nervous  diseases,  brain 
diseases,  mental  troubles  coming  in  heaps,  etc.  The 
last  mentioned  class  comprise  love  affairs,  deaths  of 


846 


INSECTS. 


friends  or  relatives,  loss  of  property,  disappointed 
ambition,  etc. 

Bromide  of  potassium,  5  to  10  grains  three  times 
daily,  is  the  most  common  medicine  given  at  insane 
asylums  where  a  disordered  brain  is  supposed  to  be 
the  primary  trouble ;  but  the  various  schools  of  medi- 
cine differ,  of  course,  very  widely  as  to  any  prescribed 
course  of  medical  treatment.  We  all  know  we  are 
right,  however,  in  endeavoring  to  remove  the  sup- 
posed cause  of  the  malady  and  in  administering  the 
usual  laws  of  health,  as  taught  and  agreed  n]X>n  by  all 
the  schools.  These  are  given  under  the  head  of 
Hygiene  in  this  volume.  Excursions  and  cheerful 
company  are  very  important  where  mental  troubles 
have  been  the  cause  of  the  disorder. 

In  this  country  all  the  States  and  Territories  pro- 
vide by  statute  for  the  care  of  the  insane,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  their  relatives  wherever  practicable.  If  the 
patient  is  not  dangerous  to  other  people,  and  his  rel- 
atives prefer  to  keep  him  at  home,  of  course  they  are 
allowed  to  do  so.  Whenever  a  case  is  developed  in  a 
family,  let  them  report  the  matter  to  the  overseer  of 
poor,  or  a  similar  officer  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
and  they  will  be  advised  what  to  do.  Generally  a 
jury  will  be  called  to  investigate  and  decide  the  case. 

Our  older  States  have  one,  two  or  three  immense 
institutions  for  the  care  of  the  insane,  at  the  expense 
mainly  of  the  public ;  and  they  are  generally  full  of 
patients.  It  seems  to  be  settled  that  insanity  is  on 
the  increase  in  the  United  States,  due  to  disappointed 
ambitions,  loss  of  property,  hurried  living,  foolish  med- 
ication and  intemperance  of  all  kinds.  Consider- 
ing the  nature  of  the  causes,  it  seems  a  hopeless  task 
for  a  few  men  to  undertake  to  arrest  the  tide,  and 
philanthropists  have  to  patiently  work  and  wait  in  the 
field  of  physical  education  and  mental  discipline. 
While  "the  wise  man  foreseeth  the  evil  and  hideth 
himself,  the  simple  pass  on  and  are  punished." 

Insects,  animals  having  a  jointed  body,  composed 
of  three  distinct  parts, — the  head,  the  thorax  and  the 
abdomen, — the  thorax  furnished  with  six  legs,  and 
usually  a  pair  or  two  of  wings,  and  the  abdomen  with 
small  holes, called  "  spiracles," along  the  sides,  through 
which  the  creatures  breathe.  Formerly  spiders, 
"sow  bugs,"  shrimps  and  other  Crustacea,  and  even 
worms,  etc.,  were  loosely  referred  to  as  insects ;  but 
at  the  present  day  the  term  "insect  "  comprises  only 
that  class  of  animal  forms  as  described  above  and  ex- 
emplified by  beetles,  bugs,  flies,  bees,  gnats,  mosqui- 
toes, grasshoppers,  locusts,  fleas,  lice,  bed-bugs,  etc. 

Insect  life  is  generally  divided  into  four  very  marked 
stages, — the  egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa  and  the  perfect 
state.  The  egg  is  also  called  ovum,  plural  ova;  the 
larva  (plural  larvce)  is  Englished  into  larve,  plural 
larves, — sometimes  called  the  "worm  form;"  the puj>a 
(plural /«/(?)  is  sometimes  called  chrysalis  or  chrysa- 
lid,  plural  chrysalids;  and  the  "perfect," "developed  " 
or  "winged'  state,  the  imago,  plural  imagos.  The 
changes  which  insects  undergo  from  the  egg  to  the 
imago    are   called   "transformations,"  or  "metamor- 


phoses. "  Some  insects  undergo  only  a  partial 
transformation. 

A  very  few  insects  do  not  lay  their  eggs,  but  retain 
them  in  the  body  till  they  are  hatched,  and  thus  they 
are  called  "  ovoviviparous."  Most  insects  lay  eggs,  and 
lay  them  where  the  young  as  soon  as  hatched  will 
find  a  plentiful  supply  of  food. 

Insects  proper  are  divided  into  seven  sub-orders, 
as  follows: 

I.  HvMENOPTERA, or  Membranous-winged  Insects,  as 
bees,  wasps,  ichneumon  flies,  saw-flies,  ants  and  their 
allies.  The  hinder  pair  of  wings  are  smaller,  and  all 
the  wings  are  traversed  by  a  few  irregularly  branching 
veins.  These  insects  have  four  jaws,  the  upper  pair 
hard  and  fitted  for  biting,  the  lower  pair  softer,  adapt- 
ed for  collecting  honey.     The  females  have  stings. 

2.  Lepidoptera,  or  Scaly-winged  Insects,  as  but- 
terflies and  moths.  The  "scales"  are  a  fine  dust, 
which  readily  comes  off  upon  the  fingers  when  one 
handles  them.  These  insects  have  two  pairs  of  wings, 
a  long  sucking  tongue  which  rolls  up  like  a  watch- 
spring  when  not  in  use,  and  five-jointed  feet.  Their 
larves  are  called  "caterpillars,"  and  have  10  to  16 
legs.      The   wings   of  the   butterflies  are  erect  when 

■  at  rest  while  those  of  the  moths  lie  flat.      Butterflies 
are  diurnal  in  their  habits,  moths  mainly  nocturnal. 

3.  DiPTERA,  or  Two-winged  Insects,  as  flies,  mos- 
quitoes and  their  allies.  These  insects  have  sucking 
tubes  as  mouths,  accompanied  with  sharp  bristles  for 
cutting  into  or  piercing  objects  upon  which  they  feed. 
The  larves  of  the  flies  are  called  maggots.  They  are 
footless,  and  many  of  them  are  noted  for  subsisting 
upon  carrion. 

4.  CoLEOPTERA,  or  Sheath-wlnged  Insects,  as  bee- 
tles. Beetles  are  so  well  known  and  so  distinctly 
marked  that  no  particular  description  is  necessary  for 
their  identification.  The  number  of  species  is  count- 
ed by  thousands. 

5.  Hemiptera,  or  bugs,  "cicadas  or  harvest-flies, 
plant-lice,  parasitic  lice  on  man  and  animals,  bed- 
bugs, etc.  The  principle  upon  which  these  are  class- 
ed together  is  this  :  They  have  the  mouth  parts  in  the 
form  of  a  slender  horny  beak,  consisting  of  a  homy 
sheath,  containing  three  stiff  and  intensely  *sharp 
bristles.  When  not  in  use,  this  beak  is  bent  under 
the  body  and  lies  upon  the  breast. 

6.  Orthoptera,  or  Straight-winged  Insects,  as 
grasshoppers,  katydids,  cockroaches,  crickets  and 
their  allies.  Their  wings  lie  straight  along  the  top  or 
sides  of  the  back,  the  upper  ones  being  somewhat 
thick  and  opaque,  and  sometimes  slightly  overlap- 
ping, and  the  under  ones  larger,  thin,   and  in  plaits. 

7.  Neuroptera,  or  Nerve-winged  Insects,  as  drag- 
on-flies and  kindred  insects.  Dragon-flies  are  also 
called  "devil's  darning-needles,"  "snake  doctors," etc. 
These  insects  have  four  membranous  net-veined 
wings,  the  hinder  ones  largest,  the  mouth  furnished 
with  jaws  and  the  abdomen  destitute  of  sting  and 
piercer.  In  some  the  transformation  is  complete,  in 
others  only  partial. 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


847 


Insects,  Injurious.  Were  we  to  state  the  annual 
loss  to  our  country  caused  by  insect  depredations,  very 
few  would  believe  us.  In  Illinois  alone,  by  one  in- 
sect, on  one  crop  in  one  season,  the  loss  was  over 
$32,000,000.  Some  of  our  productions,  for  instance 
our  plum  crop,  have  been  generally  given  entirely 
over  to  our  enemies,  and  hence  are  little  thought  of. 
Other  of  our  crops  are  so  constantly  raised  on  thirds, 
the  insects  taking  one  or  two-thirds,  that  we  have  ceased 
to  possess  any  idea  of  a  full  yield,  and  so  take  no  heed 
of  our  loss.  Still  other  of  our  products  are  cut  off, 
withered  or  dwarfed,  and  the  cause  is  like  the  wind ; 
we  see  the  effects  thereof,  but  know  not  whither  it 
cometh.  Hence  it  is  that  nearly  all,  even  those  most 
closely  interested,  have  no  conception  of  the  magni- 
tude of  their  losses  from  these  causes.  Take  the 
apple-tree  and  its  product,  for  example ;  there  are  no 
less  than  six  insects  which  seriously  affect  its  vigor  by 
despoiling  it  of  foliage;  four  are  engaged  with  too 
good  success  in  hastening  death  by  mining  the  trunk; 
at  least  two  are  sucking  the  vital  fluid  from  the  roots, 
while  no  less  than  five  are  demonstrating,  by  actual 
works,  that  they  appreciate  good  apples,  and  mean  to 
gratify  their  appetites,  man's  interest  notwithstanding. 
Seventeen  on  one!  Isn't  it  time  to  demand  fair  play? 
We  have  no  doubt  that  could  we  rescue  the  spoils 
from  all  our  insect  banditti  for  three  successive  years, 
they  would  more  than  cancel  our  national  debt. 
Surely  such  a  statement  ought  not  to  be  received  with 
indifference,  nor  will  it  be  by  the  thoughtful  and  enter- 
prising. The  best  success  with  all  our  fruits,  even 
apples,  demands  the  planting  of  a  succession  of 
orchards ;  but  proper  attention  to  this  insect  question 
would  greatly  broaden  the  intervals  of  planting.  Many 
orchards  have  gone  on  giving  ever-increasing  returns 
for  50  years,  and  single  trees  for  more  than  100  years. 
Nor  need  we  doubt  but  that  with  wise  precaution 
such  experience  may  be  oft  repeated. 

But  it  is  often  asked,  "  What  does  this  important 
question  demand  for  its  solution,  and  has  past  ex- 
perience given  us  any  hope  that  it  may  be  solved?" 
We  briefly  answer  :  Earnest,  persistent  study  and  re- 
search by  the  most  capable  men  ;  and  secondly,  that 
our  practical  men,  those  directly  interested,  should  all 
take  "  the  bull  by  the  horns," — in  other  words,  that 
there  should  be  such  interest  elicited,  through 
grange  and  club,  that  every  man  in  every  neighbor- 
hood of  our  country  should  give  battle  in  lines  already 
marked  out,  and  adopt  new  ones  and  better  ones  as 
soon  as  they  were  suggested  by  the  investigators.  As 
well  say  that  all  the  children  of  a  neighborhood  would 
be  gentle,  courteous  and  beautiful  in  heart  and  soul 
because  one  man  gave  good  and  wholesome  training, 
as  to  say  that  insects  could  be  kept  at  bay  without 
concert  of  action.  Suppose  one  farmer  in  a  com- 
munity instils  into  the  lives  of  his  children  correct 
moral  principles,  will  that  insure  the  safety  of  his 
ap])les  and  melons  ?  To  be  sure,  his  pnoperty  will  be 
safer  for  this  wisdom.  No  more  can  the  codling  moth 
or  curculio  be  exterminated  by  one  man,  though  his 
persistent  action  would  benefit  himself  and  even  his 


neighbors.  No ;  the  means  must  be  generally  made 
known  to  all  farmers  and  fruit-growers,  and  then  all 
must  be  fired  with  such  zeal  that  practice  may  keep 
pace  with  knowledge. 

But  have  we  results  that  show  that  such  a  course 
will  bring  us  respite  from  these  thousand  ills  which 
waylay  us  on  every  hand?  Yes.  It  was  found  by 
the  fruit  men  of  the  peach-belt  of  Michigan  that,  un- 
less the  peach-borer  was  fought  to  the  knife,  this  im- 
jxjrtant  interest  would  prove  a  failure.  The  trees 
would  all  be  speedily  killed.  It  was  a  case  of  life 
and  death.  Sluggish  humanity  woke  up.  Every- 
body rushed  to  the  fight,  and  the  beautiful  peach 
orchards  flourished.  Now  for  the  sequel :  The 
peach  men  now  tell  us  that  that  this  enemy  gives  very 
little  trouble.  In  the  same  region  the  curculio,  which 
had  utterly  whipped  us  out  of  the  plum  culture, 
driving  us  from  the  field  and  taking  undisturbed  pos- 
session, came  all  undaunted,  flushed  with  success, 
and  cried  surrender  to  the  peach  men.  The  latter, 
armed  with  chips,  mallets,  one  and  two-wheeled  artil- 
lery, soon  brought  the  little  Turks  down.  "That 
bright  dream  was  their  last;"  and  now  the  fruit  men 
tell  us  they  have  no  fears  of  the  curculio,  and  more, 
that  these  little  snout-beetles  are  yearly  growing  less. 
Dr.  Trimble  and  a  live  farmer's  club  so  aroused  the 
people  of  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  to  action  that  the 
fruit  and  region  have  gained  a  high  reputation  as 
being  void  of  insects.  The  people  at  Old  Mission, 
Mich.,  enforce  their  edict  that  all  shall  enlist  in  the 
insect  battle.  If  such  action  does  not  attract  a  society 
worthy  their  climate,  soil  and  position,  then  the  future 
cannot  be  judged  by  the  past.  Had  we  space,  we 
would  give  many  other  examples,  both  from  home  and 
abroad,  that  fully  sustain  the  position  that  real,  ear- 
nest, persistent  effort,  and  that,  too,  right  in  the  line 
of  the  fullest  pocket, — the  best  financial  prosperity, — 
is  all  that  is  required  to  rid  us  of  those  foes  that  re- 
quire so  large  a  share  of  our  gains,  and  often  make  us 
look  sad  and  discouraged  in  view  of  our  prospects. 

Our  insect  enemies  are  counted  by  the  thousands,  ■ 
and  that  practical  knowledge  requisite  to  successfully 
combat  their  noxious  work  demands  large  libraries, 
costly  apparatus  and  prolonged  study.  In  view  of 
the  extent  and  intricacy  of  this  subject,  no  less  than 
its  practical  importance,  we  have  planned  to  formulate 
in  this  article  that  part  of  our  pracdcal  knowledge 
which  bears  directly  on  the  remedy  and  cure  for  insect 
depredations,  in  the  hope  that  it  might  assist  the 
farmer  and  fruit-grower  to  work  intelligently  and 
efficiently,  even  though  they  possess  but  a  limited 
knowledge  of  the  insects  themselves. 

Insect  Transformations.  Most  if  not  all  persons 
know  that  insects  are  wondrously  different  in  success- 
ive stages  of  their  development  from  the  egg  to  the 
mature  state.  How  seemingly  wide  apart  are  the 
maggot  or  larva  of  the  meat-fly,  which  so  vexes  the 
good  housewife,  the  motionless,  apparently  lifeless, 
seed-like  pupa,  and  the  buzzing  fly ;  yet  all  are  but 
different  stages  of  the  self-same  insect.  Our  cabbage 
butterflies  experience  equally  striking  transformations. 


848 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


The  caterpillar  is  green,  worm-like  and  disgusting  to 
the  cook  who  attempts  to  prepare  the  savory  vegetable 
for  the  noon-tide  meal.  The  chrysalis  is  gray,  in- 
active, and,  as  it  swings  from  its  silken  cord,  would 
seem  void  of  all  possibility  of  future  mischief.  The 
butterfly  is  white,  dotted  with  black,  graceful  of 
motion  as  it  slowly  wings  its  flight  from  garden  to 
garden,  and,  with  its  short  sucking  tube  and  frail  body, 
would  seem  little  capable  of  the  serious  mischief  which 
it  scatters  with  its  tiny  green  eggs  that  it  glues  thick 
and  wide  to  the  cabbage  plants. 


Fig.  z. — Adelges  of  the  Spruce.     (Chermes  abieticolens  ?) 
Chrysalis  on  the  left,  imago  on  the  right. 

Most  insects,  like  the  one  just  referred  to,  are  only 
destructive  while  in  the  worm-like  or  larval  stage. 
Thus  the  maggot  of  the  Hessian  fly  or  wheat  midge  is 
what  robs  the  farmer's  pockets  often  to  the  tune  of 
millions.  It  is  the  caterpillars,  not  the  moths,  which, 
as  cut-worms,  sometimes  destroy  whole  fields  of  grow- 
ing com.  It  is  the  white  grub,  not  the  May  beetle, 
that  causes  the  corn  and  grass  to 
wither  often  for  acres  in  extent.  The 
wireworm  or  grub,  not  the  parent  snap- 
ping beetle,  is  what  blights  the  grain 
fields.  The  caterpillars  known  as 
army  worms,  not  the  graceful  moths 

v.J^^Atpu-^'^^'^^  only  lay  the  eggs,  are  what 
Leaf  Crumpfer.  devastate  the  oatfields,  sometimes 
(Phycita  Nebuio.)  throughout  entire  neighborhoods,  coun- 
ties,  or  even  States.  The  same  truth  is  illustrated  in 
the  orchard.  The  canker-worm,  the  tent  caterpillar, 
the  apple  worm,  the  borers,  the  slugs  are  all  larvae  of 
insects  which  in  maturity  would  be  entirely  harmless, 
except  that  they  laid  the  eggs  which  hatched  and  thus 
gave  rise  to  the  terribly  destructive  larvae. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  few  insects  like  the  destruct- 
ive rose-chafer,  and  the  small  but  ravenous  striped 
cucumber-beetle  are  most 
troublesome,  often  only 
destructive,  when  in  the 
mature  state.  Other  in- 
sects, like  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle,  which  has 
worked  such  ruin  in  its  de- 
vastating march  across  our 
country,  and  the  bugs  and 
locusts,  are  not  content  to 
feast  and  destroy  only  while 
in  the  larval  stage,  but  con- 
tinue their  voracious  habits 
even  to  their  death.  Some  of  these  insects,  as  illus- 
trated in  the  Western  locust  or  grasshopper,  do 
their  very  worst  damage  when  in  the  mature  state. 


Fig.  3. — A  rnty  Worm.  (Agriotes 
mancus.) 


Species.     We  give  illustrations  of  most  of  the  in- 
jurious insects,  in  alphabetic  order  as  nearly  as  we 
can.     Some  of  them  have  no  common  names. 
\ 


Fig.  ^.-^Dynostes  Tityus, 

Adelges  of  the  Spruce.  Found  in  abundance 
on  the  spruce  in  Maine,  where  it  produces  swellings 
at  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  in  size  and  form  resembling 
the  cones  of  the  same  tree.  The  true  length  of  this 
insect  is  imdicated  by  a  hair  line  in  the  cut,  Fig.  i. 

Apple-leaf  Crumpler:  see  page  27.  The  lower 
part  of  the  cut  represents  a  horn-like  case  webbed  to 
a  dead  leaf  and  enclosing  the  worm  form  of  the  moth. 

Army  Worm  :  see  Wheat. 

Bark  Lice:  see  Lice,  in  this  article,  and  respect- 
ive trees  which  they  infest. 

Beetles.  These  are  characterized  by  crust-like 
wing-covers,  and  are  often  called  "bugs"  by  the  un- 
scientific. Fig.  4  gives  a  fine 
view  of  a  magnificent  beetle, 
found  toward  the  South.  It 
has  no  common  name,  and 
we  give  the  engraving  here  to 
illustrate  the  beetle  form,  al- 
though this  species  is  not 
known  to  be  injurious.  It 
burrows  in  old  wood. 

Bacon  Beetle:  see  page  55. 

Blister  Beetle  (Lytta  cine- 
rea  and  atrata).  These  soft- 
shell,  long-necked,  trim  beetles 
are  frequently  injurious  to 
various  vegetables  and  flow- 
ers. They  are  half  an  inch  long,  narrow  oblong 
square,  and  one  is  ash-colored  and  the  other  coal 
black.  They  sometimes  attack  beans  and  asters,  and 
make  quick  W(yk  with  whatever  falls  a  prey  to  their 
voracious  habits.  It  is  supposed  the  larvae  feed  on 
the  roots  of  grass  and  other  plants.  The  beetles  ap- 
pear   in    early   summer    and    autumn.      The    best 


Fig.  5. — Bacon  Beetle. 
mestes   lardarius.) 
<j, larva  ;  ^,  antenna  ;  c,  beetle 


(Der- 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


849 


I 


way  to  manage  them  is  to  jar  them  off  upon  a  sheet, 
and  scald  or  crush  them. 

Cucumber  Beetle,  Striped.  This  species  is  very 
destructive  to  the  cucumber,  melon  and  squash,  at- 
tacking  the    roots  and  boring   into   the  lower  part  of 

the  stem  in  the  larval 
or  grub  state,  while  the 
perfect  beetle  feeds  on  the 
tender  leaves  when  the 
plants  are  young,  and  on 
the  buds  and  young  shoots 
of  the  older  plants.  It  is 
very  common  and  often 
-,,  inflicts  heavy  damage  on 
Jj/  the  vegetable  gardener  by 
its  depredations.  It  is 
nearly  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  long  and  half  as 
wide,  of  a  bright  or  pale 
yellow  ground  color,  the 
head  is  usually  black,  but 
Tia.6.— striped Cucumier  Btttte.  not  always,  as  it  is  some- 
.,bai^wi";?ra'rf;,  side  view  times  ydlow;  the  thorax 
of  same.  yellow.  With  two  black  dots 

near  the  middle;  wing-cases  with  a  rather  broad 
black  stripe  along  the  middle  of  each,  and  a  narrow 
black  border  entirely  around  each.  The  beetles  make 
their  appearance  in  the  spring  from  the 
middle  of  April  to  early  in  June,  ac- 
cording to  latitude,  feeding  for  a  short 
time  on  the  tender  leaves  of  various 
plants  until  the  cucumber  plants  begin 
Fi.  T.—Bcitu  to  develop,  when  they  turn  their  atten- 
for  Fig.  6.  jJq^  jq  these.  After  they  have  paired, 
the  female  deposits  her  eggs  near  the  roots  of  these 


Fig.  8. — Death  Watches,  (a,  Anobiura  paniceum;  ^,Ptinus  brunneus.) 

vines;  the  grub  which  hatches  from  these  is  very 
slender,  and  when  full-grown  is  about  one-third  of  an 
inch  long  and  not  thicker  than  an  ordinary  knitting- 
needle.  As  soon  as  hatched,  the  worm  commences 
to  work  upon  the  stem,  eating  the  bark  and  perfora- 
ting and  hollowing  out  the  lower  portion  of  the  stem 
which  is  in  the  ground,  sometimes  even  working  up 
above  the  surface.  In  about  a  month,  according  to 
Dr.  Shimer,  from  the  time  the  egg  is  laid  the  larvae 
complete  their  growth;  they  then  enter  the  earth  and 
form  little  cells,  where  they  enter  upon  the  pupa  state, 
which  lasts  about  a  fortnight  before  they  are  trans- 

54 


formed  into  beetles.  There  are  about  three  broods 
each  year,  the  last  of  which  passes  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  state  in  the  ground. 


Fig.  q. — Grape-Vine  Flea  Beetle.  (Haltica  chalybea.)  <r,  grape  leaf 
eaten  by  young  larvse;  b.  larva  magnified  ;  r,  earthen  cell  in  which  the 
insect  transforms;  (/.beetle. 

"Death  Watch."  There  are  two  species  of  beetle, 
insects,  too,  of  two  entirely  different  sub-orders,  which 
make  ticking  sounds  like  a  watch.  The  two  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  8  infest  books.     See  page  112. 

Grape-Vine  Flea  Beetle.  This  is  a  well-known 
little,  blue  flea  beetle,  which  infests  the  grape-vines, 
feeding  on  the  buds  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  season, 
and  when  the  leaves  have  expanded,  transferring  its 
attacks  to  them.  It  measures  a  little  over  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  in  length,  the  width  being  just  half  the 
length.  The  thorax  is  but  little  narrower  than  the 
wing-cases,  being  fully  three-fourths  as  broad  as  the 


Fig.  10. — May  Beetle.     (Phyllophaga  fusca.)  i,  pupa  in   its  earthen 
CeH;  3,  4,  beetle,  side  and  back  view. 

latter;  it  is  marked  with  a  cross  furrow.  It  is  usually 
steel-blue,  but  the  color  varies  considerably,  the  shade 
of  blue  varying  from  violet  to  deep  blue  and  even  to 
green;  the  antennae  and  feet  being  black  or  blackish. 


8s  o 


INSECTS,  I  INJURIOUS. 


Fic.  \\.—Strtftd Potato 
Settle.  (Epicauta  vit- 
Uta.) 


They  pass  the  winter  in  the  beetle  'state  wherever 
they  can  find  shelter  in  the  vineyard  or  in  the  vicinity 
of  grape-vines.  As  soon  as  the  warmth  of  spring 
arouses  them  to  activity  they  commence  operations 
on  the  buds,  and  as  soon  as  the  leaves  expand  they 
deix)sit  their  minute  orange- col- 
ored eggs  upon  them.  From  these 
are  hatched  dark  brown  larvae, 
usually  in  the  latter  part  of  May 
or  early  part  of  June.  These 
usually  feed  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves,  which  they  eat  into 
holes,  completely  riddling  them 
when  numerous.  When  full  grown  they  descend  into 
the  ground  in  order  to  undergo  their  transformations, 
the  second  brood  of  beetles  appearing  in  the  latter 
part  of  June  or  first  part  of  July.  They  feed  on 
wild  and  cultivated  grape-vines  and  the   alder. 

Latiy  Bug,  or  Lady  Bird.  Not  injurious.  See 
further  on,  under  head  of  Insects,  Friendly. 

May  Bug.  The  insects  of  this  family  have  the 
attennne  short,  with  a  distinct  club  at  the  end  com- 
posed of  three  plates  or  leaves,  opening  like  the  leaves 
of  a  book;  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  is  always  exposed, 
the  extremity  of  the  wing-cases  not  curving  down  be- 
hind to  cover  it.     As  a  general  rule  the  species  are 

o  b  lo  n  g ,  more  or 
less  cylindrical  in 
form  and  fleshy,  so 
that  they  fly  heav- 
ily, the  abdomen 
hanging  down. 
They  are  generally 
of  a  uniform  chest- 
nut brown  color. 
The  claws  of  their 
feet  are  notched 
or  split  at  the  tip 
like  the  point  of  a 
pen.  In  the  per- 
fect or  beetle  state 
they  feed  upon  the 
leaves  of  fruit  and  other  trees,  often  doing  serious  dam- 
age, their  split  claws  admirably  adapting  them  to  this 
mode  of  life.  As  evening  and  night  is  their  usual 
time  of  flying  and  feeding,  the  cause  of  the  injury 
they  do  is  often  overlooked  by  those  unacquainted 
with  their  habits.  The  larvae  or  worms  from  which 
they  are  produced  are  thick,  fleshy,  white  grubs,  with 
dark  or  brown  heads ; 
they  are  generally  en- 
larged more  or  less  to- 
ward the  posterior  end, 
the  last  segment  being 
the  largest,  and  mark- 
ed with  an  indentation 
across  the  tip;  they  have 
the  usual  six  thoracic 
legs;  the  usual  iwsition 
is  on  the  side  and  coiled 
into  a  semi-circle ;  the  back  is  transversely  wrinkled. 


Fig.  12. — Stag  Beetle.    (Lucanus  dama.) 


Fig.  13.- 


Txvo-Striped  Tortoise  BeelL; 
larva;  3,  pupa; 


(Cassida  bivitcata.) 
,  beetle 


These  have  generally  received  the  name  "white 
grubs."  Some  of  the  species  remain  in  this  state  for 
three  years,  feeding  upon  the  roots  of  grasses  and 
other  plants,  such  as  strawberries,  com,  vegetables 
and  even  nursery  stock. 

May  Beetle.  This  species  is  of  an  almost  chestnut- 
brown  color,  though  the  head  and  thorax  are  some- 
times darker  brown  or  almost   black, 
the  breast  is  almost  covered  with  pale, 
silken  hairs.     The  wing  cases,  though 
bearing  two  or  three  very  slightly  ele- 
vated flattened  ndges,  are  not  grooved. 
It  varies  in  length  from  three-fourths 
inch  to   one   inch,    the   width    across 
^^UnedFJato  sti-  *^^  widest  part  being  about  one-half 
tie.  Crioceristri- the  length.     It  is  not  hairy  above,  as 
''"'""■  is  the  case  with  another  very  similar 

species  which  is  quite  common  in  some  parts  of  the 
country.  The  beetles  generally  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  latter  part  of  May  or  June,  according  to 
the  season  or  latitude ;  in  the  Southern  and  Central 
portions  of  Illinois  they  sometimes  appear  in  the 
early  part  of  May.  In  Aprfl,  when  the  ground  is  be- 
ing plowed  or  spaded,  often  hundreds  of  them  are  cast 
out  already  in  the  perfect  state ;  but  then  they  are  of 
a  pale,  creamy  color.  They  usually  emerge  from  the 
ground  about  dusk  in  the  evening,  and  as  soon  as 
their  wings  are  sufficiently  dried,  take  flight,  which 
often  continues  until  late  in  the  night,  and  if  caught 

at  this  time  and  exam- 
ined they  will  be  found 
paler  than  we  have  de- 
scribed them.  Some- 
times they  move  in 
large  swarms  or  bodies,  making  a  buzzing  noise  as 
they  pass  along  just  overhead.  Their  term  of  life  in 
the  perfect  state  is  short,  not  extending  more  than 
two  or  three  weeks ;  having  paired  they  deposit  their 
eggs  in  or  near  the  ground  and  die.  Yet  when  they 
appear  in  large  numbers,  as  is  sometimes  the  case, 
they  prove  quite  destructive  to  fruit  and  ornamental 
trees  by  denuding  them  of  their  leaves,  and  as  they 
hide  during  the  day  and  feed  at  night,  the  agricultur- 
ist is  often  at  a  loss  to  divine  the 
cause  of  the  injury.  The ,  eggs  of 
this  species  are  globular  in  form;  a 
little  less  than  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  of  a  clear,  watery  color,  and 
according  to  Riley,  are  deposited  be- 
tween the  roots  of  grass  enclosed  in  a 
ball  of  earth ;  others  contend  that  the 
beetle  deposits  them  in  the  ground. 

It  is  in  the  grub  state  that  they  Beetle.  Eiater. 
prove  most  injurious  to  vegetation,  attacking  the  roots 
of  various  useful  plants,  especially  grass,  which  is 
often  severed  beneath  the  surface  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  sward  may  be  turned  up  like  a  carpet. 
Wheat,  corn,  strawberry  plants,  nursery  stock,  and 
even  young  trees  also,  suffer  from  their  attacks.  As  a 
usual  thing  they  appear  in  considerable  numbers  in  a 
locality  for  a  year  or  two,  but  when  they  arrive  at  the 


Fig.  15.- 


-Larva  0/  Spring  Beetle. 
Eiater. 


Fig 


INSECTS,   INJURIOUS. 


851 


perfect    state    disappear,   and  are   not    troublesome 
for  several  years.    As  a  general  rule  they  trouble  corn, 


ill 


wider  as  they   diverge  from  the  line  where  the  eggs  are  deposited;  a 
another  view  of  the  same,   showing  the  hole  made  by  the  exit  of  the 
beetle;  3,  beetle,  both  magnified  and  natural  &!ze;  4, larva,  the  same;   5, 
pupa  magnified. 

a  short  time,  is  developed  a  larva   that   attaches 
itself  to   the   white-grub,  and   finally   destroys  it. 


Fig.  17. — Round-headed   Appte-tree  Borer.     Sapcrda    Candida.     <r 
b,  pupa;  c,  beetle. 

wheat   and   nurseries    most   where   these  are  put  in 
ground  which  for  some  time  previous  was  in  grass. 

Neither  this  nor  any  of  the 
allied  species  appear  to  be 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  any 
true  parasites ;  but  they  are 
eaten  by  certain  carnivorous 
animals,  as  the  skunk,  rac- 
coon, etc.;  domestic  fowls 
greedily  devour  them,  as  also 
do  certain  birds ;  the  preda- 
cious ground-beetles  also 
prey  upon  them,^each  in 
this  way  aiding  in  keeping 
them  in  check.  Prof.  Riley 
F,G.  ^%.-Fiat-headed  Apple-  's  inclined  to  believe  that  a 
tree  Borer.    Chrysobothris  certain  digger-wasp  (Tiphia 

femorata.  a,  larva;     b^  pupa;    .  ^    v    P" 

c,  under  side  of  head;  a",  bee-  momata)  IS  3.  genume  para- 

'•=•  site  on  these  insects,  which 

he  thinks  attaches  an  egg  to  ths   grub,  from  which,  in 


larva; 


L 


Fig.  20. — Importtd  Currnni  Borer.       ^geria  tipuliformis.     d,   larva; 


The  larva  of 
cocoon,  which 
quarters  of  an 


this 


-Viosieichus  bastltare\ 
pupa;    r,  beetle. 


Fig.  ig. — Hickory  Bark  Borer.       Scolytus  qtiadrispinosus.        1,  shows 
the   burrows  of  the  larva:  between   tlie   bark   and   the  wood,  growing 


wasp  forms  a  small  egg-shaped 
varies  in  length  from  half  to  three- 
inch,  and  is  pale  brownish  or  buff 
color.  This  wasp 
varies  in  length 
from  a  little  less 
than  half  to  three- 
fifths  of  an  inch, 
and  is  of  jet  black 
color;  the  wings 
smoky  or  dusky. 
The  grubs  of 
May  beetles  are 
also  sometimes  destroyed  by  a  parasitic  cryptogamic 
plant  or  fungus  which  grows  out  from  one  or  both 
corners  of  the  mouth,  in  the  form  of  an  elongate,  nar- 
row and  somewhat  flattened  woody  stem,  which  occa- 
sionally attai  n  s 
several  inches  in 
length.  This 
growth  some- 
times greatly  as- 
tonishes persons 
unacquai  nted 
with  its  history, 
who   suppose  it 

is  a  plant  spring-      Via.^i.—Caiiage   Butterji).     Pieris  rapaj, 

ing  from  seed  taken  into  the  body. 

To  destroy  the  beetles,  it  has  been  recommended 
that  they  be  shaken  from  the  trees  every  evening  into 
sheets,  or  something  that  will  secure  them.  Dr.  Har- 
ris says  the  best  time  for  shaking  the  trees  on  which 
they  are  lodged  is  in  the  morning,  as  then  they  do 
not  attempt  to  fly.  But  this  remedy  is  practicable 
only  in  a  few  cases  where  but  few  trees  are  to  be  ob- 
served, and  are  of  sufficient  value  to  justify  a  careful 


852 


/INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


watch  and  its  thorough  use.  In  order  to  destroy  or 
drive  away  the  grubs  from  meadows  and  field  crops, 
applications  of  salt  have  been 
recommended,  and  in  some  cases 
have  been  at  least  apparently  ben- 
eficial. Alkalies  are  very  obnox- 
ious to  the  grubs,  and  speedily 
destroy'  them  when  applied 
directly  to  them;  but  they  reside 
so  deeply  in  the  soil  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  reach  them  with  any 
reasonable  surface  application.  If 
repeatedly  made,  and  to  the 
-Canker  Worm,  utmost  cxtcnt,  the  vegctation  will 
bear  until  the  roots  and  surrounding  soil  is  perceptibly 
impregnated ;  it  is  possible  that  it  may  be  rendered  so 
obnoxious  to  them  as  to  cause  them  to  leave.     It  is 


Fig.  i 


Fig.  24. — Tent  Caterpillar,    (Clisiocampa  Americana.) 
a.   Caterpillars  and  their  "tent."       ^,  Cocoon,      r,  Eggs  in  a  mass  ami 
protected  by  a  natural  varnish  deposited  by  the  female. 

more  than  probable  that  in  the  majority  of  cases 
reported  where  such  applications  are  supposed  to 
have  been  beneficial,  they  have  been  made  the  season 


Fig.  25. — Pear-Tree  Slug.      Selandria  cerasi. 

in  which  the  larvae  completed  their  growth,  and  that 
this  was  the  real  reason  for  their  ceasing  operations, 
and  not  the  application.  Such  applications,  to  be 
beneficial,  should  be  made  annually  early  in  the 
spring.     Hogs  and  domestic  fowls  are  fond  of  the 


grubs,  and  as  far  as  we  will  give  them  an  opportunity 
will  assist  in  destroying  them,  and  in  corn  fields  which 


Fig.  26. — Chinch  Bug.      Blissus  leucopterus, 
a  and  ^,  eggs;  c.  young  larva;    d^  tarsus;  (?,  larva  after  first  moult;  y, 
larva  after  second  moult;    ^,  pupa;  /i,  leg;  /,  the  beak,  of  tubular  motlth. 

are  infested  it  is  well  to  turn  in  the  former  as  soon  as 
the  corn  is  gathered.  Late  fall  plowing  has  been 
recommended,  and  is  doubtless  beneficial  to  a  certain 
extent;  but  to  reach  theni  it  must 
be  deep,  as  they  retire  to  a  con- 
siderable depth  in  order  to  pass 
the  winter. 

The  best  and  perhaps  the  most 
effectual  remedy  is  to  starve  them 
out.  If  the  field  is  in  meadow  or 
grass,  as  soon  as  it  is  ascertained- 
that  they  are  present  in  destruct- 
ive numbers,  plow  it  up  thoroughly 
and  give  it  repeated  stirrings,  and  • 
leave  it  fallow  or  sow  it  in  buck- 
wheat ;  plow  late  and  as  often  as 
possible,  and  in  the  following  tig.^t.— chinch  Bug, 
spring  plant  it  in  some  crop  not  Naturarre^n"gt*h'i"ndicated 
allied  to  the  grass  ;  that  is,  not  t>y  »  ''n":  teiow. 
wheat,  corn  or  oats.  After  this  it  may  be  put  in  grass, 
or  cereals  may  be  cultivated,  with  a  fair  prospect  of 
being  free  from  these  pests  for  several  seasons.  This 
method,  although  somewhat  troublesome,  is  the  only 
one  that  gives  sure  hope  of  success,  and  it  possesses 
the  advantage 
of  being  at  the 
same  time  an 
efficient  means 
of  counteracting 
the  wire  worm 
and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the 
chinch-bug  and 
some  other  in- 
jurious species. 

This  species 
appears  to  be 
confined  more 
especially  to 
certain  sections, 
as  it  seems  that 
other    species 

take  their  ^\a.Ct  Vic.  si,— CodUng  Moth.    Carpocapsa   pomonella. 

in    the     other     ***  work  in  apple  ;  ^.  place  of  entrance;  d,  pupa; 
f,  larva;  yancf  ^,  imagos;  A,  head  of  larvai    (,  co" 

sections  of  the  coon, 
country. 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


853 


Potato  Beetle.  The  annexed  engraving  will  look 
familiar  enough  to  everyone.  The  insect  comes  forth 
as  a  beetle  just  as  the  potato  plants  begin  to  appear 
above  ground.     With  the  coming  of  the  warm  days 


Fig.  29. — Colorado  Potato  Beetle. 
<z,  eggs;    b.  young  larva;    c,  pupa;    dy  beetle 


(Chrysomelis  lo-lineata.) 
<?,  wing  cover,  magnified; 


the  female  (c/,  Fig.  29)  lays  her  cluster  of  orange  eggs 
(a),  sometimes  to  the  number  of  a  thousand.  These 
soon  hatch  and  the  young  larvae  are  as  voracious  as 
any  insect  in  the  world.  For  remedies,  see  article 
Potato. 

The  beetle  of  Fig.  1 4  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length  and  half  as  wide  across  the  wing  cases ;  the 
sides  are  parallel ;  the  thorax,  which  is  of  a  shining 
orange-yellow  color,  is  narrower  than  the  elytra;  the 
antennae  are  slightly  enlarged  toward  the  extremity, 
dull  black ;  the  wing  cases  are  lemon-yellow,  with  a 
broad,  shining  black  stripe  on  each  near  the  outer 
margin;  the  inner  margins  black,  so  that  when  closed 
they  form  a  central  black  stripe,  thus  showing  three 
black  stripes,  from  which  the  species  derives  its  name 
trilineata,  or  three-lined.  There  are  other  beetles 
which,  at  a  hasty  glance,  may  readily  be  taken  for 
this  species,  but  a  careful  comparison  with  the  full 
specific  characters 
givenbelow  will  enable 
any  one  to  distinguish 
it.  The  larva  may  be 
distinguished  from  all 
other  insects  that  feed 
upon  the  potato  by  its 
habit  of  covering  itself 
with  its  own  excrement, 
which,  remaining 
attached  to  the  pro- 
longations of  the  last 
segment  in  a  mass,  is  ^^^_ 
thrown  forward  over 
the   back.      They   are  "• '^^■•';  f  •  P"paj 

.    ,  1         1-1  shaped  wound 

short,     thick,     slug-like  by  the  beetle. 

worms,  enlarged  and  arched  in  the  middle,  the  thick- 
est |X)rtion  being  behind  the  middle.  When  young 
they  are  of  a  dull  yellow  color,  growing  brighter  as 


Plum  Curculio.      (Conotrach- 
elus  nenuphar.) 

c.  beetle;  a',  crescent- 
on  the  fruit  made 


they  increase  in  age ;  a  faint  stripe  is  visible  along 
the  sides,  low  down,  and  a  dark  line  along  the  back; 
head  and  legs  black.  They  are  usually  more  or  less 
moistened  with  a  viscid  fluid  secreted  from  the  skin. 
The  eggs  are  of  a  golden-yellow  color,  oval  in 
form  and  about  4-iooths  of  an  inch  long, 
placed  in  clusters  of  from  half  a  dozen  to  a 
dozen,  usually  on  the  underside  of  the  leaf, 
though  occasionally  they  are  placed  on  the 
upper  side.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  two 
weeks  after  being  deposited,  and  the  larvae 
complete  their  growth  in  about  two  weeks 
more.  Having  completed  their  growth  they 
descend  into  the  ground,  where  they  form  a 
small  oval  cell  and  remain  during  the  pupa 
state,  which  lasts  about  two  weeks,  when  they 
emerge  as  perfect  beedes.  The  species  appears 
to  be  two-brooded  during  the  season,  the  first 
beedes  appearing,  as  a  general  rule,  in  the 
latter  part  of  May  and  early  in  June,  and  again 
in  the  latter  part  of  July  or  first  of  August;  but 
there  appears  to  be  much  irregularity  in  this 

/,  leg.    respect,  as  they  can  be  found  in  all  sizes  during 

the  season  after  they  have  appeared.     They  pass  the 

winter  in  the  perfect  state,  hiding  beneath  rubbish, 

leaves,  bark,  etc.,  and    remaining  torpid  during  the 

cold  weather.      They 

feed  upon  the  leaves 

of  the   jx)tato    plant, , 

both  in  the  perfect  and 

larval  state,  but  they  ' 

are  not  limited  to  this 

plant  alone,  as    they 

flourish    on    other 

species   of  the   same 

order.     These  beetles 

seldom  occur  in  such 

numbers  as  to 

any  great  fear  for  the  , 

potato  crop,  but  if  they 

should  at  any  time  prove   seriously  injurious,   it  is 

probable  the  same   remedies  recommended  for   the 

Colorado  potato  beetle  will  be  equally  efficacious  with 

this. 

Spring  Beetle.  Figs.  15  and  16  represent  the  worm 
and  beetle  forms  of  a  large  family.  See  page  290. 
More  abundant  in  low,  black  soils  and  heavy  clays. 
This  well  known  species,  which  varies  in  length  from 
a  half  to  two-thirds  of  an  inch,  is  elongate  and  slender 
in  form  and  sub-cylindrical,  differing  very  materially 
in  this  respect  from  the  Colorado  potato  beetle.  The 
thorax  is  narrower  than  the  wing  cases  or  abdomen ; 
it  tapers  forward  so  that  it  is  distinctly  narrower  in 
front  than  the  head;  it  is  rather  longer  than  wide. 
The  elytra  are  about  twice  as  wide  at  the  shoulders 
as  the  thorax — round  at  the  tips.  Length  of  the 
insect  about  three  times  its  greatest  width.  It  is  of  a 
dull  orange  or  reddish  yellow  color  above,  with  two 
black  spots  on  the  head,  two  black  stripes  on  the 
thorax  and  two  black  stripes  on  each  wing  case.   The 


excite  ^'*^'  ^^' — ^PP^'  CurcuUo.   (Anthonomus 
quadrigibbus.) 
natural  size;     Ir  and  f,  side  and  back 
views   magnified. 


854 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


outer  stripe  on  the  wing  cases  is  broader  than  the 
inner  one,  extends  further  back  and  is  frequently 
divided  into  two  strips  by  a  narrow  yellow  or  orange 

line.  The  an- 
^/"^  tenn£e,  legs  and 
under  side  of 
the  body  a  re 
black,  but  more 
or  less  covered 
with  grayish 
down. 

Stag   Beetle. 

Iiu.  32.— Oa.4  Tree  CucuLc.       (Magdalis  olyra.)  Imagine    Fig. 
a,  larva;  li,  pupa.  I  2    a  COal-black, 

and  you  have  a  perfect  idea  of  this  common  beetle.  It  is 
a  slow-moving  creature,  generally  found  in  old  wood. 
The  larvas  live  in  the  trunks  and  roots  of  various 
kinds  of  trees,  particularly  those  of  old  apple  trees, 
and  in  willows  and  oaks. 

Striped  Cucumber  Beetle:  see  Fig.  i,  page  3 13. 

Striped  Flea  Beetle  (Haltica  striolata).  This  in- 
sect is  of  a  shining  black  color,  with  two  waving  lines 
of  buff  along  the  back  and  one  on  each  side.  It  is 
less  than  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  but  is  very 
active  and  quick  to  get  away.  Sometimes  they  fairly 
swarm  on  young  plants,  as  cabbages,  radishes,  turnips, 
etc.,  doing  considerable  damage. 

Tortoise  Beetle,  Two-Striped.  This  insect  is  nearly 
round,  yellowish,  and  has  two  black  stripes  on  each 
wing  case  :  outer  stripes  longer  and  wavy.  Larva 
■dull  yellowish  white,  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length. 
All  species  of  this  sub-family  feed  upon  sweet-potato 
vines  and  the  morning-glory.  They  continue  in  the 
larval  state  about  three  weeks,  and  when  fully  grown 
attach  themselves  by  the  posterior  end  of  the  body  to 
the  under  side  of  a  leaf,  change  to  the  pupa  state, 
and  in  about  a  week  come  forth  in  the  beetle  state. 

True  beetles,  by  other  names,  appear  further  on. 

Borers.  The  round-headed  apple-tree  borer.  Fig. 
1"] ,  a.nA  \\\Q  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer,  Fig.  18,  are 
great  pests, — especially  the  latter.     See  page  26. 

Twig-Borer.  The  larvae  of 
this  little  beetle  bore  into  the 
twigs  of  fruit  trees,  especially 
the  apple  and  the  pear.  The 
"twig  pruner "  has  a  similar 
habit,  causing  the  twigs  of  all 
such  trees  to  wither  and  die. 
Their  color  is  a  dark-brown. 
The  borers  enter  the  twig  just 
above  a  bud  and  work  down 
through  the  pith  for  two  inches, 
making  a  tunnel  about  the  size  fig.  33.— Ca/-;Forw. 
of  a  large  knitting  needle.  The  only  remedy  consists 
in  destroying  the  infested  twigs. 

Peach-Borer.  Two  or  three  species  of  these  are 
common.  They  are  the  larves  of  beautiful,  active 
moths,  and  they  may  be  prevented  from  climbing  the 
tree  by  mounding  the  base, — that  is,  piling  up  earth 
about  the  base  of  the  trees  during  the  summer,  which 
collects   them ;  and  in  the  fall  these  can  be  pulled 


down,  the  larves  discovered  and  destroyed.  Or,  one 
can  readily  find  them  by  the  gum  oozing  out  where 
they  work,  and  with  a  sharp-jwinted  instrument  kill 
them,  as  he  would  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer. 

The  Imported  Currant  Borer,  Fig.  20,  on  a  previous 
page.  The  moth,  or  winged  state  of  this  insect,  is  a  little 
less  than  one-half  an  inch  long  and  expands  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch.  The  color  is  deep  blue  and  with 
three  yellow  bands  across  the  abdomen,  a  yellow  collar 
and  yellow  mixed  with  blue  marking  the  legs.  The 
body,  therefore,  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  a 
wasp.  The  moths  appear  in  June  and  July.  The 
eggs  are  deixjsited  near  a  bud,  and  as  soon  as  hatched 
the  tiny  caterpillars  bore  to  the  center  of  the  stem. 
They  attack  the  red  currant  more  generally,  but  some- 
times also  the  black  currant  and  the  gooseberry.  For 
remedies,  see  page  3 1 6. 

Hickory-Bark  Borer,  Length  one-fifth  of  an  inch, 
or  little  less.  Color  entirely  black,  or  black  with 
brown  wing-cases.  The  female  beetle,  selecting  the 
trunk  or  larger  limb  of  a  hickory  tree,  bores  through 
the  bark  and  forms  a  vertical  chamber  next  to  the 
wood  from  half  an  inch  to  an 
inch  in  length,  on  each  side  of 
which  she  deposits  her  eggs, 
from  the  number  of  20  to  50. 
The  larvae,  when  hatched,  feed 
on  the  inner  bark,  each  one 
forming  a  track  of  its  own,  thus 
forming  the  radiating  burrows  so 
common  on  the  under  side  of 
bark  of  hickory  trees.  The  larva 
is  a  soft,  yellowish,  footless  grub, 
much  like  the  larva  of  some  of 
the  curculios,  and  from  which  it 
cannot  easily  be  distinguished, 
except  by  its  habits ;  it  is  very  small,  not  exceeding 
the  fifth  of  an  inch  in  length  when  fully  grown.  The 
eggs  are  deposited  during  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  and  the  beetle  issues  about  the  latter 
part  of  June  or  first  of  July.  It  attacks  the  bitter- 
nut,  shell-bark  and  pig-nut  hickories,  and  probably 
the  pecan.  No  practical  remedy  is  known,  nor  is 
there  much  probability  of  any  extensive  experiments 
being  made  until  forest  timber  becomes  more  valu- 
able than  it  is  now. 

BosTEiCHUs  (or  Sinoxvlon)  basillare.  Fig.  21, 
bores  into  the  heart  of  grape  stems,  the  trunk  of  shag- 
bark  hickory  and  in  the  trunk  and  limbs  of  apple  and 
peach  trees.  No  remedy,  except  to  burn  the  infested 
wood.  The  body  of  the  beetle  is  black,  feelers  red 
and  the  wing-cases  are  marked  with  large,  dense 
punctures,  which  are  more  dilated  toward  the  tip, 
where  there  are  three  spines ;  and  there  is  a  red  sjxit 
at  the  base  of  the  wing-cases.  The  insect  is  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larvze  are  smooth, 
yellowish,  and  arched  and  wrinkled  transversely. 

Cabbage  Butterfly:  seepage  166. 

Cabbage-leaf  Roller.  This  is  a  small,  green 
"worm,"  which  produces  a  gray  moth,  having  a  white 
stripe  along  the  back.     This  insect  is  not  common. 


Fu;.  34. — Hessian  Fly. 
Cccidomyia  destructor. 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


8S5 


Fig.  35.  Ips/aciatus. 
a,  larva;  ^.beetle. 


Canker- Worm:  see  page  27. 

Caterpillar.  Fig.  24  represents  the  tent  cater- 
pillar, which  is  the  most  common  kind  throughout  the 
country,  being  particularly  conspicuous  uix)n  fruit  trees 
and  wild  cherry  trees.  After  pairing  in  the  spring, 
the  female  moths  lay  their  eggs  in 
a  compact  cluster  about  the  small 
twigs,  covering  them  with  a  glisten- 
ing glue,  so  that  they  are  impervious 
to  water.  These  eggs,  300  or  400 
in  number,  hatch  just  as  the  leaves 
of  the  apple  and  cherry  are  putting 
forth,  on  both  of  which  trees  they 
are  wont  to  engage  in  their  ruinous 
work,  seeming  rather  to  prefer  the 
wild  cherry.  They  immediately  weave  their  tents, 
and  become  conspicuous  objects  in  the  orchard.  They 
remain  huddled  in  these  tents  except  when  going 
forth  to  feed.  They  are  quite  regular  in  taking  their 
meals,  and  usually  all  go  forth  at  once.  These  larvae 
or  caterpillars,  variously  striped  with  white,  yellow, 
black,  and  blue,  are  very  handsome,  feed  voraciously, 
so  that  by  the  middle  of  June  they  are  not  only  ma- 
tured in  size, — being  now  two  inches  in  length, — but 
have  managed  to  strip  the  trees  pretty  thoroughly  of 
their  leaves.  They  then  disperse,  seeking  in  all  direc- 
tions for  some  crevice  in  which  they  may  form  their 
closely  woven  cocoons  undisturbed  and  unseen.  They 
separate  almost  immediately.  In  about  two  weeks 
they  come  forth  beautiful  brown  moths,  the  female  a 
little  lighter  in  color  than  the  male.  Two  light  bands 
run  obliquely  across  the  fore  wings.  For  remedies, 
see  page  195- 

Cherry  and  Pear  Slugs.  A  shining  black  fly, 
less  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  appears  in  early 
and  late  summer,  deix)sits  its  eggs  on  the  under  side 


CuRCULio.  For  the  plum  curculio,  Fig.  30,  see 
Plum.     This  insect  also  attacks  cherries  and  peaches.  , 

Apple  Curculio:  see  page  28. 

Oak  Tree  Curculio.  This  species,  which  is  of  a 
reddish  or  rusty  color,  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch 


Fig.  36.  yitne  Bug.     (Gymnetis  nitida.) 
a,  larva;  /',  pupu;  c,  male  beetle;  d^  mandible;  e^  antenna;  y,  leg;  gt  max 
palpus;  all  the  latter  belong  to  the  larva. 

of  the  leaves,  which  produce  the  slimy  slugs  so  injuri- 
ous to  cherry  and  pear  trees.  These  are  brown,  have 
20  feet,  and  are  covered  with  a  viscid,  olive-colored 
slime.  They  eat  only  the  cuticle  of  the  leaf,  thus 
causing  it  to  turn  brown  and  sere.  They  mature  in 
three  or  four  weeks,  pass  down  the  tree  and  enter  the 
earth,  where  they  pupate,  the  flies  of  the  first  brood 
appearing  late  in  August,  those  of  the  second,  late  in 
May  or  early  in  June.  These  insects  are  true  saw- 
flies.  As  the  slugs  are  slimy,  it  is  easy  to  "doctor  " 
them,  to  death,  with  road  dust  or  lime. 

Chinch-bug:  see  article  Wheat. 

Codling  Moth:  see  page  26. 


Fig,  37.    AppU-Koot  Louse.     (Schizoneura  Ianige»-a.) 
a,  the  infested  rootlet;  ^,    a   woolly  larva;  c,  the  winged  insect,  with  the 
woolly  matter  allremoved;  d^  leg  of  the  perfect  insect;  e,  the  beak;  /*, 
antenna  of  the  winged  insect;  g.,  antenna  of  the  larva. 

long,  and  is  distinguished  chiefly  by  having  small 
spines  at  the  front  angles  of  the  thorax.  The  larvae 
inhabit  the  oak,  burrowing  beneath  the  bark.  Another 
species  inhabits  the  elm.  In  May,  one  can  find  these 
insects  in  all  their  stages. 

Currant  Worm:    see  article   Currant,  page    316, 
and  Gooseberry  Saw-fly,  below. 

Cut-Worms.  Fig.  35  illustrates  the  larve  and 
moth  which  infest  beans,  referred  to  more  at  length 
on  page  72.  There  are  several  other  species,  of  dif- 
ferent genera  and  families,  that  also  are  cut-worms, 
injuring  cabbage,  corn,  tomatoes,  and  even  fruit  trees 
and  grape-vines.  The  latter  kind  climb  the  trees 
during  the  night,  and  eat  out  the  tender  buds. 
These  can  be  caught  in  the  evening  with  a  mallet 
and  sheet,  as  in  catching  the  plum  curculio;  and 
they  can  even  be  prevented  from  gaining  access  to 
the  tree  or  vines  at  all,  by  winding  around  the 
trunk  or  stem  stiff",  smooth  paper  about  four  inches 
wide,  gathering  it  in  tightly  at  the  top  with  a  cord 
and  allowing  the  lower  portion  to  stand  out  a  little 
from  the  tree  in  the- 
form  of  an  inverted 
iiiary   fuunel.      For    larger 


may 


trees   tin   boards 
be  better. 

Fall  Web-Worm.  This 
is  someting  like  the  tent 
caterpillar,  differing  main- 
ly from  it,  in  its  general 


appearance.in  being  short-  no.^%.  Appie-tr.eAthU.  (Aphis 

mail.) 
Wing  magnified. 


er  and  more  hairy.     It  is 

not    so    destructive,   and 

the  ravages  they  do  commit  are  too  late  in  the  season 

to  be  very  serious  in  its  results.     They  work  upon  all 

sorts  of  trees. 

Gooseberry  Saw-fly.     This  is  a  destructive  in- 
sect, imix)rted  from  the  Old  World,  the  larve  of  which 


856 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


is  a  slug,  eating  off  the  leaves  of  gooseberry  and  cur- 
rant bushes  in  May  and  June.  The  larvae  either  go 
into  the  earth,  in  July,  or  become  attached  to  the 


these  innocent-looking  scales  cover  60  to  70  small 
eggs  each,  and  in  June  the  young  lice  appear,  yellow 
in  color,  and  so  small  they  are  scarcely  visible.    Rem- 


Ttg.I 


Fig.  IT. 


Tig.M 


Fig.  39.     Plant  Lice. 
I,  corn   aphis;    11,  headand  antenna  of  apple-tree  aphis;    III,  wingless  female  of  corn  aphis;    IV,  portion 
of  a  corn  root  infected  by  the   aphis;    V,   elm  tree  gall  louse;      VI,   poplar   gall  louse;    VII,   wings   of 
phylloxera. 

bushes  and  spin  a  cocoon  of  brownish  silk.     They  re- 
main as  pupae  until  the  following  spring.     In  procur- 
ing plants  for  setting  out,  examine  the  roots  carefully 
or  wash  them  thoroughly,  so  that  no  cocoons  of  this 
insect  be  imported  to  your  plantation.     During  the 
first  part  of  their  breeding  season,  first  of  May,  their 
eggs  can  be  gathered, with  the  few  leaves  that  receive 
them,  and  destroyed;    but  later  in  the  sea- 
son, when  the  "worms"  become  numerous, 
white  hellebore  or  Paris  green,  as  elsewhere 
recommended,  can  be  used  with  good  effect. 

Grape-Vine  Leaf-Hopper.  This  spright- 
ly little  insect  is  common  some  seasons.  It 
is  gaily  robed  in  yellow,  black  and  scarlet, 
hybernates  in  the  mature  state,  and  may  be 
found  in  fall  and  winter  just  under  the  vines. 
The  young  look  just  like  the  parents,  except 
in  size  and  absence  of  wings.  Remedy :  As 
soon  as  they  have  become  dormant  in  winter, 
rake  over  the  leaves,  and  thus  expose  them 
to  damp  weather.  The  best  time  would 
probably  be  at  the  conclusion  of  a  rainy  spell 
in  November,  just  as  it  begins  to  freeze  up. 

June  Bug.  This  is  a  true  beetle,  of  a 
beautiful,  velvety  green  color,  with  a  broad 
margin  of  orange  yellow  around  the  wing- 
cases.  The  damage  done  by  this  "bug "is 
comparatively  unimportant. 

Lady-Birds.  These  are  all  "friendly "'  in- 
sects.    See  under  the  next  general  head. 

Lice  on  Plants ;  Plant  Lice. 

Apple-tree  Bark  Louse.     This  old  enemy 
is  not  so  destructive  as  formerly,  owing  prob- 
ably to  parasites  or  predatory  mites;   yet  we 
must  fight  it  some.     It  is  sometimes  called  the  scale 
louse,  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  its  egg  covers 
to  scales,  which  are  of  the  color  of  the  bark,  and  are 
thus   protected   from   birds.     From  August  to    May 


edy:  Soft  soap  or  strong  soap- 
suds the  last  of  May  and  first 
of  June. 

Corn  Aphis.  This  species 
works  not  only  upon  corn,  but 
also  upon  the  apple-tree  and 
other  plants  (Figs.  I,  III  and 
IV  in  Fig.  39). 

Elm  Tree  Gall  Louse. 
This  is  the  insect  that  causes 
most  of  the  galls  on  elm  leaves, 
which  are  of  the  form  of  a 
cock's  comb,  and  hence  the 
insect  is  also  called  "cock's 
comb  gall  louse."  Fig.  41  shows 
the  habits  of  a  very  different 
gall  fly  which  works  upon  the 
elm.  The  seven  generations 
of  this  peculiar  insect  consti- 
tute an  interesting  study.    Fig. 

43  is  the  wing  of  still  another  parasite  of  the  elm  tree 

whose  larval  home  is  a  gall. 

Larch  Louse.     This  insect,  which  has  no  English 

name,  works  only  on  the  cone-bearing  trees,  as  larch, 

pine,  juniper,  etc.     Fig.  44  gives  a  magnified  view  of 

the  wing. 

Maple  Aphis.     Fig.  42  is  a  magnified  view  of  an 


Fig. -40.     Elm-Tree  Gall  Louse.     (Glyphina  ulmicola.) 
a,  leaf  showing   galls  from  above  and  beneath,  natural  size;    ^.impregnated  egg, sur- 
rounded by  skin  of  true  female;  c.  newly  born  young  of  second  generation,  ventral 
view;  A,  itsantcnna;    </,  pupa  of  same,  dorsal  view;    *,  winged  female;  y,  her  an- 
tenna; g.  antenna  of  stem-mother — all  enlarged. 

aphis  or  louse  which  works  upon  the  leaves  of  soft 
maple.  The  general  color  is  light  gray,  varied  white 
and  ash  brown ;  the  insect  is  very  active  in  its  mo- 
tions, often  taking  quite  distinct  leaps;  slightly  alx)ve 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


857 


medium  size.  Although  these  insects  are  not  numer- 
ous on  any  one  leaf — the  young  sometimes  forming 
small  colonies,  but  adults  always  scattered — yet  the 


i^niiimi^ 


tnertcana. 


effect  of  their  operations  is  often  very  apparent,  giv- 
ing the  leaves  a  shriveled  or  sickly  appearance.  It  is 
]X)ssible,  therefore,  that  this  species  may,  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  develop  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
seriously  injure  the  soft  maples. 

Maple-Tree  Bark  Louse.  Early  in  May  the  side- 
walks of  a  village  or  the  ground  underneath  soft  ma- 
ples will  be  found  covered  with  spots  similar  to  honey- 
dew,  the  lower  limbs  and  opening  leaves  presenting  a 
sticky  sensation  to  the  touch,  which  continues  to  be 
noticeable  more  than  a  week  before  the  deixjsit  of  eggs 
commences.     This  is  caused  either  by  the  many  punc- 


FiG.  42.     Maple  Aphis,     (Siphonophora  acerifolia:.) 

tares  made  in  the  bark  of  the  tree,  the  sap  coming  out 
at  these  jxjints,  or,  as  is  more  natural,  issuing  from 
the  insects  themselves.  The  best  way  to  kill  these' 
insects  is  to  apply  either  soap  and  water,  or  a  solution 


of  tobacco,  or  white  hellebore,  i  pound  to  20  gallons 
of  water.  Their  natural  enemy  is  the  Chalcis  para- 
site, described  a  few  pages  further  on. 

Fear-Tree  Louse,  Jumping.  This 
infests  pear  trees  from  May  to  October 
in  the  Northern  States,  and  from  April 
to  November  in  the  Southern.  After 
pairing  in  early  spring,  the  female  lays 
her  eggs  in  great  numbers,  near  each 
other,  on  young  leaves  and  blossoms, 
or  on  the  newly  formed  shoots.  They 
are  oblong,  yellowish,  and  look  some- 
what like  grains  of  pollen.  The  young 
insects  are  dark  yellow,  change  their 
skins  and  color  repeatedly,  acquire 
wing  scales  or  rudimentary  wings,  fix 
themselves  to  the  bark  in  rows,  suck 
the  juice  until  they  are  full  grown, 
then  disappear  among  the  leaves  until 
they  appear  in  the  winged  form.  They 
do  not  belong  to  the  numerous  aphis 
family,  but  have  the  appearance  of 
true  aphides. 

Poplar  Leaf  Gall  Lice.  We  give 
cuts  of  four  species  of  these.  Fig.  48 
represents  a  kind  that  forms  swellings  or  galls  about 
the  size  of  a  bullet,  so  often  seen  on  the  leaves  of  the 
Cottonwood  at  the  point  where  the  blade  joins  its  stem. 
The  wing  venation  is  shown  by  Fig.  VI,  in  Fig.  39, 
page  856. 

Fig.  49  represents  a  species  which  works  upon  Cot- 
tonwood and  balm-of-Gilead  throughout  the  West  and 
Southwest.  While  the  gall  nor- 
mally occurs  in  the  position 
and  of  the  form  here  repre- 
sented, it  may  occur  on  any 
part  of  the  leaf-stem,  and  the 
opening  may  be  more  or 
less  oblique,  or  be  a  mere 
circular  hole.  Sometimes 
two  and  even  three  co- 
alesce;   but  the  lip-like 

bulging  is  constant.  The  species  represented 
by  Fig.  50  prevails  throughout  Colorado  and 
Southern  Kansas.  The  interesting  gall  which 
it  forms  might  be  called 
"bead-like  cottonwood 
gall."  The  particular 
kind  of  cottonwood  it 
is  partial  to  is  the  nar- 
tow-leaved  variety  of 
Populus  balsamifera. 
The  galls  constitute  a 
series  of  pale  yellow 
oval  swellings  each  side 
of  the  mid-rib,  in  the 
distance  appearing  like  unripe  cherries.  They 
are  sometimes  tinted  with  red,  and  sometimes  there 
are  three  rows  of  them.  They  are  formed  by  the 
folding  under  of  the  sides  of  the  leaf,  and  the  bulg- 
ing of  the  same  around  the  insect,  which  is  always 


Fig.  43.  ]Vingo/Tiitraneura 
uhiii. 


Fig.  44. 


Wing-  p/  Cherrnes 
laricis. 


Ss8 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


found  solitary.  The  Pemphigus  of  Fig.  5 1  produces 
the  gall  of  Fig.  5  2,  on  the  tips  of  the  twigs  of  certain 
cottonwoods,  and  occasionally  on  balsam  poplars, 
which  somewhat  resembles  the  flower  of  the  double 


Fig.  45.    Maple-Tree  Bark  Lottse.    (Lecanium  acericola.) 

a.  appearance  of  their  work;  ^,  back  view  of  female;  r,  ventral  view; 

d^  beak. 

cock's-comb  of  our  gardens.  It  turns  black  in  win- 
ter, giving  the  tree  a  singular  and  rather  unsightly 
appearance  after  the  leaves  have  fallen  off.  The 
winged  insect  generally  makes  its  appearance  in  Sep- 
tember ;  the  body  is  black,  and  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  long;  the  expanded  wings  measure  rather  more 
than  one-third  of  an  inch  from  tip  to  tip. 

Figs.  53,  54  and  55  are  illustrations  of  an  "aphis," 
which  as  yet  has  been  found  only  on  the  Spanish 
needle,  and  as  such  cannot  be  strictly  classed  among 


Fig.  46.     Maple-Tree  Bark  Louse.     Male. 

injurious  insects ;  but  it  belongs  to  a  family  which  is 
noted  for  its  sap-sucking  abilities.     The  figures  here 
given  will  aid  the  beginner  in  the  study  of  this  class 
of  insects.     Species  of  Siphonophora  are  found  on 
almost  all  classes  of  plants. 

Sumac  Gail  Plant  Louse.  This  species  of  Pem- 
phigus forms  tomato-shaped  galls  on  the  leaves  of 
different  kinds  of  sumac,  which  usually  arise  from  the 
mid-vein  at  or  near  the  base.    The  shell  of  these 


galls  is  very  thin,  and  the  winged  lice  are  found  in- 
side, in  September,  in  large  numbers. 

Willow  Aphis,  Spotted.  This  insect  is  found  in 
October  and  No- 
vember, in  colo- 
nies, on  the  un- 
der side  of  the 
branches  of  the 
gray  willow;  and 
occasionally,  but 
apparently  by  ac- 
cident, on  the 
trunks  of  small 
nursery  apple- 
trees.  The  winged  individuals  measure  about  one- 
sixth  of  an  inch  to  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  the  wings 
expanding  about  half  an  inch.  The  insect  is  black. 
The  curved  line  to  the  right  in  the  cut  is  a  crude  rep- 


FiG.  47. 


jumping  Plant  Louse  of  the  Pear 
Tree.    (Psylla  piri.) 


Fig,  48.  Poplar-Leaf  Ceill  Louse.  (Pemphigus  popuH-cauHs.) 
,  the  incipient  gall  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf;  b,  the  corresponding 
bulge  on  the  upper  side;  c,  the  fully  formed  gall,  showing  the  lips 
slig-htly  separated,  so  as  to  permit  the  escape  of  the  mature  insects; 
^and  ^,  incipient  double  galls,  one  being  located  on  each  side  of  the 
mid-rib;y,  tne  wingless  female,  with  the  cottony  secretion  attached; 
gy  the  winged  insect.  The  marks  at  the  sides  of  ^and/"indicate  the 
natural  size. 


Fig.  49.    A  Poplar  Gall  Louse. 
a,  gall;  ^,  under  side  of  same; 


(Pemphigus  populi-transversus.) 
c,  winged  female;  d,  antenna. 


resentation  of  an   enlarged  antenna;    the  hairlines 
above  indicate  the  exact  dimensions  of  the  insect. 

Fig.  59  well  outlines  the  veins  of  the  wing  of  a 
plant  louse  of  the  genus  Schizoneura.  These  wing 
markings  are  the  most  obvious  points  of  distinction 
between  the  numerous  genera  and  species  of  plant 


INSECTS,   INJURIOUS. 


8S9 


lice.     Owing  to  the  many  enemies  which  plant-lice 
have,  they  rarely  do  great  damage.     Sometimes  they 


Fig.  50. — A   Poplar  Gall  Louse.     Pemphigus  populi-monilis. 
fl,  winged  female;    ^,  antenna  ;    r,  antenna   of  the    young  lous«}  d^ 
antenna  of  young  after  the  first  moult ;  ?,  young  from  winged  female  ;y, 
leg  of  winged  female  ;  g,  galls. 

come  out  in  great  number  upon  a  few  plants  or  a  tree 

or  two  one  season,  and  the  next  season  not  one  can  be 

found  in  that  locality. 

Whale-oil  soap,  soft  soap,  strong  soap-suds  or  other 

alkaline  washes  constitute  the  universal  remedies  for 

plant  lice. 

The  Hormaphis 
spinosus  forms  a 
gall  on  the  stems 
of  the  witch-hazel, 
which  gall  is  a  de- 
formation  of  the 

Tig.  s^.—.-i  P^/'lar  Gall  Loutt,  winged        floWCr-bud,    the 
female.     Pemphigus  vagabundus.  pUncture     of     the 

architect  causing  premature  development,  by  which 
the  calyx,  bractlets  and  petals  are  all  changed 
into  elongate  bracts,  more  or  less  pointed  terminally, 
and  more  or  less  completely  soldered  together  at 
bases,  so  as  to  form  a  thin  wall.     In  August  the  gall 


Fig.  52. — Gall  <y  Preceding. 

is  green  and  crowded  inside  with  lice  in  all  stages  of 


growth,  from  the  newly-born  to  the  pupa  and  winged 
female,  intermixed  with  flocculent  matter  and  watery 
globules,  the  insects  themselves  being  rather  evenly 
covered  with  a  fine  white  powder.  Later  in  the  sea- 
son, the  tips  of  the  bracts  become  blunter,  and  the 


Siphon  o- 


FlG.  53. — Spanish  Needle  Louse.    Siphonophora  coreopsidis. 

gall  becomes  browner,  and  recalls  externally  the  fruit- 
pod  which  would  have  developed  the  ensuing  year. 
It  is  now  per- 
forated at  some 
ixiint,  generally 
near  either  the 
top  or  base,  and 
through  the  ap- 
erture the  in- 
sect makes  its 
exit  or  may  be 
noticed  doingso. 
The  young  from 
the  winged  fe- 
male are  quite 
characteristic, 
being  strongly 
granulated,  and, 
as  they  are 
found  as  late  as  the  end  of  October,  they  probably 
hibernate  on  the  permanent  parts  of  the  tree.  The 
sexed  individu-  ^^ 
als    and     t  h  e  (py-T-^==0=====:jr--y-jr=-»»*' 

stem-mother  arc- 
yet  unknown. 
The  specie  s 
was  first  de- 
scribed in  1867 
by  Dr.  H.  Shiner, 
of  Mt.  Carrol, 
111.,  who  erected 
a  new  genus  for 
it  and  another 
w  e  1  1  -k  n o wn 
species  on  the 
same  plant,  not 
aware  that  the 
genus  had  been 


Fig.  54. — Spanish    Needle    Lou^e. 
phora  coreopsidis. 


Fig.  55. — Spanish  Ntedle  Louse.     SipboBO* 
phora  coreopsidis. 


previously  characterized  by  Baron  Osten  Sakan,  io 
in  1861. 


86o 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


Locusts,  or  Grasshoppers.  What  have  gener- 
ally been  hitherto  called  "grasshoppers,"  scientists 
insist  shall  be  called  "  locusts ;"  and  the  most  famous 
of  these  is  the  Rocky  Mountain  (Fig.  60),  which  does 
so  much  damage  west  of  the  Missouri  river,  some- 
times darkening  the  air  with  their  great  numbers 
and  destroying  vast  areas  of  herbage.  They  eat 
everything  green,  from  the  leaves  of  the  trees  down 
to  the  smallest  spear  of  grass. 

The  red-legged  locust  (Fig.  62)  is  next  in  abund- 
ance. By  closely  comparing  Figs.  61  and  63,  one 
can  notice  the  specific  difference  between  the  two 
locusts.  Fig.  64  represents  the  largest  species  of 
locust  throughout  the  older  States,  which  is  known 
not  to  be  very  numerous.  Probably  his  large  size 
attracts  the  attention  of  poultry  and  wild  birds,  which 
combine  to  keep  that  species  of  "grasshopper"  limited 
in  numbers. 

Fig.  65  is  an  engraving  of  a  large  species,  of  a 
reddish  brown  color,  with  a  slight  vermilion  tint,  and 
sundry  stripes. 

Fig.  66  represents  a  common  species  throughout 
the  country,  although  never  appearing  in  such  num- 
bers as  some  species  of  Caloptenus.  The  larvae  and 
pupae,  and  even  the  perfect  insects,  are  occasionally 
observed  during  warm  days  in  winter.  This  species 
appears  early  in  spring  and  continues  throughout  the 
summer.     There  are  three  varieties. 

Remedial  Agencies.  Fortunately,  there  are  several 
natural  agencies  which  have  a  tendency  to  prevent 
their  increase.  Dampness  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
potent  natural  agent  in  keeping  them  in  check. 
Although  they  may  have  hatched  out  in  excessive 
numbers,  yet  if  a  rainy  season  follows  soon  afterward, 
they  will  to  a  very  large  extent  be  destroyed,  and  the 
invigorated  vegetation  will  bid  defiance  to  the  feeble 
attacks  of  those  that  remain  alive.  Like  other  insects, 
their  breathing  apparatus  consists  of  a  series  of  tubes 
that  permeate  the  body,  connecting  with  opening  or 
breathing  pores  along  the  sides  of  the  body  one  on 
each  side  of  a  segment;  the  moisture  taken  in  by 
inspiration  produces  disease,  or  at  least  in  some  way 
prevents  the  free  passage  of  the  air  and  thus  lessens 
the  vitality. 

The  locust  mite  (page  866),  the  bUster  beetle  (page 
848)  and  some  other  insects  pray  upon  locusts. 

Moth,  or  Clothes  Moth.  This  little  moth  ex- 
pands (from  tip  to  tip  of  wing)  about  half  an  inch, 
but  in  length  of  head  and  body  is  less  than  one-fourth 
of  an  inch.  Its  color  is  a  light  buff,  with  a  satin-like 
luster.  The  wings  are  long,  narrow,  ixjinted  and 
beautifully  fringed.  The  larva  ("  worm")  is  white, 
with  a  yellow  head,  has,  like  nearly  all  caterpillars, 
sixteen  legs,  and  is  always  surrounded  by  a  flattened, 
cylindrical  case,  usually  gray  or  whitish  in  color; 
though  this  depends  on  their  food.  The  ends  are 
open,  that  the  larva:  may  reach  forth  to  feed,  or  peer 
forth,  which  they  are  free  to  do  when  disturbed.  The 
pupa,  or  chrysalis,  is  somewhat  curved,  and  has  a 
rounded  head.  The  antennae,  wings  and  legs  are 
folded  beneath  the  body,  and  reach  nearly  to  the  end 


of  the  body.  The  pupa  case  or  cocoon  is  similar  to 
the  larva  case.  The  moth  comes  forth  as  early  as  the 
last  of  May,  and  may  be  seen  from  that  time  till  the 
close  of  summer.  The  tiny,  lustrous,  buff-colored 
bodies  are  easily  detected,  as  they  rest  with  wings 
folded  close  about  their  bodies  in  the  deep  crevices  of 
our  parlor  furniture,  or  among  the  folds  of  our  gar- 
ments, or  even  more  plainly  as  they  flit  across  our 
rooms.  These  moths  pair,  after  which  the  female 
seeks  out  our  furs  and  woolen  or  silk  apparel,  her 
minute  size  enabling  her  to  enter  drawers,  closets  and 
trunks,  where  she  distributes  her  eggs  with  an  eye  to 
the  good  of  her  prospective  young,  if  not  to  our  good. 
The  larvae  soon  appear,  and  may  be  found  at  home 
the  summer  through,  comfortably  fixed  up  in  their 
little  tents  and  workmg  their  miserable  mischief,  all 
unsuspected  by  the  unwary  housewife,  who  learns  too 
late  of  their  previous  presence,  by  discovering  that 
her  most  choice  possessions  are  totally  ruined.  In 
spring  and  summer  the  chrysalids  will  appear,  soon 
to  be  followed  by  a  new  return  of  the  pretty^  moths. 

Remedies.  Woolen  garments  and  furs  should  be 
put  away  in  trunks,  with  several  pieces  of  camphor 
gum  as  large  as  hickory-nuts  packed  in  with  them,  or 
they  may  be  put  into  closed  paper  bags  and  pasted 
up  so  that  no  holes,  ever  so  small,  will  remain  open. 
Even  in  this  case  a  little  camphor  gum  will  render 
assurance  doubly  sure.  Infested  garments  or  furs 
should  be  closed  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible..  The 
vajxir  will  kill  the  insects.  Then  prepare  as  given 
above.  For  furniture  and  carpets  heavy  paper,  wet 
with  carbolic  acid  or  spirits  of  turpenting,  will  kill 
larvae  already  at  work.  This  should  be  placed  under 
the  edge  of  the  carpet,  where  the  mischief  is  generally 
done,  and  in  furniture,  crowded  back  in  deep  folds. 

It  would  be  well  to  saturate  the  interior  of  the  fur- 
niture with  a  strong  solution  of  carbolic  acid.  Our 
best  furniture  and  furs  have  a  good  quantity  of  this 
substance  in  the  undissolved  state  fastened  inside 
them  when  made.  Russian  leather,  cedar  bark  or 
boughs,  tobacco  leaves,  and  even  red  pepper  are  said 
to  prevent  the  moths  from  laying  eggs.  It  will  be 
well,  then,  to  place  these  in  exposed  situations. 
Manufacturers  of  carriages  wash  the  woolen  linings 
of  their  carriages  with  a  weak  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  which  is  very  sure  destruction  to  all  in- 
sects. Some  persons,  with  some  success,  take  a  wet 
sheet  or  other  cloth,  lay  it  ujxsn  the  carpet,  and  then 
run  a  hot  flat-iron  over  it,  so  as  to  convert  the  water 
into  steam,  which  permeates  the  carpet  beneath,  and 
destroys  the  life  of  the  inchoate  moth.  They  have 
found  this  very  successful,  and  as  it  can  be  done 
without  taking  up  the  carpet,  and  the  whole  surface 
gone  over  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  it  is  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  of  protection  they 
have. 

Every  careful  housekeeper  will  certainly  examine 
her  carpets  and  furniture  each  fall  and  spring,  brush 
out  all  the  creases,  give  all  a  good  airing,  and  if  there 
is  any  trace  of  these  evil-doers,  will  practice  the  above 
remedies. 


INSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


86 1 


Parallel  Longhorn.     This    a  species  of  twig- 
pruner,  doing  a  little  damage  to  apple-trees,  but  more 


Fig.  56. — Sumac  Gall  Plant  Louse.     Pemphigus  rhois. 

to  oak.     It  deserves  no  further  mention,  except  for 
scientific  purposes. 

Pear  Tree  Slugs  :  see  Cherry  and  Pear-Tree  Slugs. 
Pea  Weevil.     This   little   insect,    though    doing 
..  I  little  damage  to  garden 

I  peas,  for  in  green  peas 

It  is  not  only  too  small 
to  essentially  change 
the  flavor,  but  even  to 
attract  the  eye,  but  in 
field  crops,  where  peas 
are  raised  to  feed  after 
they  are  fully  matured, 
there  is  very  serious  in- 
jury; for  this  little  weevil, 
so  generally  distributed, 
and  so  persistent  in  its  yearly  attacks,  consumes,  while 
yet  a  larva,  all  the  nutritious  material  of  the  pea, 
leaving  only   the   germ   and  a   mere   shell  outside. 


Fig.  yj.— Spotted    Willow    Aphis. 
Lachnus  dentatus. 


a  letter  T,  are  seen  just  back  of  them,  comes  through 

the  winter  in  the  peas,  having  a  little  opening,  a  door 

of  exit,  already  prepared,  where  they  not  infrequently 

remain  even  to  the  day 

of  sowing.    They   are 

seen    thick   as    bees 

above  the   ground 

where  peas  are   being 

sowed.     Just  as  soon 

as  the  ix)ds  are  formed 

and   the    seeds    set 

within  them,  the  weevil, 

big  with   eggs,  if  not 

with     mischievous    in-     Vio.^t).—  Wingo/SAizoneuravagans. 

tent,  pierces  the  pod  op^wsite  each  pea,  and  inserts 
an  egg  within  each  puncture,  so  that  every  pea  may 


11       I        Fig.  58.— fTi/^A    Hazel  Pi  ant  Louse.     Hormaphis  spinosus. 
".  gall  ;    »>  winged  femiile  magnified  :    c,  foot ;  d,  antenna  ;    e,  youn^  from  winged  female 
/,  magnified  section  of  same  ;    g,  terminal  joints  of  antenna  ;    A,  frontal  tubercle  on  larva. 


Fig.  60. — Roc/cy  Mountain  Locust.     Caloptenus  spretus. 
(7,  a,  a,  females  in  the  act  of  depositing  their  eggs  ;  <5,  anegg  pod  with 
one  end  open  showing  the  eggs  ;  c,  eggs  separated  from  the  pod  ;  d  and  e 
show  the  egg-pods  in  their  usual  position  m  the  earth  ;y*shows  where  a 
pod  has  been  deposited  and  the  hole  closed. 

contain  within  the  seed  of  its  own  destruction.     The 
larvse,  which  soon  hatch  from  these  eggs, 
_  though    grubs,    being    the     young    of 

beetles,  are  legless,  and  hence  resemble 
maggots, — the  larvEeof  two-winged  flies, 
which  name  is  frequently  applied  to 
them.  These  larvae  find  the  young, 
tender  peas  rich  feeding,  and  by  the 
time  the  peas  are  large  enough  for  table 
use,  are  sleek  and 
plump,  and  can 
easily  be  seen 
with  the  naked 
eye;  and  with  a 
glass,   their    good 

feeding  quaUtieS    Fig.  ti.—Rockji  Mountain 

are   quickly  dis- f^''^^"'^''^-^  '^'p  "^  "■=  ™'"= 

Cerned,      as      their      «,  lateral  view  of  the  ter- 
tender  skins  seem  ,-■-' .segments  ;    K   under 


Hence,  afi"ected  peas  will  grow,  but,  of  course,  with 
bated  vigor,  as  the  needed  starch  pabulum  is  wanting 
in  those  early  days,  the  precarious  time  with  all  life; 
but  to  feed,  they  are  almost  entirely  useless. 

The  little  brown  weevil,  with   the  wing-covers  so 
short  that  some  light  markings,  somewhat  resembling 


side  of  terminal  segment  . 

ready  to  burst.  By  "FP='^5''J«°fsame. 
the  time  the  peas  are  hard,  having  already  eaten 
a  hole  through  the  shell,  thus  showing  a  foresight 
not  rare  among  insects,  they  assume  the  pupa  state, 
and  change  to  imagoes  before  the  time  for  sowing  or 
planting  the  next  spring. 
Remedies.     As  these  pestiferous  insects  are  in  the 


862 


INSiCTS,  INJURIOUS. 


Fig.  6s 


— Rtd-Legged  Locust.     Calop- 
tenus  femur-rubrum. 


peas  in  the  winter  and  in  the  spring,  if  the  same  be 
kept  over  one  year,  in  perfectly  close  barrels,  bags, 

cans,  or  bottles,  of 
course  the  insects 
thus  confined  will  all 
die.  Hence,  if  these 
pea  weevils  are  suffi- 
ciently annoying  to 
cause  disturbance, 
there  can  be  a  most  effectual  estoppel  put  upon  their 
mischief  by  thus  putting  all  our  peas  in  close  vessels, 
any  time  in  the  winter,  and  keeping  them  thus  close 
for  one  season.  If  all  would  do  this, — and  we  must 
have  concerted  action  in  this 
insect  warfare, — we  should  soon 
be  rid  of  this  enemy.  But  the 
evil  will  be  mitigated  if  we 
practice  the  above  simply  as  in- 
dividuals;  for  if  the  insects  do  J-./^hp^^f^^rfb- 

find  their  way  to  our  fields  from  domen.  Letters  have  same 
those   of  our   careless  neighbors,    reference  as  i„  Fig.  6t. 

they  will  doubtless  come  in  far  less  numbers,  and 
those  that  do  come  will  very  likely  be  too  late  to  do 
damage,  while  we  may  escape  entirely. 


Fig.  b4,.—Cali>ptenus  differttUiatU. 

Phylloxera.  This  little  insect,  hardly  large  enough 
to  attract  the  attention  of  any  but  the  cautious  ob- 
server, is  a  native  of  America,  and  has,  within  a  few 
years  entered  Europe,  where  it  does  immensely  more 
damage  than  in  this  country.  The  louse  is  of  a  dull 
orange  color;  it  punctures  the  leaves  on  the  under 
side,  causing  the  surface  to  be  covered  with  excres- 
cences, or  small  galls  (Fig.  72),  which  greatly  deform 


the  roots,  where  they  hibernate.  As  these  gall  lice 
will  readily  take  to  the  roots  and  flourish  if  removed 
to  those  vines  where  the  galls  are  never  found,  it  is 


Fio.  t^.—Acridium  Amtricanum. 

the  leaf;  in  these  galls  the  eggs  are  laid  to  the  num- 
ber of  300  or  400,  which  soon  hatch,  and  the  young 
lice  (true  aphides)  go  merrily  forth  in  their  bright 
yellow  garb,  and  repeat  the  work  of  their  parents. 
For  four  or  five  generations  the  lice  are  wingless,  and 
all  females  !  They  attack  but  a  few  varieties  of  the 
grape,  especially  the  Clinton.  As  fall  approaches  the 
the  galls  become  deserted  and  the  young  descend  to 


Fir..  66. —  Tragocephela  viridi/aciata. 
a,  pupa  ;  ^,  perfect  insect. 

probable  that  some  lice  pass  from  leaves  to  roots 
during  the  summer.  It  is  the  root  form  of  this  louse 
that  does  the  most 
injury  to  the  vine.  The 
young  of  this  form  are 
not  distinguishable  from 
those  of  the  galls,  but 
the  mature  forms  are 
covered  with  warts. 
Some  of  these  assume  a 
greenish  cast,  become 
larger  at  the  head  end 
of  the  body  and  are  with- 
out wings.  The  others 
are  always  bright  yellow,  always  of  the  oval  form  of 
the  young,  and  finally  develop  stubs  of  wings,  which 
grow  to  full  size.    They  come  forth  from  the  earth  as 


Fig.  67. — Stenobotkrus  tnaculipeHnit, 
a,  perfect  insect ;  b.^  pupa  ;  r,  larva. 


Fig.  68. — Hippiscus  phcenicopterus.  •' 

pupa,  and  then  cast  their  skin  for  the  last  time.  They 
are  still  yellow,  but  have  lost  their  tubercles.  The 
winged  forms  are  most  abundant  in  August  and 
September,  though  they  may  be  seen  from  July 
till  October.  The  longer  ones  lay  eggs  from 
which  come  the  true  male  and  female :  the 
latter  lays  one  egg,  and  these  all  die  off  in  the 
fall,  so  that  the  insects  pass  the  winter  either 
as  eggs  or  as 
larvae. 

For    p  r  e- 
vention  of  the 
ravages  of  this 
insect,  grafting 
susceptible  varieties 

on     such      stocks     as  Fig.  69.-C/«M«  JI/«M.    Tinea. 

the  Clinton,  Concord  or  Israella  is  recommended.  In 
procuring  vines,  it  would  be  a  safe  precaution  to  dip 
the  roots  in  some  insecticide,  as  a  strong  solution  of 
whale-oil  soap,  before  setting  them.  It  would  be  well, 
too,  to  mix  soot  in  the  soil,  as  that  is  obnoxious  to  the 
the  lice. 


IJSrSECTS,  INJURIOUS. 


863 


The  leaves  affected  with  galls  should  be  collected 
and  destroyed  eady  in  the  season.  Submersion  for 
20  or  30  days  has  been  found  effectual  in  France  in 
killing  the  root  fomis.     Wherever  this  can  be  done  it 

should  be  brought 
into  requisition  in 
autumn,  immedi- 
ately after  the  sea- 
son's growth  is 
complete.  It  is  said 
that  at  this  season 
the  vines  will  not 
suffer,  even  if  sub- 
F1U.70.— Parallel  LongAorx.  EUphidion.  merged   for   a  time 

a,  larva  j  i,  twig  split  open,   showing  the  Sufficient    tO   deStrOy 
enclosed   pupa;   *,   the  se /ered  end   of  the  ^1  1-  Pnrl%n1iV 

twig:  f, beetle;  z, basal  jointsof  the  antennie,  "-^^^  in-c.  v^aiutjin, 
showing  the  characteristic  spines  at  the  tip  acid  DOWdcr  and 
of  the  third  and  fourth  joints  ;  /,  tip  of  ely-  i  •    ,  1 

tron;^,  f,y,  f-,  /:,  head,  maxilla,  labium,  soot  are  highly  re- 
mandible,  and  antenn.i  of  larva.  p  OTTl  m  P  nd  G  d 

mixing  these  with  the  soil  the  lice  are  said 
destroyed.  Bisulphite  of  carbon,  which  we  use  so 
successfully  in  destroying  museum  pests,  and  which 
recently  gave  so  much 
hope  in  France,  is  now 
given  up  as  too  ex- 
pensive, too  laborious 
of  application,  and  not 
thorough  in  its  effects, 
owing,  doubtless,  to  in- 
ability to  reach  the 
lice  in  making  the  ap- 
plication. Pot  as  sic 
sulpho-carbonate,  to  be 
had  only  from  the 
chemist's  laboratory,  is 
a  late-discovered  remedy  against  Phylloxera.  It  is 
placed  on  the  earth  beneath  the  vines  and  carried  to 
the  roots  by  the  rain. 

Prionus.     Fig.   73  represents  one  of  our  largest 


By 
to  be 


IMT 


Fig.  71. — Pea    Weevil.     Bruchus  pisi. 
a.  bug   magnified;    ^,  pea   infested; 
c.  natural  size. 


Fig.  i-i.—Work  0/  the  Grape  Phylloxera.    Phylloxera  vastatrix. 

beetles,  and  may  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics :  It  is  of  a  long  oval  shape, 
varying  in  length  from  a  little  over  one  inch  to  nearly 


one  inch  and  three  fourths ;  the  width  across  the 
wing-cases  is  nearly  one-half  the  length.  The  body 
is   considerably  flattened,  and  the  thorax,  which   is 

about  twice  as  wide  as  it  is 
long,  has  three  teeth  on 
each  lateral  margin,  the 
middle  tooth  being  the 
most  prominent.  The  an- 
tennae, which  are  about 
half  as  long  as  the  body, 
are  serrate,  but  these  ser- 
ratures  are  not  extended 
into  long  sharp  teelh,  as  in 
the  other  species.  They 
are  about  twelve-jointed. 
The  color  is  almost  uniform 
mahogany-brown  ;  s  o  m  e- 
times  quite  black.  The 
larva,  or  grub,  is  of  a 
creamy  white  color,  with  a 
pale  bluish  line  along  the 
is  large,  being  as  long  or 
it  decreases 


73. — Prionus 
female. 


laiicollisy 


74. — Squash 
^oreus  tristis. 


back;  the  first  segment 
longer  than  the  next  three  combined 
gradually  in  size  from  the  third  seg- 
ment backward  to  the  end  ;  under  side 
somewhat  flattened;  head  brown;  legs 
minute.  When  fully  grown  it  is  nearly 
three  inches  long,  and  as  large  as  a 
man's  thumb.  Dr.  Harris  says  they 
live  in  the  roots  of  the  Balm  of  Gilead, 
Lombardy  ix)plar,  and  probably  in 
those  of  other  kinds  of  poplar  also.  It 
has  been  observed  by  various  persons,  ^^''^c; 
boring  into  and  hollowing  out  the  roots 
of  grape-vines.  It  also  occasionally  attacks  the  roots 
of  apple  and  pear  trees,  either  boring  into  or  gnawing 
them  so  as  to  seriously  injure  the  trees. 

Radish  Fly.  (Anthomyia  raphani).  It  is  the 
maggot  of  this  fly  that  early  in  the  spring  eats  all 
varieties  of  greens  of  the  mustard  family.  The  flies 
look  like  the  onion  flies,  are  small,  ash-colored,  and 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  stem  close  to  the  ground.  On 
hatching,  the  young  larvae  descend  and  feed  on  the 
roots,  forming  grooves  all  over  the  surface,  which  in- 
duce decay.  In  June  they  are  grown,  developed  and 
lay  eggs  again.  Remedies:  Water  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  180°; 
late  planting; 
planting  on 
clayey  soil; 
considerable 
distance  be- 


tween success- 
ive radish  beds, 
etc.  None  of 
these,  however, 
are  as  success- 
ful as  desirable. 
Rose-Chafer 
(Macrodactylis  spinosa.)  This  pesky  old  beetle  is  in- 
jurious to  the  interests  of  man  more  on  account  of  his 


Fig.  1%.— Tomato    Worm. 
maculata 


Macrosila   quinque- 


864 


INSECTS,  FRIENDLY. 


depredations  upon  the  rose.  Its  history  and  habits 
closely  resemble  the  May  beetle,  already  described. 
The  chafer   appears   in  June   and  July,   eats   most 


Fig.    77, — Nut 
Wetvil. 


Fig.  76. — Spotttd  Vint'Cha/er.    Pelidnota  punctata. 
a,  larva  ;  b^  pupa  ;  f ,  beetle  ;  dy  tip  of  abdomen  of  larva  ;  ^,  antenna 
of  same  ;  /,  leg. 

ravenously,   especially   of    rose,    grape    and    cherry 

leaves.     After  this  wedding   feast   is 

over,  the  females  lay  their  eggs  in  the 

ground.     The  grubs   feed  on  the  roots 

of  the  plants,  but  are  not  sufficiently 

destructive  to  attract  attention.  Reme- 
dies :    Jarring  them  down  as  curculios, 

white  hellebore,  or  Paris  green. 

Squash     Bug    and    Squash-Vine 

Borer  :  see  article  Squash. 

Tettix.     This   is    another    "grass- 
hopper," or   locust,  with  no   common 

name.     It  is   generally  of  small  size, 

many  being  less  than  half  an  inch  in 

length,  and  few,  if  any,  exceed- 
ing an  inch. 

Tomato  Worm  :  called  also 
"tobacco  wonn,"  "five-spotted 
sphinx,"  etc.  This  is  the  largest 
green  worm  seen  in  the  garden, 
and  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  cut  (Fig.  75)  represents 
also  the  pupa  and  the  moth. 
'^  The  latter  is  often  taken,  at  a 
little  distance,  for  a  humming- 
bird, as  it  sucks  the  sweets  of 
flowers  with  its  long,  watch- 
spring-like  proboscis.  The  only 
remedy  for  these  comparatively 
few  and  innocent  worms  con- 
sists in  crushing  them  to  death 

Tia.jS.—Nrwrori  Wtevii.  One  by  onc  by  the  hand. 

Ithycerus  Noveboracensis.  Twir  Pkttmiti?  •  epp  Parnllpl 
a.infested  twig  of  apple-tree;  i  WIG  rRUNER  .  SCC  rafaliel 
by  larva  ;  ^ ,  perfect  insect.        Longhom. 

Vine-Chafer,  Spotted.  This  is  a  large,  oval- 
shaped  beetle,  about  one  inch  long  and  half  an  inch 
or  a  little  more  in  width ;  of  a  shining  brownish  yellow 


Fig.    79. —  White    Pine 
Weevil.     Pissodes  strobi. 
a,  larva  ;  b^  pupa. 

a  dark  brown 


color, 


of  pine.     The 
shoots  of   the 


eggs 
pine, 


or  clay  color  above,  with  a  small  black  spot  on  each 
side  of  the  thorax.  Fig.  76,  at  3,  are  shown  the  walls 
around  the  pupa,  composed  of 
wood  and  excrement.  The  larva 
is  a  large,  clumsy  grub,  bearing 
a  close  resemblance  to  the  com- 
mon white  grub  of  our  meadows. 
It  appears  to  feed  chiefly  on  the 
decaying  roots  of  different  herbs 
and  trees. 

Weevils.  The  weevil  of  Fig. 
77  attacks  the  hazel-nut,  and  in 
its  larval  state  is  often  found  in- 
side the  nut.     The  beetle  is  of 

but  has  a  dense  covering  of  yellow  hair  on 
the  wing  covers,  and  a  sparse  covering  of 
such  hair  on  the  thorax,  so  that  the  insect 
has  a  rusty-yellow  appearance. 

The  Ne7v  York  Weevil  is  injurious  to  the 
apple-tree.  It  should  be  jarred  off  the  tree 
as  curculios  are  and  destroyed.  The  in- 
fested twigs  have  to  be  cut  off  and  burned. 
See  page  28. 

The  White  Pine  Weevil  is  of  a  rusty 
brown  color,  the  thorax  being  darker  than 
the  wing-cases,  with  a  minute  white  dot 
usually  present  on  each  side.  It  often  proves  very 
destructive  to  several  species  " 
are   deposited  on   the   leading 

probably  immediately  underneath  the  outer  bark. 
The  larvts  hatched  there  bore  into  the  wood,  where 
they  finally  pupate,  having  taken  care  previously  to 
gnaw  a  passage  to  the  outer  bark  to  allow  an  escape 
for  the  beetle,  which  emerges  in  early  fall.  The 
best  remedy  is  to  cut  off  the  infested  shoots  in  sum- 
mer and  burn  them. 

Wheat  Midge:     see  Wheat. 

Insects,  Friendly.  These  are  such  insects  as 
prey  mostly  or  exclusively  upon  other  insects  which 
are  injurious  to  cultivated  plants. 
We  cannot  propagate  and  rear  them, 
but  when  we  find  a  nest,  cluster  or 
swarm  of  them  anywhere,  we  can  forbear 
to  destroy  them.  The  beautiful  beetle 
in  Fig.  82  preys 
upon  the  c  a  n  k  er 
worm,  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle  and 
the  May  beetle.  It 
is  about  an  inch  long. 

The  Chalcis  parasite  is  a 
lately-discovered  insect  which 
preys  upon  the  maple-tree  bark 
louse.  The  natural  size  is  in- 
dicated by  short  hair  lines  in  the 
cut  (Fig.  83).  By  the  use  of  a 
little  jxjcket  lens,  costing  only  $1, 
it  can  be  readily  distinguished. 

Fig.  84  represents  a  genus  of  which  there  are  sev- 
eral species  in  this  country. 


Fig.  i-i.^Wkitt 
Pint  WetTjil. 


INSECTS,  REMEDIES  FOE. 


86s 


The  Harpalus  of  Fig.  85  is  a  very  common  beetle, 
often  found  under  stones,  logs,  etc.,  and  frequently 

enters  the  house 
at  night  when 
there  is  a  light. 
The  larves  feed 
upon  the  plum 
curculio  and 
i|  WW  „  I/// 1  other  insects. 


Lady  Bird,  or 
Lady  Bug.  The 
cuts  below  (Figs. 
86  to  93)  illus- 
trate several 
species   of    the 


Fig.  83. — ChaiCis  Parasite.      Phuygaster 
lecanii?     a,  larva;  (5,  winged   insect. 

most  useful  insect  to  man.  Almost  every  person  is 
familiar  with  the  little  beauties.  While  they  do  no 
harm  anywhere,  they  eat  the  eggs  and  young  of 
almost  all  injurious  insects.  Fig.  87  is  a  larva  of  one 
species,  which  like  some  others  as  they  develop,  have 
rows   of  tubercles   or   spines.     In   growing  up  they 


Fig.  84. — Golden  Eye,     Chrysopa.     a,  eggs;  6,  larva;  c,  cocoons; 
d.  perfect  insect. 

gradually  assume  the  colors  indicative  of  their  spe- 
cific differences.  When  they  have  completed  their 
growth  they  shorten  their  length,  the  back  becomes 
more  convex,  and  they  fix  themselves  by  the  tail  to 
the  bark,  twig,  or  leaf,  enter  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis 
state,  from  which  in  a  short  time  they  emerge  as  fully 
developed  lady-birds.  These  little  bugs  are  very 
voracious  in  both  the  larval  and  developed  form. 
Half  a  dozen  of  them  will  clean  a  currant  or  rose- 
bush of  lice  in  three  or  four  days,  or  less  time. 

Locust  Mite.  This  is  one  of  the  most  efficient 
aids  in  keeping  the  locusts  in  check.  When  first 
hatched  it  is  of  an  orange,  or  pale  reddish  color,  ovoid 
in  form,  with  six  comparatively  long  and  apparently 

cumbersome  legs ;  it  is 
then  very  minute.  When 
it  reaches  in  the  process 
'"  of  growth  what  may  be 
called  the  full-grown  larval 
state,  it  is  very  different  in 
form ;  it  is  now  more 
elongated  and  cyHndrical, 
with  two  transverse  con- 
strictions ;  to  use  a  rather 
ludicrous  comparison,  it 
resembles  a  microscopic 
potato.  When  it  has  reached  the  perfect  state,  it  is 
of  a  deeper  red,  varying  from  orange  red  to  scarlet. 
It  is  somewhat  triangular  in  form  with  the  angles 
rounded,  being  broadest  in  front   and  narrowing  to 


Fig.  85. — Harpalus  Pennsyl- 
vanicux. 


the  rounded  posterior  extremity,  thickly  covered  with 
short  hairs ;  has  eight  legs.  The  male  differs  from 
the  female  in  being  shorter,  and  comparatively  broader 
in  front. 

Syrphus  Flies.  For  the  root-louse  Syrphus  fly  of 
Fig.  94,  see  page  27.  The  species  somewhat  resembles 
the  common  house-fly  in  size  and  shape, 
but  are  much  handsomer,  being  usually 
of  a  bright  yellow  color,  with  bands  and 
spots  of  black ;  the  abdomen  is  flat- 
FiG  86  —spotted  tened,  and  usually  marked  with  bands 
Lady- Bird.  OX  partial  bands  of  black.  They  are 
known  in  some  sections  as  "  corn  flies,"  in  others  as 
"  sweat  flies,"  etc.,  as  they  are  more  numerous  on  hot 
days,  and  are  often  seen  in  great  abundance  when 
corn  is  in  bloom,  hovering  around  the  stalks,  poised 
in  the  air  a'pparently  motionless.  ,  They  drop  their 
eggs  one  in  a  place,  upon  the  leaves  and  twigs  which 
are  infested  with  plant  lice,  led  by  instinct  to  know 
that  these  will  form  appropriate  food  for  their  young, 
although  they  as  perfect  insects  feed  on  the  sweets  of 
flowers  and  other  similar  food.  The  larvas  are  usually 
of  a  transparent  greenish  color,  and  sometimes  more 
or  less  clouded  or  spotted  with  other  colors.  They 
have  no  distinct  head,  not  even 
eyes,  and  are  of  a  long  wedge 
shape,  blunt  and  broadest  be- 
hind. In  feeding  it  elongates 
the  front  part  of  the  body,  feels 
around  until  it  finds  an  aphis, 
grasps  it  by  its  mouth,  raises  it  in 
the  air  and  sucks  all  the  juice 
out  of  it. 


Fig.  87. — Convergent 
Lady-Bird. 
Larva  and  pupa  enlarged . 


Insects,  Classified  Remedies  for.  i .  Give  poison 
with  their  food.  2.  Kill  by  applying  irritants  or 
poisons  to  the  body.     3.  Kill  by  mechanical  means. 

4.  Prevent  the  insects  from  reaching  the  food-plants. 

5.  Prevent  egg  laying.  6.  Capture  and  destroy.  7. 
Vary  time  of  planting.  8.  Practice  thorough  culture. 
Let  us  now  consider  these  several  methods  more  in 
detail. 

Use  of  Poisons.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
most  of  our  insect  pests  are  mandibulate ;  and  as  all 
such  crop  and  eat  their  food,  we  at  once  see  that  to 
exterminate  the  pests  we  have  only  to  scatter  some 
insect  poison  upon  the  food  plants.  Hence  all  in- 
sects that  eat  the  foliage  from  our  trees  or  vines,  or 
even  eat  the  cuticle  of  the  leaves  as  do  many  slugs 
and  caterpillars,  may  be  killed  by  this  first  method. 
We  have  only  to  name  the  best  poison, 
and  the  most  practicable  means  to  make 

1»^PIIW^  the  application.  Paris  green  takes  first 
flkHS  rank  as  an  insecticide.  From  its  viru- 
lency  as  a  poison  its  use  cannot  be  made 
universal.     On  vines  and  fruit  trees,  it 


Fig, 


Spot. 


tedLady-Bird.  should  not  be  used  if  the  tree  and   the 

'^tretfe'dm-*    shrubs  are  in  fruit,  except  very  early  in 

punctata,     the  scason.     The  color  of  Paris  green, 

as  also  its  insolubility,  are  greatly  in  its  favor.     From 

the  first  it  is  not  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  some  harm- 


65 


866 


INSECTS,  REMEDIES  FOR. 


Fig.  Z<).~^-Spotied 


less  substance,  and  accidentally  taken  in  medicine  or 
used  in  cooking;  and  from  the  second  it  is  power- 
less to  poison  the  soil. 

Another  arsenical  poison,  arsenite  of  lime,  received 
from  Hemingway  &  Co.,  London,  and  called  by  them 
London  Purple,  has  been  tried  with 
good  results.  This  substance  is  much 
cheaper  than  Paris  green,  has  a  some- 
what less  favorable  color,  as  it  would 

be   easily   mistaken   for   some  of  the 

spices ;  but  as  it  is  readily  soluble  in  Lady-Bird.  Coc- 
cold  water,  its  use  cannot  be  recom-  ""'="^  «-°°""- 
mended  in  the  place  of  the  very  insoluble  Paris 
green,  except,  perhaps,  in  some  very  rare  instances. 
Paris  green  is  specially  desirable  in  ridding  our  shade 
trees  and  shrubbery  of  caterpillars  and  slugs  which 
may  threaten  their  destruction,  in  exterminating  in- 
sects like  the  ix>tato  beetle,  whicli  feed  upon  such 
parts  of  the  plants  as  are  not  used  for  food,  in  fight- 
ing canker  worms  and  other  similar  insects  which 
attack  our  orchards  before  the  fruit  is  much  grown, 
and  always  in  preserving  trees  and  vines  not  in 
bearing. 

These  substances  may  be  applied  in  the  dry  form, 
or  mixed  with  water.  In  the  dry  form 
they  may  be  mixed  with    flour  in   the 

J,,<^!W||j|V  ratio  of  i  to  8,  or  with  plaster  in  the 
/flii'llllPl  ratio  of  i  to  50.  If  the  first  mixture  is 
used,  it  should  be  applied  when  the 
vines  are  dry,  and  the  least  possible 
amount  used.  The  second  may  be  best 
used  when  the  dew  is  on,  and  a  good  quantity  will 
not  injure  the  plants.  The  first  mixture  is  less  apt 
to  be  washed  off  by  heavy  rains ;  the  second  is  safer 
in  careless  hands.  The  application  is  best  made  when 
there  is  little  or  no  wind. 

In  water  about  a  tablesixionful  of  the  poison  may 
be  used  to  two  gallons  of  the  liquid.  As  this  is  only  a 
a  mixture,  and  not  a  solution,  care  is  requisite  that 
this  poison  may  not  all  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  Frequent  stirring 
will  prevent  this.  We 
would  advise  the  use  of 
the  above  to  extirpate  the 
potato  beetle,  the  cucum- 
ber beetle,— where  it  must      F,G.  ^..-Twice.slaUed   Lady. 

be  used  with  the    greatest  Bird.     Chlcolorus  bivulnerus. 

...        ■     .  Larva  and  Beetle. 

care  so  as  not  to  mjure 

the  vine, — the  canker  worm,  leaf  rollers  and  the 
slugs  and  caterpillars  that  defoliate  our  evergreens, 
shade  trees  and  shrubbery.  On  the  border  of  a 
threatened  oat  field  it  might  bring  death  to  the  army 
worm  and  relief  to  the  crop. 

White  hellebore  is  a  less  dangerous  poison  and  in 
many  cases  as  efficient  as  Paris  green.  This  is  a 
vegetable  poison  and  is  made  from  the  root  of  the 
Verairum  album,  a  plant  which  grows  abundantly 
along  the  slopes  of  the  Alps.  The  powder  is  cheap, 
costing  only  40  cents  per  jwund,  while  an  ounce  to 
two  gallons  of  water  will  prove  a  deadly  mixture  to 
many  of  our  pests.     This  is  specially  useful  in  com- 


FlG.  90. —  Trim 
Lady-Bird.  Coc- 
cinetla  munda. 


bating  the  various  slugs  which  attack  our  strawberry 
vines,  raspberry,  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes,  and 
evergreens.  We  emphasize  its  desirability  in  fighting 
the  ubiquitous  currant  slug,  which  is  aiming,  with 
some  show  of  success,  to  rob  us  of  our  currants,  which 
means  our  best  jelly  and  jelly  cake.  These  blighting 
slugs  do  not  all  hatch  at  once,  but  come  forth  in  suc- 
cessive broods,  from  the  middle  or  last  of  May  even 
to  July.  Hence  several  applications  of  the  poison 
must  be  made,  as  many  as  the  presence  of  the  in- 
satiate destroyers  demands.  Ignorance  or  neglect  of 
this  fact  has  led  some  to  lose  faith  in  this  remedy. 
Copperas  in  strong  solution  is  a  less  efficient  insecti- 
cide. Persian  insect  jx)wder,  Persian 
camomile,  or  pyrethrum,  from  Persia  and 
Caucasian  India,  is  said  to  be  an  effici- 
ent poison  and  may  well  be  tried  in  our 
experiments  to  rid  our  plants,  our  carpets 
and  furniture  and  our  domestic  animals 
of  noxious  insects.  A  teaspoonful  of  pure 
Persian  chamomile  heaped  in  a  little  cone 
and  burned  in  a  medium-sized  room  that 
is  not  ventilated  during  the  burning,  will  kill  every  fly 
in  it.  If  it  fails  to  do  this  the  jwwder  is  not  genuine. 
To  test  its  purity,  put  a  little  in  a  bottle  with  a  dozen 
flies;  when  the  bottle  is  closed  they  will  go  into 
spasms  and  die  almost  instantly  if  the  drug  is  what  it 
should  be.  "Persian  insect  powder,"  like  other  things, 
is  sometimes  adulterated ;  it  will  also  lose  its  strength 
if  kept  open  too  long.  Druggists  mix  it  with  other 
ingredients  for  various  purposes.  Borax  is  a  valuable 
addition  when  cockroaches  are  to  be  disjxjsed  of,  but 
for  flies,  mosquitoes  and  bed-bugs  the  pure  powder 
must  be  used.  It  costs  from  70  to  80  cents  a  pound, 
has  a  bright,  buff  color,  is  light,  burns  readily,  and 
gives  a  rather  pleasant,  tea-like  fragrance.  It  is  the 
powdered  leaf  of  a  harmless  flower  growing  in  Cau- 
casian Asia,  where  for  centuries  it  has  been  used  to 
keep  the  insect  world  in  subjection.  It  acts  on  their 
breathing  apparatus,  evidently  producing  vertigo, 
respiratory  spasms  and  paralysis,  but  is  perfectly 
harmless  and  not  particularly  disagreeable  to  human 
beings.  Of  course,  a  little  curl  of  blue  smoke  can't 
be  expected  to  kill  the  flies  over  all  creation  or  even 
in  a  large  airy  space.  It  will  weaken  the  ambition  of 
all  those  which  come  within  its  influence,  but  to  pro- 
duce death  the  effect  must  be  concen- 
trated. 

In  rooms  where  windows  and  doors 
are  opened  the  burning  powder  will  keep 
out  unwelcome  insect  intruders.  In  a 
house  protected  by  screens,  the  flies  al- 
ready in  may  be  most  conveniently  dis- 
posed of  by  using  the  dry  jxjwder  with 
an  insect  gun,  which  costs  about  25  cents. 
Puff  the  ix)wder  into  a  close,  warm  room 
until  the  air  is  filled  with  it ;  then  shut 
the  door  and  return  in  lialf  an  hour.  If  every  fly  in 
it  is  not  either  dead  or  dying,  throw  away  your 
powder,  and  send  to  a  reliable  dealer  for  that  which 
is  good.     Pure  Persian  insect  powder  never  fails  in 


Fig.  93.— 
Veun^  Locust 
Mite.    Trom- 
bidium  locust- 
arum. 


INSECTS,  REMEDIES  FOR. 


867 


its  effect.  For  bed-bugs  puff  the  jxiwder  with  the 
insect  gun  into  all  the  cracks  and  crevices  where 
such  vermin  harbor ;  leave  the  room  undisturbed  for 
a  few  hours,  closely  shut  meanwhile ;  they  will  walk 


Fig.  94. — Rooi-Lou-se  Syrphus  Fly,    Pipiza  radicum. 
a  ,  larva  ;  b^  pupa  ;  <:,  perfect  fly. 

out  and  surrender  at  discretion;  a  semi-annual 
application  will  prevent  all  further  trouble.  Dust 
your  house-plants,  your  pet  dog  and  your  poultry 
with  insect  powder,  but  don't  undertake  to  kill  spiders 
or  you  will  be  disappointed. 

Tar  water  is  good  to  destroy  and  drive  away  insects 
on  plants.  So  is  gas-coal  tar.  To  apply  the  latter, 
put  4  or  5  gallons  gas-coal  tar  in  a  barrel ;  fill  up 
half  full  with  water,  and  stir  well,  so  the  water  will 
become  impregnated  with  the  tar;  after  the  tar  has 
separated  from  the  water  sprinkle  the  latter  on  your 
potatoes,  cucumbers,  rose  bushes, 
cabbages,  etc.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  the  water  be  not  too 


Fig.  !)S~Syrphus Fly. 
I,  larva  ;  d^  part  of  a  seg- 
ment highly  magnilied. 


Strong. 

Though  we  are  powerless  to 
ixjison  the  food  of  sucking  insects, 
we  are  still  able  to  administer 
death  by  the  application  of  ex- 
ternal poisons.  The  best  sub- 
stances for  such  are  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
a  strong  suds  either  of  whale-oil  or  common  soft  soap 
and  tobacco  water.  The  addition  of  a  half  teacupful 
of  crude  petroleum  to  two  gallons 
of  either  of  the  above  makes  them 
the  more  effective.  These  sub- 
stances are  peculiarly  efficient  in 
fighting  slugs,  cabbage  worms, — in 
which  cases  they  may  aho  have 
acted  as  internal  poisons, — lice  on 
house  plants, — where  much  care  is  required,  especially 
with  the  tenderer  plants,  or  they  will  be  injured  by  a 
too  strong  fluid, — plant  lice,  bark  lice, — which  lafter 
are  most  susceptible  just  after  hatching, — and  the 
many  lice  and  ticks  which  infest  our  domestic  animals. 
In  these  last  cases  carbolic  acid  solution  is  very 
valuable,  and  should  be  freely  sprinkled  about  the 
kennels,  stables,  and  poultry  houses.  The  tobacco 
water  and  kerosene  are  also  very  excellent.  Persian 
insect  powder  is  also  recommended  highly  by  many 
dog  and  chicken  fanciers,  for  the  destruction  of  vermin 
in  kennels  and  poultry  houses. 

Lime,  ashes,  and  even  road  dust  are  destructive  to 
some  of  the  more  tender-skinned  insects,  especially 
to   such  as  secrete  a  slimy,  viscid  substance  which 


Fig.  156. — Syrphus 

larva   feeding  on   a 

plant  louse. 


covers  their  bodies,  as  do  some  of  the  slugs.  Such 
treatment  is  quite  satisfactory  in  case  of  the  pear  and 
cherry  tree  slugs.  Dusting  the  plants  with  lime  and 
ashes  is  often  recommended  as  preventing  the  rav- 
ages of  the  various  leaf-eating  beetles.  We  have 
found  these  unsatisfactory. 

To  drive  away  all  sorts  of  insects  about  a  kitchen 
or  cupboard,  let  two  or  three  bottles  of  ammonia 
stand  unstopped  in  the  place. 

Destruction  by  Mechanical  Means.  Many  in- 
sects from  their  large  size,  like  the  tomato  worm,  and 
grape-vine  sphinx,  and  others  from  their  gregarious 
habits,  like  the  tent  caterpillar,  fall-web  worm,  and 
red-humped  caterpillar,  are  easily  reached  and  crushed 
with  the  hand.  A  glove  may  make  the  work  more 
pleasant,  but  no  more  thorough.  All  the  above  except 
the  first  may  be  dispatched  by  use  of  a  musket  loaded 
with  a  light  charge  of  powder,  or  by  a  torch  at  the 
end  of  a  long  pole,  though  not  without  danger  to  the 
trees  attacked.  Other  insects,  like  the  borers  and 
radish  and  onion  maggots,  are  so  out  of  reach  that 
poisoning  is  impracticable.  The  first  may  be  dug  out 
and  crushed,  or  crushed  with  a  wire,  while  scalding 
with  boihng  water  has  been  practiced  successfully  in 
destroying  both  the  borers  and  the  maggots. 

Many  cut-worms,  from  their  habits  of  climbing 
trees  and  vines  in  search  of  the  tender  buds  which 
they  destroy,  or  plants  to  cut  them  off,  are  easily 
foiled  by  the  gardener  or  pomologist.  A  band  of  tin 
about  vine  or  tree  is  an  impassable  barrier  to  these 
terrible  destroyers,  which  spend  the  day  in  the  earth 
and  go  forth  to  their  evil  work  when  night  and  dark- 
ness serve  them  as  a  shield.  Sized  paper  about  cab- 
bage and  tomato  plants,  held  close  by  a  mound  of 
earth,  are  an  equally  efficient  barricade  to  the  garden 
cut-worms. 

Preventing  Egg-Laying.  To  nip  evil  in  the 
bud,  has  been  the  study  and  desire  of  philanthropists 
ever  since  the  primal  temptation.  To  secure  against 
the  egg-laying  of  injurious  insects,  is  one  of  the  ways. 
The  best,  if  not  the  only,  way  to  accomplish  this,  is  to 
render  the  plants  obnoxious,  so  that  the  female  in- 
sect shall  pass  by  on  the  other  side.  Thus,  washing 
the  fruit  trees,  especially  young  apple-trees,  with  soft 
soap  early  in  June,  and  again  early  in  July,  keeps  the 
borers  from  egg-laying;  and  this  is  most  desirable  in 
orchard  culture.  Carbolic  acid  and  kerosene  mix- 
tures, and  even  strong  soap-suds  either  of  whale-oil 
or  common  soft  soap,  are  valuable  to  repel  the  peach 
and  squash-vine  borers,  the  radish,  onion  and  cab- 
bage flies,  and  cabbage  butterfly;  and  we  have  much 
reason  to  think  that  frequent  drenchings  of  an  apple- 
tree  with  strong  soap-suds  is  an  absolute  protection 
from  the  codling  moth. 

How  TO  Dust  or  Syringe  Plants.  For  dusting 
plants  with  Paris  green,  hellebore,  etc.,  there  are  sev- 
eral patented  machines,  though  we  have  yet  to  see  a 
more  convenient  or  easily  managed  appliance  than  a 
simple  bag  of  muslin  tied  to  the  end  of  a  broom-stick. 
To  prevent  waste  while  filling,  this  should  be  placed 
in  the  vessel  which  holds  the  powder,  or  in  some  other 


868 


INSECTS,  REMEDIES  FOR. 


vessel, — a  common  milk-pan  serves  admirably.  To 
sift  the  powder  upon  the  plants  we  have  only  to  jerk 
the  bag  containing  it,  above  them,  gauging  the  force 
according  to  the  amount  of 
the  substance  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  apply.  On  small 
plants,  like  young  potato 
vines,  we  think  this  the  most 
economical  method  of  apply- 
ing the  poison.  To  use  the 
liquid  mixtures  or  solutions 
in  a  small  way  on  low  vines 
Ft..  ^^.-FUa.  Pule,  irriuns.  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^  common  sprink- 
ler with  a  finely-perforated  rose  serves  well,  and  re- 
quires no  expense,  except,  perhaps,  for  a  new  nozzle, 
as  the  usual  nozzles  are  too  coarse.  For  syringing 
trees,  shrubs,  flower  beds,  and  house  plants,  we  know 
of  nothing  comparable  to  Whitman's  fountain  pump. 
This  little  engine  is  so  easily  worked  that  a  child  can 
use  it,  and  yet  will  throw  a  stream  20 
or  30  feet  high.  The  Johnston  pump 
throws  water  faster  than  Whitman's, 
though  not  quite  so  far.  This  is  a  fine 
engine,  and  sells  for  $8.  The  Whit- 
man fountain  pump  will  not  work  well 
if  pointed  much  below  the  horizontal, 
hence  is  not  useful  in  sprinkling  po- 
tato vines.  It  retails  at  $7.50.  Lewis' 
syringe  is  an  improved  squirt-gun  of  Y\a.  ,^.—Head 
the  kind  made  and  used  by  children    ^"""-    Pe'*''^"'"^ 

1  1  -r»        1  1  capitis. 

to  amuse  themseives.  Replace  the 
small  alder  tube  with  one  of  tin  or  brass,  that  holds 
three  or  four  quarts,  and  the  cloth-wound  piston  by 
one  of  rubber,  and  you  have  it.  It  costs  but  $r,  and 
works  well.  In  case  of  field  potatoes,  Ruggle's  ex- 
terminator is  probably  the  best.  With 
this  machine  an  acre  can  be  sprinkled 
in  an  hour.  It  consists  of  a  large 
tank  which  holds  the  liquid.  This, 
when  in  use,  is  strapped  upon  the  back 
of  the  person  using  it.  An  agitator 
which  works  inside  the  can  keeps  the 
mixture  well  stirred.  This  is  moved 
by  a  strap  which  is  fastened  to  the 
j!;om«.  "Pedicuius  Operator's  arm.  From  either  side  of 
corporis.  jj^g  bottom  of  the  can,  pass  two  rubber 
hose,  each  terminating  with  a  fine  rose.  These  are 
held,  one  in  either  hand,  so  that  two  rows  are  sprinkled 
at  once.  By  raising  or  pressing  the  hose  the  flow  is 
stopped.  The  only  objection  we  find  to  the  use  of 
this  is  on  the  score  of  economy ;  though  if  the  vines 
were  close  together  in  one  direction,  this  would  be 
small.  For  sprinkling  jwtato  vines  in  a  large 
field,  this  is  the  best  instrument  we  have  seen.  It 
retails  at  $6.50. 

Trapping  Noxious  Insects.  Many  insects,  if 
disturbed,  will  fall  to  the  earth.  Therefore,  if  we  jar 
the  trees  or  bushes  which  lodge  the  pests,  after 
placing  a  sheet  underneath,  we  may  easily  catch  and 
destroy  them.  By  this  means  the  plum  curculio  can 
be  cheaply  destroyed,  and  one  of  our  most  valued  fruits 


Fig.  99. — Body 


Fig.  too. — Horse  Fly, 
Tabanus  atratus. 


saved  from  almost  certain  destruction.  The  grape 
curculio,  the  blister  beetles  and  the  rose  chafer  can 
be  all  caught  in  like  way.  In  large  plum  orchards  it 
pays  to  have  the  sheet  stretched 
upon  a  frame  in  the  form  of  an 
inverted  umbrella,  and  carried 
by  a  wheelbarrow  or  cart.  A 
slit  permits  this  to  pass  immedi- 
ately under  the  tree.  The  jar 
must  be  sharp,  and  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  trees  or  limbs,  spikes  should  be  driven 
in,  and  these,  not  the  trees,  should  be  struck  with  the 
mallet.  Some  insects  are  wont  to  hide  under  boards, 
chips  or  rubbish.  The  plum  curculio,  early  in  the 
season,  and  the  squash  bugs  and  cut-worms  are 
examples.  Hence,  if  chips  be  placed  under  plum 
trees  in  May  or  June,  they  will  be  appropriated  for 
shelter  and  protection  during  the  day,  as  the  insects 
are  nocturnal ;  and  when  thus  hid,  the  curculio  may 
be  easily  gathered  and  destroyed.  Neglect  to  gather 
them  in  before  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  makes 
the  experiment  only  partially  suc- 
cessful, as  some  may  have  gone 
to  the  tree  to  be  on  hand  for  the 
night's  banquet.  Squash  bugs 
are  also  nocturnal,  and  may  be 
captured  by  placing  old  boards  or 
wilted  leaves  on  the  ground  among 
the  vines.  The  similar  habits  of 
the  cut-worms  suggests  a  similar 
trap.  In  this  case  some  fresh- 
mown  grass  is  better  for  a  trap. 
This  placed  in  a  cleanly  kept 
garden  a  few  evenings  in  succession  before  setting  the 
plants,  will  attract  the  marauders  in  quest  of  the  grow- 
ing plants.  The  next  day  the  grass  may  be  removed 
and  the  caterpillars  crushed.  The  successful  practice 
of  any  of  the  above  methods  makes  perfectly  clean 
culture  imperative  in  orchard  and  garden. 

Many  insects,  when  full- 
fed  as  larvae,  seek  some 
crevice  or  other  place  of 
concealment  in  which  to 
pupate.  This  habit  of  the 
apple  worm — larva  of  the 
codling  moth — has  fur- 
nished us  with  the  only  suc- 
cessful method  yet  practiced 
for  its  overthrow.  If  cloth 
or  thick  paper  bands  be 
placed  about  the  trees;  they 
may  be  fastened  with  a 
tack  or  string;  these  will, 
in  the  absence  of  rubbish 
FiQ.  ^oi.-itch  Mite  0/  the  about  the  trees  and  rough 

fforse.     Sarcop.es  equi.  ^^^^      ^^^j^^      ^^      ^^^      ^^^^_ 

trunks,  attract  nearly  every  larva  that  passes  from 
the  fruit.  Some  will  leave  the  hanging  fruit  and 
crawl  down  to  the  band ;  others  will  escape  from  the 
fallen  apples  and  pass  up  the  trunk  till  the  band  is 
reached,  when  they  will  crawl  underneath,  spin  their 


Fig.  ioi. — Itch  Mite, 
Sarcoptes  scabiei. 


INSECTS,  PARASITIC. 


869 


frail  cocoons,  and  become  chrysalids.  The  bands 
should  be  in  place  by  June  25,  should  be  examined 
by  July  10,  and  thus,  on  every  loth  day  till  August  i, 
and  again  after  the  fruit  is  gathered.  The  best  way 
to  kill  the  insects  is  to  loosen  the  bands  and  crush  with 
the  thumb.  Four  cents  a  tree  would  cover  all  ex- 
pense, and  by  co-operation  of  all  in  a  neighborhood  it 
might  be  made  even  less. 

Many  insects,  like  the  chinch  bug,  the  squash  bug, 
etc.,  hibernate  in  winter,  crawling  for  protection  under 
or  into  rubbish  heaps,  under  corn-stalks  left  in  the 
field,  etc.  Burning  up  all  such  heaps  in  winter  will 
not  only  cremate  these  pests,  but  add  to  the  farmer's 
reputation  for  neatness.  It  is  well-known  that  the 
chinch  bugs  and  army  worms,  after  devastating  one 
field,  march  with  merciless  tread  to  another.  Deep 
furrows  or  ditches  are  sometimes  made  about  the 
threatened  field,  with  steep  side  toward  it,  and  as  this 
becomes  full  of  the  migratory  pests,  straw  should  be 
added,  and  all  burned  together.  Trapping  the  cod- 
ling moth  in  the  cellar  by  having  the  windows  closely 
screened  in  May  and  June,  and  forcing  them  to  tarry 
and  die  where  they  are  impotent  to  do  harm,  is  a  wise 
precaution  which  should  never  be  neglected. 

Destruction  of  Eggs.  The  eggs  of  most  insects 
are  too  small  and  inconspicuous  to  be  easily  gathered. 
In  a  few  cases,  however,  this  is  a  practical  method. 
The  clustered  brown  eggs  of  the  squash  bug  under- 
neath the  leaves  are  quickly  seen.  The  yellow  clus- 
ters of  the  potato  beetle  are  conspicuous.  The 
concentrated  rows  of  the  currant  saw-flies'  eggs, 
along  the  veins  of  the  leaves,  are  quickly  discovered 
by  the  minute  holes  cut  out  by  the  earliest  hatched 
slugs.  The  little  green  eggs  of  the  cabbage  butterfly, 
though  obscure,  are  quickly  seen  with  a  little  practice, 
and  their  riddance  from  small  cabbage  plants  would 
afford  useful  employment  for  children.  In  some  cases 
early  sowing  of  grain  will  help  to  avoid  insects.  This 
is  true  of  the  wheat  midge.  Late  sowing  or  planting 
is  sometimes  successfully  practiced  with  the  Hessian 
fly,  the  cut-worms,  the  pea  weevil  and  the  radish  fly. 

Good  Culture.  It  is  almost  superfluous  to  state 
that  thorough  culture,  which  means  a  systematic 
rotation  of  crops,  ample  fertilization  and  deep  tillage, 
will  do  much  to  insure  against  calamity  from  insects. 
Many  insects  choose  the  weakest  plants,  and  it  is  a 
principle  broad  as  nature  that  the  strong  will  survive 
calamity  while  the  weak  go  to  the  wall.  Grow  only 
vigorous  varieties,  keep  much  stock,  which  means 
much  manure.  Apply  this  wisely,  and  then  till 
thoroughly,  and  you  will  do  much  to  solve  this  whole 
question. 

Insects,  Parasitic.  In  all  the  vast  realm  of  insect 
life,  there  are  no  species  so  justly  abhorrent  and  so 
miserably  disgusting  as  the  external  parasites  on  man 
and  the  lower  animals.  Their  very  look  is  repulsive, 
their  habits  intolerable, — in  sooth  they  are  fit  com- 
panions of  the  dirt  and  filth  which  ever  serve  as  the 
kindly  foster  mother  to  these  most  repellant  of  ani- 
mals.    Well  may  the  neat  housewife  start  aghast  at 


the  sight  of  the  nasty  bed-bug,  or  blush  with  shame 
and  confusion  at  the  news  that  her  own  fond  kin  are 
nourishing  those  repulsive  pygmies,  head  lice.  The 
thrifty  farmer  also  dreads  the  presence  of  these  ter- 
rible, bloodthirsty  minions  on  his  kine,  for  he  knows 
that  the  prosperity  of  his  animals  is  well  nigh  impos- 
sible if  they  must  give  of  their  substance  to  nourish 
these  noxious  pests  of  the  barn  and  jxiultry  house. 

Fleas.  As  the  immature  fleas  live  upon  the 
organic  matter  of  dirt  and  filth,  these  animals  can 
only  thrive  as  the  companions  of  untidiness  and  neg- 
lect. With  filth  and  neglect,  the  dog,  cat  and  hen- 
fleas  will  put  in  an  appearance ;  and  it  is  an 
unwelcome  fact  that  these  latter  are  nothing  loth  to 
take  a  sip  from  our  own  precious  blood  when  oppor- 
tunity off"ers. 

The  dog-flea  is  so  named  as  it  prefers  to  satiate  its 
bloodthirsty  appetite  from  the  dog.  If  dogs  are  per- 
mitted to  harbor  these  annoying  pests,  the  latter  will 
gain  admittance  to  houses,  will  hide  in  carpets,  mats, 
etc.,  and  anon,  as  occasion  permits,  will  slake  their 
thirst  with  human  blood.  "  Biting  as  they  run,"  they 
quickly  inflict  their  jiainful  wounds  on  various  parts 
of  the  body.  The  color  of  the  dog-flea  is  dark  chest- 
nut, darker  than  the  human  flea,  and  unlike  the  latter, 
it  has  sharp  spines  projecting  from  the  lower  lateral 
borders  of  the  head  and  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
first  thoracic  ring.  The  small,  oval  white  eggs  are 
laid  on  the  animal,  or  in  the  dust  of  the  kennel.  The 
larvae  are  footless  maggots  with  lateral  hairs,  and  live 
in  dust  and  dirt,  where  they  feed  upon  the  organic 
matter  which  these  contain.  They  mature  in  about 
two  weeks,  when  they  spin  their  cocoons,  in  which 
the  inactive  pupas  may  soon  be  seen.  In  two  weeks 
more  the  mature  fleas  hop  forth.  There  are  several 
broods  in  a  season.  They  pass  the  winter  certainly 
as  imagos  or  mature  fleas,  and  perhaps  in  other 
stages. 

The  cat-flea  is  very  similar  and  perhaps  identical 
with  the  dog-flea. 

The  hen-flea  infests  the  poultry  house  and  attacks 
the  hens.  Other  species  live  on  pigeons,  bats,  etc. 
All  of  the  species  will  test  the  quality  of  human  blood, 
if  opportunity  offers.  The  fact  that  larval  fleas  love 
and  only  flourish  in  the  dust  and  dirt  accounts  for  the 
lively  appearance  of  the  dust  often  noticed  in  jxjultry 
yards  and  about  gardens,  where  the  dogs,  cats  and 
poultry  lie  or  roll.  From  being  seen  in  such  locali- 
ties, the  mature  insects  are  sometimes  called  sand- 
fleas. 

Itch  Mite.  Fig.  loi  gives  a  magnified  view  of 
the  almost  microscopic  insect  which  produces  the 
itch  on  the  human  being,  and  Fig.  102  the  creature 
that  works  similarly  on  the  skin  of  the  horse.  They 
live,  feed  and  reproduce  their  kind  in  small,  sub- 
cutaneous galleries  which  their  own  feasting  produces. 
The  intolerable  itching  which  they  produce  causes 
the  person  or  animal  to  scratch  and  break  the  skin. 
])roducing  pustules.  The  easiest  remedy  is  a  solution 
of  sulphuret  of  ix)tassium,  2  to  4  ounces  to  a  gallon  of 
water.     The  same  is  also  the  best  remedy  for  the  face 


8jo 


JN'SECTS,  PARASITIC. 


mite,  much  smaller  than  the  preceding,  and  lives  in 
the  pimples  or  diseased  follicles  about  the  nose  and 
chin. 

Bed-bug.  Among  "wingless  flies"  we  have,  as 
external  parasites,  the  nasty,  disgusting  and  too  com- 
mon bed-bugs  and  the  even  more  repulsive  lice.  As 
we  are  not  treating  here  of  the  human  parasites, 
we  will  only  say  that  the  bed-bug  is  exceedingly 
tenacious  of  life,  as  it  has  been  kept  in  a  bottle  for 
years  without  food,  and  through  all  this  long  fast 
seemed  to  lose  none  of  its  activity  or  appetite.  The 
best  remedy  for  bed-bugs  is  a  free  use  of  the  thor- 
oughly rectified  benzine.  This  will  not  injure  bed- 
ding, and  is  quick  death  to  all  the  bugs  that  it  touches. 
It  should  be  poured  into  all  suspicious  crevices.  Old 
houses  that  harbor  these  obnoxious  pests  should  be 
closely  shut  up,  and  then  thoroughly  fumigated  with 
burning  sulphur,  which  becomes  a  fitting  insecticide 
for  the  bugs.  It  would  be  better  if  the  house  were 
entirely  empty  during  this  operation.  Thorough  ven- 
tilation should  succeed  the  fumigation. 

Lice.  The  lice  of  man  and  other  animals  are 
wingless  bugs.  The  head  and  thorax  are  small  and 
narrow,  the  latter  indistinctly  segmented,  while  the 
abdomen  is  flask-shaped,  with  nine  rings,  often  plainly 
marked.  The  eyes  are  simple  and  very  small,  the 
antennae  five-jointed  and  prominent,  while  the  tarsi 
or  feet  are  two-jointed,  the  last  joint  of  which  is  modi- 
fied into  a  hook  for  grasping  the  hair.  The  sucking- 
tube  of  lice — the  cause  of  the  hardest  scratching  in 
the  world — is  very  complex  and  curious.  The  whole 
of  this  organ,  when  not  in  use,  is  drawn  into  the  head. 
So  all  lice  are  criminals  in  the  sight  of  the  law  and 
subjects  for  conviction,  on  the  ground  of  bearing  con- 
cealed weapons.  The  lower  lip  is  thrown  out,  as  we 
would  push  out  the  finger  of  a  glove  that  was  drawn 
in  uix)n  drawing  the  glove  from  the  hand.  Inside  of 
this  there  are  numerous  hooks,  which,  when  the  tube 
is  rolled  out  to  its  utmost,  attain  the  outside  and 
point  back  like  the  barbs  of  a  fish-hook.  When  these 
barbs  are  pushed  through  a  sweat-pore,  each  hooks 
on  to  the  wall.  We  thus  understand  the  tenacious 
hold  which  characterizes  a  louse  while  at  dinner. 
When,  preparatory  to  sucking,  the  hooks  have  been 
■duly  adjusted,  two  other  tubes,  one  within  the  other, 
spy-glass-like,  are  extended,  the  maxillae  forming  the 
inner  or  terminal  point  of  the  extension,  and  the  man- 
dibles the  remainder.  The  whole  proboscis  has  been 
compared  to  an  elastic  probe.  This  is  forced  into 
the  skin  till  it  pierces  the  blood  vessels,  when  by  the 
forcible  action  of  the  strong  muscular  sucking-stomach, 
these  irrepressible  blood-suckers  are  enabled  to  take  a 
quick  meal. 

There  are  three  species  of  lice  that  disturb  the 
peace  and  quiet  of  the  human  family.  The  head- 
louse  is  the  most  common.  It  is  said  that  in  olden 
times  it  was  thought  no  disgrace,  but  fashionable  and 
■desirable,  to  harbor  and  nourish  these  crawling  pyg- 
mies of  the  head ;  now  they  are  only  common  among 
such  people  as  neglect  personal  neatness.  The  most 
•cleanly  person  may  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  possess 


specimens  not  pinned  in  an  entomological  cabinet, 
but  he  will  soon  banish  them  according  to  the  fashion 
well  understood  in  all  civilized  society.  The  gray- 
back,  or  body-louse  (Fig.  99)  is  not  confined  to  the 
head,  and  was  the  irritating  pest  of  our  brave  soldiers 
in  the  late  war.  It  is  apt  to  be  a  source  of  annoy- 
ance in  lumber  camps  and  on  ship-board.  This 
species  is  so  like  the  head-louse  in  appearance  that, 
were  not  the  habits  so  different,  we  might  almost 
regard  them  as  identical.  The  crab-louse  receives 
its  common  name  from  its  close  resemblance  in  form 
to  the  crab,  and  its  specific  name  from  the  region  of 
its  attacks  (Phthirius  pubis). 

Both  of  the  last-mentioned  may  be  banished  by 
the  use  of  a  little  mercurial  ointment,  which  is  a 
poison  and  should  be  used  with  care,  or  of  kerosene 
and  sulphur,  which  are  to  be  applied  to  the  part  of 
the  body  attacked.  As  the  eggs  will  continue  to 
hatch  for  a  time,  the  application  will  need  to  be  re- 
peated at  intervals  of  six  or  seven  days  for  two  or 
three  weeks.  Cleanliness  is  the  great  preventive, 
which  in  this  case  is  certainly  better  and  vastly  more 
pleasant  than  cure. 

Bird  Lice.  These  lice,  although  the  sucking-tube 
is  replaced  by  jaws,  are,  nevertheless,  degraded 
Hemiptera,  or  bugs.  The  species  are  very  numerous. 
Nearly  all  birds  have  one  or  more  species  to  annoy 
them,  while  the  hen  has  five  or  six. 

Remedies.  The  washes  already  described  for  fleas 
are  also  efficacious  in  destroying  lice.  If  the  decoc- 
tion of  tobacco,  or  the  kerosene  and  water,  is  to  be 
used  in  cold  weather  on  cattle  or  calves,  especially 
the  latter,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  room,  or 
well-blanketed  until  thoroughly  dry.  If  an  ointment, 
made  of  sulphur,  lard  and  kerosene,  be  applied  to  the 
heads  and  under  the  wings  of  fowls  that  are  annoyed 
with  lice,  the  latter  will  soon  disappear.  The  nests 
should  be  sprinkled  with  sulphur,  the  roosts  washed 
with  kerosene,  the  house  and  yard  sprinkled  with 
carbolic  acid  solution,  and  the  poultry  house  fre- 
quently whitewashed.  Persian  insect  powder  dusted 
upon  or  rubbed  into  the  hair  and  feathers  of  animals 
attacked  by  lice,  will  destroy  the  pests  without  harm 
to  the  animals.  Ointments  may  be  easily  applied 
with  the  common  brushes  used  in  grooming  horses. 
No  good  fanner  or  fancier  will  allow  his  animals  to 
suffer  from  these  enervating  parasites  if  he  but  knows 
of  these  cheap  and  effective  remedies.  A  little 
care  will  work  entire  prevention,  while  but  a  little 
labor  is  required  to  work  a  radical  cure. 

Spider-Ticks  and  Mites.  Many  will  remember 
an  old-time  disease,  happily  very  rare  in  our  times, 
which,  as  surely  as  the  traditional  peck  of  dirt, 
would  come  to  make  its  seven  years'  sojourn,  not 
only  in  the  best  of  families,  but  even  as  the  guest  of  the 
fairest.  This  disease,  very  appropriately  christened 
the  itch,  of  those — ought  we  say  "good  old  times?" — 
was  caused  by  the  irritating  presence  of  a  wee  animal, 
the  itch  mite.  A  near  relative  causes  the  mange,  or 
scab,  of  our  domestic  animals,  which  are  more  ]X)lite 
terms  for  the  same  thing,  the  itch.  The  "  red  spider," 


IJVSECTS,  PARASITIC. 


871 


or  "  red  louse,"  of  our  poultry  houses,  and  the  large 
ticks,  whose  bite  is  so  painful  to  ourselves  and  the 
lower  animals,  are  also  near  relatives. 

Spiders.  These  tormenting  pests  are  not  true  in- 
sects, but  are  a  family  of  themselves.  They  have 
only  two  divisions  of  the  body,  head  and  abdomen. 
Their  eyes  are  simple ;  they  are  without  antennse,  and 
when  mature  always  have  eight  legs. 

The  mites  have  rounded,  non-articulated  abdomens, 
can  suck  as  well  as  bite,  while  many  have  at  first  but 
six  legs.  The  habits  of  mites  are  very  varied.  Some, 
like  those  in  question,  are  parasitic;  others,  like  the 
wee  red  spider,  are  very  destructive  to  plants  on 
whose  juices  they  subsist.  Still  others,  like  the  cheese 
and  sugar  mites,  are  destructive  to  the  articles  which 
give  them  their  names.  They  are  often  met  singly 
and  as  often  in  great  numbers. 

Ticks.  The  largest  of  these  animals  are  the  ticks 
which  are  often  found  on  cattle  that  feed  in  the 
woods.  Nor  do  the  "  wood  ticks"  confine  their  blood- 
thirsty attacks  to  our  domestic  animals,  as  many  of 
us  well  know  by  painful  experience.  Often,  as  a  boy, 
did  we  have  to  pay  a  painful  penalty  for  those  delight- 
ful strolls  in  the  grand  old  forests,  laid  on  by  one  of 
these  same  ticks.  One  feels  the  darting  pain,  and 
upon  immediate  examination,  finds  the  cruel  tick 
deeply  buried  and  so  firmly  anchored  that  the  at- 
tempted liberation  tears  the  head  from  the  body. 
Both  their  jaws  and  their  tongue  are  covered  with 
teeth,  each  of  which  takes  hold  to  prevent  the  ex- 
traction of  its  possessor.  The  ticks  at  first  have  but 
six  legs.  They  are  not  enough  of  a  pest  in  the  North- 
ern States  to  warrant  a  further  consideration  at  this 
time. 

The  red  mite  which  attacks  our  poultry  in  such 
alarming  numbers,  is  soft-bodied,  oval  in  form,  and, 
though  very  small,  is  from  its  crimson  hue  easily  dis- 
cerned without  a  microscope.  The  young  have  only 
six  legs.  We  have  found  by  actual  experiment  that 
they  could  inflict  quite  a  painful  bite,  even  ujxsn  our 
own  persons.  They  may  cause  horses  much  annoy- 
ance when  the  horse  stable  and  hen  roost  are  one 
and  the  same.  The  ointment  made  of  sulphur,  lard 
and  kerosene  works  a  speedy  cure  of  this  evil  among 
the  ixiultry.  We  have  no  doubt  but  that  this  same 
ointment  or  the  kerosene  wash  would  rid  larger  ani- 
mals if  attacked  by  these  liliputian  pests.  Other 
species  attack  turkeys,  pigeons  and  even  the  cage 
birds  of  our  houses. 

The  mange  in  horses  is  only  another  term  for  itch. 
It  is  caused  by  a  small  but  visible  mite,  which  often 
swarms  on  horses.  Other  species  cause  the  scab  in 
sheep  and  in  cattle. 

.Remedies.  The  kerosene  wash,  made  quite  weak, 
is  effectual.  The  ointment  made  of  kerosene  and 
sulphur  is  another  good  remedy. 

Trichin/E.  If  any  one  examines  a  piece  of  pork 
containing  trichinse,  he  will  notice  that  the  flesh  pre- 
sents an  unusual  appearance,  as  if  it  contained  vast 
numbers  of  little  grains.  An  examination  with  a 
magnifier  will   show   numerous  little  bodies,  which 


taper  at  each  end  among  the  fibers  of  the  muscles, 
and  within  each  of  these  bodies  is  a  small  worm 
coiled  up  in  a  spiral  form,  as  in  Fig.  103.  If  a  piece 
of  such  flesh  be  eaten,  it  is  digested  and  the  enclosed 
worms  aie  set  free  within  the  stomach  of  the  person. 


Fig.  103. — Trichina  tpiralis,  in  a  piece  of  pork,  magnified. 

The  worm  at  once  develops  to  its  full  size,  which  is 
about  i-28th  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  becomes 
sexual.  It  both  produces  its  young  alive  and  from 
eggs,  and  is  very  prolific.  The  young  worms,  and 
very  minute  they  are,  pierce  and  pass  through  the 
walls  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  make  their 
way  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  When  they  have  located 
themselves  in  the  muscles,  they  become  "  encysted," 
or  enclosed  by  a  sort  of  membrane,  or  sac.  In  time 
this  often  becomes  hardened  by  a  deixisit  of  lime, 
and  being  quite  white,  is  quite  often  conspicuous. 
These  minute  cysts  are  about  i-2oth  of  an  inch  long, 
and  i-iooth  of  an  inch  broad,  and  contains  the  worm 
coiled  in  a  spiral.  Being  in  size  hair-like,  its  name 
Trichina  is  formed  from  the  Greek  word  for  "  hair," 
and  its  specific  name  spiralis  refers  to  its  manner  of 
coiling  when  dormant.  It  is  estimated  that  a  cubic 
inch  of  flesh  may  contain  over  80,000  of  these  cysts. 
It  may  be  readily  imagined  that  these  myriads  of 
minute  worms,  in  piercing  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
and  making  their  passage  throughout  the  muscles  of 
the  body,  must  cause  great  pain,  and  the  presence  of 
all  these  foreign  bodies  in  the  muscles  produce  serous 
illness.  The  disease  caused  by  them  is  called 
trichinosis,  and  sometimes  trichiniasis,  and  is  most 

frequently  fatal.  If 
the  patient  recovers, 
he  carries  the  encysted 
trichinae  in  his  muscles 
through  life.  This 
parasite  is  brought 
into  the  human  body 
only  by  the  eating  of 
infested  pork.  The 
animal's  flesh  becomes 

Fig.   104.— Older  Si  at  i  of  Trichina,    filled     with      encysted 

ig   ymagm  e  .  trichinae,  which  remain 

dormant  until  they  find  themselves  in  the  human 
stomach.  Practically  there  is  little  or  no  danger  from 
trichinae  if  pork  be  thoroughly  cooked.  The  cases  in 
this  country,  at  least,  have  all  been  traced  to  the 
European  custom  of  eating  uncooked  ham,  sausage, 
etc.  In  boiling,  the  pieces  should  not  be  large,  else 
the  trichinae  in  the  middle  will  not  be  killed. 


872 


INSECT  BITES— INSURANCE. 


Insect  Bites.  When  a  mosquito,  flea,  gnat  or  other 
noxious  insect  punctures  the  human  skin,  it  deposits 
or  injects  an  atom  of  an  acidulous  fluid  of  a  poisonous 
nature.  The  results  are  irritation,  a  sensation  of  tick- 
ling, itching,  or  pain.  The  tickling  of  flies  we  are 
comparatively  indifferent  about;  but  the  itch  produced 
by  a  flea,  gnat,  or  other  noisome  insects  disturbs  our 
serenity,  and  like  the  pain  of  a  wasp  or  bee  sting, 
excites  us  to  a  remedy.  The  best  remedies  for  the 
sting  of  insects  are  those  which  will  instantly  neu- 
tralize this  acidulous  poison  dejxjsited  in  the  skin. 
These  are  either  ammonia  or  borax.  The  akaline 
reaction  of  borax  is  scarcely  yet  sufficiently  apprecia- 
ted. However,  a  time  will  come  when  its  good  qual- 
ities will  be  known  and  more  universally  valued  than 
ammonia,  or  as  it  is  commonly  termed,  "hartshorn." 
The  solution  of  borax  for  insect  bites  is  made  thus: 
Dissolve  one  ounce  of  borax  in  one  pint  of  water 
that  has  been  boiled  and  allowed  to  cool.  Instead 
of  plain  water,  distilled  rose  water,  elder,  or  orange- 
flower  water  is  more  pleasant.  The  bites  are  to  be 
dabbed  with  the  solution  so  long  as  there  is  any  irri- 
tation. For  bees'  or  wasps'  stings,  the  borax  solution 
may  be  made  of  twice  the  above  strength.  In  every 
house  this  solution  should  be  kept  as  a  household 
remedy. 

Instinct,  inward  impulse.  It  is  a  guide  to  phys- 
ical welfare,  propagation  of  the  species,  etc.  The 
tendency  of  modern  teachings  is  that  we  should  heed 
our  instincts  more  strictly  than  we  do.  We  have  as 
a  race  neglected  them  so  long  that  we  scarcely  know 
how  to  obey  them;  and  to  learn  this  simple  thing 
requires  more  unlearning  of  bad  habits  of  thought 
than  positive  ideas.  Wisdom  consists  infinitely  more 
in  the  abandonmentof  wrong  ideas  than  in  obtaining 
right  ones.  Most  of  what  we  call  common  sense  are 
simply  instinctive  or  intuitive  ideas;  and  nearly  all 
persons  imagine  that  they  have  learned  by  experience 
what  they  really  have  "evolved  from  their  own  inner 
consciousness." 

Insurance.  A  contract  whereby,  for  a  stipulated 
consideration,  called  premium,  one  party  undertakes 
to  indemnify  another  in  case  of  certain  losses.  The 
party  undertaking  to  make  the  indemnity  is  called 
the  insurer  or  underwriter,  and  the  one  to  be  indem- 
nified, the  assured  or  insured.  The  instrument  by 
which  the  contract  is  made  is  denominated  a  policy  ; 
the  events  or  causes  of  loss  insured  against,  risk  or 
perils,  and  the  thing  insured,  the  subject  or  insurable 
interest.  The  fundamental  principle  of  insurance  is 
mutual  support  in  case  of  loss,  so  that  the  loser  will 
not  loose  all,  but  have  something  with  which  to  con- 
tinue successfully  the  battle  of  life.  The  contribu- 
tions to  the  general  fund  to  provide  against  loss  are 
"premiums.' 

Fire  Insurance.  The  importance  of  maintaining 
a  considerable,  if  not  full,  insurance  on  farm  property, 
residences,  furniture,  barns,  stables,  produce  in  store, 
implements  and  stock,  is  too  much  under-rated,  even 
by  ordinarily  prudent  farmers.     While  their   property 


is  wholly  relieved  from  liability  from  damage  by  the 
spread  of  fire  from  the  houses  of  others,  so  common  a 
peril  in  cities,  it  is  subjected  to  far  greater  liability  to 
complete  destruction  from  the  lack  of  means  to  ex- 
tinguish fire,  and  from  the  increased  difficulty  of  col- 
lecting help  where  neighbors  are  so  remote.  The 
farmer's  risk  in  the  country  may  be  on  the  whole  less 
than  that  of  a  business  man  in  the  city,  but  so  will 
the  insurance  be  less ;  and  in  any  case  the  risk  will 
always  be  sufficient  to  make  insurance,  to  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  total  value,  a  matter  of  wise 
precaution.  He  is  very  unlikely  to  spend  any  money 
to  a  better  purpose.  Grain,  stored  in  barns  or  cribs, 
is  frequently  the  heaviest  loss  in  case  of  fire ;  for  if  it 
is  not  burned  it  is  sure  to  be  too  much  damaged  to 
be  marketable.  Even  when  stacked  in  the  field  it 
may  be  prudent  to  protect  it  by  a  "  jxslicy,"  for  it  is  by 
no  means  safe  from  thieves,  or  lightning,  or,  if  near  a 
railroad,  from  the  sparks  of  locomotives.  The  difficulty 
of  rescuing  live  stock  of  all  kinds  from  burning  build- 
ings is  well  known ;  hence  the  necessity  of  insuring 
them  also.  In  taking  out  a  fire  policy,  see  that  it  in- 
sures against  lightning,  as  well  as  fire.  A  building 
may  be  burned  at  any  time,  involving  the  loss  of  ac- 
cumulated property  of  many  years,  and  but  few  fann- 
ers can  afford  to  run  such  a  risk.  All  can  afford  to, 
and  should  have,  their  buildings  insured  in  some  good 
company.  The  person  holding  a  policy  is  always 
more  watchful — observing  the  wise  precautions  en- 
joined by  the  insurance  company.  Explosive  oils  will 
not  be  used,  or  if  employed  they  will  be  with  greater 
care.  Smoking  will  not  be  indulged  in  ujwn  the  hay 
mow  as  frequently  as  when  no  policy  is  rendered  void 
by  such  acts.  Thus  there  is  a  double  safety  in  being 
insured;  and  it  pays,  unless  the  owner  is  rich  and  can 
afford  to  be  his  own  insurance  company ;  and  even 
then  it  may  be  wise  to  have  one's  property  insured. 

Marine  Insurance.  Farmers  sometimes  take  the 
risk  of  shipping  their  own  products,  especially  if  they 
are  in  the  vicinity  of  navigable  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
save  the  profits  which  "middle-men",  or  commission 
merchants,  make.  Such  risks  usually  cover  "perils  of 
the  sea,  fire,  barratry,  theft,  piracy,  arrests  and  deten- 
tions." "Barratry"  is  a  rather  obscure  risk,  but  it  is 
defined  to  be  any  "wrongful  act  done  against  the  in- 
surer by  the  master,  officers  or  crew."  The  modes  and 
terms  of  insurance  against  marine  risks  vary  with  the 
circumstanses  of  every  case.  The  premium  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  probable  perils  of  the  voyage. 

Life  Insurance.  This  is  the  simplest  of  all  forms 
of  precaution  against  mischance,  and  is  usually  ap- 
plied either  to  the  protection  of  a  family  against  want 
when  the  father  dies,  or  to  the  protection  of  a  creditor 
in  case  the  debtor  has  no  available  property.  The  in- 
sured cannot,  of  course,  be  benefited  by  a  {xjlicy 
which  becomes  payable  only  when  he  dies,  but  some 
companies,  organized  on  the  mutual  system,  allow  a 
policy-holder  to  draw  a  certain  sum,  proportioned  to 
the  amount  of  his  policy,  after  the  regular  payment  of 
his  premiums  for  a  certain  time.  The  parties  to  a  life 
policy  are  usually  the  same  as  in  fire  or  marine  insur- 


INTEREST. 


873 


ance,  the  company  and  the  insured;  but  very  fre- 
quently a  creditor,  or  any  one  having  a  pecuniary 
interest  in  the  life  of  another,  as  a  sister  in  that  of  a 
brother  who  supjxjrts  her,  will  take  a  ix)licy  on  the  life 
of  the  person  to  whom  thai  interest  attaches.  This 
third  party  is  the  real  party  in  interest,  and  is  called 
the  "  life-insured,"  while  the  person  upon  whom  the 
policy  is  taken  is  called  the  "insured." 

All  forms  of  insurance  are  essentially  alike,  and  all 
are  so  completely  settled  by  the  rules  and  conditions 
set  forth  in  the  policies  that  it  would  be  useless  to  re- 
peat or  comment  ujx)n  them  here.  In  what  compa- 
nies, or  ujwn  what  terms  to  obtain  insurance,  every 
man  must  judge  for  himself  Old  and  well-established 
companies  are  the  safest,  and  they  are  generally  repre- 
sented in  a  community  by  solid  men.  Always  read 
your  ix)licy  carefully  over  before  you  take  it,  to  see 
just  exactly  what  it  covers,  and  what  precautions 
against  fire  it  may  require  on  your  part.  You  will  not 
then  be  so  liable  to  be  beaten  out  of  your  insurance 
by  some  technicality  in  case  of  the  accident.  It  is 
obvious  that  the  concealment  of  any  material  facts  to 
the  detriment  to  property  or  health  in  any  sort  of  in- 
surance will  vitiate  the  jwlicy,  and  thus  free  the  com- 
pany from  any  obligations  to  pay  the  stipulated  amount 
should  loss  ensue. 

That  an  insurance  policy  in  a  safe  and  reliable  com- 
pany, both  on  life  and  property,  is  an  excellent  invest- 
ment few  will  deny.  Man  is  very  largely  a  "creature  of 
circumstance,"  and  liable  to  many  misfortunes  he 
cannot  foresee,  and  from  which  he  cannot  escape. 
Houses  and  barns  may  be  burned  without  any  fault 
of  the  owner,  and  death  is  sure  to  come  to  every  one. 
Although  one  may  not  be  able  to  prevent  either,  he 
does  have  the  [xjwer,  to  some  extent,  of  protection 
against  many  of  the  evil  results  of  these  events,  and 
thus  lighten  the  burden.  As  a  remedy  for  these  ills 
the  method  of  insurance  was  inaugurated.  Men  who 
have  families  depending  on  them  for  support,  may,  in 
time  of  health,  make  provision  to  a  great  extent  by 
this  means  for  their  wants  should  death  come  to 
them,  which  it  is  liable  to  at  any  time. 

Interest,  allowance  made  for  the  use  of  money,  or 
for  an  investment. 

Compound  interest  is  interest  ujxjn  interest.  This 
is  scarcely  ever  allowed.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  rule  forbids  it  in  calculating  what  is  due  ujxin 
a  note.  The  rule  reads  as  follows:  "When  a  partial 
payment  is  made,  apply  it  first  to  the  discharge  of  the 
interest  then  due;  if  the  payment  exceeds  the  inter- 
est, the  surplus  goes  towards  discharging  the  principal, 
and  the  subsequent  interest  is  to  be  computed  on  the 
balance  of  principal  remaining  due.  If  the  payment 
be  less  than  the  interest,  the  surplus  of  interest  must 
not  be  taken  to  augment  the  principal;  but  interest 
continues  on  the  former  principal  until  the  period 
when  the  payments  taken  together  exceed  the  interest 
due,  and  then  the  surplus  is  to  be  applied  toward 
discharging  the  principal,  and  interest  is  to  be  com- 
puted on  the  balance  as  aforesaid." 

The  foregoing  rule  is  based  on  the  principle  that 


neither  interest  nor  payment  shall  draw  interest,  the 
aim  being,  as  with  legislatures  and  courts  generally, 
to  favor  the  debtor.  The  above  rule,  however,  in 
some  cases,  would  work  against  the  debtor.  For  in- 
stance, suppose  he  gives  his  note  for  $2,000  at  six  per 
cent,  interest,  and  he  pays  on  it  $10  a  month,  which 
just  meets  "the  interest  then  due;'  at  the  end  of  the 
year  he  would  still  owe  the  $2,000.  But  if  he  had 
invested  the  $10  each  month  at  six  per  cent.,  he 
would  have  had  at  the  end  of  the  year  $123.30  avail- 
able for  payment,  by  which  time  the  interest  on  his 
note  would  have  reached  only  $120,  being  a  differ- 
ence of  $3.30  in  his  favor,  and  leaving  his  debt 
$1,996.70,  instead  of  $2,000.  Thus  we  see  that  the 
closer  the  payments  are  together  the  greater  the  loss 
of  the  debtor,  who  thus  suffers  a  penalty  for  his  very 
Ijromptness. 

The  foregoing  defect  does  not  exist  in  what  is  call- 
ed the  Connecticut  rule  for  calculating  partial  pay- 
ments, as  that  allows  interest  on  payments  made 
before  they  are  due.  The  rule,  however,  is  somewhat 
tediously  worded.  The  simplest  rule  is  that  which 
is  known  as  the  Vermont,  or  merchants'  rule,  and  is 
often  used  throughout  the  United  States  when  settle- 
ment takes  place  within  a  year  after  interest  begins. 
Its  principle  is  this'.  "Subtract  the  sum  of  all  the 
payments  with  their  respective  interest  from  the 
amount  of  the  principal  for  the  whole  time."  But  the 
most  just  rule  is  this:  "Starting  at  the  time  interest 
begins,  find  the  present  worth  by  simple  interest  of 
each  payment;  deduct  the  sum  of  these  present 
worths  from  the  principal ;  the  amount  of  the  balance 
by  simple  interest,  to  the  day  of  settlement,  will  be 
the  sum  then  due." 

"  Present  worth  "  is  the  sum  which,  at  the  prevail- 
ing rate  of  interest,  will  amount  to  the  debt  when 
due.  The  principle  of  this  rule  is,  each  payment  dis- 
charges a  part  of  the  principal  with  its  simple  interest 
to  the  day  the  payment  is  made,  making  interest  and 
principal  due  at  the  same  time,  instead  of  the  interest 
all  due  first  and  the  principal  afterward. 

To  Calculate  Interest.  To  find  the  interest  for 
any  number  of  days,  the  simplest  rule  is  the  follow- 
ing: For  6  per  cent.,  multiply  the  amount  by  the 
number  of  days,  divide  by  60,  and  point  off  the  two 
right-hand  figures;  thus,tofind  the  interest  on  $326.50, 
for  25  days,  at  6  per  cent  : 

326.50 

25 


163250 
65300 

60)816250 

$1.3604  Ans. 

For  the  interest  at  7  per  cent.,  add  one-sixth  to  the 
last  result;  for  8  per  cent.,  add  one-third;  for  9  per 
cent.,  add  one-half,  and  so  on. 

While  some  persons  prefer  to  work  by  rule,  others 
prefer  to  use  a  table;  and  we  therefore  print  one  of 
the  most  convenient  and  comprehensive  we  have  seen : 


874 


INTEREST. 


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INTERFERING— IODINE. 


875 


Interfering,  in  farriery,  the  striking  of  one  foot 
against  another,  so  as  to  break  the  skin  or  injure  the 
flesh.  A  horse  does  this  by  setting  the  feet  too  near 
in  line.  The  usual  remedy  is.to  throw  the  feet  slightly 
out  of  line  by  raising  the  inside  of  the  shoe,  but  the 
success  is  partial  and  varying.  A  good  plan  is  to  pro- 
tect the  legs  with  leather  shields  or  boots. 

Intestate,  leaving  no  will  as  to  the  dis{X)sition  of 
property.  When  one  dies  leaving  no  written  directions 
as  to  the  disixssition  of  his  property,  he  is  called  an 
intestate,  and  in  all  the  States  and  Territories  are 
laws  describing  the  proceedings  to  be  had  in  such 
cases,  as  well  as  in  cases  where  children  are  left  full 
orphans  without  any  will  left  by  the  parents  as  to 
what  should  be  done  with  them.  The  probate  judge 
will  give  advice  in  these  matters. 

Inventory  (in'ven-to-ry),  a  list  of  the  goods  in 
one's  possession,  generally  with  their  values  indicated. 

Invoice,  a  written  account  of  the  particulars  of 
merchandise  shipped  or  sent  to  a  purchaser,  con- 
signee, factor,  etc.,  with  the  value  or  prices  and 
charges  annexed. 

Iodine,  a  chemical  preparation  manufactured  from 
kelp  or  sea-weed,  and  extensively  used  in  many  dis- 
eases. Iodine  itself  is  of  little  value  as  a  medicine; 
but  when  united  chemically  with  iron,  copper,  mer- 
cury, lead,  arsenic  and  potassium,  it  certainly  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  and  indispensable  of  medical  agents, 
given  internally  and  applied  externally. 

In  cases  of  poisoning  by  iodine  the  stomach  should 
be  evacuated,  and  afterwards  drinks  administered 
containing  flour,  starch,  or  arrow-root. 

Iodine  should  seldom  be  prescribed  for  internal 
usage  except  by  a  competent  physician.  In  the  treat- 
ment of  stock  give  to  the  horse  and  the  ox  from  20 
to  40  grain  doses;  for  dogs,  use  from  three  to  six 
grains.  An  ointment  of  iodine  is  made  as  follows: 
Take  one  part  of  iodine  to  eight  parts  of  lard.  This 
is  a  good  ointmeiit  to  apply  to  soft  swellings  on  the 
body  of  the  horse,  and  should  be  applied  by  rubbing 
with  the  hand. 

loDiDK  OF  Potassium.  This  is  a  chemical  union 
of  ix)tash  with  iodine,  and  is  used  by  most  pracd- 
tioners  for  producing  the  constitutional  effects  of 
iodine.  The  dose  for  man  is  from  2  to  10  grains  or 
more,  three  times  a  day,  given  in  dilute  solution.  It 
is  used  externally  in  the  form  of  an  ointment.  This 
is  a  costly  remedy  for  horse  and  cattle  diseases,  and 
in  most  cases  can  be  done  very  well  without.  Its 
action  is  that  of  an  absorbent,  and  it  is  therefore  used 
in  swellingof  the  glands,  and  other  parts  of  the  body, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  best  drugs  for  scattering  inflam- 
mation. To  get  its  full  benefit,  it  should  be  given  in 
syrup  or  molasses,  so  that  the  iodine  will  not  be  lost, 
leaving  the  water  only  behind. 

Dose.  From  twenty  to  thirty  grains  for  horses  and 
cattle,  repeated  three  times  in  the  day.  For  the  dog, 
five  grains. 

Iodide  of  Arsenic.    Highly  recommended  by  some 


persons  for  glanders,  farcy  and  purpura  in  the  horse. 

Dose.  Five  grains  given  once  a  day,  in  cut  or 
mixed  feed. 

Iodide  of  Copper,  a  valuable  remedy,  but  costly 
for  stock.  It  should  be  used  in  cases  of  debility  and 
loss  of  condition,  mingled  with  cut  or  mixed  feed. 

Dose.  From  one  to  two  drachms  given  twice  or 
three  times  in  the  day. 

Iodide  of  Iron.  This  is  even  more  valuable  than 
iodide  of  copper,  and  is  given  for  the  same  purpose 
and  in  the  same  doses.  To  use  the  iodide  of  iron 
once,  will  insure  its  use  again.  Its  high  price  is  the 
only  drawback.  Iodide  of  iron  enters  into  the  pow- 
ders and  balls  which  are  given  to  the  English  race 
horses  whilst  in  the  trainer's  hands;  a  high  recom- 
mendation. 

Iodide  of  Sulphur.  A  valuable  remedy  in  mange, 
and  other  skin  diseases  of  stock,  which  may  be  given 
internally  also,  in  the  same  diseases. 

Dose.  For  horses,  give  three  to  four  drachms  in 
the  animal's  feed.  For  mangy  dogs,  give  ten  to  fifteen 
grains  once  a  day.  Give  it  at  night,  as  warmth 
assists  its  action  very  much. 

Iodide  of  Lead.  This  is  too  weak  for  veterinary 
practice,  but  excellent  for  swellings  on  the  body  of 
man.  It  is  used  only  externally.  Iodide  of  lead  is 
a  beautiful  yellow  color. 

Iodide  of  Mercury,  Biniodide  of  Mercury, 
Red  Iodide  of  Mercury,  etc.  This  preparation  of 
iodine  is  a  medicine  that  the  veterinary  surgeon  can 
not  do  without  in  the  practice  of  his  profession ;  for 
there  is  nothing  that  will  so  well  meet  his  wants. 
Iodide  of  mercury  is  not  used  internally  in  any 
disease,  as  calomel  contains  the  same  internal  action 
as  that  of  the  iodide. 

It  is  used  in  all  cases  of  induration  and  swelling  of 
the  glands  of  the  neck;  tumors,  whether  of  bone  or 
soft  tissue;  splints,  spavins, ring-bones,  wind-galls, 
shoulder-joint  lameness,  or  thorough-pin,  and  will 
answer  well  for  whatever  purpose.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  it,  as  a  blister  over  an  extensive  surface,  is  its 
painful  operation.  The  iodide  of  mercury  is  used  as 
an  ointment  as  follows :  One  part  of  the  red  iodide  of 
mercury  to  eight  parts  of  hog's  lard,  well  mixed  to- 
gether. This  ointment  is  to  be  well  rubbed  into  the 
parts  to  be  cured.  Swelling  will  follow  its  action, 
but  will  subside  in  a  few  days,  if  one  application  be 
enough,  which  will  be  known  if  the  enlargement  has 
been  broken  or  has  disappeared.  If  not,  apply  in 
from  five  to  six  days  again,  scarcely  rubbing  so  hard 
as  at  the  first  application,  as  the  skin  is  more  easily 
acted  upon  at  this  time.  But  whether  one,  two,  or 
half  a  dozen  applications  be  necessary,  let  sufficient 
time  elapse  before  each  succeeding  application,  so  as 
not  to  prevent  hair  growing,  thereby  blemishing  the 
part.  Apply  lard  once  a  day  between  the  applica- 
tions, and  occasionally  wash  the  parts  with  water,  not 
too  warm,  and  lard  or  oil  the  part  when  dry.  The 
horse's  head  should  be  tied  up  so  that  he  can  not  get 
at  the   parts  with  his  mouth.     A  few  hours  will  be 


876 


IPECAC— IRON. 


long  enough.  Place  plenty  of  soft  bedding  under  the 
feet,  so  that  by  stamping,  the  horse  will  not  break  or 
hurt  his  feet.  When  the  tumor,  gland  or  other  en- 
largement does  not  disappear  or  go  away  at  once, 
surprise  is  sometimes  expressed  to  see  it  totally  go 
away,  as  if  of  its  own  accord.  Thus  the  red  iodide 
of  mercury  exercises  a  powerful  influence,  long  after 
its  use  has  been  dispensed  with.  Iodide  of  mercury 
occupies,  in  external  diseases,  as  prominent  a  position 
as  the  preparations  of  aconite  do  in  internal  affections, 
whether  in  horses  or  in  cattle. 

Several  other  preparations  of  iodine  are  made  by 
the  manufacturing  chemists;  such  as  iodide  of  gold 
and  silver,  which  are  of  no  use  to  the  farmer  or 
veterinarian. 

Ipecac,  or  Ipecacuanha,  a  South  American  plant 
much  used  in  medicine,  for  various  purposes,  the 
effects  varying  according  to  size  of  dose.  About  20 
grains  of  the  jxDwdered  root,  mixed  in  water,  consti- 
tute an  emetic — dose  repeated  at  intervals  of  20 
minutes  until  they  operate.  With  some  persons, 
much  smaller  quantities  are  sufficient.  Warm  water 
is  better  than  cold,  as  a  means  of  administering.  To 
stimulate  insensible  perspiration,  doses  of  one  grain, 
given  every  hour  or  half  hour.  As  an  alterative,  in 
diseases  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  it  should  be 
given  in  doses  of  J^  to  J^  grain  two  or  three  times  a 
day. 

Iron.  Cast-iron,  zinc  or  brass  surfaces  can  be 
scoured  with  great  economy  of  labor,  time  and  mate- 
rial, by  using  either  glycerine,  stearine,  naphthaline 
or  creosote,  mixed  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Kero- 
sene is  good  to  clean  steel  \  and  to  clean  and  polish 
both  steel  and  iron,  rub  on,  with  wash  leather,  a 
paste  made  of  i  part  of  soft  soap  to  2  of  emery,  by 
weight.  The  best  way  to  remove  rust  from  iron  is  to 
wash  it  with  a  solution  of  i  part  sulphuric  acid  to  10 
of  water.  The  iron  should  afterward  be  protected  by 
dipping  it  immediately  into  hot  lime-water,  and  let- 
ting it  remain  there  long  enough  to  become  pretty 
warm,  so  that  it  will  immediately  dry  after  it  is  taken 
out.  It  is  a  still  further  protection  to  rub  it  with  dry 
bran  or  saw-dust,  or  dry  oil,  if  it  is  not  designed  to 
weld  or  cement  something  to  it.  For  this  purpose 
linseed  oil  is  good,  or  any  paint  which  has  no  water 
in  it.  Compositions  have  been  specially  invented  to 
protect  iron  from  rusting,  but  they  are  mostly  expens- 
ive and  to  the  farmer  unnecessary.  Or,  dissolve 
half  an  ounce  of  camphor  in  one  pound  of  hog's  lard  ; 
takeoff"  the  scum;  mix  as  much  black  lead  as  will 
give  the  mixture  an  iron  color.  Iron  and  steel  goods, 
rubbed  over  with  this  mixture,  and  left  with  it  on  24 
hours,  and  then  dried  with  a  linen  cloth,  will  keep 
clean  for  months.  Valuable  articles  of  cutlery  should 
be  wrapped  in  zinc  foil,  or  be  kept  in  boxes  lined 
with  zinc.  This  is  at  once  an  easy  and  most  effect- 
ive method. 

To  distinguish  wrought  and  cast  iron  from  steel, 
file  off  a  little  spot  bright,  drop  on  nitric  acid,  and 
after  a  minute  or  two  wash  it  off.     If  the  place  has 


then  a  pale  ashy  gray  color,  it  is  wrought  iron ;  if 
brownish  black,  it  is  steel;  if  deep  black,  it  is  cast 
iron. 

Solder  for  Iron.  Melt  together  2  parts  of 
copper  and  one  of  zinc. 

To  Weld  Iron,  dip  the  ends  of  the  two  pieces  to 
be  joined  in  a  borax  composition,  and  heat  them  to  a 
white  or  melting  heat,  when  they  can  be  easily  beaten 
together  into  one  piece.  Welding  powders  have  been 
invented,  which  may  be  had  at  some  drug  stores. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  more  effectual  than  the 
simple  borax  comiwsition.  The  latter  is  made  by 
melting  together  10  parts  borax  with  i  of  sal-ammo- 
niac, pouring  it  upon  an  iron  plate,  and  wiien  cool, 
pulverizing  it  and  mixing  it  with  an  equal  weight  of 
powdered  quick-lime. 

Iron  as  a  Medicine  for  Man.  In  this  capacity 
iron  is  nearly  always  in  combination  with  other  sub- 
stances, in  the  form  of  oxides  or  salts.  The  oxides 
are  generally  known  as  simple  iron  rust,  which 
readily  forms  on  pure  iron  in  water,  and  the  salts  are 
copperas,  bromide,  carbonate,  chloride,  citrate, 
tartrate,  prussiate,  iodide,  phosphate,  tannate,  vale- 
rianate, ammoniate,  etc.  The  clear  iron  is  tonic  and 
astringent,  and  the  compounds  have  a  great  number 
of  uses,  but  they  are  mostly  astringent,  or  •"  styptic." 
The  red  color  and  vitality  of  the  blood  are  supfxjsed 
to  be  due  to  the  presence  of  iron  compounds.  No 
person,  however,  but  a  thoroughly  trained  physiologist 
should  prescribe  or  tamper  with  this  apparently  in- 
nocent substance. 

Iron  as  a  Medicine  for  Stock,  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  remedies  we  have  to  recommend  in 
many  of  the  most  imixjrtant  diseases  of  all  the 
animals.  This  fact  is  readily  seen  when  it  is  stated 
that  iron  is  a  constituent  of  the  blood  of  all  warm- 
blooded animals ;  and  without  iron  being  in  proper 
quantity  in  the  blood  of  an  animal  it  cannot  be 
healthy.  In  fact,  iron  is  an  elementary  principle, 
essential  to  health.  Metallic  iron  is  rarely  used  in 
veterinary  practice,  except  to  be  in  (he  form  of  iron 
filings,  given  by  some  persons  in  the  case  of  worms  in 
horses.  The  sulphate  is  just  as  good  for  this  pur]X)se. 
Iron  fiUngs  are  much  used  in  the  weakly  and  sickly 
female.  To  prevent  the  filings  from  oxidizing,  or 
rusting,  they  are  put  into  a  tube  similar  to  a  gun- 
barrel,  at  a  strong  heat,  and  are  then  plunged  into 
cold  water,  which  give  them  a  sky-blue  color;  the 
finer  the  blue  the  better  the  medicine.  For  the  valu- 
able dog,  the  iron  filings,  in  this  form,  may  be  given 
in  from  five  to  ten  grain  doses.  The  following  prep- 
arations of  iron  will  be  used  for  the  horse  and  ox : 

Carbonate  of  Iron.  This  preparation  of  iron  is 
only  used  in  veterinary  practice  for  the  dog,  on 
account  of  its  mildness. 

Sesquioxide  of  Iron,  Rust  of  Iron.  This  form 
of  iron  is  used  by  veterinary  surgeons  only  in  ]X)ison- 
ing  from  arsenic,  as  an  antidote  by  forming  in  the 
stomach  an  insoluble  arsenite  of  the  protoxide  of  iron. 

Sulphate  of  Iron,  Green  Vitriol,  Copperas, 


IRRIGATION. 


877 


is  one  of  the  best  and  cheapest  preparations  of  this 
valuable  metal  that  can  be  used  in  diseases  of  horses 
and  cattle.  In  medicinal  doses  the  sulphate  of  iron 
is  tonic  and  astringent;  therefore,  it  is  used  in  cases 
of  weakness,  want  of  condition,  looseness  of  bowels, 
swelling  of  the  legs,  body,  sheath,  breast,  etc.  In 
pleuro- pneumonia  in  cattle,  after  the  fever  has  abated, 
nothing  will  restore  and  prevent  effusions  of  serum,  or 
fluid,  in  the  chest,  like  sulphate  of  iron;  and  effusions 
in  the  chest  of  cows,  and  other  neat  cattle,  is  the  cause 
of  very  many  deaths.  The  effusions  are  from  con- 
necting links  between  the  lungs  and  sides,  from  which 
adhesions  take  place  in  that  disease  and  from  which 
the  animal  can  never  be  restored  to  good  health, 
although  it  may  live  for  a  year  or  two.  How  import- 
ant, then,  is  a  medicine  offering  so  much  hope!  In 
addition  to  the  diseases  just  named,  sulphate  of  iron 
is  the  medicine  to  be  used  in  all  cases  where  the 
powers  of  life  are  low  and  depressed.  In  red  water 
in  cattle,  bleeding  internally  in  all  animals,  dysentery, 
purpura,  scarlatina,  and  in  debilitating  diseases  gen- 
erally, no  medicine  offers  so  much  as  the  sulphate  of 
iron,  or  copperas.  This  should  not  be  given  while 
inflammation  and  fever  lasts ;  it  is  time  enough  to  give 
it  after  all  irritation  has  subsided.  It  should  always 
be  combined  with  a  vegetable  tonic,  such  as  gentian  or 
ginger. 

Doses.  For  horses  and  cattle,  the  dose  is  two  to 
three  drachms,  with  the  same  quantity  of  ix)wdered 
gentian,  two  or  three  times  in  the  day,  to  be  given, 
mixed  in  a  quantity  of  cold  water.  Drench  out  of  a 
bottle.  If  the  animal  does  not  eat  it  readily,  mix  it 
with  cut  or  soft  feed. 

Perchloride  of  Iron.  Whether  in  a  fluid  or 
solid  state,  this  preparation  is  valuable  for  bleeding 
wounds,  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  which  it  will  readily 
do  if  properly  applied,  and  the  blood  vessel  that  is 
wounded  is  not  too  large.  It  should  be  applied  with 
a  soft  brush  or  pledget  dipped  in  it  and  laid  over  the 
wound,  and  kept  bandaged.  Perchloride  of  iron 
should  be  kept  on  every  farm  for  this  purjxjse.  It 
should  be  kept  in  a  glass-stoppered  bottle  to  keep  it 
pure. 

Irrigation.  This  method  for  supplying  lands  with 
the  necessary  moisture  for  the  growth  of  crops,  where 
rain-falls  are  deficient,  is  of  very  ancient  origin.  The 
ancient  Egyptians,  who  were  perhaps  the  first  to 
practice  it,  learned  it  from  witnessing  the  effects  of  the 
annual  overflowings  of  the  Nile,  and  have  practiced  it 
upon  tracts  adjacent  to  the  flooded  ones  from  a  very 
remote  period  to  the  present  day.  The  ancient 
Romans,  though  not  urged  by  any  neccessity  to  irrigate 
regularly,  well  knew  the  value  of  irrigation.  It  also 
seems  to  have  been  practiced  from  an  ancient  period 
in  China,  India,  Persia  and  Arabia.  Indeed  the 
Chinese  historians,  with  the  bold  mendacity  which 
characterizes  most  of  their  archaeology,  even  pretend 
that  it  was  practiced  in  "the  Celestial  Empire"  at  a 
period  long  prior  to  the  date  of  the  deluge.  It 
became  important  to  the  Mormons  when  they  first 
settled  in  Utah,  and  by  its  aid  they  have  made  Salt 


Lake  City,  planted  in  a  barren  sandy  valley,  to  blos- 
som as  a  garden  of  flowers.  In  most  parts  of  this 
country  the  niin-fall  is  sufficient  to  furnish  moisture  to 
vegetation,  and  irrigation  is  not  practiced;  but  in  some 
localities  it  is  employed  to  increase  the  product  of 
meadows.  For  this  purpose  it  can  always  be  made 
profitable  where  a  sufficient  fall  and  flow  of  water  can 
be  obtained.  All  waters  are  suitable  for  this  purpose 
excepting  such  as  contain  an  excess  of  some  mineral 
substance  that  is  deleterious  to  vegetable  life,  such  as 
the  drainage  from  peat  swamps,  from  saline  and 
mineral  springs,  and  from  ore  beds  of  various  kinds. 
Hard  spring  water  is  better  than  soft,  and  of  river 
water  that  which  contains  the  larger  share  of  sulphate 
and  carbonate  of  lime  is  the  most  valuable.  Waters 
which  are  charged  with  fertilizing  substances  that  have 
been  washed  out  of  soils  by  recent  floods  are  admir- 
ably suited  to  irrigation.  Dana  estimates  the  quantity 
of  salts  (in  solution)  and  geine,  or  humus,  which  were 
borne  seaward  past  Lowell,  on  the  Merrimac  river,  in 
1838,  as  reaching  the  enormous  amount  of  840,000 
tons — enough  to  have  given  a  good  dressing  to 
100,000  acres  of  land.  Such  waters  as  have  flowed 
out  of  the  sewers  of  cities,  past  slaughter-houses  and 
certain  manufactories,  and  received  the  rich  vegetable 
food  thereby  afforded,  are  the  most  beneficial  when 
applied  to  vegetation.  Meadows  thus  irrigated  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Edinburg,  have  rented  at  the  large 
sum  of  $250  per  acre. 

Irrigation  is  largely  practiced  in  Colorado  for  the 
purpose  of  raising  grain,  grass  and  vegetables.  The 
water  is  conveyed  from  streams  that  flow  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  distributed  over  the  coun- 
try by  means  of  capacious  ditches,  constructed  by 
organized  companies.  It  is  taken  from  these  large 
conduits  and  flowed  upon  the  lands  of  the  farmers  by 
means  of  smaller  canals,  the  flow  of  water  being  regu- 
lated by  gates.  This  system  enables  the  Colorado 
farmer  to  grow  luxurious  crops  of  grain,  grass  and 
other  products,  wheat  often  yielding  35  bushels  to  the 
acre. 

Water  deposited  on  grass  land  by  irrigation  should 
not  be  allowed  to  remain  standing  till  it  becomes 
stagnant,  because  it  kills  the  grass,  and  promotes  the 
growth  of  a  race  of  sour  and  worthless  aquatic 
plants;  although,  in  those  regions  where  che  winters 
are  not  severe,  water  may  be  kept  in  the  fields  during 
the  entire  season  of  the  frosts.  This  prevents  its  ac- 
cess to  the  ground,  and  on  the  approach  of  warm 
weather  the  grasses  at  once  start  into  life,  and  give  an 
early  and  abundant  yield.  But  in  general  this  sys- 
tem cannot  be  successfully  practiced. 

The  water  is  admitted  at  proper  intervals,  freely 
during  the  spring  and  early  part  of  the  summer,  when 
vegetation  is  either  just  beginning  or  going  forward 
rapidly.  Let  it  flood  the  surface  thoroughly,  and  then 
shut  off  the  water  for  a  time.  In  very  dry  weather 
this  may  be  done  with  advantage  every  night.  Con- 
tinued watering  under  a  bright  sun  is  an  unnatural 
condition  with  upland  grasses,  and  could  never  be 
long  condnued  without  proving  fatal  to  them.      Nei- 


878 


ISINGLASS— ITCH. 


ther  should  the  water  be  applied  after  the  grasses 
have  begun  to  ripen.  After  the  grass  is  cut  the  water 
may  be  again  let  on  to  flood  the  meadows.  Pastures 
may  be  irrigated  at  proper  intervals  throughout  the 
year. 

How  TO  Irrigate.  Where  and  how  to  obtain 
the  water  for  irrigation  is  the  most  important  question 
connected  with  this  kind  of  fertilization.  A  fall  from 
the  reservoir  is  necessary,  and  if  the  water  is  not  nat- 
urally sufficiently  elevated  for  this  purjxjse,  it  will 
have  to  be  raised  by  windmill  or  water-ram.  Fortu- 
nate is  the  farmer  who  has  a  stream  or  jxjnd  suffi- 
ciently above  the  fields  to  be  irrigated  to  permit  a  flow 
of  water  over  and  through  them.  Irrigation  may  be 
effected  by  damming  any  water-break  passing  through 
a  field,  and  thus  causing  the  water  to  flow  back  over 
the  land.  When  water  can  be  dammed  until  it 
swells  high  enough  to  be  carried  by  pipes  or  other- 
wise to  the  land,  irrigation  is  easy.  Hydraulic  rams 
and  windmills  are  often  used  for  forcing  water  to  a 
sufficient  level  for  irrigation. 

Water  is  conveyed  from  reservoirs  or  streams  to  the 
fields  by  ditches  or  aqueducts,  and  throughout  the 
field  in  pipes  or  ditches.  Where  the  character  of  the 
surface  of  the  field  is  such  that  it  has  irregular  de- 
pressions, but  a  general  slope  downward  from  the 
level  of  the  reservoir,  the  courses  of  the  distributing 
channels  may  be  laid  so  as  to  irrigate  the  whole.  In- 
exix;rienced  irrigators  often  overdo  the  thing.  A  soil 
containing  eighty  per  cent,  of  sand  may  be  irrigated 
every  five  days;  one  containing  20  per  cent,  once  in 
10  or  15  days.  Sandy  soils  are  most  benefited  by  ir- 
rigation, yet  tenacious  clay  soils  are  improved  by  it. 
Irrigation  when  applied  to  gardens  is  particularly  ben- 
eficial and  profitable. 

Isinglass  (i'zing-glas),  a  semi-transparent,  whitish 
form  of  gelatine,  chiefly  prepared  from  the  sounds  or 
air  bladders  of  various  species  of  sturgeon  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Western  Russia.  The  isinglass  of  com- 
merce, however,  is  generally  some  cheaper  form  of 
gelarine.  This  article  is  used  in  fancy  cookery,  in 
making  glue  and  in  fining  liquors, — all  treated  in  their 
proper  places  in  this  volume.  In  cold  water  it  soft- 
ens, swells  up  and  becomes  lustrous.  Boiling  water 
entirely  dissolves  it,  with  the  exception  of  a  minute 
proportion  of  impuriries.  On  cooling,  the  solution  as- 
sumes the  form  of  a  jelly,  which  consists  of  pure  gela- 
tine and  water.  As  an  article  of  diet  it  has  no 
advantage  over  calves'-feet  jelly.  Three  drams  to  a 
pint  of  water  are  the  usual  proportions  for  preparing  a 
dish.  In  fancy  cookery  its  principal  use  is  for  mak- 
ing icings  or  frostings  for  cakes,  etc. 

Issue,  in  medicine,  an  artificial  ulcer  designed  to 
promote  the  secretion  of  pus.  This  ulcer  is  usually 
made  in  the  fleshy  part  of  the  arm  or  leg,  by  a  slight 
incision,  into  which  a  little  lint  is  put  till  the  wound 
suppurates;  the  lint  being  then  removed,  an  "issue 
pea  is  introduced,  and  by  the  irritation  it  creates 
and  promotes  the  secretion  and  discharge  of  pus.  An 
"issue  pea" is   a  common  pea  or  any  small,  round 


Fig.    i.—Itck  Mile. 

but   those  of 


any 


body  used  to  maintain  irritation  in  a  wound  and  pro- 
mote the  secretion  of  pus.  In  the  treatment  of  farm 
animals,  an  issue  is  kept  open  by  a  rowel  or  seton. 
The  practice  is  going  out  uf  use. 

Itch.  This  disease  is  known  by 
the  appearance  of  pimples  and 
vesicles,  which  by  scratching  ac- 
quire little  black  heads.  The  itch- 
ing is  augmented  at  night  by  the 
warmth  of  the  bed.  The  disease 
may  generally  be  known  by  the 
peculiarity  almost  always  existing 
between  the  fingers,  and  on  the 
wrists  and  elbows,  when  it  affects 
other  parts.  It  never  appears  on 
the  face.  It  seldom  happens  in 
dirty  habits  or  trade ;  common  cleanliness  will  always 
prevent  it.  It  is  contagious  or  catching,  being  com- 
municated by  contact.  There  is  supjxjsed  to  be  a 
kind  that  last  for  seven  years,  and  known  as  seven 
years'  itch  ;  but  the  ordinary  kind  will  last  as  long  if 
left  to  their  career.  The  luxury  of  scratching  is 
said  to  greatly  compensate  for  the  filthy  disease.  Dr. 
Ellitson  says  a  Scotch  king — viz.,  James  I. — is  al- 
leged to  have  said  that  no  subject  deserved  to  have 
the  itch — none  but  royalty — on  account  of  the  great 
pleasure  derived  from  scratching.  The  king  is  said 
to  have  spoken  from  experience. 

Treatment.  Among  many  sulphur  is  the  grand 
treatment;  it  does  little  good  taken  internally,  but 
the  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed  in  every  night 
and  morning.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  catch 
cold  while  using  it.  Among  the  better  classes  who 
occasionally  get  this  disease  by  accident,  the  sulphur 
is  usually  perfumed.  We  can  recommend  another 
powerful  remedy,'  viz.,  a  strong  solution  of  the  iodide 
of  potassium,  which  should  be  put  over  all  the  affect- 
ed parts  every  night,  and  left  to  dry  on.  It  has  the 
advantage  of  having  no  smell. 

Or,  wash  the  body  well  in  warm  water,  and  rub  it 
with  the  following  preparation  :  Lime,  2  ounces ;  sul- 
phur-vivum,  2  ounces.  Mix  in  i  quart  of  water.  Pour 
off"  and  use  it  when  clear. 

A  decoction  of  white  hellebore,  with  a  little  laven- 
der water,  has  been  recommended. 

Barbers'  Itch.  This  is  a  variety  of  itch  which 
usually  appears  upon  the  face.  It  is  thought  to  be 
caught  in  barber  shops  while  being  shaved.  It  is 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  male  sex,  and  gen- 
erally to  men  and  those  who  shave.  A  few  red  pus- 
tules first  appear,  attended  with  a  sense  of  itching  or 
burning.  In  a  few  days  these  dry  up  and  peal  off  in 
thin  scales.  Other  pustules  appear  and  scale  off"  in 
the  same  way.  If  permitted  to  continue  it  will  become 
chronic,  gradually  spreading  and  extending  deeper 
into  the  skin.  To  treat  this,  use  an  ointment  made  by 
mixing  i  ounce  of  lard  and  2  drams  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 
Or  equal  parts  of  tincture  of  lobelia,  blood-root  and 
stramonium  seeds  and  oil  of  cedar,  and  use  two  or 
three  times  a  day.  Should  there  be  much  inflamma- 
tion, poultice  the  part  with  elm  bark  at  night. 


KACK,  a  portable  apparatus,  variously  con- 
-  strutted,  for  raising  great  weights  ashortdis- 
^tance,  as  by  means  of  a  pedestal  or  support, 
>in  which  works  a  screw  lever,  rack  and  pin- 
'ion,  or  soiBe  combination  of  simple  mechanical 
powers;  also,  an  engine  to  turn  a  spit,  as  a  kitchen 
jack,  or  smoke  jack;  in  general,  any  appendage, 
rendering  convenient  service;  also,  a  horse  or 
wooden  frame,  on  which  wood  or  timber  is  sawed ;  a 
wooden  wedge  used  by  miners  to  separate  rocks  after 
blasting,  etc.  Also,  the  male  of  certain  animals,  as  of 
the  ass.  "Jack  at  all  trades,"  one  who  can  turn  his 
hand  to  any  kind  of  business.  "Jack  boots,"  large 
boots  reaching  above  the  knee.  "Jack  plane,"  a  plane 
about  1 8  inches  long,  used  for  coarse  work.  The  bit 
has  rounder  corners  than  that  of  a  smoothing  plane, 
and  is  adjusted  to  take  a  deeper  hold.  "Jack  knife," 
a  heavy  and  strong  jxicket  knife.  "Jack  screw,"  a 
portable  apparatus,  worked  by  a  screw,  for  raising  heavy 
weights  a  short  distance.     For  Jackass,  see  Ass. 

Jtilap  (jalap),  a  medicinal  root  from  Mexico,  named 
after  a  country  there, — Jalapa,  or  Xalapa,  pronounced 
hal'a-pa.  It  is  an  active  cathartic,  producing  copious 
watery  stools.  A  dose  of  jalap  in  powder  is  15  to  30 
grains;  for  a  dog,  20  to  60  grains. 

Jam,  same  as  Marmalade,  which  see. 

Jamaica  Pepper,  allspice.     See  page  19. 

Jamb  (jam),  the  side-piece  or  post  of  a  door;  the 
side-piece  of  a  fire-place  or  any  other  aperture  in  a 
building. 

Jaundice  (jan'dis),  a  disease,  whereby  the  bile  is 
thrown  into  the  skin,  mucous  membranes  and  even  in- 
to the  eyes,  causing  a  yellowness  of  the  skin  and  eyes, 
white  freces  and  high-colored  urine.  The  vision  is  so 
affected  that  every  object  seems  to  have  a  yellowish 
color,  and  there  is  general  fever.  It  might  be  described 
as  ague  or  bilious  fever  turned  inside  out,  as  scrofula 
is  an  eversion  of  tubercular  consumption.  This  dis- 
ease is  not  dangerous,  and  as  to  the  treatment  no 
medicines  are  more  beneficial  than  emetics  occasion- 
ally repeated,  followed  by  gentle  purges  of  rhubarb  or 
Epsom  salts.  Give  bitters  to  regulate  the  bile  and 
restore  the  digestive  poweis,  and  treat  the  same  as  for 
ague,  page  11.  When  the  system  is  much  dis- 
ordered, it  will  be  necessary  to  go  through  regular 
courses  of  medicine.  Patients  have  often  been  cured 
of  jaundice  by  a  long  journey,  after  other  means  had 
failed.  Jaundice  in  horse,  see  page  785;  in  cattle, 
see  page  231. 


Jelly,  the  thickened  juice  of  fruits  or  meat,  boiled 
with  sugar.  It  is  therefore  a  "sweetmeat,"  and  used 
as  a  condiment  or  a  dessert. 

Fruit  jellies  are  comjxiunds  of  the  juices  of  fruits 
combined  with  sugar,  concentrated  by  boiling  to  such 
a  consistence  that  the  liquid,  upon  cooling,  assumes 
the  form  of  a  tremulous  jelly.  Vegetable  jelly  is  a 
distinct  principle- existing  in  fruits,  which  possesses  the 
property  of  gelatinizing  when  boiled  and  cooled;  but 
it  is  a  principle  entirely  different  from  the  gelatin  of 
animal  bodies,  although  the  name  of  jelly,  common  to 
both,  sometimes  leads  to  an  erroneous  idea  on  that 
subject.  Animal  jelly,  or  gelatin,  is  glue;  whereas 
vegetable  jelly  is  rather  analogous  to  gum,  though  dif- 
ferent from  it,  and  not  nearly  so  nutritious  as  animal 
jelly  or  gelatin.  In  preparing  vegetable  jellies,  it  is 
necessary  to  guard  against  boiling  them  too  long,  since 
this  destroys  their  property  of  gelatinizing,  and  they 
then  assume  the  appearance  of  mucilage  or  gum  ;  and 
this  accident  is  most  likely  to  occur  when  the  quantity 
of  sugar  is  too  small  to  absorb  the  water  of  the  juice. 
Jellies  are  most  perfect  as  to  beauty  and  transparency 
when  clarified  sugar  is  used;  but  for  ordinary  purposes 
refined  sugar  answers  very  well. 

Apple  Jelly.  Almost  any  apple  will  make  jelly, 
though  a  hard,  sour,  juicy  apple  makes  the  best,  both 
for  keeping  and  flavor.  Peel  and  core  your  apples, 
boil  them  in  a  pint  of  water  to  every  four  ix)unds  of 
apples  till  the  latter  are  perfectly  soft,  stirring  them 
occasionally  to  prevent  burning.  Strain,  without  squeez- 
ing, through  a  jelly-bag,  measure  the  juice,  and  put  a 
pound  of  loaf  sugar  to  every  pint  of  juice.  Put  juice 
and  sugar  into  the  preserving-kettle,  and  boil  steadily 
for  half  an  hour,  skimming  occasionally.  Cool  a  little, 
and  if  it  will  not  jelly,  boil  a  little  longer.  Pour  into 
glasses  before  it  cools,  and  when  perfectly  cold,  cover 
each  glass  with  a  paper  wet  with  alcohol;  tie  closely, 
and  keep  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  The  apple  remaining 
in  the  bag  can  be  stewed  with  one  pound  of  sugar  to 
two  of  apples.  If  flavoring  is  preferred,  lemon  peel, 
green  ginger,  or  cinnamon  can  be  used. 

ARROw-ROOt  Jelly.  To  a  dessert-spoonful  of  the 
powder,  add  as  much  cold  water  as  will  make  it  into  a 
paste,  then  pour  on  half  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  stir  it 
briskly  and  boil  it  a  few  minutes,  when  it  will  become 
a  clear,  smooth  jelly;  a  little  sugar  and  sherry  wine 
may  be  added  for  debilitated  adults;  but  for  infants, 
a  drop  or  two  of  essence  of  caraway  seeds  or  cinna- 
mon is  preferable,  wine  being  very  liable  to  become 
acid  in  tli«  stomachs  of  infants  and  to  disorder  the 
bowels.     Fresh  milk  may  be  substituted  for  the  water. 


879 


88o 


JENNY— JE  WELR  V. 


Currant  Jelly.  Put  the  currants,  with  the  stems 
on,  in  stone  jars,  and  cover  them;  put  no  leaves  in. 
Set  the  jars  in  warm  but  not  hot  water,  over  the 
fire.  When  the  water  boils  and  the  fruit  is  warm 
and  somewhat  sunken  down,  strain  them  through  a 
linen  or  flannel  bag.  To  every  pint  of  juice  allow  a 
pint  of  loaf  sugar ;  do  not  cook,  the  sugar.  Put  it  in  a 
clean  milk  pail ;  put  the  juice  into  a  granite  kettle, 
boil  it  about  5  minutes  but  not  longer;  pour  it  boiling 
hot  ujxjn  the  sugar  and  stir  till  all  the  sugar  is  dis- 
solved. Then  put  it  in  bowls,  glasses  or  jelly  molds. 
Paste  on  white  paper  covers ;  white  of  egg  is  often 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  jelly  will  be  thick  in  a  few 
days.  A  good  squeezer  is  made  by  two  boards  at- 
tached at  one  end  with  a  hinge  and  the  other  ends 
shaved  down  into  handles.  This  is  used  for  the 
straining. 

White  currant  jelly  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  red 
currant  jelly,  only  it  should  have  double  refined  sugar 
and  not  be  boiled  above  ten  minutes.  White  currant 
jelly  should  be  put  through  a  lawn  sieve. 

Currant  Jelly.  The  currants  should  be  ripe  and 
freshly  picked  and  the  jelly  should  be  made  before 
the  20th  of  July.  Pick  them  from  the  stems  and  put 
them  into  a  preserving  kettle  without  any  water;  let 
them  stew  gently;  remove  from  the  fire  when  they  be- 
gin to  turn  white,  and  press  them  through  a  strainer 
cloth  to  extract  the  juice;  to  each  pint  of  juice  take  a 
pound  of  sugar;  it  is  better  if  it  can  be  put  into  the 
oven  and  dried,  and  put  hot  into  the  currant  juice. 
Boil  it  1 5  minutes  after  the  sugar  is  added.  Dip  it 
slowly  into  your  jelly  glasses,  having  a  wet  cloth 
wrapped  around  each  to  preventit  from  cracking  when 
the  hot  jelly  is  put  into  it.  Some  think  it  an  improve- 
ment to  put  a  quart  of  raspberries  to  half  a  peck  of 
currants. 

Grape  Jelly.  Strip  from  their  stalks  some  fine, 
ripe  grapes,  and  stir  them  with  a  wooden  spoon  over 
a  gentle  fire  until  all  have  burst  and  the  juice  flows 
freely  from  them.  Strain  it  off  through  a  jelly  cloth  or 
bag.  Measure,  and  to  each  pint  of  juice  allow  four- 
teen ounces  of  sugar.  Put  the  juice  on  to  boil  for  20 
minutes;  then  stir  in  the  sugar  and  boil  15  minutes 
longer,  keeping  it  constantly  stirred  and  well  skimmed. 

Barb  erry  Jelly.  Pound  the  berries  in  a  dish  with 
a  mortar  pestle,  or  a  masher,  a  few  at  a  time,  to  ex- 
tract the  juice ;  put  them  into  a  kettle  with  just  a  trifle 
of  water;  scald  them  a  Httle  to  make  them  press  well. 
Measure  the  juice,  and  allow  to  each  pint  a  pound  of 
sugar.  Boil  the  juice  up  once ;  but  just  before  putting 
it  over  the  fire,  put  the  sugar  into  the  oven  to 
dry;  add  the  sugar  to  the  juice  and  boll  seven  minutes 
after  it  commences  to  boil.  Spoon  the  jelly  hot  into 
the  glasses. 

Crab-Apple  Jelly.  Put  the  apples  into  a  kettle 
with  just  water  enough  to  cover  them,  and  let  them 
boil  until  they  are  very  soft ;  mash  them  up,  and  strain 
them  through  a  very  coarse  hair  sieve.  Take  a  pound 
of  apple  to  a  pound  of  sugar,  boil  it  twenty  minutes, 
and  put  it  into  jars.  "^ 

Quince  Jelly.     Take  the  skins  and  cores  of  quin- 


ces, cover  them  with  water,  and  let  them  boil  about 
two  hours;  strain  them  through  a  fine  sieve;  measure, 
and  to  each  pint  allow  a  pound  of  sugar;  boil  it  twen- 
ty minutes. 

Strawberry  Jelly.  Press  the  juice  from  the  ber- 
ries ;  strain  it  through  a  jelly  bag,  measure,  and  to  each 
pint  of  juice  allow  a  pound  of  sugar;  boil  the  juice  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  before  adding  the  sugar;  then  boil 
fifteen  minutes. 

Gooseberry  or  Cranberry  Jelly.  Boil  the  ber- 
ries in  a  very  little  water  until  they  are  soft;  then 
squeeze  them  through  a  cloth  or  jelly  bag;  and  allow 
to  each  pint  of  juice  a  jxiund  of  sugar,  and  boil  it  fif- 
teen or  twenty  minutes. 

Jelly  Without  Fruit.  Take  water,  i  pt.,  and 
add  to  it  pulverized  alum,  j{  oz.,  and  boil  a  minute 
or  two;  then  add  4  lbs.  of  white  crushed  or  cofiee 
sugar,  continue  the  boiling  a  little,  strain  while  hot; 
and  when  cold  put  in  half  of  a  two-shilling  bottle  of 
extract  of  vanilla,  strawberry  or  lemon,  or  any  other 
flavor  you  desire  for  jelly.  This  will  make  a  jelly  so 
much  resembling  that  made  from  the  juice  of  the  fruit 
that  any  one  will  be  astonished,  and  when  fruit  can 
not  be  got,  it  will  take  its  place  admirably. 

An  Excellent  Jelly  for  the  Sick-Room.  Take 
rice,  sago,  pearl  barley,  hartshorn  shavings,  each  i  oz.; 
simmer  with  3  pints  of  water  to  i,  and  strain  it.  When 
cold  it  will  be  a  jelly,  of  which  give,  dissolved  in  wine, 
milk,  or  broth,  in  change  with  the  other  nourishment. 

Do  not  buy  jellies  at  the  groceries  if  you  can  avoid 
it.  The  basis  of  nearly  all  the  jellies  turned  out  in 
manufacturing  establishments  is  what  is  termed  "apple 
juice;  "  and  this  is  doctored  up  with  various  drugs  for 
flavoring,  and  correspondingly  labeled  "Pure  Rasp- 
berry Jelly,"  "Pure  Currant  Jelly,"  etc.  For  example, 
their  "Pure  Raspberry  Jelly"  will  be  made  as  follows  : 
8  gallons  apple  juice,  16  pounds  sugar,  8  pounds 
glucose,  I  ounce  sulphuric  acid,  }(  pound  corn  starch, 
and  aniline  and  acetic  ether  for  flavoring.  How  is 
that  for  food?  Real,  pure  fruit  jelly  cannot  be 
furnished  in  the  market  for  less  than  12  cents  a  pound; 
and,  therefore,  when  we  find  it  offered  for  much  less 
we  may  be  certain  that  the  article  is  a  base  fraud. 

Jenny,  a  spinning-machine ;  a  female  ass. 

Jersey,  as  a  breed  of  cattle,  see  page  202 ;  for 
Jersey  Red  hogs,  see  article  Swine. 

Jerusalem.  Artiohoke,  a  salad.     See  page  49. 

Jewelry.  As  to  the  quantity,  quality  and  style  of 
jewelry  to  be  worn  by  ]X)lite  people,  see  page  394. 
To  clean  and  polish  jewelry,  see  Gold  and  Silver. 
Precious  stones  may  be  cleaned  and  brightened  by 
first  washing  them  with  a  brush  in  soap-suds  and  then 
shaking  them  violently  in  a  small  box  of  sawdust  for 
several  minutes  The  best  sawdust  is  that  which  is 
furnished  at  the  jewelry  stores  for  the  purjxjse.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  in  the  purchase  of  jewelry.  Be 
particular  and  see  that  the  metal  be  pure,  and  if  set 
with  jewels  ascertain  that  they  are  genuine  or  are 
really  what  they  are  called.  Some  precious  stones 
are  easily  known,  but  others  are  extremely  difl'cult  to 


JEWELRY. 


88 1 


distinguish,  and  therefore  jewelers  may  very  easily 
deceive  their  customers.  The  only  safe  way,  where 
one  wishes  to  purchase  really  good  jewelry,  is  to  buy 
from  a  well-established  and  reliable  jeweler. 

Diamond.  The  unrivaled  brilliancy  of  this  gem 
has  always  attracted  universal  admiration,  and  among 
ornaments  it  has  ever  occupied  the  highest  rank.  No 
other  substance,  natural  or  artificial,  can  rival  its  luster, 
rich  with  prismatic  colors.  The  beauty  of  other  gems 
is  almost  lost  to  the  distant  beholder;  the  diamond 
alone  diffuses  its  starry  radiance  to  the  most  distant 
parts  of  the  assembly,  and  has  acquired,  by  common 
consent  in  all  ages,  a  prodigious  value  that  continues 
undiminished.  The  diamond  is  the  hardest  of  all 
known  substances,  and  it  is  supposed  by  some  not  to 
be  capable  of  being  broken  by  the  blow  of  a  hammer ; 
but  though  the  substance  is  extremely  hard,  it  is  not 
difficult  to  fracture.  Diamonds  are  cut  and  polished 
in  particular  shapes,  which  have  received  the  names 
of  brilliant,  rose,  and  table-cut.  The  brilliant  is  in  the 
highest  estimation,  as  it  is  in  the  form  which  shows  to 
the  greatest  advantage  the  peculiar  luster  of  the  gem. 
The  setting  of  diamonds  is  of  great  importance,  and 
depends  partly  ufxin  their  quality.  The  finest  brill- 
iants are  always  set  open,  that  is,  without  a  back. 
Diamonds  are  always  equally  in  fashion,  but  the  mode 
of  setting  them  varies  according  to  the  caprice  of  taste 
or  the  desire  of  novelty. 

Gems  belonging  to  the  Species  Corundum. 
Corundum  is  the  name  of  an  extremely  hard  mineral 
substance,  found  chiefly  in  India,  and  used  there 
extensively  for  cutting  and  polishing  the  hardest 
stones. 

Sapphire  is  the  purest  or  perfect  state  of  corundum, 
and  is  the  hardest  of  all  earthy  minerals,  being  inferior 
in  this  respect  only  to  the  diamond.  What  is  consid- 
ered as  the  most  perfect,  or  Oriental  sapphire,  is  of  a 
clear,  bright  blue  color,  with  a  high  degree  of  trans- 
lucency ;  but  it  is  also  pale  blue,  and  sometimes  violet 
blue,  or  cloudy.  Sapphires  are  also  occasionally 
colorless.  The  finest  sapphires  come  from  Pegu  and 
Ceylon,  where  they  are  found  only  in  the  beds  of 
rivers,  often  in  rounded  fragments,  generally  small, 
and  seldom  exceeding  the  size  of  a  hazelnut. 

Ruby.  The  ruby  is  a  gem  which,  when  of  the  kind 
called  Oriental,  is  of  great  beauty  and  value.  The 
true,  or  Oriental  ruby,  when  perfect,  is  the  most 
valuable  of  the  gems  next  to  the  diamond ;  the  color 
is  a  fine,  deep,  cochineal  red,  having  a  richness  of  hue 
unrivaled;  occasionally  it  is  rose-red,  or  has  a  tinge 
of  violet. 

Emerald.  The  emerald,  in  value,  ranks  next  to 
the  ruby.  It  is  of  a  pure,  beautiful,  bright,  and 
intensely  green  color,  when  the  stone  is  of  the  most 
perfect  kind,  called  Oriental ;  hence  the  name  emerald 
green.  The  color, however,  varies  a  little;  sometimes 
it  is  paler,  and  the  green  less  lively,  or  it  is  a  pale  blue, 
or  yellowish.  The  form  of  its  natural  crystals  is  a  six- 
sided  prism.  The  finest  emeralds  come  from  Peru, 
where  they  have  been  found  occasionally  several 
56 


inches  in  length.  They  are  also  found  in  Ceylon  and 
Egypt. 

Beryl,  Aquamarine.  The  primary  form  of  its 
crystals  is  a  six-sided  prism,  terminated  by  a  six-sided 
pyramid,  truncated ;  and  this  is  its  usual  form.  The 
color  of  the  beryl  is  various  shades  of  pale  yellow,  or 
green,  or  blue.  The  common  beryl  is  scarcely 
employed  in  jewelry,  on  account  of  its  numerous  flaws 
and  cracks. 

Topaz.  The  topaz  is  a  particular  species  of  mineral, 
occurring  in  crystals  of  the  form  of  a  rhombic  prism, 
variously  terminated.  It  somewhat  resembles  quartz, 
but  is  distinguished  by  the  form  of  its  crystals,  by  its 
superior  hardness,  and  specific  gravity.  Both  it  and 
quartz  scratch  glass,  but  topaz  scratches  quartz.  It  is 
sometimes  colorless  and  translucent,  but  usually  has 
various  pale  shades  of  yellow,  green,  blue,  lilac;  or  red. 

Turquoise.  The  turquoise  is  rare  and  much  in 
request.  It  is  destitute  of  the  luster  which  dis- 
tinguishes most  of  the  precious  stones;  it  is  opaque, 
and  does  not  admit  of  a  very  high  polish,  but  its 
color  is  a  fine  celestial  blue.  It  is  from  the  size  of  a 
pin's  head  to  that  of  an  almond.  Malachite  is  some- 
times sold  for  turquoise. 

Moonstone.  The  moonstone  is  a  variety  of  feldspar 
called  adularia,  and  is  beautifully  translucent,  of  a 
milky  color,  and  having  a  remarkable  play  of  light, 
amounting  to  a  slight  pearly  luster,  and  sometimes 
iridescence,  which  contrasts  agreeably  with  the  delicate 
bluish  tint  of  the  stone;  whence  its  name.  It  is  used 
for  ear  drops  and  rings,  and  when  fine,  sells  for  a  high 
price. 

Garnet.  Garnet  is  a  very  common  mineral,  though 
beautiful  specimens,  called  the  precious  garnet,  or 
almandine,  are  classed  with  gems.  They  are  usually 
of  a  deep  red.  The  finest  come  from  India.  Garnets 
are  hard  enough  to  scratch  quartz,  and,  of  course, 
much  harder  than  glass,  by  which  glass  counterfeits 
may  be  easily  distinguished  by  means  of  a  file. 

Rock  Crystal,  Transparent  Quartz.  This  stone  is 
sometimes  quite  colorless,  and  beautifully  trans- 
parent ;  it  is  also  occasionally,  though  rarely,  yellow 
like  topaz;  but  it  is  softer  than  topaz,  and  of  a 
different  crystalline  form  in  its  natural  state.  This  is 
the  "Alaska  diamond"  now  so  common  in  this  country. 

Amethyst.  There  is  the  same  confusion  respecting 
stones  of  this  name  as  with  others  we  have  mentioned. 
The  amethyst  of  modem  mineralogists  is  merely  a 
violet-colored  quartz  or  rock  crystal;  but  what  has 
been  called  Oriental  amethyst  among  jewelers  is  a 
violet-colored  sapphire,  which  is  a  stone  of  great 
beauty  and  value.  The  color  of  the  common 
amethyst  is  purple,  of  various  shades  and  degrees  of 
intensity ;  those  which  are  of  the  deepest  purple  are 
the  most  precious,  but  the  depth  of  the  tint  varies 
much,  being  in  some  scarcely  perceptible,  when  the 
stone  is  of  scarcely  any  more  value  than  rock  crystal. 
Amethysts  are  found  in  many  countries ;  but  of  late 
many  have  been  brought  from  Brazil,  and  some  of 
considerable  size.  They  are  much  used  in  bracelets, 
seals,  and  similar  ornaments. 


882 


JIBBER— JUMBLE. 


Opal.  This  stone  is  a  very  pure  kind  of  flint,  and 
differs  from  chalcedony  chiefly  in  its  luster  and  color; 
but  the  difference  cannot  easily  be  expressed  in  words. 
There  is  the  precious  opal  and  the  common  opal :  the 
former  exhibits  a  remarkable  play  of  prismatic  or 
iridescent  colors — -blue,  red,  and  yellow,  green,  etc. 
These  colors  are  sometimes,  in  fine  specimens, 
intensely  bright  and  beautiful ;  sometimes  the  stones 
exhibit  only  one  color.  It  is  always  cut  hemispheric- 
ally,  and  it  is  often  full  of  flaws,  which  only  adds  to 
its  beauty  from  increasing  the  vivacity  of  the  colors. 
When  fine,  the  precious  opal  is  of  great  value ;  it  is 
brittle,  and  softer  than  rock  crystal. 

Chalcedony,  Agate,  and  Carnelian.  These  stones 
are  placed  together  because  they  are  all  varieties  of 
the  same  thing.  Chalcedony  is  a  sort  of  very  pure 
flint ;  but,  instead  of  being  perfectly  clear  and  trans- 
parent, it  is  tinged,  more  or  less,  with  a  milky  hue. 
When  chalcedony  has  in  it  various  curved  parallel 
bands  or  stripes  of  a  white  or  other  color,  it  is  called 
agate.  Fortification  agates  are  those  which  have 
zigzag  parallel  bands,  generally  of  white  and  gray, 
having  a  distant  resemblance  to  the  plans  of  a  modern 
fortification.  In  the  center  of  these  agates  there  are 
sometimes  rock  crystals  and  amethysts.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  these  bands,  there  are  minute  metallic 
crystallizations  resembling  mosses,  and  which  have 
been,  though  erroneously,  supposed  to  be  really 
vegetables ;  these  are  termed  moss  agates.  Those 
are  most  valuable  which  resemble  very  closely  some 
plant.  The  onyx  is  a  variety  where  the  bands  of 
difterent  colors  are  perfectly  straight,  the  stone  con- 
sisting of  several  flat  layers,  whereas  in  agates  the 
layers  are  curved.  Onyxes  were  much  used  by  the 
ancients  for  making  cameos. 

Jet.  Jet  is  well-known  to  be  of  a  deep  black,  and 
is  used  for  necklaces,  chiefly  worn  in  mourning.  It  is 
a  kind  of  coal,  or,  rather,  fossil  wood,  and  costs  little 
more  than  the  expense  of  cutting;  it  is  made  into 
beads,  snuff-boxes,  and  other  trinkets.  Cannel  coal  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  it,  but  this  is  very  inferior. 

Amber.  This  is  a  well-known  transparent  mineral 
substance,  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
a  fossil  resin. 

Pearls.  Pearls  are  precious,  and  form  beautiful 
ornaments,  highly  prized.  They  are  calcareous  bodies, 
of  the  same  nature  as  mother-of-pearl,  only  purer, 
found  in  the  inside  of  certain  shells,  particularly  a 
large  one  called  the  pearl  oyster.  The  pearl  shell  is 
found  only  in  warm  climates.  They  are  found  either 
loose  in  the  body  of  the  animal,  or  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  shells.  These  shells  are  extremely 
abundant  near  the  shores  of  some  of  the  East  India 
islands,  and  particularly  Ceylon,  where  the  chief 
pearl  fisheries  have  been  estabUshed.  The  shells 
are  brought  up  by  persons  who  have  learned  to  dive 
for  them  to  great  depths.  They  descend  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  from  five  to  ten  fathoms  in  depth, 
assisted  by  a  large  stone,  which  they  carry  down  with 
them;  and,  being  furnished  with  a  basket,  they 
collect,  with    as  much  expedition  as    possible,  such 


shells  as  happen  to  lie  about  the  spot  of  their  descent, 
continuing  their  search  for  about  two  minutes  when, 
according  to  a  signal  which  they  make  to  the  boat  to 
to  which  their  cord  is  attached,  they  again  ascend 
with  their  treasure.  Each  diver  will  bring  up  as 
many  as  one  hundred  shells  of  various  sizes,  and 
some,  from  long  habit,  acquire  the  power  of  remaining 
under  water  for  five  or  six  minutes.  It  is  not  every 
shell  that  affords  pearls;  some  contain  only  small 
ones  of  little  value.  The  finest  are  of  a  clear  white, 
and  very  translucent :  those  which  have  a  tinge  of 
yellow  are  less  precious.  Though  pearls  are  found 
of  the  largest  size,  greatest  beauty  and  most  abund- 
antly in  the  shell  we  have  mentioned,  yet  they  are 
not  confined  entirely  to  these :  common  oysters  and 
muscles  occasionally  contain  small  pearls;  and  a 
fresh-water  shell  called  a  unio,  or  pearl  muscle,  is 
particularly  remarkable  for  the  pearls  it  contains. 

Coral.  This  beautiful  material,  of  a  fine  red 
color,  is  the  production  of  animals  that  inhabit 
the  sea,  and  which  consist  of  a  fleshy  substance, 
surrounding  a  solid,  calcareous  body,  which  is  called 
the  coral.  The  species  of  red  coral  used  for  orna- 
ments,in  form  resembles  a  small,  branched  shrub,  and 
is  attached  to  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

Jibber,  is  a  poorly  broken  horse ;  one  that  moves 
restively  sidewise  or  backward. 

Jog  Trot,  a  slovenly  trot  in  which  an  animal 
shakes  his  body  up  and  down,  without  getting  over 
the  ground  very  fast. 

Joints,  Dislocation  of:  see  Dislocation,  page 
324- 

Journal,  the  portion  of  a  shaft  or  axle  which 
revolves  on  a  support. 

Judas  Tree,  red-bud;  a  low,  scraggy  forest  tree, 
with  a  spreading  top,  which  sends  forth  a  profusion  of 
red  or  purple  flowers  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves 
appear.  It  is  somewhat  ornamental,  and  as  such  is 
found  on  some  lawns.  Another  species  grows  in  the 
Old  World,  and  the  name  is  derived  from  the  legend 
that  Judas,  the  apostate  disciple,  hanged  himself  upon 
such  a  tree. 

Judgment,  How  Long  Collectible:  see  Limita- 
tions.    For  "judgment  note,"  see  Note. 

Julep,  a  sweet  drink,  particularly  one  which  has 
mucilage  and  vegetable  acid  mixed  with  it.  A  mint 
julep  is  a  drink  of  spirituous  litpior,  sweetened,  iced 
and  flavored  with  sprigs  of  mint. 

Jumble,  a  small  sweet-cake,  often  in  shape  like  a 
ring.  Recipe:  One  cup  of  butter  and  2  of  sugar, 
beaten  together;  i  cup  of  milk,  i^  teaspoonful  of  soda 
stirred  into  the  milk  and  4  eggs.  Beat  well  together, 
spice,  add  6  cups  of  flour,  roll  thin,  cut  with  a  jumble 
cutter,  brush  with  white  of  egg,  sift  on  a  very  little 
fine  white  sugar,  and  bake  15  or  20  minutes. 

Lemon  Jumbles.  Oneegg,  i  cupof  sugar,  1/2  cupof 
butter,  3  tablespoonfuls  of  milk,  the  juice  and  grated 
rind  of  two  small  lemons,  a  teaspoonful  of  condensed 


JUMF-SEA  T—JUTE. 


883 


baking  powder,  flour  enough  to  roll  out,  cut  with  a 
cake  cutler,  and  bake  as  above. 

Fruit  Jumbles.  Three-l'ourths  of  a  pound  of 
butter,  a  jxjund  of  sugar,  5  eggs,  a  teacup  of  milk,  a 
gill  of  wine,  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  i  '^  pounds  of  flour, 
and  ]^  pound  of  currants.  Drop  them  on  tins  with  a 
spoon,  and  bake  in  rather  a  quick  oven. 

Jump-seat,  a  carriage  constructed  with  a  movable 
seat,  so  as  to  be  readily  changed  from  the  one-seated 
to  the  two-seated  form ;  a  movable  carriage  seat. 
Hence,  any  style  of  carriage  with  such  a  seat  is  called 
"jump-seat;"  as,  "jump-seat  rockaway,"  etc. 

Juniper,  an  evergreen  shrub  or  tree,  of  the  pine 
family.     The  common  jimiper  has   a  low,  spreading 


yuniperus  venutta. 


form ;  awl-shaped,  rigid  leaves  in  whorls  of  threes ; 
and  bears  small  purplish-blue  berries,  of  a   warm, 


pungent  taste,  yielding  by  fermentation  a  kind  of 
"gin."  When  the  bark  is  wounded  a  resin  exudes 
from  it,  from  which  varnish  and  incense  have  been 
made,and  which, dried  and  pulverized, is  usedon  paper 
to  prevent  ink  from  spreading.  The  oil  of  juniper  is 
acrid,  and  is  used  in  varnishes,  medicines,  etc.  In 
horse  and  cattle  diseases,  the  berries  act  as  a  stimu- 
lant to  the  stomach.  One  to  two  ounces  are  given  at 
a  dose.     Dogs  are  given  20  to  40  grains. 

The  wood  is  of  a  reddish  color,  hard  and  durable, 
and  is  used  in  cabinet-work  and  veneering.  Irish 
juniper  is  a  most  beautiful  variety  of  this  species, 
being  erect,  dense  and  compact,  and  well  adapted  to 
fancy  forms  on  the  lawn.  Swedish  juniper  is  more 
hardy,  has  light  yellowish-green  foliage,  and  grows 
upright,  10  to  15  feet  high.  The  weeping  juniper  is 
a  beautiful,  but  tender  tree,  from  Japan  and  China. 
The  red  cedar  is  a  species  of  juniper.  One  of  its 
forms  is  the  beautiful  Juniperus  venusta,  here  illus- 
trated. 

Jute,  the  fiber  of  the  jute  plant,  and  is  the  material 
from  which  '"gunny-bags"  are  made.  The  plant  is  a 
native  of  India,  where  it  is  largely  cultivated  by  the 
natives,  who  weave  the  fiber  into  sacks,  nets,  etc. 
The  gunny-bag  is  used  in  all  countries,  and  is  always 
in  demand.  The  fact  that  jute  is  so  extensively  used 
in  this  country  has  inaugurated  experiments  to  as- 
certain whether  it  can  be  successfully  raised  here. 
Though  these  experiments  have  been  made  on  a  smaH 
scale,  it  is  proved  that  jute  can  be  successfully  grown 
in  California  and  the  Gulf  States,  and  possibly  in 
somewhat  more  northern  States.  Farmers  living  in  any 
of  the  above-named  States  should  experiment,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  one  or  two  plantings.  If  its 
culture  prove  successful,  they  have  opened  a  new 
avenue  to  wealth  which  only  needs  working  to  yield 
immense  profits.  It  is  cultivated  and  cured  as  follows  : 
Sow  the  seed  broadcast,  early  in  the  spring,  in  a  moist, 
sandy  loam.  The  plants  grow  rapidly,  and  will 
attain  a  height  of  6  or  8  feet  in  3  or  4  months.  Cut 
the  stalks  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  fall,  and  before 
the  seed  begins  to  ripen.  Tie  them  in  small  bundles 
and  throw  them  into  a  tank  or  pond  of  water,  where 
they  should  remain  from  5  to  8  days  to  rot,  when  the 
fiber  will  fall  from  the  stalk.  As  soon  as  it  is  dry  it 
is  ready  for  the  loom  or  paper  mill.  Immense 
quantities  of  this  plant  are  annually  turned  into 
paper,  and  even  thfe  root  is  used  for  that  purpose  in 
India.  An  experiment  in  the  South  seems  to  show 
that  a  belt  of  jute  around  a  cotton  field  protects  it 
from  the  cotton  worm.  The  peculiar  odor  of  the 
flower  and  the  bitter  exudation  from  the  leaves  seem 
to  be  strongly  repulsive  to  the  worm. 


K 


wint 


ALE  or  BOBECOLE,  a  plant  of  the  cab- 
-bage  family  and  cultivated  on  the  same 
principles.  Plant  the  larger  sort  in  hills  two 
■  by  three  feef  apart,  and  thin  to  one  plant  in 
hill.  Being  very  hardy,  it  is  easy  to  be 
itered,  and  is  good  for  early  sprouts  in  the 
spring,  to  be  used  as  greens.  It  is  rather  too 
rank  for  use  in  the  fall  before  it  has  frozen. 
Some  of  the  varieties  are  very  ornamental,  and  scat- 
tered singly  are  attractive  in  the  flower  garden,  being 
finely  curled  and  variegated  with  green,  yellowish 
white,  bright  red  and  purple  leaves. 

Varieties.  Carters  Garnishing.  Both  ornamental 
and  useful;  the  seed  will  produce  many  varieties 
of  high-colored  plants. 

Sea  Kale.  The  young  shoots  when  blanched  are 
exceedingly  delicate,  being  much  superior  to  broccoli. 

Dwarf  German 
Greens,  or  Green 
Curled.  Very  hardy ; 
standard  market  sort. 
Acme.  Very  tender 
and  delicious  when 
boiled;  very  dwarf. 
Field  Kale,  for  cattle; 

Kale,  ar  Dwayf  German   Gnena.       Can      be     CUt       Several 

times  during  the  season. 

Green  Curled  Scotch.     A  very  fine  variety. 

Frisbys  Crested,  Green-Curled  Tall  Scotch  and 
Abergeldie  are  new  and  promising  varieties.  Several 
other  varieties  are  ornamental. 

Kalsomining.  See  Calcimining,  the  correct 
spelling. 

Kennel,  an  establishment  for  breeding  dogs;  a 
dog  house;  a  pack  of  hounds.     See  page  355- 

Kerosene,  a  liquid  hydrocarbon  or  oil  extracted 
from  bituminous  coal  or  petroleum,  used  for  illumina- 
tion and  other  purposes.  The  medical  and  economi- 
cal uses  of  kerosene  are  so  numerous  that  the  reader 
may  look  for  them  under  almost  every  heading  in 
this  volume. 

To  Keep  Kerosenc  Oil  in  good  condition,  always 
keep  it  tightly  corked,  otherwise  it  will  burn  dull  and 
cake  on  the  wick,  especially  if  kept  in  a  warm  place. 
As  this  oil  precipitates  a  sediment,  it  is  well  to  have  a 
faucet  near  the  base  of  the  can,  through  which  to 
draw  off  supplies  without  disturbing  the  sediment. 
The  oil  used  will  then  be  clear  and  bright. 

To  Test  Kerosene.     Kerosene,  or  coal  oil,  is  often 


884 


adulterated  with  heavy  oil  or  with  benzine.  The 
adulteration  with  the  former  is  shown  by  dimness  of 
the  flame  after  having  burned  for  some  tirrie,  accom- 
panied by  a  charring  of  the  wick.  The  latter  may  be 
readily  detected  by  means  of  a  thermometer,  a  little 
warm  water  and  a  tablespoooful  of  the  oil.  Fill  the 
cup  with  warm  water  and  a  tablespoonful  of  the  oil. 
Fill  the  cup  with  warm  water  of  the  temperature  of 
no"  Fahr.  Pour  the  oil  on  the  water,  apply  flame 
to  the  floating  oil  by  match  or  otherwise.  If  the  oil 
is  unsafe  it  will  take  fire,  and  its  use  in  the  lamp  is 
dangerous ;  for  it  is  liable  to  explode.  In  some  States 
the  law  requires  a  higher  flash  test,  but  amendments 
are  frequently  made,  varying  the  standard.  No  oil 
is  explosive  in  and  of  itself.  It  is  only  when  the 
vapor  arising  therefrom  becomes  mixed  with  the  air 
in  a  certain  proix)rtion  that  it  explodes.  There 
should  be  no  inflammable  vapor  from  any  oil  used 
for  burning  in  lamps  at  ordinary  temperatures.  A 
volatile  oil  is  therefore  unfit  for  the  purposes  of  il- 
lumination.    See  Lamp  and  Petroleum. 

To  remove  kerosene  odor  from  the  hands,  wash  in 
sweet  milk  or  with  wetted  bran. 

Kerf,  the  face  of  a  cut  made  by  an  ax  or  a  saw. 

Kettle.  To  prevent  iron  kettles  from  rusting,  rub 
them  thoroughly  with  grease  or  oil  while  they  are 
hot,  envelop  them  in  paper  and  set  them  in  a 
dry  place,  the  nearer  the  stove,  stove-pipe  or  chimney 
the  better.  Boiling  up  iron  rust  into  one's  victuals  is 
not  healthful.  When  alkaline  solutions  (ashes  or  lye) 
have  been  heated  in  a  kettle,  all  the  protective  coat- 
ing is  taken  off",  and  this  is  the  case  most  necessary 
in  which  to  put  on  the  above  coating,  which  also, 
applied  on  the  outside,  will  keep  it  black  and  shining. 
Wipe  with  a  newspaper. 

To  prevent  incrustations  of  lime  or  furring  in  a  tea- 
kettle, keep  in  it  an  oyster  shell  or  piece  of  marble. 

When  a  kettle  is  heated  dry,  water  should  not  be 
poured  into  it,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  crack  the 
metal. 

Key,  in  mechanics,  a  wedge  of  wood  or  metal 
driven  into  the  end  of  a  piece  which  is  inserted  in  a 
mortice  for  holding  it  securely. 

Kicking,  a  well-known  vice  in  horses.  See  pages 
712-3.  723 

Kid  Gloves.  To  clean,  put  them  into  gasoline 
for  a  day.  Or  wash  by  laying  the  glove  on  a  clean 
cloth,  and  rub  first  until  dr)'  with  another  white  clean 
cloth.     Black  kids  may  be  renovated  by  going  over 


KIDNEY  BEAN— KINO, 


885 


them  with  a  feather  dipped  in  a  little  salad  oil  with 
which  a  few  drops  of  common  black  ink  have  been 
mixed.     Rose  oil  is  also  good. 

To  remove  stains  from  kid  gloves,  suspend  them 
for  a  day  ui  an  atmosphere  of  ammonia.  Provide  a 
tall  glass  cylinder  with  a  little  strong  ammonia  water 
in  it ;  be  careful  to  remove  from  the  sides  of  the  jar 
any  ammonia  that  may  have  spattered  uix)n  them, 
and  suspend  the  gloves  to  the  stopper,  not  permitting 
•   them  to  touch  the  liquid. 

To  prevent  mjury  to  kid  gloves  by  perspiration, 
dust  the  hands  with  corn  starch  or  pulverized  soap- 
stone  before  drawing  on  the  gloves. 

Kidney  Bean,  the  type  of  all  the  varieties  of 
cultivated  bean,  so  called  from  its  shape  resembling 
that  of  a  kidney ;  called  also  "  haricot  bean."  The 
White  Kidney  bean  is  an  excellent  variety  for  shell- 
ing green  and  cooking  with  green  corn,  forming 
succotash. 

Kidneys.  These,  in  the  human  subject,  are  two 
dark  red  bodies,  five  to  six  inches  long  and  three  to 
four  wide,  having  one  side  slightly  longer  than  the 
other.  They  are  situated  near  the  back-bone  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  their  upper  half 
stretching  across  the  two  lower  false  ribs  and  the 
upper  extremity  in  contact  with  the  lower  side  and 
posterior  border  of  the  diaphragm.  When  they  are 
painfully  diseased,  the  pain  seems  to  be  about  the 
middle  of  the  back.  The  office  of  the  kidneys  is  to 
secrete  the  urine,  which  passes  from  them  in  tubes  call- 
ed ureters  to  the  bladder,  whence  it  is  conveyed  by  the 
urethra  to  the  external  outlet. 

Inflammation.  This  is  characterized  by  pain  in 
the  region  of  the  kidneys,  shooting  downward  through 
the  bladder.  Sometimes  it  is  accompanied  by  numb- 
ness of  the  thighs,  high-colored  urine,  which  is 
frequently  discharged,  constipation,  vomiting, and  gen- 
eral fever.  It  is  caused  by  acrid  food,  irritating  con- 
diments and  diuretic  medicines,  severe  exercise, 
exposure  of  the  back  to  drafts  of  air,  etc. 

Treatment.  Give  small  doses  of  lobelia,  just  suffi- 
cient to  relax  the  system  and  produce  perspiration. 
Afterward  apply  to  the  region  of  the  kidneys  a  hot 
fomentation  of  hops,  wormwood  and  tansy,  simmered 
in  vinegar  and  water,  with  a  little  bran  mixed  with 
them.  Then  give  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  2  ounces;^ 
oil  of  sweet  almonds,  2  ounces,  and  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, I  ounce,  mixed, — a  teaspoonful  every  three  or 
four  hours  during  the  day,  in  a  cup  of  warm  spear- 
mint tea.  Let  the  patient  drink  also  a  decoction  of 
marsh  mallows  (leaves  or  root)  and  mullein  leaves,  or 
either  of  them  if  both  cannot  be  procured.  Horse- 
mint  may  be  added.  If  the  pain  is  severe  or  of  long 
standing,  apply  a  liniment  made  of  oil  of  juniper  ^ 
ounce,  oil  of  spearmint  J^  ounce,  spirits  of  turpentine 
I  ounce,  tincture  of  cayenne  i  ounce,  laudanum  i 
ounce  and  alcohol  J^  pint. 

Ulceration  and  other  obscure   diseases   are   too 
difficult  of  diagnosis  by  the  unprofessional,  and   in 
deed  by  the  profession  generally,  as  a  powerful  mi- 


croscope has  to  be  used  and  many  recondite  symp- 
toms and  conditions  taken  into  account.  Almost  any 
"doctor"  will  pretend  to  know  what  is  the  matter,  and 
tinker  with  the  case  as  long  as  he  is  permitted ;  while 
every  time  the  patient  is  better  the  doctor  gets  the 
credit  and  every  time  he  is  worse  the  disease  gets  the 
blame. 

Bright's  Disease.  This  is  a  structural  degenera- 
tion of  the  kidneys,  attended  with  albuminuria  (albu- 
men in  the  blood)  and  a  dropsical  condition.  The 
tendency  of  the  chronic  form  is  always  toward  a  fatal 
result.  About  one-third  die  of  uraemic  poisoning 
(urine  in  the  blood);  a  considerable  number  die  of 
dropsical  effusions  (collections  of  water  in  some  part); 
one-fifth  die  from  secondary  pneumonia,  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  enveloping  the  heart  or  pleurisy; 
the  rest  by  exhaustion  from  loss  of  blood,  indigestion, 
general  dropsy,  etc. 

Symptoms.  The  acute  form  seems  to  be  excited  into 
existence  by  exjxDsure  to  cold,  a  drunken  spree,  an  at- 
tack of  fever  or  the  use  of  irritating  diuretics,  and  is 
ushered  in  by  chilliness,  headache,  nausea,  vomiting, 
pain  in  the  back  and  limbs,  stoppage  of  perspiration 
and  oppression  in  breathing.  The  urine  is  scanty, 
heavy,  and  dark  in  color,  from  the  presence  of  blood, 
and  ropy  or  cloudy  from  the  presence  of  albumen. 
Probably  two-thirds  or  more  of  the  acute  cases  re- 
cover. The  chronic  form  is  characterized  by  the  per- 
sistence of  albumen  appearing  by  periods  in  the  urine, 
complicated  with  dropsical  symptoms. 

Treat»ieni.  Foment  the  region  of  the  kidneys  as 
long  as  the  pain  is  severe  ;  take  general  hot-air  baths ; 
keep  tne  bowels  open  by  a  proper  diet,  or  take  purga- 
tives, as  cream  of  tartar  and  jalap  or  citrate  of  magne- 
sia or  ]X)tash,  etc.  Avoid  exposure  to  cold,  wet  and 
fatigue  ;  be  totally  abstinent  from  alcoholic  and  other 
intemperance;  bathe  frequently,  always  finishing  off 
with  a  great  deal  of  hand-rubbing  of  the  skin  ;  jjermit 
no  acid  matter  in  the  diet.  Tincture  of  the  chloride 
of  iron  and  (for  strong  stomachs)  cod-liver  oil  may  be 
given  for  the  chronic  form.  Avoid  astringent  and 
mercurial  medicines.  But  generally  the  complica- 
tions of  chronic  Bright's  disease  are  so  obscure  and 
threatening  that  the  skill  of  a  physician  will  be  requi- 
site. 

Farm  animals  afflicted  with  kidney  disease  show 
the  fact  by  weak  hind-quarters,  and  are  past  redemp- 
tion.    See  respective  animals. 

Killing  animals:  see  Slaughtering. 

King  Bolt,  of  a  wagon,  is  the  largest  bolt,  which  holds 
the  coupling  pole  to  the  fore  axletree,  and  at  th'"  same 
time  the  bolster  on  the  axletree,  allowing  the  latter  to 
turn  freely  and  independently. 

Kino  (ki'no),  an  astringent  extract  of  a  deep 
brownish  red  color,  obtained  from  certain  tropical 
trees.  It  is  used  in  medicine,  to  stop  diarrhoea  when 
no  high  fever  accompanies,  and  the  powdered  root 
stops  bleeding  at  the  nose  or  from  wounds.  It  is 
also  used  for  other  purposes,  but  for  all  of  them  more 
common  remedies  are  equally  efficient. 


886 


KITCHEN— KNO  TS. 


Kitchen,  a  cooking  room.  The  culinary  art  is  a 
complicated  and  responsible  one,  involving  knowl- 
edge and  skill  in  various  subsidiary  or  collateral 
branches ;  and  these  are  distributed  throughout  this 
volume  under  the  heads,  Cookery,  Residence,  and  all 
the  different  articles  and  processes  used  in  or  in  con- 
nection with  kitchen  work. 

Below  we  give  a  list  of  the  articles  more  or  less 
needed  in  the  kitchen  and  dining-room,  omitting  laun- 
dry furniture,  special  dairy  appliances  and  most  car- 
penter tools,  some  of  which  are  occasionally  required 
in  culinary  work: 


Apple-Corer 

Fruit  Dishes 

SkUlcu 

Apple  Parer 

Fruit  Press 

Soap  Dish 

Bath  Brick 

Frying  Pans 

Soup  Ladle 

Bellows,  Hand 

Funnels 

Spice  Cans 

Bone  Saw 

Goblets 

Spice        and         Pepper 

Bottles 

Gridiron,  for  Broiling 

Boxes 

Braising  Pans 

Hash    Knife    or    Meat  Spit 

Bread  Board 

Chopper 

Spoons,  Table,  Dessert 

Bread  Box 

Heat-  Fender 

and  Tea 

Bread  Knife 

Jelly  Molds 
Knife  Box 

Spoon  Case 

Bread  Tray 

Steak- Beater 

Broom 

Knife  Sharpener 

Steamer 

Butter  Ladle 

Match  Safe 

Stew  Pans 

Butter  Plates 

Meal  Sieve 

Stools 

Butter  Stamp 

Meat  Dishes 

Stove  or  Range 

Cake  Cutters 

Mush  Paddle 

Stove -Lid  Lifter 

Can  Opener 

Napkins,  for   Washing 
Wiping  and  Furnish 

Strainer 

Call  Bells 

-  Sugar  Dredger 

Carving  Knife  and  Fork      ing  Table 

Tables 

Case  Knives  and  Forks  Napkin  Rings 

Teacups 

Casters  and  Cruets 

Nutmeg-Grater 

Teapot 

Chairs 

Pails 

Toast  Rack 

Cherry-Pittcr 

Paring  Knife 

Tongs 

Coffee  Pot 

Paity  Pans 
Pie  Pans 

Tubs 

Colanders 

Tureen 

Cork  Screw 

Plates,    Breakfast     ano 

Vegetable  Dishes 

Decanter 

Dinner 

V^etable        or       Root 
Grater 

Dippers 

Plate  Rack 

Dust  Pan 

Poker,  for  Fire 

Vials 

Dutch  Oven 

Pots 

Waiter  (Server   or   Sal- 

£gg Beater 

Rolling  Pin 

ver) 

Faucets 

Salt-cellars 

Wash  Basins 

Fender 

Sauce  Dishes 

Water  Filter 

File 

Saucers 

Whetstone 

Flour  Dredger 

Shovel,  for  Fire 

Whisk 

Flour  Steve 

Silver  Polish 

Knee,  a  principal  joint  in  the  legs  of  man  and  the 
fore-legs  of  quadrupeds.  The  knee  of  the  horse  is  a 
very  complicated  and  exceedingly  imjxsrtant  joint.  It 
constitutes  the  articulation  between  the  horse's  arm 
and  his  shank,  and  corresponds  anatomically,  or  in 
relative  position,  to  man's  wrist.  It  comprises  the 
lower  end  of  the  bone  of  the  arm,  the  upper  end  of 
the  three  bones  of  the  shank,  and  six  proper  or  inter- 
posed bones,  arranged  in  two  rows  of  three  each,  with 
a  seventh  one  behind.  This  important  joint  and 
integuments  are  very  subject  to  injury  from  falls  and 
bruises. 

Knee  Joint,  or  Toggle  Joint,  a  joint  consisting 
of  two  pieces  butting  on  each  other  like  the  bent  knee, 
so  as  to  thrust  with  increasing  power  when  pressed 
into  a  straight  line. 

Knickknack,  a  sweetmeat;  a  dainty. 

Knife-Sharpener.  A  small  contrivance  has  been 
invented,  consisting  of  two  hardened  edges  of  steel, 
adjusted  so  as  to  shave  off  a  knife  edge.  It  is  found 
at  some  hardware  stores,  and  sometimes  sold  on  the 
streets  of  towns  by  hawkers.  It  is  seldom  substan- 
tial, and  does  not  supersede  the  old-fashioned  whet- 
stone, grindstone  or  file. 


Knock  Down  or  Oflf,  at  auction,  is  to  declare  the 
sale  of  the  article  closed  to  the  last  bidder. 

Knots.     The  farmer   who   knows    how  to  tie  the 
right  kind  of  a  knot  with  a  rope,  cord   or   strap,  with 


Fig.  1  and  2. 


Fig.  3. 


neatness  and  dispatch,  possesses  a  useful  accomplish- 
ment, and  will  often  save  time  and  trouble  in  the 
numberless  cases  where  this  kind  of  skill  is  needed. 
For  the  purjxise  of  assisting  the  un- 
skillful and  inexperienced,  we  give  a 
few  brief  directions,  accompanied  with 
illustrations,  to  show  how  some  of  the 
more  common  and  useful  knots  are 
tied,  to  which  many  others  might  be 
added,  especially  of  those  known  to 
sailors  ;  but  these  here  described  em- 
brace nearly  all  that  are  necessary  for 
farmers  to  know. 

For  readily  attaching  a  rope  to  a 
timber,  mast  or  any  part  of  a  building, 
for  sustaining  a  continued  force,  the 
timber  hitch  shown  by  Fig.  i  answers 
a  good  purpose.  The  greater  the 
force  exerted,  the  firmer  it  will  hold,  in  consequence 
of  the  hard  pressure  against  the  timber.  A  noose  or 
running  knot  with  a  double  rope  is  represented  by 
Fig.  2. 

Figs.  3  and  4  repre- 
sent the  simplest  mode 
of  forming  a  running 
knot  for  a  loop,  the 
first  loose,  the  last 
drawn  tight. 

Loops,  Fig.  9  rep- 
resents a  simple  run- 
ning loop,  tied  with  a 
loop  in  the  knot,  so  that 
it  may  be  instantly  un- 
tied by  jerking  the  end. 
This  is  a  common  way 
of  tying  horses'  halters, 
being  quickly  tied  and 
quickly  loosened.  To 
prevent      the      animal  Figs.  5  and  6. 

from  working  it  loose,  thrust  the  end  through  the  loop 


KNUCKLE— KYA  NIZE. 


887 


of  the  knot,  as  in  Fig.  6,  which  will  render  it  perfect- 
ly secure.      Every  boy  should  know  how  to  tie  this 

very  simple  knot 
for  hitching  horses, 
but  many  boys,  as 
well  as  men,  do 
not. 

As  it  is  exceed- 
'^'<^- 7-  ingly  convenient  for 

every  one  who  works  on  a  farm  to  know  how  to  tie 
quickly  the  various  knots  described  in  this  short  ar- 
ticle, it  will  be  an  interesting  exercise  both  for  boys 
and  men,  on  rainy  days  and 
long  evenings,  to  procure  a 
small  rope  or  cord  and  acquire 
a  ready  practice  in  forming  the 
various  kinds  here  figured  and 
described. 

The  quickest   way   of  tying 
two  ends  together  is  shown  by 
Figs.  7  and  8.     Place  the  two 
ends  parallel  together,  then  tie 
a  cominon  single  knot  near  the 
end,  as  shown  in   Fig.  7  ;  then 
draw    the    two    cords    or    ropes 
tighten    it,    as    shown     in     Fig. 
secure     connection     will    be     found,     which     will 
not  untie  or  slip.     It  is  rather  rough  and  awkward  in 

appearance,  but 
is  often  useful  on 
account  of  the 
quickness  with 
which  it  may  be 
formed. 

Fig.  9,  known 
as  the  "reef 
knot"  by  sailors, 
is  the  most  use- 
ful   knot    where 

r  IGS.  9  and  10. 

two  ends  are  to  be  fastened  together,  and  represents 
the  cords  loosely  connected;  Fig.  10  shows  the  same 
tightly  drawn  together.  As  a  general  rule,  the  best 
knot  is  the  one  that  is  neatest  in  appearance,  and 
this  combines  both  qualities.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  ends  and  the  main  cords  lie  closely  parallel 
together,  or  on  the  same  side  of  the  loops.  This  knot 
is  often  spoiled  and  rendered  nearly  useless  by   plac- 


FiG.  8. 

apart    so     as    to 
8,     and     a     very 


ing  the  ends  and  cord  on  opposite  sides  of  the  loops. 

Knuckle  (nuk'l),  the  joint  of  a  finger,  particularly 
when  made  prominent  by  closing  the  finger;  the 
knee-joint,  especially  of  a  calf,  as  a  "  knuckle  of 
veal ;"  the  joint  pieces  of  a  hinge  through  which  the 
pin  or  rivet  passes. 

Kohl  Eabi  or  Turnip  Cabbage.  The  stalk  is 
swelled  out  the  shape  of  a  turnip.  Prepare  the  ground 
as  for  cabbage,  then  plant  about  the  first  of  June  in 
rows  two  feet  apart,  thinning  plants  to  12  inches  in 
the  row.  It  will  stand  severe  drouth.  Preserved  over 
winter  like  turnips.  When  young  their  flesh  is  tender 
and  delicious,  resembling  a  fine  ruta-baga  with  less 
of  the  turnip  flavor.  When  fully  matured  they  are 
excellent  for  stock. 


Large  or  Late  Giant  Purple 

A  standard  early  kind, 


Best 


Varieties. 
for  stock. 

Early    White    Vienna. 

Early  Smooth  Purple.     Fine  for  table  use- 

White  Giant.     Very  large  and  choice. 

Koumiss  (koo'mis)  or  Kumyss  (ku'mis),  a  liquor 
made  among  the  Calmucks  of  Tartary  by  fermenting 
mare's  or  camel's  milk,  from  which  they  obtain  by 
distillation  an  intoxicating  spirit.  In  some  parts  of 
Western  Asia,  however,  a  beverage  by  this  name  is 
simply  fermented  mare's  milk.  This  beverage  is 
manufactured  in  this  country  for  the  use  of  those  who 
have  impaired  digestion,  and  is  to  be  had  at  some 
drug  stores. 

Kyanize  (ki'an-ize),  to  preserve  timber  from  decay 
by  the  following  process:  Dissolve  i  pound  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate  in  20  gallons  of  water,  in  a  tight  half 
hogshead  or  rectangular  box  of  the  proper  height,  and 
stand  up  the  posts  in  the  liquid  for  two  weeks.  Be 
sure  all  the  necessary  parts  of  the  jwsts  to  be  kyan- 
ized  are  under  the  liquid  during  the  whole  time,  then 
take  out  and  dry,  and  fill  up  the  bath  with  more 
[xjsts.  If  the  liquid  evaporate,  add  water  and  more 
of  the  solution,  when  necessary.  A  bath  of  strong 
lye  from  potash  or  wood  ashes  makes  a  fair  substi- 
tute, and  it  is  presumed  the  cheaper  solution  made 
from  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  and  water  would 
form  a  styptic  equally  effective.  The  corrosive  sub- 
limate solution  will  not,  however,  be  very  expensive, 
as  so  large  a  number  can  be  treated  with  so  small  a 
quantity. 


■  abel,  a  small  piece  of  any  material,  attached 
to  any  object  and  designating  its  name  or 
number,  etc.  The  labels  in  use  on  a  farm, 
and  especially  in  the  orchard  and  garden, 
are  of  many  styles,  according  to  taste  or  con- 
venience. Tin  labels,  when  once  made,  and 
with  one  end  long  and  narrow  to  be  readily 
wrapped  around  a  twig,  can  be  more  rapidly  at- 
tached to  trees  and  other  plants  than  any  other  kind. 
They  are  a  great  convenience  when  considerable 
labeling  is  to  be  done  in  haste,  as  with  nurserymen  in 
spring  time.  They  may  be  prepared  during  the  win- 
ter, by  painting  them  black  and  writing  on  them  with 
a  blunt  stick  before  the  paint  isdry,and  then  so  classi- 
fying them  that  they  can  be  quickly  selected  when  the 
emergency  arises.  Or,  cut  strips  of  zinc  half  or  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide  at  one  end,  and  half  that 
width  at  the  other,  with  a  length  of  about  five  inches; 
and  they  may  be  readily  attached  to  a  small  branch 
by  winding  the  narrow  end  twice  around  the  branch, 
and  nothing  more.  As  the  branch  grows,  the  zinc 
expands  by  uncoiling,  and  no  harm  will  be  done  by 
cutting  into  the  bark,  as  is  so  common  with  wired 
labels.  Pencil  marks  on  these  are  said  to  last  for 
years. 

In  housekeeping  it  is  very  important  to  have  every 
bottle,  package,  box,  etc.,  labeled,  if  it  contains  any- 
thing for  use  and  is  closed,  and  thus  save  time  when 
one  is  in  haste,  and  prevent  mistakes.  To  be  obliged 
to  uncork  a  bottle,  open  a  box  or  undo  a  package — 
and  generally  a  lot  of  them — every  time  you  go  to  find 
what  you  want,  is  a  both  a  needless  and  vexatious 
waste  of  time,  especially  when  one  is  in  a  hurry.  Be- 
sides, mistakes  in  the  use  of  medicines,  chemicals  and 
culinary  preparations  are  often  very  serious— which 
would  generally  be  prevented  by  proper  labeling. 

Labium,  the  lower  lip  of  an  insect.  It  is  a  very 
complicated  organ,  and  generally  serves  to  close  the 
mouth  from  beneath. 

Labrum,  the  upper  lip  of  an  insect.  In  biting  in- 
sects it  is  a  flattened  horny  or  leathery  plate,  but  in 
many  other  insects  it  is  quite  membranous  and  com- 
pletely concealed. 

Lace,  To  Wash  :  see  Laundry. 

Lactic  Acid,  the  acid  of  sour  milk,  extracted  by 
chemists  for  medical  purposes.  It  is  a  limpid,  sirupy 
liquid,  colorless  or  of  a  pale  wine  color,  of  a  slight  but 
not  unpleasant  odor  and  a  very  sour  taste.  One  to 
three  drams  a  day  are  recommended  for  dyspepsia, 


Lactometer,  an  instrument  for  ascertaining  tha 
comparative  richness  of  new  milk. 

Ladder,  a  well-known  hand  implement  for  climb- 
ing. All  persons  conversant  with  the  routine  of  farm 
operations  know  the  importance  of  good  strong  lad- 
ders. In  proiwrtion  to  their  cost  they  are  of  more 
value  than  any  other  farm  contrivance.  They  need 
not  be  expensive.  Even  the  most  bungling  user  of 
tools  may  construct  one.  Yet  it  is  a  fact  that  in  al- 
most every  neighborhood  are  farmers  and  owners  of 
buildings  who,  in  case  of  fire,  have  not  at  hand  a  lad- 
der of  sufficient  length  to  reach  the  eaves  of  the  barn, 
or  even  of  the  dwelling;  and  how  often  it  occurs  that 
when  a  fire  breaks  out  there  is  plenty  of  water,  and 
persons  at  hand  to  quench  the  flames  if  they  had  a 
ladder  to  reach  the  roof,  or  other  point  of  danger! 
For  general  farm  purposes  it  is  best  to  have  two  lad- 
ders, one  about  12  feet  in  length  the  other  from  22  to 
30  feet  long,  or  of  a  length  sufficient  to  reach  the 
roof  of  the  highest  building  on  the  premises.  The 
side-pieces  should  be  free  from  knots  or  decayed  por- 
tions, and  it  is  best,  if  ix)ssible,to  construct  them  from 
some  light  wood,  such  as  pine,  chestnut  or  basswood. 
For  a  rough,  cheap  job,  poles  may  be  used,  simply 
splitting  them.  Or  select  straight  poles  of  suitable 
length,  and  saw  them  lengthwise,  and  they  will  be 
found  better  and  much  cheaper  than  sawed  pieces 
obtained  at  the  mill.  The  connecting  rollers  or  rungs 
should  be  of  the  best  hard,  tough  wood,  and  never 
less  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter  at  the 
ends.  For  long  ladders  it  is  best  to  wedge  each  one 
in  position.  A  good  ladder  should  decrease  three 
inches  in  width  to  every  ten  feet  in  length.  Paint,  01 
at  least  apply  a  g(X)d  coat  of  oil.  Keep  at  some  con- 
venient and  readily  accessible  place  under  shelter 
when  not  in  use. 

Ladle,  an  instrument  used  in  lading  or  dipping;  a 
cup  with  a  long  handle,  used  for  throwing  or  dip- 
ping out  liquids  from  a  vessel.  For  household  pur- 
poses good  ladles  of  all  kinds,  both  wooden  and 
metallic,  can  be  had  at  hardware  stores,  groceries, 
etc. 


see    page 


888 


Lady-Bird,  Lady-Bug  or  Lady-Fly: 
865. 

Lamb,  the  young  of  sheep:  see  Sheep. 

Lambrekin  (lam'ber-kin),  a  kind  of  pendent  scarf 
or  covering  attached  to  the  helmet,  to  protect  it 
from  wet  or  heat ;  also  a  short,  ornamental  curtain  to 


LAM^  S-QUARTER—LAND. 


889 


be  fixed  at  the  top  of  windows.  The  latter  is  made 
of  costly  material,  too  fine  to  be  washed  ;  and  al- 
though it  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  mansions  of  the 
wealthy,  it  casts  a  somber  shade  of  gloom  over  the 
parlor  scarcely  in  keeping  with  the  demands  of  mod- 
ern physiology.  Neither  good  taste  nor  "style" 
absolutely  requires  the  use  of  such  an  article. 

Lamb's-quarter,  a  common  garden  weed,  called 
also  pigweed  and  goosefoot;  the  last  mentioned  name 
is  the  most  appropriate  and  definite.  The  weed, 
though  common,  is  not  a  very  disagreeable  pest.  It 
belongs  to  the  same  order  as  beets  and  spinach,  and 
has  been  used  as  "  greens,"  mixed  with  mustard 
leaves  or  some  other  species. 

Lamb's-wool,  or  Wassail,  a  beverage  made  by 
mixing  the  pulp  of  roasted  apples  with  ale,  with 
sweetening  and  spicing. 

Lamp,  a  well-known  apparatus  for  producing  arti- 
ficial light.  For  history  of,  see  Light.  There  are  very 
few  common  illuminating  substances  that  produce  a 
light  as  brilliant  and  steady  as  kerosene  oil,  but  its 
full  brilliancy  is  rarely  attained,  through  want  of  at- 
tention to  certain  requisite  points  in  its  manage- 
ment. The  wick,  oil  and  lamp,  and  all  its  appur-' 
tenances  must  be  perfectly  clean.  The  chimney 
must  not  only  be  "clean,"  but  clear  and  bright.  The 
wick  should  be  trimmed  exactly  square  across  the 
wick  tube  and  not  over  the  curved  top  of  the  cup- 
ola or  dome.  Cut  off  the  perfectly  charred  por- 
tion. After  thus  cutting  evenly  across  the  top  of 
the  tube,  raise  the  wick  a  little  and  cut  off  the 
corners  slightly.  The  sharper  the  scissors,  the  bet- 
ter the  cut  and  the  better  will  be  the  flame.  A 
■wick  made  of  felt  is  superior  in  all  respects  to  one  of 
cotton.  The  kerosene  ought  not  to  be  suffered  to 
get  very  low  in  the  lamp,  nor  should  it  be  filled 
to  within  an  inch  of  the  base  of  the  tube,  as  in 
such  cases  it  oozes  out  through  the  wick  and  over 
all  the  lamp.  But  greasiness  of  the  lamp  can  be 
prevented  by  placing  a  felt  ring  a  half-inch  wide 
close  around  the  neck  or  socket.  (See  article  Kero- 
sene, page  884).  The  wick  should  not  be  turned 
■down  very  low,  and  the  lamp  left  standing  very 
long  in  the  absence  of  all  persons  from  the  room, 
or  in  one's  sleeping-room  during  the  night.  Wicks 
are  often  too  narrow  or  too  wide.  When  too  nar- 
row they  give  but  little  light,  the  flame  burns  with 
jets  and  puffs,  and  sometimes,  by  a  sudden  draft 
caused  by  opening  or  shutting  a  door,  the  flame 
may  be  drawn  down  into  the  globe  and  an  explosion 
result. 

To  clean  kerosene  lamps,  pour  out  all  the  oil, 
wash  thoroughly  with  warm  water,  soap  and  sal- 
soda,  rinse  repeatedly  until  all  signs  of  the  suds 
disappear,  and  then  let  drain  until  dry. 

To  clean  kerosene  lamp  chimneys,  rub  them  out 
with  soft  newspaper  or  cotton,  by  means  of  a  stick. 
Have  the  chimney  cool,  and  moisten  it  inside  sev- 
eral times  by  breathing  into  it.  Occasionally  it  may 
be  better  to  wash  them  as    just  recommended    for 


lamps.  To  prevent  lamp  chimneys  from  cracking, 
put  them  into  a  kettle  of  cold  water,  gradually  bring 
to  the  boiling  ix)int  and  then  as  gradually  let  them 
cool.     Some  add  a  little  salt  to  the  water. 

A  new  top  may  be  cemented  upon  a  kerosene 
lamp  with  the  following  composition  :  3  parts  resin, 
I  caustic  soda,  3  water,  boiled  together,  and  then 
mixed  with  its  own  weight  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This 
will  set  firmly  in  half  to  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 
Zinc  white,  white  lead  or  precipitated  chalk  may  be 
substituted  for  plaster,  but  it  hardens  more  slowly. 
Of  course,  the  neck  of  the  lamp  has  to  be  perfectly 
clean  from  all  the  oil  and  other  foreign  matter  be- 
fore the  process  of  cementing  on  another  top  is 
commenced.  Generally  it  is  cheaper  and  better  to 
take  the  lamp  to  some  place  in  town  where  they  re- 
pair such  things. 

In  lighting  a  lamp,  it  is  best  to  commence  with 
a  small  blaze  and  heat  up  the  chimney  gradually 
to  prevent  breaking  it.  Lamps  without  chimneys 
are  in  the  market,  but  they  are  objectionable  in  some 
respect.  The  most  serviceable  style  is  a  chimney 
which  is  held  on  the  lamp-top  by  a  small  thumb- 
screw, and  the  top  so  arranged  that  in  lighting  you 
can  turn  the  chimney  and  dome  over  in  one  piece, 
which  is  held  to  the  neck  piece  by  a  spring. 

For  all  table  work  the  lamp  should  have  a  shade, 
white  inside.  Next  to  white  a  bluish  tint  is  best; 
but  unless  the  light  is  pretty  strong,  a  bluish  shade 
or  chimney   makes    it  too   dim  for  comfortable  use. 

Argand  burners  are  those  adapted  to  cylindrical, 
hollow  wicks,  allowing  ventilation  through  the  hol- 
low. A  slender,  cylindrical  chimney  is  used,  with  a 
constriction  or  neck  near  the  base.  It  is  slightly 
more  economical  of  the  oil  than  the  ordinary  appa- 
ratus, but  the  chimneys  are  apt  to  break. 

"  Students' "  lamps  are  stylish  and  somewhat  cost- 
ly, but  have  the  slight  advantage  of  an  adjustable 
arm  by  which  the  Hght  can  be  elevated  or  lowered 
to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  student. 

Lampas,  tumefaction  of  the  gum  and  of  the  bars 
of  the  palate  of  the  horse's  mouth;  see  page  787. 

Lampblack,  is  a  fine  soot  formed  by  the  condensa- 
tion of  the  smoke  of  burning  resinous  substances  It 
can  be  made  on  a  small  scale  in  the  following  manner: 
Suspend  over  a  lamp  a  conical  funnel  of  tin  plate, 
having  above  it  a  pipe,  to  convey  from  the  apartment 
the  smoke  which  escapes  from  the  lamp.  Large 
mushroom-like  concretions  of  a  very  black  carbon- 
aceous matter,  and  exceedingly  light,  will  be  formed 
at  the  summit  of  the  cone,  and  must  be  collected  from 
time  to  time.  This  black  may  be  rendered  less  oily 
and  drier  by  calcination  in  close  vessels.  The 
funnel  should  be  united  to  the  pipe,  which  conveys  off 
the  smoke,  by  means  of  wire,  as  solder  would  be 
melted  by  the  flame  of  the  lamp.  For  fine  painting, 
lampblack  must  be  ground  in  a  paint-mill. 

Land,  a  tract  of  territory,  referred  to  as  a  measured 
piece  or  with  reference  to  its  contour.     The  nature  of 


890 


LAND. 


the  surface  with  reference  to  tillage  is  comprehended 
in  the  term  "soil." 

To  Measure  Land.  Surveyors  measure  land  by 
four-rod  chains,  which  contain  100  links.  Each  link 
is  therefore  7.92  inches.  On  request,  they  rejxjrt 
their  surveys  in  miles,  sections,  acres,  rods,  etc.  To 
measure  land  for  agricultural  purposes,  when  exact- 
ness is  not  required,  "stepping"  is  the  most  convenient. 
By  a  little  practice  one  can  make  five  steps  to  the  rod 
within  a  few  inches,  and  thus  be  able  to  calculate 
the  area  or  dimensions  of  his  grounds  in  a  very  simple 
manner.  When  the  field  is  a  square,  a  parallelogram, 
a  rhombus  or  a  rhomboid,  the  exact  area  can  be 
calculated  by  multiplying  the  length  in  rods  by  the 
breadth  in  rods,  and  dividing  the  product  by  160. 
When  the  field  is  triangular,  multiply  the  base,  or 
longest  side,  in  rods,  by  the  greatest  width,  in  rods,  and 
divide  half  the  product  by  160.  Wnen  the  field  is  a 
trapezium  or  a  trapezoid,  divide  it  diagonally  by  a  line 
running  from  one  extreme  corner  to  the  other,  which 
will  cut  the  field  into  two  right-angled  triangles ;  then 
proceed  with  each  as  in  the  foregoing  rule,  and  add 
the  areas  of  the  two  triangles  together.  The  product 
will  be  the  number  of  acres.  When  the  field  has 
more  than  four  sides,  all  of  which  are  straight,  draw 
diagonals  to  divide  the  field  into  triangles;  find  the 
area  of  each  separately,  and  the  sum  of  the  whole  will 
be  the  number  of  acres.  Where  the  field  is  long  and 
the  sides  crooked  and  irregular,  take  the  breadth  in 
rods  in  a  number  of  places,  at  equal  distances  apart ; 
add  them,  and  divide  the  sum  by  the  number  of 
breadths  for  the  mean  average  or  breadth ;  then 
multiply  that  by  the  length  in  rods  and  divide  the 
product  by  160:  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of 
acres.  Where  the  field  is  long,  and  the  sides  and 
ends  crooked  and  irregular,  find  the  mean  breadth  in 
rods  by  the  foregoing  rule,  and  proceed  in  like  manner 
to  find  the  mean  length  in  rods ;  then  multiply  the 
mean  length  by  the  mean  breadth,  and  divide  the 
product  by  160,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number 
of  acres.  Where  the  field  is  a  circle,  multiply  the 
diameter  by  itself  and  the  product  by  7854,  and  ix)int 
off  four  figures  to  the  right.  If  the  measurement  is 
taken  in  rods,  the  answer  will  be  in  square  rods,  which 
if  divided  by  160  will  give  the  number  of  acres. 

Horizontal  measurements  are  always  understood  in 
surveying  land.  Therefore  the  chain  or  rod  must  be 
held  on  a  level  with  the  horizon  in  taking  measure- 
ment. In  going  over  steep  hills  a  short  chain  must 
be  used  and  great  care  taken  in  setting  the  pins.  A 
plummet,  and  even  a  level,  are  necessary  to  exactness. 

The  Public  Lands  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
one  at  $1.25  per  acre,  designated  as  minimum,  lying 
outside  of  railroad  limits  ;  the  other  at  $2.50  an  acre, 
as  double  minimum,  lying  within  railroad  limits. 
Titles  are  acquired  by  purchase  at  public  land  sale,  by 
ordinary  "private  entry,"  and  in  virtue  of  the  pre- 
emption, homestead,  timber-culture,  and  other  laws. 
Purchases  at  public  sale  are  made  when  lands  are 
"offered"  at  public  auction  to  the  highest  bidder  by 
proclamation  of  the  President  or  by  order  of  the 


General  Land  Office.  Lands  so  offered  and  not  sold, 
and  not  since  reserved  or  withdrawn  from  the  market 
can  be  secured  by  "private  entry"  or  location. 

Heads  of  families,  widows  or  single  persons  (male 
or  female),  over  the  age  of  2  r  years,  citizens  of  the 
United  States  or  who  have  declared  their  intention  to 
become  such  under  the  naturalization  laws,  may  enter 
upon  any  "offered"  and  "unoffered"  lands  or  any 
unsurveyed  lands  to  which  the  Indians'  title  is 
extinguished,  and  purchase  not  exceeding  160  acres 
under  the  pre-emption  laws.  After  making  settle- 
ment, if  on  "offered"  land,  the  applicant  must  file  his 
declaratory  statement  with  the  district  land  office 
within  30  days,  for  which  a  fee  of  $2.00  is  required, 
and  within  one  year  from  date  of  settlement,  make 
final  proof  of  his  actual  residence  on  and  cultivation 
of  the  tract,  and  pay  therefor  at  $1.25  per  acre  if  out- 
side of  railroad  limits,  or  $2.50  per  acre  if  within  these 
limits;  and  he  may  pay  in  cash,  or  by  military  bounty 
land  warrants,  agricultural  college,  private  claim  or 
Supreme  Court  scrip. 

When  the  tract  has  been  surveyed  and  is  not 
"offered"  land,  the  claimant  must  file  his  or  her 
declaratory  statement  within  three  months  from  date 
of  settlement,  and  make  proof  and  payment  within 
thirty-three  months  from  date  of  settlement.  Settle- 
ment is  the  first  thing  to  be  done  under  the  pre- 
emption laws. 

When  settlements  are  made  on  unsurveyed  lands, 
settlers  are  required  to  file  their  declaratory  statements 
within  three  months  after  the  date  of  the  receipt  at 
the  district  land  office,  or  of  the  approved  plat  of  the 
township,  embracing  their  claims,  and  make  proof  and 
payment  within  thirty  months  from  the  expiration  of 
said  three  months;  payments  the  same  as  in  case 
of  "offered"  land. 

Pre-emptors  may  submit  proofs  of  residence  and 
improvements  at  any  time  after  six  months  of  actual 
residence.  He  must  show  by  his  own  testimony  and 
by  two  credible  witnesses  such  actual  residence  and 
cultivation — a  habitable  dwelling  and  other  improve- 
ments, to  the  satisfaction  of  the  land  officers  that  the 
spirit  of  the  law  has  been  complied  with. 

At  any  time  before  the  expiration  of  the  time 
allowed  for  proof  and  payment,  the  settler  may,  by 
making  proper  appUcation  at  the  land  office  and  pay- 
ment of  the  required  fee,  convert  his  claim  into  a 
homestead,  and  the  time  he  has  resided  upon  the 
land  is  credited  on  homestead  residence  if  he  desires. 
No  person  who  abandons  his  residence  on  his  own 
land  to  reside  on  public  land  in  the  same  State  or 
Territory,  or  who  owns  320  acres  of  land,  is  entitled 
to  the  benefits  of  the  pre-emption  laws.  It  is  held, 
however,  that  this  provision  does  not  apply  to  a  house 
and  lot  in  town.  Claims  cannot  be  transferred  until 
title  is  perfected.  The  second  filing  of  the  declara- 
tory statement  by  any  pre-emp>or,  when  first  filing 
was  legal  in  all  respects,  is  prohibited.  Before  proof 
and  payment  on  pre-emi)tion  claims,  written  notice 
must  be  given  by  the  claimants  to  the  Register,  who 
must  post  a  notice  in  his  office  and  cause  the  same 


LAND. 


891 


to  be  published  in  a  newspaper  nearest  the  land  for 
at  least  30  days,  as  in  cases  of  homesteads. 

Any  person  who  is  the  head  of  a  family  or  who  has 
arrived  at  the  age  of  21  years,  and  is  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  or  has  filed  his  declaration  of  intention 
to  become  such,  is  entitled  to  enter  one-quarter 
section  or  less  quantity  of  unappropriated  public  land 
under  the  homestead  laws.  The  applicant  must 
make  an  affidavit  that  he  is  over  the  age  of  21  or  is 
the  head  of  a  family,  and  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  or  has  declared  his  intention  to  become 
such,  and  that  the  entry  is  made  for  his  exclusive  use 
and  benefit  and  for  actual  settlement  and  cultivation, 
and  must  pay  the  legal  fee  and  that  part  of  the  com- 
mission required  to  be  paid  when  entry  is  made,  as 
follows:  When  within  railroad  limits,  for  160  acres, 
%\o,  commission  $8;  for  80  acres,  fee  $5,  commission 
$4.  Outside  of  railroad  limits,  fee  $10,  commission 
$4,  and  in  proportion  for  80  or  40  acres.  When 
these  requirements  are  complied  with,  the  Receiver 
issues  his  receipt  in  duplicate,  and  the  matter  is 
entered  \\\)0\\  the  records  of  the  office.  After  faithful 
observance  of  the  law  in  regard  to  actual  settlement 
and  cultivation  for  the  continuous  term  of  five  years, 
at  the  expiration  of  that  term  or  within  two  years 
thereafter,  final  proof  must  be  made,  and  if  satis- 
factory to  the  land  officers,  that  part  of  the  commis- 
sions remaining  unpaid  (the  same  in  amount  as  paid 
on  entry)  must  be  paid.  The  Register  then  issues 
his  certificate  and  makes  proper  returns  to  the 
General  Land  Oflice,  as  a  basis  of  a  patent. 

Any  settler  desiring  to  make  final  proof,  must  first 
file  with  the  Register  a  written  notice  of  his  intention, 
describing  the  land  and  giving  the  names  of  four 
witnesses  by  whom  the  facts  as  to  settlement,  con- 
tinuous residence,  cultivation,  etc.,  are  to  be  estab- 
lished. This  notice  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
deposit  of  money  suiificient  to  pay  the  cost  of  publish- 
ing the  notice  which  the  Register  is  required  to  pub- 
lish for  thirty  days  (five  times),  in  a  newspaper 
designated  by  him,  and  arrange  with  the  publisher  of 
the  paper  therefor.  Notice  is  also  posted  in  the  land 
office  for  the  same  period. 

Final  proof  cannot  be  made  until  the  expiration  of 
five  years  from  the  date  of  the  entry,  and  must  be 
made  within  two  years  thereafter.  In  making  final 
proof  the  settler  may  appear  in  person  at  the  district 
land  office  with  his  witnesses,  and  there  make  the 
affidavit  and  proof  required ;  or  he  may,  if  by  reason 
of  bodily  infirmity  or  distance  it  is  inconvenient  for 
him  to  appear  at  the  land  office,  with  his  witnesses, 
appear  before  the  judge  of  a  court  of  record  of  the 
county  and  State,  or  district  or  Territory  in  which  the 
land  is  situated,  and  there  make  final  proof.  When 
a  homestead  settler  dies  before  he  can  prove  up,  the 
widow,  or  in  case  of  her  death,  the  heirs,  may  con- 
tinue settlement  and  obtain  title  and  requisite  proof 
at  the  proper  time.  In  case  of  death  of  both  parents 
leaving  infant  children,  the  homestead  may  be  sold 
for  cash  for  benefit  of  the  children,  and  purchaser 
will  receive  title. 


The  sale  of  a  homestead  claim  to  another  party 
before  completion  of  title,  is  not  recognized.  In 
making  final  proof  the  settler  must  swear  that  no  part 
of  the  land  has  been  alienated,  except  for  church, 
cemetery,  or  school  pur|X)ses,  or  right  of  railroads. 

Homestead  claims  maybe  relinquished,  but  in  such 
case  the  land  reverts  to  the  Government.  If  a  settler 
does  not  wish  to  'remain  five  years  on  his  tract,  he 
may  pay  for  it,  as  under  pre-emption  law,  in  cash  or 
warrants  at  any  time  after  six  months  of  actual  resi- 
dence. Homesteaders  are  allowed  six  months  after 
entry  to  commence  improvements  and  establish  resi- 
dence. 

The  law  allows  but  one  homestead  privilege  to  any 
one  person. 

Every  person  who  served  not  less  than  go  days  in 
the  army  or  navy  of  the  United  States  during  the 
recent  rebellion,  who  was  honorably  discharged  and 
has  remained  loyal  to  the  Government,  may  enter  a 
homestead,  and  the  time  of  his  services  shall  be 
deducted  from  the  period  of  five  years,  provided  that 
the  party  shall  reside  upon  and  cultivate  his  home- 
stead at  least  one  year  after  he  commences  improve- 
ments. The  widow  of  a  soldier,  or  if  she  be  dead  or 
is  married  again,  the  minor  heirs  (if  any),  may, 
through  their  guardian,  make  a  homestead  entry;  and 
if  the  soldier  died  in  the  service,  the  whole  term  of 
his  enlistment  will  be  credited  upon  the  term  of  re- 
quired residence.  Lands  acquired  under  the  home- 
stead laws  are  not  liable  for  any  debt  contracted  prior 
to  the  issuing  of  the  patent  therefor. 

Under  the  timber-culture  law  not  more  than  160 
acres  on  any  one  section,  entirely  devoid  of  timber, 
can  be  entered,  and  no  person  can  make  more  than 
one  entry  thereunder. 

The  qualifications  of  applicants  are  the  same  as 
under  the  pre-emption  and  homestead  laws.  The 
land-office  charges  are,  for  160  acres  or  more  than  80, 
$14  when  an  entry  is  made,  and  $4  at  final  proof. 
For  80  acres  or  less,  $9  at  entry,  and  %\  at  final 
proof.  The  applicant  must  make  an  affidavit  that 
the  land  specified  in  his  application  is  exclusively 
prairie,  or  other  land  devoid  of  timber,  that  his  filing 
and  entry  are  made  for  the  cultivation  of  timber  for  his 
own  exclusive  use  and  benefit;  that  the  application 
is  made  in  good  faith  and  not  for  the  purjxjse  of 
speculation,  or  directly  or  indirectly  for  the  use  of  any 
other  person  or  persons;  that  he  intends  to  hold  and 
cultivate  the  land  and  comply  with  the  laws,  and  that 
he  has  not  previously  made  an  entry  under  the  timber- 
culture  law. 

No  residence  is  required  on  a  tree  claim,  but  the 
claimant  must  break  or  plow  five  acres  of  a  quarter 
section,  and  pro  rata  on  a  smaller  tract,  during  the 
first  year  after  entry.  During  the  second  year  he  must 
break  five  acres  more,  and  cultivate  to  crop  or  other- 
wise the  five  acres  first  broken.  During  the  third 
year  he  must  plant  in  tree  seeds,  trees  or  cuttings,  the 
first  five  acres,  and  cultivate  to  crop  or  otherwise  the 
second  five  acres,  and  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  year 
the  entire  tract  of  ten  acres  must  have  been  planted 


892 


LAND— LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


to  timber  trees,  seeds  or  cuttings.  Provision  is  made 
for  extension  of  time  in  case  drought  or  grasshoppers 
destroy  trees.  These  trees  he  must  cuhivate  and 
protect,  and  if,  at  the  expiration  of  eight  years  from 
date  of  entry,  or  at  any  time  within  five  years  there- 
after, the  entrant,  or  if  he  be  dead,  his  heirs,  shall 
prove  by  two  credible  witnesses  the  planting,  cul- 
tivating and  protecting  the  timber  for  not  less  than 
eight  years,  and  that  there  were  at  the  end  of  the 
eight  years,  at  least  675  living  thrifty  trees  on  each 
of  the  ten  acres  required  to  be  planted,  he  or  they 
will  be  entitled  to  a  patent.  It  should  be  added, 
that  in  making  final  proof  it  must  be  shown  that  "not 
less  than  2,700  trees  were  planted  to  each  acre." 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  ten  acres  should  be  in 
a  compact  body. 

Failure  to  comply  with  any  of  the  requirements  of 
the  law  at  any  time  after  one  year  from  date  of  entry, 
renders  such  entry  liable  to  contest,  and  uixjn  due 
proof  of  such  failure  the  entry  will  be  canceled.  No 
land  acquired  under  this  law  will  in  any  event  be- 
come liable  to  the  satisfaction  cf  any  debt  or  debts 
contracted  prior  to  the  issuing  of  the  final  certificate 
therefor. 

A  qualified  applicant  cannot  take  a  homestead  and 
pre-emption  claim  at  the  same  time,  but  he  may  take 
either  and  a  tree  claim  at  the  same  time.  A  man 
may  take  a  pre-einption  and  a  tree  claim,  and  after 
proving  up  and  obtaining  title  to  his  pre-emption, 
may  then  enter  a  homestead  (if  he  can  find  one),  and 
thus  secure  480  acres  of  land. 

Land,  in  farming,  the  unplowed  iX)rtion  of  an  area 
laid  off  to  be  plowed.  A  plow  is  said  to  "  run  to 
land "  when  it  takes  too  large  a  furrow  slice. 

Iiandau,  a  kind  of  carriage.     See  page  188. 

Landlord,  a  person  who  owns  land  and  lets  it  out 
to  tenants. 

Land-side,  of  a  plow,  the  side  next  the  unplowed 
land  and  opposite  the  feather. 

Landscape  Gardening.  In  the  infancy  of  human 
arts,  all  gardening  would  be  comprehended  in  the 
■cultuie  of '  a  few  fruits  and  esculent  plants  within  a 
very  limited  space ;  but  at  present  the  word  garden 
has  at  least  three  distinct  significations.  It  is  used 
to  designate  a  spot  destined  for  the  culture  of  fruits 
and  culinary  vegetables  ;  to  mark  a  space  devoted  to 
llowers  and  botanical  pursuits;  and  to  denote  a  more 
extended  scene,  characterized  by  forest  trees  and 
walks  for  shade  and  recreation,  and  combining  such 
other  objects  belonging  to  external  scenery  as  taste, 
art,  or  locality  may  confer.  For  kitchen-gardening 
and  floral  gardening,  we  refer  to  the  articles  on  Gar- 
den and  Floriculture.  The  art  of  forming  the  third 
class  of  gardens,  and  to  which  we  projxise  in  this  ar- 
ticle to  confine  our  attention,  has  been  indifferently 
Tcnown  under  the  terms  pleasure,  ornamental  and 
rural  gardening;  but  is  now  more  generally  designated 
landscape  gardening — a  very  happy  term,  particularly 
as  applied  to  the  modern  style  of  laying  out  grounds. 


We  wish  to  impress  upon  the  farmers  the  imjxjrtance 
of  beautifying  their  farms,  at  least  to  some  extent.  A 
little  taste  and  very  little  labor,  and  this  labor  well 
rewarded,  may  easily  make  a  purely  agricultural  region 
one  of  delightful  beauty. 

A  farm  that  is  skillfully  managed,  requires  but  lit- 
tle additional  attention  to  fences,  borders,  farm  roads 
and  farm  buildings,  to  make  it  a  distinct  and  beauti- 
ful member  in  a  beautiful  landscape.  Art  and  utility 
here  thoroughly  concur.  The  cultivation  which 
reaches  cleanness,  neatness  and  good  order — and 
nature  will  do  the  rest  surprisingly  well  in  the  coun- 
try— is  the  most  economical  tillage.  The  neglected 
out-buildings  and  the  abused  and  scattered  tools  are 
as  costly  as  they  are  unsightly.  The  ragged  edge  of 
cultivation  which  stops  where  the  plow  and  harrow 
end,  is  no  more  in  keeping  with  clean  fields,  and  the 
full  service  of  every  foot  of  land,  than  it  is  with  our 
human  sense  of  work  well  and  completely  done. 
However  it  may  be  in  the  city,  it  is  not  beauty  that 
costs,  but  ugliness;  not  cleaning  up  that  makes  life  a 
drudgery,  but  the  exasperation  of  things  in  the  way, 
things  out  of  the  way,  and  things  not  worth  having 
when  found. 

Art,  when  it  costs  most,  often  brings  a  sufficient  re- 
ward ;    but   in   its    first   principles  in  the  country  it 

hardly  costs  any- 
thing, and  is  still 
liberal  in  its  gifts. 
Let  the  farmer 
simply  aim,  as  the 
basis  of  operation, 
at  clean  grass,  fine 
trees,  snug  build- 
ings, and  tools  in 
their  places,  and 
while  he  has  saved 
many  dollars  from 
waste,  and  can 
hardly  be  said  to 
have  spent  a  dollar 
for  ornamentation, 
he  has  the  staple 
of  beauty  in  large 
fwssessio  n.  H  e 
Fig.  I.— Dahlias.  may  afterward  con- 

fine himself  to  these  first  tenns,  or  he  may  overpass 
them  at  his  leisure  and  according  to  his  ability. 

As  a  contribution  to  the  pleasures  and  refinements 
of  life,  to  self-respect,  to  sympathy  with  the  world  as 
full  of  things  to  be  enjoyed,  to  local  attachments  and 
to  patriotism,  few  things  will  be  found  more  effective 
than  a  little  art  added  to  our  agriculture.  No  man 
is  in  possession  of  a  well  ordered  place  who  has 
not  a  strong  ])ledge  of  good-will  to  the  world,  of  good- 
will to  his  neighbor  who  shares  and  enhances  his 
pleasure,  and  of  good-will  to  the  nation  which  casts 
about  it  safety  and  peace. 

Then  it  enhances  the  value  of  his  property,  and  not 
alone  that,  but  the  attractions  which  it  throws  around 
the  homes  of  young  people  are  far  more  important,  for 


LANDSCAPE   GARDENING. 


893 


these  may  prove  the  turning  influences  in  their  future 
Hves. 

As  landscape  gardening  is  a  fine  art,  it  is  impossible 
to  lay  down  definite  rules  for  every  detail  to  be  ob- 
served everywhere.  In  planning,  stocking  and  fur- 
nishing a  landscape,  nearly  everything  depends  upon 


Fig.  : 


-Gardtnia, 


a  cultivated  taste ;  and  this  taste  is  developed  and 
cultivated  by  the  study  of  the  general  principles  of  all 
the  fine  arts,  especially  tlie  works  of  art.  A  real  good 
landscape    and   an   elaborate   oil   painting  called   a 


Fig.  3. — Arbor  Vitce^  American, 


"landscape"  equally  represent  the  elements  of  cul- 
ture; therefore  to  make  a  good  landscape  is  virtually 
the  same  as  to  execute  a  good  oil  jiainting  represent- 
ing one;  both  operations  are  siinDly  jjicture-making. 
The  two  most  general   principles  of   this  art    are 


congruity  and  variety.     The  ground  and   the   objects 

upon  it  should  have  a  kind  of  mutual  reference  and 
at  the  same  time  a  sly  and  illusive  cnange  from  one 
scene  to  another.  The  natural  [xjsition  of  the  ground, 
the  ravines,  lakelets,  streams  of  water,  hills,  low 
elevations,  rods,  native  groves,  and  even  the  points 
of  the  compass  toward  which  these  various  objects 
lie  as  viewed  fiom  the  residence  and  public  highway, 
all  have  to  be  considered  in  originally  laying  out  the 
plan  to  be  pursued.  Gentle  undulations  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  for  example,  suggest  that  the  trees, 
shrubbery   and  all  works  of  art  upon  it  should   also 


Fig.  ^.— White  Spruce. 

have  rounded  outlines,  like  tlie  white  oak,  beech  and 
sugar  maple,  while  rocky  and  angular  places  suggest 
firs,  sumac  and  angular  structures.  Beautiful  views 
in  the  distance  should  be  kept  visible  while  the 
unsightly  objects  should  be  concealed;  it  is  therefore 
requisite  that  the  superintendent  of  the  work  should 
station  himself  at  the  doois  and  windows  of  the  house 
and  survey  in  every  possible  direction,  directing  the 
men  on  the  ground  in  the  setting  of  stakes.  In 
making  his  surveys  he  has  m^ny  things  to  consider. 
Besides  those  already  ref'-rreJ  to,  he  will  have  to  take 
into  account  even  the  ciJor  of  the  foli -ge  which  tb.e 
trees  and  shrubbery  will  have  in  autumn,  and  take 


I 


894 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


every  possible  advantage  of  every  contingency.     The 
architecture  of  the  house  should  be  planned  along 


Fig.  ^,— Dwarf  AiHeriean  Arbor-Vitas. 

with  the  original  design,  as  it  is  often  very  diffcult  to 
make  everything  mutually  respondent  after  a  great 
expense  has  been  incurred  in  the  wrong  direction.  A 
Gothic  house,  for  example,  and  sharp,  angular,  rocky 
clifts  and  fir  trees  have  a  similaroutline,  while  a  house 
of  the  Oriental  or  more  rounded  style  would  correspond 


y  Fig.  6. — F.ulalia  yafiomra  Z  brinn. 

with  rounding  undulations  of  the  ground,  luxuriant 
shrubbery  and  round-headed  trees.     And  what  is  said 


here  of  the  house  is  of  course  equally  applicable  to 
any  building  or  structure  on  the  premises,  as  a  lodge, 
arbor,  observatory,  bridge,  etc. 

The  plan,  of  course,  should  not  in- 
volve the  removal  of  earth  any  more 
than  is  necessary ;  but  there  is  scarcely 
a  spot  to  be  found  but  will  need  change 
from  the  original  configuration  of  the 
surface.  Some  jwints  will  need  round- 
ing down  or  up,  and  other  places  will 
need  sharpening,  or  made  more  rough 
and  picturesque,  etc.  Where  the  ground 
naturally  suggests  a  round-topped  hill, 
there  carryout  the  suggestion  and  com- 
plete a  rounded  hill;  where  it  indicates 
a  sharp  and  angular  hill,  there  com- 
plete the  idea;  where  it  looks  like  a 
basin  for  water  or  a  water  course,  there 
make  a  lake  or  rivulet,  etc.  The  trees, 
shrubbery,  flowers  and  the  works  of  art 
at  each  place  should  be  made  to  cor- 
respond with  the  character  of  that  place, 
in  setting,  grouping,  in  general  outline, 
and  in  detail.  * 

The   most   important   walk   on    the 

whole  premises  is  that  called  the  ap- 
proach, leading  from  the  public  high- 
way to  the  house.  This,  coming  in  toward  the  house 
in  a  winding  diagonal,  affords  the  visitor  a  better 
view  of  the  architectural  character  of  the  house, 
enabling  him  to  see  two  sides  at  once  and  from  a 
varied  "walking  point".  There  is  danger  of  making 
the  approach,  and  indeed  all  other  walks,  too  circuit- 
ous. In  general,  both  should  curve  almost  as  little  as 
possible;  that  is,  the  curve  should  be  definite  and 
visible,  but  not  much  more  than  that.      In  laying  out 


Fig.  f..— Japanese  Ma  Vf,  Rose-tin*cd. 

the  approach  it  is  best  to  walk  backward  from  the 
house,  looking  at  it  critically  and  staking  off  the 
ground  as  you  go.  It  is  even  important  that  the 
exact  spot  where  a  visitor  gets  sight  of  the  residence 
should  be  located,  and  the  groupings  of  the  trees  so 
arranged  as  to  conceal  the  house  from  the  person 
coming  in  up  to  that  jwint.     The  approach  should 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


895 


appear  to  be  the  nearest  route  to  the  house,  if  it  does 
not  appear  so  naturally,  it  should  be  made  to 
appear  so  by  artificial  obstacles  which  also  should 
appear  to  be  in  their  natural  place.  Where  it  quits 
the  public  road  it  ought  not  to  break  from  it  at  right 
angles  nor  in  such  a  manner  as  to  rob  the  entrance  of 


Fig.  8. — Cut-Uaiied  Ja^anett  Maflt. 

its  importance,  but  rather  at  some  point  of  the  public 
road  from  which  a  lodge  or  gate  may  be  more 
conspicuous ;  and  where  the  high  road  may  appear  to 
branch  from  the  approach  rather  than  the  approach 
from  the  road.  After  entering  the  park  it  should 
avoid  skirting  along  its  boundary,  as  that  would 
betray  a  want  of  extent  or  unity  of  property.  The 
house,  unless  very  large  and  magnificent,  should 
not  be  first  seen  at  so  great  a  distance  as  to  appear 
much  less  than  it  really  is,  and  the  first  view  should 
be  from  the  most  pleasing  point  of  sight.  As  soon  as 
the  house  is  visible  from  the  approach  there  should  be 
no  temptation  to  quit  it, — which  will  ever  be  the  case  if 
the  road  be  at  allcircuitous,  unless  sufficient  obstacles, 
such  as  trees  or  inaccessible  points  of  ground,  appear 
to  justify  its  course. 


Fig.  q. — Red-leaved  yapanese  Maple. 

There  will,  however,  in  almost  every  demesne  be 
insurmountable  obstructions  to  the  execution  of  one 
or  more  of  the  foregoing  principles,  but  ingenuity  can 
in  some  way  utilize  such  obstacles.  It  is  easier  and 
sometimes   better  to   deviate  from    the   general  rule 


than  to  undertake  to  carry  out  a  tasteful  improvement 
without  any  guiding  principles.  Where,  for  example, 
a  public  road  runs  on  one  side  of  the  premises  and  a 
navigable  water  on  the  other,  necessitating  as  it  were 
two  fronts  to  the  house,  it  is  not  best  to  make  the  ap- 
proach or  carriage  drive  lead  all  the  way  around  to 
the  opfxjsite  sides  of  the  house,  making  the  visitor  see 
all  the  grand  sights  before  he  gets  inside  the  domicile. 
It  is  better  that  he  come  in  from  the  road-side  and  be 
"surprised"  by  a  grand  view  of  the  river  and  bluffs  as 
he  passes  through  the  house  and  looks  out  of  a  door 
or  window  on  the  river  side. 

Walks  and  drives  are  laid  out  on  the  same  general 
principles  as  the  approach,  reference  being  had  to  all 
pleasant  and  unpleasant  objects  along  the  route. 
Some  walks  may  open  to  the  south,  sheltered  with 
evergreens  and  made  dry  and  haid  for  a  warm  prom- 
enade in  winter;  others  formed  of  closely  mown  turf, 
and  thickly  shaded  by  a  leafy  canopy  of  verdure,  for 
a  cool  retreat  in  the  midst  of  summer;  others  again 
may  lead  to  some  sequestered  spot  and  terminate  in  a 


Gynerium    ar^eiUeum, 


secluded  rustic  seat,  or  conduct  to  some  shaded  or 
rugged  eminence  where  an  extensive  prospect  can  be 
enjoyed.  The  walks  should  in  seme  manner  corre- 
spond to  the  scene  it  traverses,  being  rough  where  the 
latter  is  wild  and  picturesque,  sometimes  scarcely 
differing  from  a  common  foot-path,  and  more  accom- 
plished as  the  surrounding  objects  show  evidences  of 
culture  and  liigh  keeping.  The  walk  may  turn  more 
abruptly  than  the  approach  where  there  is  an  inter- 
vening obstacle. 

For  barriers,  stone  and  wooden  fences  covered  with 
vines  are  good ;  but  evergreen  and  living  hedges  are 
better.  Arbor  vitse,  Newcastle  and  Washington 
thorns,  buckthorn,  Osage  orange  and  privet  are  all 
capable  of  making  superb  hedges.  All  barriers  are 
obstacles ;  hedges   are  barrie-.s,  and  therefore    should 


896 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


not  be  set  except  where  there  seems  to  be  some  rea- 
son for  their  existence.  For  vines  covering  fences,  the 
Virginia  creeper  is  by  far  the  cheapest  in  the  West, 
and  its  foHage  in  the  fall  is  very  beautiful.  Climbing 
roses  of  different  species  are  good  for  covering  fences. 

In  grouping  trees,  shrubbery,  etc.,  liberal  allowance 
should  be  made  for  long  views,  as  they  are  the  most 
imixjrtant  element  in  landscape,  the  skirting  of  trees 
and  shrubbery  being  next.  Extensive  lawns  can  be 
kept  well  mowed  with  horse  machines,  and  on  distant 
grounds  pasturage  by  sheep  is  just  as  good,  for  aesthe- 
tic purposes  as  well  as  utilitarian.  Distant  lawns, 
especially  if  lower  than  the  ground  at  the  residence, 
should  be  separated  from  the  nearer  grounds  by  a 
ditch,  which  is  invisible,  for,  as  before  intimated, 
fences  are  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

Lakes  should  not  appear  to  be  mere  watering  places 
for  stock,  with  straight,  flat,  muddy,  monotonous 
banks ;  but  the  shore  should  have  an  irregular  out- 
line, with  rocks,  grass  or  willow  down  to  the  water's 
edge.  In  Illinois,  Missoun,  and  most  of  the  country 
in  the  Western  States  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  lake  or  a 
place  to  make  one  where  the  water  will  be  regular ; 
but  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  are  very  for- 
tunate in  respect  to  "  water  privileges"  for  park  and 
landscape  purposes.      In  improving  a  small  lake,  in- 


Islands  require  a   due  share  of  attention,  as   they 
serve  as  much  as  anything  to  set  out  the  beauties  of 


Fig.  w.— Phlox. 


cludifig  all  artificial  lakes,  nearly  all  imaginable  irreg- 
ularities of  outline,  height,  shape,  etc.,  of  the  banks 
can  be  made  by  digging  and  masonry  Indeed,  these 
irregularities  can  scarcely  be  too  numerous  and  great, 
provided  they  appear  neat  and  fresh. 


Fig.  12. —  Snowdrop  Tree. 

the  general  view.  The  number,  location,  size,  outline, 
etc.,  are  points  requiring  consideration.  An  island 
should  not  occupy  the  middle  of  the  lake,  as  th^t  in- 
dicates shallowness  of  water  where  it  should  be  the 
deepest.  The  best  places,  generally,  for  islands  are 
near  the  inlet  and  exit  of  the  water.  The  dam,  where 
one  has  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  creating  a  lake, 
should  be  concealed  by  islands.  In  general,  also, 
islands  should  be  placed  opiX)site  the  salient  jxjintsof 
the  shore.  They  should  be  covered  with  shrubbeiy, 
small  trees  and  vines  ;  and  small  islands  may  have, 
besides,  rustic  habitations  for  swans  and  other  aquatic 
birds.  For  the  clothing  of  islands,  the  following 
shrubs,  vines  in  their  various  species,  etc.,  among 
hundreds  of  others,  are  commendable:  Hazel,  haw- 
thorn, alder,  spicewood,  winterberry,  azalea,  spirea, 
button-bush,   swamp  magnolia,  laurel,  rhododendron, 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


897 


Virginia   creeper,  moneywort,  grape,  crab-apple,  wil- 
low, aspen,  etc. 

Brooks  and  rivulets  should  be  encouraged  into 
variety,  as  pools,  islands,  cascades,  etc.,  with  the 
margins  rendered  refreshing  with  appropriate  verdure. 
Rustic  seats  and  other  frame  work  should  not  be 
prominent  objects  of  view  in  the  front  yard  or  at  a 
great  distance  anywhere  else.  They  should  be  pret- 
ty well  concealed  by  trees,  shrubbery  and  vines. 
Gate  lodges,  terraces,  vases,  fountains,  flowers  in  pots, 
tender  shrubbery,  trees  and  other  plants,  statuary, 
etc.,  etc.,  all  have  to  be  treated  by  the  same  elements 
of  art  criticism  as  govern  the  landscape,  lawn,  house, 
etc. 

By  the  accompanying  engravings  we    give    several 

very  handsome  de- 
signs for  laying  out 
grounds.  These 
may  be  changed  or 
varied  according  to 
the  size  of  the  grounds, 
the  relative  ]X)sition  of 
the  various  farm  build- 
ings, etc.  By  Fig.  13 
a  very  neat  and  artist- 
ic design  is  represent- 
ed. The  carriage  road 
is  distinguished  in  the 
plan  by  its  greater 
width.  A  separate 
entrance  is  provided 
for  the  foot-walk. 
Carriages  may  be 
turned  in  front  of  the 
house,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  li.— Design  o/drive^uay,  walks  the  cut.  Or  in  the  area 

and  sxtrroundings  0/  a   rural  residence,  of  the  bam, 

A  lot,  about  four  or  five  rods  wide,  is  represented 
by  Fig.  14.  The  principal  object  is  to  obtain  a  small 
flower  garden  and  shrubljery  on  an  area  of  about  one- 
tenth  of  an  acre,  and  allow  space  for  a  kitchen 
garden  and  a  few  of  the  smaller  sized  fruit  trees  on 
nearly  twice  as  much  ground  in  the  rear.  If  desired 
there  may  be  a  small  horse  or  cow  barn  in  the  rear 
corner  on  the  left — the  "  cart-way  "  otherwise  being 
intended  only  for  conveying  coal  and  other  heavy 
articles  to  the  kitchen  cellar.  A  small  screen  of 
evergreen  trees  runs  on  the  right  of  the  cartway  to 
separate  it  from  the  rest  of  the  grounds,  and  the 
boundary  on  the  left  of  this  way  may  be  planted  with 
grapes  or  with  raspberries,  the  former  being  trained 
on  the  boundary  fence,  and  the  latter  kept  snugly 
within  bounds  by  a  slat  running  parallel  with  the 
fence,  and  about  six  or  eight  inches  from  it — the 
included  space  holding  the  canes  spread  out  like  a  fan. 

No  large  trees  are  planted  on  these  grounds,  as 
they  would  after  a  while  occupy  too  much  space  and 
shade  the  smaller  shrubbery  and  flower  beds.  Small 
trees  may  occupy  the  most  remote  corners,  large 
shrubs  the  more  open  space,  and  small  shrubs  only 
be  placed  near  the  flower  beds,  where  it  is  imix)rtant 
67 


to  preserve  an  open  space  for  full  sunlight.     A  few 
plants  will  flourish  in  the  more  shaded  sixits.     The 


Fig  14. — Design  /or  Lot  Four  or  Five  Rods  Wide. 

flower  beds   are  mostly  circular,  with   two  elliptical 
ones. 

Fig.  15  is  a  plan  intended  for  grounds  varying 
from  one  to  two  acres,  and  it  may  be  adopted  for  a 
large  suburban  or  village  residence,  or  for  a  farm,  the 
owner  of  which  can  afford  some  expenditure  to  keep 
his  home  in  finished  order.  If  for  the  latter,  the  farm 
road  will  be  placed  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  plan  as 
here  represented,  and  just  without  its  boundaries,  and 
the  kitchen  garden  in  the  rear  will  be  much  larger, 
and  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  cultivated  by  a  horse. 

The  leading  object  of  the  plan  is  to  place  the 
dwelling  in  a  central  position,  and  to  surround  it  with 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  bordering  the  lawn  in 
front  and  at  the  sides,  with  a  flower  garden  and 
dwarf  fruit  trees  at  the  rear.  The  carriage  road  at 
the  right  is  distinguished  in  the  plan  from  the  foot- 
walks  by  its  greater  width.  The  entrance  to  the 
dwelling  being  at  the 
side,  greater  breadth 
and  a  clearer  view  of 
the  lawn  are  given  in 
front.  A  carriage  turn 
is  afforded  on  the 
right.  Space  between 
the  carriage-house  and 
the  boundary  admits  a 
cart  with  manure  tothe 
kitchen  garden.  The 
flower  garden  at  the 
rear  of  the  dwelling 
consists  mostly  of  cir- 
cular beds  cut  in  the 
smooth  turf,  this  shape 
admitting  of  a  more 
easy  preservation  of 
the  outline,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  di.;- 

tribution    of  the*e  beds  ''"=  ^i.-Orname«tal  Grounds. 

may  give  ai.y  degree  ot  freedom  and  variety.     Imme- 
diately i  1  the  rear  of  the  flower   garden,  the  dwarf 


898 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


fruit  trees  are  planted  in  quincunx  form,  and  they 
may  consist  of  dwarf  apples  on  the  Paradise  stock,  or 
of  such  dwarf  pears  as  grow  with  greatest  vigor  on 
the  quince,  as  the  Duchesse  d'Angouleme,  Louise 
Bonne  of  Jersey,  Doyenne  Boussock  and  Beurre 
Superfin.  'Fhe  dwarf  apples  may  be  summer  and 
autumn  varieties  of  any  selected  sorts,  and  they  will 
give  a  succession  for  family  or  table  use  at  these 
times  of  the  year.  Between  the  dwarf  trees  and  the 
kitchen  garden  is  a  trellis  of  grapes.  The  rear  of  the 
kitchen  garden  is  planted  with  raspberries.  The 
sides  and  rear  boundaries  are  well  flanked  with  ir- 
regular plantings  of  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs. 

Fig.  16  represents  a  comfortable  farm  residence, 
where  the  owner  wishes  to  have  everything  neat  and 
in  good  taste,  but  cannot  spend  much  in  ornamental 
gardening.  The  grounds  are  laid  out  in  as  simple  a 
manner  as   practicable,  so  as   to  accord  with  good 


Fig.  16. — FartH  Grounds, 

taste.  As  represented  in  the  plan,  they  comprise 
from  two  to  three  acres,  including  the  lawn,  half  of 
the  fruit  garden,  and  most  of  the  kitchen  garden. 
The  dwelling  is  approached  by  a  good  and  well  made 
gravel  road,  and  the  surrounding  grounds  are  planted 
with  handsome  shade  trees ;  those  towards  the  rear 
may  be  the  hardier,  more  vigorous  and  symmetrical 
fruit  trees,  such  as  will  flourish  in  grass;  as,  for 
example,  the  Buffum,  Bartlett  and  Howell  pears, 
and  the  Elton,  Morello  and  Black  Tartarian  cherriis. 
The  lawn  should  be  mown  at  least  three  or  four  times 
early  in  summer,  or  it  may  be  kept  short  by  turning 
in,  a  part  of  the  time,  a  flock  of  sheep,  when  they  can 
be  easily  seen,  and  injury  to  the  trees  prevented. 
The  fruit  garden  may  be  kept  cultivated  by  a  shallow 
plowing  early  in  spring,  and  a  few  harrowings  after- 
wards, and  perhaps  one  or  two  rollings  near  the 
season  of  fruit,  to  keep  it  smoot)>  to  the  pickers.     The 


ice-house,  hen-house,  and  other  of  the  smaller  build- 
ings, may  be  placed  near  the  carriage-house.  An 
evergreen  hedge  or  screen  separates  the  kitchen 
garden  from  the  front  grounds.  A  water  reservoir 
and  hitching  posts  are  placed  at  the  right  of  the 
house,  at  the  intersection  of  roads. 

By  more  expenditure  of  labor  and  attention,  flower 
beds  may  be  kept  in  a  circular  form  near  the  dwell- 
ing, and  the  lawn  may  be  kept  in  the  best  order  by 
mowing  every  few  days.  The  main  object,  however, 
is  to  present  in  this  plan  simple,  neat  and  cheaply 
kept  grounds  for  a  farm  residence,  with  little  expense. 

We  may  notice  here  three  general  types  of  flower 
gardens.  The  irregular  is  surrounded  by  an  irregular 
belt  of  trees  and  the  beds  are  varied  in  outline  as  well 
as  irregularly  disposed,  sometimes  grouping  together, 
sometimes  standing  singly,  but  exhibiting  no  uniform- 
ity of  arrangement.  It  belongs  to  the  picturesque 
type  of  landscape,  where  the  residence  is  of  the  rural 
Gothic  style ;  or  it  might  form  a  pretty  termination  to 
a  distant  walk  in  the  pleasure  ground,  where  it  would 
be  more  necessary  that  the  flower  garden  should  be  in 
keeping  with  the  surrounding  plantations  and  scenery 
than  with  the  house.  Where  the  flower  garden  is  a 
spot  set  apart,  of  any  regular  outline,  not  of  large  size, 
and  especially  where  it  is  attached  directly  to  the 
house,  the  effect  is  more  satisfactory  when  the  beds 
and  walks  are  laid  out  in  symmetrical  forms.  The 
French  style  has  only  low  plants  for  the  borders  of  the 
bed,  with  walks  neither  of  gravel  nor  smoothly  shaven 
turf.  The  beds  are  filled  with  choice  flowering  plants, 
and  the  outline  of  the  grounds  generally  are  very 
intricate  and  elaborate.  The  English  style  contem- 
plates symmetrical  forms  and  figures  or  irregular, 
curved  outlines.  Each  separate  bed  is  planted  with  a 
single  variety,  or  at  most  two  varieties  of  flowers. 
Only  the  most  striking  and  showy  are  generally  chosen, 
and  the  eff"ect,  when  the  selection  is  judicious,  is  highly 
brilliant.  Nor  are  any  plants  admitted  which  have 
ugly  habits  of  growth  or  meager  or  starved  foliage,  the 
aim  being  brilliant  effect  rather  than  the  display  of  a 
great  variety  of  curious  or  rare  plants.  To  have  this 
brought  about  more  perfectly,  and  to  have  an  elegant 
show  during  the  whole  season  of  growth,  hyacinths 
and  other  fine,  bulbous  roots  occupy  a  certain  portion 
of  the  beds,  the  intervals  being  filled  with  handsome 
herbaceous  plants  permanently  platted,  or  with  flower- 
ing annuals  from  the  green-house  renewed  every 
season.  As  a  general  principle  for  regulating  the 
plants  in  this  style,  the  winter  and  spring  flowers 
ought  as  much  as  jxissible  to  be  of  sorts  as  admit  of 
being  in  the  ground  all  the  year;  and  the  summer 
crop  to  be  planted  at  intervals  between  the  winter 
plants,  or  the  summer  crop,  having  been  brought  for- 
ward in  iK)ts  under  glass  or  by  natural  protection,  may 
be  planted  about  the  middle  of  June  after  the  winter 
plants  in  iwts  are  removed.  A  number  of  hardy  bulbs 
ought  to  be  potted  and  plunged  in  the  beds  during  the 
fall,  and  when  out  of  bloom,  in  May  or  June,  removed 
to  a  reserve  garden  and  plunged  there. 

Laying  Out  Flower  Beds.      For  a  large  central 


/ 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


899 


flower  bed,  or  one  to  be  occupied  with  small  shrub- 
bery, a  less  formal  and  more  ornamental  outline  may 

be  given,  as  seen  in  Fig.  17. 
This  bed  is  easily  laid  out 
by  describing  2  concentric 
circles,  as  in  Fig.  18,  and 
then  making  several  smaller 
ones  on  the  outer  one. 
When  a  flower  garden  of 
some  extent  is  desired  on  a 
lawn  in  the  more  finished 
part  of  the  grounds,  that 
the  w  hole  may  be  seen  at  a 
glance    a   very    handsome 


Fig.  17. — Central  Flower  Bed. 


effect  is  produced  by  such  a  symmetrical  arrangement 
as  in  Fig.  19,  the  dark  figures  being  the  beds,  and  the 
white  space  the  lawn.  A  simpler  form  is  shown  in  Fig. 
20.  An  important  advan- 
tage in  such  designs  is  the 
facility  with  which  addition- 
al beds  may  be  made,  or  the 
number  reduced.  Irregular 
beds  for  flowers  may  be 
made  by  drawing  circles 
and  joining  them.  Arab- 
esque beds,  represented  in 
Fig.  2 1 ,  flanking  the  curved 
walk,  require  an  accurate 
eye  for  designing  them  in  Tia.ii.— Laying' aui  the  Same, 
the  best  manner;  but  a  graceful  and  curved  outline 
may  be  preserved  by  the  use  of  a  rope,  the  mode  of 
working  with  which  we  here  describe : 
If  small  figures  are  to  be  laid  out, 
the  rope  may  be  of  moderate  size,  so 
as  to  make  short  curves;  for  large 
figures  a  larger  and  stiffer  rope  may 
be  used.  The  operator  places  it  \i\K)n 
the  ground  and  forms  with  it  the  out- 
line of  the  proposed  figure  (Fig.  22). 
Then,  before  beginning  work,  insert  a 
few  small  pegs  or  stakes  barely  touch- 
ing it.  These  will  keep  it  at  its  place 
while  the  sharp  spade  is  inserted  all 
along  its  side  in  cutting  out  the  bed. 
Fig.  i^.—symmetri-  On  Very  Small  pieces  of  ground,  a 
caiBide.  j.Qpg  ^j[j  assist  in  laying  it  out,  with- 
out the  use  of  the  rod  already  described ;  and  on 
larger  grounds,  where  the  roads  and  walks  have  been 
already  staked,  a  stiff  rope  placed 
along  in  contact  with  them  will 
enable  the  workman  to  make  a 
perfect  curve  with  the  spade. 

It  is  important  to  make  the  two 
sides  of  a  curved  drive  parallel. 
An  easy  and  rapid  mode  is  first 
to  lay  out  and  stake  one  side,  and 
then  place  a  rope  parallel  with 
this,  as  nearly  as  can  be  readily 
done  with  the  eye.  Then  take  a 
]X)le  of  a  length  equal  to  the 
intended  breadth  of  the  road,  and  placing  one  end 


against  each  stake  successively,  sweep  the  other 
end  backwards  and  forwards  against  the  rope,  which 
will  place  it  precisely  where  it  is  wanted. 


I'lG.  21. — A  rabesgue  Beds. 

To  have  a  show  garden  all  season  with  the  least 
trouble,  one  can  succeed  with  a  group  of  pansies  and 
spring  bulbs,  a  bed  of  ever-blooming  China  roses, 
including  the  Isle  de  Bourbon  varieties,  a  few  Esch- 
scholtzias,  petunias,  Gilias,  double  dahlias,  trailing 
verbenas  and  a  few  other  annuals. 

The  mingled  system  is  most  in  vogue  in  America. 
It  consists  of  such  a  scattering  distribution  of  flowers 
in  the  bed  as  will  afford  fresh  flowers  throughout  the 
season  in  one  part  of  the  bed  about  as  much  as 
another,  without  any  particular  prominence  of  any 
portion.  To  accomplish  this,  however,  considerable 
study  is  required,  as  the  habits  of  the  plants  have  all 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  at  once.  The  smaller 
plants  are  set  near  the  walk,  the  taller  to  the  rear,  but 
not  with  slavish  exactness. 

All  true  taste  in  homestead  scenery  must  spring 
from  an  appreciation  of  the  scenery  of  nature  ;  and 
we  can  scarcely  realize  how  easily  we  fix  ourselves  in 


20. — Sytmnetrical 
Beds. 


Fig,  22. — Laying  out  ivitk  Rope. 

the  old  utilitarian  routine  of  barely  living  on  what  we 
eat  and  wear,  and  forget  the  constant  and  unalloyed 
happiness  which  we  derive  from  natural  scenery.  We 
need  fine  scenery  more  about  our  homes  than  any- 
where else,  yet  there  we  have  less  of  it  than  any- 
where else.  As  in  this  art  there  is  greater  variety  of 
situation  and  adornment  than  perhaps  in  any  other 
department  of  life,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  a  full  set 
of  definite  rules  to  be  observed  everywhere;  hence 
the  necessity  of  studying  nature  and  forming  a  good 
taste,  then  of  exhibiring  that  taste  by  the  innumerable 
ingenuities  which  give  delight  to  the  inventive  mind, 
and  indeed  to  all  who  can  at  all  rise  above  a  perfect- 
ly dead  repetition.  Every  farmer  who  has  a  dreary 
home  has  often  driven  into  town  and  witnessed  beau- 
tiful homesteads  in  the  suburbs  as   he  passed   along, 


.^ 


^^=i^f^^r=^ 


RIVERS'   BEECH. 


■^ 


^^ 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING. 


901 


and  yet  he  imagines  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  while 
for  him  to  begin  home  adornment  until  he  is  as 
wealthy  as  he  imagines  the  suburban  residents  to  be. 
The  cost  of  homestead  adornment  is  much 
less  than  it  appears  to  be,  while  the  out- 
lays in  this  direction  are  more  likely  to  yield 
a  reward,  even  though  the  proprietor  ex- 
pects to  sell  his  place,  than  most  other  in- 
vestments in  life. 

A  farmer  should  never  make  the  mistake 
of  setting  a  pretentious  mansion  down  on 
the  prairie,  with  nothing  about  it  but  rough 
fences  and  rank  herbage.  The  owner  of  a 
fine  house  without  anything  about  it  to  tone 
down  its  glaring  exterior,  has  made  one  of 
the  most  comfortless  mistakes  jxissible.  A 
cottage,however  humble, surrounded  by  trees 
and  with  its  vine-clad  i»rch,  with  a  winding 
path,  gladdened  with  a  few  flowers,  lead- 
ing to  it,  is  far  more  beautiful  as  it  is  far 
more  homelike.  Other  things#)eing  equal, 
the  farm  with  its  pretty  cottage  and  com- 
fortable barns,  protected  by  wind-breaks,  and 


who  are  anxious  to  have  everything  very  nice,  conceive 
of  no  way  only  the  old,  stiff,  rectangular,  square-rule 
pbns  for  everything — everything  is  brought  to  straight 


Fig.  34. — Racetne  of  Hf3^x>:.C'iestnut. 

enlivened  here  and  there  with  clumps  of  trees,  will 
bring  far  more  money  than  the  other  with  its  barn- 
like mansion  and  its  bleak  surroundings.    Even  people 


Fig.  25. — Flo'Wi:rinff  Thorn. 

lines  and  square  corners — fences  all  straight,  gate 
exactly  in  front,  a  straight  walk  to  the  front  door, 
shade  trees  arranged  in  exact  military  order. 
Such  grounds  present  no  pleasing  variety — noth- 
ing but  the  tiresome  sameness  of  straight  lines  and 
rectangular  forms. 

For  the  site  of  your  house,  choose  a  rise  of 
ground,  a  kind  of  hill  if  [xjssible,  in  the  most  pic- 
turesque portion  of  your  jxjssessions.  Locate  the 
barn  to  the  rear  of  the  premises,  somewhere  in  a 
northerly  or  easterly  direction,  and  at  the  same 
time  out  of  sight  from  the  public  highway.  Have 
the  vegetable  garden  also  back  of  the  house.  Do 
not  lay  out  a  heavy  wagon  road  through  the  front 
yard.  Have  the  carriage  way  wind  gently  up 
toward  the  house,  and  off  again  to  the  barn.  Put 
the  grounds  in  blue  grass  and  ornamental  trees, 
but  let  the  latter  be  in  clumps  irregularly  scattered 
around.  Do  not  have  tall  trees  near  the  house; 
indeed,  it  is  most  graceful  to  have  a  perfectly  grad- 
ual rise  of  tree-tops  from  near  the  house  upward 
and  outward,  so  that  the  house  will  appear  to  be 
in  a  small  valley.  This  is  specially  practicable 
where  the  ground  is  level  or  nearly  so,  and  the 
ground  can  be  the  west,  north  and  east  sides  of 
the  premises  while  the  coveted  hill  six)ken  of  can 
be  on  the  south,  and  the  public  road  running  along 
on  the  latter.  Evergreens  should  not  be  scat- 
tered about  everywhere  among  the  deciduous 
trees,  but  grouped  in  that  portion  of  the  grounds 
where  a  foreign  or  tropical  feature  of  scenery  can  be 
best  maintained.     A  few  of  the  finest-looking  ever- 


9©  2 


L  A  N  TERN— LARCH. 


greens    can  be  set'to   advantage   in   the  front  yard 

sometimes ;  and  one  of  these,  or  a  mound,  or  some 

other    ornamental    object    should 

be  so  situated  as  to  be  the  apparent 

cause  of  each  wind  in  the   walks 

and  drive.      When  we  go  winding 

we  want  some    reason    for    doing 

so, — some  object  to  go  around,  as  it 

were.     To  have  a  long  bend  in  the 

path  with  nothing  but  a  clean  space 

of  ground  within  is  not  only  ridicu- 
lous but  also  painful.    Your  largest 

trees,  however,  should  stand  back 

of  your  house.     Then  when    your 

trees  have  grown  up,  your  house, 

when  viewed  from  the    road,  will 

appear  to  stand  back  in   a  kind  of 

bay,  partially  encircled  with  a  rich 

back  ground  of  sylvan  scenery.    It 

is  a  common    error   to    plant   too 

many  trees  in  front  and  not  enough 

back  of  the  house  and  off  at  the 

sides. 

Fences   are  obstructions  in   landscapes,   and    the 

fewer  of  them  the  better.     The  front  fence  should 

be  no  higher  than  i  s 
necessary,  and  should 
be  of  about  the  same 
color  as  the  bark  of  the 
trees  in  the  front  yard, 
so  that  it  will  not  at- 
tract attention  from  the 
other  scenery.  It 
should  never  be  white; 
but  the  dwelling,  if 
small,  may  be  white, 
yet  if  large,  it  should 
be  of  some  "  n  e  u  - 
tral "  tint.  Benches 
and  rustic  work  should 
be  out  toward  t  h  e 
right  and  left  of  the 
house  and  front  yard, 
and  not  in  the  front 
yard. 

In  commencing 
homestead  arrange  - 
ments  on  naked 
ground,  first  plow  and 
harrow  it  all  thorough- 
ly, form  your  plan 
and  stake  out  the 
ground;  have  the  trees 
set  out  by  experienced 
workmen;  cu  1 1  i  v  a  t  e 
the  ground  about  them 
for  a  few  years ;  the 
more  open  portions  of 
the  landscape  may  be 
devoted  to  low  crops, 
kept  cleanly  hoed ;    in 


using  the  plow  and  the  harrow  employ  a  good,  single 
horse  and  a  careful  driver ;  after  the  trees  have  had 


Fig.  ^b.—Wttfing  Birch. 


Fig.  27- — ^fagnol ia. 

several  years  start,  and  have  become  stout  and  vigor- 
ous, the  ground  may  be  seeded  to  grass.  See  article. 
Lawn.  The  small  evergreens  near  the  house  may  be 
trimed  to  neat  proiMrtions,  but  the  larger  ones  far- 
ther away  should  be  allowed  to  grow  freely.  Trees 
should  not  be  allowed  to  touch  each  other. 

In  short,  endeavor  to  imitate  nature's  rounded 
turns  and  flowing  outlines,  so  as  to  make  groups  cf 
trees  and  other  plants  present  a  scene  of  wild  diver- 
sity. The  aspect  of  the  ground  will  suggest  the  turns 
to  be  made. 

The  illustrations  in  this  article,  of  trees  and  shrub- 
bery, represent  those  which  may  be  used  in  ornament- 
ing the  landscape.  They  are  of  recent  introduction 
and  most  of  them  are  becoming  favorites  for  land- 
scape decorations. 

Lantern,  something  enclosing  a  light  and  pro- 
tecting it  from  the  wind,  rain,  etc.  It  maybe  a  large, 
stationary  structure,  as  on  buildings,  or  small  and 
portable,  to  be  carried  Ly  hand  or  on  the  arm.  The 
latter  are  called  hand-lanterns,  arm-lanterns,  or 
breast  lanterns,  according  to  their  arrangement  for 
being  carried.  A  "  dark  lantern,"  or  "  bull's-eye,"  is 
one  emitting  light  only  on  one  side,  and  having  a 
door  even  to  this  side,  which  may  be  closed,  com- 
pletely concealing  the  light ;  much  used  by  burglars, 
The  magic  lantern,  used  by  exhibitors,  consists  of 
magnifying  glasses  adjusted  in  connection  with 
figures  of  objects  to  be  illustrated,  so  that  an  en- 
larged view  is  thrown  uixsn  a  distant  screen.  There 
are  many  modifications  of  this  apparatus,  as  stere- 
opticon,  panopticon,  etc.  In  machinery  and  architec- 
ture the  term  lantern  has  also  other  meanings,  as  the 
upper  portion  of  a  dome,  etc.  For  keeping  a  kero- 
sene or  any  other  kind  of  oil  lantern  in  good  trim,  see 
the  article  Lamp  and  Kerosene. 

Larch,  a  tree  of  the  pine  family,  but  which  sheds 


LARD—LARKSF  UR. 


903 


all  its  leaves  every  fall. 


The  tree  is  somewhat  orna- 
mental in  the  landscape,  but 
not  sufficiently  so  to  create 
much  admiration.  The  wood 
is  valuable  for  posts,  tele- 
graph ijoles,  railway  ties,  etc. 
The  European  larch,  how- 
ever, now  rapidly  extending 
in  cultivation,  is  a  far  more 
profitable  tree  to  raise.  A 
species  of  louse  infests  the 
larch, which  maybe  identified 

by  the  veins  of  his  wings,  as  exhibited  by  the  annexed 

engraving. 


Larch  Louse, 
laricis). 


(Chennes 


and  other  fat  of   the 


Lard,  the  leaf,  intestinal 
hog  when  rendered  in- 
to grease.  It  is  the 
most  important  prod- 
uct of  the  hog  next 
to  the  meat,  being 
about  one-sixth  of  the 
weight  of  the  dressed 
carcass.  The  United 
States  exports  it  in 
large  quantities  to 
foreign  countries,  prin- 
cipally Britain. 

To  render,  or  try  out 
lard,  cut  in  small 
pieces,  wash  it  with 
successive  portions  of 
clean  cold  water,  until 
it  becomes  soft  and 
will  not  discolor  the 
water.  Then  place  it 
in  a  vessel  (a  well 
tinned  vessel  is  the 
best),  in  the  bottom 
of  whicn  is  a  little  wa- 
ter, and  heat  over  a 
slow  fire  until  the  fatty 
portions  are  crisp  and 
the  melted  fat  be- 
comes  perfectly  clear 

and  free  from  water.  Strain  it  through  cloth,  into 
clean  earthen  jars,  stir  it  a  little  while  cooling,  cover 
the  jars  as  tightly  as  [wssiljle  with  waxed  or  varnished 
paper,  and  keep  them  in  a  cool  dry  place. 

To  cleanse  rancid  or  impure  lard,  place  it  in  a 
vessel  whicli  is  set  in  another  much  larger  vessel,  and 
the  space  between  filled  with  water,  to  prevent  the 
burning  of  the  lard.  Now  melt  the  lard,  and  stir  into 
it,  gradually,  one  ounce  of  powdered  alum  and  two 
ounces  of  pure  table  salt  to  every  50  jwunds  of  fat. 
Raise  the  heat  to  212°  Fahr.,  and  skim  it  till  the 
scum,  which  contains  all  the  impurities,  ceases  to 
rise.  Strain  through  cloth  into  clean  stone  jars  and 
let  it  cool.  Next  put  it  in  a  kettle  of  water  and  boil 
it  slowly,  stirring,  to  enable  the  water  to  separate  all 
the  saline  impurities  from   the  fat.     Let  it  get  cold 


and  hard.  Then  take  it  off  the  water  and  heat  it 
sufficiently  to  evaporate  any  water  that  may  remain, 
and  again  strain  into  clean  jars.  It  will  now  be 
clean,  white  and  pure. 

Larder,  a  room  where  meat  and  other  articles  of 
food  are  kept  before  they  are  cooked ;  a  pantry.  The 
most  imjxjrtant  practical  observation  we  can  make  in 
this  connection  is  that  no  rancid  meat,  kerosene  or 
other  odorous  articles  should  be  allowed  in  a  pantry, 
as  such  things  contaminate  other  articles.  For  the 
structure  of  the  larder,  see  Residence. 

Lark,  an  innocent  and  cheerful  bird,  common 
throughout  the  temperate  zones.  There  are  several 
species. 

Horned  Lark    or  Shore  Lark,  is   about  half  the 


Horne.i   Lark. 

size  of  a  Robin,  the  females  being  as  large  as  the 
males  and  having  a  covering  of  brownish  gray  tipped 
with  black  upon  the  back,  and  white  feathers  upon 
the  breast.  There  are  yellow  markings  u]X)n  the 
neck  and  breast.  The  wings  are  dark  brown  mixed 
with  white  on  the  inside.  The  bird  has  three  toes  in 
front  and  one  behind,  the  male  having  a  beautiful 
black  crescent  on  its  neck,  a  black  marking  below  its 
eyes  and  above  its  bill,  and  another  handsome 
crescent  or  corona  half  encircling  its  forehead,  some 
feathers  which  project  above  the  head  like  a  horn. 
These  are  all  indicated  in  the  illustration  above 
given.  There  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  these 
birds  in  the  Laramie  Plains,  the  whole  region  during 
some  seasons  seeming  to  be  alive  with  them. 

Larkspur,  a  beautiful  flowering  plant,  of  which 


904 


LAR  VA—LA  UNDR  Y. 


there   are    several    species.     Three   or   four    species 
grow  wild  in  the  Northern  States. 

Larva,  an  insect  during  the  stage  which  inter- 
venes between  the  egg  and  the  pupa.  The  names 
grubs,  maggots  and  caterpillars  are  popularly  applied 
to  many  larvse,  and  though  all  these  names  are  very 
loosely  used,  and  far  too  indefinite  for  any  purjxises 
of  either  scientific  nomenclature  or  practical  exact- 
ness, grubs  may  be  generally  regarded  as  a  name  for 
all  larvse  which  feed  upon  field  crops,  maggots  as  a 
name  for  the  larvae  of  flies,  or  dipterous  insects,  and 
caterpillars  as  a  name  for  the  larvse  of  moths  and 
butterflies. 

Larynx,  (lar'inx),  the  organ  of  the  voice.  It  is 
constructed  on  the  principle  of  a  whistle,  is  situated 
in  the  upper  portion  of  the  wind-pipe,  and  is  subject 
to  a  few  diseases,  in  which  case  the  voice  is  affected. 
Most  of  these  diseases  should  be  treated  with  "com- 
presses,"— that  is,  wet  cloths  bound  loosely  to  the 
throat.  The  temperature  of  the  compress  should 
depend  on  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  the  sensa- 
tions of  the  patient.  A  severe  cold  sometimes  settles 
ujx)n  this  organ,  thickens  the  parts  by  swelling  and 
inflammation  and  thus  reduces  the  "  vocal  exercises  " 
of  the  patient  to  a  whisper.  No  special  medication 
is  required  for  such  an  affection  further  than  the 
compresses  mentioned  and  general  care  of  the  health. 

Lash,  the  thong  or  braided  cord  of  a  whip;  a  cord; 
a  string;  a  stroke  with  a  whip  or  anything  pliant  and 
tough. 

Lattice,  any  work  of  wood  or  iron,  made  by  cross- 
ing laths,  rods  or  bars,  and  forming  a  network;  as, 
the  lattice  of  a  window;  called  also  lattice  work. 
The  old  and  standard  style  of  plain  lattice  work  is 
that  which  consists  of  planed  laths  or  larger  strips  of 
wood  nailed  together  in  two  sets,  one  across  the 
other,  .vith  spaces  of  tlie  width  of  the  slats,  and 
painted  green.  This  is  almost  universally  used 
about  porches,  both  above  and  below  the  floor. 
More  expensive  and  orna^nental  lattice  work  varies 
so  much  in  style  that  there  can  be  no  classification. 
In  architecture,  however,  taste  requires  an  adaptation 
of  the  style  of  lattice  to  that  of  the  structure. 
Lattice  shutters  for  windows,  on  the  inside,  are  far 
superior  to  curtains. 

Laudanum,  a  preparation  of  opium,  especially  in 
spirit  or  wine ;  tincture  of  ojjium.  Used  in  many 
medicines  as  a  sedative  and  sOixjrific.  Hence  its ' 
popularity  in  paregorics  and  soothing  sirups  for 
children,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  relieve  distress  and 
lull  them  to  sleep.  Many,  if  not  most,  iihysicians 
declaim  against  its  use  among  infant  children, — at 
least  against  an  extended  use  of  it,  as  it  tends  to  de- 
bilitate and  derange  the  system  permanently. 
Laudanum  is  sometimes  given  by  injection  per 
rectum,  for  the  same  anodyne  purposes  as  when  given 
by  the  mouth.  For  adults,  20  to  60  grains  (or 
small  drops)  constitute  .t  dose,  to  be  repeated  when 
it  is  ascertained  that  it  is  not  effectual.  For  infants, 
3  to  s  drops. 


Laundry.  Under  this  branch  of  domestic  econo- 
my we  shall  take  an  extensive  view.  We  shall  not 
only  treat  of  the  ordinary  process  of  washing  the  dif- 
ferent fabrics  and  the  theory  of  washing,  but  shall 
include  all  the  appliances  of  the  laundry. 

Theory  of  Washing.  The  primitive  mode  of 
performing  this  operation,  before  detersive  or  cleans- 
ing substances  were  known,  was,  no  doubt,  washing 
clothes  in  simple  water,  and  this  method  is  still 
practiced  in  many  countries.  The  Hindoos  carry 
their  clothes  to  the  (ianges,  where  they  undergo  the 
necessary  purification  in  water  alone.  But  this  re- 
quires much  labor;  and  to  remove  with  greater  facility 
the  discoloration  of  linen  occasioned  by  being  worn, 
which  is  partly  of  an  oily  nature,  and  therefore  very 
difficult  to  destroy  by  water  only,  certain  substances, 
called  detersive,  have  been  introduced,  which  assist 
in  the  process.  Of  these  the  principal  one  is  soap, 
the  manufacture  of  which  we  fully  treat  under  that 
head;  but  a  few  observations  as  to  its  uses  and  differ- 
ent kinds  we  will  make  in  this  article  here. 

It  is  well  known  that  oil  or  grease  is  not  soluble  in, 
and  will  not  unite  with,  water;  a  greasy  six)t  cannot 
be  washed  out  completely  by  water  only,  unless  such 
a  degree  of  rubbing  be  employed  as  will  injure  the 
cloth  in  some  degree.  But  if  oil  be  united  to  an  alka- 
line substance,  the  mixture  of  the  two  is  soluble  in 
water;  hence,  if  the  greasy  sjxjt  be  touched  with  an 
alkali,  as  potash  or  soda,  the  latter  will  unite  with  the 
grease  or  oil,  which  being  then  soluble  in  water,  rub- 
bing in  that  fluid,  or  washing,  will  cause  it  to  disap- 
pear. If,  then,  soiled  or  greasy  linen  be  washed  in 
water  containing  potash  or  soda,  the  labor  of  cleans- 
ing is  much  less  than  with  water  alone,  and  the  fab- 
ric, not  being  necessarily  subjected  to  so  much  rubbing, 
suffers  less   wear. 

All  the  ashes  of  burned  vegetables  contain  more  or 
less  of  the  alkali  called  potash ;  hence  wood  ashes 
was  one  of  the  most  ancient  detersive  substances, 
and  is  still  occasionally  employed  for  that  purjxjse. 
But  alkalies,  when  used  alone,  have  this  inconveni- 
ence, that  although  they  are  extremely  effective,  yet, 
if  employed  in  too  great  a  quantity,  they  are  capa- 
ble of  corroding  the  clothes  to  be  cleansed,  and 
likewise  of  acting  in  the  same  manner  on  the 
hands.  The  difficulty  of  regulating  properly  their 
strength  has  led  to  the  invention  of  soap,  which 
consists  of  alkali  already  united  to  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  oil  or  fat  of  some  kind,  by  which  its 
power  of  corrosion  is  so  much  diminished  as  not 
to  destroy  the  texture  of  the  fabric ;  and  yet  the 
alkali  in  the  soap  is  capable  of  taking  up  a  little 
more  oil  or  grease ;  such  as  may  be  found  in  soiled 
linen;  and  that  is  likewise  converted  into  soap. 
Now,  all  soap  being  soluble  in  water,  the  whole  of 
the  impurities  may  be  thus  removed  by  rubbing  the 
linen  between  the  hands  in  that  fluid.  In  fact, 
then,  in  employing  soap  for  washing,  we  make  more 
soap,  though  the  newly  formed  material  is  in  very 
minute  quantity,  and  does  not  become  solid.  Soap 
is    not  necessarily  solid ;  if  oil  and  any  solution   of 


LAUNDRY. 


905 


alkali  in  water  be  mixed  in  a  small  vial  and 
shaken  together,  liquid  soap  will  be  the  result. 
Soap  is  made  solid  by  certain  processes  of  the 
manufacture,  on  account  of  the  greater  convenience 
in  using  it,  than  if  it  were  in  the  liquid  state.  It 
will  be  easy  to  perceive,  from  this  explanation,  that 
the  strongest  soaps  have  the  most  alkali  in  their 
com[X)sition,  since  it  is  by  the  abundance  of  this 
ingredient  that  the  cleansing  effect  is  produced; 
and  it  will  likewise  be  evident  why  soaps  of  differ- 
ent degrees  of  strength  are  suitable  for  different  pur- 
poses. It  may  be  observed  that  there  are  other  de- 
tersive substances  besides  soap,  as  wood  ashes  and' 
other  things  containing  alkali.  Various  clays  have  a 
similar  effect,  but  produced  in  a  different  manner 
than  it  is  from  soap ;  by  their  absorbent  quality 
they  attract  the  oily  particles  from  the  cloth,  and 
cause  them  to  be  more  easily  removed  mechanically 
by  rubbing  in  water ;  but  no  chemical  union  is  thus 
formed,  as  in  the  case  of  soap. 

The  alkalies  jwtash  and  soda,  when  in  a  state  of 
perfect  purity,  and  not  combined  with  any  other  sub- 
stance, are  of  a  highly  caustic  nature,  that  is,  they 
powerfully  corrode  animal  and  vegetable  substances  ; 
hence,  although  they  would  readily  unite  with  oil  or 
grease,  so  as  to  make  it  soluble  in  water,  yet  they 
would  entirely  destroy  the  texture  of  cloth,  linen,  or 
any  similar  substance,  and  therefore  could  not  be  used 
as  detergents  in  that  state.      See  Potash  and  Soda. 

Bat  when  these  alkalies  are  united  with  carbonic 
acid,  and  are  thus  converted  into  carbonates,  they  are 
rendered  much  less  caustic,  and,  although  they  will 
still  render  grease  soluble  in  water,  yet  they  become 
so  mild  that  they  will  no  longer  act  powerfully  upon 
the  texture  of  cloth,  and  may  then,  in  moderate 
quantity,  be  used  with  safety  as  detergents.  Hence 
it  is  that  in  this  state  alone  they  are  employed  in 
washing,  bleaching,  scouring,  etc. 

Carbonate  of  soda  is  far  preferable  to  carbonate  of 
potash  for  these  purposes,  because  it  is  much  less 
acrid,  and  is  not  so  apt  to  injure  the  texture  of  linen 
grxads  as  potash.  It  is,  accordingly,  much  more  ex- 
tensively employed,  particularly  since  means  have 
been  discovered  of  preparing  it  so  cheap  as  to  super- 
sede pearlash  almost  entirely. 

Washing  Fluids.  A  simple  washing  fluid  is  made 
by  putting  i  pound  of  saleratus,  or  soda,  in  a  gallon 
jug;  fill  up  with  water;  let  stand  i  week,  and  it's 
ready  for  use ;  to  use  it  put  two  pails  of  clear  water 
into  your  tub,  put  i  tcacupful  of  the  fluid  in,  and  all 
of  the  clothes  it  will  wet  nicely ;  let  soak  25  or  30 
minutes;  wring  out  suds  and  boil  as  usual;  add  a 
little  more  fluid  to  the  water  left  in  the  tub,  and  put 
your  calico  clothes  through  the  same.  It  will  not 
fade  them  at  all,  but  loosens  the  dirt  nicely. 

Borax,  4  ounces  ;  saltj^eter,  4  ounces;  sal-soda,  24 
ounces;  sal  ammoniac,  J/^  ounce;  aqua  ammonia,  2 
ounces;  alcohol,  4  ounces  ;  spirits  camphor  J^  ovmce. 
Dissolve  all  in  one  gallon  soft  water,  put  in  a  jug 
(adding  the  liquids),  and  cork  tightly.  Soak  the 
■clothes  over  night,  or  for  a  short  time  in  the  morn- 


ing, in  a  tub  of  warm  suds,  containing  Y^  teacup  of 
the  fluid ;  after  rubbing,  boil,  putting  J^  teacup  of 
the  fluid  to  a  large  boiler  full  of  clothes.  Will  not 
fade  prints  unless  spilled  on  in  the  full  strength. 

For  four  dozen  of  clothes,  take  i  pound  of  hard 
soap;  7  teasiX)onfuls  ol  spirits  of  turpentine  ;  6  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  spirits  of  hartshorn  ;  5  teaspoonfuls  of 
vinegar.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  hot  water;  mix  the  in- 
gredients ;  then  divide  the  mixture  into  two  parts. 
Put  half  in  the  water  with  the  clothes  over  night ; 
next  morning  wring  them  out.  Put  them  to  boil  in 
6  gallons  of  water,  and  add  the  rest  of  the  mixture; 
boil  30  minutes  and  rinse  out  thoroughly  in  cold 
water. 

Take  i  pound  of  sal-soda  and  J^  pound  of  un- 
slacked  lime,  put  them  in  a  gallon  of  water  and  boil 
20  minutes;  let  it  stand  till  cool,  then  drain  off  and 
put  it  in  a  stone  jug  or  jar.  Soak  your  dirty  clothes 
over  night  or  until  they  are  wet  through,  then  wring 
them  out  and  put  on  plenty  of  soap,  and  to  a  boiler  of 
clothes  well  covered  with  water,  add  i  teacupful  of 
washing  fluid.  Boil  half  an  hour  briskly ;  then  wash 
them  thoroughly  through  one  suds  and  rinse  well  in 
water,  and  your  clothes  will  look  better  than  the  old 
way  of  washing  twice  before  boiling. 

So.\p.  The  most  usual  and  convenient  mode  of 
employing  the  alkali  for  the  purjxsses  of  washing  is 
when  made  into  soap,  the  action  of  which  has  been 
already  explained.  The  various  kinds  of  soap  are 
made  of  one  or  other  of  the  fixed  alkalies,  potash  or 
soda,  combined  with  fat  or  oil.  We  explained  above 
that  it  is  the  alkali  that  gives  to  soap  its  detergent 
quality,  and  which  renders  it  soluble  in  water.  The 
grease  serves  to  moderate  the  sharpness  of  the  alkali, 
and  to  prevent  its  injuring  the  hands  of  those  who  use 
it.     See  Soap. 

Water.  The  quality  of  water  used  for  washing  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  process.  In  the 
article  Water  we  explain  the  nature  and  properties 
of  the  different  kinds,  as  obtained  from  various 
sources,  as  well  as  the  difference  between  hard  and 
soft  water.  To  this  we  must  refer  our  readers.  The 
softest  waters  are  the  fittest  for  washing,  simply  be- 
cause they  are  the  purest,  containing  no  salts  capable 
of  decomixjsing  the  soap  and  destroying  its  action. 

When  water  is  hard,  it  is  owing  to  its  contaii'ing 
earthy  salts,  generally  either  carbonate  of  lime  or  sul- 
phate of  lime,  the  acids  of  which  seize  the  alkali  of 
the  soap,  which  is  united  to  the  oil  only  by  a  weak 
affinity.  If  the  cause  of  hardness  be  carbonate  of 
lime  dissolved  in  the  water,  simple  boiling  for  a  con- 
siderable time  corrects  it  by  driving  off  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  form  of  gas,  when  the  lime  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom, leaving  the  water  soft,  which  may  then  be  ix)ured 
off  and  used  for  washing;  or  the  addition  of  quick- 
lime may  effect  it,  as  has  been  stated.  But  when  the 
hardness  proceeds  from  sulphate  of  lime,  or  lime 
united  to  the  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  the  most  fre- 
quent case,  boiling  has  no  effect, because  the  sulphuric 
acid  cannot  be  driven  off"  in  this  manner.  It  is  then 
necessary  to  decompose  the  sulphate  of  lime  by  put- 


9o6 


LAUNDRY. 


ting  into  the  water  common  soda,  or  potash,  or  pearl- 
ash,  as  may  be  most  convenient.  Even  wood  ashes 
will  answer  the  purpose  if  no  better  material  is  to 
be  had,  because,  as  we  have  shown,  they  contain 
potash.  As  spring  water  and  well  water  are  very 
frequently  hard,  the  addition  of  soda,  concentrated 
lye,  iwtash,  borax,  or  some  of  the  manufactured  wash- 
ing ix>wders  or  fluids,  of  which  there  are  several  good 
ones  in  the  market,  to  such  water,  is  a  very  common 
and  a  very  useful  practice.  The  following  are  simple 
and  excellent  recipes  for  softening  hard  water: 

Hard  waters  are  rendered  very  soft  and  pure,  rival- 
ing distilled  water,  by  merely  boiling  a  two-ounce 
vial,  say,  in  a  kettleful  of  water.  The  carbonate  of 
lime  and  any  impurities  will  be  found  adhering  to  the 
vial.  The  water  boils  very  much  quicker  at  the  same 
time. 

Fill  the  wash  boiler  with  hard  water,  then  put 
half  a  teacupful  of  wood  ashes  into  a  little  cloth 
bag ;  let  this  lie  in  the  water  until  that  is  warm 
enough  to  use.     This  is  worth  knowing. 

Dissolve  I  pound  of  the  saponifier  or  concentrated 
lye  in  i  gallon  of  water,  and  keep  it  for  use  in  a 
well  corked  jug ;  to  a  tub  full  of  pump  or  hard 
spring  water,  add  from  one-eighth  of  a  gill  to  a 
pint  of  the  clear  solution,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  tub  and  nature  of  the  water;  a  tablesjxxDnful 
will  generally  be  enough  to  make  3  to  5  gallons  of 
water  fit  for  washing. 

Washing.  Some  directions  for  the  management  of 
linen  previously  to  its  being  washed  may  be  useful ; 
and  we  may,  at  the  same  time,  observe  that,  though 
the  term  linen  strictly  means  only  cloth  made  from 
flax,  yet,  on  this  subject,  it  is  usual  to  apply  it  in 
a  general  way  to  express  most  of  the  articles,  whether 
linen  or  cotton,  which  are  submitted  to  the  various 
processes  of  the  laundry. 

Soiled  or  foul  linen  ought  not  to  remain  long  un- 
washed, as  the  dirt  is  then  more  difficult  to  be  re- 
moved. Some  families  wash  only  once  a  month; 
but  once  a  fortnight,  or  every  week  would  be  better. 
What  has  been  used  in  the  kitchen  and  other  offices 
should  be  kept  separate,  being  generally  greasy,  or 
otherwise  very  foul.  Silk  stockings,  lace,  dresses,  and 
various  nice  articles  that  require  particular  skill  in 
cleaning,  of  course  receive  different  attention. 

Sixjts  of  grease  or  gravy  on  table-linen  or  napkins 
should  be  washed  out  with  soap  and  water  as  soon  as 
the  cloths  are  withdrawn,  otherwise  they  are  some- 
times difficult  to  remove  after  the  linen  has  lain  long 
by;  and  stains  from  ink,  wine,  or  fruits  should  like- 
wise be  taken  out. 

An  excellent  and  simple  mode  of  doing  the  wash- 
ing is  as  follows:  On  the  afternoon  previous  to  wash- 
ing day,  the  linen  should  be  put  to  soak  in  a  weak 
lye  of  lukewarm  water,  having  a  little  soda  put  into 
it;  but  first  it  must  be  well  soaped  on  such  parts  as 
are  the  most  soiled ;  and  this  operation  should  be 
performed  with  care,  as  it  contributes  much  to  the 
facility  of  the  washing  by  loosening  the  dirt,  and  thus 
saving  labor  as  well  as  the  wear  of  the  linen.     For 


soaping  the  worst  parts,  soft  soap  will  be  found 
most  economical.  No  more  warm  water  should  be 
used  than  is  just  sufficient  to  cover  the  linen  when 
pressed  down  in  it,  that  the  strength  of  the  soap 
may  not  be  reduced. 

To  save  soap,  and  make  the  process  easier,  it  is 
usual  now  to  put  some  soda  or  washing  powder 
into  the  lukewarm  water  to  render  it  soft;  the  quan- 
tity must  be  determined  by  experience;  if  too  much 
is  used  it  will  exhibit  its  effects  upon  the  hands  of 
the  operators.  These  are  more  particularly  useful 
when  the  water  is  at  all  hard  and  will  not  make 
a  lather.  Careless  washers  leave  their  soap  in  the 
water  where  it  dissolves,  and  is  wasted  unnecessarily. 

After  the  linen  is  well  washed  with  plenty  of  luke- 
warm water  the  first  time,  it  is  to  be  put  into  a  ([uan- 
tity  of  water  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  easily  bear,  and 
washed  in  this  again. 

The  next  operation  after  washing  is  boiling  the 
clothes,  in  order  to  produce  a  good  color,  and  to  re- 
move entirely  the  soap  or  other  detergent  matters  that 
have  been  used,  which  if  left  in  would  occasion  a 
disagreeable  smell.  Some  enclose  the  linen  in  a  bag 
before  it  is  put  into  the  boiler,  in  order  to  guard  it  ef- 
fectually from  the  scum  of  the  water,  which  is  apt  to 
attach  itself.  After  being  boiled  for  twenty  minutes 
or  half  an  hour,  the  linen  is  taken  out,  well  rinsed  in 
abundance  of  clean  hot  water,  and  afterward  m  clean 
cold  water  which  has  a  sufficient  quantity  cf  blue  to 
give  the  proper  tinge.  It  is  then  taken  out  and  wrung 
dry.  Next  it  is  ready  to  be  conveyed  to  the  place 
where  it  is  to  be  hung  up  and  dried.  It  is  necessary 
to  state  that,  if  the  operations  were  commenced  by 
boiling  the  linen,  the  dirt  would  be  fixed  instead  of 
being  removed.  Washing,  therefore,  precedes  the 
boiling. 

The  quickest  and  best  way  to  do  the  washing  for  a 
family  of  six  or  eight  persons:  First,  have  plenty  of 
boiling  water;  to  every  boilerful  add  from  two  to  three 
tablesjwonfuls  of  pulverized  borax;  use  some  of  the 
borax  water  from  the  boiler  for  every  tubful  of  clothes, 
adding  only  enough  cold  water  to  make  it  comfortable 
for  the  hands;  use  soap  on  the  most  soiled,  and  rub 
on  the  board  or  through  a  washing  machine  ;  do  not 
boil  the  clothes;  have  a  tub  partly  full  of  boiling  hot 
Ixjrax  water  in  which  to  put  the  clothes  that  have  been 
rubbed  ;  let  them  remain  in  the  hot  borax  water  until 
you  are  ready  to  rinse  them ;  from  a  quarter  to  a  half 
hour  will  do;  rinse  in  one  clear  water,  without  borax. 
Use  very  little,  if  any,  bluing.  Borax  will  not  injure 
the  texture  of  the  finest  linen,  and  for  infants'  clothes 
or  flannels  it  is  the  only  thing  that  can  be  used  with 
perfect  safety.  If  stockings  or  socks  are  badly  stained, 
they  might  be  boiled  in  borax  water  for  a  few  minutes 
only;  too  much  l)oiling  makes  clothes  yellow.  Bovax 
acts  slowly,  but  surely.  The  improvement  in  clothes  ■ 
washed  after  this  direction  will  be  noticed  after  the  ■ 
second  or  third  trial,  often  after  the  first.  Add  a  tca- 
sixxanful  of  borax  to  every  quart  of  starch  :  it  will  keep 
the  starch  from  sticking,  and  add  to  the  [xjlish. 

Drying.     It   is  not  sufficient  that  the  fabrics  be  ' 


LAUNDRY. 


907 


well  washed,  if  it  be  not  likewise  dried  in  the  best 
manner,  since  the  whiteness  and  good  appearance 
depend  much  upon  this.  All  white  goods  should  be 
hung  in  the  sun.  But  the  same  cause  which  renders 
drying  in  the  sun  beneficial  to  white  linen  renders  this 
injurious  to  all  dyed  and  printed  articles,  as  being 
destructive  to  color.  These  should,  therefore,  be 
dried  in  the  shade,  and  never  hung  in  the  sun :  it  is 
the  sun's  rays,  and  not  merely  the  air,  which  particu- 
larly occasion  colors  to  fade.  It  is  not  unconnnon  for 
printed  cottons  to  suffer  considerable  injury  for  want 
of  this  precaution,  either  from  negligence  or  ignorance 
of  the  princii)les  we  have  mentioned.  Some  articles 
require  particular  modes  of  hanging  them  up  to  dry. 
Very  thick  articles,  as  quilts,  waistcoats,  etc.,  are  best 
hung  over  two  lines  placed  a  few  feet  apart,  in  order 
that  both  sides  may  be  sufticientiy  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  summer  months  are  best  for  washing  thick  and 
heavy  articles  as  blankets,  counterpanes,  quilts,  etc., 
on  account  of  the  greater  facility  with  which  they  may 
be  dried  out  of  docu's  in  that  time  of  the  year,  and  thus, 
also,  acquiring  a  better  color.  Laces  require  to  be 
stretched  smooth,  and  tacked  to  a  piece  of  white  calico 
before  they  are  hung  up.  Muslin  and  other  dresses 
must  be  stretched  as  smooth  as  possible,  that  they 
may  not  get  wrinkled  in  drying.  But  it  is  unnecessary 
to  detail  all  the  little  precautions  to  be  observed  in 
hanging  out  various  articles  of  dress,  since  these  are 
sufficiently  understood  by  those  who  are  practiced  in 
it,  and  scarcely  admit  of  being  explained  by  any  short 
directions.  But,  notwithstanding  the  superiority  of 
drying  clothes  in  the  open  air,  this  is  not  always 
practicable,  and  they  are  then  dried  within  doors. 

Starching.  As  it  is  necessary  to  have  certain  parts 
of  linen  and  various  articles  of  dress  less  pliable  than 
usual,  starch  is  employed  to  give  the  requisite  stiffness. 

To  make  the  starch  for  use,  it  must  be  mixed  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  cold  water,  until  it  is  about  the 
consistence  of  common  paste,  carefully  breaking  all 
thelumps.and  rubbing  it  till  it  is  quite  smooth ,  then  add 
boiling  water  in  the  projxjrtion  of  a  pint  of  water  to  an 
ounce  of  starch;  put  the  blue  flannel  bag  into  it,  and 
let  enough  color  be  dissolved  to  give  the  required  tint. 
The  making  of  starch  properly  requires  some  care.  If 
made  in  a  tin  sauce-pan,  it  is  a  chance  if  it  does  not 
burn,  like  all  thick  liquids.  The  starch  being  properly 
mixed,  put  it  on  the  fire  and  let  it  boil,  taking  care  to 
stir  it  all  the  while,  to  prevent  burning.  When  it  is 
taken  off  the  fire  and  poured  out,  cover  it  with  a  plate, 
to  prevent  a  skin  forming.  If  it  be  wanted  stifTer  than 
common,  a  little  gum  Arabic  or  isinglass  dissolved 
may  be  added;  and  for  some  articles  of  lawn,  gum 
Arabic  alone  is  used,  without  starch.  Some  add  a  bit 
of  white  wax. 

The  parts  of  linen  and  other  articles  of  wearing 
apparel  that  require  to  be  starched  are  too  well  known 
to  demand  enumeration,  and  even  these  vary  some- 
what with  fashion.  Wet  bosoms  and  collars  in  hot 
water,  ring  very  dry,  and  starch  while  wet;  rub  the 
starch  well  in  and  ring  in  a  dry  towel ;  roll  tightly 
together,  let  lie  two  or  three  hours  and    then    iron. 


The  process  of  starching  consists  merely  in  dipping  the 
part  into  the  starch,  and  squeezing  it.  Linen  may  be 
glazed  by  adding  a  teasix)onful  each  of  salt  and  finely 
scraped  soap,  to  a  pint  of  starch. 

Washing  uy  Machines.  Hundreds  of  attempts 
have  been  made  to  lessen  the  labor  of  washing  by  the 
use  of  machinery.  Many  of  these  are  complicated 
and  quite  worthless,  while  others  require  more  tact 
and  labor  to  manage  and  use  than  is  required  to  rub  the 
clothes  with  the  hands.  There  are,  however,  some 
very  practical  and  valuable  machines  now  manu- 
factured. These  greatly  lighten  labor,  but  so 
numerous  are  washing  machines  and  so  varied  in  their 
workings  that  we  can  give  no  intelligent  instructions 
as  to  their  kinds,  uses,  etc. 

Marking  Clothes.  The  marking  of  linen  being 
connected  with  the  business  of  the  laundress,  we  shall 
introduce  the  subject  in  this  place.  Marking  has 
tisually  been  practiced  with  the  needle,  and  still  must 
be  for  blankets  and  woolen  articles ;  but  linen  and 
cotton  can  be  more  conveniently  marked  with  an  ink 
that  is  indelible  by  the  ordinary  processes  of  washing; 
observing,  however,  that  this  will  be  discharged 
wherever  the  bleaching  liquid  is  used. 

The  best  marking  ink  is  made  in  the  following 
manner,  which  it  is  useful  to  know,  as  in  some  places 
it  cannot  be  purchased  or  depended  uixm.  Get  one 
drachm  of  lunar  caustic,  dissolve  it  in  less  than  half 
an  ounce  of  pure  water  (distilled  or  rain  is  best), 
having  put  into  it  a  drop  or  two  of  nitric  acid ;  but  this 
is  not  essential.  This  forms  the  ink ;  but  as  it  is  yet 
colorlcbS,  the  writing  done  with  it  would  not  be  visible, 
and  it  would  be  too  thin.  To  give  it  a  little  color, 
add  to  it  a  little  indigo,  or  even  a  drop  of  common  ink; 
and  to  give  a  little  thickness,  add  a  very  little  gum, 
which  by  itself  will  give  a  greenish  color.  To  prepare 
the  linen  to  be  written  upon,  dissolve  an  ounce  of  salt 
tartar  (sub-carbcnate  of  potash,  the  common  potash 
used  for  washing)  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  water. 
Wet  the  linen  with  this  preparation,  and  let  the  place 
dry  completely  •  when  the  part  is  dry,  rub  it  with 
something  hard  to  smooth  the  surface,  and  write  with 
the  ink  prepared  as  above.  The  writing  will  be 
indelible. 

Another  is  made  as  follows :  Lunar  caustic,  two 
parts :  sap  green  and  gum  arabic,  of  each  one  part ;; 
distilled  water  sufficient  to  dissolve  to  the  right 
consistency  of  ink.  Before  marking  the  linen  wet  it 
with  a  solution  made  of  soda,  one  ounce ;  water,  one 
pint;  sap  green,  half  a  drachm.  Mix  and  dissolve. 
Let  the  solution  thoroughly  dry  before  you  mark  the 
linen  witli  the  ink.  This  forms  the  ground  to  write  on 
and  prevents  the  ink  from  spreading. 

Any  one  may  easily  make  these  inks;  but  it  must 
be  observed  that  lunar  caustic  will  bum  the  skin  if 
handled;  it  should,  therefore,  be  lifted  by  a  pair  of 
pincers  or  scissors.  The  ink  also  makes  a  black  stain 
upon  the  skin,  which  no  washing  will  remove;  it  must, 
therefore,  be  used  with  neatness  and  care.  If  the  ink 
is  too  pale,  there  is  not  lunar  caustic  enough  in  it ;  if 
there  is  too  much,  the  ink  will  be  apt  to  run  or  blot. 


9o8 


LAUNDRY. 


The  vial  containing  the  ink  should  be  kept  from 
the  light  by  wrapping  paper  around  it,  or  keeping  it 
in  a  case. 

Clothes-lines,  Pins,  etc.  The  items  of  clothes 
lilies,  pins  and  wringers  are  important  in  themselves, 
yet  so  simple  are  they  and  so  varied  in  their  makes, 
etc.,  that  nothing  of  value  could  be  said  upon  them. 
Lines  may  be  of  wire  or  rope  and  must  be  strong  and 
durable,  and  not  injure  the  clothing.  There  are 
many  good  wringers  made,  most  of  which  do  their 
work  well  and  are  a  great  relief  to  the  muscles  of  the 
arms.  A  wringer  should  be  fastened  ui)on  the  tub-rack 
where  it  will  be  stable,  and  convenient  to  the  tub. 

How  TO  Wash  Various  Fabrics  and  Articles. 
The  following  are  directions  for  washing  many  of  the 
fabrics  and  articles.  They  are  standard  and  have 
been  recommended  by  some  of  the  most  skillful 
laundresses  and  housewives  in  the  country. 

Blankets.  Take  a  clean  barrel  and  place  in  it  a 
boilerful  of  boiling  soft  water,  to  which  add  good 
soap  enough  to  make  a  strong  suds;  then  put  a  table- 
spoonful  of  turpentine  and  one  of  good  whisky;  stir 
well,  and  put  not  over  two  blankets  in  this,  turning 
them  about  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  wet  and  to  lie 
loosely  in  the  suds  ;  cover  the  barrel  over  with  some- 
thing thick  enough  to  prevent  the  steam  escaping, 
then  let  them  stand  until  cool  enough  to  handle ; 
pound  them  with  your  pounder,  turning  frequently ; 
rinse  in  hot  sudsy  water,  with  a  little  indigo  in  the 
water.  If  blankets  are  much  soiled,  they  will  require 
pounding  through  more  than  one  suds. 

Jiave  plenty  of  warm  water  in  which  you  have 
previously  melted,  say,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  white 
soap,  free  from  resin,  stirring  well  until  it  is  a  lather; 
add  to  this  a  quarter  of  a  jxjund  of  borax,  stir  again, 
put  in  your  blankets  and  turn  them  around  in  it  for 
ten  minutes,  keeping  the  boiler  on  the  range,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  boil ;  take  them  out  in  clear  water  and 
rub  them  ;  rinse  them  in  water  slightly  blued  ;  wring, 
and  snap  and  shake  them  until  the  water  is  out  of 
them,  then  let  them  get  perfectly  dry  and  press  them 
under  damp  muslin.  It  will  require  two  persons  to 
handle  them. 

Calicoes.  Calico  clothes,  before  they  are  put  in 
water,  should  have  the  grease  spots  rubbed  out,  as 
they  cannot  be  seen  when  the  whole  of  the  garment 
is  wet.  They  should  never  be  washed  in  very  hot 
soap-suds;  that  which  is  mildly  warm  will  cleanse 
them  quite  as  well,  and  will  not  extract  the  colors  so 
much.  Soft  soap  should  never  be  used  for  calicoes, 
■excepring  for  the  various  shades  of  yellow,  which  look 
the  best  washed  with  soft  soap  and  not  rinsed  in  fair 
water.  Other  colors  should  be  rinsed  in  fair  water, 
and  dried  in  the  shade.  When  calicoes  incline  to 
fade,  the  colors  can  be  set  by  washing  them  in  luke- 
warm water,  with  beefs  gall,  in  the  proportion  of  a 
teacupful  to  four  or  five  gallons  of  water.  Rinse 
them  in  fair  water;  no  soap  is  necessary,  unless  the 
clothes  are  very  dirty.  If  so,  wash  them  in  lukewarm 
suds,  after  they  have  been  first  rubbed  out  in  beef's- 
_gall  water.     A  little   vinegar  in  the  rinsing  water  of 


pink,  red  and  green  calicoes,  is  good  to  brighten  the 
colors,  and  keep  them  from  mixing. 

Fast  color  prints  should  be  washed  in  warm  suds, 
scalded,  if  the  ground  is  white;  if  dark,  the  scalding 
may  be  omitted.  Add  a  little  starch  to  the  last 
rinsing  water,  to  give  the  goods  a  fresh  appearance 
without  stiffening  them.     Iron  as  soon  as  possible. 

Doubtful  color  prints.  Two  tubs  of  suds  of  hard 
soap,  each  with  a  handful  of  salt,  strained ;  use  three 
rinsing  waters ;  in  the  last,  of  hard  water,  put  forty 
drops  of  elixir  of  vitriol  and  a  teasixxjnful  of  gum 
arabic  to  each  gallon,  and  strain;  use  yolk  of  egg  on 
grease  spots,  and  wash  in  clear,  warni  water  till  they 
are  removed,  then  wash  j)rints  through  the  two  suds, 
and  rinse  in  the  three  waters;  wring  dry,  and  hang 
in  the  shade. 

Swiss  Muslin,  and  other  thin  muslins,  should  be 
gently  squeezed  and  not  rubbed.  They,  and  all 
handkerchiefs,  collars  and  small  articles  should  be 
boiled  in  bags  made  on  purix)se,  and  large  enough  to 
allow  them  to  be  rinsed,  ready  for  the  clothes  line, 
without  removing  from  the  bag. 

Delaines.  Wash  quickly  in  one  or  two  suds,  with 
ox  gall  added,  if  possible;  rinse  as  in  "doubtful 
prints,"  using  vinegar  or  alum  for  vitriol,  and  twice  as 
much  gum  arabic. 

Colored  Merinoes.  Wash  each  breadth  and  piece 
by  itself,  first  in  clear,  soft  water  of  blood  heat  to  re- 
move the  egg  used  to  clean  grease  spots;  then  in 
suds  of  the  same  temperature,  after  which  rinse  in 
warm  rain-water  and  stiffen  with  gum  arabic,  a  table- 
spoonful  to  the  gallon. 

Delicate  Merinoes  and  Delaines.  Boil  a  peck  of 
bran  in  a  boiler  of  soft  water  three  hours ;  let  it  settle 
and  cool;  strain  through  a  thick  cloth  and  wash  the 
goods  in  the  water,  each  piece  by  itself;  then  rub 
through  three  waters,  and  rinse  and  dry. 

Embroideries.  Take  a  strong  suds  of  good  hard 
soap ;  mend  broken  places  and  soak  for  a  day ; 
squeeze  carefully  out  of  the  suds,  passing  each  article 
through  the  hands  several  times ;  wash  in  other  suds 
in  the  same  way  till  the  suds  are  left  clear.  Articles 
should  be  frequently  pressed  under  water  and  stirred 
up,  so  as  to  exjxjse  each  to  the  sun.  Rinse  clear 
without  wringing  much;  add  a  little  blue  to  the 
water;  dip  each  article  and  wring  by  pressing  in  a 
towel. 

Late  Curtains.  To  wash  and  do  up  lace  curtains, 
soak  over  night  in  warm  suds  of  soft  water;  next 
morning  wash  in  two  suds,  boil,  suds  out  and  rinse 
in  water  not  very  blue,  as  they  are  so  soft  they  take 
the  bluing  very  quickly.  Make  thin  starch,  boil  a 
moment  and  strain.  Do  not  hang  them  on  a  line, 
but  spread  sheets  on  your  carpeted  spare  rooms,  and 
pin  them  down  tight.  Then  spread  on  the  sheets 
the  curtains.  Stretch  as  tight  as  you  dare  without 
tearing  and  pin  through  upon  the  carpet  if  you  can, 
as  close  as  every  three  inches.  You  will  be  pleased 
with  the  change  you  have  made  in  your  curtains. 
When  dry,  you  can  easily  erase  the  marks  the  pins 
have  left,  by  gently  pulling  the  edges  of  the  curtains. 


LA  UREL. 


909 


Woolens.  If  you  do  not  wish  to  have  white 
flannels  shrink  when  washed,  make  a  good  suds  of 
hard  soap,  and  wash  the  flannels  in  it  without  rub- 
bing any  soap  on  them;  rub  them  out  in  another 
suds,  then  wring  them  out  of  it,  and  put  them  in  a 
clean  tub,  and  turn  on  sufficient  boiling  water  to 
cover  them  and  let  theni  remain  till  the  water  is  cold. 
A  little  indigo  in  the  boiling  water  makes  the  flannels 
look  nice.  If  you  wish  your  white  flannels  to  shrink 
so  as  to  have  them  thick,  wash  them  in  soft-soap  suds, 
and  rinse  them  in  cold  water.  Colored  woolens  that 
incline  to  fade  should  be  washed  with  beef's  gall  and 
warm  water,  before  they  are  put  into  soap  suds. 
Colored  pantaloons  look  very  well  washed  with  beef's 
gall  and  fair  warm  water,  and  pressed  on  the  wrong 
side  while  damp. 

Delicately  Tinted  Hose,  etc.  Wash  the  article  as 
quickly  as  [xjssible;  do  not  lay  it  out  of  your  hands 
until  it  is  well  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in  two  waters, 
the  last  one  to  be  well  salted. 

Gentlemens  Wear.  To  wash  gentlemen's  wear, 
such  as  black  and  white  pants,  vests,  coats  and 
heavy  overcoats,  wash  as  usual,  rinse  thoroughly  in 
two  waters,  then  prepare  a  third  water  thus:  To  four 
pails  water  (warm  or  cold)  add  a  quart  of  salt;  when 
dissolved,  rinse  the  clothing  through  it;  turn  every 
article  wrong  side  out,  hang  in  the  shade  to  dry,  and 
you  will  be  well  paid  for  the  little  extra  trouble,  when 
you  see  how  nice  and  clear  they  are. 

Silks.  If  red,  use  muriate  of  tin  in  the  bran-water; 
if  green,  blue,  crimson,  maroon,  or  bright  yellow,  use 
oil  of  vitriol.  When  badly  soiled,  the  bran-water 
alone  should  be  used  for  washing,  and  the  muriate  or 
vitriol  put  in  the  rinsing  water.  Use  yolk  of  egg  for 
grease  sjwts,  letting  them  dry.  Spread  the  silk  on  a 
clean,  white  wood  board,  and  wash  quickly  each 
breadth  with  a  sponge  or  woolen  cloth,  first  on  one 
side  and  then  on  the  other;  rinse  \x\  the  prepared 
water  without  wringing.  If  very  much  soiled  go  over 
twice,  and  finish  the  washing  without  drying  the  egg, 
the  second  time;  dry  in  the  shade  and  stiffen  with  a 
little  gum  arabic,  unless  the  silk  is  heavy. 

White  Counterpanes.  Soak  in  a  strong  solution  of 
soap  and  soda  for  forty-eight  hours;  if  spotted,  rub 
them;  if  not,  boil  an  hour  in  a  boiler  of  suds,  with 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  soda  and  two  of  turpentine. 
Rinse  in  three  waters  without  wringing,  and  in  the 
fourth  put  a  little  blue  and  wring  the  way  the  warp 
runs. 

White  Cotton  Cloth,  Directions  for  Washing. 
Table-cloths,  or  any  white  cloths  that  have  coffee  or 
fruit  stains  on  them,  before  being  put  into  soap-suds, 
should  Jiave  boiling  water  turned  on  them,  and  remain 
in  it  till  the  water  is  cold;  the  spots  should  be  then 
rubbed  out  in  it.  If  they  are  put  into  soap-suds  with 
the  stains  in,  they  will  be  set  by  it,  so  that  no  sub- 
sequent washing  will  remove  them.  Table-cloths  will 
be  less  likely  to  get  stained  up,  if  they  are  always 
rinsed  in  thin  starch  water,  as  it  tends  to  keep  coffee 
and  fruit  from  sinking  into  the  texture  of  the  cloth. 
White  clothes  that  are  very  dirty,  will  come    clean 


easily  if  put  into  strong,  cool  suds  and  hung  on  the 
fire  the  night  previous  to  the  day  in  which  they  are  to 
be  washed.  If  they  get  to  boihng,  it  will  not  do  them 
any  harm,  provided  the  suds  is  cool  when  they  are 
put  in ;  if  it  is  hot  at  first,  it  will  set  the  dirt  in. 

To  Wash  Lace.  Cover  an  ordinaiy  wine  bottle 
with  fine  flannel  and  stick  it  firmly  round  the  bottle ; 
tack  the  outer  edge  of  the  lace  to  the  flannel,  rolling 
it  smoothly  round  the  bottle,  then  tack  the  inner  edge 
smoothly  down ;  iron  over  the  lace  with  a  piece  of  very 
fine  flannel  or  muslin ;  rub  the  whole  gently  with  clean 
suds.  If  the  lace  is  very  much  discolored,  fill  the 
bottle  with  hot  water  and  set  it  upright  in  a  saucepan 
of  suds  and  let  it  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  then  place 
the  bottle  under  a  running  tap  to  rinse  the  lace 
thoroughly ;  make  some  starch  about  as  thick  as 
arrowroot  for  an  invalid,  melt  in  it  a  small  quantity  of 
the  best  white  and  a  little  loaf  sugar.  Plunge  the 
bottle  two  or  three  times  into  this  starch,  pressing  out 
the  superfluous  starch  with  the  hand ;  then  dip  the 
bottle  into  cold  water,  remove  the  outer  covering  from 
the  lace,  fill  the  bottle  with  very  hot  water,  and  set  it 
in  the  sun  to  dry  the  lace.  When  nearly  dry  take  it 
off  the  bottle  carefully,  pick  it  out  with  the  fingers,  and 
lay  it  in  a  cool  place  to  dry. 

Laurel,  a  name  of  several  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  even  of  different  genera  and  orders. 

1.  Diurcl,  ox  Sweet  Bay.  (Laurus  nobilis.)  The 
home  of  this  shrub  is  around  the  Mediterranean.  It 
is  an  evergreen,  bearing  aromatic  leaves  and  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf  stems  clusters  of  small,  yellowish-white 
flowers.  The  leaves,  called  "bay  leaves,"  are  used  to 
flavor  certain  fancy  dishes  for  the  table,  and  both 
leaves  and  tree  yield  an  aromatic  oil  used  to  flavor 
the  bay  water  of  commerce. 

2.  American  Laurel;  Mountain  Laurel;  Broad- 
leaved  Laurel;  Calico  Bush.  (Kalmia  latifolia.) 
This  is  also  an  evergreen  shrub,  growing  from  three  to 
ten  feet  high,  throughout  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
United  States,  especially  abounding  on  the  sides  of 
hills  and  mountains.  The  flowers  are  beautiful,  but 
the  leaves  are  narcotic-poisonous,  especially  to  sheep. 
They  are  said  to  be  eaten  with  impunity  by  deer, 
goats  and  partridges.  Similar  properties  characterize 
other  species  of  Kalmia,  as  sheep  laurel  and  swamp 
laurel.     All  these  have  been  used  in  medicine. 

3.  Cherry  Laurel.  (Prunus  lauro-cerasus.)  This 
laurel,  belonging  to  the  rose  order  of  plants,  is  not 
poisonous.  It,  too,  is  evergreen,  growing  15  to  20  feet 
high,  bearing  shining  leaves,  small,  white,  odorous 
flowers,  and  fruit  like  a  small  black  cherry.  It  is  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor,  but  has  been  introduced  into 
Europe.  Prussic  acid,  for  medical  purposes,  is 
obtained  from  its  leaves. 

4.  Rose  Laurel;  Rose  Bay;  South  Sea  Rose. 
(Nerium  Oleander.)  Another  name  of  the  common 
oleander,  which  see. 

5.  Sassafras.  (Laurus  Sassafras,  now  Sassafras 
officinale):  well  known. 

6.  Spice-7t>ood ;  Spice  Bush;  Fever  Bush.     (Laurus 


9TO 


LAWN. 


or  Lindera  Benzoin.)  This  is  a  common  wild  shrub 
throughout  the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  very  odoriferous.  The  berries  have  been  used  as 
a  substitute  for  allspice,  and  a  decoction  of  the  leaves 
and  twigs  as  a  stimulant  and  febrifuge. 

Lawn,  ground  in  front  of  or  surrounding  a  residence, 
covered  with  grass.  We  have  very  fully  treated  of  the 
care  and  decorations  of  the  grounds  sunounding  the 
residence,  in  Landscape  Gar- 
dening and  Floriculture,  and 
therefore  in  this  article  have  but 
a  few  observations  to  make. 
Every  one  realizes  how  beauti- 
ful a  well-kept  lawn  is.  Its  con- 
dition may  change  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  home  from  the  ex- 
terior views.  It  costs  so  little 
and  is  really  worth  so  much  that 
farmers  cannot  afford  to  neglect  their  yards. 

There  are  three  modes  of  forming  lawns.  The  first 
is  to  mellow  the  surface  and  sow  grass  seed  thickly; 
these  coming  up  with  the  weeds,  the  seeds  of  which 
are  in  the  soil,  much  labor  is  required  afterwards  to 
get  all  these  out  by  hand.  The  second  is  to  plow  and 
re-plow,  harrow  and  re-harrow,  for  a  season,  in  order 
to  work  out  all  the  foul  seeds,  allowing  time  between 
the  operations  for  the  seeds  to  germinate,  and 
remembering  that  many  seeds  will  not  grow  if  buried 
over  an  inch  deep;  hence  the  necessity  of  repeating 
the  stirring  many  times,  in  order  to  bring  all  parts  up 
to  the  surface.  Then  sow  fine  grass  seed,  such  as 
red-top,  June  grass,  white  clover,  etc.,  mixed,  and  at 
the  rate  of  at  least  one  bushel  per  acre,  rolling  it  in. 
This  is  to  be  done  as  early  as  possible  in  spring,  and 
then,  when  it  is  a  few  inches  high,  mow  it  closely  as 
often  as  once  a  week  the  season  through.  This  will 
give  a  handsome,  green,  carpet-like  velvet.  The  third 
mode,  usually  the  most  expensive,  but  the  most  speedy 
and  certain,  if  well  performed,  is  to  turf  the  surface. 
First  make  the  soil  deep  and  mellow,  and  even  at  the 
surface ;  then  pare  from  an  old  pasture  the  turf,  cut 
very  smooth,  with  perfectly  parallel  and  straight  sides, 
and  of  a  perfectly  uniform  thickness  of  about  two  and 
a   half  inches;    spread   this   turf   over  the   mellow 


When  the  grass  becomes  thin  and  of  weakly 
growth,  a  top-dressing  of  good  stable  manure  should 
be  laid  over  the  surface  in  December.  It  is  imjxjr- 
tant  that  the  manure  should  be  well  rotted  before 
being  used,  and  occasionally  during  winter  it  should 
be  broken  up  and  moved  around  some,  the  object 
being  to  distribute  it  evenly  and  fine  enough  so  it 
will  settle  around  the  roots  of  the  grass  and  nourish 

it.  The  rough  portions 
should  be  removed  at  the 
opening  of  spring. 

Do  not  use  oats  in  sow- 
ing grass  seed,  as  is  often 
done.  It  robs  the  young 
grass  of  much  nourishment 
and  dies  when  the  grass 
most  needs  its  protection. 
Timothy  is  too  coarse  and 


Fig.  I. — Lawn  Hote  Cart. 

surface,  as  smooth  as  a  floor,  and  roll  evenly.  If 
manure  is  applied  to  make  the  soil  rich,  it  must  be 
finely  pulverized,  and  thoroughly  and  evenly  worked  in. 


Fig.  2. — Latvn  Mtywer. 

uneven  for  the  lawn.  It  is,  however,  easily  killed 
by  close  cutting  late  in  the  summer.  The  following 
is  an  excellent  rtiixture  of  grass  seed:  Kentucky  blue 
grass  one  bushel,  red-top  one  bushel,  spear  grass  one 
bushel,  and  white  clover  two  bushels.  Mix  and  divide 
in  two  equal  parts,  sowing  one  part  one  way  and  the 
other  half  the  other  way.  Then  sow  two  pounds  of 
flat  turnip  seed.  This  quantity  is  sufficient  for  one 
acre. 

Every  lawn  of  any  pretentions  should  be  kept 
smooth  by  a  machine.  Mowers  are  now  made  that 
leave  the  lawn  in  a  beautiful,  velvety  condition,  and 
the  short  grass  falling  down  over  the  roots  forms  an 
excellent  mulching.  These  mowers  are  simple,  easily 
managed  and  do  their  work  so  admirably  that  one 
should  be  used  ujx)n  every  lawn  of  any  considerable 
size.  In  this  article  we  present  illustrations  ol 
different  makes  of  lawn  mowers.  Fig.  2  represents  a 
mower  made  by  Mast,  Foos  &  Co.,  Springfield,  O. 
It  has  a  center  cut  and  can  be  used  on  uneven  sur- 
faces, cutting  over  knolls  and  ridges,  close  up  to 
walks  and  down  terraces.  It  is  of  very  light  draft  and 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  The  wheels  are  7  54 
inches  in  diameter  and  are  both  drivers,  so  that  it 
runs  lightly  and  cuts  in  turning  to  the  right  or  left. 

Fig.  3  is  an  illustration  of  a  lawn  mowermadeby  E. 


LA  Y— LEANNESS. 


911 


S.  Bristol  &  Co.,  Chicago.     It  is  made  from  the  best 
material  and  is  a  speedy  and  close  cutter. 

Another  thing  necessary  in   connection   with 


the 


Fig.  3. — Laivn  Mower. 

lawn,  in  cases  of  drought  during  the  hot  summer 
months,  is  the  hose  and  cart.  We  give  an  illustration 
of  a  good  cart  (Fig.  i)  made  by  the  Union  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  Toledo,  O.  It  is  intended  for  those 
who  use  25  to  7  5  feet  of  hose.  A  new  design  and 
cheap. 

See  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 

Lay,  Ley  or  Lea,  a  meadow;  a  plain  or  plat  of 
grass  or  clover  land.  A  clover  lay  is  the  best  ground 
upon  which  to  raise  most  crops. 

Layering  consists  in  bending  down  a  branch  to 
the  ground  and  confining  it  there  until  roots  are 
formed  and  a  new  plant  started,  something  in 
imitation  of  the  spontaneous  propagation  of  the  straw- 
berry by  its  runners.  Generally,  however,  it  is  best 
to  put  the  lowest  angle,  the  joint  where  the  roots  are 
expected  to  grow,  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  at  least  cover  that  point  with  good,  moist 
earth.  The  bough  is  usually  held  in  its  place  by  a 
stake  with  a  short  prong  at  the  upper  end.  Grape 
vines  can  be  laid  down  for  some  distance  so  that 
several  new  shoots  can  start  at  once  from  as  many 
joints.  Cut  off  the  end  of  the  branch  back  to  the 
buried  portion.  In  one  season  the  new  plants  will 
have  roots  sufficient  to  be  taken  up  for  transplanting. 
Layering  is  done  in  early  spring. 

Leach,  to  wash,  as  ashes,  by  causing  water  to  pass 
through  them,  and  thus  to  separate  from  them  the 
alkali;  the  ashes  leached;  a  tub  in  which  ashes  are 
leached :  see  Ashes.  A  "  leachy  "  soil  is  one  underlaid 
with  sand  or  gravel,  and  thus  is  incapable  of  holding 
water. 


Lead,  a  soft  metal  with  a  bright,  silvery  luster. 
The  surface  readily  tarnishes  when  exposed  to  air; 
hence  we  see  its  natural  color  and  luster  only  when 
fresh  cut.  The  uses  of  this  familiar  metal  are  well- 
known.  White  lead  is  a  carbonate  of  common  lead, 
litharge  is  an  oxide  of  lead  and  red  lead  is  a  peroxide 
of  the  same.  Metallic  lead,  in  the  form  of  shot,  is 
used  by  many  horse  dealers  to  relieve  temporarily 
the  heaving,  or  symptoms  of  broken  wind,  or  heaves 
in  horses.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  if  the  lead  is  not 
speedily  converted  into  an  insoluble  oxide,  the 
animal  so  treated  will  die  in  a  month  or  two. 

Oxide  of  Lead.  This  preparation  of  lead  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  common  sticking  plaster  or 
diachylon. 

Iodide  of  Lead:  see  Iodine. 

Acetate  of  Lead;  Sugar  of  Lead.  A  solution 
of  acetate  of  lead  is  known  by  the  name  of  Goulard's 
Extract  of  Lead,  and  was  formerly,  and  is  still  by 
some  persons,  recommended  and  used  in  cases  of 
sprains,  and  as  a  wash  for  diseased  eyes.  Better  and 
less  injurious  agents  are  now  used  by  the  educated 
veterinary  surgeon.  Goulard's  Extract,  or  lead  water, 
should  never  be  used  in  diseases  of  the  eye,  as  it  can 
do  no  good  beyond  what  cold  water  can  do,  but  it 
dulls  the  eye  by  making  it  hazy  and  opaque.  It  will 
be  well  to  remember  this  and  act  upon  it,  not  mind- 
ing what  old  and  antiquated  books  and  persons  may 
say  or  think  in  regard  to  what  we  recommend. 

Lead  Poisoning  produces  a  sugary,  astringent, 
metallic  taste,  tightness  of  throat,  colicky  pains, 
violent  vomiting,  hiccup,  convulsions  and  death.  As 
an  antidote,  administer  Epsom  or  Glauber's  salt,  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  or  alum,  or  phosphate  of  soda.  Give 
also  an  emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (24  grains  to  % 
pint  of  water);  leeches  to  belly;  fomentations  if 
necessary;  and  a  castor  oil  mixture  with  laudanum. 

Leaf  Mold,  rotted  leaves.  Leaf  mold  from  the 
forest  constitutes  the  best  soil  or  manure  for  all  those 
plants  whose  native  habitat  is  the  woods,  as  the  small 
fruits  and  nearly  all  flowers  and  ornamental  shrubs. 
Indeed,  there  cannot  be  too  much  leaf  mold  ujxjn  any 
farm  or  garden,  and  it  should  be  the  principal  part  of 
the  soil  in  almost  every  flower  pot.  It  is  too  tedious 
to  collect  for  field  or  orchard  purposes,  but  it  is  wise 
to  supply  it  to  flowers,  strawberry  beds  and  many 
special  small  crops. 

Lean  Meat  is  the  muscle  of  an  animal,  and  is  the 

principal  part  eaten. 

Leanness,  want  of  flesh,  both  muscle  and  fat. 
When  the  result  of  disease,  it  is  called  emaciation; 
when  it  is  the  disease  itself,  it  is  called  marasmus. 
Among  persons  of  health  the  motto,  "Fatness  for 
beauty  and  leanness  for  utility,"  may  prevail  to  a 
limited  extent.  Nearly  all  the  heavy  work  of  the 
world,  both  mental  and  physical,  is  done  by  people 
of  comparative  leanness;  hence  such  persons  need 
not  envy  the  plump,  whose  chief  physical  merit  con- 
sists in  a  "  prepossessing  appearance."     We   offer, 


LEAN-TO— LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


therefore,  no  remedies  for   leanness.       See    Fatness, 
page  441. 

Iiean-to,  a  shed  attached  to  a  building.  This 
form  of  structure  is  referred  to  in  the  articles  Green- 
house, Barn,  etc. 

Lease,  a  demise  or  letting  of  lands  or  tenements  to 
another  for  life,  for  a  term  of  years,  or  at  will,  or  for 
any  less  interest  than  the  lessor  has  in  the  prop- 
erty, for  a  rent  or  compensation  reserved;  the  con- 
tract for  such  letting;  any  tenure  by  grant  or  per- 
mission ;  the  time  for  which  such  tenure  holds  good ; 
to  let ;  to  rent.  See  Rent.  The  form  of  a  lease  is 
simple.  In  drawing  one  up  state  the  names  of  both 
parties,  describe  the  land  or  property  leased,  state 
the  time  for  which  it  is  leased,  for  what  purposes, 
amount  to  be  paid,  and  insert  any  special  agreement 
made  by  either  party. 

Iieather,  hides  cleaned  of  hair  and  tanned. 

To  Distinguish  Good  Leather.  The  best  tanned 
leatner  is  of  a  yellowish  drab  color  in  the  interior,  be- 
ing tanned  with  oak  bark  by  the  old  process.  That 
which  is  tanned  by  hemlock  bark  is  reddish  in  the  in- 
terior, and  that  which  is  tanned  by  the  modern  short 
process  is  of  still  a  different  color,  and'neither  of  the 
latter  is  so  good  as  the  other.  Properly  tanned  leather 
is  of  the  same  color  throughout  its  thickness.  If,  on 
moistening  a  fresh  cut  surface  with  the  tongue,  it 
shows  a  lighter  color  in  the  center,  reject  it.  Beware 
of  varnished  leather;  a  good  quality  does  not  need 
doctoring.  Rotten  or  half  tanned  leather  is  never  so 
soft  or  pliable  as  fully  tanned  and  good  stock.  In 
buying  shoes  or  boots,  by  a  little  practice  one  can 
judge  of  the  quality  qf  the  stock  by  moistening  and 
rubbing  a  small  portion  of  the  surface.  If  it  works 
up  open,  loose  and  spongy,  it  is  poor  material ;  if  it 
continues  hard  and  glossy  like  wood,  it  is  too  hard 
and  liable  to  crack. 

To  Preserve  Leather.  Never  heat  it  so  hot 
that  you  can  smell  it.  Patent  leather,  in  particular, 
is  easily  injured  by  heating.  Wear  rubber  over-shoes 
as  little  as  possible.  Do  not  wash  leather  with  hot 
water  and  soap;  remove  the  dirt  with  a  damp  sponge. 
For  uncolored  leather,  moisten  the  sponge  with  a 
solution  of  oxalic  acid.  Keep  it  saturated  with  neat's- 
foot  oil,  avoiding  all  varnishes  and  all  blacking  con- 
taining varnish.  Ignorant  and  indolent  hostlers  are 
apt  to  use  such  substances  on  their  harness  as  will 
give  the  most  immediate  effect;  and  these,  as  a  gen- 
eral thing,  are  most  destructive  to  the  leather.  Full 
details  regarding  the  cleaning  and  oiling  of  harness 
are  given  in  the  article  on  that  subject. 

To  Restore  the  Luster  of  Leather.  Give  a 
new  coat  of  "grain  black,"  which  may  be  obtained  of 
harness-makers.  Before  putting  on  this  substance, 
wash  the  leather  with  jXJtash  water  until  all  the  grease 
is  killed,  and  after  the  black  is  put  on,  oil  and  tallow 
all  the  surface.  This  will  not  only  fasten  the  color 
but  make  the  leather  flexible.  Harness  grained  in 
this  way  can  be  cleaned  with  kerosene   or   spirits  of 


turpentine.  The  luster  of  morocco  is  restored  by 
sponging  it  with  white  of  egg. 

To  Restore  Softness  to  Leather.  Rub  in 
neat's-foot  or  castor  oil.  But  the  best  oil  for  harness 
is  a  mixture  of  i  quart  neat's-foot  oil,  4  ounces  beef 
tallow  and  3  tablespoonfuls  of  lampblack.  For  sum- 
mer use,  add  4  ounces  beeswax. 

Polish  for  Patent  Leather.  Take  Y^  ix)und 
molasses  or  sugar,  i  ounce  gum  arabic  and  2  jxjunds 
ivory  black;  boil  them  well  together,  then  let  the 
vessel  stand  until  quite  cool,  when  the  contents  will 
have  become  settled ;  then  bottle  off.  It  is  applied 
without  brushes  or  polishing. 

Leaven  (lev'n),  yeast,  or  a  substance  which  pro- 
duces fermentation,  as  in  dough  ;,  especially  a  mass 
of  sour  dough  which,  mixed  with  a  larger  quantity  of 
dough  or  paste,  produces  fermentation  in  it  and  ren- 
ders it  hght;  also  called  leavening.  Literally,  to 
leaven  is  to  render  Hght.  Yeast  is  the  best  form  of 
leaven. 

Ledger,  an  account  book  in  which  all  the  trans- 
actions are  classified  under  the  names  of  the  respect- 
ive parties.     See  Book-keeping. 

Leech,  a  small  aquatic  animal,  which  has  a  great 
capacity  for  filling  itself  with  blood,  by  cutting  through 
the  skin  of  a  person  or  an  animal  and  sucking.  It  is 
extensively  used  by  the  medical  profession  (though 
not  so  much  as  formerly)  for  the  reduction  of  local  in- 
flammations and  congestions  at  the  surface  of  the 
body.  When  full,  the  leech  will  disgorge  itself  if  a. 
little  salt  or  vinegar  be  applied  to  its  head,  and  it  is 
immediately  ready  for  another  meal ;  but  the  practice 
of  emptying  them  and  applying  them  the  second  time 
has  passed  away,  as  infectious  diseases  have  been 
communicated  by  such  practice.  There  is  one  leech 
farm  in  this  country,  namely,  at  Newton,  L.  I. 
Most  leeches  are  imported  from  Europe.  Most 
drug  stores  keep  these  creatures  on  hand,  for  the  use 
of  physicians. 

Leek,  a  species  of  onion  and  therefore  cultivated  as 
onions  are.  Sow  in  April  in  drills  six  or  eight  inches 
deep  and  18  inches  apart,  but  cover  thinly;  when  the 
plants  are  up  thin  to  nine  inches  apart  in  the  drill; 
during  their  season  of  growth,  gradually  draw  the 
earth  around  the  plant  until  the  drills  are  filled  level 
with  the  surface.  Water  in  times  of  drouth.  Draw 
for  use  in  October.  This  vegetable  is  used  in  soups 
or  boiled  jis  asparagus,  especially  in  the  winter.  The 
recommended  varieties  are  the  Large  Musselburg, 
the  Early  London,  the  London  Broad  Fl;ig,  the  Broad 
Scotch,  Ver)'  Large  Rouen  and  the  Extra  Large  Car- 
entan.  The  wild  leek  of  this  country  is  a  flat-leaved 
plant  resembling  a  flag,  and  is  often  eaten  by  cows  in 
the  spring,  giving  their  milk  a  disagreeable  flavor. 

Lees,  dregs  or  sediment  of  liquors. 

Legal  Business  Forms.  It  is  quite  essential  that 
every  person  should  have  some  knowledge  of  the  vari- 
ous forms  used  in  the  transaction  of  business.  One 
may  not  be  engaged  in  active  business,  yet  the  neces- 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


913 


sity  for  this  knowledge  will  often  arise.  While  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  business  forms  is  necessary,  it  is 
equally  ini[X)rtant  that  a  person  should  have  a  form 
suited  to  the  transaction  made,  and  legal  in  all  its 
parts.  Those  appended  in  this  article  are  with  a  view 
both  to  illustrate  and  to  serve  the  common  purposes 
of  business.  Forms  are  the  embodiment  of  principles, 
and  also  the  instrument  through  which  the  business 
affairs  of  life  are  transacted.  To  secure  both  these 
objects,  a  careful  selection  has  been  made  of  those 
deemed  the  best  adapted  to  answer  the  pur])Ose  of  the 
one  and  meet  the  wants  of  the  other. 

We  not  only  include  in  this  article  forms  that  are 
made  legal  by  legislation,  but  also  mercantlile  and 
general  business  forms  and  terms  in  common  use. 

ARTICLES   OF  AGREEMENT. 

An  agreement  is  virtually  a  contract,  by  which  a 
certain  person  or  persons  agree  or  contracts  to  per- 
form certain  duties  within  a  specified  time.  See  Con- 
tract. 

It  is  of  much  imixDrtance,  in  all  matters  upon  which 
may  arise  a  difference  of  opinion,  or  misunderstand- 
ing, that  contracts  be  reduced  very  exi^licitly  to  writ- 
ing, thereby  frequently  saving  the  parties  to  the 
contract  a  long  and  expensive  law-suit.  No  particular 
form  is  necessary. 

It  is  the  presumption  of  the  law  that  a  person  in 
making  a  contract  intends  to  bind  not  only  himself, 
but  his  legal  representatives.  Such  representatives 
may  therefore  sue  on  a  contract,  although  not  named 
in  it. 

A  contract  must  show  that  it  is  made  for  a  val- 
uable consideration.  A  failure  to  do  this  renders  it 
void  in  law. 

Agreements  written  in  pencil  are  binding  in  law, 
but  it  is  best  to  write  them  with  ink,  as  pencil  marks 
are  easily  erased. 

Fraud  annuls  all  contracts  and  obligations,  and  the 
party  so  wronged  is  relieved  of  his  obligation  by  law. 
If  both  of  the  parlies  to  an  agreement  act  fraudu- 
lently, neither  can  take  advantage  of  the  fraud  of  the 
other;  nor  can  one  who  acts  fraudulently  set  his 
own  fraud  aside  for  his  benefit. 

l^ery  agreement  should  state  most  distinctly  the 
tim?  within  which  its  conditions  are  to  be  com- 
plied with. 

Copies  of  agreements  should  always  be  prepared  in 
duplicate,  and  each  party  to  the  agreement  should  re- 
tain a  copy. 

Spelling,  though  bad,  will  not  void  a  contract, 
where  the  intention  of  the  parries  is  clear. 

All  contracts  made  in  violarion  of  a  valid  statute 
are  absolutely  void  and  of  no  effect. 

Where  a  proposition  is  made  by  letter,  the  mailing 
of  letter  of  acceptance  of  the  proposition  completes 
the  contract. 

General  Form  of  Agreement. 

This  Agreement,  Made  the  Third  day  of  November, 
58 


1883,  between  Damon  Clarke  of  Macomb,  Comity  of  Mo- 
Donough,  State  of  Illinois,  of  the  first  part,  and  William 
Hayes,  of  tlie  same  place,  of  the  second  jjart. 

W1TNES.SETII,  that  the  said  Damon  Clarke,  in  consid- 
eration of  the  agreement  of  the  party  of  the  second  part, 
hereinafter  contained,  contracts  and  agrees  to  and  with 
the  said  AVilliaui  Hayes,  XXyxX,  he  xoilX  deAiver  in  good  and 
marketable  condition,  at  the  city  of  Galesbury,  III.,  durintj 
the  month  of  December,  of  this  year.  Nine  Hundred  Bushela 
of  Corn,  in  the  followiny  lots,  and  at  the  following  specified 
times,  namely:  one  hundred  bushels  by  the  fifth  of  Decem- 
ber, three  hundred  bushel i  by  the  fifteenth  of  December,  and 
the  balance  by  the  thirtieth  of  December. 

And  the  said  William  Hayes,  in  consideration  of  the 
prompt  fulfillment  of  this  contract,  on  the  part  of  the 
party  of  the  second  part,  contracts  to,  and  agrees  with, 
the  said  Damon  Clarke,  to  fay  for  said  corn  fifty  cents  per 
bushel  us  soon  as  delivered. 

In  case  of  failure  of  agreement  by  either  of  the  parties 
hereto,  it  is  hereby  stipulated  and  agreed  that  the  party 
so  failing  shall  pay  to  the  other  One  Hundred  Dollars,  as 
fixed  and  settled  damages. 

In  w  itness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written . 

DAMON  CLAKKE. 
WILLIAM  HAYES. 

A  Brief  Building  Contract. 

Contract  for  building,  made  this day  of one  thousand 

eight   hundred   and by   and    between of in   the 

County  of and of in  the  County     of 

Builder... 

The  said covenants  and  agrees  to  and  with  the  said to 

make,  erect,  build  and  finish,  in  a  good  substantial,  and   work  manlike 

manner, upon situate.     said to   be    built 

agreeable  to  the  draught,  plans, explanations,  or  specifications  furnished, 
or  to  be  furnished  to  said by of  good  and  substan- 
tial materials;   and  to  be  finished  complete  on  or  before  the day  of 

And  said covenants  and  agrees  to  pay  to  said for  the 

same dollars  as  follows: 

Security  against  mechanic's,  or  other  lien,  is  to  be  furnished  by  paid 
prior  to payment  by  said 

And  for  the  performance  of  all  and  every  one  of  the  articles  and  agree- 
ments above    mentioned,  the   said and do   hereby 

bind  themselves,  their  heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  each  to  the 
other,  in  the  penal  sum  of dollars,  firmly  by  these  presents. 

In  Witness  Whereof  We,  the  said and have  here- 
unto set  our  hands  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

{■^iffnaiurfs.)  {Seals.) 

Executed  and  D^liv ;rfd  in   prestnce  oj 

Damages  for  Breach  of  Contract. 

The  general  rule  of  law  re.>ipecting  the  measure  of 
damages  is,  that  where  an  injury  has  been  sustained  for 
which  no  remedy  exists  in  law,  that  remedy  shall  be 
commensurate  with  the  injury  sustained. 

In  a  breach  of  contract  without  actual  loss,  the  plaintiff 
is  entitleil  to  judgment  for  nominal  damages  and  cost. 

Anticipated  profits  or  speculations  in  real  property  can- 
not be  recovered  as  damages  for  a  breach  of  contract. 
Actual  expenditures  under  the  contract  may  be  re- 
covered. 


914 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


In  loss  of  goods  by  common  carriers  the  measure  of 
damages  Is  the  wholesale  price  of  goods  at  the  place 
where  they  were  to  be  delivered,  less  the  freight  on 
same. 

A  failure  to  deliver  property  according  to  contract  en- 
titles the  plaintiff  to  the  value  of  such  property  at  the 
time  and  place  fixed  for  delivery. 

A  failure  to  convey  land  according  to  covenant  en- 
titlpstheplaiiitiffto  the  value  of  the  land  at  the  time  the 
conve3'ance  \v  as  to  be  made. 

The  measure  of  damages  on  a  covenant  to  convey  real 
estate  in  the  absence  of  fraud,  is  the  purchase  money  and 
Interest. 

The  measure  of  damages  on  all  contracts  to  deliver 
goods  on  demand  is  the  value  of  the  property  at  the  time 
of  the  demand. 

If  a  party  contracts  to  employ  another  for  a  certain 
time,  at  a  specified  compensation,  aad  discharges  him, 
without  cause,  before  the  expiration  of  time,  the  plain— 
till  can  obtain  judgment  for  the  full  amount  of  wages  for 
the  whole  time,  provided  he  does  not  engage  in  any 
other  business.  A  claim  for  diminution  of  damages  bj' 
the  defendant,  in  such  a  case,  would  be  allowed  by  the 
court. 

AGENCY  AND   ATTOENEY. 

An  agent  is  a  person  employed  by  another  to  perform 
certain  acts  for  him,and  such  acts  in  law  are  the  acts  of 
the  principal. 

One  who  is  disqualified  to  act  on  his  own  account  may 
be  an  agent  for  another  who  is  competent;  thus,  infants, 
married  women,  and  aliens  may  act  as  agents  for  others, 

A  principal  is  responsible  for  the  acts  of  an  agent, 
when  he  has  given  full  authority  to  represent  and  act  for 
him,  when  he  has  by  his  words  and  acts,  or  both,  caused 
or  permitted  the  person  with  whom  the  agent  deals  to 
believe  him  to  be  clothed  with  full  authority,  even 
though  such  be  not  the  case. 

Agencies  are  of  two  kinds — general  and  special.  A 
general  agent  is  one  authorized  to  represent  his  principal 
in  all  his  business,  or  all  his  business  of  a  particular 
kind;  the  principal  is  bound  by  his  acts,  even  though 
he  exceed  his  authority,  provided  the  agent  does  not  go 
beyond  1  he  general  scope  of  the  business.  If,  however, 
the  agent  transcends  his  actual  authority,  and  the  party 
with  whom  tlie  general  agent  deals  is  aware  that  the 
agent  1*  exceeding  his  power,  the  principal  is  not  bound 
by  the  acts  of  his  agent. 

Aspecidl  agent  is  one  authorized  to  do  only  a  specific 
thing,  or  a  few  specified  things;  the  principal  is  not 
bound  by  his  acts  should  he  exceed  the  authority  vested 
in  liim,  because  the  party  dealing  with  such  agent  must 
inquire  for  himself  j  and  at  his  own  peril  into  the  extent 
and  limits  of  the  authority  of  such  agent. 

Authority  may  be  given  to  an  agent  either  in  writing, 
under  or  without  a  seal,  or  orally;  if  given  in  writing, 
this  instrument  is  called  a  Power  of  Attorney. 

A  Power  of  Attorney  intended  to  be  used  in  a  foreign 
country  sho-  Id  be  acknowledged  before  a  notary  public. 


and  the  signature  of  the  notary  certified  by  the  consul  of 
the  Governmentlto  which  the  power  of  attorney  is  to  be 
sent. 

When  intended  to  be  used  in  another  State  they  should 
be  duly  proved  and  acknowledged,  according  to  the  laws 
of  th3  State  where  they  are  executed. 

A  jirincipal  is  bound  by  the  acts  of  a  general  agent, 
even  after  a  revocation  of  his  agency,  if  such  revocation 
is  unknown  to  tlio  party  dealing  with  the  agent.  An 
agent  should  conform  with  great  strictness  and  accuracy 
to  his  authority,  otherwise  his  principal  will  not  be 
bound;  and  he  may  be  held  personally  liable. 

An  agent  cannot  be  held  personally  liable  if  he  trans- 
cends his  authority  if  the  party  with  whom  he  deals 
knew  at  the  time  he  did  so. 

If  an  agent  trusted  with  goods  sell  the  same  without 
authority,  tlie  jirincipal  may  afiirm  the  sale  and  collect 
from  the  purchaser,  or  he  may  disaffirm  the  sale  and  re- 
cover the  goods  from  the  buyer. 

An  ag  nt  cannot  exceed  or  depart  from  his  instruc- 
tions without  making  himself  liable  to  his  principal  for 
the  censequeuces. 

An  agent  cannot  appoint  a  sub-agent  or  ajtornoy  un- 
less expressly  authorized  to  do  so  by  his  principal. 

An  agent  is  bound  to  use  all  that  care  and  skill  that  a 
reasonable  man  would  use  in  his  own  business,  and  is 
bound  to  the  utmost  good  faith. 

For  any  breach  of  dutj'  the  agent  is  responsible  for 
the  whole  injury  thereby  sustained  by  the  principal. 

If  an  agent  embezzles  his  principal's  property,  the 
princii)al  may  reclaim  it  whenever  and  wherever  it  can 
be  distinctly  traced  or  identified. 

An  agent  employed  to  .sell  proiierty  cannot  buy  it  him- 
self, or  if  employed  to  purchase  can  he  buy  it  from  him- 
self. 

The  agent  should  keep  an  exact  account  of  his  doii:gs, 
especially  of  all  pecuniary  transactions. 

Insanity  revokes  authority,  though  if  the  principal 
was  sane  when  authority  was  given  his  agent  and  a 
third  party  deals  with  the  agent  in  the  belief  of  his  au- 
thority, such  revocation  will  not  be  permitted  to  take 
effect  to  the  injury  of  the  third  party. 

The  following  forms  of  power  of  attorney  are  those 
most  frequently  required: 

Power  of  Attorney. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  I {the  name  of 

the  principal  pr  party  appointing)  of {residence) 

have  constituted,  ordained,  and  made,  and  in  my  stead  and  place  put, 
and  by  these  presents  do  consitute,  ordain,  and  make,  and  in  my  stead 
and  place  put  {name  of  atiorfey)  to  be  my  true,  sufficient,  and  lawful  at- 
torney for  me  and  in  my  name  and  stead  to  {here  set/orth  the  purposes 
/or  which  the  fiower  is  g^iven) 

Giving  and  hereby  granting  unto  him,  the  said  attorney,  full  power  and 
authority  in  and  about  the  premises;  and  to  use  all  due  means,  course,  and 
process  in  law,  for  the  full,  effectual,  and  complete  execution  of  the  busi- 
ness afore  described,  and  in  my  name  to  make  and  execute  due  acquit- 
tance and  discharge;  and  for  the  premises  to  appear,  and  the  person  of 
of  me  the  constituent  to  represent  before  any  governor,  judges,  justices, 
officers,  and  min;sters  of  the  law  whatsoever,  in  any  court  or  courts  ol* 
judicature,  and  there  on  my  behalf,  to  answer,   defend,  and    reply  unto 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


915 


all  actions,  causes,  matters,  and  things  whatsoever  relating  to  the  prem- 
ises. Also  to  submit  any  matter  in  dispute,  respecting  the  premises,  to 
arbitration  or  otherwise;  with  full  power  to  make  and  substitute  for  the 
purpose  aforesaid,  one  or  more  attorneys  under  him,  my  said  attorney, 
and  the  same  again  at  pleasure  to  revoke.  And  generally  to  say,  do,  act, 
transact,  determine,  accomplish,  and  finish  all  matters  and  things  whatso- 
ever relating  to  the  premises,  as  fully,  amply,  and  effectually,  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes,  as  I , the  said  constituent,  if  present,  ought  or 

might  personally,  although  the  matter  should  require  more  special  au- 
thority than  is  herein  comprised,  I the  said  constituent  ratifying, 

allowing,  and  holding  firm  and  valid  all  whatsoever  my  said  attorney  or 
his  substitutes  shall  lawfully  do,  or  cause  to  be  done,  in  and  about  the 
premises,  by  virtue  of  these  presents. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this day 

of in  the  year  of  our  Lord  eighteen  hundred  and 

{Signature^  {Seal^ 

Signtd^  Sealed  and  Delivered  in  Presence  of 


Power  of  Attorney  in  a  Shorter  Form. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  that  I  {name  0/  principal)^ 
have  made,  constituted,  and  appointed,  and  by  these  presents  do  make, 
constitute,  and  appoint  {name  of  attorney).,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney, 
for  me  and  in  my  name,  place  and  stead,  to  {here  describe  the  thing  to 
be  done)^  giving  and  granting  unto  my  said  attorney  full  power  and  au- 
thority to  do  and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever  requi- 
site and  necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises,  as  fully,  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  1  might  or  could  do  if  personally  present,  with 
full  power  of  substitution  and  revocation;  hereby  ratifying  and  confirm- 
ing all  that  my  said  attorney  or  his  substitutes  shall  lawfully  do  or  cause 
to   be  done  by  virtue  thereof. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this 

day  of in  the  year  of  our  Lord  eighteen  hundred  and 

{Signature.)   {Seal.) 

Signed^  Sealed  and  Delivered  in  Presence  of 


Bevocation  of  Power  of  Attorney. 

Whereas  I, of  the of in  the  county  of 

and  State   of ,  by  my  certain  power  of  attorney, 

bearing  date  the day  of ,  in  the   year   one   thousand 

eight  hundred  and ,  did  appoint of  the ,  my  true 

and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in  my  name,  to  {her'  set  out  what  he 
•was  authorized  to  do,  using  the  precise  language  of  the  Pcfwer  of  at- 
torney originally  giz>e?i  him).,  as  by  the  said  power  of  attorney,  reference 
thereunto  being  had,  will  more  fully  appear  : 

Therefore,  Know  all  Men  iiv  these  Presents,  That  1, , 

aforesaid, have  countermanded  and  revoked,  and  by  these  presents  do 
countermand  and  revoke  the  said  power  of  attorney  and  all  power  and 
authority  thereby  given  to  the  said 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this 

. ..  .day  of ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

{Signature.)  {Seal.) 

Sealed  and  Delivered  in  Presence  of 


APPRENTICES. 

An  apprentice  is  a  person,  usually  a  minor,  who  is 
bound  out  to  serve  a  term  of  years  to  learn  some  art  or 
trade. 

A  contract  of  apprenticesiiip  should  be  in  writing,  and 
should  be  signed  by  the  apprentice  and  his  father,  or  in 
case  of  his  death  or  incapacity,  liis  mother,  or  lawful 
guardian,  or  by  selectmen,  trustees,  or  other  public  offi- 
cers— his  obligation  being  to  serve  his  master  during  the 
term  of  service.  The  contract  of  apprenticeship  should 
bind  the  master  to  teach  his  apprentice  his  trade  or  busi- 
ness. The  omission  to  specify  any  trnde  or  profession  to 
be  taught  will  not  invalidate  the  instrument. 


An  agreement  is  sometimes  made  directly  with  an  ap- 
prentice, and  a  guarantee  taken  from  the  parent  or  other 
friend  that  he  shall  perform  it.  While  the  agreement 
of  the  minor  is  voidable,  the  guaranty  rests  upon  suffi- 
cient considerations,  and  maj-  Ije  enforced. 

Apprentices  are  notentitled  to  wages,  unless  expressly 
stipulated  for,  but  the  master  is,  by  his  relationship  to 
his  apprentice,  bound  to  pay  for  his  medical  attendance 
in  the  event  of  sickness,  and  to  supply  him  with  all  the 
necessaries  of  life,  as  suitable  clothing,  etc. 

The  master  is  entitled  to  the  earnings  of  the  appren- 
tice under  all  circumstances,  and  he  can  recover  at  law; 
as  tlie  courts  hold  that,  having  contracted  for  his  time, 
the  master  is  entitled  to  its  avails,  even  though  the  per- 
son employing  did  not  know  of  the  apprenticeship. 

The  power  of  the  master  over  the  person  of  the  appren- 
tice is  similar  to  that  of  a  parent  or  guardian. 

The  master  cannot  require  of  the  apprentice  menial 
services  not  coimected  with  his  trade  or  profession. 

The  death  of  the  master  discharges  the  apprentice- 
ship, unless  in  pursuance  of  direct  statute  provisions 

The  master  caimot  discharge  the  apprentice,  even 
though  the  apprentice  prove  unable  to  learn  his  trade. 
This  risk  was  assumed  by  the  master. 

If  good  cause  can  be  shown,  an  ajjprentice  may  be  dis- 
charged by  the  courts,  under  the  regulations  existing  in 
most  of  the  States,  from  service,  or  the  master  from  his 
contract. 

If  the  apprentice  deserts  his  master,  and  contracts  a 
new  i-elation,  which  disables  him  from  returning  to  his 
master,  lawfully,  the  master  is  not  bound  to  receive  him 
.should  he  return. 

A  party  who  induces  an  apprentice  to  leave  the  service 
of  his  master  is-  liable  to  the  master. 


Indenture  of  Apprenticeship,  to  be  Signed 
by  the  Father. 

This  indenture  of  apprenticeship  between fathe''  of ,on 

the  one  part,  and ,  of  the  other  part,  WKtnesstth:     That  the  said 

,  aged years,  on  the day  of ,  A.  D.  l8. . .  .,is 

hereby  bound  as  an  apprentice  under  the  said ,  from  the   date 

hereof  until  the day  of ,  A.  D.  i8- . . .,  to  learn  the  trade 

and  art  of  a ;  and  is  faithfully  to  serve  the   said ,  and 

correctly  to  conduct  himself  during  the  term  of  his  apprenticeship. 

And  the  said hereby  covenants  that  he  will  teach  the   said 

the  said  trade  and  art,  and  will  furnish  him,  during  said  apprenticeship, 
with  board,  lodging,  washing,  medicine,  and  other  necessaries  suitable  for 
an  apprentice  in  sickness  and  in  health;  and  will  send  him  to  a  suitable  pub- 
lic school  at  least  three  months  during  each  of  the  first  two  years  of  the 
said  term;  and  at  the  expiration  of  said  apprenticeship  will  furnish  him 
with  two  new  suits  of  common  wearing  apparel,  and  one  hundred  dollars 
in  money. 

In  Testimony  Whereof,  the  parties  hereunto  have  set  their  hands 
and  seals,  this day  of ,  A.  D,  i8   ... 

Executed  in  Pretence  of 

[1-.S.] 

[L.S.] 


Consent  of  the  Minor. 

I  hereby  consent  to  the  foregoing  indenture,  and  agree  to  conform  torhe 
terms  thereof  in  all  things  on  my  part  to  be  performed. 
Dated,  the day  of ,  in  the  year  r8 


gi6 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


Consent  of  Father  or  Mother. 

I  do  hereby  consent  to  and  approve  of  the  binding  of  my  son., 
as  in  the  above  indenture  is  set  forth. 

Dated  the day  of ,  A.  D.  i8.... 


Consent  of  Guardian. 

I, the  duly  appointed  guardian  of in  the  within 

indenture  named,  herby  certify  that  the  father  and  mother  of    the  said 

are  both  dead  \or  that  tke/ather  is  dead  and  the  mother 

re/uses  to  give  her  cottsent^  or  whatever  the  /act  may  be'Xy^xi^  that  I 

do  hereby  consent,  as  his  guardian,  that  he,  the  said ,may  bind 

himself  as  is  set  forth  in  said  indenture. 

Dated  th  is day  of ,  x8 . . . 

Guardian  tif. 


Discharge  of  Apprentice. 

State  of 1 

County  of J 

Complaint  on  oath  having  been  made  to  the  undersigned.  Justice   of 

the  Peace  in  and  for  said  County,  upon  oath  by ,  apprentice  of 

of ,  in  said  County,  that  the  said to  whom 

said is  bound  by  indenture  of  apprenticeship  the  term  of  service 

in  which  is  not  yet  expired,  had  cruelly  beat,  etc.  {as  in  rontplaint  and 

su7Uinons')\  and  the  said ,  by  virtue  of  our  summons  thereupon 

issued,  having  been  brought  before  us,  and  upon  due  examination  of  the 
parties  and  of  the  evidence  adduced  by  them,  it  satisfactorily  appearing 

to  us  that  the  said is  guilty  of  the  matters  charged  against  him 

as  aforesaid:  now,  therefore,  we  do  hereby  discharge  the  said 

from  the  service  of  the  said   ,  anything  in   his  indentures  of 

apprenticeship  aforesaid  to  the  contrary  thereof  notwithstanding. 

Given  under  our  hands  and  seals  this day  of ,  A.  D.  18 . . 

[l-S.] 

[I-.S.] 

yustice  0/  the  Peace /or  sa  id 


ARBITRATION. 

When  two  or  more  persons  fail  to  agree  in  the  settle- 
ment of  a  business  transaction,  it  is  usual  to  refer  the 
matter  in  dispute  to  one  or  more  disinterested  persons, 
who  should  determine  Avhat  is  fair  to  each  and  all  of  the 
parties  to  the  controversy.  The  parties  to  the  dispute 
should  pledge  themselves  to  abide  by  the  decision  of 
the  arbitrators. 

Before  the  award  of  the  arbitrator  or  arbitrators  is 
made,  either  of  the  parties  to  the  dispute  may  withdraw 
his  offer  to  accept  the  decision  of  the  arbitrators.  He 
must,  however,  give  formal  notice  to  each  and  all  of 
the  other  parties  of  his  intention,  or  his  withdrawal  is 
of  no  effect. 

An  agreement  to  submit  a  matter  to  arbitration  may 
be  either  verbal  or  in  writing. 

The  statutes  usually,  and  agreements  of  submission 
generally,  authorize  the  arbitrators  to  award  not  only 
up'^n  the  subject  matter  submitted,  but  as  to  costs  to  be 
recovered  by  one  party  of  the  other,  or  to  be  divided  be- 
tween them. 

A  submission  to  arbitration  voluntarily  entered  into 
by  the  parties,  without  the  aid  of  statute  regulation  or 
rule  of  coin-t,  may  be  revoked  by  either  of  the  parties  at 


any  time  before  the  j)ublication  of  the  award;  though 
this  would  render  the  revoking  party  liable  in  damages, 
which  would  incUide  all  the  expenses  incurred  by  the 
other  party  about  the  submission,  and  all  that  he  could 
prove  he  had  lost  in  any  way  by  the  revocation 

The  death  of  either  i^arty  revokes  a  submission  out  of 
court,  unless  special  provision  is  made  in  the  agreement 
for  such  ail  event. 


Form  of  Submission  to  Arbitration. 

Know  all  mkn,  that  we, ,  of , 

and    of ,  do  hereby  promise  and 

agree,  to  and  with  each  other,  to  submit,  and  do  hereby  submit,  all  ques- 
tions and  claims  between  tis  \pr  any  specific  question  or  ciaiin^  describ- 
ing «V]  to  the  arbitrament  and  determination  of  yiere  name  the  arbitra- 
tois'X  whose  decision  and  award  shall  be  final,  binding,  and  conclusive 
onus;  \_and  i/ the-re  are  more  arbitrators  than  one^  and  it  it  in- 
tended that  they  may  choose  an  umpire]  and,  in  case  of  disagreement 
between  the  said  arbitrators,  they  may  choose  an  umpire,  whose  award 
shall  be  final  and  conclusive  ;  [or  add,  i/ there  be  more  than  tivo  arbi- 
trators'] and,  in  case  of  a  disagreement,  the  decision  and  award  of  a  ma- 
jority of  said  arbitrators  shall  be  final  and  conclusive. 

In  Witness  Whereof, have  hereunto  subscribed  these 

presents  this day  of ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 

and 

\Signatures^ 

in  presence  0/ 


Arbitrator's  Oath, 

To  be  administered  by  a  Judge  of  a  Court  of  Record 
or  a  Justice  of  the  Peace : 

You  severally  swear,  faithfully  to  hear  and  examine  the  matters  in  con- 
troversy between  A.  B.,  of  the  one  part,  andC.  D.,  of  the  other  part,  and 
to  make  a  just  award,  according  to  the  best  of  your  understanding, — so 
help  you,  God. 


Award  of  Arbitrators. 

To    ALL  TO    WHOM   THESE   PRESENTS   SHALL  COME  t      We, , 

to  whom  was  submitted  as  ari^iVra^tfrj  the  matter  in  controversy  exist- 
ing between as  by  the  condition  of  their  respective 

bonds  of  submission,  executed  by  the  said  parties  respectively,  each  unto 
the  other,  and  bearing  date  the day  of ,  one  thou- 
sand eight  hundred  and ,  more  fully  appears. 

Now,  THEREFORE,  KNOW  YE,  that  we   the 

rtr^jVra/tjyj  mentioned  in  the  said  bonds,  having  been  first  duly  sworn 
according  to  law,  and  having  heard  the  proofs  and  allegations  of  the  par- 
ties and  examined  the  matters  in  controversy  by  themsubmitted,  do  make 

this  award  in  writing  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  said shall,  on  or  before 

the day  of ,  next  ensuing  the   date   hereof 

\here  insert    whatever  is  to  be  done]  . 

And  also  the  said  arbitrators  do  hereby  further  award,  that  all  actions 

depending  between  the  said   and for  any  matter 

arising  or  happening  before  their  entering  Into  said  bonds  of  arbitration, 
shall  from  henceforth  cease  and  determine,  and  be  no  farther  prosecuted 
or  proceeded  in  by  them  or  either  of  them,  and  that  neither  party  recover 
cost  against  the  other. 

Finally,  said  arbitrators  do  further  award  that  the  said 

and shall,  within  the  space  of days  next  after 

the  date  of  this  award,  execute,  each  to  the  other,  mutual  releases  of  all 
actions  and  causes  of  action,  suits,  debts,  damages,  accounts  and  demands 
whatsoever. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  have  hereunto  subscribed  these 

presents,  this day  of ,  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and 

/m  Prestnc*  of 

\Signaturt^ 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS, 


917 


ASSIGNMENTS. 

An  assignment  is  an  instrnment  by  wliich  a  person 
transfers  a  debt,  obligation,  boid,  or  wages,  or  any  act- 
ual interest,  to  another. 

An  assignment  may  be  written  on  the  back  of  the  in- 
strument it  is  intended  to  convey,  or  it  may  be  written 
on  a  separate  paper. 

Form  of  Assignment  of  a  Promissory  Note,  or 
any  Similar  Promise  or  Agreement. 

I  hereby,  for  value  received,  assign  and  transfer  the  within  written  (or 
the  above  written)  note  {or  other  instrument')^  together  with  all  my  rights 

under  the  same,   to {name  0/  assignee .) 

{Signature.) 


General  Form  of  Assignment,  with 
Power  of  Attorney. 

Know  all  Men  by  these  Presents,  That  I, for  value 

received,  have  sold,  and  by  these  presents  do  grant,  assign,  and  convey 
unto 

\^Here  instri  a  description  of  the  th  ing  or  things  assigned^ 

To  Have  and  to   Hold  the  same  unto  the  said ,  his 

executors,  administrators,   and   assigns   forever,   to  and  for  the  use  of  the 

said ,  hereby  constituting  and   appointing   him   my   true 

and  lawful  attorney  irrevocable  in  my  name,  place,  and  stead,  for  the 
purpose  aforesaid,  to  ask,  d'lmand,  sue  for,  attach,  levy,  recover,  and  re- 
ceive all  such  sum  or  sums  of  money  which  now  are,  or  may  hereafter 
become  due,  owing  and  payable  for  or  on  account  of  all  or  any  of  the 
accounts,  dues,  debts,  and  demands  aljove  assigned  to  him,  giving  and 
granting  unto  the  said  attorney ,  full  power  and  authority  to  do  and  perform 
all  and  every  act  and  thing  whatsoever  requisite  and  necessary,  as  fully, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  1  might  or  could  do,  if  personally  present 
with  full  power  of  substitution  and  revocation,  hereby  ratifying  and  con- 
firming all  that  the  said  attorney  or  his  substitutes  shall  lawfully  do  or 
cause  to  be  done  by  virtue  thereof. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto   set   my    hand   and   seal   the 
day  of ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

Executed  and  Delivered  in  Presence  0/ 

{Seal.\ 


BILLS  OF  SALE. 

A  bill  of  sale  is  a  written  agreement  by  which  a  party 
transfers  to  another,  for  a  consideration  on  delivery,  all 
his  right,  tith-,  and  interest  in  personal  property. 

The  ownership  of  personal  property  in  law  is  not  con- 
^i^!ered  changed  nntil  the  delivery  of  such  property 
and  the  purchaser  takes  actual  possession;  tlioughinsome 
States  a  bill  of  sale  is  -privia  facie  evidence  of  ownership, 
even  against  creditors,  provided  the  sale  was  not  fraud- 
ulently made  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  payment 
01  debts. 

Juries  have  the  power  to  determine  the  fairness  or  the 
unfairness  of  a  sale,  and  upon  evidence  of  fraud  such  bill 
of  sale  will  be  ignored,  and  declared  void. 


sum  of ,  to in  hand  well  and  truly  paid,  at  or   before 

signing,  sealing,  and  delivery  of  these  presents  by [rd*'/*'   0/ 

Suyer]  the  receipt  whereof  1,  the  said ,  do  hereby  acknowl- 
edge,   have    granted,    bargained,  and    sold,    and    by    these    presents    do 

grant,  bargain  and  sell  unto  the  said [nameoyduyer]  the  following 

articles  of  personal  property,  to  wit  :  \_dcscril>e  the  propL-r'y  said.] 

To  Have  and  to   Hold  the  said  granted  and    bargained    goods  and 

chattels,  unto  the  said    , heirs,   executors,   administrators, 

and  assigns,  to only    use,    benefit,    and    behoof    forever, 

and ,  the  said ,  does  vouch  himself  to  be  the  true 

and  lawful  owner  of  the  goods  and  effects  hereby  sold,   and   to   have   in 
himself  full  power,  good  right,  and  lawful  authority    to   dispose    of  the 

said .in  manner  as  aforesaid  ;  and  I  do,  for  myself,  my  heirs, 

executors  and  administrators,  hereby  covenant  and  agree  to  warrant  and 

defend  the  title  of  said  goods  and  chattels  hereby  sold  unto  the  said , 

. . .  .heirs,  executors,  and  administrators,  and  assigns,  against  the  lawful 
claims  and  demands  of  all  persons  whomsoever. 

In  WitnessWhekeok, ,  the  said ,have  here- 
unto set hand  and  seal  this day  of ,  in  the 

year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and .... 

Executed  and  Delivered 
in  Presence  0/  • 

{Signature.)  (Seal.') 


Bill  of  Sale,  Short  Form. 

I, ,  of ,  in  consideration  of dollars 

paid  by ,  hereby  sell  and  convey  to  said the  fol- 
lowing personal  property  [A^r^  «aw^ /A^  articles']^  warranted  against 
adverse  clain"s. 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of ,    A.  D.  18 

Executed  and  Delivered 
in  presence  of  \Signature.\    \Seal.\ 


Bill  of  Sale  of  Personal  Property. 

Know  all  Men  bv  these  Presents,  That  I, {name  0/ 

the  selle*]  in  the  County  of ,for  and  in  consideration  of  the 


BONDS. 

A  bond  is  a  written  admission  of  an  obligation  on  the 
part  of  tlie  maimer,  wiiereby  he  pledges  himself  to  pay  a 
certain  sum  of  money  to  another  person  or  persons,  at  a 
certain  specified  time,  for  some  h(iwi-fi<^e  consideration. 

The  person  giving  the  bond  is  termed  the  obligor;  tlie 
person  receiving  the  same  is  called  the  ohliijeo. 

A  bond,  as  defined  above,  is  a  single  bond,  but  gener- 
ally conditions  are  added  to  the  bond,  whereby  the  per- 
son giving  the  same  must  perform  some  specific  act  or 
acts,  in  whicli  case  the  bond  becomes  void;  otherwise  it 
remains  in  full  force  and  effect. 

The  penalty  attached  to  the  bond  is  usually  sufficient 
to  cover  debt,  interest,  and  cost,  being  generally  placed 
at  a  sum  twice  the  amount  of  the  real  delit,  the  fact  being 
stated  that  such  penalty  Is  the  sum  fixed  upon  as  liqui- 
dated or  settled  damages,  in  event  of  failure  to  meet 
payments  according  to  conditions  of  the  bond. 

Th(^  bond  may  be  so  drawn  as  to  have  the  penalty  at- 
tach and  appertain  to  either  the  obligor  or  obligee. 

Tliough  under  ordinary  circumstances  the  bond  is  in 
full  ettect.  yet  an  act  of  Providence  whereby  its  accom- 
plishment is  rendered  impossible  relieves  the  party 
obligated  from  the  enforcement  of  the  penalty. 

Action  on  such  instrument  must  be  brought  witliin 
twenty  years  after  riglit  of  action  accrues,  or  within 
such  time  as  provided  by  the  statutes  of  the  difterent 
States. 


9i8 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


General  Form  of  Bond. 

Know  all  Men  by  thkse  Presents,  that  I  \the  obligor'\  of , 

in  the  County    of  .    . ,  am  held  and  firmly  bound  to  \ihe 

obilgtt\yQi ,   in  the  County  of ,  in  the  sum  of 

AoWats  {this  amount  should  be  double  the  sum  named  in 

the  conditiony  to  cover  costs  and  contingencies)  to   be   paid   to  the  said 

....         ,  to  the  payment  whereof  I  bind  myself  and  my  heirs   firmly 
by  these  presents,  sealed  with  my  seal. 

Dated  the day  of      ,  A.  D.  18 . . . . 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such  that  if  I,  the  said 

shall  pay  to  said   the  sum  of dollars,  and   interest, 

on  or  before  the . .  .day  of ,  x8....,  then  this  obliga- 
tion shall  be  void. 

Executed  and  Delivered 
in  Presence  0/  [L.  S.] 


Condition  of  a  Bond  to  Convey  Land. 

The  condition  of  this  obligation  is  such  that  if  the  said 

upon  the  payment  of. dollars  and  interest  by  said , 

within  one  year  from  this  date,  shall  convey  to  said ,  and 

his  heirs  forever,  a  certain  parcel  of  land,  with  the  buildings  thereon,  sit- 
uate in.  ,  bounded  and  described  as  follows.*  {here  in- 
sert boundaries  and  description')  by  a  warranty  deed  in  common  form, 
duly  executed  and  acknowledged,  the  premises  then  being  in  as  good 
condition  as  they  now  are.  necessary  decay  and  deterioration  excepted, 
then  this  obligation  shall  be  void. 

Ejiecuted  and  Delivered 
in  Presence  0/  [L.  S .  ] 


CHATTEL  MORTGAGES. 

A  chattel  mortgage  is  a  mortgage  on  personal  prop- 
erty, given  by  a  debtor  to  a  creditor,  as  security  for  the 
payment  of  a  sum  or  sums  that  may  be  du". 

The  mortgaged  property  may  remain  in  possession  of 
either  party,  while  such  mortgage  is  iu  force.  In  order 
to  hold  the  property  secm-e  against  other  creditors,  the 
mortgagee  (the  person  holding  the  mortgage)  must  have 
a  true  cop5^  of  the  mortgage  filed  in  the  CieiVs  or  Re- 
corder's office  of  the  town,  city,  or  county  where  the 
mortgagor  (the  person  giving  the  mortgage)  resides, 
and  where  the  property  is  when  mortgaged. 

In  some  States,  a  Justice  of  the  Peace,  iu  the  voting 
precinct  where  such  property  mortgaged  is  located,  must 
acknowledge  and  sign  the  mortgage,  taking  a  transcript 
of  the  same  upon  his  court  docket,  while  the  mortgage 
itself  should  be  recorded,  the  same  as  real  estate 
transfers. 


Mortgage  of  Personal  Property. 

1, of ,  in  consideration  of dollars 

to  me  paid  by of ,  convey  to  the  said 

the  following  personal  property,  to  wit : 

{or y  if  the  goods  are  too  numerous  to  be  recited^  say  the  goods  and 
chattels  mentioned  in  the  schedule  hereto  annexed).^  and  now  in  the. . . 
,  in  the  town  {or  city)  of .aforesaid 

To  hold  the  aforcgranted  goods  and  chattels,  to  the  said 

and  his  assigns  forever. 

And  I  covenant  that  I  am  the  lawful  owner  of  said  goods  and  chattels, 
and  have  good  right  to  dispose  of  the  same  in  the  manner  aforesaid. 

Provided,  nevertheless,  that  if  the  said       pay  to  the   said 


or  his  assigns  the  sum  of dollars  in from 

date,  with  interest  on  said  sum  at  the  rate  of per  cent,  per  annum, 

payable   ,  then  this  deed,  as  also  a  certain  note  of  even   date 

with  these  presents,  given  by  said to  said or  order, 

to  pay  the  said  sum  and  interest  at  the  time  aforesaid,  shall  be  void. 

In  Witness  Whereof^  I  hereto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this 

day  of 1  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred 

and 

Executed  and  Delivered  [L.  S.] 

in  Presence  0/ 


DEEDS. 


An  instrument  in  writing,  by  which  lands  and  appur- 
tenances thereon  are  conveyed  from  one  person  to  an- 
other, signed,  sealed,  and  properly  subscribed,  is  termed 
a  deed.  A  deed  may  be  written  or  printed  on  parch- 
ment or  paper,  and  must  be  executed  by  parties  compe- 
tent to  contract. 

The  maker  of  a  deed  is  called  a  grantor;  the  person  or 
party  to  whom  the  deed  is  delivered,  the  grantee.  The 
wife  of  the  grantor,  in  the  absence  of  any  statute  regu- 
lating the  same,  must  acknowledge  the  deed,  or  else, 
after  the  death  of  her  husband  she  will  be  entitled  to  a 
one-third  interest  in  the  property,  as  a  dower,  during  her 
life.  Her  acknowledgment  of  the  deed  must  be  of  her 
own  free  will  and  accord,  and  the  Commissioner  or 
other  officer  before  whom  the  acknowledgment  is  taken 
must  sign  his  name  as  a  witness  to  the  fact  that  her  con- 
sent was  without  compulsion. 

Deeds  should  bo  for  a  stated  consideration,  which  may 
be  money,  goods,  gift,  services  or  marriage.  If,  as  is 
often  the  case,  the  grantee  does  not  desire  the  amount  of 
purchase  money  paid  to  be  publicly  known,  and  for 
other  personal  resisons,  the  language  used  is,  "  in  consid- 
eration of  one  dollar  (or  any  other  nominal  amount),  to 
me  paid,  tlie  receipt  of  which  I  acknowledge,  etc." 

The  description  of  the  land  should  be  minute  and  ac- 
curate, great  care  being  taken  in  this  respect. 

The  grantee  should  see  that  his  deed  conveys  the  land 
to  himself  and  his  heirs.  Deeds  conveying  to  the  grantee 
only,  limit  his  title  to  his  life,  and  such  land  cannot  be 
left  to  his  heir  at  his  death,  nor  can  he  sell  it  during  his 
life. 

In  a  deed  in /ee  simple  a  conveyance  of  the  absolute 
!ind  entire  ownership  of  the  land  is  made. 

In  a  warranty  deed  the  grantor  agrees  to  be  answerable 
for  any  defect  whatever  that  may  be  in  the  title. 

In  a  quit-claim  deed  the  grantor  conveys  away  all  the 
title  (if  any)  that  he  may  perchance  to  have  in  the  land. 

In  a  Irwit  deed  the  grantee  takes  the  estate  upon  some 
trust,  or  for  some  special  purpose,  therein  specified. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  see  article 
Deed. 


Warranty  Deed,  Short  Form. 

This  Indenture,  made  this day  of ,  in   the 

year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and. ,  between 

of  the  first  part,  and of  the  second  part,— 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


919 


WITNESSETH,  that  the  said  part of  the  first  part,  for   and  in   con- 
sideration of  the  sum  of to in  hand   paid   hy   the 

said  part of  the  second  part,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  con- 
fessed and  acknowledged,  do  ....by  these  presents  grant,  bargain, 
sell,  remise,  release,   alien   and   confirm,    unto    the    said   part.. -.of  the 

second  part,  and heirs  and  assigns,    forever,   all 

certain  piece. .  .or  parcel. .  .of  land  situate  and  being  in  the 

of ,  County  of and  State  of , 

and  described  as  follows,  to  wit : 

Together  with  all  and  singular  the   hereditaments  and   appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging  or  in  any  way  appertaining  :     To  have  and  to  hold 

the  said  premises, described,  with   appurtenances,   unto 

the  said  part of  the  second  part,  and  to heirs  and  as- 
signs forever.      And  the  said   part of  the   first   part, 

heirs,  executors  and administrators,  do cov- 
enant, grant,  bargain  and  agree,  to  and  with  the  said  part of  the 

second  part, heirs  and  assigns,  that  at  the  time  of  the  ensealing  and 

delivery  of  these  presents well  seized  of  the  above   granted 

premises  in  fee  simple  ;  that  they  are  free  from  all  incumbrance  what- 
ever ;  and  that will,  and heirs,  executors 

administrators   shall  warrant  and  defend   the  same    against 

all  lawful  claims  whatsoever, 

In  Witness  Whereok,  the  said  part of  the  first  part  ha 

hereunto  set. . .  .hand. .  .and  seal.  ...the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

Sealed  and  Delivered 
in  Presence  of  [L.  S.] 


.[L.  S.l 


A  cknoio  ledgment. 

State  of    t  I  ss 

County  of ) 

On  this day  of ,  in  the  year  one  thousand    eight 

hundred  and ,  before  me, in  and  for  said  County, 

personally  appeared to  me  known  to  be  the  same  person . . . 

described  in  and  who  executed  the  within  instrument,  and  who 

acknowledged  the  same  to  be free  act  and  deed. 

[L.  S.] 


MORTGAGES. 

A  mortgage  Is  an  instrument  ill  writing,  and  is  the 
conveyance  of  leal  propcity,  subject  to  the  right  of  re- 
demption. It  is  generally  given  by  a  debtor  to  a  credi- 
tor as  security  for  his  debt.  The  person  giving  the 
mortgage  is  called  the  Mortgagor:  the  person  receiving 
it,  the  Murtgagee. 

A  mortgage  does  not  ditler  materially  from  a  deed  in 
fee-simple,  except  in  t'.ie  condition  attached,  whic'.i 
consists  of  a  clause  Inserted  before  the  clause  of  execu- 
tion to  the  effect  that  if  the  mortgagor  shall  pay  to  the 
mortgagee  a  certain  amount  of  money  at  a  certain  time, 
then  the  deed  shall  bo  void. 

A  note  or  a  bond  may  be  given  to  be  secured  by  the 
mortgage :  the  instrument  should  distinctly  ^tate  which 
is  give.i;  also  should  clearly  state  any  special  terms 
agreed  upon.  A  mortgage  given  to  secure  the  purchase 
money  will  take  precedence  to  any  other  mortgage. 

The  mortgagee  has  a  valid  right  atid  title  to  the  land 
immediately  upon  the  delivery  of  the  mortgage,  and  has 
a  legal  right  to  take  possession  of  the  land,  unless,  as  is 
now  common,  the  deed  provides  that  tiie  mortgagor  may 
retain  possession,  the  mortgagor  having  surrendered  all 
his  rights,  except  the  right  of  redemption,  at  the  time 
of  executing  the  deed. 

In  former  years  the  mortgagor  could  not  redeem  his 


land  uidess  the  debt  was  paid  before  or  when  it  became 
due,  and  he  liad  no  further  right.  Now,  how  ever,  the 
courts  of  law  of  the  various  States  have  adopted  the  same 
rule,  giving  the  mortgagor  three  years  after  the  expira- 
tion of  the  mortgage,  in  which  lie  may  redeem  the  prop- 
erty by  paying  the  debt,  with  interest  and  cost:  this  is 
called  his  equity  of  redemption.  A  mortgagor  may  sell  his 
right  of  redemption,  or  he  may  give  a  second  mortgage, 
or  It  may  be  attached  by  creditors,  or  in  case  of  In- 
solvency it  would  form  a  part  of  his  assets. 

Mortgage  deeds  are  now  commonly  drawn  with  a  clause 
contaliilug  an  agreement  of  the  parties,  that  if  the  money 
is  not  paid  when  it  Is  due,  the  mortgagee  may  in  a  cer- 
tain number  of  days  thereafter  sell  the  land  (providing 
also  for  pi'ccautions  to  secure  a  certain  price  that  may 
be  agreed  upon)  and,  reserving  enough  to  pay  his  debt 
and  charges,  pay  over  to  the  mortgagor  his  balance; 
such  action  removes  all  claim  of  the  mortgagor  in  a 
court  of  equity.  This  is  called  a  sale  mortgage,  and  is 
sanctioned  by  law;  all  mortgages  that  do  not  contain 
the  above  stipulation  ])Ossess  an  equity  of  redemption. 

The  right  of  redemption,  or  the  three  years  of  redemp- 
tion, does  not  begin  until  the  mortgagee  has  entered  to 
foreclose,  even  though  the  debt  has  been  due  for  a  num- 
ber of  j'ears.  In  foreclosing,  the  mortgagor  must  enter 
upon  the  propertj'  in  a  peaceful  manner,  in  the  presence 
of  witnesses,  or  by  action  at  Law. 

A  mortgagor  who  intends  to  redeem  must  tender  the 
debt  with  interest,  lawful  costs,  and  the  charges  of  mort- 
gagee. He  will  be  allowed  all  rents  and  profits  that  the 
mortgagee  may  have  received,  or  would  have  received 
but  for  ills  own  negligence. 

Another  stipulation  now  commonly  used  is,  that  the 
mortgagor  shall  keep  the  premises  insured  in  a  certain 
sum  for  the  benefit  of  the  mortgagee ;  if  this  agreement 
is  not  expressed  in  the  deed,  and  the  mortgagee  insures 
the  buildings,  he  cannot  recover  the  premium  from  the 
mortgagor. 

If  buildings  are  erected  on  the  property  during  con- 
tinuance of  mortgage,  or  after  foreclosure,  whether  by 
mortgagor  or  mortgagee,  the  party  securing  final  i^os- 
sesslon  gets  the  benefit  of  them  all,  without  paying  the 
other  for  them.  This  is  the  law,  provided  no  stipulation 
Is  made  in  the  deed,  although  any  agreement  may  be 
made  between  them,  but  must  be  incorporated  in  the 
deed. 

To  release  or  discharge  a  mortgage  it  is  necessary  to 
follow  the  statute  law  governing  such  releases.  They 
differ  in  many  States :  but  the  most  common  custom  Is, 
the  recorder  or  register  of  deeds  writes  on  the  margin 
of  the  record  of  the  mortgage  an  acknowledgment  of 
satisfaction,  release  or  discharge. 


Mortgage  Deed,  with  Power  of  Sale,  and  Re- 
lease of  Dower  and  Homestead. 

This  indenture,  made  the day  of ,  in  the  year  one 

thousand  eight  hundred  and ,  tietwecn of , 

of  the  first  part,  and ,  of ,  of  the  second  part,  ifjV- 

nesset/t,  that  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  in  coneideracion   of.  ..■ 


920 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


dollars  to  him  paid,  the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  has 
granted,  bargained,  sold,  released  and  conveyed,  and  by  these  presents 
does  grant,  bargain,  sell,  release,  and  convey  to  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part,  and  his  heirs  and  assigns  forever,  all  that  \^here  describe  the 
Property\^  with  all  hereditaments  and  appurtenances  thereto  apper- 
taining. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  to  said 
party  of  the  second  part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their  use  and 
behoof  forever.  Provided  always,  and  these  presents  are  upon  condi- 
tion, that  if  said  party  of  the  first  part,  his  heirs  or  assigns,  shall  pay  to 
the  party  of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators  or  assigns,  the 

sum  of dollars,  on  or  before  the day  of , 

in  the  year ,  with  interest  according  to  the  condition  of  a  bond 

\pr  note\  of  the  said   to  the  said ,  bearing  even  date 

herewith,  then  these  presents  shall  be  void. 

But  upon  any  default  In  the  payment  of  the  money  above  mentioned , 
or  of  the  interest  thereon,  said  grantee,  his  executors,  administrators  or 
assigns,   may   sell   the  above  granted    premises  with  all  improvements 

that  may  be  thereon ,  at  public  auction  in  said ,  first  publishing  a 

notice  of  the  time  and  place  of  sale  once  each  week   for   three  successive 

weeks,  in  one  or  more  newspapers  published  in  said ;  and  in    his 

or  their  own  name  or  names  as  the  attorney  of  the  said  grantor,  may 
convey  the  same  by  proper  deed  or  deeds  to  the  purchaser  or  purchasers, 
absolutely  and  in  fee  simple  ;  and  such  sale  shall  forever  bar  the  grantor, 
and  all  persons  claiming  under  him,  from  all  right  and  interest  in  the 
granted  premises,  whether  at  law  or  in  equity.  And  out  of  the  money 
arising  from  such  sale,  the  said  grantee  or  his  representatives  shall  be 
entitled  to  retain  all  sums  then  secured  by  this  deed,  whether  then  or 
thereafter  payable,  including  all  costs,  charges  and  expenses  incurred 
or  sustained  by  reason  of  any  failure  or  default,  on  the  part  of  the  said 
grantor  or  his  representatives,  to  perform  and  fulfill  the  condition  of  this 
deed,  or  any  covenants  or  agreements  herein  contained;  rendering  the 
surplus,  if  any,  together  with  an  account  of  such  costs,  charges,  and  ex- 
penses, to  the  said  grantor,  his  heirs  or  assigns. 

And  it  is  agreed  that  the  said  grantee,  his  administrators,  executors  or 
assigns,  or  any  person  or  persons  in  his  or  their  behalf,  may  purchase  at 
any  sale-made  as  aforesaid,  and  that  no  other  purchaser  shall  be  an- 
swerable for  the  purchase  money  ;  and  that,  until  default  in  the  perform- 
ance of  the  condition  of  this  deed,  the  grantor  and  his  heirs  and  assigns 
may  hold  and  enjoy  the  granted  premises  and  receive  the  rents  and 
profits  thereof. 

And,  for  the  consideration  aforesaid,  I,  M.  B.,  wife  of  the  said  A.  B., 
do  here^y  release  unto  the  said  grantee  and  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all 
right  of  both  dower  and  homestead  in  the  granted  premises. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  parties  to  these  presents  have  hereunto  set 
their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  above  written. 

Signed^  Sealed  and  Delivered  ^'  ^*  ['"  ^'J 

in  Presence  0/  ^-  ^-   [l-  S.] 

[Witnessed  and  acknowledged  like  any  other  deed.] 


A  Promissory  Note,  to  be  Secured  by- 
Mortgage. 


i8 


for  value  received promise  to  pay  to 

dollars,    at ,  with    interest   at 

the  rate  of per  cent,  annum. 

This  note  is  secured  by  a  deed  of  mortgage  of  even  date  herewith  from 


{Si£-Mature.) 


Discharge   of  Mortgage. 

This  debt,  secured  by  the  mortgage  dated and  recorded 

with deeds,  lib. . . .,  fol ,  has  been  paid  to  me  by , 

and  in  consideration   thereof   I  do  discharge   the    mortgage    and  release 

the  mortgaged  premises  to  said and  his  heirs. 

Witness  my  Hand  and  Seal A.  D.  18 

Ejcecuted  and  Delivered  (Si^ature.)  (Sea/.) 

in  Presence  0/ 

ss A.  D.  18. . . .  The  said acknowl- 
edged the  foregoing  instrument  to  be free  act  and  deed. 

Before  me, 


Assignment  of  Mortgage. 

I  hereby  assign  the  above  \0riuitkiti\  mortgage  to 

Witness  my  Hand  and  Seal,  this of 

(Signaiure.')  (Seal.) 


Release  on  Satisfaction  of  a  Mortgage 

I  hereby  release  the  above  (or  •within')  mortgage. 

Witness  my  Hand  and  Seal,  this ....of ,  18..., 

(Signature,)  (Seal.) 


Sale  by  Mortgagee  under  Power  of  Sale. — 
Affidavit  of  Default,  etc. 

I,   ...of,  etc.,  the  assignee  of  a  certain  mortgage  deed  given 

by to ,  dated,  etc.,  and  recorded,  etc.,  on  oath 

depose  and  say  that  default  was  made  in  the  payment  of  the  principal 
sum  mentioned  in  the  condition  of  said  mortgage  deed  and  the  inter- 
est thereon,  the  said  principal  and  six  months  interest  having  become 

payable  on  the day  of last,  and  not  having  been 

then  or  any  time  paid  or  tendered  to  any  person  authorized  to  receive 
the  same  ;  and  that  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  said  mortgage  deed, 

I  published  on  the  first,  eighth  and  fifteenth  days  of now  last 

past,  in  the  *^ ,"  a  newspaper  published  in 

aforesaid,  a  notice  of  which  the  following  is  a  true  copy;  (here  it^ 
sert  notice.) 

(SignaturtJ) 


Notice  of  Mortgagee's  Sale. 

By  virtue  of  a  power  of  sale  contained  in    a    certain    mortgage    deed 

given  by to ,  dated,  etc.,  and  recorded,  etc., 

will  be  sold  at  public  auction  upon  the  premises    [or,   at  the   office    of 

,  No , street], on ,  the day 

of. ,18 ,  at  II  o'clock  in  the  forenoon,  all  and  singular  the 

premises   conveyed   by  said  mortgage    deed,    namely:    (htre    describt 
property.) 

,  Atsignee  0/  Said  Mortgagee 


Affidavit  of  Sale. 

And  I  depose  and  say  that  pursuant  to  said  notice  and  at  the  time 
and  place  in  said  notice  appointed,  the  said  default  still  continuing,  I 
sold  the  premises  conveyed  by  said  mortgage  deed,  at  public  auction, 

by ,  a  duly  licensed  auctioneer,  to ,  of,  etc.,    for 

the  sum  of dollars  ;  which  amount  was  bid  by  the  said 

and  was  the  highest  bid  therefore  made  at  said  auction  ;  and  I  have 
this  day,  in  pursuance  of  said  power  contained  in  said  mortgage,  deliv- 
ered to  said the  foregoing  deed  of  said  mortgaged  premises. 

Witness  my  Hand  this day  of ,  A.  D.   18 

\^Signature.'\ 


LANDLORD  AND  TENANT. 

A  landlord  is  the  owner  of  lands  or  houses,  and  has 
tenants  under  liini,  and  is  known  i;i  law  as  the  lessor, 
who  transfers  the  possession  and  receives  the  rent. 

A  tenant  is  one  who  has  the  occupation  or  temporary 
possession  of  lands  or  tenements,  whose  title  is  in  an- 
other, and  known  as  the  lessee. 

A  lease  is  a  contract  whereby  one  party  (the  lessee) 
takes  the  possession  and  profits  of  land  for  a  certain  and 
definite  period.  And  the  other  party  (the  lessor)  gives 
possession  of  the  land  and  receives  a  rent,  which  the  les- 
see agrees  to  pay  him  by  way  of  compensation.  This 
form  of  estate  Is  never  created  by  act  of  law,  but  always 


J 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


921 


by  contract,  properly  called  a  lease.  No  certain  form 
of  words  is  necessary  to  create  a  lease;  it  should  contain 
all  the  conditions  on  which  the  premises  are  granted  and 
taken.    All  lease*  should  be  in  writing. 

A  landlord  is  under  no  legal  obligation  to  repair  the 
house  or  building  unless  he  expressly  agrees  to  do  so, 
no  matter  how  dilapidated  or  disfigured  it  may  be. 
Even  if  it  becomes  wholly  iminhubitable  by  no  fault  of 
the  house  or  of  the  landlord,  as,  if  it  burns  up  or  is 
blown  down  or  if  the  overflow  of  a  stream  ruins  a  field 
or  a  farm,  still  the  landlord  is  not  bound  to  do  anything, 
unless  so  inserted  in  lease,  or  by  special  written  agree- 
ment. 

But  if  the  house  is  uninhabitable  by  its  own  fault,  as  if 
it  had  a  noisome  and  unwholesome  stench,  or,  according 
to  one  case,  if  it  be  overrun  with  rats,  or  so  decayed  as 
to  be  open  to  the  weather,  it  would  seem  to  be  the  law 
in  this  country  that  a  tenant  may  leave  the  house,  al- 
ways provided,  however,  that  the  objection  or  defect  be 
not  one  which  the  tenant  knew  or  anticipated,  or  would 
have  known  or  expected  if  he  had  made  reasonable  in- 
■quiry  and  investigation  before  he  took  his  lease. 

Neither  a  guardian  nor  minor  can  give  a  lease  extend- 
ing beyond  the  ward's  majority,  which  can  be  enforced 
by  the  lessee,  yet  the  latter  is  bound  unless  the  lease  is 
annulled. 

A  tenant  is  not  bound  to  make  general  repairs  with- 
out an  express  agreement. 

A  tenant  of  a  farm,  if  his  lease  was  terminated  by  any 
■event  which  was  uncertain,  and  which  he  could  neither 
foresee  nor  control,  is  entitled  to  the  annual  crop  which 
he  sowed  while  his  interest  in  and  ritrht  to  the  farm  con- 
tinned. 

If  a  lease  be  for  a  certain  time,  the  tenant  loses  all 
right  or  interest  in  the  land  or  premises  when  that  time 
comes,  and  he  must  leave,  or  the  landlord  may  turn  him 
out  at  once.  But  he  is  a  tenant  at  will  if  he  holds  over 
after  a  lease  with  consent,  or  occupies  the  land,  or  house, 
or  store  without  a  lease  but  with  consent  and  an  oral  bar- 
gain ;  and  a  tenant  at  will  cannot  leave,  nor  can  he  be 
turned  out,  without  a  notice  to  quit.  The  law  on  this 
subject  is  not  uniform.  In  general,  however,  it  is  this: 
If  rent  is  payable  quarterly,  or  not  more  frequently,  then 
there  must  be  a  quarter's  notice.  If  rent  is  payable  of- 
tener,  then  the  notice  must  be  as  long  as  the  period  of 
payment.  Thus,  if  rent  is  payable  monthly,  there  must 
be  a  month's  notice;  if  weekly,  a  week's  notice.  But  the 
notice  must  terminate  on  a  day  when  the  rent  is  pay- 
able. It  may  be  given  any  tinie,  but  operates  only  after 
the  required  interval  or  ])eriod  between  two  payments. 
Properly,  the  notice  should  specify  the  day,  and  the 
right  day,  when  the  tenant  must  leave ;  and  should  be  in 
writing. 

When  the  rent  is  in  arrear,  the  notice  to  quit  may  be 
more  brief ;  the  statutes  of  the  different  States  vary  on 
this  point,  but  a  frequent  period  is  fourteen  days. 

A  tenant  may  give  notice  of  his  intention  to  quit,  and 
generally  it  will  be  subject  to  the  same  rules  already 
.'-tated  in  refei-ence  to  the  notice  given  by  the  landlord. 
A  tenant  should  give  his  notice  to  the  party  to  whom  he 


is  bound  to  pay  rent,  or  to  an  authorized  agent  of  that 
party. 

In  many  States  there  are  laws  concerning  leases. 

In  Texas  all  leases  are  recorded. 

In  North  Carolina,  all  leases  that  are  required  to  be  in 
writing  must  be  recorded  in  the  proper  county  within 
two  years. 

In  Connecticut,  Mississippi,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island, 
South  Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Vermont,  leases  for  any 
term  exceeding  one  year  must  be  executed,  attested  and 
recorded  in  the  same  manner  as  other  deeds. 

In  Ohio  all  leases  for  more  than  three  years  must  be 
recorded. 

In  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Maryland  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, leases  for  more  than  seven  years  must  be  recorded. 

In  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania  leases  for  more  than 
twenty-one  years  must  be  recorded. 

The  lease  that  specifies  a  term  of  years  without  giving 
the  definite  number  of  years  is  without  effect  at  the  ex- 
piration of  two  years. 


A  Short  Form  of  Lease. 

This  Indenture,  made  the day  of ,  in  the  year 

of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

WITNESSETH,  that  I,  \'Ham9  and  restdenct  of  the  lessor]  do  hereby 
lease,  demise  and  let  unto  [name  and  residence  0/  the  /essee']  a  certain 

parcel  of  land  in  the  city  [or  town]  of ,  County  of 

and  State  of ,  with  all  the  buildings  thereon  standing,  and  the 

appurtenances  to  the  same  belonging,  bounded  and  described  as  follows  : 
[or  a  certain  house  in  said  city^  giving  the  street  and  number  ,  with 
the  land  under  and  adjoining  the  same ■'\ 

[The  premises  need  not  be  described  t^uite  so  minutely  or  fully  as  it 
proper  in  a  deed  or  mortgage  of  land ^  but  must  be  so  described  as  to 
identify  them  perfectly^  and  make  it  certain  just  what  premises  art 
leased.  ] 

To  Hold  the  same  for  the  term  of from  the   day  of 

,  yielding  and  paying  therefor  the  rent  of 

And  said  lessee  does  promise  to   pay  the  said   rent  in   four  quarterly 

payments  on  the day  of \_or  state  otherwise  just 

when  the  payments  of  rent  are  to  be  made]  and  to  quit  and  deliver  up 
the  premises  to  the  lessor  or  his  attorney,  peaceably  and  quietly  at  the 
end  of  the  term,  in  as  good  condition,  reasonable  use  and  wearing  there- 
of, fire  and  other  unavoidable  casualties  excepted,  as  the  same  now  are 
or  may  be  put  into  by  the  said  lessor,  and  to  pay  the  rent  as  above  stated, 
and  all  taxes  and  duties  levied  or  to  be  levied  thereon  during  the  term, 
and  also  the  rent  and  taxes  as  above  stated,  for  such  further  time  as  the 
lessee  may  hold  the  same,  and  not  make  or  suffer  any  waste  thereof;  nor 
lease,  nor  underlet,  nor  permit  any  other  persons  to  occupy  or  improve 
the  same,  or  make  or  suffer  to  be  made  any  alteration  therein  but  with 
the  approbation  of  the  lessor  thereto  in  writing  having  been  first  ob- 
tained; and  that  the  lessor  may  enter  to  view,  and  make  improvements* 
and  expel  the  lessee,  if  he  shall  fail  to  pay  the  rent  and  taxes  as  afore- 
said, or  make  or  suffer  any  strip  or  waste  thereof. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  the  said  parties  have  hereunto  interchange- 
ably set  their  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 

[SigMatures.]  [Seals.] 
Signed^  Sealed,  and  Delivered 
in  Presence  of 


Short  Form  of  Lease  for  rarm  and  Build- 
ings Thereon. 

This  Indknture,  made  this  first  day  of  October,  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eighty-two,  between  Lewis  Reynolds,  of  the  township  of 
Deerfield,county  of  Fulton,  and  State  of  Illinois,  of  the    first   part,   and 


922 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


T.  G,  Merrill,  of  the  said  township  and  county,  of  the  second  part. 

WiTNEssKTH,  That  the  said  Lewis  Reynolds,  for  and  in  consideration 
of  the  yearly  rents  and  coverants  hereinafter  mentioned,  and  reserved 
on  the  part  and  behalf  of  the  said  Lewis  Reynolds,  his  heirs,  executors 
and  administrators,  to  be  paid,  kept  and  performed,  hath  demised,  set, 
and  to  farm  let,  and  by  these  presents  doth  demise,  set,  and  to  farm  let, 
unto  the  said  T.  G.  Merrill,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  all  that  certain  piece, 
parcel  or  tract  of  land  situate,  lying  and  being  in  the  township  of  Deer- 
field  aforesaid,  known  as  lot  No.  {^kere  describe  /and]  now  in  possession 
of  J.  Mills,  containing  one  hundred  acres,  together  with  all  and  sing- 
ular the  buildings  and  improvements,  to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  unto 
the  said  T.  G.  Merrill,  his  heirs,  executors  and  assigns  from  the  tenth 
day  of  November  next,  for,  and  during  the  term  of,  five  years  thence 
next  ensuing,  and  fully  to  be  complete  and  ended,  yielding  and  paying 
on  the  same,  unto  the  said  Lewis  Reynolds,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  the 
yearly  rent,  or  sum  of  ninety  dollars,  on  the  first  day  of  May,  in  each 
and  every  year  during  the  term  aforesaid,  and  at  the  expiration  of  said 
term,  or  sooner  if  determined  upon,  he,  the  said  T.  G.  Merrill,  his  heirs 
or  assigns,  shall  and  will  quietly  and  peaceably  surrender  and  yield  up 
the  said  demised  premises,  with  the  appurtenances,  unto  the  said  Lewis 
Reynolds,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  good  order  and  repair,  as  the  same 
now  are,  reasonable  wear,  tear  and  casualties  which  may  happen  by 
fire  or  otherwise   only  excepted. 

In  Witness  Whekeof,  we  have  hereunto  set  our  hands  and  seals. 
Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  I  LEWIS  REYNOLDS,  [L.  S.l 

in  presence  of  V  ^    q    MERRILL.  [L.  S. 

F.  Darwin  Scott.  J  ^  -■ 


Surrender  of  Lease. 

In  consideration  of  one  dollar,  to  be  paid  me  by  Alex.  T.  Moreland,  I 
do  hereby  surrender  to  the  lessor  the  within  written  lease  of  the  premises 
therein  mentioned,  and  all  my  estate  yet  unexpired,  which  premises  are 
free  from  incumbrances  through  me, — to  hold  the  same  to  the  said  lessor 
and  his  assigns  forever. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal  this  ist  day  of  January,  A.  D.  1883, 

Executed  in  presence  < 

SaML.    J.    CHAPMA^ 


rof] 

AN.  j 


HENRY  ABBOTT,  [L.  S.] 


Landlord's  Agreement. 

This  is  to  Certify,  That  I  have  this  first  day  of  April,  1883,  let  and 
rented  unto  Austin  Edwards  my  house  and  lot  known  as  Number  85 
Woodland  street,  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  111.,  with  the  appurtenances, 
and  sole  and  uninterrupted  use  thereof,  for  one  year,  to  commence  on  the 
first  day  of  May  next,  at  the  yearly  rent  of  six  hundred  dollars,  payable 
in  equal  sums  of  fifty  dollars  on  the  first  day  of  each  and  every  month. 

ARTHUR  N,  COLEMAN. 


Notice  to  Quit. 

Mr.  E.  Summers: 

You  arc  hereby  notified  to  deliver  up  to  me  possession  of  the  house 
and  lot  known  as  No.  402  Randolph  street,  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
and  to  remove  therefrom  on  the  30th  day  of  April  next,  it  being  my 
intention  to  terminate  the  tenancy. 

L.  W.  JOHNSON,  Landlord. 

St.  Louis,  March  27,  18B3. 


Tenant's  Notice  of  Leaving. 

Mr.  T.  a.  Van  Epp  . 

Take  notice  that  I  shall,  on  the  first  day  of  May  next,  deliver  up  to 
you  the  premises  1  now  occupy  as  your  tenant,  known  as  No.  134,  Mad- 
ison street,  in  the  city  of  Louisville,  it  being  my  intention  to  terminate 
the  tenancy. 

J.  J.  FORBES,  Tenant. 

Louisville,  Feb.  27*  1883 


Notice  to  Quit  by  Landlord,  on  Non-Pay- 
ment of  Rent. 

Mr.  Thos.  S.  Dillon  : 

Sir: — I  hereby  give  you  notice  to  surrender  and  deliver  up  to  me 
the  possession  of  the  house  and  lot  known  as  No-  514  West  Fourteenth 
street,  in  the  City  of  Cincinnati,  the  rent  of  which  you  have  failed  and 
neglected  to  pay  for  the  past  month;  and  to  remove  therefrom  at  the  ex- 
piration often  days  from  this  date,   according  to  law. 

Yours,  etc., 
ROBERT  T.  GREEN,  Landlord. 
Cincinnati,  April  33,  1883. 


PARTNERSHIP. , 

An  agreement  between  two  or  more  persons  to  invest 
their  labor,  time  and  means  together,  siiaring  in  tlie  loss 
or  profit  that  may  arise  from  such  investment,  is  termed 
partnership. 

The  partnership  may  consist  in  the  contribution  of 
skill,  extra  labor,  or  acknowledged  reputation  upon  the 
part  of  one  partner,  while  the  other ,  or  others,  contribute 
money,  each  sharing  alike  equally,  or  fixed  proportions, 
in  the  profits,  or  an  equal  amount  of  time,  labor  and 
money  may  be  invested  by  the  partners,  and  the  profits 
equally  divided;  the  test  of  partnership  being  the  joint 
participation  in  profit,  and  the  joint  liability  to  loss. 

A  partnership  formed  without  limitation  is  termed  a 
general  partnership.  An  agreement  entered  into  for  the 
performance  of  only  a  particular  work  is  termed  a  spe- 
cial partnership;  while  a  partner  putting  in  a  limited 
amount  of  capital,  upon  which  he  receives  a  correspond- 
ing amount  of  profit,  and  is  held  correspondingly  re- 
sponsible for  the  contracts  of  the  firm,  is  termed  a  lim- 
ited partnership,  the  conditions  of  which  are  regulated 
by  statute  in  different  states. 

Any  one  who  permits  his  name  to  be  used  by  a  firm,  or 
who  shares  in  the  profits  of  the  business,  is  liable  as  a 
partner. 

Eacli  individual  member  of  a  firm  is  liable  to  the  whole 
amount  of  the  debts  of  the  concern. 

The  act  of  one  partner  binds  all  the  others,  when  done 
in  pursuance  of  the  regular  business  of  the  firm,  and  in 
the  usual  course  of  that  business,  but  any  act  not  re- 
quired by  the  nature  of  the  business  will  not  bind  them. 

Should  it  be  desired  that  the  executors  and  represent- 
atives of  the  partner  continue  the  business  in  the  event 
of  his  deiith,  it  should  be  so  specified  in  the  articles, 
otherwise  the  partnership  ceases  at  death.  Should  ad- 
ministrators and  executors  continue  the  business  under 
such  circumstances,  they  are  personally  responsible  for 
the  debts  contracted  by  the  firm. 

Partners  may  mutually  agree  to  dissolve  a  partner- 
ship, or  dissolution  may  be  effected  by  a  decree  of  a 
Court  of  Equity.  Dissolute  conduct,  dishonesty,  habits 
calculated  to  imperil  the  business  of  a  firm,  incapacity, 
or  the  necessity  of  partnership  no  longer  continuing:, 
shall  be  deemed  sufficient  causes  to  invoke  the  law  in  se- 
curing a  dissolution  of  partnership,  in  case  the  same  i'a!i- 
not  be  eflected  by  mutual  agreement. 
After  a  dissolution  of  partnership,  immediate  notice 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


923 


of  the  same  should  be  given  in  the  most  public  newspa- 
pers, and  a  notice  should  be  sent  likewise  to  every  per- 
son having  special  dealings  with  the  firm.  These  pre- 
cautions not  being  taken,  each  partner  continues  liable 
for  the  acts  of  the  others  to  all  persons  who  have  no 
knowledge  of  the  dissolution. 


\ 


Partnership  Agreement. 

This  Agreement,  made  this day  of ,   18.... 

between of ,  of  the  one  part,  and 

of ...  of  the  other  part,  witnesseth  : 

The  said  parties  agree  to  associate  themselves  as  copartners  for  a  period 

of year?  from  this  date,  in  the  business  of ; 

the  name  and  style  of  the  firm  to  be 

For  the  purpose  of  conducting  the  business  of  the  above  named  part- 
nership,   has,  at  the  dale  of  this  writing,  invested 

as  capital  stock,  and  the  said has  paid  in  a  like  sum  of 

,  both  of  which  amounts  are  to  be  expended  and  used 

in  common,  for  the  mutual  advantage  of  the  parties  hereto,  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  business. 

It  is  hereby  also  agreed  by  both  parties  hereto,  that  they  will  not, 
while  associated  as  copartners,  follow  any  avocation  or  trade  to  their  own 
private  advantage;  but  will,  throughout  their  entire  period  of  copart- 
nership, put  forth  their  utmost  and  best  efforts  for  their  mutual  advan- 
tage, and  the  increase  of  the  capita!  stock. 

That  the  details  of  the  business  may  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
each,  it  is  agreed  that  during  the  aforesaid  period,  accurate  and  full  book 
accounts  shall  be  kept,  wherein  each  partner  shall  record,  or  cause  to 
be  entered  and  recorded,  full  mention  of  all  moneys  received  and  ex- 
pended, as  well  as  every  article  purchased  and  sold  belonging  to,  or  in 
any  way  appertaining  to  such  partnership  ;  the  gains,  profits,  expendi- 
tures and  losses  being  equally  divided  between  them. 

It  is  further  agreed  that  once  every  year,  or  oftener,  should  either  party 
desire,  a  full,  just  and  accurate  exhibit  shall  be  made  to  each  other,  or 
to  their  -executors,  administrators  or  representatives,  of  the  losses,  receipts, 
profits  and  increase  made  by  reason  of,  or  arising  from  such  copartner- 
ship. And  after  such  exhibit  is  made,  the  surplus  profit,  if  such  there  be 
resulting  from  the  business,  shall  be  divided  between  the  subscribing 
partners,  share  and  share  alike. 

Either  party  hereto  shall  be  allowed  to  draw  a  sum,  the  first  year   not 

exceeding   dollars  p^  annum,  fjrom  the  capital  stock  of  the   firm, 

in  monthly  instalments  of dollars  each  ;  which  amount  may  be 

increased  by  subsequent  agreement. 

And  further,  should  either  partner  desire,  or  should  death  of  cither  of 
the  parties,  or  other  reasons,  make  it  necessary,  they,  the  said  copartners, 
will  each  to  the  other,  or  in  case  of  death  of  either,  the  surviving 
party  to  the  executors  or  administrators  of  the  party  deceased,  make  a 
full,  accurate  and  final  account  of  the  condition  of  the  partnership  as 
aforesaid,  and  will  fairly  and  accurately  adjust  the  same  And  also  upon 
taking  an  inventory  of  said  capital  stock,  with  increase  and  profit  there- 
on, which  shall  appear  or  is  found  to  be  remaining,  all  such  remainder 
shall  be  equally  apportioned  and  divided  between  them,  the  said  copart- 
ners, their  executors  or  administrators,  share  and  share  alike. 

It  is  also  agreed  that  in  case  of  a  misunderstanding  arising  with  the 
partners  hereto,  which  cannot  be  settled  between  themselves,  such  dif- 
ference of  opinion  shall  be  settled  by  arbitration,  upon  the  following  con- 
ditions, to  wit :  Each  party  to  choose  one  arbitrator,  which  two  thus 
elected  shall  choose  a  third  ;  the  three  thus  chosen  to  determine  the  mer- 
its of  the  case,  and  arrange  the  basis  of  a  settlement. 

In  witness  whereof  the  undersigned  have  hereto  set  their  hands  the 
day  and  year  first  above  written. 

\Signaturgt.'\ 

Signed  in  Presence  of 


Advertising  Notices.  * 

Notice  is  hereby  given,  that  the  partnership  heretofore    subsisting  be- 
tween the  undersigned  as in .,  under  the  style  or  firm 

of ,  is  this  day  dissolved  by  mutual  consent.     Dated  this 

18.... 


Notice  is  hereby  given,  that  the  copartnership  formerly  subsisting  be- 
tween us,  the  undersigned and   ,  as ,at , 

under  the  style  or  firm  of ,  is  this  day   dissolved    by   mutual 

consent,  and  that  the  said  business  will  in  future   be  carried   on   by  the 

said alone,  who  will  receive  and  pay  all  the  debts  of  the  late 

copartnership. 

Dated  this 18.... 


WILLS. 

The  legal  declaration  of  what  a  person  determines  to 
have  done  with  his  property  after  death,  is  termed  a 
Will. 

All  persons  of  sufficient  age,  possessed  of  sound  mind, 
except  married  women  in  certain  States,  are  entitled  to 
disjiose  of  their  property  by  will.  Children  at  the  age 
of  fourteen  if  males,  and  females  at  the  age  of  twelve, 
can  thus  dispose  of  personal  property. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  property  be- 
queathed and  the  condition  and  intentions  of  the  testator 
should  be  clearly  and  accurately  expressed,  and  unless  he 
has  good  legal  advice  he  should  make  a  disposition  of 
his  property  as  simple  as  possible. 

A  married  woman  cannot  make  a  will  except  in  rela- 
tion to  trust  property,  unless  the  statute  law  of  the  State 
gives  it,  which  is  the  case  now  in  many  States. 

The  maker  of  a  will  is  called  a  testator  (if  a  female  a 
testatrix). 

The  testator  should  distinctly  say  in  the  beginning  of 
the  instrument  that  it  is  his  last  loilL  If  other  wills  have 
been  executed  it  is  well  to  say,  "Hereby  revoking  all 
former  wills." 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  wit- 
nesses, as  this  part  is  material;  they  should  write  their 
respective  places  of  residence  after  their  names,  their 
signatures  being  written  in  the  presence  of  each  other, 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  testator.  The  States  of  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Arkansas,  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  Iowa,  Utah,  Texas,  California,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Indiana,  Virginia  and  New  York  re- 
quire tioo  subscribing  witnesses. 

The  States  of  Connecticut,  Florida,  Georgia,  Louisi- 
ana, Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Maine,  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, Mississippi,  New  Hampshire,  Oregon,  Rhode  Is- 
lami.  South  Carolina,  and  Vermont,  and  District  of  Col- 
umbia, require  three  attesting  witnesses. 

Should  any  litigation  follow  the  death  of  a  testator, 
and  a  question  arise  as  to  his  sanity,  the  evidence  of  the 
witnesses  to  the  will  is  fii-st  Lo  be  taken,  and  is  very  im- 
portant. Any  person  competent  to  do  ordinary  acts  of 
business  may  be  a  witness.  Married  women  and  minors 
may  be  witnesses,  but  no  one  interested  in  the  wiU^ 
either  as  a  legatee  or  executor,  should  witness  a  will,  as 
such  a  bequest  would  be  void,  but  not  invalidate  the  rest 
of  the  will.  The  word  **•  bequeath "  applies  to  personal 
estate,  and  '* devise"  to  real  estate  only. 

The  testator  may  appoint  his  executors.  Executors 
must  be  of  legal  age  at  the  time  of  proving  the  will; 
a  convict,  a  confirmed  drunkard,  a  limatic,  or  an  im- 
becile, cannot  Jict  as  executor.  No  person  appointed  a& 
an  executor  is  obliged  to  serve. 


924 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


A  husband  is  entitled  to  administer  in  preference  to 
:uiy  one  else,  upon  property  left  by  his  wife,  who  pos- 
sesses property  and  dies  without  a  will,  provided  he  be 
<tf  sound  mind. 

If  the  testator  leaves  a  bequest  to  his  wife  instead  of 
<lower,  he  should  so  state  it.  If  he  fails  to  so  provide  in 
•he  will,  the  wife  is  entitled  to  her  dower  or  homestead 
right  and  the  bequest  The  wife  is  not  legally  compelled 
to  accept  of  such  bequest,  but  may  choose  between  her 
Ifgal  rights  of  dower  and  that  of  will. 

The  will  of  an  unmarried  woman  is  revolted  in  many 
States  by  her  subsequent  marriage. 


Form  of  a  WiU. 

In  the  name  of  God,  Amen.     I ,  of  the  town  of 

in  the  County  of ,  and  State  of being  of  sound 

mind  and  memory  (blessed  be  Almighty  God  for  the  same!)  do  make 
and  publish  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

1  give  and  bequeath  to  my  sons, five  hundred  dollars 

each,  if  they  shall  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years  before  my 
decease  ;  but  if  they  shall  be  under  the  age  of  twenty -one  at  my  decease, 
then  1  give  to  them  one  thousand  dollars  each,  the  last-mentioned  sum 
io  be  in  place  of  the  first-mentioned. 

1  give  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife, all  my  house- 

:hold  furniture,  and  all  the  rest  of  my  personal  property,  after  paying  from 
ithe  same  the  several  legacies  already  named,  to  be  hers  forever:  but  if 
-there  should  not  be  at  my  decease  sufficient  personal  property  to  pay  the 
aforesaid  legacies,  then  so  much  of  itiy  real  estate  shall  be  sold  as  will 
-raise  sufficient  money  to  pay  the  same. 

1  also  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  beloved  wife, all 

■  the  rest  and  residue  of  my  real  estate,  as  long  as  she  shall  remain  un- 
married, and  my  widow  :  but  on  her  decease  or  marriage,  the  remainder 
thereof  I  give  and  devise  to  my  said  children  and  their  heirs,  respect- 
ively, to  be  divided  in  equal  shares  between  them. 

1  do  nominate  and  appoint  my  beloved  wife, to  be  the 

sole  executrix  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  Testimony  Whereof,  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal,  and  pub- 
lish and  decree  this  to  be  my  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  the 

witnesses  named  below,  this day  of in  the  year  of 

-our  Lord  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

[L.  S.j 

Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the  said as  and 

for  his  last  will  and  testament,  in  presence  of  us  who,  at  his  request 
;and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our 
jiames  as  witnesses  hereto. 

residing  at in county. 

residing  at in county. 


General  Form  of  Will  for  Real  and  Per- 
sonal  Property. 

1,  Samuel  T.  Allen,  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  county  of  Cook,  State  of 
Illinois,  being  aware  of  the  uncertainty  of  life,  and  in  failing  health,  but 
of  sound  mind  and  memory,  do  make  and  declare  this  to  be  my  last  will 
and  testament,  in  manner  following,  to  wit  : 

First.  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  eldest  son,  Franklin  M. 
Allen,  the  sum  of  four  thousand  dollars  of  bank  stock,  now  in  the  First 
National  Bank,  Chicago,  Illinois,  and  the  farm  owned  by  myself  in 
Ontario  township,  Knox  county,  Illinois,  consisting  of  one  hundred  and 
sixty  acres,  with  all  the  houses,  tenements  and  improvements  thereunto 
belonging  ;  to  have  and  to  hold  unto  my  said  son,  his  heirs  and  his  as- 
signs forever. 

Second.  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  each  of  my  daughters,  Lida 
I.ouan  Allen  and  Fannie  Antoinette  Allen,  each  two  thousand  dollars 
in  bank  stock  in  the  First  National  Bank  of  Chicago,  Illinois,  and  also 
each  one  quarter  section  of  land,  owned  by  myself,  situate  in  the  town 
of  Delavan,  Tazewell  County,  Illinois,  and  recorded  in  my  name  in  the 
Recorder's  office  of  said  county.  The  north  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  of  said  half  section  is  devised  to  my  elder  daughter,  Lida  Louan. 


Third.  I  give,  devise  and  bequeath  to  my  son,  Fred  Davis  Allen, 
five  shares  of  railroad  stock,  in  the  C,  B.  &  Q.  Railroad,  and  my  own 
one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  of  land  and  «aw-mill  thereon,  situated  in 
Astoria,  Illinois,  with  all  the  improvements  and  appurtenances  thereunto 
belonging,  which  said  real  estate  is  recorded  in  my  name,  in  the  county 
where  situated. 

Fourth.  I  give  to  my  wife,  Tryphena  Allen,  alt  my  household  furni- 
ture, goods,  chattels  and  personal  property  about  my  house,  not  hither- 
to disposed  of,  including  ten  thousand  dollars  in  bank  stock,  in  the  First 
National  Bank  of  Chicago,  Illinois,  fifteen  shares  in  the  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  &  Pacific  Railroad,  and  the  free  and  unrestricted  use,  possession 
and  benefit  of  the  home  farm,  so  long  as  she  may  live,  in  lieu  of  dower, 
to  which  she  is  entitled  by  law  ;  said  farm  being  my  present  place  of 
residence. 

Fifth.  I  bequeath  to  my  invalid  father,  Samuel  T.  Allen,  Sr.,  the  in- 
come from  the  rents  of  my  store  building  at  Canton,  Illinois,  during  the 
term  of  his  natural  life.  Said  building  and  land  therewith  revert  to  my 
said  sons  and  daughters  in  equal  proportions,  upon  the  demise  of  my 
said  father. 

Sixth.  It  is  also  my  will  and  desire  that  at  the  death  of  my  wife, 
Tryphena  Allen,  or  at  any  time  she  may  arrange  to  relinquish  her  life 
interest  in  the  above  mentioned  homestead,  the  same  may  revert  to  my 
above-named  children  or  to  the  lawful  heirs  of  each. 

A  nd.,  Lastly.,  I  appoint  as  executors  of  this  my  last  will  and  testament, 
my  wife  Tryphena  Allen,  and  my  eldest  son,  Franklin  N.  Allen. 

I  further  direct  that  my  debts  and  necessary  funeral  expenses  shall  be 
paid  from  moneys  now  on  deposit  in  the  Farmers'  National  Bank,  Pekin. 
Illinois,  the  residue  of  such  moneys  to  revert  to  my  wife,  Tryphena 
Allen,  for  her  use  forever. 

In  Witness  Thereof,  I,  Samuel  T.  Allen,  to  this,  my  last  will  and 
testament,  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  third  day  of  March, 
eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-three. 

Samuel  T.  Allen.     [L.  S.] 

Signed,  sealed  and  delivered  by  Samuel  T.  Allen,  as  and  for  his  last 

will  and  testament,  in  presence   of  us,   who,   at  his  request  and    in   his 

presence,  and  in  the  presence  of  each  other,   have   subscribed  our  names 

hereunto  as  witnesses  thereof. 

Fred  D.  Porter,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Erastus  Child,  Oneida,  Illinois. 


Codicils. 

An  addition  to  a  will,  which  should  be  in  writing,  is 
termed  a  codicil. 

A  codicil  is  designed  to  explain,  modify  or  change 
former  bequests  made  in  the  body  of  the  will.  It  should 
be  done  with  the  same  care  and  precision  as  was  exer- 
cised in  making  the  will  itself. 

A  codicil  does  not  revoke  a  will;  it  may  consist  of  a 
further  bequest  or  a  revocation,  in  part,  of  the  bequests 
of  the  will. 

Form  of  a  Codicil. 

Whereas,  I,  Samuel  T.  Allen,  did,  on  the  third  day  of  March,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  eighty-three,  make  my  last  will  and  testa- 
ment, I  do  now,  by  this  writing,  add  this  codicil  to  my  said  will,  to  be 
taken  as  a  part  thereof. 

Whereas,  by  the  dispensation  of  Providence,  my  daughter  Lida  Louan 
has  deceased,  November  fifth,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-four,  and 
whereas  a  son  has  been  born  to  me,  which  son  is  now  christened  Charles 
Burchard  Allen,  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  him  my  gold  watch,  and  ail 
right,  interest  and  title  in  the  lands  and  bank  stock  and  chattels  bequeathed 
to  my  deceased  daughter  Lida  Louan,  in  the  body  of  this  will. 

In  witness  whereof  I  hereunto  set  my  hand  and  seal  this  fifth  day  of 
November,  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-four. 

Samuel  T.  Allen.     [L.  S.] 

Signed,  sealed,  published  and  declared  to  us  by  the  testator,  Samuel 
T.  Allen,  as  and  for  a  codicil  to  be  annexed  to  his  last  will  and  testa- 
ment. And  we,  at  his  request,  and  in  his  presence  and  in  the  presence 
of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names   as   witnesses   thereto,    at  the 

date  hereof. 

Erastus  Child,  Oneida,  Illinois. 

E.  C.  Johnson,  Chicago,  Illinois. 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


925 


COMMERCIAL  FORMS. 

Under  this  hfiad  we  will  give  that  important  class 
of  commercial  forms  known  as  "negotiable  paper." 

The  larger  part  of  the  business  of  the  world  is  con- 
ducted through  the  medium  of  bank  bills,  promis- 
sory notes,  bank  checks,  etc.,  all  of  which  belong  to 
this  class  of  paper. 


Bills  of  Exchange. 

A  bill  of  exchange  is  a  written  request  or  order  ad- 
dressed by  one  bank  or  commercial  house  to  another, 
requesting  the  payment  of  money  to  a  third  party 
named,  or  to  his  order.  There  are  two  kinds,  domes- 
tic and  foreign.  When  bills  of  exchange  are  drawn 
by  parlies  residing  in  one  State  or  country  upon  per- 
sons in  the  same  State  or  country,  they  are  called 
"domestic  bills  of  exchange."  When  the  parties  to 
bills  reside  in  different  States  or  countries,  and  bills 
which  are  drawn  in  one  country  are  made  payable  in 
another,  they  are  called  "  foreign  bills  of  exchange." 

In  issuing  foreign  bills  of  exchange,  it  is  customary 
for  the  banker  to  issue  a  set  of  two  or  three,  worded 
nearly  alike.  One  of  these  is  kept  by  the  purchaser, 
to  be  presented  by  him  to  the  foreign  banker,  the 
other  two  are  transmitted  by  mail,  at  different  times, 
to  the  same  bank.  Thus,  if  the  first  bill  is  lost,  the 
second  or  third,  that  goes  by  mail,  will  still  be  avail- 
able, and  the  holder  can  obtain  the  money  without 
being  subject  to  the  delay  of  writing  to  America  for 
another  bill.     These  bills  are  worded  as  follows  ■ 


Set  of  roreign  Exchange. 

1  Chicago,  III.,  May  i,  i88j. 

Exchange  for  \ 

£500.  \       Thirty  days  after  sight,  of  this  our 

FIRST  OF  EXCHANGE  (sccond  and  third  of  the  same 
tenor  and  date  unpaid),  pay  to  the  order  of  Stephen 
Crosby,  Five  Hundred  Pounds  Sterling,  value  received, 
and  charge  the  same  to 

Merchants'  National  Bank. 

To  the  Commercial  Bank  of  London,    ) 
London,  Eng.  J 

No.. 2  20. 


2  Chicago,  III.,  May  i,  i88j. 

Excha^tge  for  \ 

SibOO.  \  Thirty  days  after  sight,  of  this  our 
SECOND  OF  EXCHANGE  i^first  and  third  of  the  Same  tenor 
and  date  unpaid"),  pay  to  the  order  of  Stephen  Crosby, 
Five  Hundred  Pounds  Sterling,  value  receii<ed,  and 
charge  the  same  to 

Merchants'  National  Bank. 
To  the  Commercial  Bank  of  London,  \ 
London,  Eng.  \ 

No.  220. 


3  Chicago,  III.,  May  i,  j88j. 

Exchange  for  \ 

£500  f       Thirty  days  after  sight,  of  this  our 

THIRDOF  EXCHANGE  {first  and  second  of  the  Same  tenor 
and  date  unpaid), pay  to  the  order  of  Stephen  Crosby, 
Five  Hundred  Pounds  Sterling,  value  received ,  and 
charge  the  same  to 

Merchants'  National  Bank, 
To  the  Commercial  Bank  of  London, 
London,  Eng. 
No.  220. 


"I 


DRAFTS. 


A  draft  may  properly  be  called  a  domestic  or  an 
inland  bill  of  exchange.  It  is  customary  for  the 
bankers  in  all  large  cities  to  make  deposits  with 
bankers  in  other  large  cities,  and  also  for  the  banks 
in  the  interior  towns  to  make  deposits  with  some  one 
bank  in  the  nearest  metropolis.  Thus,  the  bankers 
of  Chicago,  St.  Louis  and  Cincinnati  have  deposits  in 
New  York,  so  that  any  person  wishing  to  pay  a  cer- 
tain sum  of  money  to  another  person  East,  has  only 
to  step  into  a  bank  and  purchase  a  draft  for  the 
amount  on  New  York,  which  he  sends  by  mail  to  the 
creditor,  who  can  usually  get  the  amount  the  draft 
calls  for  at  the  nearest  bank. 

As  there  is  but  little  danger  of  these  inland  bills  of 
exchange  being  lost,  only  one  is  issued. 

The  object  in  purchasing  a  draft  is  to  avoid  the 
danger  of  loss  in  transmitting  money  from  one  part  of 
the  country  to  another.  These  can  be  obtained  of 
any  bank  throughout  the  country  upon  some  large 
city.  A  small  amount,  termed  "exchange,"  is  charged 
for  these  by  the  banker  from  whom  they  are  bought. 


Bank  Draft. 
Xo.  288.  Farmers'  National  Bank, 

$250.  Peklii,  111.,  May  1, 1883. 

Pay  to  the  order  of  John  Maynard.   Two  Hundred 
and  Fifty  Dollars. 

B.  R.  HiERONTMUS.  Cashier. 
To  Merchants'  National  Bank, 
Chicago,  111. 


Sight  Draft. 
«375.  Chicago,  III.,  March  10, 1883. 

At  sight,  pay  to  the  order  of  B.  C.  Hobson  &  Co.,  three 
Hundred  and  Seventy-five  Dollars,  and  charge  the  same 
to  the  accovnit  of  Chapman  Bros. 

To  W.  H.  Lawrence, 
Macomb,  111. 


$400. 


Time  Draft. 

QuiNCY.  III.,  April  12,  1883. 


Sixty  days  after  sight  pay  to  C.  P.  Powers,  or  order. 
Four  Hundred  Dollars,  and  charge  the  same  to  the   ac- 
count of  .  B.  F.  Johnson. 
To  Maxwell  Bros.  &  Co., 
Chicago,  111. 


926 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


Acceptance. 

The  acceptance  of  a  draft  is  effected  by  the 
drawee,  or  the  person  upon  whom  the  same  is  drawn, 
if  he  consents  to  its  payment,  writing  across  the  face 
of  the  draft  thus  :  "Accepted.  April  14, 1883.  Max- 
well Bros.  &  Co." 


Indorsements. 

If  a  note,  bill,  or  other  form  of  negotiable  paper  is 
made  payable  to  payee  or  bearer,  it  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  fourth  party  by  merely  delivering  it  into 
his  hands,  and  the  fourth  party  will  stand  in  the  same 
position  as  the  original  payee  did.  But  if  the  bill  be 
made  payable  to  the  payee,  or  order,  he  cannot  trans- 
fer it  without  indorsing  it ;  that  is,  writing  his  name 
on  the  back,  after  which  the  payee  is  called  the  "  in- 
dorser,"and  the  person  to  whom  it  is  sold  or  transferred 
the  "  indorsee."  "  Holder"  is  a  general  word  applied 
to  any  person  in  possession  of  the  paper  and  entitled 
to  the  payment  thereon. 

There  are  five  different  ways  of  indorsing  paper. 

1.  Indorsement  IN  Blank.  This  is  when  the  indorser 
simply  writes  his  name  on  the  back  of  the  paper.  The 
paper  thus  indorsed  is  transferable  by  delivery  from 
hand  to  hand,  like  a  bank  bill ;  so  long  as  it  continues 
in  blank,  it  is  payable  to  hearer. 

2.  In  Full.  An  indorsement  in  full  is  when  the  name 
of  the  person  in  whose  favor  it  is  made  is  written  on  the 
back  of  the  paper.  Then  none  but  the  indorsee,  or  person 
to  whom  it  is  ordered  paid,  can  demand  payment.  This 
mode  of  indorsement  insures  safety  in  the  transmission 
of  negotiable  funds.  The  following  would  be  an  indorse- 
ment in  full : 

Pay  to  8.  J.  Chapman,  or  order. 

Swing  Summers. 

3.  Confidential.  This  indorsement  is  such  as  is 
made  subject  to  some  condition  which  must  be  per- 
formed, or  the  instrument  wiil  not  be  or  remain  valid. 

4.  Qualified.  All  indorsers  are  liable  forthe  amount 
of  the  paper  unless  they  qvalify  their  indorsement.  An 
dorsement  as  follows : 

without  recourse. 

L.  W.  B.  Johnson. 
would  release  the  indorser  from  all  responsibility. 

5.  Eestkictive.  a  restrictive  indorsement  Is  one 
which  restrains  the  negotiability  of  the  instrument  to  a 
particular  person  or  for  a  particular  purpose.  Here  is 
such  an  indorsement: 

Pay  to  J,  H.  Franklin. 

Samuel  Crosby. 


PROMISSORY   N"OTES. 

A  promissory  note  is  a  written  promise  to  pay  a 
specified  sum  at  a  designated  time,  both  of  which  are 
stated  in  the  body  of  the  note.  A  note  is  made  ne- 
gotiable by  making  it   payable   to   a   person    or  his 


order,  or  to  his  assigns,  or  to  bearer,  or  to  the  cashier 
of  a  bank  or  incorporated  con'pany.  A  note  so  drawn 
may  be  negotiated,  or  used  in  payment  to  another 
person  by  the  holder,  who  indorses  his  name  on  the 
(jack  of  the  note.  In  the  event  of  the  failure  of  the 
drawer  of  the  note  to  pay  it,  the  holder  looks  to  the 
persons  who  indorsed  it  for  payment. 

A  note  payable  on  a  certain  day  is  really  due  three 
days  later.  These  three  days  are  called  "days  of 
grace."  Thus,  a  note  for  one  month  dated  January 
ist,  need  not  be  paid  until  February  4th,  the  last  day 
of  grace.  Notes  payable  on  demand  are  not  entitled 
to  any  grace.  Should  the  last  day  of  grace  fall  upon 
Sunday  or  upon  a  legal  holiday,  it  must  be  paid  on  the 
day  previous.  Thus,  a  note  due  January  ist  must  be 
paid  on  the  31st  of  December.  A  note  made  payable 
at  a  bank  and  held  there  for  payment  until  the  usual 
hour  for  closing,  need  not  be  presented  to  the  drawer 
in  person  to  bind  the  indorser.  It  may  be  protested 
immediately  upon  the  close  of  bank  hours.  Payment 
must  be  immediately  demanded  of  the  indorser  if  he 
resides  in  the  same  place;  if  he  is  a  non-resident  he 
must  be  notified  at  once  by  letter. 

A  note  is  void  when  founded  upon  fraud.  Thus,  a 
note  obtained  from  a  person  when  intoxicated,  or  ob- 
tained for  any  reason  which  is  illegal,  cannot  be  col- 
lected. If,  however,  the  note  is  transferred  to  an 
innocent  holder,  the  claim  of  fraud  or  no  value  re- 
ceived will  not  avail.  The  party  holding  the  note 
can  collect  it  if  the  maker  is  able  to  pay  it.  A  note 
given  on  Sunday  is  also  void  in  some  States. 

Notes  bear  interest  only  when  it  is  so  expressed; 
after  they  become  due,  however,  they  draw  the  legal 
rate  of  the  State.  If  it  is  intended  to  have  the  note 
draw  more  than  the  legal  rate  of  interest  after  matur- 
ity, the  words  should  so  specify  in  the  body  of  the 

note  as  follows  :  "with  interest  at  the  rate  of per 

cent  until  paid."  Notes  payable  on  demand  or  at 
sight,  draw  no  interest  until  after  presentation  or  de- 
mand of  the  same  has  been  made,  unless  they  pro- 
vide for  interest  from  date  on  their  face;  they  then 
draw  the  legal  rate  of  interest  of  the  State. 

If  "  with  interest  "is  included  in  the  note,  it  draws 
the  legal  rate  of  the  State  where  it  is  given,  from  the 
time  it  is  made. 

If  the  note  is  to  draw  a  special  rate  of  interest 
higher  than  the  legal,  but  not  higher  than  the  law 
allows,  the  rate  must  be  specified. 

When  transferring  the  note,  the  indorser  frees  him- 
self from  responsibility,  so  far  as  the  payment  is  con- 
cerned, by  writing  upon  the  back,  above  his  name, 
"Without  recourse  to  me  in  any  event." 


Note  Not  Negotiable. 

$2,000.00.  Kansas  City,  December  i,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Henry 
Palmer,  Two  Thousand  Dollars,  value  received,  with 
interest  at  8  per  cent,  per  annum. 

Tf.  H.  Cummi7igs. 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS. 


927 


Negotiable  only  by  Indorsement. 

$700.00.  Providence,  B.  I.,  Sept.  12,  1S83. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  J.  J.  Astor, 
or  order,  Seven  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

C.  B.  Laflin. 


Negotiable  Without  Indorsement. 

$200.00.  Chicago,  May  1st,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Robert  H. 
Bishop,  or  bearer,  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Stephen  Logan. 


Note  on  Demand. 

$300.00.  Sterling,  HI.,  June  1,  1883. 

On  demand  I  promise  to  pay  Martin  Ward,  or  order. 
Three  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received,  with  Interest  at 
8  per  cent,  per  annum. 

Thomas  Jefferson. 


8500.00 


Payable  at  Bank. 

Chicago,  May  1, 1883. 


Four  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order 
of  George  Bancroft,  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  at  the  Mer- 
chants' National  Bank,  value  received,  with; interest  at  8 

per  cent,  per  annum. 

John  Hancock, 


Note  Payable  in  Merchandise. 

$600.00.  Marysville,  Ohio,  June  1st,  1883. 

Four  months  after  date  wo  promise  to  pay  Cook,Toler 
<fc  Co.,  or  order.  Six  Hundred  Dollars,  in  good,  mer- 
chantable family  iloar,  at  our  mill  in  this  city,  at  the 
market  value,  on  the  maturity  of  this  note. 

Darling,  Wright  &  Co 


Judgment  Note,  Common  Form. 

$200.00.  Neio  York,  September  24,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  John 
Adams,  or  order.  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest  at 
the  rate  of  six  per  cent,  per  annum,  from  maturity  until 
paid,  without  defalcation.  And  J  do  hereby  confess 
judgment  for  the  above  sum  with  interest  and  costs  of 
suit,  a  release  of  all  errors,  and  waiver  of  all  rights  to  in- 
quisition and  appeal,  and  to  the  benolit  of  all  laws  ex- 
empting real  or  personal  property  from  levy  and  sale. 

Oliver  P.  Morton,  [i.  S.'] 


Form  for  Pennsylvania. 

$952.00  Philadelphia,  May  1,  1883. 

Six  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  to  the  order  of 
Oray,  Field  &  Co.,  Nine  Hundred  and  Fifty-two  Dollars, 


at  Traders'  National  Bank,  value  received,  without  de- 
falcation. 

'   Horace  Maynard. 


$500.00. 


Note  for  Indiana. 

Elkhart,  Ind.,  May  1st,  1883. 

On  demand,  for  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  C. 
S.  Judd,  or  order.  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest; 
payable  without  any  relief  whatever  from  valuation  or 
appraisement. 

Eldridge  Geary. 


$400.00. 


Form  of  Note  for  Missoiiri. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  May  1st,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  to  James 
Gilbert  Four  Hundred  Dollars,  for  value  received;  nego- 
tiable and  payable  without  defalcation  or  discount. 

Frank  Fackler. 


Married  Woman's  Note  in  New  York. 

$100.00.  New  York,  April  1st,  1883. 

Six  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  David  Field, 
or  order.  One  Hundred  Dollars,  with  interest.  And  I 
hereby  charge  my  individual  property  and  estate  with 
the  payment  of  this  note. 

Emma  E.  Johnson. 


Joint  Note. 
$1,300.00  Austinburg,  0.,  April  17,  1883. 

Three  months  after  date  we  jointly  promise  to  pay  E. 
B.  Webster,  or  order.  One  Thousand   Three  Hundred 

Dollars,  value  received,  with  interest  at  six  per  cent,  per 
annum. 

Charles  Sharp. 
J.  H.  Franklin. 


Principal  and  Surety. 

$489.25.  Logansport,  Ind.,  April  23, 1883. 

Six  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  F.M.  Chapman, 

or  order,  Foiu-  Hundred  and  Eighty-nine  Dollars  and 

25-lOOths  Dollars,  with  interest,  value  received. 

B.  J.  Smith,  Principal. 
T.  W.  Jordan,  Surety. 

OTHER  FORMS  OF  BUSINESS  PAPERS. 
Orders. 

For  Money  to  Apply  on  Account. 
$150.00  Newport,  Mich.,  June  3,  1883. 

Mr.  A.  B.  Fenton: 
Please  pay  Alexander  Gardner    One  Hundred   and 
Fifty  Dollars,  and  charge  to  my  account. 

Eugene  Knox. 


928 


LEGAL  BUSINESS  FORMS— LENTIL. 


In  Full  of  Account. 

^175.00.  •  Miverside,  HI.,  June  1, 1883. 

Henry  L.  Stonington: 
Please  pay  to  August  Parker,  or  bearer,  One  Hun- 
dred and  Seventy-five  Dollars,  and  this  shall  be   your 

receipt  in  full  of  my  account. 

Lorenzo  Field. 


For  Merchandise. 
$245.00  Hyde  Park,  HI.,  Feb.  1,  1883. 

Franklin,  Field  &  Co: 

Please   pay  Anthony   Geary,  TH-wo    Hundred  and 
Forty-flve  Dollars  in  merchandise,  and  charge  to 

Potter  Palmer. 


Receipts  in  Full. 
On  Account. 
$87.00.  Buffalo,  iV.  Y.,  June  1,  1883. 

Keceived  of  H.  F.  Henderson,  Eighty-seven  Dollars  on 

Chapman  Bros, 


account. 


In  Full  of  all  Demands. 
$660.00.  Galesburg,  HI,  April  IS,  1883. 

Received  of  Thomas  McKee,  Six  Hundred  and  Fifty 

Dollars,  in  full  of  all  demands  to  date. 

Sheldon  Gale. 


Due  Bill. 

$250.00.  Lebanon,  Wis.,  June  1,  1883. 

Due  Andrew  J.  Benson,  or  order.  Two  Hundred  and 
Fifty  Dollars. 

Campbell  Bros. 

Iiegal  Tender,  lawful  money,  or  money  which  a 
successful  suitor  at  law  can  be  forced  to  take  in  satis- 
faction of  judgment.  Promises  to  pay,  except  those 
issued  by  the  general  Government,  cannot  be  made 
legal  tender.  In  the  settlement  of  all  contracts  at 
law,  legal  tender,  or  lawful  money,  can  be  exacted 
and  made  to  settle  the  litigation,  unless  the  contract 
expressly  states  other  considerations. 

Leghorn  (leg'horn),  a  kind  of  plait  for  bonnets  and 
hats,  prepared  from  the  straw  of  a  variety  of  bearded 
wheat,  cut  when  green,  and  dried.  It  was  originally 
made  at  Leghorn,  Italy :  whence  the  name.  Also,  the 
term  denotes  a  variety  of  the  domestic  fowl.  See 
page  525. 

IiOgs,  of  the  horse  :  see  page  726  and  787. 

Legume  (leg'ume  or  legume'),  the  seed  pod  of 
certain  plants,  as  the  bean,  pea,  locust,  red-bud,  cof- 
fee-bean tree,  peanut,  etc.  Such  plants  are  therefore 
denominated  "  leguminous,"  and  belong  to  the  order 
Leguminosae. 

Leicester  (les'ter),  a  breed  of  sheep :  see  Sheep. 


Lemon.  There  is  the  greatest  similarity  between 
the  lemon  and  orange  trees  in  almost  every  respect. 
In  size  and  shape  of  tree,  foliage  and  bloom,  in  plant- 
ing, cultivating,  pruning,  etc.,  there  is  scarcely  any 
difference  to  be  detected  by  the  novice.  As  the 
lemon  is  propagated  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
orange,  we  refer  our  reader  to  that  subject  in  this 
volume.  Although  restricted,  there  is  a  large  district 
in  California  where  this  fruit  may  profitably  be 
grown.  The  lemon  tree  being  more  susceptible  to 
frost  than  the  orange,  it  is  not  adapted  to  the  dis- 
tricts described  in  the  orange  article  as  middle  and 
low  lands,  except  in  well-sheltered  quarters.  In  does 
well  on  the  mesas,  at  an  altitude  of  1,000  to  2,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  where  frost  severe 
enough  to  damage  it  never  comes. 

Varieties.  The  only  lemons  worthy  of  cultiva- 
tion are  the  budded  varieties.  The  following  are 
commended  for  California : 

Bonnie  Brae.  This  new  variety,  which  we  illus- 
trate on  the  colored  plate  with  the  Riverside  Navel 
Orange,  is  a  product  of  San  Diego,  and  a  most  prom- 
ising fruit.  Tree  of  average  size,  a  strong  grower, 
quite  thorny.  Fruit  symmetrical,  texture  the  finest, 
rind  thin,  almost  seedless,  acid  fair,  and  the  juice 
possesses  a  peculiar  rich  flavor. 

The  Lisbon.  This  excellent  variety,  which  we  also 
show  by  a  colored  picture,  is  worthy  of  attention. 
The  tree  is  a  strong  grower,  quite  thorny,  not  so  early 
in  bearing  as  other  varieties.  Fruit  oblong,  symmet- 
rical, strong  acid;  more  or  less  seeds;  rinds  sweet 
and  thin. 

Sweet  Rind.  This  was  the  first  improved  variety 
originated  in  California  as  a  seedling.  It  is  a  fair 
lemon,  but  is  excelled  by  others  since  introduced. 

77^1?  Eureka.  The  tree  makes  a  vigorous  growfti, 
and  is  thornless.  Fruit  sharply  pointed  at  blossom 
end,  fair  in  texture,  seedless  and  sweet  rind;  acid 
the  best. 

Genoa.  Tree  thprnless  and  an  early  bearer.  Fruit 
good  in  all  respects  except  acidity.  Tests  show  the 
amount  of  acid  to  vary  so  much  that  the  fruit  is  not 
looked  upon  with  favor. 

Olivia.  Tree  somewhat  thorny,  good  bearer.  The 
fruit  is  excellent. 

Marketing.  As  the  lemon  ripens  in  midwinter, 
when  acid  fruits  are  little  in  demand,  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  preserve  them  as  long  as  possible 
and  in  the  best  condition.  In  handling  them  the 
same  general  principles  which  apply  to  oranges  apply 
to  them.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  when  dry  and 
stored  for  a  time,  during  which  it  undergoes  a  sweat- 
ing and  curing  process.  In  this  way  the  excess  of 
moisture  is  evaporated  from  the  skin,  rendering  it 
soft  and  pliable,  with  a  texture  somewhat  like  a  kid 
glove.  They  will  keep  a  long  time,  and  are  not  sus- 
ceptible to  decay  in  transit  cured  in  this  way.  There 
is  no  secret  about  the  curing  process.  The  lemons 
are  merely  spread  out  in  thin  layers  in  a  dry,  cool, 
well-ventilated  place  and  left  anywhere  from  ten  days 
to  ten  weeks,  as  suits  the  convenience  of  the  grower. 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


929 


jjetter-Writing.  A  knowledge  of  the  art  of  letter- 
writing  is  certainly  of  great  value  and  importance  to 
individuals  everywhere.  It  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
branches  of  composition.  A  model  letter  is  much 
more  rare  than  a  perfect  or  elegant  specimen  of  any 
other  kind  of  writing.  One  should  seek  to  write 
gracefully  and  with  ease,  and  adapt  the  style  to  the 
correspondence,  and  while  studiously  avoiding  all 
error,  also  to  betray  no  evidence  of  having  studied 
the  letter.  This  art  once  acquired  will  be  found  ever 
valuable.  While  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  set 
of  rules  that  will  always  be  applicable,  yet  there  are 
many  important  general  directions  which  all  should 
study  and  follow  as  closely  as  possible.  These  we 
give  in  this  article. 


Greneral  Instructions. 

Tn  general  the  style  of  expression  should  be  similar 
to  that  of  ordinary  conversation,  where  pure  language 
only  is  employed.  A  letter  is  but  a  talk  on  paper; 
and  the  variations  of  style  will  depend  mostly  upon 
the  degree  and  terms  of  intimacy  existing  between 
the  parties. 

Be  original  and  fresh  in  your  phraseology.  Don't 
use  such  old  and  hackneyed  forms  as,  "  I  now  sit 
down  and  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  let  you  know 
that  I  am  well,  and  hope  these  few  lines  will  find  you 
enjoying  the  same  blessing."  Avoid  ambiguity;  let 
your  sentences  be  short,  clear  and  easily  understood. 
Make  the  ends  of  sentences  conspicuous  by  a  period, 
space  and  a  capital  letter  commencing  the  next  sen- 
tence, if  one  follows.  In  writing  pleasantries,  as  jokes 
and  playful  turns  on  ideas,  facts  or  words,  be  spe- 
cially careful  that  your  expressions  be  clear  and  so 
worded  that  they  will  not  be  misunderstood  or  taken 
in  a  wrong  spirit.  It  is  far  more  dangerous  to  attempt 
jesting  by  letter  than  by  word  of  mouth,  so  much 
depends  upon  tone,  accent,  gesture,  etc. 

Any  abbreviations  of  name,  rank  or  title  beyond 
what  are  sanctioned  by  custom  are  considered  rude. 
An  insulting  letter  should  be  returned  to  the  party 
who  wrote  it,  so  he  will  know  you  received  it  and  have 
a  thorough  contempt  for  him.  Otherwise,  he  might 
think  the  letter  had  miscarried  and  write  again. 

In  mechanical  execution,  the  letter  should  be  free 
from  flourishes  and  singular  strokes  of  the  pen.  The 
punctuation  should  be  as  perfect  as  you  can  make  it. 
No  capital  letters  should  be  used  where  they  are  not 
required.  The  rules  for  their  use  are  few  and  simple, 
and  are  given  in  all  the  school  grammars.  Inkblots, 
erasures,  and  stains  on  the  paper  are  inadmissible. 
Be  careful  to  dot  all  the  i's  and  j's  and  cross  all  the  t's 
and  x's.  Etiquette  requires  that  you  give  your  friend 
as  little  trouble  as  possible  in  reading  your  letter  and 
making  out  your  meaning. 


Parts  of  a  Letter. 

A  letter  consists  of  the  date,  complimentary  ad- 
69 


dress,  the  message  (body  of  the  letter),  the  compli- 
mentary closing,  and  signature  of  the  party  writing 
the  letter.  In  business  letters,  the  name  and  place  of 
the  party  addressed  are  written  before  the  compli- 
mentary phrase,  "  Dear  Sir,"  but  in  letters  of  friend- 
ship the  old  form  established  by  etiquette  requires 
them  to  be  written  at  the  left-hand  margin,  at  the  close, 
and  on  the  next  lines  below  the  signature.  The  date 
should  end  with  the  right-hand  margin  of  the  page; 
the  address  of  the  party  written  to,  the  compliment- 
ary address,  and  the  beginning  of  the  message  should 
be  written  on  successive  lines,  each  item  commenc- 
ing at  a  uniformly  increasing  distance  from  the  left- 
hand  margin,  as  illustrated  in  the  accompanying 
forms.  The  complimentary  closing  should  be  placed 
equidistant  from  the  margins,  and  the  signature  on 
the  next  line,  toward  the  right. 


The  Complimentary  Address. 

In  addressing  a  clergyman,  it  is  customary  to  com- 
mence, "  Reverend  Sir,"  or  "Dear  Sir."  Doctors  of 
divinity   and   medicine  are   addressed    as   "Dr."  or 

"  Doctor ,"  — whatever  his  surname  might  be.  In 

this  case  the  full  address,  both  in  the  letter  and  on 
the  envelof)e,  will  be,  "  Rev.  Wm.  Johnson,  D.  D.," 
"  Dr.  F.  M.  Luse,"  or  "  F.  M.  Luse,  M.  D.,"  etc.  The 
President  of  the  United  States  and  Governors  of 
States  are  addressed  as  "His  Excellency."  Mem- 
bers of  Congress  and  of  the  Legislature,  and  all  others 
holding  distinguished  positions  under  the  Govern- 
ment, are  addressed  as  "Hon."  or  "Honorable."  A 
business  letter  should  commence  with"  Sir  ''or"  Dear 
Sir."  In  social  correspondence  the  address  of  a  letter 
is  regulated  according  to  the  degree  of  acquaintance 
or  friendship.  The  usual  forms  are :  Madam,  Sir, 
Dear  Madam,  Dear  Sir,  My  Dear  Madam,  My  Dear 
Sir,  Dear  Mrs.  McMurtry,  My  Dear  Mrs.  Caldwell,  My 
Dear  Friend,  Dear  Friend,  Dear  Freddie,  My  Dear 
Nettie,  etc.  When  letters  commence  with  the  name, 
as  "  My  Dear  Mrs.  Morris,"  it  should  not,  of  course,  be 
immediately  repeated  in  the  "complimentary  ad- 
dress." 


The  Complimentary  Closing. 

The  complimentary  closing  of  a  business  letter,  ad- 
dressed to  a  stranger,  is  usually  one  of  these  :  Yours 
truly  or  Yours  respectfully,  varied  with  the  word 
"most  "or  "very,"  and  by  inverting  the  order,  as, 
Truly  yours,  etc.  Social  letters  admit  an  almost  in- 
finite variety  of  forms  of  closing,  care  being  taken 
that  the  salutation  and  closing  be  consistent  and  not 
tautological.  For  example,  if  your  salutation  be, "  My 
Dear  Friend,"  it  would  be  too  cold  to  close  with 
"  Yours  respectfully,"  and  tautological  to  close  with, 
"Your  friend."  You  may  close  in  such  a  case  with 
"  Everyours,'"  Sincerely  yours,"  "Yours  with  esteem," 
"Yours  faithfully,""  Ever,  My  dear  John,  faithfully 
yours,"  or  "Your  grateful  Mary,,'  etc.     The  forms  of 


93° 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


salutation  and  closing  are  both  promoted  by  the  feel- 
ing, and  should  be  nicely  adapted, — neither  too  formal 
nor  too  familiar. 

Except  in  writing  to  strangers,  a  married  lady  should 
not  sign  herself  with  "  Mrs."  before  her  Christian 
name,  or  a  single  lady  with  "  Miss."  "  Miss  "  should 
be  placed  in  brackets  a  short  distance  preceding  the 
name.  Only  letters  of  unmarried  ladies  and  widows 
are  addressed  with  their  Christian  or  given  names. 
The  letters  of  married  ladies  are  addressed  with  their 
husband's  names. 


Materials. 

The  kinds  of  paper  used  for  epistolary  correspond- 
ence are  technically  called  "  Letter  Paper,"  "  Commer- 
cial Note  "  and "  Note  Paper,"  the  first  mentioned 
being  the  largest.  Dealers  in  stationery  will  show 
samples  of  each,  so  that  their  customers  can  make 
their  choice.  For  business  and  legal  documents, 
"  Legal  Cap,"  "  Foolscap  "  and  "  Bill  Paper  "  are  used, 
and  for  notes  of  invitation,  parents'  excuses  for  chil- 
dren attending  school,  etc.,  "  Billet  Paper  "  is  used. 

White  is  the  most  elegant  and  tasteful  color  for 
paper,  and  gentlemen  should  use  no  other.  Deli- 
cately-tinted and  perfumed  paper  may  be  used  by 
ladies  if  they  choose,  but  it  is  in  bad  taste  for  gentle- 
men to  use  it.  For  business  letters  no  color  is  allow- 
able but  pure  white  or  bluish  white. 

Persons  in  mourning  may  use  "  mourning  paper," 
and  envelopes  to  match,  the  width  of  the  border  cor- 
responding somewhat  to  the  nearness  of  the  relation- 
ship, and  the  recentness  of  the  bereavement. 

The  envelope  should  be  adapted,  both  in  size  and 
in  color,  to  the  paper.  Letter  paper,  if  used,  requires 
the  same  size  of  envelope  as  commercial  note, — that 
is,  3  J^  by  5  5^  inches.  Official  letters,  manuscript 
for  newspapers,  legal  documents  and  all  large  com- 
munications sent  by  mail,  should  be  enclosed  in  what 
are  called  "  official  envelopes,"  which  are  about  9 
inches  long.  Gentlemen  may  use  either  white  or 
colored  envelopes,  described  generally  as  "  buff,"  in 
their  business  correspondence.  It  is  not  allowable  to 
send  a  buff  envelope  to  a  lady,  nor  do  ladies  use  that 
kind  at  all.  If  tinted  paper  is  used,  the  envelope 
must  have  the  same  tint.  Both  paper  and  envelopes 
should  be  of  fine  quality. 

Both  in  the  body  of  the  letter  and  in  the  address  on 
the  envelope,  fancy  inks  should  not  be  used,  but 
good  black  ink.  An  ink  such  as  "  Arnold's  Writing 
Fluid  "  flows  well,  and,  although  not  very  black  at  first, 
will  soon  become  so.  The  best  ink  for  fine  penman- 
ship is  seldom  found  at  the  stores ;  and  when  found, 
it  will  probably  cost  more  than  ten  cents  a  bottle.  All 
kinds  of  ink  are  more  or  less  injured  if  permitted  to  be 
frozen  or  to  stand  long  exposed  to  the  air  or  sunlight. 
The  best  pen  for  fine  penmanship  is  a  sharp,  stiff- 
pointed  steel  pen,  if  otherwise  properly  made;  and 
the  cheapest  pens  are  scarcely  ever  of  this  description. 
For  what  is  termed  the  "  Ladies'  Epistolary  Style  "  of 


writing,  the  best  pen  is  not  only  of  the  character 
above  described,  but  is  also  very  small.  All  steel 
pens  soon  corrode  and  become  unfit  for  use.  For 
business  writing  many  persons  like  gold  pens  the 
best. 


Superscription. 

This  is  the  address  upon  the  envelope,  and  should 
be  written  plainly  and  evenly.  All  the  writing  upon 
the  envelope  should  be  perfectly  legible,  as  some  de- 
lay may  be  occasioned,  and  even  the  loss  of  the  letter, 
where  the  address  is  not  plain.  In  writing  the  super- 
scription, commence  the  name  a  little  to  the  left  of 
the  center  of  the  envelope.  The  town,  on  a  line  be- 
neath, should  extend  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  name. 
The  State,  next  below,  should  stand  by  itself  still 
further  to  the  right.  The  county  may  be  on  the  same 
line  with  the  State,  toward  the  left  side  of  the  en- 
velope. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  mailing  clerk  in  hand- 
ling the  letter,  the  postage  stamp  should  be  placed  at 
the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the  envelope. 

If  the  town  is  a  large  metropolis,  the  county  may 
be  omitted.  In  that  event  the  street  and  number  are 
usually  given,  or  the  postoffice  box.  Each  should  be 
written  very  conspicuously  upon  the  envelope,  for  the 
convenience  of  the  postoffice  clerk  and  and  the  mail- 
carrier. 

Upon  the  following  page  we  give  a  number  of  speci- 
mens of  the  various  forms  of  superscriptions,  with 
their  uses  outlined  just  above  each.  From  among 
these  you  will  be  able  to  select  a  form  for  almost 
every  case. 

Extensive  practice  enables  business  men  to  write 
comparatively  straight  upon  the  envelojie,  without 
the  aid  of  a  line.  The  inexperienced  penman  may 
be  aided  in  writing  on  the  buff-colored  envelope 
by  lead  pencil  lines,  which  should  never  be  used, 
however,  unless  completely  erased  by  rubber  after  the 
ink  is  dry. 

For  light-colored  envelopes,  a  piece  of  paper  a  little 
smaller  than  the  envelope  may  be  ruled  with  black 
ink  over  the  ruled  lines,  making  a  heavy  mark,  and 
placed  inside. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  write  upon  the  envelope 
very  plainly,  giving  the  full  name  and  title  of  the 
person  addressed,  with  place  or  residence  written  out 
fully,  including  town,  county.  State,  and  country  if  it 
goes  abroad.  The  designation  of  the  street,  number, 
drawer,  etc.,  when  written  upon  the  letter,  is  explained 
elsewhere. 

Where  you  are  uncertain  of  your  conespondent's 
address,  or  wish  to  recover  the  letter  in  the  event  of 
its  failure  to  reach  the  person  for  whom  it  is  intended, 
you  should  write  in  the  upper  left-hand  comer  of  the 
envelope  the  words,  "  Return  to  (giving  your  riame 
and  address)  if  not  called  for  in  ten  days."  Business 
men  usually  have  these  words  printed  on  their  en- 
velopes, as  shown  in  "Special  Request"  envelope 
illustrated  on  the  following  page. 


i 


LETTER   WRITING. 


Letter  directed  in  the  care  of  Some  One. 


\ 

^^ 

\ 

B 

mx^^  gWct  ^.  Scott, 

0-weiba, 

aCnoac   Co., 

Gore  of  (5.  3f.  Scott,  Ssq. 

a«. 

Direotlon  when  the  Street  or  Place  and  Number,  in  a  City,  is  known. 


X-L.  tV,  0>'^:^t^,..cL^<Jt...c^^,^.r- 


No.  12  Aldine  Square, 

Chicago, 


Illinois. 


Letter  to  a  Person  who  ia  Traveling  or  Changing  Besidence. 


mJ.  ^.^.  (M^^^m^, 


DesA/omes^ 


If  not  called/or  in  j  days, 
P.  M.  please  fofward  to 
Red  Oak,  loiva,  care  of  Geo. 
Pier  son . 


Iowa. 


"  SPECIAL  HEQUEST  ENVELOPE.' 
Direction  Requesting  Return  if  not  Delivered  within  a  Given  Number 


of  Days,    The  Name  of  the  County 

s  also  given 

. 

P.  S.  DE  HABS, 

MillTilU,Orle*nBCo..N.  T. 

H 

Jllm. 

^.6cm6m, 

S^q., 

Collinsville 

Lewis  Co. 

N.  Y. 

• 

Direction  describing  the  Person's  Occupation,  partly  to  insure  an  Earlier 

Delivery  of  the  Letter,  and  Partly  to  Advertise  the  Business.  Direction  when  the  Number  of  the  Postofflce  Box  or  Drawer  is  known. 


IfnoidaliiM-wlin  Sdijra,  Tature  l< 

PUBLISHERS, 

CHICAGO. 


6V 


Agent  for  ^^  American  Jincyclopedia" 
Indianapolis, 
Ind. 


^^ 

8 

%^. 

0^044^  (2^€4^^, 

Springfield., 

Box  342. 

III. 

Letter  Directed  in  the  Care  of  Some  One.  in  a  City. 


ie^. 


■^.(^/ZAu, 


Care  of  Col.  H.  S.  Wilson, 
gS  Court  Street. 


Detroit., 


Mich. 


Letter,  on  the  Envelope  of  which  obligation  la  Acknowledged  to  the 
Party  Delivering  it. 


9C.  (^.  2nCi^^et<yM.,  S*c^., 


Slt-cac/M^eb. 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


931 


Miscellaneous  Facts  and  Suggestions. 

Observe  carefully  the  following  facts  and  sugges- 
tions : 

See  that  every  letter  and  package  sent  by  mail  is 
securely  folded  and  fastened.  Use  only  good  strong 
envelopes  and  wrappers.  Heavy  articles  should  be 
secured  with  a  string. 

Never  send  money  (except  in  very  small  amounts) 
or  other   articles  of  value  in  an  unregistered  letter 

See  that  every  letter  contains  your  full  name  and 
address  (inside),  as  previously  advised  in  this  work. 

See  that  the  outside  address  is  full  and  plainly 
written.  On  foreign  letters,  not  only  the  name  of 
the  town  or  city,  but  also  the  name  of  the  country, 
should  be  written.  Letters  directed  to  "  London  " 
are  often  sent  to  London,  Canada. 

When  dropping  a  letter  or  paper  into  a  street  letter- 
box, see  that  it  does  not  stick  fast. 

Cut  stamps,  stamps  cut  from  stamped  envelopes, 
mutilated  ix)stage  stamps,  and  internal  revenue 
stamps  cannot  be  accepted  in  payment  of  postage. 

To  use,  or  attempt  to  use  a  stamp  that  has  already 
been  used,  is  punishable  by  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars. 

A  double  rate  of  six  cents  for  each  half  ounce  is 
chargeable  on  every  letter  that  reaches  its  destination 
without  having  been  fully  prepaid — deducting  the 
value  of  the  stamp  affixed. 

To  enclose  any  written  matter  in  printed  matter 
subjects  the  mailing  party  to  a  fine  of  five  dollars,  un- 
less the  party  addressed  pays  letter  postage  on  the 
package. 


BUSINESS  LETTERS. 

Business  letters  should  be  to  the  point,  clear  and 
distinct  in  their  meaning,  and  plainly  written. 
These  are  three  very  necessary  requisites  of  a  busi- 
ness or  mercantile  letter.  Come  at  once  to  your 
subject,  and  state  it  so  clearly  and  explicitly  that 
your  meaning  may  not  be  mistaken.  Form  the  let- 
ters plainly,  avoiding  all  flourish  of  penmanship. 
Fine  writing,  rounded  periods,  rhetorical  flourishes 
and  elaborate  sentences  are  out  of  place  in  a  business 
letter. 

A  letter  on  business  should  be  answered  at  once, 
or  as  soon  as  possible  after  receiving  it.  It  is  allow- 
able, in  some  cases,  upon  receiving  a  brief  business 
letter,  to  write  the  reply  on  the  same  page,  beneath 
the  original  letter,  and  return  both  letter  and  answer 
together. 

Give  the  name  of  your  town,  county.  State  and 
■date  explicitly  and  write  your  name  plainly.  Read 
your  letter  carefully  when  finished,  to  see  that  there 
are  no  omissions  or  mistakes.  See  also  that  the  ad- 
dress upon  the  envelope  is  properly  made,  that  it  is 
closely  sealed  and  the  stamp  attached. 

Forward  money  by  draft,  express,  registered  letter, 
or  P.  O.  Money  Order,  and  always  state  in  the  Jitter 
the  amount  and  how  sent. 

In  sending  orders  for  goods,  be  very  explicit  to  state 


the  kind,  quality,  amount,  shape,  color,  size,  etc.,  and 
the  conditions  or  terms  u[X)n  which  you  want  them. 
If  these  points,  or  so  many  of  them  as  are  necessary, 
are  clearly  stated,  your  order  will  generally  receive  the 
more  prompt  attention.  If  you  have  complaints  to 
make,  or  any  matters  foreign  to  the  order  to  include 
in  the  letter,  let  them  be  stated  on  a  separate  sheet 
of  paper,  or  at  the  close  of  the  letter. 

We  give  a  few  specimens  of  business  letters,  which 
will  show  the  form  in  which   they  should   be  written: 


Letter  with  an  Order  for  Books. 

Brookfield,  Mo.,  May  1, 18S3. 
Messrs.  A.  S.  Maxwell  &  Co. 

Chicago,  111. 
Gentlemen:  —  Enclosed    find  P.   O.  Money  Order  for 
832.75,  for  which  please  forward   me,  by  United  States 
Express,  the  following: 
5  copies  Conduct  of  Life,  by  R.  W.  Emerson. 

Pub.  by  Osgood  &  Co. ;  at  $1 .50. . : #7.50 

1  copy     Gleanings  of  Past  Years,  by  Gladstone. 

Published  by    Putnam's  Sons 1.25 

10  copies  Smiles'  Self  Helps.    Harper  Bros., 

Publishers;  at $1.00 10.00 

10     "         Plain  Talk.s,  by    J.    G.    Holland. 

Seribners'  So'ns;  at  $1 .25 12.50 

3    "         Golden  Legend,  by  l>ongfellow.    Por- 
ter &  Coates ;  at  50c 1.50 

Total $32.75 

Thanking  you  for  yourusual  promptness  in  filling  my 
orders,  I  am 

Very  truly  yours, 

Chris.  H.  Maynard. 


Letter  Dismissing  a   Teacher. 

Columbus,  Mo.,  Jan.  10, 1883. 
Dear  Sir: — It  becomes  ray  duty  to   inform  you,  that 
the  committee  controlling  the  school  have  found  It  neces- 
sary to  retrench  its  expenses,  and  in  doing  so  are  com- 
pelled to  dispense  with  your  services  as  a  teacher. 

Regretting  the  expediency  of  this  measure,  and  wish- 
ing you  every  success,  I  am, 

Very  truly  yours, 

J.  P.  Graham, 

J  I  Chairman, 

Professor  S.  T.  Joyce. 


Notice  of  Draft. 

Chicago,  III.,  Jan.  16,  1883. 
Messrs.  Grove  &  Whitney. 

Pittsburg,  Pa. 
Gentlemen: — We  have  this  day  deposited  in  bank  for 
collection  three  days  sight  draft  on  you  for  five  hundred 
dollars  (#500),  which  please  honor  and  oblige 

Yours  truly, 

Chapmam'  Bros. 


932 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


Ordering  the  Address  of  Paper  Changed. 
Winchester,  Ind.,  March  27, 1883. 

Central  Book  Concern, 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
QenXlemen: 

Having  removed  from  Oakland  Valley,  Frank- 
lin Co.,  Iowa,  to  this  place,  please  be  kind  enough  to 
change  the  direction  of  the  "  Christian  Evangelist"  ac- 
cordingly, and  oblige 

Yours  respectfully, 

F.  A.  Wanner. 


Complaining  of  an  Error  in  a  Bill. 

Plankinton,  Dak.,  May  1,  1883. 
Messrs.  Marshall  Field  &  Co., 
Chicago. 

Dear  Sirs. 

Upon  examining  bill  accompanying  your 
last  lot  of  goods,!  find  that  I  am  charged  with  five  dozen 
linen  handkerchiefs  which  I  never  ordered  nor  received. 
I  enclose  the  bill  and  copy  ot  the  invoice  of  goods,  that 
the  error  may  be  corrected. 

I  am,  gentlemen. 

Yours  very  truly, 

H.   B.  Moore 


LETTERS  or  INTRODUCTION. 

Letters  of  introduction  should  be  brief  and  care- 
fully worded.  Give  in  full  the  name  of  the  person 
introduced,  the  city  or  town  he  is  from,  intimating  the 
mutual  pleasure  that  you  will  believe  the  acquaint- 
ance will  confer,  adding  a  few  remarks  concerning  the 
one  introduced,  as  circumstances  seem  to  require. 
They  are  left  unsealed,  to  be  sealed  before  delivery 
by  the  one  introduced.  A  letter  of  introduction 
should  not  be  given  unless  the  person  writing  it  is 
very  well  acquainted  with  both  parties. 

That  the  person  receiving  such  a  letter  may  know 
at  a  glance  its  character,  the  letter  should,  on  the 
envelope,  be  addressed  thus: 

Grover  Cleveland,  Esq., 

4^o  Broadway, 

Albany. 
Introducing 

Benj.  F.  Templeton, 

of  Chicago,  III. 
Presenting  the  letter  of  introduction  at  the  private 
house,  send  it  by  the  servant  to  the  person  addressed, 
accompanied  with  your  card. 

At  the  business  house,  send  the  letter  to  the  count- 
ing-room, accompanied  by  your  card. 


Introducing  one   Lady  to  Another. 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  April  10, 1883. 

Dear  Ihnma: 

I  take   this  occasion  to  introduce  to  you 


the  bearer  of  this  letter,  Mrs.  Potter,  who  is  on  a  visit 
to  her  relatives  in  your  city.  Mrs.  P.  is  my  very  dear 
friend,  of  whom  you  have  often  heard  me  speak.  Be- 
lieving that  your  acquaintance  with  each  other  would 
be  mutually  agreeable,  I  have  urged  her  to  call  upon  you 
during  her  stay.  Any  attention  you  may  bestow  upon 
her  during  her  visit,  will  be  highly  appreciated  by 

Your  friend. 

May  Abbott. 


Short  Form  of  Introduction. 

Oswego,  N.  Y.,  Ms<y  1,  1883. 
My  Dear  /StV; 

I  have  the  honor  of  introducing  to  your 
acquaintance  Mr.  Willis  Esterbrook,  whom  I  commend 
to  your  kind  attention. 

Very  truly  yours, 
Mr.  Dudley  Gould,  Eugene  Wentwoeth. 

PhHadelphia. 


Introducing  a  Young  Man  Traveling  on  Busi- 
ness. 

Indianapolis,  Mar.  1, 1883. 
Henry  Howard,  Esq., 

Savannah,  Ga. 

Sir: — We  recommend  to  your  particular  favor  and  at- 
tention, the  bearer,  Mr.  Milton  McKenzie,  eldest  son  of 
Mr.  Henry  McKenzie,  of  the  highly  respectable  house  of 
McR«nzle,   Gleason  &  Co.,  of  this  city. 

Our  esteemed  young  friend  is  about  to  visit  the  South- 
em  States,  by  way  of  Savannah,  on  business  for  the 
house ;  we  therefore  request  you,  most  urgently,  to  af- 
ford him  your  advice  and  assistance,  and  to  render  his 
stay  in  your  city  as  agreeable  as  possible.  He  is  clever, 
steady,  and  unassuming,  and  we  are  convinced  that  on  a 
near  acquaintance  he  'will  prove  himself  deserving  of 
your  esteem  and  good  will. 

Command  us  freely  in  similar  cases,  and  be  assured 
that  we  will  use  our  best  endeavors  to  do  justice  to  your 
introduction. 

We  are,  respectfully  yours, 

Abbott  <fc  Mills. 


Prom  a  Lady  in  the  Country  to  a  Young  Friend 
in  the  City. 

POMROY,  Aug.  25, 1883. 

My  Dear  Nettie: 

I  am  afraid  I  am  getting  stupid,  for  I 
cannot  recollect  whether  I  am  in  your  debt  a  letter,  as 
well  as  for  the  pretty  things  you  were  so  kind  as  to  pur- 
chase for  me.  They  are  quite  new  fashions  here.  Many 
thanks  for  them. 

I  am  writing  these  few  lines  to  let  you  know  that 
Harry  is  in  Minneapolis,  on  a  visit  to  a  friend  on  Madi- 
son avenue.  A  good  match,  dear.  He  has  a  nice  little 
income  and  a  good  business.  There  is  one  drawback, 
however:  he  has  a  temper  of  his  own  and  is  rather  small 
in  stature;  but  a  kind  and  affectionate  wife  would  im- 
prove his  temper.    He  is  very  kind-hearted. 

I  see  by  advertisements  in  the  papers  that  dresses  for 
winter  wear  are  cheap ;  should  you  see  two  that  would 


.A. 


-^-<^^ 


.^  _.^^  ^/^. 


7"^ 


-''C-^i-. 


/^;^z..„^. 


C^X  \ -o--AL-A_.-tx-y      J<L— -^^' — « — ■t—'^k::      V^         J<_— -o-*  .     -cC--*t — ^^      -e>- o— o— ^:^^— c*- 


a-.-C(,-A_-e- 


^<--^i--ex--^      ^=r^2_-     -Cx-'*-*-'^^ — ^ 


,s^ 


LETThR.  WRITING. 


933 


suit  Mollie  and  myself  (you  know  our  favorite  colors) 
will  you  please  purchase  them  for  me?  I  hope  it  will 
be  no  inconvenience  to  you  to  do  so;  if  it  be,  decline  at 
once.  All  unite  in  most  affectionate  love  to  your  uncle. 
Believe  me,  my  dear. 

Yours  affectionately, 

Carrie. 
To  Miss  Nettie  Marsh. 


APPICATIONS  FOR  SITUATIONS. 

Advertisements  like  the  following  are  seen  in  every 
issue  of  a  city  daily  paper: 

WaNTEII — AV  HONEST,  INDUSTRIOUS,  SOBER 

man  to  drive  delivery  wagon  and  take  care 
of  two  horses;  must  ije  fond  of  horses  and  a 
good  driver;  permanent  situation.  Ad- 
dress G  45,  Tribune  office. 

Wanted — Agents  to  sell  the  Big  Bon- 
anza  Stationery  Package;  large  profits; 
quick  sales;  samples  mailed  for  20  cents. 
Address  for  one  week,  W.  G.  Brown,  Wa- 
terloo, Iowa. 

Wanted— A  younc,  man  to  sell  my  goods  ; 
capital  required,  §3.  Address  for  one  week, 
with  stamps,  AV.  G.  Brown.  Dayton,  Ohio. 

Wanted  —  Immediately  —  Twenty  good 
agents;  none  but  those  of  experience  need 
apply.  For  circular  and  particulars  send 
two  3-<"ent  stamps.  For  particulars  address 
GE<^iiGE  Buck,  Lock  Box  349,  Marshall- 
town,  Iowa. 

Those  who  write  the  best  letter  in  reply  to  any  of 
the  above  are  the  most  likely  to  obtain  the  desired 
situation.  Letters  in  reply  to  advertisements  should 
be  written  immediately,  else  they  may  be  too  late. 
Paste  the  advertisement  at  the  head  of  your  letter, 
that  it  may  be  exactly  known  to  what  you  have  refer- 
ence. You  need  not  say  much  in  praise  of  yourself, 
but  you  should  give  your  references,  your  experience 
in  the  line  of  business  alluded  to,  and  the  advantages 
you  have  had.  Write  your  application  yourself,  your 
hand-writing  and  manner  of  expression  being  the 
test  by  which  the  advertiser  will  judge  you.  If  you 
have  written  testimonials,  copy  them,  marking  them 
as  such,  and  send  the  copies  in  the  letter.  The  origi- 
nals, of  course,  you  will  want  to  keep  in  your  pos- 
session. 

The  letters  given  below  and  the  one  in  script  on 
the  following  page  will  give  you  a  proper  outline  for 
letters  answering  advertisments  as  above ,  and  mak- 
ing applications  for  situations. 


Prom  a  Young  Man  Applying  for  an  Agency. 

Charles  City,  Iowa,  April  28, 1883. 
Mr.  George  Buck, 


Marshalltown,  Iowa. 


Sir: 


I  clip  the  above  advertisement  from  this  morning's 
News;  and  feeling  that  I  would  succeed  well  as  salesman 
for  your  line  of  goods,  I  hasten  to  apply  for  an  agency 
and  for  circular,  enclosing  stamps. 


I  am  eighteen  years  old,  have  been  at  school  most  of 
the  time,  winters,  for  the  past  nine  years,  and  understand 
bookkeeping  pretty  well.  During"  the  summer  and  fall, 
for  several  years  past.  I  have  been  salesman  for  A.  G. 
Case  &  Co.,  of  this  city,  to  whom  I  would  refer  as  to  my 
character  and  qualifications  for  commercial  business. 
W.  L.  Eastman,  coal  dealer  in  your  city,  is  also  ac- 
quainted with  me. 

Very  respectfully  yours, 

James  II.  Harper. 
Application  for  Clerkship. 

Freeport.  III.  Feb.  10, 1883. 
Messrs.  Scott  &  Smith, 

Davenport,  Iowa. 
GerUlemen: — Hearing  through  a  friend  (Mr.  II.  S.  Fos- 
ter) of  the  vacancy  of  the  position  of  junior  clerk  in 
your  house,  I  take  the  liberty  of  making  application  for 
the  same.  I  have  had  but  little  mercantile  experience, 
yet  I  am  not  entirely  unacquainted  with  business  cus- 
toms, having  often  assisted  in  my  brother's  store  at  this 
place.  I  am  eighteen  years  of  age  and  have  relatives  in 
your  city  with  whom  I  would  make  my  home. 

For  information  as  to  my  character,"  please  inquire  of 
W.  J.  Kerr,  Esq.,  and  E.  J."  Edmeston,  Esq.,  both  of  your 
city. 

Very  respectfully, 

James  D.  Halstead. 


LETTERS  OF  COMMENDATION. 

Recommendations  are  those  in  which  the  writer, 
for  the  purjxjse  of  promoting  the  interest,  happiness 
or  benefit  of  another,  commends,  or  favorably  repre- 
sents, his  character  and  abilities.  Such  a  letter  should 
be  composed  with  care.  It  is  a  guarantee  to  the  ex- 
tent of  language;  and  the  party  recommended,  there- 
fore, should  never  be  sacrificed  to  condescension, 
false  kindness  or  jwliteness.  These  testimonials  are 
often  received,  and  the  bearer  of  them  taken  into  ser- 
vice or  confidence  upon  the  representations  contained 
in  them,  without  further  questions  as  to  antecedents, 
etc. ;  therefore,  never  recommend  an  unworthy  person. 
It  may  be  hard  to  refuse  a  testimonial,  but  it  is  dis- 
honorable to  give  a  false  one. 

Recommendations  may  be  special  or  general.  A 
letter  of  recommendation  addressed  to  some  particu- 
lar person,  like  an  ordinary  letter,  is  special;  when 
not  limited  as  to  person  or  occasion,  it  '\s  general. 

Gteneral  Recommendation. 

Bushnell,  III.,  Feb.  2.5, 1883. 
To  whom  it  may  concern: 

The  bearer,  Mr.  E.  J.  Clark,  is  personally  known  to 
me  as  a  young  man  of  sterling  worth.  He  graduated  at 
Monmouth  College,  and  as  a  student  distinguished  him- 
self for  his  diligence,  accuracy,  integrity,  and  consci- 
entious discharge  of  duty.  As  a  member  of  society, 
he.  being  of  a  good  family,  and  with  a  character  un- 
blemished, is  highly  esteemed.  I  cordially  recommend 
him  to  good  jieople  everywhere,  and  especially  to 
those  to  whom  he  may  offer  his  services,  whether  com- 
mercially or  socially. 

Very  respectfully, 

Augustus  Chandler. 


934 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


Letters  of    Friendship    and  Belationship. 

Letters  to  relatives  and  intimate  friends  do  not  re- 
quire such  formality  in  their  form  and  wording  as 
those  we  have  already  given.,  They  should  be  digni- 
fied, but  natural,  free  and  unrestrained.  "We  all  de- 
light to  talk  of  ourselves  ;  and  it  is  only  in  letters,  in 
writing  to  a  friend,  that  we  can  enjoy,  that  conversa- 
tion, not  only  without  reproach  or  interruption,  but 
with  the  highest  propriety  and  mutual  satisfaction." 
In  such  letters,  above  all  things,  a  natural  and  lucid 
expression  of  the  sentiments  of  the  writer  is  neces- 
sary. Friends  expect  our  thoughts  and  feelings,  not 
a  letter  filled  with  unmeaning  verbosity,  and  though, 
where  excellence  is  aimed  at,  considerable  attention 
must  be  paid  to  the  disposition  of  the  words  and  sen- 
tences, it  must  not  be  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  energy 
resulting  from  free  expression. 

Frequent  correspondence  between  friends 
and  relatives  will  keep  strong  and  bright 
the  ties  that  bind  each  to  the  other.  When 
a  child  leaves  home,  the  eyes  of  his  par- 
ents can  no  longer  watch  over  him,  nor  can 
their  lips  any  longer  give  him  instructions. 
For  the  future  their  counsels  must  be  writ- 
ten ones,  and  the  child  at  first  will  often 
find  it  necessary  to  apply  to  them  for  ad- 
vice;  but,  surrounded  by  new  acquaint- 
ances, and  attention  taken  up  by  change 
of  scene,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  for  a 
time  he  will  neglect  and  forget  his  parents. 
Not  so,  however,  the  parents  their  child. 
They  follow  him  away,  they  miss  him  from 
the  table,  their  thoughts  are  frequently  sent 
after  him,  and  they  have  many  an  anx- 
iety which  nothing  but  his  attentions  can 
alleviate.  No  friend  can  feel  so  deeply 
interested  for  his  welfare,  and  none  is  so 
well  qualified  to  advise,  and  make  allow- 
ance for  the  errors  of  youth,  to  judge  with 
candor,  to  censure  with  mildness,  to  point 
out  the  right  path,  or  to  reclaim  from  the 
wrong  one. 


Letter  of   LaPayette  to   Mr.    George 
Flower. 
La  Grange,  La.,  Nov.  3, 1814. 

Bear  Sir: 

I  have  been  much  obliged  by 
your  kind  inquiries  on  a  subject  most  inter- 
esting to  me.  Tlie  pleasure  of  a  meeting 
with  Mr.  Wliite  would  be  one  of  the  highest 
1  can  enjoy.  I  hope  that  it  is  only  post- 
poned. 

Your  departure  for  England  has  prevented 
my  returning  our  thanks  to  you  and  Mr. 
Birkbeck  for  the  honor  of  your  visit  to  La 
Grange,  where  it  shall  ever  be  affeetionately 
remembered.  Be  plea.'ed  to  receive  and  pre- 
sent to  them  the  best  compliments  and  wishes 


of  the  whole  family.    Our  Irish  friend  has  been  lately 
in  a  dangerous  state  of  health,  but  has  now  recovered. 

Tliis  letter  will  be  conveyed  to  you  by  Mr.  Crawford, 
who  shared  with  us  the  pleasure  to  receive  you  at  La 
Grange.  He  is  bound  for  Scotland,  but  means  also  to 
visit  London,  lioping  he  may  be  able  to  wait  upon  you, 

The  long  expected  rain  has  come  in  time  to  be  of 
great  advantage  to  us  in  sowing  our  wheat.  My  lot  of 
swine  is  now  in  the  pasture,  and  more  fit  to  be  seen  than 
when  presented  for  your  inspection. 

Accept,  my  dear  sir,  the  sincere  attachment  with 
which  I  have  the  honor  to  be 

Yom's, 
To  Mk.  Geo.  Flower,  LaFayette. 

Marsden,  England. 

A  Letter  of  Response  and  Inquiry. 


'a.icd  Y2,    /^(f3. 


v 


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^i^e  tud-t  'teceiO'ei 


et(  -1 


o-tti- 


ei'yi. 


W-i. 


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tot^-l. 


<■  r>t-/i-i^<idci^  «rf 


■O-u^,    ajfie^ 


■Cn^fii-e    do-->fze 


cc-ct-rt'ft 


te'iei-fe 


t-o^u-i- 


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"Jc^c-ie  JO 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


935 


LETTERS  or    CREDIT. 

A  letter  of  credit  is  one  in  which  the  writer's  char- 
acter or  reputation  i)rocures  or  entitles  trust  to  be 
given  to  another  for  a  certain  amount  within  a  given 
time,  promising  to  be  responsible  for  same  if  the  per- 
son receiving  credit  fails  to  make  payment. 

It  closely  resembles  a  letter  of  introduction, — in 
fact  the  two  are  often  combined, — that  is,  a  letter  of 
introduction  often  contains  a  clause  asking  that  credit 
be  given  if  the  bearer  desires  it. 

The  signature  of  the  person  receiving  the  credit 
should  be  appended  at  the  lower  left-hand  side,  so 
that  he  may  be  identified  as  the  person  named  in  the 
letter. 


Letter  of  Introduction  and  Credit. 

Detroit.  Sept.  30, 1882. 
Messrs.  G.  II.  Folsom  &  Co., 

Chicago. 
Gentlemen.: — I  beg  leave  to  introduce  to  you  the  bearer, 
Mr.  T.  D.  Manford,  of  the  firm  of  Manford  Bros.  &  Co., 
this  city.  He  is  visiting  Chicago  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
chasing cattle;  and,  altliougli  not  expecting  to  be  in 
want  of  funds,  should  sucli  an  exigency  arise,  we  will 
thank  vou  to  accommodate  liim  on  our  account,  to  the 
extent'of  two  or  throe  thousand  dollars  (-$2,000  or  f3,- 
000),  drawing  upon  us  at  short  sight  for  yovu-  advances. 
We  append  Mr.M's  signature. 
,  We  are,  yours  respectfully, 

KoBERTs,  Hardy  &  Co. 
Mr.  Manford's  Signature, 
.    T.  D.  Manford. 


LETTERS  OF  EXCUSE. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  write  a  letter  of  excuse  or 
apology.  In  such  a  case,  to  be  of  any  value,  it 
should  be  written  as  promptly  as  may  be.  The 
writer  must  not  forget  that  almost  as  much  depends 
on  the  time  as  the  manner  of  making  an  excuse.  It 
may  be  too  late  to  be  effective,  or  so  mistimed  as  to 
aggravate  the  previous  offense;  such  a  letter  is  not 
very  pleasant,  as  it  is  called  forth  by  some  neglect  or 
impropriety  of  the  author.  If  the  ajxjlogy  appear 
forced,  or  made  unwillingly,  it  cannot  be  effective ; 
but  if  written  in  sincerity,  and  gracefully  expressed, 
in  all  ordinary  cases  it  will  insure  forgiveness. 

Apology  for  Failing  to    Keep  an  Engagement. 

IRVINGTON,  Ind.,  June  1,  1883. 
Mr.  Charles  II.  Colgrove, 
Bear  Sir: 

I  was  very  sorry  to  be  obliged  to  break  my 
engagement  with  you  yesterday  afternoon.  I  would  not 
have  done  so  had  I  been  ableto  leave  niyhouse;  but  yes- 
terday morning  1  was  seized  with  asudden  indisposition 
which  rendered  me  unable  to  walk,  and  which  still  con- 
fines me  to  the  house. 

Be  good  enough  to  appoint  another  day  for  our  meet- 
ing.   Suit  yourself  as  to  the  time. 

Yours  truly, 

Milton  Hubbard. 


Form  of  Excuse  for  a  Pupil. 

Thursday  Morning,  Feb.  10, 1883. 
Mr.  Sawyer  : 
You  will  please  excuse  James  for  non-attendance  at 
school  yesterday,  as  I  was  compelled  to  keep  him  at 
home  to  attend  to  a  matter  of  business. 

Mrs.  Eleanor  Bates. 


LETTERS  OF   FAVOR. 

In  asking  a  favor  do  not  urge  your  claims  too 
strongly,  for  should  you  be  refused  you  will  feel  the 
more  deeply  humiliated. 

A  letter  granting  a  favor  should  be  cordial  and 
hearty,  that  the  recipient  may  see  that  it  is  a  pleasure 
to  grant  his  request.  It  should  avoid  any  expres- 
sions that  would  tend  to  wound  the  feelings.  It  is 
possible  to  grant  a  favor  in  such  a  manner  as  to  of- 
fend, or  to  decline  one  in  a  way  that  is  really  grati- 
fying. 

Letters  refusing  a  favor  should  be  very  kindly 
worded,  and  while  expressing  regret  at  the  necessity 
of  refusal,  if  possible  state  the  reason  why. 


A   Letter    Requesting  a  Loan  of  Money. 

Utica,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  3,!  1883. 
Friend  Albert: 

Through  unforeseen  and  unavoidable  circum- 
itances  I  am  compelled  to  raise  a  certain  sum  of  money 
without  delay,  and  whicli  I  cannot  do  without  some  as- 
sistance from  my  friends.  If  you  can,  without  inconve- 
nience to  yourself,  lend  me  fifty  dollars  for  thirty  days,  I 
will  give  you  my  note  for  the  amount,  and  feel  ever 
grateful  for  the  accommodation. 

Truly  yours, 

Lewis  Johnson. 


A  Favorable  Answer. 

Utica,  Aug.  4, 1883. 
Friend  Lewis  : 

Yours  of  yesterday  just  received.  It  is  with 
pleasure  that  I  grant  your  request,  and  enclose  you  my 
check  on  the  Merchants'  National  Bank  for  the  amount. 
You  can  send  me  your  note  at  your  convenience. 

Your  friend, 

Albert  Brown. 


Declining  the  Loan. 

Utica,  Aug.  4, 1883. 
Friend  Lewis  : 

Yours  of  the  3d  at  hand.  It  is  with  greatest 
regret  thati  findmyself  unable  to  comply  with  j-our  re- 
quest. I  have  a  considerable  amount  of  money  to  raise 
to-morrow,  which  will  require  every  dollar  I  have,  or 
can  raise  myself.  If  not  for  this  I  would  certainly  take 
pleasure  in  accommodating  you. 

Hoping  that  you  will  have  no  further  difficulty  in  se- 
curing assistance,  believe  me 

Yours,  very  truly, 

Albert  Brown. 


936 


LETTER-  WRITING. 


Begaesting  the  liOan  of  a   Book. 

Wednesday  Mokning. 

Dear  Fannie: 

Will  you  lend  me  your  copy  of  Longfellow's  Hiawa- 
tha ?  I  will  take  good  care  of  it,  and  return  it  in  a 
few  days. 

Yours, 

May  Kinard. 


Beply  Granting  the  Bequest. 

Wednesday  Mokning. 
Dear  May: 

I  send  with  this  the  copy  of  Hiawatha.  I 
hope  it  may  prove  as  great  a  source  of  jileasure  to  you 
as  it  has  been  to  me.  Keep  it  as  long  as  you  wish,  and 
return  it  at  your  convenience. 

Yours  affectionately, 

Fanny  Morris. 

LETTERS  ACCOMPANYING  GIFTS. 

Notes  or  letters  accompanying  gifts,  and  their  an- 
swers, are  more  formal  than  ordinary  letters.  They 
are  usually  written  in  the  third  person,  and  should  be 
brief.  Amongintimatefriends  and  relatives,  however, 
an  exception  may  be  made,  and  an  easier  form  may 
be  adopted.  A  note  acknowledging  a  gift  should  be 
given  immediately 

Accompanying  a  Birthday  Gift. 

Hillsdale,  May  1,  1883. 
Dear  Agnes, — Accept  this  little  token  of  love  and  es- 
teem from  an  old  friend.    Many  happv  returns  of  the 
day! 

Your  loving  friend, 

Anna  Ogden. 
LETTERS  or  SYMPATHY. 

Letters  of  sympathy  and  condolence  are  difficult  to 
write,  and  require  great  tact  as  well  as  good  taste  on 
the  part  of  the  writer.  Property  written  and  inspired 
by  a  genuine  sympathy,  they  maybe  of  great  comfort 
to  your  friend. 

The  letter  should  not  be  too  long,  and  should  be 
earnest  and  simple  in  tone.  Do  not  underrate  the 
sorrow  of  your  friend,  but  deal  with  it  tenderly,  ad- 
mitting its  magnitude,  administering  such  consolation 
as  may  be  appropriate  to  the  occasion,  and  pointing 
your  friend  to  the  One  who  can  heal  all  sorrow. 


To  a  Friend  on  the  Death  of  a  Wife. 

HopEDALE,  III.,  March  10,  1883. 

Dear  Sanford: 
It  is  with  deepest  regret,  my  dear  Sanford,  that  I 
learn  of  your  deep  affliction.  Hard,  indeed,  it  must  be, 
to  lose  a  partner  in  life,  with  whom  you  have  enjoyed  so 
many  hopes  in  common.  A  more  faithful  wife  never 
lived,  and  few  men,  I  venture  to  .say,  ever  enjoyed  a 
greater  decree  of  domestic  tranquillity  than  yourself. 

A  true  wife  and  a  devoted  mother!  "Xo  highereulogy 
can  be  pronounced  upon  any  woman.  How  the  little 
motherless  children  will  miss  her  tender  care!  How 
those  little  girls  will  ml.ss  her  sweet  presence  at  the  eve- 


ning hour,  when  the  ominous  gloom  of  darkness  creeps 
stealthily  upon  them!  and  how  they  will  also  miss  the 
wonted  sweet  accents  of  her  voice  that  used  to  soothe 
their  ruffled  spirits  when  in  trouble ! 

Truly,  the  great  central  sun  of  your  household  has 
gone  down,  and  I  deeply,  yea  keenly,  sympathize  with 
you  in  your  affliction.  Let  us  hojie,  however,  that  in 
the  golden  Summerof  another  life,  children,  mother  and 
ftitherwill  gather  again,  in  a  sweet  re-union,  where  part- 
ings are  unknown.  Though  the  days  are  dark  now. 
Spring  will  come  once  more. 

Your  sympathizing  friend. 

Steward  Ward. 

To  S.  S.  Howard. 
Langsburg,  111. 

Love  Letters. 

This  class  of  letter  writing  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
of  all  correspondence  to  make  entirely  satisfactory  to 
both  parties  and  at  all  times.  The  att'ection  in  the  heart 
of  one  may  not  be  so  intense  as  that  glowing  inthe  heart 
of  the  other,  or  the  power  of  portraying  tlie  feelings 
may  not  be  so  great.  Then  thei-e  is  the  thought  that 
possibly  after  all  the  tender  feelings  may  die  out,  indif- 
ference, coldness  and  even  hatred  replace  it.  If  such  a 
change  should  occur  one  would  regret  that  he  had  ever 
given  expression  to  his  feelings  in  such  a  manner  and 
in  as  hape  so  enduring,  and  which  might  be  afterwards 
shown  to  his  disadvantage  or  detriment.  Therefore  a 
certain  amount  of  restraint  and  dignity  should  charac- 
terize such  letters,  especially  those  from  a  lady.  She 
should  remember  that  though  an  engagement"  should 
exist  at  the  time  of  writing,  it  may  be  severed,  or  other 
parties  might  see  the  letters  intended  for  only  one.  Her 
intended  will  respect  her  more  for  a  quiet,  iiftectionate 
dignity  in  writing  than  if  she  put  too  much  of  the  most 
sacred  ofall  feelings  upon  papei'.  After  ail,  a  love  letter 
should  not  be  stilf  or  constrained.  The  charm  in  all 
friendly  correspondence  arises  from  the  freedom  and  ease 
which  characterizes  the  relation  between  true  confiding 
friends,  and  the: harmony  of  tastes  of  the  writers,  and, 
in  this  class.of  letters,  from  genuine  affection. 

It  is  best  to  avoid  any  extravagant  flattery,  lest  it  dis- 
gust the  reader,  as  well  as  degrade  the  writer,  and  create 
a  suspicion  of  one's  sincerity,  which  is  the  death-blow  of 
all  true  love. 

A  loving  heart  naturally  imparts  its  glow  to  the  writ- 
ten page,  and  this  warmth  is  communicated  by  the  mys- 
terious power  of  words  to  the  heait  of  the  reader, 
and  this  should  not  be  clouded  by  too  great  re- 
.straint.  It  is  this  pleasure  that  excites  the  af- 
fections and  awakens  dormant  friendships.  How  the 
heart  beats  with  expectation  in  the  perusal  of  a  letter 
from  one  we  love!  How  endeared  becomes  our  connec- 
tion by  this  spiritual  communion,  in  which  our  minds 
with  ardent  zeal  and  devotedness  become  united,  and  an 
eloquence  ami  freedom  indulged  perhaps  never  more 
felicitously. 

As  to  the  form  of  love  letters,  they  should  be  similar 
to  those  of  friendship.  They  are  so  varied  and  must  be 
prompted  by  the  feelings  and  controlled  bv  surroundings 
to  such  an  extent  that  any  set  of  forms  would  be  useless. 

Lettuce.  This  salad  persistendy  demands  a  rich 
and  rather  moist  soil.  The  rows  should  be  about  12 
inches  apart,  and  the  plants  thinned  from  8  to  12 
inches  apart  for  the  heading  varieties.  Sow  as  early 
as  possible.  This  plant  is  well  adapted  for  forcing.  ■ 
When  heads  are  not  desired  it  may  be  grown  in  a 
mass.  The  more  rapid  the  growth  the  better  the 
quality._  There  are  later  kinds  adapted  for  summer 
use,  which,  of  course,  may  be  sowed  later.  Lettuce 
sowed  late  in  autumn  and  mulched  or  covered  with 


LEVER— LICE. 


937 


Fig.  1.— Early  Curled  Silesian. 


boards  during  the  winter,  will  come  forward  unusually 
early  in  the  spring. 

Varieties.  Black-Seeded  Tennis  Ball.  Hardy, 
earlier  than  Silesia ;  large  heads. 

Boston,  or  White 
Tennis  Ball.  One  of 
the  most  popular. 

Early  Curled  Sile- 
sian. Very  tender  and 
sweet,  and  one  of  the 
best  for  forcing  and 
for  early  market ;  one 
of  the  best  for  gar- 
nishing. 

Prize  Head.     Said 
to  be  the  best  of  all ; 
leaves  tinged  with  a 
rich  wine  color. 
Red-Edged  Victoria. 
One  of  the  best  for  early  sowing. 

Drumhead.  Very  large,  crisp  and  tender;  a 
standard  sort. 

Large  India.     Resembles  Drumhead,  but  later. 
Bro7un  Genoa  Cabbage.     Of  medium  size,  round 
head,  stained  with  red  about  the  top;  one  of  the  best 
for  either  summer  or  winter  use. 

White  Cabbage.  Chiefly  valuable  for  its  hardiness ; 
may  be  sown  in  the  fall  in  alternate  rows  with  spinach, 
and  the  sameslight  covering  will  protect  them  both 
through  the  winter;  in  the  spring,  after  the  spinach  is 
cut,  the  lettuce  will  yield  a  fair  crop  of  fair  quality. 

Versailles.  Fine 
summer  variety, 
with  large  heads; 
green. 

Neapolitan.  A 
good  summer 
variety. 

Perpignati. 
Heads  sometimes 
seven  inches  in 
diameter;  one  of 
the    best   summer 

varieties;     not    in-       Vx^.  :,.-Early  Cabbage  Lettuce,  or  Dutch 
chnedtOgOtOSeed.  Butter-Head. 

Early  Cabbage,  or  Dutch  Butter-Head.  Excellent. 
Has  speckled  leaves. 

White  Paris  Cos.     The  best  of  the  Cos  varieties. 

Stone-Head  Golden  Yellow.  A  new  variety  prom- 
ising to  bear  the  palm. 

Rival  seedsmen,  of  course,  advertise  many  other 
varieties  of  lettuce,  for  the  sake  of  winning  custom, 
but  they  all  know  that  three  to  five  varieties  are 
enough  for  any  family,  although  professional  garden- 
ers may  want  a  few  more. 

Lever  (lev'er  or  le'ver),  a  bar  or  rod  for  raising 
weights,  resting  on  a  point  called  a  fulcrum. 

Library,  a  collection  of  books  arranged  on  shelves 
for  ready  reference.  The  most  important  observation 
we  have  to  make  under  this  head,  is,  that  the  few 


books  which  most  people  have  are  generally  so  poor 
— at  least  for  their  purpose — that  their  possessors 
have  but  little  interest  in  them,  and  therefore  but 
little  interest  in  literature  generally;  and  when  a 
friend,  especially  a  traveling  agent,  offers  a  really 
good  and  practical  work,  it  is  regarded  with  indiffer- 
ence or  suspicion.  Hence  the  difficulty  of  getting  a 
family  started  in  the  right  direction  in  the  selection  of 
good  books.  They  do  not  take  pains  to  post  them- 
selves on  the  characteristics  of  a  good  work,  and  from 
a  lot  of  books  spread  out  before  them  they  are  actually 
more  apt  to  select  the  poorer  than  the  better  class. 
See  Book. 

At  the  same  time,  there  are  many  valuable  things 
in  most  libraries  that  are  unknown  to  the  owner, 
simply  for  the  reason  that  he  does  not  take  as  much 
time  as  even  two  or  three  hours  a  week  foi;  a  month 
or  so  to  ascertain  the  contents.  Many  a  time  a 
farmer  travels  for  miles,  or  spends  dollars,  or  other- 
wise suffers  considerable  loss  for  not  knowing  what 
he  might  have  known  by  laying  his  hand  on  the 
proper  book  in  his  possession  and  turning  to  the  right 
page.  One  should  be  so  familiar  with  the  contents  of 
all  his  books  that  he  can  in  a  moment  turn  to  any 
desired  subject.  To  those  who  read  but  little,  the 
best  books  for  the  library  are  encyclopedias,  for  in 
them  is  the  gist  of  all  knowledge,  so  far  as  may 
generally  be  required,  within  the  scope  of  the  different 
ones.  Besides,  the  information  they  contain  is  more 
accessible,  even  to  one  unaccustomed  to  consulting 
books. 

One  is  more  apt  to  use  his  books  if  he  has  a  neat 
little  case  in  which  to  keep  them.  Books  are  often 
neglected  because  they  are  scattered  around  and 
difficult  to  find. 

Lice,  jmrasitic  insects,  especially  those  which  in- 
fest mammals.  They  have  a  sucking  mouth,  and  do 
not  undergo  any  metamorphosis  in  their  development. 
The  presence  of  lice,  especially  on  the  human  head, 
is  generally  considered  indicative  of  a  want  of  cleanly 
habits,  although  they  are  occasionally  found  in  the 
heads  of  children  of  exceptional  cleanliness,  being 
transmitted  from  other  children  in  the  school-room, 
or  on  the  play-ground. 

To  Destroy  Vermin  in  Children's  Heads.  Take 
I  ounce  each  vinegar  and  stavesacre,  %  ounce  each 
honey  and  sulphur  and  2  ounces  of  sweet  oil.  Make 
into  a  liniment,  and  rub  the  head  with  it.  Insects 
are  immediately  suffocated  by  benzine.  Tliose  some- 
times found  in  the  heads  of  human 
beings  are  destroyed  by  it  at  once, 
without  any  inconvenient  result  being 
perceived.  It  has  been  employed 
very  sucessfuUy  in  banishing  the  in- 
sects which  infest  domestic  animals. 
The  use  of  stavesacre  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  insects  infesting  the  human 
head  is  a  time-honored  application 
among  country  people,  beds  of  the 
plant  being  cultivated  frequently  for  the  express  pur- 


FiG.   \.—Head 
Louse. 


938 


LICHEN— LIGHT. 


Louse. 


Body 


pose  of  furnishing  material  for  the  decoction.  The 
efficiency  of  this  remedy  seems  to  depend  on  the 
presence  of  the  alkaloid  called  delphine,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  a  poison  especially  fatal  to  insects. 

Body  Vermin,  ok.  Body  Lice.  These  are  a  little 
broader  than  the  common  head  louse,  and  are  so 
called  because  they  are  scattered  over 
the  body.  Change  of  clothes  and 
frecpient  washing  of  the  body  will  soon 
rid  one  of  tlicse  pests. 

The  Crab  Louse  confines  itself  to 
the  genital  regions,  is  still  broader  in 
proportions,  and  it  is  killed  by  the  use 
of  unguentum,  red  precipitate,  or  other 
mercurial  preparation.  One  should 
not,  when  using  these  remedies,  expose 
himself  Jo  "colds  "  or  exhaustive  labor. 

Lice  on  domestic  animals  and  on  plants  are  numer- 
ous, for  the  treatment  of  which  see  respectively  the 
animal  and  plant  in  this  work,  and  the  article  Insects, 
pp.  878,892.  A  general  remedy  for  all  lice  everywhere 
is  kerosene,  sometimes  diluted  with  water,  but  it  is 
often  more  unpleasant  or  dangerous  than  necessary; 
hence  we  give  other  and  better  remedies  in  specified 
cases. 

Lichen  (li'  ken  or  lich  en),  a  plant  of  a  very  low 
organization  w  hicli  grows  on  rocks  or  the  bark  of 
trees,  where  it  forms  a  kind  of  incrustation,  or  upon 
the  ground,  where  it  consists  of  irregular  lobes  parallel 
with  the  earth's  surface.  Occasionally,  in  all  situa- 
tions, it  divides  into  branches.  The  several  species 
of  lichen  abound  in  the  cold  and  temperate  parts  of 
the  world.  The  reindeer  moss  is  one  species,  and 
constitutes  an  article  of  food  for  the  reindeer;  and 
Iceland  moss,  when  deprived  of  its  bitterness  by  soak- 
ing in  alkali  and  boiled,  is  an  article  of  diet  sometimes 
recommended  to  invalids.  Other  species  of  lichen 
are  used  in  tonic  medicines  and  in  dyes.  All  the 
species  abound  in  starch. 

Licorice,  or  Liquorice  (lik'o-ris),  a  plant  of 
southern  Europe,  having  a  root  of  sweet  and  pleasant 
taste,  mucilaginous  and  slightly  bitter  and  aromatic. 
Some  species  grow  in  northern  Africa  and  western 
Asia,  and  one  in  this  country.  A  species  of  bed- 
straw  {Galium  circcezans),  has  a  definite  licorice  taste 
in  its  leaves,  and  is  common  throughout  the  United 
States.  It  is  sometimes  called  licorice  root.  The 
medicinal  herb  from  the  old  country  is  used  chiefly 
as  a  demulcent  in  catarrh  and  expectorant  in  coughs. 
It  is  best  in  the  form  of  a  decoction.  The  root  of  the 
aix)thecary  shops  is  sold  in  long  pieces.  The  best 
are  those  which  have  the  brightest  yellow  color  in- 
ternally and  are  not  worm-eaten  or  decayed.  Many 
confections  are  flavored  with  licorice,  as  with  hore- 
hound. 

Light.  There  are  different  theories  as  to  what 
light  really  is,  but  the  one  prevailing  at  the  present 
day  among  scientists  is  the  theory  of  molecular 
motion,  or  that  luminous  bodies  have  the  property  of 
causing  vibrations  or  undulations  in  an  ethereal  fluid 


that  fills  all  space,  and  thus  an  effect  is  produced 
upon  the  eye  analogous  to  that  on  the  ear  in  sound, 
which  is  knoyn  to  be  the  result  of  invisible  undula- 
tions or  waves  formed  in  the  air  by  sonorous  bodies. 

Sunlight.  As  nearly  all  organisms  (plants  and 
animals)  have  come  into  existence  and  attained  their 
present  degree  of  development  under  the  direct 
influence  of  sunlight,  they  are  consequently  depend- 
ent upon  the  same  influence  for  their  highest 
perfection  and  welfare.  This  law  of  nature  is  often 
overlooked  by  the  husbandman,  as  well  as  by  all 
other  persons,  and  many  trees,  shrubs,  plants,  domestic 
animals,  and  especially  human  beings  are  avoidably 
left  to  suffer  too  much  shade.  Excepting  mushrooms 
and  possibly  one  or  two  other  crude  and  unimiwrtant 
species,  the  more  sunlight  all  our  plants  have  the 
better  they  are  for  all  purposes;  and  the  more  our 
residences,  both  inside  and  out,  are  ex|X)sed  to  sunlight, 
the  more  healthful  they  are.  Sunlight  purifies  the 
air,  invigorates  the  cells,  strengthens  the  nerves,  cheers 
up  the  spirits,  toughens  the  skin  and  builds  up  every 
organ. 

Artificial  Light.  Artificial  light  is  probably  as 
ancient  as  the  human  race  or  the  use  of  fire;  but  the 
means  employed  to  produce  it  among  savage  tribes 
have  scarcely  advanced  beyond  burning  branches  of 
trees  or  splinters  of  wood.  Torches  were  probably  an 
improvement  upon  these ;  and  lamps,  even  of  the 
simplest  kind,  display  a  great  advance  in  refinement, 
requiring  a  combination  of  contrivances,  such  as  the 
preparation  of  oil,  a  vessel  to  hold  it,  and  a  proper 
substance  for  the  wick. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  ancient  nations, 
who  evinced  such  skill  and  taste  in  several  of  the 
elegant  arts,  should  have  made  no  improvement  in 
the  simplest  kind  of  lamp,  except  that  of  its  form. 
Although  anticjue  lamps  have  been  found  in  Hercula- 
neum,  Pompeii,  and  other  places,  of  almost  infinite 
variety,  made  of  baked  clay  or  of  bronze,  from  the 
most  simple  forms  to  those  of  the  most  studied 
description,  exhibiring  a  surprising  variety  of  designs, 
and  admirable  for  the  beauty  of  their  workmanship, 
yet  the  principle  of  the  lamp  scarcely  varies  from  what 
must  have  been  the  original  contrivance — an  open 
vessel,  with  a  wick  laid  in  the  oil.  The  light  which 
these  supplied  must  have  been  weak  aiid  unsteady; 
and,  as  there  were  no  means  for  destroying  the  smoke, 
this  must  have  been  annoying  in  closed  apartments 
when  the  oil  was  bad.  The  lamp  was  sometimes 
suspended,  and  occasionally  was  placed  upon  that 
elegant  piece  of  furniture,  the  candelabrum,  or  stand, 
of  which  some  of  the  most  beautiful  forms  in  marble 
and  bronze  are  still  preserved. 

Simple  as  is  the  contrivance  of  candles,  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  generally  known  to  the  ancients, 
who  continued  long  to  make  use  of  the  lamp  only. 
We  read,  however,  of  a  species  of  candles  sometimes 
used  among  the  Romans,  made  of  strings  of  papyrus, 
or  rushes,  dipped  in  pitch  and  surrounded  with  wax. 
Wax  and  tallow  candles  were,  according  to  Pliny, 
likewise   occasionally  employed  in   religious  offices. 


LIGHTNING. 


939 


Torches  and  flambeaux  were  used  at  all  times ;  and  in 
the  early  pari  of  the  modern  period  we  find  that  at 
great  entertainments,  halls  were  lighted  up,  not  only 
with  lamps,  but  with  flambeaux  held  in  the  hands  of 
domestics  kept  for  the  purpose.  In  the  twelfth  century, 
candles  of  wax  and  chandeliers  were  generally  seen  in 
churches ;  and,  as  refinement  increased,  they  came 
gradually  into  use  among  the  nobility  and  wealthy 
all  over  Europe,  as  did  those  of  tallow  among  the 
miadle  classes.  The  discovery  of  Argand,  by  which 
the  smoke  of  lamps  was  destroyed,  produced  a  new  era 
in  artificial  illumination  :  and  these  implements,  which 
had  long  been  laid  aside  in  the  best  apartments,  were 
again  introduced. 

Various  modifications  and  inventions  have  later 
been  made  in  lamps,  especially  since  the  introduction 
of  kerosene  in  our  own  country.  This  of  course  caused 
a  radical  change  in  the  modes  of  using  artificial  light. 
Likewise  did  the  introduction  of  gas,  wliich  is  largely 
used  in  cities.  At  the  present  day  kerosene  is  more 
generally  used  throughout  the  country  than  any  other 
substance  for  producing  artificial  light.  Electric  light 
is  being  used  in  the  cities,  and  it  will  doubtless  soon 
be  found  the  cheapest  and  best  light  in  every  estab- 
lishment which  runs  a  steam  engine  at  night  for  other 
purposes  at  the  same  time.  As  soon  as  a  cheap 
chemical  battery  can  be  invented  that  will  be  effectual, 
electric  light  will  be  the  cheapest  form  of  illumination 
even  for  all  ordinary  dwellings. 

Lightning.  Lightning,  the  result  of  electricity 
accumulated  in  the  clouds,  is  due  to  evaporation  from 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  to  chemical  variations  in  the 
air  and  on  the  earth,  and  probably  to  friction  between 
currents  of  passing  air  differing  in  temperature.  Zigzag 
lightning  is  caused  by  the  spark  leaping  from  one 
conducting  point  to  another, — either  of  moisture  of 
the  op^xasite  electricity.  If  the  space  through  which 
the  flash  passes  is  small,  this  does  not  occur.  Sheet 
lightning  is  the  effect  seen  when  the  flash  itself  is 
invisible,  and  we  only  perceive  the  glare  of  its  light 
uix)n  the  clouds.  Lightning  also  assumes  other  forms 
which  are  less  common,  including  that  of  a  globe,  and 
what  is  called  the  brush  form.  Air  being  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity,  the  electricity  consequently 
becomes  visible  in  the  flash ;  if  it  were  not  a 
non-conductor  it  would  neither  be  seen  nor  heard. 
The  flash  of  lightning  is  instantaneous,  but  thunder 
usually  continues  for  some  seconds,  and  often  a  half 
a  minute.  This  results  from  the  com p;i rati vely  slow 
progress  of  sound,  four  and  a  half  seconds  being 
required  for  it  to  travel  a  mile;  and  when  the  flash  is 
several  miles  in  length,  the  sound  is  a  half  mipute  or 
more  in  coming  from  the  remote  portions  of  the  flash. 
The  distance  of  a  thunder-storm  from  the  spectator 
may  be  nearly  determined  by  counting  the  seconds 
between  the  flash  and  thunder,  and  allowing  about 
four  and  a  half  seconds  to  the  mile,  or  thirteen  miles 
for  a  minute.  It  is  well  known  that  when  the  electric 
current  passes  through  the  body  of  a  man,  or  a  beast, 
the  animal  fluids  being  excellent  conductors,  its  action 
upon    the   nerve   is   so   violent   that   life    is    either 


endangered  or  at  once  destroyed.  For  this  reason 
any  person  out  in  a  stomi  of  lightning  ought  to  shun 
the  path  of  the  electric  fluid,  and  be  cautious  to  avoid 
certain  objects  by  wliich  it  might  be  attracted  or 
discharged.  It  is  well  known  that  trees  should  be 
avoided  on  such  occasions,  but  it  is  not  so  well  known 
why,  and  consequently  many  people  ignore  all  pre- 
cautions in  connection  with  that  fact.  Attracted  by 
the  tree,  the  electric  fluid  will  run  down  it  through  the 
sap  under  the  outer  bark,  the  sap  being  a  conductor 
of  electricity;  but  if  a  better  conductor  be  near  enough, 
such  as  the  human  fluid%  would  be,  the  lightning  will 
leave  the  tree  and  pass  into  the  body  of  the  un- 
fortunate who  chanced  to  have  sought  that  shelter. 
For  the  same  reason  it  is  dangerous  to  be  near  water 
during  a  thunder-storm,  water  being  so  good  a  con- 
ductor that  the  lightning  might  take  his  body  on  its 
way  to  reach  it.  To  lean  against  a  wall  at  such  a  time 
is  also  dangerous,  because  the  fluid  will  run  down  a 
wall  to  reach  the  man  because  he  is  the  better  con- 
ductor of  electricity.  Bell-wire  being  an  excellent 
conductor,  it  has  sometimes  been  found  a  source  of 
danger  from  lightning  to  those  who  pull  it.  For  the 
same  reason  all  substances  which  act  as  conductors  of 
electricity  should  be  avoided  during  a  thunder-storm, — 
putting  up  an  iron  shutter-bar,  the  exposure  on  the 
person  of  metal  chains,  keys,  brooches,  etc.  When 
wet  a  person  is  in  less  danger  from  the  lightning  than 
when  dry.  The  lightning-rods  or  conductors  set  up 
serve,  by  their  height,  to  discharge  the  lightning,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  metal  conducts  it  harmlessly 
away. 

The  relative  value  of  different  metals  as  conductors 
of  electricity  may  be  expressed  in  the  following  figures: 
Lead,  i;  iron,  2.6;  zinc,  4;  copper,  12.  One  light- 
ning conductor  to  a  building  of  average  extent  is  found 
to  afford  sufficient  protection.  Conductors  defective 
in  the  principles  of  their  construction  have  often 
been  found  rather  to  increase  the  danger  than  to 
diminish  it.  If  the  rod  is  not  sufficiently  thick  to 
conduct  the  whole  of  the  electric  current  to  the  earth, 
its  metal  becomes  fused,  and  the  building  injured. 
Lightning  turns  milk  sour  by  disturbing  its  electrical 
condition,  and  effecting  its  decomposition. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  safest  place  for  shelter 
during  a  thunder-storm  is  the  interior  of  a  dwelling- 
house  or  other  enclosed  building,  at  a  distance  from 
windows  and  street-doors;  and  in  a  cellar,  perhaps, 
for  choice,  not  only  is  the  chance  of  being  struck  in- 
finitely less,  but  the  risk  of  serious  injury  is  also  much 
diminished.  The  popular  objection  to  take  shelter 
under  a  tree  in  a  storm  we  have  shown  to  be  well 
founded,  especially  if  the  tree  be  isolated.  A  low 
tree,  or  a  hedge  with  several  high  trees  in  its  prox- 
imity, is  less  objectionable,  as  the  lightning  will 
generally  be  attracted  by  preference  to  the  most 
])rominent  objects.  Trees  standing  near  taller  ones 
are  seldom  struck.  The  electric  cloud  coming 
within  the  attraction  of  a  mass  of  trees,  probably  dis- 
charges itself  insensibly  through  the  innumerable 
points  of  foliage.     A  wood,  therefore,  is  not  an  unsafe 


940 


LIGHTNING-ROD. 


place,  though  even  there  it  may  be  well  to  keep 
away  from  a  tree  which  is  higher  than  its  ■  neighbors. 
Many  persons  have  been  killed  while  standing  under 
a  hay  or  corn  rick;  these,  therefore,  should  be  avoid- 
ed. From  their  dryness  they  are  worse  conductors 
than  the  human  body,  so  that  the  current  passes  from 
them  to  the  latter,  as  the  readiest  channel  by  which 
it  can  reach  the  ground.  But  is  it  safer  to  remain  in 
the  middle  of  a  large  open  space?  This  is  a  doubt- 
ful question ;  for  a  man  in  the  erect  position,  though 
less  prominent  than  a  tree,  still  offers  a  dangerous 
point  of  attraction  when  no  other  object  is  near,  and, 
if  struck,  the  whole  force  of  the  stroke  will  pass 
through  his  body,  entering  probably  by  his  head ; 
whereas  under  the  tree  the  current  is  likely  to  be 
divided  and  split  up,  so  that  though  the  chance  of 
being  struck  may  perhaps  be  greater,  the  risk  of  fatal 
injury  is  considerably  less. 

It  appears  to  be  pretty  generally  agreed  that  the 
safest  plan,  supposing  shelter  within  a  house  to  be 
unattainable,  is  to  remain  near  some  prominent  object, 
such  as  a  tree,  but  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  from 
which  the  storm  is  proceeding,  and  at  a  distance  suf- 
ficient (say  twenty  or  thirty  yards)  to  avoid  the  risk  of 
the  electricity  being  attracted  from  the  tree  to  the 
person.  Under  any  circumstances  the  recumbent  is 
undoubtedly  safer  than  the  erect  position,  elevated 
and  prominent  situations  being  of  course  carefully 
avoided.  Additional  security  may  also  be  obtained 
by  depositing  watch  and  chain,  money,  or  other 
metallic  substances  which  attract  electricity,  at  a  safe 
distance.  Wet  clothes  are  not  without  a  compensating 
advantage;  they  are  all  the  better  conductors  of 
electricity,  and,  if  they  do  not  convey  safely  the  whole 
of  the  current,  they  will  transmit  a  much  larger  pro- 
portion of  it,  so  that  there  will  be  all  the  less  risk  of 
personal  injury.  A  gun  is  a  very  unsafe  companion; 
nothing  could  well  be  worse  than  to  walk  about  in  a 
thunder-storm  with  a  gun  over  the  shoulder.  Neither 
is  it  wise  to  walk  along  an  exposed  road  under  an 
umbrella,  especially  one  with  metallic  stem  and 
frame-work. 

It  is  a  common  opinion  that  a  bam  full  of  fresh 
hay  is  more  liable  to  be  struck  than  other  buildings, 
on  account  of  the  column  of  vapor  passing  upwards 
from  the  hay.  It  has  even  been  asserted  by  high 
authority  that  an  ice-house  is  peculiarly  liable  to  be 
struck,  because  the  evajxjration  from  the  melting  ice 
forms  a  parfial  conductor.  A  little  reflection  will 
show  the  fallacy  of  these  opinions.  There  is  not 
so  much  vapor  passing  off  from  nearly  dry  hay  as 
from  an  equal  surface  of  moist  earth  over  all  parts  of 
the  farm;  and  the  cold  moisture  in  an  ice-house 
would  not  furnish  a  larger  amount  of  vapor  than  a 
warm  surface  of  earth. 

When  a  person  has  been  struck  by  lightning  and  is 
apparently  dead,  the  treatment  for  restoration  should 
be  as  follows :  Dash  cold  water  repeatedly  over  the 
whole  body,  including  face  and  head,  continuing  to 
pour  it  on  the  latter  for  some  time,  letting  it  run  down 
over  the  body.     Should  the  patient  not  revive  in  a 


few  moments,  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground,  remove  all 
clothing  and  place  him  in  it  in  a  half  recumbent 
position,  and  cover  the  body,  all  except  the  face,  with 
fresh  earth.  The  moment  there  is  indication  of  life 
and  the  eyes  begin  to  move,  shade  the  face,  and 
when  he  breathes  freely,  place  him  in  a  light  and 
airy  room,  and  wash  the  body  with  cold  water.  Or, 
if  this  cannot  be  done,  apply  friction  to  the  spine  with 
strong  liniments  and  mustard  iwultices  to  the  feet, 
using  the  water  as  above  indicated. 

Lightning-rod,  a  metallic  bar  by  which  an  un- 
usual amount  of  atmospheric  electricity  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  building  may  be  safely  conducted  to  the  earth 
and  dissipated  in  it.  Few  questions  perhaps  have 
been  more  puzzling  to  the  farmer  than  that  of  light- 
ning-rods. A  farmer  who  has  erected  a  fine  residence, 
or  has  a  good  bam  well  stored  with  grain  and  filled 
with  valuable  stock,  has  fears  lest  either  may  be 
struck  by  lightning  and  consumed  by  fire,  and  yet 
from  the  varying  and  contradicting  reports  of  the 
value  of  rods,  he  really  knows  not  whether  his  build- 
ings are  safer  with  than  without.  Then  "  the  absolute 
worthlessness,  and  even  danger,"  of  rods  made  by 
different  companies  are  shown  by  the  glib  agents  of 
other  companies,  until  the  farmer,  who  really  is 
anxious  to  protect  his  property  and  family,  and  willing 
to  expend  the  necessary  amount  for  lightning-reds,  is 
so  bewildered  and  unsettled  that  he  knows  not  what 
to  do.  In  this  article  we  shall  discuss  in  the  simplest 
way  all  the  practical  features  of  this  perplexing  ques- 
tion; nor  shall  we  do  this  in  the  interests  of  any 
Hghtning-rod  company,  or,  indeed,  any  one  but  the 
farmer.  When  besieged  by  agents  of  such  companies 
who  show  up  such  glowing  records  for  various  rods  or 
"insulators,"  let  him  ponder  over  the  facts  herein 
stated  and  judge  of  its  merits  from  such  basis  and 
not  by  what  the  agent  may  say.  In  the  article  on 
Swindle  we  show  up  the  manner  in  which  many 
agents  disixise  of  their  rods,  and  what  gross  im- 
positions they  practice  upon  the  farmers. 

As  to  whether  lightning  rods  are  really  beneficial  in 
protecting  buildings  from  lightning,  we  can  confidently 
say,  that,  if  properly  made,  they  will  afford  protection ; 
but  if  improperly  constructed,  will  do  no  good  and 
may  be  a  jxisitive  harm.  In  support  of  the  former 
statement  we  may  refer  to  the  following  as  well-known 
examples:  The  monument  in  I^ndon,  which  is  over 
200  feet  high,  and  has  stood  two  centuries,  has  never 
been  struck  by  lightning,  which  has  often  fallen  on 
the  lower  buildings  around  it.  The  metal  connections 
which  unite  the  different  parts  of  the  monument^ 
afford  a  free  passage  for  the  electric  fluid  to  the  moist 
earth  below;  the  other  buildings  have  no  such  con- 
nections. A  church  in  Carinthia,  standing  on  a  hill, 
was  struck  on  an  average  five  times  a  year,  and  in 
one  instance  several  times  a  day.  It  was  deemed  un- 
safe to  celebrate  service  within  its  walls.  A  lightning- 
rod  was  then  placed  upon  it,  after  which  it  was  struck 
but  once  in  five  years,  and  in  this  instance  no  harm 
was  done,  the  stroke  falling  on  the  metallic  ix)int 
without   damage.     The   church   of    St    Michael,  in 


LIGHTNING-ROD. 


941 


Charlestown,  Mass.,  was  frequently  damaged  by  light- 
ning, but  after  the  erection  of  a  rod  it  had  escaped 
for  fourteen  years.  St.  Mark's  steeple,  in  Venice, 
340  feet  high,  was  often  struck  until  protected  by  a 
rod,  after  which  it  escaped.  The  celebrated  Stras- 
bourg cathedral  was  struck  three  times  within  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  in  1833,  causing  damages  which  re- 
quired millions  to  repair.  In  the  year  1835  lightning 
conductors  were  erected,  since  which  no  harm  has 
occurred.  The  cathedral  at  Geneva,  the  most  con- 
spicuous and  highest  in  the  city,  has  entirely  escaped 
for  centuries,  while  another  tower  much  lower  has 
been  frequently  injured.  The  great  central  tower  of 
the  cathedral  is  built  entirely  of  wood,  but  covered 
with  metallic  plates,  which  are  connected  with  the 
roof  of  metal,  and  this,  through  the  rain  pipes,  with 
iron  drain  pipes  imbedded  in  the  earth. 

To  substantiate  the  latter  assertion,  it  is  well  known 
that  many  buildings  have  been  struck  with  lightning, 
although  furnished  with  rods,  and  in  some  cases 
destructive  conflagrations  have  been  the  consequence; 
but  in  all  these  instances,  where  an  examination  has 
been  made,  obvious  and  glaring  defects  have  been 
discovered  in  their  construction.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  more  than  half  the  lightning-rods  now  in  use 
throughout  the  United  States  are  of  little  or  no  value, 
and  some  may  be  even  positively  detrimental;  prob- 
ably not  one  in  ten  proves  as  safe  and  efficient  as  it 
might  easily  be  made. 

It  having  been  decided  that  a  good  rod,  properly 
put  up,  is  a  benefit,  and  that  a  bad  one  may  be  harm- 
ful, the  next  questions  arising  are :  What  are  good 
rods?  and  how  should  they  be  put  up.?  A  word  may 
be  necessary  as  to  what  a  lightning-rod  should  do, 
and  the  relative  values  of  the  different  metals  as  to 
their  powers  as  conductors. 

Clouds  charged  with  electricity  are  often  two  or 
three  miles  high,  or  even  more ;  and  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  lightning  rarely  or  never  strikes  the  earth  or 
the  objects  at  its  surface,  but  the  discharges  are  from 
one  cloud  to  another.  Sometimes,  however,  their 
lowest  surface  *nay  be  within  half  a  mile  or  less. 
When  very  near  the  earth,  there  is  greater  danger  to 
buildings,  trees  and  animals.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  moisture  in  apparently  clear  air  may  sometimes 
contain  much  electricity,  but  less  than  dense  clouds. 
Buildings  and  trees,  although  they  are  imperfect  con- 
ductors, may  be  sufficiently  so  as  to  invite  the  dis- 
charges of  lightning  in  their  downward  course,  but  not 
enough  to  afford  a  perfect  passage,  and  hence  they 
may  be  torn  or  shivered  to  pieces,  or  set  on  fire.  The 
object  of  lightning-rods  is  to  provide  a  safe  and  com- 
plete passage  for  the  discharge  by  using  metal,  which 
is  thousands  of  times  a  better  conductor  than  moist 
wood,  stone  or  brick. 

As  to  what  are  the  essential  features  of  a  good  rod, 
the  following  observations  may  be  made.  The  con- 
ducting power  of  a  metallic  bar  of  a  given  length  and 
of  uniform  size  is  proportional  to  its  cross  section. 
Thus  an  iron  bar  two  inches  square  will  conduct 
electricity  as  well  as  a  copper  bar  one  inch  square. 


because  it  has  four  times  the  sectional  area.  By  in- 
creasing the  diameter  of  the  bar  of  a  poor  conductor, 
we  may  make  it  equal  in  conducting  jwwer  to  a  bar 
of  better  conducting  material  but  of  smaller  size. 
While  copper  has  four  times  the  conducting  jx)wer  of 
iron,  it  costs  much  more  than  four  times  as  much  as 
iron.  Iron  is  found  in  the  market  in  the  form  of  long 
bars,  well  suited  for  use  as  lightning-rods,  while  copper 
has  to  be  specially  manufactured  for  such  use,  whereby 
its  cost  is  still  more  increased  because  a  material 
which  is  manufactured  for  a  special  use  costs 
more  than  the  same  material  manufactured  for 
general  use.  Bar  iron  will  cost  from  3^4  to  4 
cents  a  pound,  while  bar  copper  will  cost  about  50 
cents.  With  ordinary  bar  iron  we  may  therefore  obtain 
the  satne  amount  of  conduction  at  far  less  cash  cost 
than  we  can  with  copper.  Another  jx)int  in  favor  of 
iron  is  that  it  is  so  difficult  to  melt,  the  melting  point 
of  iron  being  more  than  1,200°  above  the  melting 
point  of  copper.  A  lightning-rod  should  not  melt  or 
become  red  hot  by  any  stroke  of  lightning  which  may 
fall  ufX)n  it. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  different  rods  made 
and  sold  through  the  country,  many  of  which  seem- 
ingly were  constructed  by  parties  who  absolutely  knew 
nothing  about  electricity  or  its  conductors.  There  are 
rods  made  of  fine  copper  wires  and  coarse  zinced  iron 
wires  twisted  together.  Then  there  are  wires  made 
by  twisting  together  three  or  four  wires  of  tin.  Tin  is 
comparatively  a  poor  conductor,  and  melts  at  a  very 
low  temperature.  Some  rods  are  made  of  copper 
tubing,  or  twisted  copper  wire,  or  of  iron  fluted  and 
twisted  into  a  spiral,  some  galvanized  and  others  not. 
There  are  other  styles  and  of  all  shapes  imaginable. 
There  are  some  special  advantages  claimed  for  each, 
for  which  the  farmer  must  pay  a  good,  round  price.  The 
rod,  as  recommended  by  some  of  the  best  scientists  in 
the  world  as  the  best,  and  it  is  certainly  the  cheapest, 
is  a  solid  round  bar  of  iron,  not  less  than  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  There  is  no  danger  of  such  a 
rod  melting,  and  it  will  safely  conduct  any  flash  of 
lightning  to  the  ground.  Such  a  rod,  which  may  be 
put  up  by  any  farmer  if  he  will  observe  the  principles 
laid  down  in  this  article,  will  conduct  the  electric  cur- 
rent many  thousand  times  better  than  the  common 
materials  of  which  houses  and  barns  are  built,  and  the 
current  will  take  this  metallic  course  in  preference  to 
the  building.  If  the  rod  is  high  enough  above  the 
building,  so  that  any  discharge  may  find  it  before 
reaching  the  l)uilding,  it  will  be  carried  safely  down- 
ward, provided  there  is  no  break  or  interruption  in 
the  rod,  and  provided  it  reaches  a  permanent  con- 
ductor at  the  botton^,  to  convey  the  discharge  into 
the  earth. 

These  then  are  the  three  essenrial  parts:  i.  Height 
above  the  building.  2.  Continuity  throughout.  3. 
Connection  at  the  bottom  with  permanently  moist 
earth  or  water. 

I.  If  the  rod  is  not  high  enough,  there  will  be 
danger  that  the  lightning  may  strike  the  chimney 
the   soot  of  which  is   a  conductor,  or  it  may  strike, 


942 


LIGHTNING-ROD. 


other^levated  portions.  As  a  general  rule,  the  top  of 
the  rod  should  be  at  least  as  much  above  the  roof  as 
half  the  length  of  the  roof  from  the  rod.  In  other 
words,  a  rod  will  commonly  protect  a  horizontal 
space  the  diameter  of  which  is  four  times  as  great  as 
the  height  of  the  rod  alx)ve  it,  if  the  rod  stands  in  the 
middle;  or  twice  as  great,  if  the  rod  is  at  one  end. 
If  the  rod  is  attached  to  a  chimney  nearly  at  the 
center  of  the  roof,  it  must  he  half  as  high  as  the  dis- 
tance between  the  chimney  and  the  farther  end  of 
the  building.  Sometimes  it  may  be  more  convenient 
to  place  the  rod  at  one  end,  a  more  direct  connection 
being  thus  obtained  with  the  earth.  In  this  case  the 
rod  must  be  twice  as  high  as  when  placed  at  the 
center.  Probably  a  still  better  way  would  be  to  place 
a  rod  at  each  end,  and  secure  a  direct  communication 
with  the  earth  at  both  ends.  Or,  if  the  two  are  well 
connected  by  a  metal  bar  on  the  roof,  this  arrange- 
ment will  be  nearly  as  good. 

2.  The  importance  of  a  continuous  rod  is  self- 
evident;  for  if  made  up  of  several  parts  or  sections, 
and  one  is  displaced,  the  rod  would  do  more  harm 
than  good,  by  inviting  the  discharge  without  convey- 
ing it  from  the  building.  Paint  the  rod,  and  especial- 
ly all  the  joints,  to  keep  it  from  rusting. 

3.  For  the  same  reason,  a  sufficient  earth  terminal 
is  absolutely  essential,  to  convey  the  discharge  away 
from  the  building.  If  defective  in  this  particular, 
no  rod,  however  perfect  in  all  other  respects,  can 
be  of  any  use,  but  would  be  a  source  of  danger. 
Nearly  all  the  cases  of  failure  in  conductors  are 
doubtless  from  this  cause.  They  afford  a  partial 
passage  for  the  discharge,  or  convey  it  into  the  build- 
ing. \.\\  this  way  buildings  have  been  crushed,  torn, 
and  set  on  fire  by  the  lightning,  and  water  and  gas 
pipes  torn  up  and  melted  at  the  joints. 

Water  and  moist  earth  are  conductors,  while  per- 
fectly dry  earth  has  scarcely  any  conducting  power 
at  all.  The  rod  must  therefore  penetrate  the  ground 
deep  enough  to  reach  permanently  moist  earth.  In 
most  localities  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet  will  be 
enough,  if  branching  in  various  directions  at  the 
bottom,  so  as  to  dissipate  the  electric  discharge.  The 
rod  may  have  a  terminus  in  a  vj'ell  if  convenient, 
but  never  put  into  a  cistern.  The  water,  however, 
will  rust  the  iron,  and  therefore  damage  it  in  time. 
If  put  into  a  cistern  it  might  go  dry  and  then  the 
connection  would  be  worthless;  or  if  the  cistern  was 
surrjunded  with  dry  earth  the  escape  of  the  discharge 
would  be  vearly  prevented.  If  the  rod  is  put  in  the 
ground  fill  the  hole  around  it  with  powdered  char- 
coal, it  being  a  better  conductor  than  the  soil,  is 
slower  to  dry  when  wet  and  prevents  the  rod  from 
rusting. 

For  most  buildings  it  is  best  to  weld  the  different 
pieces  together,  which  makes  the  rod  stiffer,  and  less 
liable  to  become  separated  into  parts  than  if  simply 
screwed  together,  or  connected  by  staples  or  links. 
Any  owner  of  a  building  who  is  about  to  erect  a  rod 
should  measure  with  a  cord  or  tape-line  the  distance 
from  the  top  of  the  house  to  the  ground  where  the 


rod  is  to  pass,  and  then  add  to  its  length  eight  or  ten 
feet  for  the  portion  beneath  the  surface;  and  also  for 
the  height  above  the  building  one-quarter  or  more  of 
the  length  of  the  roof  if  tlie  rod  is  placed  at  the 
center,  or  one-half  the  length  if  placed  at  one  end. 
The  pieces  of  rod  sufficient  for  this  length  may  be 
easily  welded  together  by  a  blacksmith,  and  it  may 
then  be  taken  home  by  fastening  the  pointed  end  to 
a  wagon  and  dragging  the  length  on  the  ground. 
Two  or  three  men  can  then  erect  it  and  place  it  in 
position  on  the  building.  Spike  or  clamp  the  rod 
securely  against  the  side  of  the  building.  If  you 
have  a  good  rod  it  is  unnecessary  to  have  it  insulated 
from  the  building.  The  ordinary  glass  collars,  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  will  certainty  not  prevent  a 
stroke  of  lightning  leaving  the  rod  and  striking  the 
house,  when  it  can  penetrate  a  mile  of  air  (the  very 
best  of  insulators),  shiver  vast  oaks,  and  split  rocks 
into  fragments.  Faraday,  the  greatest  electrician  the 
world  has  ever  known,  says  upon  this  subject: 

"  Some  persons  conceived  that  it  is  desirable  to 
insulate  the  conductor  from  the  wall  of  a  building  by 
glass;  but  all  such  contrivances  are  absurd,  since  the 
distance  to  which  the  metal  could  be  removed  from 
the  wall  -by  the  interposed  insulation  was  altogether 
insignificant  compared  with  the  distance  through 
which  the  lightning  must  pass  in  a  discharge  from 
the  clouds  to  the  earth." 

The  rod  should  be  brought  in  connection  with  the 
eave  troughs,  or  any  other  metallic  substance,  so  that 
any  electricity  they  may  draw  will  be  conveyed  to  the 
ground. 

As  to  the  point,  much  is  said  by  lightning-rod  men, 
and  many  different  kinds  are  made.  Most  of  those 
sold  through  the  country  are  made  of  platinum,  be- 
cause of  its  infusibility.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however, 
it  is  not  as  good  as  copper,  for  the  latter  has  more 
than  seven  times  the  conducting  power  for  electricity 
that  platinum  has,  and.  further,  having  but  one- 
seventh  the  conducting  power  of  copper  it  would 
under  the  same  circumstances  be  heated  seven  times 
hotter  by  a  flash  of  electricity,  and  *  flash  that  would 
heat  a  copper  wire  to  its  melting  point  (r,996'  Fah.), 
would  heat  a  platinum  wire  of  the  same  size  r3,o72° 
Fah., — a  temperature  greatly  in  excess  of  the  melting 
of  platinum.  Of  the  two  metals,  therefore,  platinum 
would  be  in  greater  danger  of  being  melted  by  a  flash 
of  lightnin  g  than  copper.  For  this  reason  and  because  it 
is  cheaper,  a  point  made  of  copper  with  its  surface 
nickel-plated  or  gilded,  is  preferable.  This,  made  of 
solid  copper,  conical  shape,  two  inches  in  height  and 
one  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base,  will  be  all  that  is 
required. 

High-priced  and  patented  lightning-rods  have  been 
made  with  various  jxjints  and  angles,  wings,  corruga- 
tions and  spiral  coils,  with  the  claim  that  the  angles 
and  ix)ints  would  draw  the  electric  fluid  and  increase 
the  safety,  when  in  fact  they  would  equally  tend  to 
discharge  it  from  those  jwints  into  the  building 
None  of  these  patents  are  better  in  any  respect  than 
the  simple  round  rod  described  above.     If  square  or 


LILAC— LIME. 


943 


flat  bars  are  used,  instead  of  round  bars  (and  they 
will  also  answer  a  good  purpose),  they  may  be  screw- 
ed to  the  sides  of  the  building  in  the  same  way,  by 
means  of  staples  and  screws.  This  mode  answers 
well  when  the  building  is 
partly  made  of  iron. 

Employinga common  light- 
ning-rod agent  or  vender  is 
one  of  the  many  errors  com- 
monly committed.  Most  of 
them,  knowing  little  of  the 
science,  erect  imperfect  rods, 
with  many  needless  append- 
ages, at  a  cost  to  the  owner 
of  seveial  times  that  of  a 
good,  simple  rod.  To  make 
one  which  shall  be  both  cheap 
and  efficient,  every  owner 
should  construct  and  put  up 
his  own,  according  to  estab- 
lished principles. 

The  owners  of  all  buildings 
on  which  rods  have  stood 
many  years  should  occasion- 
ally examine  them,  to  see  that 
the  earth  terminals  have  not 
become  unsafe  by  rusting 
away. 

See  Lightning.  • 

Lilac,  a  well-known  and 
popular  ornamental  shrub, 
putting  forth  its  fragrant, 
pur  [)lish  flowers  early  in  spring. 
It  is  quite  hardy  in  the  North- 
ern States  and  easy  of  cul- 
tivation. A  rarer  species  has 
white  flowers.  A  Parisian 
kind  is  more  profuse  in  flower- 
ing, and  has  been  used  for 
ornamental  hedges,  as  it  bears 
shearing  tolerably  well.  The 
peculiar  and  beautiful  color 
of  the  flowers  of  the  common 
kind  has  given  name  to  the 
color  called  "lilac." 

Lily,  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular flowering  plants,  the  most 
of  which  bear  very  large  and 
gorgeous  flowers. 

To  keep  posted  in  the  new 
varieties  from  year  to  year 
one  must  consult  florists' cata- 
logues. The  lily  is  hand- 
some in  all  its  stages  of 
growth,  and  not  a  little  grace- 
ful when  completing  its 
height  and  swelling  its  flower 
buds;  and  after  it  bursts  into  bloom,  its  flov/er  is 
one  blaze  of  color  and  outshines  the  most  brilliant 
hings  in  the  garden.      There  are   several   genera   of 


Lilium  can^iidutn. 


lilies,  many  species  and  a  vast   number  of  varieties- 


The  Pond  Lily. 

Lima  Bean :  see  article  Bean.  A  gardener  has 
recently  given  his  experience  that  he  can  raise  this 
species  of  bean  better  without  jxjling,  by  keeping  the 
tendrils  nipped  off.  By  this  means  the  vines  are  kept 
low  and  bushy  and  the  fruit  made  to  mature  earlier 
than  by  the  usual  method.  We  should  judge  that 
the  same  principle  would  work  as  well  with  the  other 
running  varieties.  , 

Lime.  This  is  composed  of  but  two  chemical  or 
primary  elements,  namely,  calcium  and  oxygen.  It 
is  a  highly  acrid,  alkaline  and'caustic  earth,  more  sol- 
uble in  cold  than  in  hot  water ;  hence  boiling  precip- 
itates it  as  a  lining  on  the  inside  of  the  vessel.  The 
acids  readily  unite  with  lime,  forming  many  of  the 
most  useful  compounds;  as,  carbonic  acid,  combined 
with  lime,  forming  carbonate  of  lime,  or  chalk  and 
marble;  sulphuric  acid,  forming  sulphate  of  lime,  or 
gypsum  ;  phosphoric  acid, forming  phosphate  of  lime; 
nitric  acid,  forming  nitrate  of  lime,  etc.  Water  poured 
upon  quicklime,  combines  with  it  and  forms  the 
hydrate  of  lime.  The  process,  as  is  familiar  to  every- 
one, is  attended  with  considerable  heat.  Chlorine 
combines  with  this  base,  farming  the  celebrated  dis- 
infectant chloride  of  lime.  "Milk  of  lime"  is  simply 
water  and  lime  mixed  together  so  as  to  have  the  ap- 
pearance and  consistency  of  milk.  The  various  salts 
of  lime  (phospate,  sulphate  and  carbonate)  constitute 
the  mineral  or  solid  elements  of  bone ;  and  lime  in 
nearly  all  its  forms  enters  largely  into  various  medi- 
cal comiMunds.  Pure  lime  diluted  in  water  is  a  jxjp- 
ular  remedy  for  certain  forms  of  dyspepsia.  Of 
course,  lime,  in  its  various  combinations,  is  an  essen- 
tial constituent  in  all  vegetable  products ;  and  it  is 
from  vegetable  sources  alone  that  herbivorous  animals 
obtain  all  the  limy  (calcareous)  elements  of  their 
bones  and  tissues. 

Lime  dust  is  one  of  the  most  popular  remedies 
against  insects  of  almost  all  kinds.  The  following  is 
the  best  method  of  applying  it  to  destroy  slugs,  mil- 
dew, etc.:  To  a  peck  of  fresh  lime,  broken  up  into 
small  pieces,  add  four  [xiunds  of  flowers  of  sulphur, 
and  just  boiling  water  enough  to  slake  the  lime  to  a 


944 


LIMITATION,  STATUTES  OF— LINIMENT 


dry  powder,  covering  the  vessel  as  soon  as  the  water 
is  poured  on.  When  needed  for  use,  mix  water  with  it 
sufficiently  to  make  a  whitewash,  and  apply  to  trees, 
cellar  walls,  etc.,  with  a  whitewash  brush. 

Limitation,  Statutes  of.  By  this  term  is  meant  a 
certain  period  limited  by  statute,  after  which  a  claim- 
ant cannot  enforce  his  claim  by  suit  at  law.  No  such 
limit  exists  in  moral  law,  where  a  debt  is  due  until  it 
is  paid,  no  matter  how  long  it  runs.  Time  begins  to 
run  with  the  date  of  the  instrument,  or  promise  upon 
which  the  claim  is  based.  Limitations  are  fixed  by 
State  law,  and  they  vary  in  the  several  States,  as,  with 
reference  to  the  most  common  causes,  are  given  in 
the  following  table : 

LIMITATIONS  OF  ACTIONS. 


STATES 

AND 

TERRITORIES. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dakota 

Delaware     

Districtof  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho , 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas     

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . . . , 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey    , 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Ontario  (Upper Canada).. 

Oregon . 

Pennsylvania   

Quebec  (Lower  Canada).. 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia  

Washincton  Territory . . . 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin - . 

Wyoming. 


13  U 

c 

3 

O 

«■ 

1/5  O 

s 

-  > 

So- 

F 

o 

o 

13 

Years 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

3 

6 

20 

3 

5 

10 

2 

4 

5 

2 

2 

3 

« 

6 

6 

6 

6 

20 

3 

6 

20 

3 

3 

12 

5 

5 

20 

4 

6 

7 

2 

4 

5 

5 

lO 

20 

6 

20 

20 

5 

JO 

20 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

'5 

3 

5 

10 

6 

20 

20 

3 

3 

12 

6 

20 

20 

6 

6 

10 

6 

6 

10 

3 

6 

7 

4 

5 

5 

2 

4 

5 

6 

20 

20 

2,6 

6 

20 

20 

- 

— 

ID 

6 

5 

20 

3 

ID 

10 

6 

15 

■5 

3 

10 

10 

6 

15 

'5 

5 

5 

30 

1 

6 

10 

6 

6 

20 

1,2 

5 

5 

30 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

20 

2 

4 

10 

2 

4 

5 

6 

'4 

8 

5 

5 

10 

3 

6 

9 

5 

6 

10 

6 

6 

20 

6 

15 

ID 

>5 
'5 


■5 
30 


Lin,  Linden,  etc.,  a  name  of  the  basswood  tree. 
See  page  512. 

Lineh-pin,  a  pin  inserted  through  a  hole  in  the 
end  of  a  bolt  to  hold  a  wheel  or  other  parts  of  machin- 
ery from  slipping  off. 


Lincoln,  a  variety  of  sheep.     See  Sheep. 

Linen.  The  cloth  so  named,  from  the  Latin  linum 
(flax),  is  the  principal  fabric  manufactured  from  flax. 
The  fineness  of  linen  is  determined  by  the  relative 
length  of  yarn  in  a  given  weight,  and  also  by  the 
number  of  threads  of  warp  contained  in  a  certain  space 
of  the  reed  in  weaving,  to  which  the  threads  of  weft 
in  a  similar  space  must  bear  a  fixed  and  regular  pro- 
portion. In  judging  of  linen  of  whatever  fineness  and 
price,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  even- 
ness of  the  threads,  and  also  to  the  firmness  and  close- 
ness of  the  texture.  The  color  should  be  very  white, 
and  the  surface  glossy;  but  this  gloss  should  be  prin- 
cipally, if  not  wholly,  the  effect  of  the  calender  em- 
ployed in  finishing  the  cloth.  Many  inferior  fabrics 
are  rendered  marketable  by  a  large  pro]X)rtion  of 
starch,  from  which  they  receive  not  only  a  fine  gloss, 
but  also  a  factitious  hardness,  or  body,  as  it  is  termed, 
qualities  which  disappear  after  the  first  washing;  and 
the  cloth,  having  lost  in  this  ordeal  all  its  vellum-like 
consistency,  becomes,  to  use  a  familiar  expression  "as 
poor  as  a  rag."  Hardness  and  smoothness,  therefore, 
can  never  be  safely  depended  upon  as  a  criterion  ; 
the  eye  must  be  rather  closely  applied  to  discern 
whether  these  qualities  actually  proceed  from  the 
strength  and  fineness  of  the  fabric.  The  threads 
must  not  only  be  even,  but  must  have  a  certain  wire- 
like roundness;  a  magnifying  glass  is  very  useful  to 
examine  the  texture  of  linen  Dy ;  but  the  purchaser 
should  be  in  the  habit  of  using  it,  otherwise  he  will 
be  misled.  Some  linen  is  sold  free,  or  nearly  so,  from 
this  dressing,  and  such  is  to  be  preferred.  See  Laun- 
dry, Bleaching  and  Stains. 

Line  of  Deposit,  the  average  amount  kept  by  one 
to  his  credit  in  the  bank.  The  "line  of  discount"  is 
the  average  amount  borrowed  by  him  from  the  bank. 

Liniment,  a  soft  ointment,  or  a  medicated  and 
thickened  oil  designed  to  be  rubbed  ujxjn  the  skin 
and  to  act  as  an  anodyne,  an  emollient  or  local  stim- 
ulant, for  the  relief  of  deep-seated  pains  and  inflam- 
mations. The  following  are  receipts  for  making  some 
excellent  liniments : 

Compound  Soap.  Take  Castile  soap,  oil  sassa- 
fras, gum  camphor,  spirits  of  hartshorn,  and  spirits 
of  turpentine,  each  i  ounce;  alchohol,  2  ounces; 
mix.  A  good  liniment  for  swelled  glands,  inflamed 
tonsils,  sore  throat,  quinsy,  mumps,  and  inflamed 
female  breasts. 

Rheumatic.  Take  alchohol,  4  ounces;  gum 
camphor,  oil  hemlock,  oil  cedar,  and  spirits  tur- 
pentine, each  Yi  ounce ;  mix.  Use  freely  in  rheu- 
matism, pains,  swollen  joints,  sprains,  etc. 

Rheumatism  of  the  Joint.  Take  oil  of  linseed, 
oil  of  cedar,  and  oil  of  amber,  each,  i  ounce  ;  gum 
camphor,  i^  ounce,  dissolve  in  Y^  ounce  of  sweet 
oil,  by  rubbing  in  a  mortar,  first  adding  to  the  cam- 
phor a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  so  as  to  ]X)wder  it; 
spirits  of  turpentine  and  laudanum,  each,  J^  ounce  ; 
mix,  shake  well,  apply  and  rub  in  well.  One  of  the 
best  rheumatic  liniments  known. 


LINK— LIVER. 


945 


Nerve.  Take  oil  of  sassafras,  tincture  of  Cay- 
enne, spirits  of  hartshorn,  oil  of  pennyroyal,  oil  of 
hemlock  and  laudanum,  each,  J^  ounce;  mix,  shake 
well,  and  bottle  for  use.  Useful  in  all  acute  pains, 
as  in  neuralgia,  headache,  spasms,  toothache,  gout, 
rheumatism,  sore  throat,  inflamed  breasts  of  females, 
and  all  nervous  pains. 

Arnica.  Take  tincture  of  arnica,  i  dram;  al- 
cohol, 4  ounces  ;  mix,  and  shake  well  in  the  bottle, 
unequaled  for  pains  in  the  feet  and  limbs,  from 
walking ;  for  all  fresh  and  recent  sprains,  bruises, 
and  contused  wounds,  and  for  rheumatism  of  the 
joints,  and  gouty  pains. 

German  Liniment.  Take  chloroform,  olive  oil, 
and  aqua  ammonia,  of  each  i  ounce ;  acetate  of  mor- 
phia, lo  grains.  Mix,  and  use  as  other  liniments. 
Very  valuable. 

Sti.mulating  Liniment.  Cayenne,  ij^  ounces; 
salt,  I  tablespoon  ;  spirits  of  wine,  2  ounces  ;  cam- 
phor, y^  ounce ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  y^  pint.  Bottle, 
and  shake  now  and  then  during  one  day.  Then  add 
y-i  pint  of  vinegar.  It  is  excellent  for  sponging  the 
body  in  cases  of  pain,  debility,  inflammation,  rheuma- 
tism, gout,  sore  throat,  numbness,  neuralgia,  etc. 

Cook's  Electro-Magnetic  Liniment.  Best  alco- 
hol, I  gallon  ;  oil  of  amber,  8  ounces ;  gum  camphor 
8  ounces;  Castile  soap,  shaved  line,  2  ounces;  beef 
gall, 4  ounces ;  ammonia,  3  F's  strong,  12  ounces; 
mix,  and  shake  occasionally  for  twelve  hours,  and  it 
is  fit  for  use.  This  will  be  found  a  strong  and  valu- 
able liniment,  and  also  cheap,  it  may  be  used  in 
swellings,  strains,  etc.,  and  rubbed  ujxjn  the  throat, 
breast,  and  lungs,  in  asthma,  sore  throat,  etc. 

Liniment  after  Shaving,  i  ounceof  lime  water, 
I  ounce  of  sweet  oil,  r  drop  of  oil  of  roses ;  shake  well 
before  using  and  apply  with  fore-finger. 

Lime  Liniment.  Linseed  or  common  olive  oil  and 
lime-water,  equal  parts,  to  be  well  shaken  before 
using,  is  good  for  scrofulous  or  other  sores,  and  still 
more  for  burns  or  scalds. 

Horse  Liniment.  Common  liniment  for  horse, 
4  ounces  linseed  oil ;  2  .ounces  spirits  of  turpentine; 
I  ounce  aqua  ammonia.  Mix.  Good  for  sprains  and 
bruises. 

Another:  Creasote,  laudanum  and  olive  oil,  equal 
parts.     This  is  excellent  for  sprains. 

Another:  i  pint  vinegar;  i  drachm  nitric  acid;  i 
ounce  oil  turpentine ;  i  drachm  oil  sassafras;  shake 
well  before  using,  excellent  for  grease  heels,  scratches 
or  any  external  application  where  a  liniment  is 
required. 

Another:  Take  spirits  of  turpentine  and  dissolve  as 
much  gum  camphor  as  it  will  take.  This  will  be 
found  good  to  remove  calluses. 

Link,  a  ring,  generally  elongated,  several  of  which 
comjwse  a  chain;  a  short  wire  or  small  rod,  a  num- 
ber of  which  constitute  a  chain,  as  in  the  "surveyor's 
chain."  In  surveying,  a  link  is  7.92  inches,  being  the 
i-iooth  part  of  a  four-rod  chain. 

Linseed,  flaxseed.     Ground   flaxseed   makes   the 
60 


best  poultice,  as  it  is  less  irritable  and  retains  its 
moisture  better  than  most  articles  used  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Linseed  oil  is  pressed  out  of  ground  flaxseed  by 
a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  and  is  almost  the  only  oil 
used  in  mixing  paints.  The  fresher  it  is  the  better  it 
will  dry.  It  is  a  good  and  safe  purgative  for  the  horse, 
and  should  be  given  by  farmers  and  non-professional 
persons  in  preference  to  any  other  article.  The  Eng- 
lish veterinary  surgeons  use  linseed  oil  for  colic  in  the 
horse  in  the  following  combination:  Linseed  oil,  one 
pint  and  two  ounces  each  of  oil  of  turpentine  and 
laudanum.  In  cases  of  choking  in  either  horses  or 
cattle,  a  half  pint  of  linseed  oil  should  be  poured 
down  the  throat,  so  that  by  its  emollient  properties 
the  substance  may  pass  readily  down  the  gullet. 
For  horses,  one  or  two  pints  is  the  dose  used  for 
a  purgative.  For  scalds  and  burns,  linseed  oil  is 
mixed  with  lime  water. 

Cake  Meal.  That  i^rtion  which  is  kept  after 
the  oil  has  been  expressed  from  the  seed,  is  a  good 
feed  for   horses   and   cows,   given  occasionally. 

Linsey-Woolsey,  a  coarse  fabric  made  of  thread 
for  warp  and  its  woof  worsted,  generally  one  blue  and 
the  other  white,  or  mixed  with  red 

Lint,  flax ;  linen  raveled,  or  scraped  into  a  soft 
substance,  and  used  for  dressing  wounds  and  sores. 

Lintel,  a  horizontal  piece  of  timber  or  stone  placed 
over  a  door,  window,  or  other  opening:  a  head-piece. 

Lipped  and  Harled,  built  without  mortar,  but 
afterward  having  the  joints  filled  with  mortar,  and  the 
whole  rough-cast  or  harled.     Said  of  walls. 

Liquidate,  to  finally  settle  the  affairs  of  a  com- 
mercial house ;  to  pay  a  debt. 

List,  among  other  meanings,  signifies  the  outer 
edge  or  selvedge  of  cloth  ;  a  strip  of  cloth  forming  the 
border,  pardcularly  of  broadcloth  and  serving  to 
strengthen  it ;  a  strip  of  cloth ;  a  fillet.  List  carpet 
is  the  finest  sort  of  rag  carpet. 

Literature,  or  Letters,  learning;  in  its  widest 
sense  it  embraces  all  composition  except  that  which 
relates  to  the  positive  sciences,  as  mathematics,  me- 
chanics, etc.;  but  it  is  usually  confined  to  works  of 
taste,  sentiment,  poetry,  history,  etc.,  in  which  ex- 
pression itself  becomes  an  art.  What  we  have  to  say 
under  this  head,  appropriate  to  this  work,  will  be 
found  under  the  heads  of  Book,  Education,  Library, 
etc. 

Lithotomy,  the  operation  of  cutting  into  the  blad- 
der for  the  removal  of  urinary  calculi.  For  the  oper- 
ation on  the  horse,  see  page  747. 

Live  Paper,  paper  (of  obligation)  which  has  not 
matured.  Over-due  or  protested  paper  is  termed 
"dead." 

Liver,  the  chief  blood-depurating  organ  of  the 
body,  situated  around  and  behind  the  stomach.  It 
is  of  a  brownish-red   color,   lobed,  unsymmetrical    in 


946 


LIVE  STOCK— LOCUST. 


form,  and  heavy.  In  it  is  situated  the  gall  (or  bile) 
bladder  and  duct,  the  contents  of  which  are  derived 
from  the  impurities  of  the  blood,  taken  out  by  the 
liver.  This  large  organ  is  subject  to  several  diseases, 
as  follows : 

Congestion.  This  is  known  by  a  sense  of  weight 
and  a  moderate  pain  in  the  right  side,  both  in  front 
and  under  the  right  shoulder  blade,  constipation  and 
lead-colored  stools,  nausea,  furred  tongue,  bitter  taste 
in  the  mouth,  a  yellowish  skin  and  white  of  the  eye, 
and  headache  or  dizziness.  In  the  chronic  form 
these  symptoms  are  not  so  prominent,  are  not  constant, 
but  are  fi.xed.  In  the  early  stages  the  regular  profes- 
sion recommend  blue  mass  at  bed-time,  two  or  three 
grains  at  a  dose,  for  two  or  three  nights.  Keep  the 
bowels  open.  Others  recommend  extract  of  dande- 
lion, in  pills,  one  grain  of  leptandrin  to  each  pill,  one 
pill  to  be  taken  every  night.  For  the  advanced  stages, 
give  three  or  four  drops,  twice  or  thrice  daily,  of  nitro- 
muriatic  acid.  The  "Hygienic"  system  urges  the  im- 
portance of  sweating  baths,  chest  compress,  friction, 
passive  exercise  and  abstinence  from  condiments 
and  doubtful  articles  of  food  and  drink. 

Inflammation.  The  symptoms  of  this  affection 
scarcely  diifer  from  those  of  congestion.  The  pain  in 
the  side  is  greater,  there  is  fever,  and  sometimes  vom- 
iting and  diarrhcea.  Avoid  mercurials.  Take  saline 
cathartics,  rest  in  bed,  vegetable  diet  and  cooling 
drinks,  as  lemonade  without  sugar. 

Jaundice:  see  page  879. 

Fatty  Degeneration.  The  liver  is  enlarged,  the 
pain  is  not  severe,  there  is  oppression  of  breathing, 
etc.,  but  the  evidences  of  this  particular  affection  are 
too  obscure,  even  for  a  skilled  physician.  Preventive 
hygiene  is  the  only  resort  for  mitigation  of  the  mala- 
dy, which  is  indeed  incurable. 

Other  diseases  of  the  liver  are  waxy  liver,  cancer, 
syphilitic  fever,  fungoid  growths,  etc.,  which  are  too 
difficult  of  diagnosis  and  treatment. 

Often  one  has  a  cough  and  fears  he  has  incipient 
bronchitis  or  consumption,  when  the  whole  cause  is 
the  pressure  of  the  enlarged  liver  upon  the  lungs. 
When  the  cough  is  dry,  non-expectorating  and  not 
severe,  oppression  by  the  liver  is  probably  the  only 
cause. 

Live  Stock :  see  Stock. 

Loam,  a  soil  chiefly  composed  of  silicious  sand, 
clay,  chalk,  lime  and  a  little  oxide  of  iron,  magnesia 
and  various  salts,  and  also  decayed  vegetable  and 
animal  matter,  giving  proportionate  fertility.  It  is  the 
standard  soil  for  the  purposes  of  cultivation.  See 
Soil. 

Loan,  money  lent.  Some  persons  loosely  use  this 
word  in  the  sense  of  "borrow,"  and  thus  unnecessarily 
obscure  their  meaning.  "  Lend"  and  "borrow"  are 
words  of  definite  signification,  which  all  persons  clearly 
understand. 

Lobelia,  or  Indian  Tobacco.  This  is  an  annual 
or  biennial  plant,  native  throughout  the  United  States, 


and  contains  most  valuable  medicinal  properties.  It 
is  emetic  and  stimulating,  and  from  its  action  on  the 
great  sympathetic  nerve,  its  effect  is  felt  throughout 
the  whole  system.  It  exerts  a  peculiar  action  upon 
the  trachea  and  bronchial  vessels,  expelling  all  col- 
lected mucus.  It  must,  therefore,  be  very  valuable  in 
asthma,  croup,  whooping-cough  and  consumption.  The 
greatest  benefit  from  it  has  been  found  in  dyspepsia, 
coughs,  asthma,  liver  complaints,  etc.  It  has  relieved 
asthmatic  subjects  when  on  the  point  of  suffocation 
by  accumulated  phlegm,  cough,  etc;  also  in  pneu- 
monia of  infants. 

Lobscouse,  a  hash  of  meat  with  vegetables  of 
various  kinds;  an  olio. 

Lobster,  a  large  crustacean,  of  the  appearance  of 
a  common  crawfish.  It  is  of  a  greenish  color,  but 
when  boiled  becomes  a  bright  scarlet  red.  They  are 
used  as  a  fancy  article  of  diet  to  a  small  extent  in  the 
cities. 

Lock-jaw,  or  Locked-jaw,  a  violent  contraction 
of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  but  particulariy  of  the 
jaw,  by  which  its  motion  is  suspended  ;  a  variety  of 
tetanus.  It  is  generally  caused  by  intense  pain  in  the 
extremities,  as  when  a  nail  is  run  into  the  foot.  Nar- 
cotic poisons  sometimes  produce  it.  Occasionally 
lock-jaw  makes  its  appearance  suddenly,  shortly  after 
the  injury  has  been  received,  but  generally  comes  on 
gradually,  beginning  with  a  slight  stiffness  in  the  back 
part  of  the  neck,  which  soon  increases  so  as  to  render 
it  difficult  and  pain/ul  to  move  the  head.  Soon  there 
will  be  pain  at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  tightness  across 
the  chest  and  pain  shooting  through  the  back.  The 
muscles  of  the  jaw  then  become  stiff  and  soon  locked 
so  tightly  that  it  is  imjxjssible  to  open  the  mouth. 
There  may  or  may  not  be  contraction  or  stiffness  in 
the  limbs  and  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Prevention.  Forthwith  bind  on  a  wound  in  the 
bottom  of  the  foot  or  palm  of  the  hand  a  rind  of  salt 
jxsrk.  If  the  part  swell,  bathe  it  in  strong  wormwood 
tea,  and  bind  on  another  pork  rind;  rest  till  healed. 
Or,  soak  the  limb  well  in  warm^  lye,  and  apply  a  hot 
Indian-meal  poultice,  wet  with'  lye.  Renew  it  when 
cold. 

Treatment.  Sweating  is  of  the  first  imix)rtance  in 
this  complaint.  As  soon  as  the  sym]3toms  are  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  indicate  the  disease,  get  the  patient 
under  the  infhience  of  lobelia  as  soon  as  possible. 
This  will  relax  the  muscles.  Give  tinctures  <?f  lobelia 
and  Cayenne,  in  tablespoonful  doses,  two  parts  of  the 
former  and  one  of  the  latter.  If  the  jaws  are  so  set 
that  they  cannot  be  opened,  pour  the  mixture  down 
by  the  side  of  the  teeth,  and  close  the  lips.  If  it  finds 
its  way  into  the  mouth  and  throat  it  will  relax  the 
muscles.  Repeat  the  dose  until  relaxation  is  effected. 
Should  the  case  be  very  severe  and  serious,  give  also 
injections  of  lobelia,  Cayenne  and  laudanum. 

Ix>ck-jaw  in  cattle:  see  page  231;  and  in  horse, 
page  789. 

Locust,  a  well-known  insect,  usually  termed  the 


LOGS— LOTION. 


947 


"  grasshopper. "  See  page  860.  Also,  a  tree,  of  which 
there  are  two  species, — the  Common  and  the  Honey 
Locust.  The  Common  does  ■well  as  an  ornamental 
or  shade  tree  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States ;  but 
in  the  prairies  of  the  Northwest  the  wind  and  the 
locust  borer  injure  it  and  render  it  very  unsightly. 
The  Honey  Locust  is  a  native  of  the  central  ix)rtion 
of  the  United  States,  and  does  well  for  hedge-fencing 
in  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota,  possibly  better  than  the 
Osage  orange. 

Logs,  To  Measure  :  see  Lumber. 

Logwood,  a  small  leguminous  tree  of  Central 
America,  the  wood  of  which  is  extensively  used  in 
dyeing,  producing  a  deep  red  color  that  becomes  dark 
by  exposure.  It  lias  a  slight  jieculiar  odor  and  sweet 
but  somewhat  astringent  taste.  Medicinally  it  is  a 
mild  astringent  and  styptic,  antiseptic,  being  very 
valuable  in  diarrhoea,  dysentery,  foul  ulcers  and 
wounds,  etc.  It  is  sold  at  the  drug  stores  in  the 
form  of  chips,  is  very  cheap  a-d  convenient  to  pre- 


hooting  of  the  owl  are  nothing  like  as  wild  and  weird 
as  the  cry  of  the  loon.  The  bird  is  about  three  feet 
long  from  the  point  of  its  bill  to  the  end  of  its  tail, 
with  a  spread  of  wings  of  about  five  feet.  The  illus- 
tration given  on  this  page  plainly  shows  the  outline  of 
its  body.  Its 'color  is  brownish  black,  though  the  feet 
are  grayish  blue.  It  is  unable  to  walk  well  on  land, 
its  legs  being  so  short,  but  it  is  an  excellent  swimmer 
and  diver,  remaining  for  a  long  time  under  water,  and 
swimming  rapidly  wliile  beneath  the  surface.  When 
alarmed,  it  swims  very  low  in  the  water,  not  more  than 
an  inch  of  the  line  of  the  back  with  the  neck  and 
'  '4  being  visible.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  shoot 
thi  J  birds,  as  they  dive  instantly  upon  seeing  the 
fla  h  of  the  gun,  and  rise  to  the  surface  a  considerable 
distance  away  after  a  lapse  of  some  time.  The  bird 
then  keeps  turning  its  head  in  every  direction,  watch- 
ing for  danger,  and  diving  agiin  upon  the  next  flash 
of  the  gun.  AVhen  followed  by  the  hunter  it  does  not 
attemj>t  to  fly,  but  relies  upon  diving  and  on  its  ability 
to  remain  under  water   for  its   safety.     Besides  the 


pare  and  apply.  Tlie  extract  is  a  popular  form  for 
both  dyeing  and  medical  uses.  The  decoction  is  nade 
by  boiling  2  ounces  of  chips  in  i  ])int  of  water;  allow 
it  to  stand  till  cold,  then  strain  through  a  cl-th  or  a 
fine  sieve;  for  horses  and  cows  this  quantity  will  make 
one  dose.  For  calves  with  scours  r  to  3  ounces  will 
be  the  dose,  which  repeat  if  the  case  demands  it.  It 
is  a  safe  and  cheap  remedy. 

Loon.  Frequently  the  Loon,  or  Great  Northern 
Diver,  is  seen  in  the  streams  and  lakes  of  some  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Its  cry  at  night  is  wild  enough ; 
and  at  times,  when  a  storm  is  approaching,  becomes 
absolutely  terrifying.  So  dismal  a  note  is  seldom 
heard  in  the  mountain  solitudes.  The  clanging  noise 
of  the  wild  goose,  the  harsh  croak  of  the  crane  or  the 


Great  Northern  Diver  there  are  two  other  Loons, 
named  respectively  the  Black-throated  Diver  and  the 
Red-throated  Diver.  Both  of  these  are  considerably 
smaller  in  size  than  the  first-named,  but  their  habits 
are  similar. 

Lotion,  a  medicated  liquid  for  washing  or  bath- 
ing any  diseased  part  of  an  animal.  Lotions  are  used 
])rincipally  in  cutaneous  diseases,  and  in  case  of  ex- 
ternal inflammation.  But  some  are  anodynes,  and 
contain  tlie  same  kind  of  sedative  or  narcotic  princi- 
ples as  anodyne  liniments;  some  are  stimulants,  and 
contain  principles  for  rousing  indolent  tumors  or 
ulcers ;  and  some  are  refrigerants,  and  contain  either 
saline  principles  which  reduce  the  temperature  at  the 
moment  of  their  being  applied,  or  spirituous  and  volatile 


948 


L  UBRICANTS—L  UMBER. 


substances  which  occasion  cold  by  their  evajxjration. 
Both  the  sedative  ones  and  the  stimulating  ones,  if 
wrongly  applied,  may  be  dangerous ;  all  the  refriger- 
ating ones  require  to  be  repeatedly  or  even  frequently 
applied ;  and  some  ordinary  ones  which  quacks  pre- 
scribe as  remedies  for  many  or  most  cases  of  external 
disease,  are  sometimes  very  mischievous,  and  may 
oftener  do  harm  than  good. 
Lubricants :  see  Oils. 

Lucern  (lu'cern),  or  Alfalfa,  a  species  of  clover 
which  thrives  on  the  Western  plains  and  in  the  Pacific 
States,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  best  forage  plants 
for  cattle  and  swine.  In  many  sections  of  the  West 
it  is  more  profitable  than  any  other  species  of  forage, 
as  it  stands  drouth  belter  than  other  clovers.  It 
wants  old,  rich  and  well-drained  land,  clear  of  weeds. 
Prepare  the  ground  thoroughly  by  plowing  and  har- 
rowing; sow  lo  to  20  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
about  the  middle  of  April,  for  the  latitude  of  Kansas; 
harrow  in  lightly,  following  with  the  roller,  if  possible. 
The  plants  make  a  feeble  growth  the  first  season. 
The  weeds  should  be  mowed  down,  running  the  scythe 
just  over  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa.  After  the  first  season 
this  plant  will  take  care  of  itself  and  keep  iX)ssession 
of  the  ground  for  many  years.  Its  greatest  enemy  is 
the  common  mole,  and  it  should  not  be  too  severely 
pastured  by  cattle  and  hogs  in  late  summer  and  fall. 
When  well  established  it  will  yield  three  or  four  crops 
each  season.  Plowing  under  a  crop  of  this  clover  is 
said  to  be  the  best  method  of  reducing  the  lands  of 
the  West. 

In  the  South  lucern  will  yield  more  provender  to 
the  acre  than  any  forage  plant  in  the  North,  one  acre 
producing  enough  for  five  horses  a  year.  Raising 
forage  in  this  way  is  far  cheaper  than  to  pull  blades  of 
corn,  and  some  cheaper  even  than  cutting  corn-stalks 
in  the  field,  all  losses  considered. 

Lucern  should  be  top-dressed  every  third  year  with 
some  manure  free  from  the  seeds  of  weeds.  Ashes 
are  very  suitable  for  it.  The  lucern  field  should  be 
near  as  possible  to  the  stables,  as  work-horses,  during 
the  spring  and  summer,  should  be  fed  with  it  in  a 
green  or  wilted  state. 

The  roots  of  this  plant  go  down  deeper  into  the 
earth  than  those  of  any  other  herbaceous  plant,  and 
hence  brings  up  more  nutritive  elements  to  the  surface. 
It  is  therefore  the  best  plant  in  the  world  for  reno- 
vating old  soils. 

Lumber.  Under  this  head  we  will  include  sawed 
and  hewn  timber  in  the  rough,  and  the  only  practical 
remarks  to  be  made  in  this  connection  consist  of  the 
best  ways  of  measuring  lumber  in  its  various  market- 
able shapes. 

Board  Measure.  Sawed  lumber  as  joists,  plank 
and  scantlings  are  bought  and  sold  by  board  measure. 
The  unit  of  this  measure  is  a  superficial  foot  one  inch 
thick,  or  one  foot  of  lumber  is  as  if  it  was  one  foot 
long,  one  foot  wide  and  one  inch  thick.  To  find  the 
contents  of  lumber  by  this  measure,  multiply  the 
breadth  in   inches  by  the  thickness  in   inches,  and 


that  by  the  length  in  feet  and  divide  the  product  by 
12,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  contents. 

Timber  Measure.  Round,  sawed  or  hewn  timber 
is  bought  and  sold  by  the  cubic  foot.  Round  timber 
when  squared  is  estimated  to  lose  one-fifth ;  hence  a 
ton  of  round  timber  contains  only  40  cubic  feet. 

To  measure  round  timber,  take  the  girth  in  inches 
at  both  ends,  add  them,  and  divide  the  sum  by  two 
for  the  mean  girth.  Then  multiply  the  length  in  feet 
by  the  square  of  one-fourth  of  the  mean  girth  in 
inches,  divide  the  product  by  144,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

Exa?nple.  What  are  the  cubic  contents  of  a  round 
log  16  feet  long,  28  inches  around  at  the  small  end 
and  44  at  the  large  end?  Solution:  28  plus  44 
equals  72,  which  divided  by  2  gives  36,  the  mean 
girth.  The  square  of  one-fourth  of  this  is  81,  which 
multiplied  by  16,  the  length  of  the  log,  gives  1296. 
This  divided  by  144  gives  9,  the  cubic  feet  in  the  log. 

To  measure  square  timber  multiply  the  breadth  in 
inches  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  that  by  the  length 
in  feet,  and  divide  the  product  by  144,  and  the 
quotient  will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

Example.  What  are  the  cubic  contents  of  a  square 
log  20  feet  long,  by  22  inches  broad  and  .18  deep? 
.Solution:  22  multiiilied  by  18  gives  396,  and  this  by 
20,  the  length  in  feet,  gives  7920,  which  divided  by 
144  gives  55,  the  number  of  cubic  feet. 

Spars  from  4%  to  10  inches  in  diameter  inclusive, 
are  measured  by  taking  the  diameter,  clear  of  bark, 
at  one-third  of  their  length  from  the  large  end. 
Spars  are  usually  bought  and  sold  by  the  inch 
diameter;  all  under  four  inches  are  considered  poles. 
Spruce  spars  of  seven  inches  and  less  should  have 
five  feet  in  length  for  every  inch  in  diameter. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  have  occa- 
sion to  measure  lumber  we  give  the  following 

Table,  showing  the  Number  of  Feet,  Board  Meas- 
ure, of  Joist,  Scantling  and  Timber  of  given  Lengths 
and  Sizes : 


Size    in 
Inches. 


2x4.. 
2x6.. 
2x8.. 
2x10. 

2X12. 

?,'H  ■  ■ 
3X6.. 
3X8.. 
3x10. 
3x12. 
4x4.. 
4x6.  . 
4x8  .  . 
4X10. 
4x12. 

6x6.. 
6x8.. 
6x10. 
6x12. 
8x8.. 
8x10. 
8x12. 
10x10 
10x12 

12X12 

12X14 
J4XI4 


Length 

IN  F 

EET. 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

8 

Q 

II 

12 

■1 

'.s 

16 

■7 

'3 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

16 

19 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

35 

37 

20 

23 

27 

30 

^^ 

37 

40 

43 

47 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

=4 

28 

32 

,16 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

30 

IS 

40 

4,S 

•;o 

.SS 

60 

65 

70 

3b 

42 

4S 

.M 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

16 

iq 

21 

24 

27 

29 

32 

35 

37 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

,56 

.12 

37 

43 

48 

SI 

59 

64 

69 

75 

40 

47 

■il 

60 

67 

73 

80 

87 

93 

48 

so 

64 

72 

80 

88 

Q6 

104 

112 

36 

42 

48 

';4 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

48 

■■;<> 

64 

72 

So 

88 

96 

104 

112 

60 

70 

80 

go 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

72 

S4 

q6 

108 

120 

I3<r 

144 

1,6 

168 

64 

IS 

»■■; 

96 

107 

'17 

128 

139 

149 

80 

93 

107 

120 

133 

147 

160 

173 

187 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

.76 

192 

208 

224 

100 

i'7 

133 

i.SO 

167 

.83 

200 

217 

233 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

260 

280 

144 

■  68 

162 

216 

240 

264 

288 

312 

336 

168 

iq6 

224 

2.S2 

280 

308 

.336 

364 

392 

iq6 

229 

261 

294 

327 

3'=9 

392 

425 

457 

30 
40 
50 
60 
30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

40 

60 

80 

100 

120 

90 

120 

'50 
180 
160 
200 
24c 
250 
300 
360 
420 
49° 


LUNAR  CAUSTIC— LYMPH. 


949 


Lunar  Caustic,  fused  and  mold-cast  nitrate  of 
silver.  It  is  prepared  for  the  purposes  of  pharmacy 
by  a  series  of  operations  with  silver,  nitric  acid,  and 
distilled  water,  but  may  be  summarily  regarded  as 
nitrate  of  silver  liijuefied  by  heat,  and  cast  in  small 
cylindrical  molds.  The  litde  cylinders  of  it  are 
solid  and  dark  grey,  and  when  broken  across  show  a 
crystallized  structure.  It  is  inodorous,  and  has  an 
intensely  bitter,  caustic,  metallic  taste,  and  gives  a 
black  tinge  to  skin  and  hair.  Lunar  caustic  is  pref- 
erable to  all  other  caustics  for  rubbing  over  a  rabid 
dog'h  bite  upon  horses,  and  is  excelled  only  by  butter 
of  antimony  for  destroying  fungous  growths  in  the 
wounds  and  ulcers  of  horses.  It  is  used  for  giving  a 
black  stain  to  red  or  light  hair,  and  is  the  basis  for  in- 
delible ink  for  marking  linen. 

Lungs.  For  diseases  of  the  lungs,  see  Consump- 
tion, i)age  280;  in  Cattle,  pages  226  and  234;  in 
Horses,  page  790.  For  bleeding  of  the  lungs,  or 
spitting  blood,  take  a  teaspoonful  of  dry  salt  occasion- 
ally and  bathe  the  feet  in  warm  water.  In  very 
severe  cases  keep  the  patient  quiet  and  give  powder 
composed  of  i  grain  of  Cayenne  and   J^  grain  each 


of  opium  and  ipecac  every  two  or  three  hours  un- 
until  relief  is  afforded.  Or  give  one  tablespoonful 
each  of  vinegar  and  paregoric  in  a  cup  of  cold  water 
every  half  hour.  Sponge  the  chest  with  cold  water 
and  keej)  the  shoulders  raised.  Do  not  permit  the 
patient  to  talk.  Hemorrhage  of  the  lungs  may  be 
easily  distinguished  from  that  of  the  stomach,  the 
latter  of  which  is  less  dangerous.  Blood  from  the 
stomach  is  much  darker  in  color,  more  or  less  mixed 
with  the  contents  of  the  stomach,  and  is  vomited  up, 
while  the  blood  from  the  lungs  is  thrown  up  in  small 
quantities  by  coughing  or  hawking,  is  moie  or  less 
mixed  with  mucus,  and  is  of  a  florid  color. 

Lute,  in  chemistry,  a  pasty  matter  used  to  fill 
cracks  in  vessels,  or  coat  their  surfaces  from  fire.  Clay, 
putty,  dough,  lime,  white  of  eggs  and  melted  India 
rubber  are  variously  used  for  this  purpose. 

Lye,  a  fluid  saturated  with  potash  or  other  salts. 

Lymph,  the  fluid  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  It 
is  slightly  milky,  but  becomes  pink  on  exposure  to 
air'  and  divides  into  a  clot  and  fluid  part.  It  is  the 
surplus  nutritious  fluid  returned  from  every  part  of 
the  body  to  the  blood  through  the  thoracic  duct. 


am'/fca-ata-ea 


M 


'  ACAHONI,  edible  paste  dried  in  tubular 
form,  for  preservation  and  the  market.  It 
.  is  prepared  for  the  table  in  various  ways. 
I.  Simmer  it  in  water  in  which  some  pep- 
per and  allspice  tied  up  in  muslin  have  been 
previously  boiled  together,  with  a  piece  of 
butter  and  some  salt.  When  nearly  done,  pour 
off  the  liciuor  and  let  it  steam  for  a  while.  2. 
Boil  four  ounces  of  the  macaroni  in  veal  broth  until 
tender;  drain  off  the  broth  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
cream,  an  ounce  of  fresh  butter,  and  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  grated  cheese,  with  some  salt  and  pepper. 
Mix  well  together  over  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
it  is  then  ready  to  serve.  3.  Macaroni  pudding: 
Pour  a  pint  of  cream  boiling  hot  on  the  crumbs  of 
a  penny  loaf,  or  French  roll;  cut  one  pound  of  beef 
marrow  very  thin;  beat  four  eggs  well;  add  a  glfiss  of 
brandy,  svith  sugar  and  nutmeg  to  taste,  and  mix  all 
well  together.  It  may  be  either  boiled  or  baked,  40 
or  50  minutes;  cut  two  ounces  of  citron  very  thin, 
and  place  the  slices  all  over  the  pudding. 

Macaroon  (mac-a-roon),  a  small  cake  composed 
chiefly  of  almonds  and  sugar. 

Mace,  the  spicy  covering  of  nutmegs,  used  in  fla- 
voring. 

Machinery.  The  utility  of  machinery  in  its  ap- 
plication to  manufactures  consists  in  the  addition 
which  it  makes  to  human  power,  the  economy  of 
human  time,  and  in  the  conversion  of  substances 
apparently  worthless  into  valuable  products.  The 
forces  derived  from  wind,  from  water,  and  from  steam 
are  so  many  additions  to  human  power. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  force  necessary 
to  move  a  stone  on  the  smoothed  floor  of  its  quarry  is 
nearly  two-tnirds  of  its  weight;  on  a  wooden  floor, 
three-fifths;  if  soaped,  one-sixth  ;  upon  rollers  on  the 
quarry  floor,  one  thirty-second;  on  wood,  one-fortieth. 
At  each  increase  of  knowledge,  and  on  the  contrivance 
of  every  new  tool,  human  labor  is  abridged;  the  man 
who  contrived  rollers  quintupled  his  [X)wer  over  brute 
matter.  The  next  use  of  machinery  is  the  economy 
of  time,  and  this  is  too  apparent  to  require  illustra- 
tion, and  may  result  either  from  the  increase  of  force 
or  from  the  improvement  in  the  contrivance  of  tools, 
or  from  both  united.  Instances  of  the  production  of 
valuable  substances  from  worthless  materials  are  con- 
stantly occurring  in  all  the  arts ;  and  though  this  may 
appear  to  be  merely  the  consequence  of  scientific 
knowledge,  yet  it  is  evident  that  science  can  not  exist. 


nor  could  its  lessons  be  made  productive  by  applica- 
tion, without  machinery.  In  the  history  of  every 
science  we  find  the  improvements  of  its  machinery, 
the  invention  of  instruments,  to  constitute  an  import- 
ant part.  The  chemist,  the  astronomer,  the  physician, 
the  farmer,  the  painter,  the  sculptor,  is  such  only  by 
the  application  of  machinery. 

Applied  science  in  all  its  forms,  and  the  fine  and 
useful  arts,  are  the  triumph  of  the  mind,  indeed,  but 
gained  through  the  instrumentality  of  machinery. 

The  difference  between  a  tool  and  a  machine  is 
not  capable  of  a  very  precise  distinction,  nor  is  it 
necessary,  in  a  popular  examination  of  them,  to  make 
any  distinction.  A  tool  is  usually  a  more  simple 
machine,  and  generally  used  by  the  hand;  a  machir.e 
is  a  complex  tool,  a  collection  of  tools,  and  frequently 
])ut  in  action  by  inanimate  force.  All  machines  are 
intended  either  to  produce  power,  or  merely  to  trans- 
mit power  and  execute  work.  Of  the  class  of  i>iechan- 
ical  agents  by  which  motion  is  transmitted,  the  lever, 
the  pulley,  the  wedge,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
no  power  is  gained  by  their  use,  however  combined. 
Whatever  force  is  applied  at  one  pare,  can  only  be 
exerted  at  some  other,  diminished  by  friction  and 
other  incidental  causes ;  and  whatever  is  gained  in 
the  rapidity  of  e.xecution  is  compensated  by  the  neces- 
sity of  exerting  additional  force.  These  two  principles 
should  be  constantly  borne  in  mind,  and  teach  us  to 
limit  our  attempts  to  things  which  are  possible. 

Madder,  a  shrub  the  roots  of  which  are  used  in 
the  process  of  dyeing  fabrics.  This  can  sometimes  be 
profitably  raised  in  the  Northern  States.  The  soil 
should  be  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  free  from  weeds,  roots, 
stones,  etc.,  and  containing  a  good  |X3rtion  of  vege- 
table earth.  Alluvial  bottom  land  is  the  most  suitable, 
but  it  must  not  be  wet.  Plow  deeply  in  the  fall  and 
spring,  and  roll  and  harrow.  Next,  plow  the  land 
into  beds  four  feet  wide,  leaving  alleys  between,  three 
feet  wide.  Madder  sets,  or  seed  roots,  are  best 
selected  when  the  crop  is  dug  in  the  fall.  The  hori- 
zontal uppermost  roots,  with  eyes,  are  the  kind  to  be 
used  ;  these  should  be  separated  from  the  bottom  roots, 
and  buried  in  sand  in  a  cellar  or  pit.  They  should  be 
cut  or  broken  in  pieces  containing  two  to  five  eyes 
each,  that  is,  three  to  four  inches  long.  Plant  about 
the  middle  of  April,  in  the  beds  prepared  as  above 
directed,  three  rows  to  each  bed,  and  10  inches  apart 
in  the  row,  and  covering  them  two  inches  deep.  Eight 
or  ten  bushels  are  required  for  an  acre.  Weed  and 
hoe  carefully  and  thoroughly  during  the  summer,  fill- 


MAD-DOG— MANDIBLE. 


951 


ing  the  vacancies  by  sections  of  the  stronger  roots,  in 
June.  When  the  plants  are  10  or  12  inches  high, 
bend  the  tops  down  to  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
cover  all  except  the  tip  end  with  earth  from  the  alleys, 
bend  the  shoots  outward  and  inward  in  every  direc- 
tion so  as  in  time  to  fill  all  the  vacant  space  on  the 
beds,  and  about  one  foot  on  each  side.  Cultivate  the 
alleys,  and  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  about  a  foot  high 
again  bend  down  and  cover  them  as  before.  This 
process  is  repeated  the  third  time  during  the  first  sea- 
son, the  last  time  being  as  late  as  September.  The 
object  is  to  fill  the  ground  as  full  of  roots  as  possible. 
Repeat  these  processes  the  second  year,  taking  care 
to  keep  the  edges  of  the  beds  as  high  as  the  middle, 
to  retain  somewhat  of  the  rains.  Pull  out  what  weeds 
appear,  and  plow  the  alleys.  Very  little  attention  is 
rec^uired  the  third  year,  at  the  end  of  which,  or  of  the 
fourth  year,  the  roots  may  be  dug  the  first  part  of 
September.  With  a  sharp  shovel  cut  off  and  remove 
the  tops,  with  half  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  earth; 
then  take  a  plow  of  the  largest  size,  with  a  sharp 
coulter  and  a  double  team,  and  plow  a  furrow  out- 
ward, beam  deep,  around  the  edge  of  the  bed;  stir 
the  earth  with  forks,  and  carefully  pick  out  all  the 
roots,  removing  the  earth  from  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
row; then  plow  another  furrow,  and  proceed  thus 
until  the  work  is  done. 

As  soon  as  jxissible  after  digging,  wash  the  roots  in 
a  running  stream,  or  under  a  pump  spout.  Conven- 
ient vessels  for  washing  are  half-bushel  boxes  with  a 
wire-screen  bottom.  Stir  the  roots  about  in  the  water 
and  pull  them  apart.  When  washed  clean,  lay  them 
out  upon  iilatforms  to  dry.  After  the  second  or  third 
day's  drying  the  madder  should  be  protected  against 
dews  at  night  and  rain,  placing  the  platforms  ujxin 
one  another  and  covering  the  uppermost  one.  Five 
or  six  days  of  ordinarily  fine  weather  will  dry  the 
madder  sufficiently,  when  it  may  be  put  away  till  it  is 
convenient  to  kiln-dry  and  grind  it. 

The  size  and  mode  of  constructing  the  kiln  for  dry- 
ing madder  may  be  varied  to  suit  the  circumstances. 
A  good  and  cheap  plati  for  drying  a  ton  of  roots  at  a 
time  is  the  following :  Set  four  strong  ix)sts  in  the 
ground  1 2  feet  apart  one  way  and  1 8  the  other,  the 
front  two  14  feet  high  and  the  others  18;  put  girths 
across  the  bottom,  middle  and  top,  and  nail  boards 
perpendicularly  on  the  outside  as  for  a  common  barn. 
The  boards  must  be  well  seasoned,  and  all  cracks  and 
holes  should  be  otherwise  stopped  up.  Make  a  shed 
roof  of  common  boards.  In  the 'inside  put  upright 
standards  about  five  feet  apart,  with  cross-pieces  'to 
support  the  scaffolding,  the  first  cross-pieces  to  be 
four  feet  from  the  floor,  the  next  two  feet  higher,  and 
so  on  to  the  top.  On  these  cross-pieces  lay  small 
poles  about  six  feet  long  and  two  inches  thick,  four  or 
five  inches  apart.  On  these  scaffolds  the  madder  is 
to  be  spread  nine  inches  thick.  A  floor  is  laid  at  the 
bottom,  to  keep  all  dry  and  clean.  When  the  kiln  is 
filled,  take  six  or  eight  small  kettles  or  hand  furnaces, 
and  place  them  four  or  five  feet  apart  on  the  floor,  but 
on  bricks  or  stones;  in  these  make  charcoal  fires,  but 


not  so  large  as  to  scorch  the  madder  over  them.  A 
person  must  be  in  constant  attendance  to  watch  and 
replenish  the  fires.  In  10  or  12  hours  the  madder 
will  be  sufficiently  dried,  when  it  will  be  as  brittle  as 
pipe-stems.  Immediately  after  it  is  dried  it  should  be 
threshed  with  flails  or  broken  by  machinery,  so  that 
it  will  feed  in  a  common  grist-mill.  If  not  immediately 
ground  it  will  gather  dampness  and  become  too  tough 
for  grinding.  Any  common  grist-mill  can  grind  the 
roots  properly.  When  ground  finely  it  is  fit  for  use,, 
and  for  market  may  be  packed  in  barrels  like  flour. 

In  one  crop  of  four  years'  growth  2,000  barrels  per 
acre  have  been  raised,  at  a  net  profit  of  $200. 

Mad-dog,  Bite  of:  see  Bites  and  Hydrophobia. 

Mad  Staggers,  of  horse:  see  page  790. 

Magnesia,  an  alkaline  earth  employed  in  many 
medicines  and  sometimes  in  household  receipts.  The 
salts  of  magnesia,  as  carbonate,  sulphate  etc,  are  also 
extensively  used.  If  too  much  magnesia  is  swallowed 
by  mistake,  let  the  patient  take  vinegar  or  lemon 
juice. 

Magnetism,  the, force  of  attraction  and  repulsion 
acting  between  substances.  There  are  the  varieties 
of  "animal "magnetism,  electro-magnetism,  terrestrial, 
cosmical,  etc.  The  first  two  are  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  Hygiene,  which  see. 

Magpie.  This  crafty  and  well-known  bird  is  found 
on  both  continents,  though  it  is  much  more  limited  in 
its  range  in  America,  being  confined  to  the  northern 
and  western  regions.  In  its  habits  and  manners  it 
much  resembles  its  brethren,  the  crows ;  like  them,  it 
indiscriminately  feeds  on  both  animal  and  vegetable 
food;  it  is  peculiarly  destructive  to  eggs  and  young  of 
the  feebler  tribes  of  birds.  It  is  about  18  inches  in 
length  and  weighs  from  eight  to  nine  ounces.  It  has 
a  black  bill,  wings  and  tail,  but  the  latter  are  varie- 
gated with  white,  green,  purple  and  blue  of  different 
shades.  The  construction  of  the  nests  of  these  birds 
shows  great  art;  they  have  a  thorny  cover  and  the 
entrance  is  at  the  side.  The  female  lays  from  five  to 
seven  pale  greenish  eggs,  closely  spotted  with  black. 
When  taken  young  they  readily  become  domesticated 
and  learn  to  repeat  many  words  and  even  sentences, 
as  well  as  to  imitate  every  noise  within  hearing. 

Majolica  (ma-jol'i-ca),  a  kind  of  fine  pottery  or 
earthern-ware  with  painted  figures. 

Mallenders:  see  page  790. 

Mallow,  Indian:  see  Indian  Mallow. 

Malt,  grain,  especially  barley,  which  has  been 
soaked  in  water  to  the  verge  of  sprouting  and  then 
dried.  It  is  a  cheap  form  of  sugar,  used  as  the 
basis  of  beer  and  ale. 

Mandible,  the  upper  jaw  of  a  biting  insect.  It 
consists  of  one  piece,  and  is  more  like  a  pair  of  strong, 
notched  teeth  than  a  proper  jaw,  and  forms  the  chief 
instrument  in  breaking  and  triturating  the  insect's 
food.     It  is  generally  large  and  horny  in  beetles,  rain- 


952 


MANDRAKE— MANU FA  C  TORIES. 


ute  and  membranous  in  moths  and  butterflies,  and 
long,  slender  and  lance-like  in  hemipters,  and  often 
entirely  wanting  in  flies,  yet  very  distinct  in  gnats 
and  gadflies. 

Mandrake,  belladonna  or  May-apple, — two  very 
different  plants;  but  the  word  is  used  in  both  senses. 

Manege  (ma-naizh'),  or  Menage  (ma-nazh'),  the 
art  of  horsemanship,  or  of  training  horses  ;  also,  a 
school  for  teaching  these  arts. 

Mange  (mainj),  the  scab  or  itch,  in  domestic  ani- 
mals. For  mange  in  the  horse,  see  page  790;  in  cat- 
tle, see  page  231. 

Mangel  Wurzel  (mangl  wurzl),  a  species  of  beet, 
particularly  valuable  for  stock  and  for  sugar-making. 
Nothing  is  better  for  milch  cows  daring  the  winter. 

Cultivation.  Drill  the  seed  for  horse  culture  two 
and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  when  the  plants  are  well 
up  or  the  size  of  a  good  cabbage  plant,  thin  them  to 
about  one  foot  apart,  leaving  the  strongest  plants ; 
keep  down  the  weeds  at  the  start  with  a  hoe  or  hand 
cultivator,  and  you  will  soon  be  able  to  manage  them 
with  a  shovel-plow.  For  hand  cultivation,  plant  them 
about  20  inches  between  rows,  and  thin  to  about  15 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  In  this  way  you  can  raise 
from  one  pound  of  seed  about  four  tons.  Have  a 
safe  place  to  store  them  from  frost,  and  as  handy  to 
feed  out  as  possible.  With  a  corn-knife,  cut  them  up 
small  enough  for  cows  to  eat,  and  feed  them  raw. 
They  should  be  pulled  up,  the  tops  twisted  off,  and 
laid  in  the  sun  long  enough  to  let  the  dirt  dry  on 
them,  and  hauled  at  once  to  where  they  won't  freeze 
or  even  get  frosted.  They  need  the  same  care  as  po- 
tatoes. Haul  the  tops  to  the  brood  sows  and  pigs. 
Now,  the  next  year  plant  them  in  the  same  place.  If 
you  keep  them  clean  this  year  you  will  have  less 
trouble  the  next  year  with  weeds. 

Varieties.  Improved  American  Sugar  or  Lane^s. 
A  long  white  variety  for  stock. 

The  Long  Red.     One  of  the  best  for  all  purposes. 

Carter's  Mammoth.     Very  large. 

Carter  s  Orange  Globe.  The  best  variety  of  yellow 
globe. 

Yellow  Globe,  Red  Globe  and  White  Sugar.  Suc- 
ceed better  than  the  long  sorts  in  sandy  soil. 

Vilmorins  Improved  French  White  Sugar.  One 
•of  the  best  for  sugar. 

Yello7V  Ovoid.     Symmetrical  and  free  from  rootlets. 

Red  Giant  Ovoid.  Very  large  and  pulls  up  free  from 
dirt. 

Norbiton  Giant.  A  new  English  variety  which 
tends  less  to  a  hollow  neck  than  the  old  long  red 
kind. 

Knauers  Improved  Imperial.  The  standard  Ger- 
man variety  for  making  sugar. 

Manger,  a  fixed  trough  at  the  head  of  a  stall  for 
holding  the  hay,  the  chaff,  fodder,  etc.,  for  the  horse 
or  the  cow.  A  horse's  manger  is  generally  made  to 
extend  from  side  to  side  of  the  stall  but  »eally  does 
jiot  need  to  be  more  than  about  20  inches  long  and 


16  inches  wide,  and  may,  in  many  instances,  be  most 
conveniently  placed  in  one  of  the  corners  of  the 
stall ;  and  it  ought,  in  every  case,  to  be  a  movable 
fixture,  so  that  it  may  readily  be  taken  out  to  be 
cleaned.  A  cow's  manger  ought  to  be  placed  high 
enough  above  the  floor  to  prevent  any  straining  of  the 
lower  jaw  or  the  forelegs  when  the  anin-'al  is  grap- 
pling with  the  food,  and  ought  also  to  be  wide  enough 
for  a  horned  cow  to  prevent  her  from  rubbing  and 
wearing  the  tips  of  her  horns  against  the  wall. 

Man-hole,  a  hole  through  which  a  man  may  creep 
into  a  drain,  cess-iX3ol,  steam  boiler,  etc.,  to  clean  or 
repair. 

Manila  (ma-nil' a),  a  fiber  from  a  plant  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  used  in  cordage,  ropes,  etc. 

Manioc  (ma'ni-oc),  Manihot,  etc.  (the  word  is 
variously  spelled),  the  plant  from  which  cassava  and 
tapioca  are  prepared ;  also,  the  cassava  itself.  Can 
sometimes  be  found  on  sale  at  groceries  and  pro- 
vision stores. 

^  Manipulate  (ma-nip  u-late),  to  treat  or  work  any- 
thing with  the  hands;  to  manage  in  hand-work.  A 
cook  manipulates  flour  to  make  pastries;  a  nurse 
manipulates  a  patient  by  the  kneading,  rubbing,  etc., 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

Manna-croup,  ground  wheat  consisting  of  large, 
hard  grains  which  remain  in  the  bolting  machine  after 
the  fine  flour  has  been  sifted  out:  used  for  making 
pudding,  soups  and  the  like. 

Mansard-roof,  a  curb  roof:  see  example  in  article 
Barn. 

Manufactories.  A  country  which  is  exclusively 
agricultural  remains  comparatively  poor  in  respect  to 
many  of  the  luxuries  and  refinements  of  civilization, 
— mostly  for  the  reason  that  it  pays  a  heavy  tribute 
to  manufacturing  nations  or  centers  for  the  manufac- 
tured articles  they  use;  and  furthermore,  they  have 
not  the  means,  the  machinery  or  the  skill  to  manu- 
facture for  themselves.  At  the  other  extreme  is  the 
nation  that  is  dependent  mainly  upon  its  manufac- 
tures. When  other  nations  begin  to  take  care  of 
themselves  and  withhold  their  patronage,  this  exclu- 
sively manufacturing  nation  suffers.  America,  until 
some  time  in  the  nineteenth  century,  was  an  example 
of  the  former,  and  Holland  and  England  are  striking 
examples  of  the  latter.  Between  these  two  extremes, 
blessed  is  that  people  who  have  manufactories  enough 
for  themselves,  but  who  are  not  dependent  upon  for- 
eign patronage.  This  is  the  point  which  America 
has  now  attained, — bating  a  few  luxuries  which  the 
spendthrifts  of  the  cities  still  send  abroad  for. 

Some  years  ago  the  question  arose.  Why  should  the 
people  of  the  South  and  the  West  send  East  for  all 
their  manufactured  goods)?  and  the  answer  .was. 
There  is  not  sufficient  reason  for  pouring  our  wealth 
into  the  lap  of  the  East,  and  we  will  take  care  of  our- 
selves and  make  our  own  clothes,  tools,  fancy  articles, 
furniture  etc.     These  agricultural  sections,  therefore. 


MANURE. 


953 


have  established  many  factories  among  themselves; 
but  they  find  that  they  are  struggling,  especially  in 
certain  lines,  against  the  low-priced  labor  of  poor  peo- 
ple in  the  older  sections,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  where  the  capitalists  are  thus  enabled  to 
manufacture  and  ship  into  the  interior  of  this  country 
at  a  cheaper  rate  than  Westerners  can  afford  to  make 
for  themselves.  In  other  words,  the  people  of  the 
newer  sections  can  make  more  money  by  other  labor 
than  working  in  a  factory.  Hence,  whiggism,  tariff, 
protection  etc. 

Moreover,  some  sections  remain  long  deprived  of 
manufacturing  industries  because  the  people  there  are 
either  unenterprising  or  are  dangerous.  Being  igno- 
rant and  suspecting,  they  imagine  the  immigrant  cap- 
italist has  come  in  to  rob  them,overturn  theircustoms 
or  do  them  harm,  and  the  worst  of  them  mask  them- 
selves some  night  and  burn  the  factory.  Of  course 
moneyed  men  will  keep  away  from  such  sections. 

It  appears,  therefore,  to  be  the  interest  of  every 
community,  to  manufacture  for  itself  all  it  needs,  but 
to  be  cautious  how  it  renders  itself  dependent  upon 
exports  for  existence.  Exporting  is  all  well  enough 
when  there  is  an  opportunity  to  gain  by  it,  but  it  is 
not  a  steady  and  lasting  support  of  national  existence, 
or  of  national  thrift.  An  agricultural  community  can 
live  without  the  manufacturing  people,  but  the  man- 
ufacturing people  cannot  live  without  the  agricultural. 

Manure.  In  the  virgin  land  of  our  prairies,  the 
expedients  adopted  in  older  countries  for  refreshing 
and  invigorating  the  land  are  found  to  be  wholly 
unnecessary.  The  early  settlers  in  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  and  the  Carolinas  raised  prime  crops 
throughout  a  series  of  from  20  to  50  years  without 
once  using  any  kind  of  manure.  The  successors  of 
the  original  cultivators  of  some  parts  of  Illinois  con- 
tinued even  longer  to  raise  cereal  crops  without  man- 
ure; and  the  settlers  in  Iowa  and  other  regions 
of  the  West  are  pursuing  the  same  easy  and  luxurious 
course.  When  the  tract  in  the  Green  Mountains  in 
Massachusetts  was  first  settled  the  same  exuberant 
fertility  was  attributed  to  it  that  has  since  character- 
ized Kentucky  and  many  other  States.  From  those 
regions  the  paradise  traveled  to  the  western  parts  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  to  Connecticut,  to  the  countries 
on  the  Ohio,  to  the  Southwest,  to  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi,  and  is  now  making  its  progress  beyond 
the  Missouri  river.  In  consequence  of  the  long  accu- 
mulation of  vegetable  mold,  those  regions,  even  if 
naturally  sterile,  held  out  at  first  the  promise  of  an 
abundant  return  to  the  cultivator.  In  consequence, 
too,  of  the  accumulation  of  azotized  and  phosphatic 
substances  from  the  excrementation  of  birds,  the 
exuvise  of  reptiles,  and  the  tones  of  many  kinds  of 
vertebrated  animals,  and  still  more  of  the  vast  native 
store  of  saline  substances  derived  from  transmuta- 
tions of  the  surface  rocks,  and  from  other  sources,  the 
virgin  lands  of  the  prairies  possess  a  vastness  of  fer- 
tility which  the  most  scourging  husbandry  could  not 
possibly,  for  a  long  period,  exhaust  or  even  seriously 
reduce ;  but  without  due  attention  and  proper  regard 


it  can  and  will  finally  be  done,  leaving  a  barren   soil. 

Now,  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  post-diluvian 
world,  and  all  the  first  settlers  in  all  the  arable  re- 
gions of  the  old  Continent,  such  as  the  first  Phoeni- 
cian colonists  in  Greece,  and  the  first  Greek  colonists 
in  Italy  and  Spain,  would  find  themselves  placed  in 
the  same  luxurious  agricultural  circumstances  as  the 
first  settlers  of  our  own  prairies,  and  when  they  had 
cropped  any  tract  to  exhaustion,  by  any  such  process 
as  would  simply  remove  their  herds  and  habitations 
to  some  new  piece  of  virgin  land.  The  marvelous 
ease  with  which' they  extracted  produce  from  the  soil, 
the  constant  succession  and  the  great  plenteousness 
of  their  cereal  crops,  and  the  facility  of  their  immi- 
grations uix)n  tract  after  tract  of  the  most  productive 
land,  seem,  in  fact,  to  have  been  the  very  elements  of 
the  well-known  day-dreams  of  the  earliest  Greeks  of 
the  historical  period  respecting  a  golden  age. 

But  the  time  would  come  when  they  could  no 
longer  live  solely  upon  virgin  land,  when  they  would 
be  prevented,  by  the  increase  of  population  and  the 
difficulty  of  travelling,  from  abandoning  the  lands 
which  they  had  exhausted,  and  when  they  would  feel 
compelled  to  attempt  the  re -fertilization  of  these  lands 
by  manuring,  to  indtate,  on  a  large  scale,  those  natural 
processes  of  accumulating  the  mold  of  decayed  veg- 
etation, the  droppings  of  animals,  and  the  gathering 
together  of  all  sorts  of  organic  refuse  by  which  the 
lands  had  been  originally  enriched.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  iX)pulation  became  eventually  obliged  to 
remain  stationary,  and  required,  as  truly  as  the  agri- 
cultural inhabitants  of  the  old  countries  of  the  present 
day,  to  practice  manuring  in  order  to  maintain  produc- 
tiveness in  the  soil,  or  to  render  agricultural  labors  re- 
munerating. 

Homer  mentions  an  old  king  as  found  manuring 
his  field  with  his  own  hands,  and  describes  a  dog  as 
laying  upon  a  heap  of  dung  with  which  the  laborers 
were  about  to  manure  the  farm.  Cicero  observes  that 
no  notice  of  manuring  is  taken  by  Herod.  Augeas 
is  celebrated  as  the  discoverer  of  the  use  of  manure 
in  Greece,  and  Stercutius,  the  son  of  Faumes,  as  the 
discoverer  of  it  in  Italy.  Xenophon  represents  earth 
which  has  long  been  under  water  as  a  fertilizer  of  the 
soil,  and  recommends  leguminous  crops  to  be  grown 
for  the  purpose  of  being  plowed  into  the  ground  as 
manure,  and  remarks,  in  reference  to  them  "  that  they 
enrich  the  soil  as  much  as  dung."  Virgil  indicates 
some  slight  acquaintance  with  the  ameliorating  effect 
of  a  change  of  crops,  and  recommends  nitrum,  net 
saltpeter  as  most  translators  say,  but  cartonate  of  soda 
or  carbonate  of  potash,  in  mixture  with  the  dregs  of 
oil,  as  a  steep  to  make  the  seed  grain  swell;  and  sug- 
gests the  advantage  of  scattering  ashes  over  exhausted 
land  ;  evinces,  altogether,  a  surprising  amount  of  ac- 
quaintance with  the  methods  of  artificial  fertilization ; 
and  speaks,  not  only  of  such  ordinaiy  manure  as 
dung,  but  of  such  rare  and  almost  special  manure  as 
pumice-stone  and  shells.  Pliny  says,  "There  are 
many  different  kinds  of  manures,  and  the  thing  itself 
is  very  ancient."    Varro  so  comprehensively  and  min- 


954 


MANURE. 


utely  enumerates  animal  manures  as  to  notice  even 
the  dung  of  blackbirds,  thrushes,  and  other  birds  kept 
in  aviaries.  Cato  and  Theophrastus  and  Columella 
write  still  more  fully  and  knowingly,  displaying  a 
knowledge  of  at  once  organic,  inorganic  and  mixed 
manures  which  would  have  been  creditable  to  distin- 
guished American  farmers  of  fifty  years  ago,  and  occa- 
sionally dropping  hints  which  might  be  serviceable  to 
many  a  considerable  farmer  of  the  present  day. 

.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  of  the  periods  immediate- 
ly preceding  and  following  the  Christian  era,  associated 
all  ideas  of  successful  husbandry  with  the  careful 
accumulation  and  the  liberal  use  of  manures.  They 
consider  the  application  of  manure  as  one  of  the 
principal  operations  of  agriculture,  and  placed  it  next 
to  plowing.  They  were  so  sensible  of  the  advantage 
arising  from  manuring  their  fields,  that  they  were  very 
careful  in  finding  out  and  collecting  such  things  as 
were  found  proper  for  the  purpose.  They  carefully 
gathered  the  dung  of  their  cattle ;  they  carefully 
littered  their  cattle  with  straw  or  stubble,  which  was 
carried  with  the  dung  to  the  dung-hill ;  they  collected 
all  kinds  of  ashes;  they  used  different  kinds  of  earth; 
they  burned  trees,  shrubs,  and  stubble  in  their  fields; 
and  they  frequently  sowed  pulse  to  be  plowed  in  while 
green.  There  are  some  passages  in  Cato  and  Colu- 
mella that  show  with  what  care  all  kinds  of  dung,  and 
all  other  things  fit  for  manure,  were  collected.  "You 
may  make  manure ',  says  Cato,  "of  these  things:  stub- 
ble, lupines,  straw,  bean  stalks,  chaff,  haulm  and  oak 
leaves."  'T  am  not  ignorant,"  says  Columella,  "that 
there  are  some  farms  in  the  country  in  which  neither 
the  dung  of  cattle,  nor  of  birds  is  to  be  got.  However 
even  in  such  places  he  is  a  slothful  husbandman  that 
has  no  manure.  He  may  collect  any  kind  of  leaves, 
the  cuttings  of  briers,  and  rakings  of  high-ways ;  he 
may  cut  ferns,  which  though  on  the  fields  of  his 
neighbors  will  be  rather  an  advantage  than  an  injury 
to  him,  and  mix  with  the  cleanings  of  the  court-yard; 
he  may  dig  a  hollow  place,  and  throw  into  it  ashes, 
the  dirt  of  the  kennels  and  jakes,  all  kinds  of  straw, 
and  everything  that  is  swept  from  the  house."  But 
the  ancients  not  only  used  various  kinds  of  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  for  manure;  they  also  mixed 
earth  of  different  qualities.  "Some  advise,"  says  Theo- 
phrastus, "to  mix  together  earth  of  different  qualities : 
for  example,  light  with  heavy,  and  heavy  with  light; 
fat  with  lean,  and  lean  with  fat;  in  like  manner,  red 
and  white,  and  whateverhas  contrary  qualities  ;  because 
this  mixture  not  only  supplies  what  is  wanting,  but 
also  renders  the  soil,  with  which  another  is  mixed, 
more  powerful:  so  that  what  is  worn  out,  being  mixed 
•with  a  fertile  kind  of  earth,  begins  again  to  carry  crops 
as  if  renewed,  and  what  is  naturally  as  barren  as  clay, 
if  mixed,  is  rendered  fruitful ;  for  one  kind  mixed 
■with  another,  in  some  measure  serves  as  dung." 

The  use  of  farm-yard  manure  and  of  all  the  ordinary 
composts  appears  to  have  little  improved,  and  not 
much  varied  from  the  times  of  the  classic  Romans 
till  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 

The  notions  entertained  of  manures  by  almost  all 


farmers,  and  even  by  the  vast  majority  of  scientific 
agriculturists,  down  to  the  quite  modern  epoch  of 
agricultural  chemistry,  were  altogether  empirical. 
Men  observed  that  the  accumulationsof  the  farm-yard, 
when  distributed  over  fields  and  incorjxjrated  with  the 
soil,  produced  very  important  effects  uix>n  crops ;  and 
they  continued,  from  year  to  year,  and  from  age  to  age, 
to  make  and  apply  these  accumulations,  without  troub- 
ling themselves  with  any  inquiry  as  to  their  mode  of 
action. 

The  term  manure  nowadays  signifies  any  decaying 
material  which  when  added  to  the  soil  becomes  plant 
food,  while  the  term  "fertilizer"  is  applied  to  those 
chemical  elements,  as  salt,  ashes,  etc.,  which  render 
that  food  available.  This  distinction,  however,  is  not 
absolutely  strict,  as  all  manures  act  as  fertilizers  to 
some  extent,  and  all  fertilizers  supply  plant  food. 
Under  the  head  of  "manure"  here  we  will  treat  of 
"organic  manures."  or  decaying  vegetable  and  animal 
substances  for  enriching  the  soil. 

The  most  important  article  under  this  head  is  "barn- 
yard" manure,  and  the  first  consideration  in  its  man- 
agement is  to  secure  it  against  all  waste.  The  most 
profitable  question  to  the  farmer  is,  "How  can  I 
produce  the  most  manure  on  the  farm,  at  the  least 
cost .' "  Its  bulk,  solubility  and  peculiar  tendency  to 
fermentation  render  it  a  matter  of  considerable  study 
how  to  preserve  it  perfectly  and  conveniently.  A 
part  of  the  droppings  of  the  cattle  are  necessarily  left 
in  the  pastures,  or  about  the  stacks  where  they  feed, 
though  it  is  better,  for  various  reasons,  that  they  should 
never  receive  their  food  from  the  stack.  The  manure 
thus  left  in  the  fields  should  be  beaten  up  and 
scattered  with  light,  long-handled  mallets  immediately 
after  the  grass  starts  in  the  spring,  and  again  before 
the  rains  commence  in  the  autumn.  With  these 
exceptions,  and  the  slight  waste  which  may  occur  in 
driving  cattle  to  and  from  the  pasture,  all  the  manure 
should  be  dropped  either  in  the  stables  or  yards. 
These  should  be  so  arranged  that  cattle  may  pass  from 
one  direcdy  into  the  other;  and  the  yard . should,  if 
possible,  be  furnished  with  wells,  cisterns  or  running 
water.  There  is  twice  the  value  of  manure  wasted 
annually  on  some  farms  in  sending  the  cattle  abroad 
to  water,  that  would  be  required  to  provide  it  for  them 
in  the  yard  for  50  years.  Many  stable  yards  are 
mistakenly  situated  u|X)n  the  brow  of  a  hill,  where  the 
rains  wash  nearly  all  the  manure  down  into  the  streams 
and  carry  it  off  beyond  reach.  The  premises  where 
the  manure  is  dropped  should  be  kept  as  dry  as 
possible;  and  the  eaves  should  project  several  feet 
beyond  the  side  of  the  building  so  as  to  protect  the 
manure  thrown  out  of  the  stables.  The  barns  and 
sheds  should  all  have  eave-troughs  to  carry  off  the 
water,  which,  if  saved  in  a  sufficiently  capacious 
cistern,  would  furnish  a  supply  for  the  cattle.  The 
yard  should  be  dishing  toward  the  center,  and  if  on 
sandy  or  gravelly  soil,  it  should  be  tightly  covered  with 
tenacious  clay  to  prevent  the  leaking  and  escape  of 
liquid  manure.  The  floors  of  the  stable  may  be  so 
made  as  to  permit    the  urine  to  fall  on  a    properly 


MANURE. 


955 


prepared  bed  of  turf  under  them,  where  it  will  be 
retained  till  removed ;  or  it  should  be  led  off  by  troughs 
into  the  yard  or  to  a  muck  heap. 

It  is  better  to  feed  the  straw  and  coarse  fodder, 
which  can  always  be  advantageously  done  by  cutting 
and  mixing  it  with  meal  or  roots.  When  it  is  not 
thus  consumed,  it  may  first  be  used  as  litter  for  the 
cattle;  and  as  it  becomes  saturated  with  the  drop- 
pings it  should  be  thrown  into  the  yard.  If  the  cattle 
are  fed  under  sheds,  the  whole  surface  ought  to  be 
covered  with  such  straw,  refuse  forage,  etc.,  as  can  be 
collected ;  and  if  there  is  a  deficiency  in  these,  peat, 
or  any  turf  well  filled  with  the  roots  of  grass,  and 
especially  the  rich  wash  from  the  road-side,  may  be 
substituted.  During  the  winter  manure  may  be  allowed 
toaccumulate,  unless  it  be  more  convenient  to  carryit 
to  the  fields.  When  the  warm  weather  approaches, 
a  close  attention  to  the  manure  is  necessary.  The 
escape  of  the  frost  permits  circulation  of  the  air 
through  it,  and  the  increasing  heat  of  the  sun  pro- 
motes its  decomposition. 

Manure  intended  for  garden  beds,  or  for  loose,  hght 
soils,  or  as  a  top  dressing  for  meadows  or  any  crops, 
or  if  needed  to  kill  any  noxious  seeds  incorporated 
with  the  heap,  should  be  fermented.  For  hoed  crops 
in  clay  or  loamy  soil,  it  should  be  used  in  as  fresh 
condition  as  ixDssible.  Loose  soils  are  still  further 
loosened  for  a  time  by  fermented  manure  (called  also 
"  long  "  manure),  and  much  of  its  volatile  part  is  lost 
before  it  is  reduced  to  mold,  while  adhesive  and  com- 
pact soils  are  improved  by  the  coarse  vegetables 
which  tend  to  their  separation,  and  all  the  gases 
which  are  set  free  in  fermentation  are  combined  and 
firmly  held  in  the  soil.  The  fermentation  of  manure 
should  go  forward  when  thoroughly  blended  with  all 
the  vegetable  and  liquid  fertilizers  about  the  premises, 
including  urine,  brine,  soap-suds,  gypsum  and  coal- 
dust.  Ashes  should  not  be  added  to  a  manure  or 
compost  heap,  as  it  sets  the  ammonia  free  and  allows 
it  to  escape.  Over  all  these  should  be  placed  a  good 
coating  of  turf,  peat,  or  fine  mold,  which  will  absorb 
any  gases  that  escape  the  gypsum,  etc.  Old  mortar 
or  effete  lime  may  also  be  added  for  the  formation  of 
nitric  acid.  If  required  to  hasten  decay,  and  especial- 
ly if  there  be  intractable  vegetables,  as  corn-stalks,  or 
such  as  have  seeds  that  ought  to  be  destroyed,  they 
may  well  be  moistened  and  thrown  together  in  layers 
three  or  four  inches  thick,  and  on  each  a  liberal  coat- 
ing of  fresh,  unslacked  lime  reduced  to  jxivvder. 
This  promotes  decomposition,  and  when  it  is  far 
enough  advanced,  the  whole  may  be  sparingly  added 
to  the  general  mass,  as  the  lime  will  by  that  time 
ha ve>, become  mild.  These  coarse  materials,  when 
remote  from  the  cattle-yard,  may  be  buried  in  furrows 
where  the  ground  will  not  be  disturbed  till  they  are 
entirely  rotted;  or  they  may  be  burned.  When  thor- 
oughly decomposed,  the  manure  heap  will  have  lost 
half  its  original  weight,  most  of  which  has  escaped  as 
water  and  carbonic  acid.  It  may  then  be  carted 
uix)n  the  ground  and  at  once  incorporated  with  it;  or 
if  intended  for  a  top  dressing  it  should  be  scattered 


over  it  immediately  before  or  during  wet  weather. 
The  drier  the  manure,  the  less  the  labor  of  hauling. 
By  hauling  directly  from  the  stables  and  plowing 
under,  more  of  the  virtues  of  the  manure  are  retained 
than  by  any  other  method.  Sun,  wind  and  rain 
waste  the  virtues  of  barnyard  manure  as  long  as  it  is 
exix)sed. 

Tanks  for  holding  liquid  manure  have  long  been  in 
use.  They  should  be  convenient  to  the  stalls  and 
yards,  and  tight  drains  should  convey  into  them  every 
particle  of  the  urine  and  drainage  from  the  manure. 
In  compact  clay  they  may  be  made  by  simply  ex- 
cavating the  earth  and  the  sides  kept  from  falling  in 
by  a  rough  wall,  or  by  planks  supported  in  an  upright 
position  by  a  frame-work  or  joist.  But  in  all  cases 
tlie  cisterns  should  be  closely  covered  to  prevent  the 
escape  of  the  ammonia.  In  warm  weather,  gypsum 
or  charcoal  should  be  thrown  in  to  absorb  the 
ammonia.  A  few  days  after  the  decomposition  com- 
mences it  should  be  pumped  into  casks  and  carried 
out  upon  the  land.  If  intended  for  watering  plants, 
it  must  be  diluted  sufficiently  to  prevent  injury  to 
them ;  but  much  less  dilution  is  required  in  wet 
weather  than  in  dry.  The  stables  and  troughs  lead- 
ing to  the  tank  should  be  frequently  washed  down 
and  sprinkled  with  gypsum.  The  sooner  this  liquid 
is  used  after  proper  fermentation,  or  "ripeness,"  as  it 
is  termed,  the  greater  will  be  the  economy.  It  will 
save  considerable  labor  to  keep  the  urine  above 
ground  and  mix  it  at  once  with  the  manure ;  but  in 
this  case  vegetable  or  earthy  absorbents  must  be 
adequately  supplied,  and  the  muck  heap  ought  also 
to  be  frequently  sjjrinkled  with  gypsum  or  charcoal. 
Rich  turf,  the  wash  of  the  road-side,  tan-bark  or  saw- 
dust, and  all  refuse  vegetables  may  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  and  so  placed  that  the  liquid  can  run  upon 
them,  or  be  deposited  where  it  can  be  jx)ured  over 
it.  \Vhen  fully  saturated  with  the  urinary  salts,  and 
all  is  properly  decomposed,  it  may  be  carried  out  for 
use,  or  closely  covered  with  earth  lill  wanted.  The 
decomposition  is  in  a  great  measure  arrested  by 
covering  with  compact  earth  thoroughly  trodden  down. 
This  prevents  the  access  of  air,  which  is  essential  to 
the  progress  of  decomposition.  Forty  gallons  of 
drainage  from  the  stable  is  reckoned  equal  in  value 
to  an  ordinary  car-man's  load  of  manure. 

Horse  dung  is  the  richest  and  easiest  to  decom- 
ix)se ;  and  in  large  heaps,  even  in  the  winter  time, 
will  decomjxDse  so  rapidly  as  to  lose  a  part  of  its 
value.  Next  in  this  respect  is  sheep  dung,  which  is 
rich  and  very  active.  The  manure  of  cattle  and 
swine,  being  of  a  colder  nature,  may  be  thrown  in 
with  that  of  the  horse  and  sheep  in  alternate  layers. 
If  fresh  manure  be  intermixed  with  straw  and  other 
absorbents,  as  vegetables,  peat,  turf,  etc.,  constantly 
added,  the  recent  coating  will  combine  with  any 
volatile  matters  which  fermentation  develops  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  mass.  Frequent  turning  of  the 
manures  is  not  advisable,  as  it  facilitates  the  escape 
of  the  nutritious  gases.  There  is  not  so  great  a  differ- 
ence in  the  values  of  m^ures  from  different  animals 


956 


MAPLE. 


as  in  that  of  the  same  animal  at  different  times  and 
Uiider  different  circumstances. 

The  excrements  of  fowls  are  valuable,  and  should 
be  husbanded  with  economy  and  care.  Dead  ani- 
mals, the  refuse  of  slaughter  houses,  woolen  rags  and 
the  waste  of  woolen  manufactories  are  all  rich  and 
valuable  manures. 

Green  manures  are  vegetable  crops  plowed  under. 
They  are  sometimes  the  cheapest,  and  it  depends 
uixDn  a  variety  of  circumstances  whether  it  is  in  any 
given  case  the  best  thing  to  be  done.  If,  for  instance, 
all  other  manures  are  costly,  the  system  of  green 
manuring  is  a  convenient  substitute.  It  should  be 
commenced  before  the  land  is  entirely  exhausted,  so 
that  a  good  crop  can  be  obtained  for  plowing  under. 
The  most  popular  plant  for  this  purpose  is  red  clover. 
Its  power  for  renewing  the  soil  is  so  great  that  crops 
of  it  may  be  taken  from  the  ground  while  it  continues 
to  enrich  the  soil.  It  returns  to  the  soil  nineteen 
times  as  much  as  it  takes  out  of  it.  It  is  customary 
to  adopt  a  three  or  four  years'  course  of  cropping,  in 
which  grain,  roots,  corn,  etc.,  alternate  with  clover  and 
barnyard  manures.  When  clover  is  raised  it  may  be 
pastured  in  the  fall.  In  other  countries  other  plants 
are  used,  but  for  this  country  clover  is  so  much  better 
that  we  need  not  mention  them  here.  The  old  prac- 
tice of  "  fallowing,"  which  consisted  in  permitting  the 
land  to  produce  a  crop  of  weeds  and  plowuig  them 
under,  is  now  generally  discarded.  Naked  fallowing 
is  sometimes  necessary,  as  it  is  the  best  means  of  kill- 
ing out  the  wire-worm  and  some  other  pests.  In  this 
process  not  a  single  weed  or  blade  of  grass  should  be 
allowed  to  grow. 

Green  manuring  also  renders  the  soil  more  porous 
in  two  ways :  first,  by  the  growing  roots,  and  secondly, 
by  the  decaying  plants.  Clover  roots  grow  to  an  im- 
mense depth — five  feet  and  over — and  bring  up  nu- 
tritious elements  to  the  soil,  leaving  it  there,  and  the 
leaves  collect  nutrition  from  the  air  and  deposit  that 
also  in  the  soil.  Sometimes  it  pays  to  cut  down  the 
wild  herbage  of  swails  and  swamps  and  cart  it  upon 
the  land.  Buckwheat  is  also  good  for  green  manur- 
ing and  for  killing  out  weeds  and  grass.  Probably 
the  best  method  of  killing  out  blue-grass  or  witch- 
grass  sod,  is  to  turn  it  over  with  the  plow  and  sow 
immediately  upon  it  a  crop  of  rye;  pasture  this  to 
cows  in  the  latter  part  of  summer,  re-plow  and  sow  to 
wheat.  When  it  is  desired  to  follow  a  wheat  crop 
with  corn  the  next  season,  a  good  plan  is  to  plow  the 
stubble  and  sow  to  winter  rye,  which  will  furnish  some 
fall  feed  or  winter  pasturage  for  sheep.  This  plan 
works  better  on  sandy  and  other  well-drained  soils. 

Cornstalks  in  the  manufacture  of  manure  are  much 
better  handled  by  first  running  them  through  the  cut- 
ting machine.  The  cattle  will  eat  a  greater  propor- 
tion of  them,  and  the  remainder  will  be  in  good  shape 
to  spread  out  upon  the  fields  in  the  summer  and 
plowed  under.     See  Green  Manure. 

Hen  Manure.  The  first  thing  is  to  provide  proper 
reservoirs  for  the  manure.  Old  barrels  are  just  the 
thing,  but  strong  goods-boxes  will  do  if   protected 


with  oil  or  gas  tar.  Coating  them  inside  and  out  with 
light  crude  petroleum  will  fill  the  pores  witli  the  oil> 
and  make  them  as  good  as  cedar  for  durability  ;  but 
if  the  contents  are  likely  to  be  moist,  gas  tar  inside 
will  be  better.  There  should  be  one  for  every  ten 
hens.  Then  fill  all  but  one  with  road  dust,  which  is 
the  very  best  absorbent  you  can  get;  and,  if  dry,  the 
barrels  may  stand  anywhere  under  shelter  without  the 
freezing  of  the  contents.  If  dry  earth  or  dust  cannot 
be  obtained,  the  next  best  is  finely  pulverized  soil, 
which  will,  of  course,  contain  a  good  deal  of  moisture, 
and  must  be  kept  in  barrels  or  boxes  in  the  cellar  so 
as  not  to  freeze. 

Now,  having  your  barrels  all  ready,  the  rest  of  the 
operation  will  be  simple  and  easy.  All  you  have  to 
do  is  to  place  a  stratum,  say  an  inch  or  two,  in  the 
bottom  of  one  empty  barrel,  and  then  throw  in  the 
cleanings  of  the  hen-house ;  then  another  stratum, 
then  another  layer  of  cleanings.  The  thinner  each 
layer  of  the  two  is,  the  more  perfectly  they  will  be- 
come diffused  together  in  standing.  The  precise  quan- 
tity of  each  is  not  very  essential — only  you  must  have 
enough  absorbent  to  hold  all  the  volatile  parts  of  the 
hen  manure,  of  which  you  may  usually  judge  by  the 
odor,  which  may  be  corrected  by  adding  more  of  the 
absorbent.  Proceed  in  this  way  with  each  successive 
barrel.  In  the  spring  your  barrels  will  be  filled  with 
a  very  powerful  and  most  valuable  manure. 

By  a  little  care  and  timely  attention,  you  will  secure 
a  supply  of  manure,  the  value  and  quanrity  of  which 
will  surprise  those  who  first  make  the  trial.  All  you 
will  have  to  do  in  the  spring  will  be  to  pulverize  and 
work  over  the  mass,  so  that  it  may  be  evenly  and  finely 
applied. 

Several  estimates  and  experiments  make  the  value 
of  dry  hen  manure,  in  gardening,  about  $50  per  ton; 
each  fowl  on  an  average  consumes  about  one  bushel 
and  three-fourths  of  corn  annually,  or  a  little  less 
than  a  gill  and  a  half  a  day;  and  it  has  been  found 
that  one  hen  will  yield  about  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and 
a  third  of  manure  per  year.  Various  esUmates  make 
this  worth  from  seventy  cents  to  a  dollar  for  each  ani- 
mal. It  is  very  easy  to  save  it,  by  placing  the  scrap- 
ings or  cleanings  of  the  hen-house  in  a  barrel  with 
thin  alternating  layers  of  road  dust. 

Maple,  an  imjxjrtant  family  of  trees.  The  varieties 
indigenous  to  the  United  States  are  the  rock,  or  sugar, 
or,  as  it  is  also  called,  the  hard  maple,  the  red  or 
swamp  maple,  the  white  or  silver  maple,  and  the 
ash-leaved  maple  or  box  elder.  All  of  these  are  more 
or  less  abundant  throughout  the  United  States,  and 
some  of  them  are  prized  for  their  excellent  timber, 
others  for  saccharine  juices  and  their  beauty  as 
shade-trees.  The  bird's-eye  maple  is  a  siwrt  of  the 
sugar  maple.  There  are  other  members  of  this  family, 
some  of  which  have  been  imported,  and  are  really  of 
little  value  except  as  ornamental  trees.  These  are 
the  mountain  maple,  the  striped,  the  Japanese  maple, 
the  Norway  maple,  etc.  The  mountain  maple  is  a 
tall  shrub  growing  in  clumps  in  rich  moist  woods. 
The  striped  maple,  known  also  as  moosewood,  is  a 


MAPLE  SIRUP— MARIGOLD. 


957 


small,  slender  tree,  with  liglit-gieen  bark,  striped  with 
dark  lines.  The  Norway  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
is  more  beautiful  in  foliage  than  our  native  varieties. 
We  cannot,  however,  advise  its  planting,  as  in  general 
our  own  sugar  maple  and  the  red  and  white  varieties 
are  preferable.  No  tree  affords  a  more  beautful  foliage 
in  summer  than  the  sugar  maple,  and  all  are  magnifi- 
cent in  their  varying  foliage  after  the  frost  has  touched 
their  leaves  in  the  autumn.  The  box-elder,  or  ash- 
leaved  maple,  is  a  very  rapid  grower,  not  so  ornamental 
as  the  sugar  maple,  but  desirable  where  rapid  growth 
is  wanted.  The  seeds  of  these  trees  ripen  in  Septem- 
ber and  October,  while  those  of  the  silver  or  white 
maple  ripen  shortly  after  the  leaves  attain  their  full 
size,  and  should  be  sown  immediately  afterwards. 
Should  it  be  desired  to  keep  them  through  the  winter, 
put  them  in  moist  sand  (not  wet)  and  keep  in  a  cool 
place. 

The  sugar  maple  is  a  beautiful  tree  and  deserves  to 
be  more  extensively  planted  for  its  sugar,  its  beauty 
and  its  shade.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  will  easily  grow 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  our  country.  It  usually  attains 
about  four-fifths  of  the  height  of  the  sycamore.  Its 
leaves  stand  on  pretty  long  footstalks  and  are  broad, 
thin  and  five-lobed;  their  edges  are  cut  into  minute 
segments;  their  upper  surface  is  smooth  and  of  a 
lightish-green  color,  and  their  under  surface  is  whitish. 
The  flowers  have  a  yellowish  color  and  bloom  in 
April  and  May.  In  the  South,  however,  it  will  not 
yield  as  much  sugar  as  in  the  North.  This  is  owing 
to  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  degree  of  frost.  The 
sugar  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  tree  in  the  latter 
part  of  winter  and  early  in  the  spring. 

The  practice  with  the  sugar  maple  is  to  bore  two 
auger  holes,  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
half  an  inch  deeper  than  the  bark,  in  an  obliquely 
ascending  direction,  on  the  south  side  of  the  tree 
at  the  height  of  about  1 8  or  20  inches  from  the  ground, 
in  February  or  March,  while  the  snow  is  on  the 
ground  and  the  cold  is  still  intense,  and  to  insert  into 
the  holes  elder  or  sumac  tubes,  partially  laid  open, 
eight  or  ten  inches  in  length  and  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  communicating  at  the  lower  end 
with  troughs  of  two  or  three  gallons  in  capacity,  for 
the  reception  of  the  sap.  Four  gallons  of  sap  are 
usually  sufficient  to  yield  one  pound  of  sugar,  and 
from  eight  to  sixteen  gallons  are  usually  obtained  in  a 
season  from  a  single  tree.  The  flow  of  sap  is  rich  and 
copious  enough  for  the  manufacturer  during  about  six 
weeks,  and  it  then  both  declines  in  quality  and  dimin- 
ishes in  quantity. 

For  the  insect  infesting  the  maple,  and  their  para- 
sites, see  pages  856  and  864. 

Maple  Sirup.  The  process  of  making  maple 
sirup  is  fully  described  under  the  head  of  Maple 
Sugar  in  the  article  on  Sugar. 

Maple  Sugar:  see  Sugar. 

Marble.  To  remove  iron  mold  or  ink  spots  from 
marble,  take  y^  ounce  butterof  antimony  and  i  ounce 
oxalic  acid,  and  dissolve  them  in  a  pint  of  rain-water; 


add  flour  until  this  becomes  a  paste.  Let  a  portion 
of  this  mixture  remain  on  the  stained  spot  a  few  days. 
This  process  may  have  to  be  repeated  once.  To  re- 
move copper  stains  from  marble,  wash  first  with  di- 
luted sulphuric  acid  and  ammonia,  then  with  water 
and  ammonia.  To  remove  match  stains  from  it,  ap- 
ply carbon  sulphide.  Oil  stains  may  be  removed  by 
common  clay  saturated  with  benzine.  Many  other 
stains  may  be  taken  out  with  a  mixture  of  ox-gall,  lye, 
turpentine  and  pipe  clay,  permitted  10  lie  on  the 
marble  for  a  time.  Grease  should  first  be  softened  with 
petroleum.  General  cleaning  of  marble  is  best  done 
with  a  mixture  of  quicklime  and  strong  lye. 

Mare.  The  mare  of  almost  every  variety  or  breed 
is  quite  as  useful  as  the  gelding.  She  possesses  both 
excellencies  and  defects  which  the  latter  wants,  and 
is  in  consequence  preferred  to  him  by  some  persons, 
and  regarded  as  greatly  inferior  to  him  by  others ;  but, 
on  a  fair  or  comprehensive  average  of  useful  prop- 
erties, she  may  be  pronounced  almost  exactly  his 
equal.  She  is  not,  like  almost  all  other  mammals, 
either  incommoded  by  bulkiness  of  udder,  or  perma- 
nently kept  down  by  inferiority  of  size  or  inferiority  of 
constitutional  strength;  and  she  possesses  a  compar- 
atively large  breadth  of  pelvis,  and  expanse  of  hind- 
quarter,  and  power  of  propelling  muscle,  which  fully 
compensate  for  the  disadvantages  directly  accruing 
from  her  sex. 

The  mare  was  more  celebrated  and  achieved 
greater  feats  in  the  Olympic  games  than  the  male 
horse.  The  Scythians  of  ancient  times  preferred  the 
mare ;  and  so  do  the  red-skin  Arabs  of  the  present 
day.  The  South  Americans,  on  the  other  hand, 
almost  condemn  the  mare,  and  think  it  a  disgrace  to 
saddle  or  ride  her;  and  commonly  employ  her  only 
for  breeding  and  for  a  few  trifling  purposes  of  econ- 
omy. Among  sportsmen,  the  prejudice  against  mares 
has  been  very  strong;  but  if  we  look  back  to  the  great 
performances  on  the  road  against  time,  we  shall  find 
that  by  far  the  greater  number  and  the  most  celebra- 
ted of  them,  were  by  mares:  as  Flora  Temple,  Gold- 
smith Maid,  Lula,  American  Girl,  Maud  S.  and  oth- 
ers. They  have  always  been  found  to  endure  hunger 
and  thirst,  and  most  other  privations  better:  and, 
although,  in  our  climate,  horses  are  seldom  put  to  the 
test  in  this  respect,  yet  when  traveling  between  the 
tropics  in  a  desert,  it  must  be  a  valuable  considera- 
tion. In  a  race,  it  is  true,  mares  are  put  on  a  par 
with  geldings ;  but  it  must  be  admitted  they  are  more 
perfect  in  their  nature,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
period  of  genial  desire,  we  conceive  them  to  be  more 
than  equal  to  them  in  any  kind  of  exertion  on  the 
road  and  in  the  field. 

Margin,  in  stock  transactions,  the  money  deposited 
with  a  broker  to  protect  him  against  loss  by  the 
depreciation  of  stocks  held  by  him  for  the  depositor ; 
any  allowance  made  for  contingencies;  also,  gross 
profit  or  surplus. 

Marigold.  There  are  species  of  marigold  in  sev- 
eral different  families  of  plants,  but  the  old  standard 


958 


MARJORAM— MARKING  CLOTHES. 


marigold  is  Calendula,  so  called  because  it  can  be 
made  to  flower  every  month  in  the  calendar.  Mari- 
gold is  a  corruption  of  "  Mary's  gold,"  because  of  its 
value  as  a  pot-herb  to  English  cottagers'  wives.  It  is 
now  held  in  but  slight  estimation.  Some  of  the  double 
varieties  are  beautiful,  and  it  is  easily  cultivated. 

Besides  the  above  species  of  marigold  proper  there 
are  four  or  five  species  of  wild  marigold  abounding 
throughout  the  country,  which  have  very  showy  flow- 
ers, namely :  the  fig,  bur,  marsh,  fetid,  etc. 

Tincture  of  Marigold  is  a  good  application  for 
sores,  ulcers  and  abscesses  on  stock.  It  is  applied  with 
soft  cloths  saturated  or  moistened  with  it,  and  laid 
over  the  affected  part.  It  is  a  new  remedy  in  burns 
and  scalds. 

Marjoram,  a  genus  of  well  known,  pungent,  and 
gratefully  aromatic  herbs.  The  plants  are  all  of  easy 
cultivation ;  the  shrubby  kinds  are  increased  by  cut- 
tings or  slips;  the  herbaceous  species  by  dividing  at 
the  roots.  The  species  generally  cultivated  are  the 
common  or  pot  marjoram,  the  sweet  or  summer  marjo- 
ram and  bastard  or  winter  marjoram.  A  light,  dry  and 
moderately  fertile  soil  is  required  for  their  healthy 
growth ;  and  if  it  is  one  that  has  not  been  cropped 
for  a  considerable  time,  it  is  the  more  favorable  for 
them.  If  the  soil  is  wet  or  rich,  they  are  deficient  in 
their  essential  qualities,  and  the  perennials  are  una- 
ble to  withstand  severe  weather.  The  sowing  is  per- 
formed either  in  drills,  six  inches  apart,  or  broadcast, 
in  either  case  the  seed  being  buried  not  more  than 
half  an  inch  deep.  The  tops  and  leaves  of  all  the 
species  are  gathered  when  green,  in  summer  and 
autumn,  for  use  in  soups,  etc.,  and  dried  in  July  or 
August,  just  before  the  flowers  open,  for  winter's 
supply. 

Marketing.  To  the  farmer  the  marketing  of  his 
crops  is  a  most  important  item.  He  may  be  able  to 
raise  good  crops,  or  well-fatted  stock,  but  fail  to  real- 
ize the  greatest  profit  by  his  loose,  unbusiness-like 
way  of  disposing  of  them.  One  of  the  chief  requi- 
sites is  to  keep  constantly  posted  as  to  the  market 
prices  of  the  various  farm  products,  the  condition  of 
such  crops  throughout  the  country  and  the  present 
and  probable  demand.  Demand  and  supply  always 
regulate  the  price  of  everything.  Every  farmer  should 
note  the  various  changes  made  in  the  prices  of  the 
various  products  during  the  different  seasons  of  the 
year.  He  will  find,  as  a  general  thing,  that  they  vary 
but  little.  That  at  certain  seasons,  annually,  certain 
cereals,  vegetables  or  stock,  are  higher  or  lower  in 
their  value.  This  would  not  be  so  if  all  consumers 
took  advantage  of  the  low  market  and  all  producers 
of  the  high  market..  This  is  not  done,  however. 
Over  one  half  the  people  make  no  provisions  in  sea- 
sons of  plenty  for  days  of  stringency ;  nor  do  a  vast 
number  of  farmers  sell  their  produce  during  the  period 
of  high  markets.  This  has  always  been  the  case,  and 
you  may  rely  on  its  continuing  to  be. 

There  is  occasionally  a  sudden  local  demand,  or 
perhaps  it  may  extend  throughout  the  country,  for  a 


certain  article  or  line  of  produce.  The  price  may  be 
greatly  advanced,  but  the  demand  may  be  only  mo- 
mentary ;  and  unless  a  farmer  is  [X)sted,  unless  he 
takes  the  papers,  he  may  lose  the  best  opixjrtunity  of 
the  season  to  disixjse  of  his  produce.  Some  years 
ago  the  price  of  wool  suddenly  advanced  several 
cents,  which  of  course  reading  farmers  knew  as  soon 
as  any  one  else  did  ;  but  in  a  certain  jx>rtion  of  Illi- 
nois it  was  known  that  a  large  number  of  the  farmers 
took  no  paper,  and  consequently  knew  nothing  of  the 
rise.  Some  shrewd  dealers,  on  the  first  advices  of  the 
advance  in  the  price,  immediately  set  off  for  this  dis- 
trict and  bought  up  all  the  wool  the  farmers  had,  mak- 
ing clear  profit  of  many  thousands  of  dollars  a  day. 

Another  very  important  feature  to  be  observed, 
besides  knowing  the  best  time  to  do  your  marketing, 
is  to  have  your  produce  or  stock  in  the  best  [xjssible 
marketable  shape  when  offered  for  sale.  Always 
remember  that  even  a  good  article  put  \\\yox\  the  mar- 
ket in  bad  shape  or  condition,  will  bring  no  more,  and 
often  not  so  much,  as  a  ]X)or  article  in  excellent 
shape.  This  will  apply  to  all  produce  in  all  sections. 
Another  advantage  in  having  it  in  an  excellent  condi- 
tion, besides  the  enhanced  price,  you  will  find  a  read- 
ier sale.  ^ 

Farmers  will  find  it  the  safest  way,  in  general,  to 
dispose  of  their  produce  when  they  can  realize  a  good 
price.  Do  not  expect  in  seasons  of  peace  for  prod- 
uce to  reach  a  price  very  far  beyond  what  it  has 
generally  done  during  the  same  seasons  of  previous 
years,  when  there  has  been  a  fair  crop  throughout  the 
country. 

Farmers  should  be  able  to  grade  their  produce,  and 
to  know  as  well  as  any  commission  man  or  dealer 
exactly  what  it  is  worth  in  the  existing  market.  To 
be  a  good  judge  of  the  quality  of  stock  or  grain  is  of 
the  greatest  im[K)rtance  to  the  farmer;  it  is  truly  an 
accomplishment  worthy  his  closest  attention.  Should 
there  be  no  competition  in  your  market,  so  much 
more  the  necessity  of  your  knowing  the  precise  money 
value  of  the  article  you  have  to  sell.  Be  posted  as 
to  what  the  arricle  is  really  worth  and  not  misrepre- 
sent anything  to  the  buyer. 

One  of  the  commonest  and  most  serious  mistakes 
in  the  agricultural  community, is,  on  witnessing  a  high 
price  for  some  particular  product,  to  enter  the  busi- 
ness of  raising  that  product ;  for  eight  or  nine  times 
in  ten,  by  the  time  the  farmer  has  it  raised  its  price 
in  the  market  has  gone  down  to  a  very  low  figure ; 
and  vice  versa.  It  is  therefore  safe  to  stick  to  your 
favorite  line,  through  all  the  years. 

We  cannot  lay  down  any  rules  as  to  the  proper 
style  of  arranging  vegetables  and  other  i)roduce  for 
the  market  more  than  are  described  in  the  articles  on 
the  respective  kinds,  but  always  have  them  in  the 
best  ix)ssible  shape.  You  will  be  well  repaid  for  the 
little  extra  labor,  both  in  the  increased  price  and  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  your  produce  well  received  by 
the  better  classes. 

Marking  Clothes:  see  page  907. 


MARL— MARSH. 


959 


Marl,  a  light,  limj'  clay  found  as  a  deposit  in  some 
lakes  and  swamps.  It  is  valuable  for  the  enriching 
of  those  lands' which  are  wanting  in  such  elements, 
especially  sandy  or  gravelly  land. 

Marmalade,  the  pulp  of  fruit  reduced  to  consis- 
tence by  boiling  with  sugar.  All  acid  fruits  should 
have  about  three-fourths  of  a  jwund  of  sugar  to  one 
ix)und  of  pulp :  others  a  little  less.  If  too  much  su- 
gar is  used  they  crystallize,  or  "candy,"  and  if  too  lit- 
tle, they  ferment.  Keep  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Choose 
ripe,  sound,  juicy  fruit,  cut  into  pieces  and  place  in  a 
preserving  kettle,  with  layers  of  sugar,  beginning  with 
fruit  at  the  bottom.  If  the  fruit  is  not  juicy,  add  a 
little  water.  Watch  that  the  fruit  does  not  burn. 
When  the  mass  begins  to  look  clear,  and  is  thick 
when  cool  (which  can  be  ascertained  by  cooling  a  lit- 
tle on  a  plate),  it  is  done  and  ready  for  the  jar.  When 
cold,  cover  tightly  with  oiled  paper.  Marmalades 
and  jams  should  be  madewhile  making  preserves 
and  jellies,  using  the  rejected  fruit  in  case  of  the  pre- 
serves, and  the  pulp  from  the  jellies. 

Quince  and  Crab -apple  Mar.malade  are  both 
made  in  the  following  manner:  Rub  the  fruit  well  with 
a  rough  cloth,  cut  out  the  stems  and  flower  end  and 
quarter  the  fruit  without  removing  the  core  or  skin; 
stew  it  on  the  fire  with  a  very  little  water  till  soft 
enough  to  rub  through  a  sieve.  Strain  the  pulp  and 
add  a  ;xiund  of  sugar  to  a  pound  of  fruit ;  set  the  mix- 
ture on  the  fire  and  cook  it  slowly  till  done,  which 
should  be  15  or  20  minutes  longer.  Some  stew  the 
skins,  cores  and  seeds  separately,  and  when  almost 
cold,  pour  the  juice  off  into  the  sliced  fruit,  which  is 
then  stewed  and  stirred  until  soft ;  then  proceed  as 
above. 

Orange  Marmalade.  Boil  the  rind  for  two  hours, 
then  cut  it  into  fine  shreds.  Press  the  peeled  oranges 
through  a  sieve  just  fine  enough  to  prevent  the  pass- 
age of  the  seeds  and  skin.  Then,  for  every  five 
oranges  add  the  grated  rind  and  juice  of  one  lemon  ; 
put  all  into  the  kettle  with  the  sugar,  and  cook  until 
the  marmalade  is  quite  solid  and  thick.  Place  in 
preserving  jars  and  cover  closely. 

Strawberry  Marmalade,  or  jam.  To  each  six 
pounds  of  strawberries  add  one  pound  of  ripe  cur- 
rants and  five  pounds  of  sugar;  mash  the  currants  in 
a  gill  of  water  in  a  preserving  kettle,  and  boil;  add 
the  picked  strawberries ;  after  a  few  minutes  jjress 
the  mass  through  a  fine  sieve  into  an  earthen  jar; 
boil  the  sugar  into  a  thick  syrup  ;  add  the  pulped 
fruit  and  place  over  a  brisk  fire  for  20  minutes,  stir- 
ring continually.  Skim  off  the  jam  and  pour  into 
earthen  pots  to  keep. 

Marmalades  and  jams  are  also  made,  by  similar 
methods,  from  most  other  fruits.  "Quince  cheese"  is 
marmalade  boiled  down  very  thick  and  packed  in 
small  pots.  It  thus  becomes  solid  enough  to  be  cut 
into  slices  like  cheese,  and  is  excellent  for  tea  or 
luncheon. 

Marriage.  For  the  etiquette  of  the  marriage 
ceremony,  see  Wedding,  page  416. 


Marrow,  the  fatty  matter  in  the  tubes  and  cells  of 
the  bones.  It  abounds  most  in  the  tubes  of  the  long 
bones,  and  in  the  spongy  tissue  of  the  articular  ex- 
tremities of  the  long  bones  and  the  short  rounded 
bones.  It  has  an  oily  consistency,  and  is  contained 
in  collections  of  minute  vesicles.  Its  grand  office 
seems  to  be  the  lubrication  of  the  bones,  and  the  con- 
sequent prevention  of  dryness  and  brittleness.  The 
spinal  cord  is  often  called  the  spinal  marrow ;  and 
the  interior  and  whitish  part  of  the  brain  is  usually 
called  medulla,  a  word  synonymous  with  marrow. 

Marsh,  a  piece  or  section  of  land  always  or  gener- 
ally soaked  with  water.  Most  marshes  render  the 
air  above  and  around  them  exceedingly  unhealthful : 
and  some  very  extensive  ones  are  so  pestiferous  as  to 
make  the  districts  in  which  they  lie  altogether  unin- 
habitable. Some  forms  of  disease  greatly  prevail,  and 
the  average  of  human  life  is  comparatively  low,  in  the 
vicinity  of  such  marshes  as  exhale  much  gaseous 
produce  of  organic  deconqx^sition ;  and  cattle  which 
are  depastured  on  the  borders  or  in  the  neighborhood 
of  even  meadow-like  marshes,  are  seldom  so  healthy 
as  cattle  which  feed  on  dry  or  well-drained  pastoral 
districts.  "Marshes,"  remarks  an  eminent  writer,  "are 
the  ulcers  of  the  earth,  which  blur  the  fair  face  of 
nature,  where  all  should  be  beauty ;  and  from  these 
infectious  sores  the  languor  of  death  extends  far  and 
wide  over  all  that  should  live  and  flourish."  Some 
of  the  low,  flat,  alluvial  districts  of  England,  which 
thorough  drainage  and  general  georgical  improve- 
ment have  dried  from  all  excess  of  water,  and  ren- 
dered as  salubrious  as  districts  of  undulating  surface 
or  of  pastoral  heights,  were  formerly  infested,  all  the 
year  round,  with  fever  and  ague  and  other  forms  of 
disease. 

To  Reclaim  Marsh  Land.  If  the  land  consists 
of  soft  muck,  drain  by  ditching,  making  the  banks  of 
the  ditch  very  sloping,  say  at  an  angle  of  40°  to  50° 
from  a  perpendicular,  and  the  ditch  about  four  feet 
dee[).  It  should  be  narrow  at  the  bottom,  for  a 
broad-bottomed  ditch  will  not  drain  as  well  as  one 
with  a  narrow  channel,  as  it  fills  up  more  readily. 
If  the  bog  is  clayey  and  solid  enough  to  hold  tile  in 
place,  then  "tile-drain"  it  instead  of  running  open 
ditches  through  it.  See  Drainage,  Be  sure  to  take 
advantage  of  the  heights  and  depressions  of  the  land, 
and  find  a  proper  outlet  if  possible;  otherwise  the 
ditches  will  contain  standing  water  the  most  of  their 
length  and  fail  to  drain.  It  is  estimated  that  nine- 
tenths  of  the  marsh  lands  of  the  Northern  and  Wes- 
tern States  can  be  thoroughly  drained;  and  it  has 
been  found  that  such  land  when  drained  and  culti- 
vated becomes  the  best  for  most  agricultural  pur- 
poses. When  neighbors  can  agree  to  a  system  of 
draining  and  outlets,  it  saves  the  expense  of  employ- 
ing commissioners,  which  someUmes  is  considerable, 
and  incurred  for  services  not  very  satisfactory. 

The  next  thing  is  to  cut  down  all  the  trees  and 
shrubs.  Pasture  the  land,  and  the  stock  will  keep 
most  of  the  sprouts  eaten  down  and  thus  cause  the 
stumps  to  rot.     The  autumn   succeeding   this   treat- 


960 


MARTIN— MA  Y-APPLE. 


ment,  during  dry  weather,  burn  off  the  ground.  Then, 
by  the  aid  of  a  little  grubbing  here  and  there,  the 
ground  can  be  plowed  and  sowed  to  rye  or  buck- 
wheat :  if  very  wet  ground  still,  sow  to  grass.  The 
next  year  the  land  will  be  ready  for  almost  any  kind 
of  crop.  Some  low  grounds,  especially  in  the  Lake 
region,  are  too  densely  occupied  by  trees  to  be  re- 
claimed without  many  years  of  pasturage  and  many 
burnings,  and  probably  a  few  tracts  of  this  description 
are  not  worth  reclaiming  at  all.  With  the  best  of 
marsh,  much  hard  work  and  patience  are  required, 
but  in  nearly  every  case  the  labor  of  reducing  is 
abundantly  remunerative. 

Martin,  a  group  of  passerine  birds,  of  the  swallow 
tribe.  Two  species  quite  closely  allied  to  the  common 
or  chimney  swallow  are  always  called  martins :  and 
several  species,  less  closely  allied  to  the  common 
swallow,  and  assigned  by  some  naturalists  to  another 
subgenus,  are  frequently  called  martins. 

The  common  martin,  or  house  martin  (Hirundo 
urbica),  is  a  well  known  bird.  Its  upper  part  is  black 
and  its  rump  and  under  part  are  white.  Its  total 
length  is  somewhat  upwards  of  five  and  one-fourth 
inches.  It  builds  its  nest  with  mud-earth  at  the 
angles  of  windows,  under  the  eaves  of  houses,  and  in 
other  similar  situations  ;  and  it  has  been  known,  when 
disturbed,  to  build  four  times  in  one  year.  The 
female  lays  four  or  five  smooth,  white  eggs  of  nine  and 
one  half  lines  in  length  and  six  lines  in  breadth,  and 
incubates  during  13  days,  and  in  many  instances 
deserts  her  young. 

Martingale,  the  strap  connecting  the  bridle-rein 
with  the  belly  band  and  passing  between  the  fore-legs, 
to  prevent  the  horse  from  throwing  his  head  too  high, 
or  rearing. 

Martynia,  or  Unicorn  Plant.  The  young  pods, 
when  sufficiently  tender  to  be  easily  punctured  by  the 
finger-nail,  are  sometimes  used  for  pickles.  The  plant 
produces  large,  showy  flowers,  and  is  so  hardy  as  to 
run  at  large  in  central  Illinois.  Plant  one  in  a  place, 
two  by  three  feet  apart. 

Mash,  medicated  diet  for  horses  and  cattle.  It  is 
commonly  made  of  bran  or  malt.  A  bran  mash  is 
made  by  pouring  enough  of  boiling  water  on  fresh 
sweet  bran  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  a  soft  poultice, 
and  by  thoroughly  stirring  the  mixture,  and  covering  it 
over,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until  it  becomes  suf- 
ficiently cool  for  use.  No  bran  mash,  even  in  the 
heat  of  summer,  ought  ever  to  be  made  with  cold 
water.  A  little  oats  may  be  sprinkled  on  the  surface 
of  the  mash  to  provoke  a  squeamish  horse  to  eat ;  but 
when  oats  are  used  in  any  considerable  proportion,  or 
as  a  constituent  of  the  mash  itself,  they  ought  to  be 
scalded  along  with  the  bran.  A  steaming  bran  mash, 
designed  to  steam  the  horse's  head  for  strangles,  colds, 
and  sore  throats,  or  to  make  him  inhale  its  vapor 
while  he  eats  its  substance,  may  be  put  hot  into  the 
manger,  but  ought  never  to  be  put  into  a  nose-bag 
secured  to  the  animal's  head,  for  in  that  position  it 
impedes  respiration. 


Masonry.     To  measure  masonry  see  page  146. 

Mastiff,  the  largest  of  watch-dogs:    see  page  337. 

Mats.  Good  door  mats  of  many  kinds  are  to  be 
had  at  dry-goods  and  furniture  stores ;  but  often  some 
member  of  the  family — an  invalid  or  a  cripple,  per- 
haps— takes  great  pleasure  in  conjuring  up  little 
conveniences  and  pieces  of  ornamental  work  for  the 
house.  To  prepare  sheep-skins  for  mats,  make  a 
strong  lather  with  hot  water,  and  let  it  stand  till 
cold;  wash  the  fresh  skin  in  it,  carefully  squeezing 
out  all  the  dirt  from  the  wool;  wash  it  in  cold  water 
until  all  the  soap  is  taken  out.  Dissolve  a  pound 
each  of  salt  and  alum  in  two  gallons  of  hot  wiUer, 
and  put  the  skin  into  a  tub  sufficient  to  cover  it;  let 
it  soak  for  12  hours  and  hang  it  over  a  pole  to  drain ; 
when  well  drained,  stretch  it  carefully  on  a  board  to 
dry,  and  stretch  several  times  while  drying;  but  before 
it  is  quite  dry,  sprinkle  on  the  flesh  side  one  ounce 
each  of  fine  pulverized  alum  and  saltpeter,  rubbing  it 
in  well.  See  whether  the  wool  be  firm  on  the  skin, 
and  if  it  is  not,  let  it  remain  a  day  or  two,  then  rub 
again  with  alum ;  fold  the  flesh  sides  together  and 
hang  in  the  shade  for  two  or  three  days,  turning  them 
over  each  day  till  quite  dry.  Scrape  the  flesh  side 
with  a  blunt  knife,  and  rub  it  with  pumice  or  rotten 
stone.  In  order  to  dye  it  any  color,  its  face  or  woolly 
part  is  dipped  into  a  bath  of  the  required  tint,  pre- 
pared in  the  ordinary  manner  for  dyeing  wool.  The 
washing  must  again  be  repeated,  to  get  rid  of  the 
excess  of  coloring  matter  which  adheres  to  it.  The 
skin  is  then  dried  and  trimmed  to  the  proper  shape. 

Husk  matting  is  easily  made  by  simply  tying  the 
husks  together,  turning  the  ends  all  to  one  side,  and 
then  clipping  them  all  off  to  a  uniform  length. 

Sheepskin  rugs,  or  mats,  are  cleaned  by  washing 
with  strong  soap-suds  two  or  three  times,  rinsing  well 
in  cold  water  after  each  washing;  the  last  rinsing 
should  be  in  water  in  which  a  little  bluing  is  dis- 
solved. In  drying,  the  rugs  should  be  shaken  and 
turned  occasionally. 

To  clean  straw  matting,  wash  it  with  weak  brine 
and  dry  it  well,  or  boil  a  small  bag  of  bran  in  two 
gallons  of  water  and  wash  the  matting  in  that  water. 

Matting,  mat-work ;  material  for  mats;  an  orna- 
mental border  of  thin-rolled  brass  placed  between  the 
plate  and  glass  of  a  daguerreotype  picture,  to  prevent 
abrasion. 

Maturant  (mat'u-rant),  a  medicine  or  application 
which  promotes  suppuration, — expulsion  of  pus  or 
"matter." 

Maxilla,  the  cheek  or  jaw  of  an  animal  of  any  of 
the  higher  orders,  and  the  under  jaw  of  an  insect. 

May-Apple,  or  Mandrake.  This  is  a  familiar 
herb,  growing  in  woods  throughout  the  United  States. 
Its  flower  is  large,  rose-shaped,  white  and  fragrant, 
appearing  in  May,  and  the  fruit,  about  the  shape  and 
size  of  small  hen's  eggs,  and  edible,  ripens  the  first 
portion  of  August,  about  the  close  of  blackberry  time. 
The  root  is  poisonous,  and  hence  used  in  medicine, 


MA  Y  BEETLE— MEAL. 


961 


where  it  is  known  as  a  cathartic.  In  small  doses, 
continued  for  some  time,  it  is  an  alterative.  The 
celebrated  "  podophyllin  "  is  the  peculiar  principle  of 
May-apple  root,  and  is  employed  as  a  cathartic  and  a 
laxative,  according  to  quantity  taken  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  are  said  also  to  be  poisonous. 

May  Beetle,  an  insect  especially  injurious  to 
meadows  and  pastures:  see  page  850. 

Mead,  Metheglin,  Hydromel,  or  Bragget.  This 
is  a  beverage  essentially  consisting  of  fermented 
sweetened  water.  \Vhen  made  of  honey  it  is  called 
metheglin,  or  hydromel.  The  fermentation  is  held  in 
the  alcoholic  stage  as  long  as  possible,  by  bottling  or 
tight  bunging  in  the  cask.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
fermentation  proceeds  to  the  acetic  stage,  when  vine- 
gar is  formed.  To  get  metheglin  in  perfection,  it  must 
remain  a  year  in  the  wood  untouched.  It  is  then  to 
be  bottled,  and  kept  for  at  least  six  months  before 
being  used,  when  a  very  agreeable  and  jxitent  liquor 
will  be  obtained. 

These  drinks  have  more  alcohol  and  acid  in  them 
than  has  any  kind  of  beer  or  ale. 
We  give  the  following  recipes  for  making  this  drink : 

Sarsap.\rilla  Mead.  3  pounds  of  sugar,  3 
ounces  of  tartaric  acid,  i  ounce  of  cream  tartar,  i  of 
flour,  I  of  essence  of  sarsaparilla  and  3  quarts  of 
water.  Strain  and  bottle  it;  then  let  it  stand  ten  days 
before  using  it. 

To  Make  Bragget.  To  28  pounds  of  honey  add 
8^  gallons  of  boiling  water;  mix  thoroughly.  Boil 
in  half  a  gallon  of  water  the  peel  of  3  lemons,  i  ounce 
of  ginger,  2  drachms  of  mace,  i  drachm  of  cloves  and 
a  small  bundle  of  rosemary;  strain,  and  add  imme- 
diately to  the  hot  mixture;  stir  the  whole  together, 
and  set  aside  in  a  cask  till  quite  cold.  Mix  two  large 
siX)onfuls  of  fresh  yeast  with  a  quart  of  the  liquor;  jwur 
into  the  cask,  and  allow  it  to  remain  till  the  fermenta- 
tion has  taken  place,  when  the  cask  is  to  be  bunged 
up. 

Meadow,  land  seeded  down  to  grass  suitable  for 
either  regular  or  occasional  mowing.  It  is  distinguished 
from  pasture  by  its  adaption  to  soiling  and  haymaking, 
and  the  latter  being  used  exclusively  for  grazing.  The 
chief  point  to  be  observed  in  meadows  is  to  select  such 
grasses  as  will  afford  the  largest  amount  of  nutritious 
and  palatable  hay  and  which  will  ripen  simultaneously. 
See  Grass.  The  chief  hay  grasses  in  the  United 
States  are :  Kentucky  blue  grass,  orchard  grass, 
fowl  meadow  grass,  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass, 
tall  fescue,  timothy  and  red-top.  When  Kentucky 
blue  grass  ripens  in  June,  the  other  grasses  will  ripen 
as  follows:  orchard  grass,  June;  fowl  meadow  grass, 
July  and  August;  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass,  July; 
tall  fescue,  June;  timothy,  July;  red-top,  July  and 
August.  In  seeding  meadows  more  are  less  clover  is 
generally  sown.  If  with  timothy  and  red-top  as  the 
basis,  the  clover  must  be  allowed  to  get  pretty  ripe  in 
order  that  the  timothy  may  be  cut  when  the  seeds  are 
half  formed.  Then  the  red-top  will  be  in  its  prime, 
and  the  clover  will  have  thickened  at  the  bottom. 
61 


Blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  tall  fescue  and  clover  ripen 
so  that  they  may  form  the  meadow ;  fowl  meadow  grass 
and  red-top  ripen  nearly  enough  together  so  that  they 
may  be  fit  for  hay  at  the  same  time.  Clover,  timothy, 
blue  grass  and  orchard  grass  like  a  strong,  rather  dry 
soil;  red-top  will  grow  in  moist  soil:  so  will  fowl  meadow 
grass.  Timothy  should  not  be  cut  close,  since  the 
bulb  at  the  top  of  the  ground  will  be  injured.  Clover, 
red-top,  fowl  meadow,  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass 
and  blue  grass  make  excellent  hay  for  cattle  and 
sheep.  For  horses  timothy,  orchard  grass  and  blue 
grass  make  superior  hay,  since  the  hay  is  clean  and 
generally  free  Irom  dust.  In  the  South,  clover,  lucern 
blue  grass,  orchard  grass,  timothy  and  red-top  do  fairly, 
but  in  the  Gulf  States  the  main  dependence  seems  to 
be  on  crab,  crowfoot,  Bermuda  and  gama  grass,  vifhich 
are  extensively  sown. 

Permanent  meadow  lands,  if  constantly  cropped 
without  manures,  may  be  exhausted  with  much  greater 
rapidity  than  pastures,  though  this  depreciation  is 
much  more  gradual  than  with  tillage  land.  There  is 
no  greater  mistake  than  to  suppose  they  will  keep  in 
condition  by  taking  off  one  annual  crop  only,  and 
either  pasturing  the  aftermath  or  leaving  it  to  decay 
on  the  ground.  No  soils  but  such  as  are  periodically 
flooded  with  enriching  waters,  can  long  suffer  such  a 
drain  with  impunity.  They  must  be  renewed  with 
the  proper  manures,  or  barrenness  will  ensue.  Ashes, 
lime,  bones  and  gypsum  (the  latter  especially  to  be 
applied  to  clovers,  its  good  effects  not  being  so 
marked  on  the  grasses),  are  essential  to  maintain 
fertility,  and  to  insure  the  greatest  product:  animal  or 
vegetable  manures  must  also  be  added.  The  proper 
manner  of  applying  these  fertilizers  is  by  scattering 
them  over  the  surface  when  the  grass  is  just  com- 
mencing a  vigorous  growth  in  spring,  or  simultaneously 
with  the  first  rains  after  mowing.  The  growing  vege- 
tation soon  buries  them  under  its  thick  foliage,  and 
the  refreshing  showers  wash  the  soluble  matters  into 
the  roots;  and  even  the  gases  that  would  otherwise 
escape  are  immediately  absorbed  by  the  dense  leaves 
and  stalks  which  everywhere  surround  it.  The  loss 
of  any  kind  of  manure  is  trifling,  even  in  a  state  of 
active  decomiwsition,  when  scattered  broadcast  under 
such  circumstances. 

Pasturing  Meadows.  There  is  no  objection  to 
feeding  off  meadows  in  early  autumn,  while  the  ground 
is  dry  and  the  sod  firm.  The  roots  of  the  grass  are 
rather  benefited  than  injured  by  the  browsing  and  the 
land  is  improved  by  the  droppings  from  the  cattle, 
and  more  particularly  by  sheep.  But  they  should 
never  be  pastured  in  spring.  It  is  economy  to  pur- 
chase hay  at  any  price  rather  than  to  spring-pasture 
meadows. 

Meal.  The  ground  or  pulverized  edible  portion  of 
the  grains  of  vVheat,  corn,  oats,  peas  or  other  cereal 
grasses  and  certain  legumes.  Flour  differs  from  meal 
in  being  freed  from  the  coarser  parts  by  being  bolted. 
Meal  is  denominated  according  to  the  kind  of  grain 
which  afford  it,  as  oat-meal,  corn-meal,  rye-meal, 
barley  meal,  etc. 


962 


MEASLES— MEA  T. 


Measles.  For  several  days  before  the  appearance 
of  the  peculiar  eruption  of  measles,  there  are  certain 
symptoms  which  often  excite  a  suspicion  of  the  im- 
pending disorder.  The  child  labors  under  a  severe 
cold  ;  there  are  watery  discharges  from  the  eyes  and 
nose  ;  accompanying  these  are  irregular  chills  and  shiv- 
erings,  with  general  languor  and  appearance  of  illness. 
In  the  course  of  a  day  or  two  there  is  frequent  sneez- 
ing, and  a  cough  is  generally  heard  of  a  hard,  me- 
tallic, somewhat  croupy  character.  It  will  be  easily 
observed  that  these  symptoms  differ  considerably  from 
those  attending  the  early  stages  of  scarlatina  and 
small-ix3x:  in  the  former,  there  is  fever,  with  sore 
throat ;  in  the  latter,  there  are  the  peculiar  and  severe 
pains  in  the  back,  stomach,  and  head ;  but  in  neither 
is  there  the  hoarse  cough,  the  sneezing,  and  the  dis- 
charges from  eyesand  nose  which  prevail  in  measles. 
On  the  fourth  day  the  rash  appears.  It  is  first  visible 
around  the  head,  behind  the  ears,  and  about  the  tem- 
ples ;  it  then  appears  on  the  rest  of  the  face,  then  on 
the  throat  and  neck ;  on  the  rest  of  the  body  a  few 
spots,  like  flea  bites,  may  often  at  this  time  be  noticed ; 
but  the  eruption  does  not  reach  the  hands  and  feet 
until  two  days  after  its  appearance  on  the  face.  On 
the  day  after  this  the  rash  on  the  face  begins  to  fade 
away. 

Treatment.  When  measles  are  mild  and  regular, 
which  they  usually  are,  and  when  the  child  has  had 
careful  attention,  this  complaint  requires  only  the 
mildest  treatment  and  simplest  remedies.  The  danger 
is  in  the  consequence  of  the  disease,  rather  than  in 
the  disease  itself.  They  may  be  rendered  severe,  and 
even  dangerous  by  neglect  or  improper  remedies,  as 
the  giving  of  hot  and  stimulating  drinks  to  hasten  the 
eruptions,  or  confining  the  child  in  a  hot  room,  cov- 
ered with  flannel  and  blankets  during  the  fever  and 
erl^ptions,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are  drenched 
with  saffron  tea,  or  hot  toddy,  for  the  purpose  of  driv- 
ing out  and  keepina  out  eruptions.  These  improper 
means  may  cause  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  which 
frequently  prove  fatal. 

Very  little  medical  treatment  is  necessary  in  ordi- 
nary cases.  Cold  drinks  should  be  given,  both  during 
the  period  of  fever  and  while  the  eruption  lasts.  Oc- 
casionally some  cooling  purgative  may  be  given  if 
necessary,  but  in  mild  cases  no  other  treatment  is  nec- 
essary. In  the  latter  stages  of  measles  the  occurrence 
of  free  purging  often  occurs.  This  is  usually  regarded 
as  favorable,  and  astringents  and  anodynes  should  not 
be  given  to  stop  it.  A  knowledge  of  this  fact  is  often 
important,  as  many  children  have  lost  their  lives  by 
such  treatment. 

Exclude  light  from  the  eyes  and  protect  the  child 
from  exix)sure  to  cold  air,  a  current  of  which  might 
drive  in  the  eruption.  Never  deny  the  patient  cold 
water  in  abundance.  Give  light  food,  and  sponge  the 
face,  chest  and  hands  occasionally  with  warm  water  to 
which  a  little  vinegar  has  been  added.  This  will 
greatly  relieve  the  heat,  dryness  and  itching  of  the 
skin,  which  is  often  distressing  at  night. 

Measure,   in  a  legal   and  commercial  sense,   the 


dimensions  of  anything  bought,  sold,  or  valued.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  measures:  ist.  Linear  measure,  or 
that  which  is  used  for  lines,  which  have  only  the  di- 
mension of  length,  such  as  roads  or  distancer,  either 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  in  absolute  space.  2d, 
Square  measure,  or  that  which  is  used  for  surfaces 
which  have  the  dimensions  of  length  and  breadth,  as 
in  land  measuring,  etc.;  and  3d,  Solid  measure,  or  that 
which  is  used  for  solid  bodies,  which  have  the  three 
dimensions  of  length,  breadth  and  thickness,  as  in  the 
measurement  of  timber,  the  gauging  of  vessels,  etc. 

All  measures,  whether  linear,  square  or  solid,  are 
deducted  from  some  sta.'dard  measure  of  a  lineal 
kind,  either  arbitrarily  assumed,  or  related  to  some  in- 
variable distance  in  nature.  Arbitrary  standards  have 
till  lately  been  adopted  by  all  nations,  and  their  meas- 
ures have  been  reduced  from  the  length  of  some  part 
of  the  human  body,  as  the  foot,  the  cubit,  the  span, 
the  nail,  the  ulna  or  arm,  the  fathom,  the  pace,  and 
the  inch  or  thumb.  The  modern  yard  is  said  to  have 
been  adjusted  by  the  arm  of  Henry  I  of  England,  in 
iioi ;  and  it  has  been  conjectured  that  the  old  French 
foot  had  a  similar  origin. 

We  have  given  the  rules  for  measuring  all  the  dif- 
ferent articles  that  are  usually  measured  under  their  re- 
spective heads.  The  rules  for  measuring  brick  work 
may  be  found  on  page  146  ;  for  measuring  corn,  on 
page  294;  grindstones,  page  607;  measuring  live  cat- 
de  to  esUniate  the  weight,  215;  hay,  649;  boards, 
logs,  sawed  and  hewn  timber,  948;  measuring  land, 
890.  For  the  measuring  of  doses  of  Medicine,  see 
that  article.  To  measure  the  height  of  a  tree,  see 
Tree,  and  so  on  :  to  find  the  rules  for  measuring  any 
article,  see  that  article  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

Meat,  the  flesh  of  animals,  prepared  for  human 
food.  But  the  name,  in  the  popular  use  of  it,  seldom 
comprises  the  flesh  of  fishes,  of  fowls,  or  even  of 
wild  quadrupeds,  and  is  principally  confined  to  beef, 
veal,  mutton,  lamb  and  pork. 

In  this  article  we  will  treat  the  relative  values  of 
the  different  kinds  of  all  the  domesdcated  animals 
used  for  food,  giving  the  joints  or  parts  into  which 
they  are  divided,  the  uses  to  which  each  p-.rt  is  gener- 
ally appropriated.  Directions  are  alsc  given  in  se- 
lecting the  different  kinds  of  fish  and  poultry  and  the 
general  principles  of  cooking  "and  handling  meat  are 
laid  down. 

Beef.  Good  beef  has  a  fine,  smooth,  open  grain, 
is  red  in  color,  and  tender  to  the  touch.  _  The  fat  is 
white  rather  than  yellow,  and  is  moderate  in  quantity. 
The  grain  of  cow-beef  is  closer  and  the  fat  whiter, 
but  the  lean  is  not  so  brightly  red.  Ox-beef  is  pref- 
erable to  bull-beef,  the  flesh  of  the  latter  having  a 
coarser  and  closer  grain,  the  fat  being  hard  and 
skinny,  the  lean  of  a  deeper  red,  and  the  scent 
stronger.  Bull-beef,  being  drjs  tough,  and  difficult  of 
digestion,  is  not  often  eaten.  Heifer-beef,  if  well  fed, 
is  sometimes  preferred  to  that  of  the  ox.  In  old  meat 
there  is  a  horny  streak  running  between  the  fat  and 
lean  of  the  sirloin  and  ribs. 


MEAT. 


963 


In  relation  to  the  best  cattle  for  beef,  an  experi- 
enced butcher  speaks  thus:  "I  shall  present  the  ex- 
perience which  has  brought  me  in  contact  with  all  sorts 
and  sizes,  shades  and  colors  of  cattle,  and  not  only 
by  hundreds,  but   by  thousands,    from    the    poorest, 


Fig.  i.—jfaints  cf  the  Ox. 


eck 


1  Sirloin.     _  8  Thin  flank.  14  Brisket. 

2  Top,  or  aitch-bone.         g  Leg.  15  Neck  cut    or 

3  Rump.  10  Fore  rib  (5  ribs).  piece. 

4  Buttock,  or  round.  11  Middle  rib  (4  ribs).  16  Neck. 

5  Mouse  buttock.  12  Chuck  rib  (3  ribs).  17  Shin  or  shank. 

6  Verny  piece.  13  Shoulder  or  Leg-of-  18  Cheeks  or  head. 

7  Thick  flank.  mutton  piece.  j 

toughest '  old  bull,'  used  for  jerked  beef,  to  feed  the 
slaves  of  the  West  Indies,  to  that  of  the  choicest — 
the  winners  of  many  first  prizes — which  have  been 
so  elaborately  prepared,  both  to  please  the  palates  of 
rich  epicures  and  lovers  of  good  beef,  and  also  to 
gain  the  admiration  of  thousands.  I  place  them  in 
their  order,  as  follows  : 

•■  I.     Spayed  heifer,  from  four  to  seven  years  old. 

"  2.     Steer,  or  bullock,  from  four  to  six  years  old. 

"  3.  Free  martin  (or  barren  heifer),  not  over  eight 
years  old. 

"  4.     Ox,  from  five  to  eight  years  old. 

"5.     Heifer,  from  three  to  four  years  old. 

"  6.     Cow,  from  three  to  eight  years  old. 

"  6.     Stag,  from  three  to  eight  years  old. 

"  8.     Bull,  from  two  to  six  years  old." 

The  best  pieces  for  roasting  are  the  sirloin,  tender- 
loin and  second  and  third  rib  cuts.  The  latter  may 
have  the  bones  removed  by  the  butcher  and  be  rolled 


and  skewered  before  roasting,  which  is  much  the 
most  economical  and  convenient  way  of  serving. 
The  bones  may  do  duty  to  the  soup  kettle.  Many 
persons  think  that  the  sweetness  and  goodness  of 
the  meat  is  impaired  by  removing  the  bones  before 
cooking,  and  prefer  that  they  should  be  taken  only 
from  the  thin  end,  when  that  can  be  folded   under. 

The  best  steaks  are  near  the  ribs,  five  to  eight 
inches  on  the  side  of  the  beef,  and  called  "  Porter- 
house steak."    The  next  best  cpmes  from  the  sirloin. 

The  whole  ham  is  used  for  dried  beef.  The  best 
boiling  pieces  of  corned  beef  comes  from  the  brisket. 
Good  sieaks  can  be  cut  from  the  fore-shoulder.  The 
best  soup  bone  is  the  hind  leg.  The  piece  called  the 
sticking  place  is  usually  boiled  for  mince  pies. 

Veal.  The  calf,  after  it  is  slaughtered  and  dress- 
ed, is  called  veal;  but,  unlike  the  ox  in  its  dressing, 
the  butchers  seldom  take  off  the  skin  until  the  day  it 
is  to  be  placed  in  the  shop  for  sale.  It  is  retained  on 
the  carcass  for  the  purjMse  of  keeping  the  flesh 
moist,  bright  and  clean.  The  age  of  the  calf  not 
being  less  than  four  nor  more  than  six  weeks,  pro- 
duces the  best  veal  if  properly  fed  and  in  good 
condition.  At  a  less  age  the  flesh  is  not  fit  for  food, 
as  it  is  flaccid,  gelatinous  and  watery.  When  calves 
are  wholly   fed    from    the  cow   and   range   between 


Flc.   -2.— Joints  cf  a  Calf. 


1  Loin,  best  end. 

2  Loin,  thin  end. 

3  Fillet. 

4  Hind  knuckle. 


5  Fore  knuckle. 

6  Neck,  best  end. 

7  Neck,  scrag  end. 

8  Shoulder. 


9  Breast,  best  end. 

10  Breast,  brisket  end. 

11  Head. 


the  age  of  four  to  six  weeks,  they  produce  what  may 

be  called  milk  veal,  being  the  most  white,  tender  and 

delicate,  and  the  choicest  eating  of  all  other  veal. 

In  spite   of    the    prejudice   existing    against 


this 


964 


MEAT. 


animal,  it  furnishes  materials  for  many  dainty  dishes. 
From  its  head  to  its  feet  it  can  be  utilized.  The  loin 
of  veal  is  best  for  roasting;  the  leg  furnishes  the  fillet 
and  cutlets;  the  knuckle  makes  a  good  soup,  while 
from  any  jwrtion  of  the  fore-quarter  may  be  made 
Stews,  fricandeaus  and  soups. 

The  sweetbreads  are  especially  delicate,  that  near- 
est the  heart  being  .the  best.  The  head,  if  nicely 
cleaned,  makes  a  delicious  mock  turtle  soup.  It 
should  be  dressed  and  cleansed  the  same  as  pig's 
feet,  that  is,  with  the  skin  left  on.  The  feet  may  be 
cooked  with  the  head,  or  be  made  into  jelly.  The 
tongue  is  excellent  pickled  and  the  brains  will  make 
the  most  delicious  of  sauces.  The  liver  is  the  best 
of  all  animal  livers,  as  are  the  kidneys. 

Pork.  The  young  pig,  termed  the  "  sucking  pig" 
or  "  roasting  pig,"  is  not  changed  in  name,  like  the 
full-grown  animal,  by  the  fact  of  slaughtering.  Living 
or  dead  it  is  named  pig,  a  roaster  or  a  roasting-pig. 
When  dressed  for  choice  eating  it  should  not  be  less 
than  three  nor  more  than  six  weeks  old.  The  skin 
of  the  roaster  should  be  white  (unless  it  has  been  a 
spotted  or  black-haired  pig),  plump,  hard  and  well 
cleaned.  The  flanks,  when  it  is  opened,  should  be 
thick  and  fat,  and  it  ought  to  weigh  from  eight  to 
fourteen  pounds.  Its  season  is  best  in  the  autumn 
and  winter  months.  The  name  of  the  half  or  full- 
grown  hog  and  its  varieties  when  prepared  by  the 
butcher  is  changed  to  jxsrk.  When  living  and  of  dif- 
ferent ages  and  sexes 
they  are  known  by  several 
distinct  names;  those 
under  one  year  are  either 
ilirill'  IJHII    llllll         called     pigs,    shoats    or 

[|P  jnff    \     1         porkers.     If  the   female 

t         ,'  —jJKSF     v=llllll         within    one    year    have 

pigs  she  is  known  as  a 
"young  sow,"  and  no 
longer  by  the  name  of 
shoat,  etc.  When  spay- 
ed the  animal  is  known 
as  a  "spayed  sow." 
Above  one  year  the  male 
is  named  a  "  young  boar," 
when  aged  an  "old  boar;" 
and  when  altered  a  "  bar- 
row," or  "  barrow  hog,"  or 
"  hog,"  and  when  altered 
late  or  aged  it  is  called  a 
"stag-hog."  The  female 
is  familarly  named  "sow," 
"sow  hog,"  or  "hog." 
These  terms  are  applied 
p.,-  ,    T-i.^  .  -       n 'o   live  animals.     Expe- 

rlG.  3. — The  Joinis  or  Divisions  into  .  ,  ■     r  .         . 

which  Pigs  are  divided.        ncncc  and  information  in 
I  Spare  rib.  2  Hand.   3  Belly,  or   relation  to  the  Varieties 

Dnsket   and  nank.     4  Fore    loin.        1  •    ,  .,,  ,  . 

S  Hind  loin.     6  I,eg,  or  ham.  Whlch    Will     produce     the 

best  kind  of  [wrk  may  be  placed  in  the  following 
order;  i,  Barrow  pigs  or  shoats,  from  three  months 
to  one  year  old;  2,  hog,  pigs  or  shoats,  from  three 
months  to  six  months  old;  3,  barrow  pigs  (milk  and 


grass  fed),  three  months  to  one  year;  4,  sow  pigs, 
from  three  to  four  months  old  ;  5,  barrow  hogs  and 
spayed  sows,  when  one  year,  corn-fed,  selected  usual- 
ly for  bacon  hogs;  6,  sow  hogs,  ditto,  selected  usually 
for  bacon  hogs;  7,  stag  hogs;  8,  boar  hogs  or  boar, 
youngest  best.  The  general  appearance  of  the  most 
choice  pork  is  from  an  animal,  the  carcass  of  which 
will  not  weigh  less  than  50  and  not  more  than  120 
pounds.  The  skin  should  present  a  thin,  transparent 
appearance,  approaching  white  in  color.  The  fat  on 
the  back  should  not  be  less  than  half  an  inch  thick, 
white  and  firm,  and  the  lean  of  a  pale  reddish  color 
and  sappy.  The  skin  of  the  older  animals  or  bacon 
hogs  is  thicker  and  coarser,  while  the  lean  is  of  a 
darker  color,  but  equally  sweet,  juicy  and  tender. 
Hogs  selected  for  bacon,  clear  pork,  hams,  shoulders, 
back  fat,  or  for  salted  or  barrelling  pork,  are  usually 
from  150  pounds  to  500  pounds. 

The  roasting  joints  of  pork  are  the  spare  ribs,  loin 
and  the  leg;  the  other  joints  are  salted.  The  leg 
may  also  be  cured  and  boiled. 

Mutton  is  divided  into  leg,  loin  (best  end), 
hump  and  loin,  neck  (best  end),  scrag,  shoulder  and 
breast.  The  two  loins  together  make  a  saddle  of 
mutton.  The  leg  and  neck  are  boiled,  the  shoulder 
stewed. 

It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  good  mutton  is 
one  of  the  most  nutritious  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
easily  digested  of  meats,  and  therefore  particularly 
well  adapted  to  in- 
valids. It  is  not  the 
most  economical,  as 
there  is  a  great  deal 
of  waste  in  so  much 
fat;  and  lean  mutton 
is  not  good,  being 
generally  dry  and 
tough.  In  choosing 
mutton  particular 
attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fat.  In 
the  best  it  will  look 
white  and  clear,  and 
the  lean  will  be  firm, 
juicy  and  dark  red. 
If  the  meat  is  indif- 
ferent the  fat  will  be 
yellow  and  the  flesh 
flabby  and  coarse- 
grained. 

The  saddle  and 
shoulder  of  mutton 
are  the  best  for 
roasting ;  they  are 
improved  by  hang- 
ing fbr  some  days 
before  cooking,  as 
the  "sheepy"  taste 
is  lost  by  exposure  to  a  cool,  clear  air.  The  leg  of 
mutton,  unless  very  tender,  is  better  for  boiling,  and 


Fig.  4. —  The  yoints  of  a  Sheep. 

T  Leg.  2  Thin  end  of  loin.  3  Best  end  of 
loin.  4  Neck,  best  end.  5  Neck,  scrag  end. 
6  Shoulder.  7  Breast.  A  saddle  is  the  two 
loins  undivided.  A  chine  is  the  two  sides  of 
the  neck  undivided. 


MEAT. 


<iH 


may  be  cooked  when  quite  fresh.  The  leg  may  also 
be  cut  for  broiling,  but  although  more  economical, 
these  cutlets  are  much  inferior  to  chops  from  the  loin 
or  ribs.  Good  broth  and  stews  may  be  made  from 
the  breast,  scrag  or  flank,  always  being  careful  to  re- 
move the  fat  before  serving. 

Lamb.  Lamb  is  generally  recognized  by  butchers 
until  it  reaches  tlie  age  of  about  twelve  months,  when 
it  is  termed  yearling,  although  at  this  period  the  year- 
lings are  often  dressed  "lamb  fashion."  The  size, 
fatness,  condition,  age  and  sex  are  considered  best  in 
the  following  order  :  i.  Spring  lamb  (ewe),  from  six 
weeks  to  three  months  old.     2.   Spring  lamb  (buck). 

3.  Wether  lamb,  three  months  to  eight  months  old. 

4.  Ewe  lamb.  5.  Wether  lamb  or  yearling,  eight 
months  to  twelve  months  old.  6.  Buck  lamb.  The 
■spring  lamb  is  commonly  called  house  lamb,  it  is  pre- 
sumed, from  the  circumstance  of  its  being  born  during 
the  winter  months,  when  its  tender  life,  if  not  care- 
fully housed,  fed  and    kept  warm,  would    perish,   or 

remain  dwarfish  or  become 
sickly.  Its  flesh  is  not  prized 
for  its  unseasonable  char- 
acter, and,  although  deli- 
cate and  tender,  is  quite 
insipid  and  is  not  nourish- 
ishing.  Lamb  is  some- 
times sold  as  early  as 
March,  after  which  it  slow- 
ly increases  in  size  and 
quantity;  and  in  the 
months  of  June,  July  and 
August  it  is  in  full  season 
and  of  fine  quality.  When 
first  brought  info  market 
lamb  is  not  sold  in  less 
quantity  than  a  quarter  its 
weight,  being  seldom  above 
five  or  six  jxjunds. 

To  choose  lamb,  first 
examine  tlie  fat  on  the 
back,  and  then  that  of  the 
kidneys,  both  of  which 
should  be  white,  hard  and 
of  the  same  color.  Lambs 
are  tender  creatures. 
Rough  handling,  cold, 
stormy  weather,  insuffici- 
ent food,  and  being  long  driven,  ])roduce  a  feverish 
state,  which  causes  the  fat  and  flesh  to  be  veiny,  and 
of  a  dark  red  color,  and  also  renders  it  dry,  tough  and 
tasteless.  The  kidney  fat  of  a  fine  (or  inferior)  lamb 
should  not  be  raised,  stuffed,  or  blowed,  but  merely 
its  own  caul  or  fat  laid  on  its  legs  and  flanks,  to  pre- 
vent them  from  drying  or  burning  whilst  roasting. 
The  carcass  of  the  lamb  is  first  split  down  the  center 
-of  the  back  and  neck  into  two  sides,  which  are  quar- 
tered by  leaving  two  or  three  ribs  on  the  hind  quarter 
of  lamb.  When  large  enough,  and  it  is  desired  by 
the  purchaser  to  be  cut  or  divided,  the  leg  is  first  cut 
off  and  prepared  for   roasting,   boiling,  or   cut   into 


Fig.  5. —  The  Lain''  is  divided 

as  /ottows: 
Leg.  2  Loin.        3  Shoulder, 

4  Breast.  5  Ribs. 

3,  4  5,  together.    Fore-quarter. 


chops,  etc.  Separated  from  the  shoulder  the  neck 
and  breast  make  a  choice  dish.  Lambs'  frys  and 
sweetbreads  are  generally  found  in  our  markets  in  the 
spring  and  summer  months  on  dishes,  nicely  cleaned 
and  prepared  ready  for  use.  Some  sprinkle  a  little 
parsley  to  decorate  them.  They  are  considered,  and 
certainly  are,  delicate  eating,  and  are  therefore  much 
sought  after. 

How  TO  Select  Meats.  Besides  the  instructions 
above  in  reference  to  the  qual- 
ities of  the  different  kinds  of 
meat,  the  following  points  in 
selecting  should  be  observed: 
Beef.  Good  ox-beef  has  a 
loose  grain,  red  meat,  and 
slightly  yellowish  fat ;  cow- 
beef  has  a  firmer  grain,  whiter 
fat  and  less  color.  An  animal 
old  or  ill-fed  shows  a  dark  red 
color  in  the  lean  and  the  fat  is 
hard  and  skinny.  When  meat 
rises  quickly  after  the  pressure 
with  the  finger,  it  is  good ; 
when  slowly,  it  is  poor.  If  it 
bear  a  greenish  tint  and  feels 
slippery  on  the  surface,  it  is 
stale  and  unfit  for  food. 

Veal.  Good  veal  is  usually 
white,  though  the  dark  is  often 
good.  If  the  kidney  fat  is  fine 
and  white,  the  meat  is  proba- 
bly good. 

Pork.  Good  ix)rk  has  a  thin, 
smooth  rind,  cool  to  the  touch. 
If  turning  bad  a  dent  with  the  finger  remains.  Ker- 
nels in  the  fat  show  that  the  hog  was  ill-fed  or 
diseased. 

Mutton.  Good  mutton  is  red  and  firm,  the  grain 
close  and  fat  white. 

Lainb  should  be  small;  of  a  pale-colored  red,  and 
fat. 

Venison.  You  can  tell  as  to  being  "  high"  or  not, 
by  running  a  skewer  into  the  shoulder,  and  observing 
the  scent  on  it  when  withdrawn.  The  fat  should  Le 
thick  and  clean.  If  the  cleft  of  the  haunch  is  smooth 
and  close,  the  animal  is  young. 

Bacon.  If  bacon  is  good  the  rind  is  thin,  the  fat 
finn  and  pinkish,  the  lean  tender  and  adhering  to  the 
bone.     Rusty  bacon  has  yellowish  streaks  in  it. 

Havis  are  tried  by  sticking  a  knife  or  skewer  into 
them  uj)  to  the  knuckle;  if  when  drawn  out  it  has  a 
nice  smell,  the  ham  is  good.  A  bad  scent  will  be  per- 
ceived if  it  is  tainted. 

As  to  the  identification  of  diseased  and  other  poor 
meat,  the  residents  of  towns  and  cities  are  more 
concerned  than  farmers ;  but  as  farmers  buy  a  large 
proportion  of  the  fresh  meat  they  use,  it  is  equally 
iuqxjrtant  for  them  also  to  be  able  to  distinguish  good 
meat  from  bad.  Sometimes  meat  bScomes  ]X)isoned 
by  the  animal  feeding  upon  a  poisonous  substance 
previous  to  being  killed.     There  are  several  diseased 


Fig.  6 — .Joints  0/ a  Deer, 

I   Haunch        2  Neck. 
3  Shoulder.     4  Breast. 


■ 


966 


MEAT. 


conditions  which  are  not  apparent  in  the  animal  while 
living,  and  some  of  these  conditions  are  difficult  of 
discernment  after  death,  even  by  the  microscope. 
Scientific  physicians  are  cognizant  of  many  more 
ailments  in  the  human  family  due  to  diseased  meats 
than  the  public  are  aware  of.  When  cattle  are  over- 
driven or  otherwise  worried,  they  become  feverish  and 
their  meat  becomes  diseased  and  unwholesome.  Also, 
anger  suddenly  converts  the  secretions  of  the  body 
into  poisons.  When  a  person  bites  another  or  him- 
self accidentally  and  not  in  anger,  the  injury  is  no 
worse  than  if  the  wound  were  made  by  a  piece  of 
wood  or  bone ;  but  if  the  party  biting  is  highly  excited 
by  anger,  the  wound  is  about  as  dangerous  as  the  bite 
of  a  rattlesnake  or  mad-dog.  It  is  in  a  measure  the 
same  with  lower  animals.  Angering  them  before 
death,  even  but  for  a  moment,  ix)isons  their  flesh  to 
some  extent.  Slaughterers  generally  hasten  roughly 
on  with  their  business,  not  taking  pains  to  be  nice 
with  their  work,  either  in  the  selection  and  slaughter 
of  their  animals  or  the  trimming  of  the  meat.  If  they 
can  only  make  it  look  well  until  they  sell  it,  they  are 
satisfied.  They  have  no  object  in  being  more  partic- 
ular, in  a  general  way,  than  are  their  customers, 
many  of  whom  spoil  good  meat  after  they  get  it. 

It  is  fashionable,  especially  in  cities  and  among 
those  who  affect  a  French  taste,  to  allow  all  unsalted 
meat  to  commence  decay  before  it  is  cooked  and 
served ;  but  every  hygienist  condemns  the  practice ; 
indeed,  it  seems  that  common  decency  alone  should 
deter  any  "white  man"  from  the  use  of  such  flesh. 
Perfectly  sound,  wholesome  meat  is  of  course  not  so 
"tender"  as  that  which  has  commenced  decomposi- 
tion. In  all  sound  flesh  the  muscles  are  firm  and 
elastic,  pale  for  the  young  animals  and  darker  for  the 
older  ones.  A  deep  purple  color  is  good  evidence 
that  the  animal  died  without  being  bled,  and  the  meat 
is  therefore  unfit  for  food.  Diseased  meat  generally 
has  a  more  or  less  unpleasant  or  suspicious  odor,  has 
a  wet,  flabby,  sodden  appearance,  and  the  fat  looks 
like  jelly  or  wet  parchment.  The  marrow  in  the  leg 
bones  is  of  a  light,  rosy  red  color  for  24  hours  after 
killing.  If  the  marrow  is  soft,  brownish  in  color,  or  if 
it  shows  black  jwints,  the  animal  has  been  sick  and 
putrefaction  has  commenced.  On  slaughtering  an 
animal,  an  inspection  of  the  lungs,  liver  and  spleen 
will  often  reveal  its  true  condition. 

To  Choose  Poultry  and  Game.  Turkey.  The 
cock  bird,  when  young,  has  a  smooth,  black  leg  with 
a  short  spur.  The  eyes  are  bright  and  full,  and  the 
feet  supple,  when  fresh;  the  absence  of  these  signs 
denotes  age  and  staleness;  the  hen  may  be  judged  by 
the  same  rules. 

Fmvls.  The  young  rooster  has  a  smooth  leg  and  a 
short  spur;  when  fresh  the  vent  is  close  and  dark. 
Hens,  when  young,  have  smooth  legs  and  combs ; 
when  old,  these  will  be  rough ;  a  good  cajxjn  has  a 
thick  belly  and  large  rump,  a  poll  comb  and  a  swell- 
ing breast. 

Geese.  In  young  geese  the  feet  and  bill  will  be 
yellow  and   free   from  hair.      When  they   are  fresh 


the  feet  are  pliable;   but  they  are  stiff  when  stale. 

Ducks  may  be  selected  by  the  same  rules. 

Pigeons.,  when  fresh,  have  supple  feet,  and  the  vent 
will  be  firm ;  if  discolored  they  are  stale. 

Rabbits.  When  a  rabbit  is  young  and  fresh,  the 
cleft  in  the  lip  is  narrow,  the  body  stiff,  and  the  claws 
are  smooth  and  sharp ;  old  and  stale  ones  will  be  the 
opposite  of  this. 

Partridges.  Yellow  legs  and  dark  bills  are  the 
signs  by  which  a  young  bird  may  be  known :  a  rigid 
vent  when  fresh.  When  this  part  is  green  the  bird  is 
stale. 

Moore  Game.  Grouse,  woodcocks,  snipe,  quails, 
etc.,  may  be  chosen  by  the  rules  above  given. 

Choose  white-legged  fowls  for  boiling,  and  dark  for 
roasting. 

How  to  Select  Fish.  The  only  rule  in  selection 
is  to  get  them  as  fresh  from  the  water  as  practicable, 
alive  if  possible,  and  kill.  A  fish  allowed  to  die 
slowly  is  not  so  good  as  when  killed  immediately 
before  cooking. 

The  eyes  offish,  if  fresh,  are  bright,  the  gills  of  a 
fine,  clear  red,  the  body  stiff,  and  the  smell  not  un- 
pleasant. Chloride  of  soda  will  restore  fish  that  is 
not  extremely  fresh,  but  it  is  never  so  good  as  when 
it  has  not  been  kept. 

The  salmon  and  the  cod  should  have  a  small  head, 
very  thick  shoulders,  and  a  small  tail.  The  flesh  of 
the  salmon  should  be  of  a  bright  red  color,  the  scales 
very  bright. 

Do  not  buy  herrings,  mackerel,  unless  quite  fresh, 
and  do  not  attempt  to  keep  them  even  till  the  next 
day.     Cod  may  be  kept  twenty-four  hours. 

Eels  should  be  bought  alive.  Crabs  and  lobsters 
should  be  heavy  and  very  stiff;  if  they  feel  limp  they 
are  stale.  They  are  often  bought  alive.  Oysters,  if 
fresh,  will  close  forcibly  on  the  knife  when  opened.  If 
the  shell  gapes  in  the  least  degree,  the  oyster  is  losing 
its  freshness.  When  the  fish  is  dead  the  shell  re- 
mains open. 

Cooking,  Preserving  and  Handling  Meats. 
There  are  some  general  remarks  on  the  various  modes 
of  cooking,  preserving  and  handling  meats  that  are 
quite  essential..  We  have  treated  the  cooking  of 
each  particular  kind  of  meat  under  their  respective 
names,  but  the  following  are  observations  or  princi- 
ples that  apply  to  all  meats: 

Meat,  to  be  in  perfection  should,  when  the  weather 
will  admit  of  it,  be  kept  a  number  of  days.  Beef  or 
mutton  should  be  kept  at  least  a  week  in  cold  weath- 
er, and  poultry  three  or  four  days.  It  should  be  ke])t 
in  a  cool,  airy  place,  away  from  the  flies,  and  if  there 
is  any  danger  of  its  spoiling,  a  little  salt  should  be 
rubbed  over  it. 

Meat  should  be  wiped  with  a  dry,  clean  cloth  as 
soon  as  it  comes  from  the  butcher's ;  fly-blows,  if 
found  in  it,  cut  out,  and  in  loins  the  long  pipe  that 
runs  by  the  bone  should  be  taken  out,  as  it  soon 
taints;  the  kernels  also  should  be  removed  from 
beef     Never  receive  bruised  joints.  ^ 

Meat  will  keep  good  for  a  long  time  in  cold  weather, 


MEAT. 


967 


and,  if  frozen  through,  may  be  kept  for  months.  Fro- 
zen meat  must  be  thawed  before  it  is  cooked  by 
plunging  it  into  cold  water  or  placing  it  before  the  fire 
before  setting  it  down  to  roast.  It  will  never  be 
dressed  through  if  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  not 
even  when  twice  cooked. 

Pepper  is  a  preventive  of  decay,  in  a  degree;  it  is 
well,  therefore,  to  pepper  hung  joints. 

Powdered  charcoal  is  still  more  remarkable  in  its 
effect.  It  will  not  only  keep  the  meat  over  which  it 
is  sprinkled  good,  but  will  remove  the  taint  from 
already  decayed  flesh. 

A  piece  ot  charcoal  boiled  in  the  water  with  "high" 
meat  or  fowls  will  render  it  or  them  quite  sweet.  A 
piece  of  charcoal  or  ix)wdered  charcoal  should  be 
kept  in  every  larder.  Hams,  after  being  smoked,  may 
be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  packed  in  powdered 
charcoal. 

To  destroy  taint  in  cooking  meat.  Put  your  meat 
between  layers  of  charcoal  both  before  basting  and 
while  basting.  You  may  purify  your  coals  by  heat- 
ing them  red-hot,  so  as  to  use  the  same  coals  in  the 
two  operations. 

To  sweeten  tainted  meat.  To  those  that  wish  to 
sweeten  tainted  meat,  dig  a  hole  eight  or  ten  inches 
deep,  and  large  enough  to  lay  the  meat  in  single  lay- 
ers; place  a  thickness  of  cloth  between  it  and  the 
ground,  laying  the  pieces  so  they  will  not  touch  ;  then 
spread  cloth  over,  tucking  it  down  so  the  dirt  will  not 
touch  the  meat ;  then  cover  with  dirt  quite  deep,  and 
leave  for  t\vo  or  three  days ;  it  will  then  be  sweet. 

To  tender  meat.  Soak  it  in  vinegar  and  water;  if 
a  very  large  piece,  for  about  twelve  hours.  For  ten 
pounds  of  beef  use  three  quarts  of  water  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  pint  of  vinegar,  and  soak  it  for  six  or 
seven  hours. 

Boiling.  The  best  way  to  boil  meat  is  to  put  it  in 
cold  water,  and  boil  it  gently,  with  just  water  enough 
to  cover  it,  as  it  hardens  by  furious  boiling.  The 
scum  should  be  taken  off  as  soon  as  it  rises.  Do  not 
let  the  meat  remain  long  in  the  water  after  it  is  done, 
as  it  injures  it.  The  liquor  in  which  all  kinds  of  fresh 
meat  is  boiled  makes  a  good  soup  when  thickened 
and  seasoned. 

Broiling.  Cleanliness  in  this  mode  of  cooking  is 
very  essential.  Keep  the  gridiron  clean  between  the 
bars,  and  bright  on  the  top ;  when  it  is  hot  wipe  it 
well  with  a  cloth  just  before  you  use  it.  It  is  best  to 
oil  the  gridiron  with  suet,  and  also  heat  it  before 
putting  the  meat  on.  Chalk  is  sometimes  rubbed  on 
the  gridiron,  when  fish  is  to  be  broiled.  It  is  better  to 
have  a  gridiron  expressly  for  fish,  otherwise  meat  is 
often  made  to  taste  fishy.  Be  diligently  attentive  to 
watch  the  moment  anything  is  done.  Never  hasten 
the  broiling  of  anything,  lest  you  spoil  it.  Broils 
must  be  brought  to  the  table  as  hot  as  possible. 

Roasting.  The  first  preparation  for  roasting  is  to 
have  the  spit  properly  cleansed.  It  is  well,  if  possi- 
ble, to  wash  it  before  it  gets  cold. 

Have  a  fire  so  large  as  to  extend  six  inches  beyond 
the  roaster  each  side.     When  your  meat  is  thin   and 


tender,  have  a  small,  brisk  fire.  When  you  have  a 
large  joint  to  roast,  make  up  a  sound,  strong  fire, 
equally  good  in  all  parts.  Set  the  meat,  at  first,, 
some  distance  from  the  place  where  it  is  to  roast,  so- 
as  to  have  it  heat  through  gradually,  and  then  move 
it  up  to  roast.  Allow  about  fifteen  minutes  to  every 
ix)und  of  most  kinds  of  meat  in  warm  weather,  but  in 
winter  twenty  minutes.  When  the  meat  is  nearly 
done  stir  up  the  fire  to  brown  it.  The  meat  should 
be  basted  a  good  deal,  especially  the  first  part  of  the 
time.  A  pale  brown  is  the  proper  color  for  a  roast. 
When  the  meat  is  nearly  done,  the  steam  fiom  it  will 
be  drawn  towards  the  fire.  Flour  thickening  in  gra- 
vies must  be  wet  up  in  very  little  water  till  the  lumps 
are  out,  and  then  made  thin.     Strain  all  gravies. 

Baking  is  a  very  cheap  and  convenient  way  of 
dressing  a  dinner  for  a  small  family.  Legs  and  loins 
of  iX)rk,  legs  of  mutton,  fillets  of  veal,  and  many  other 
joints  will  bake  to  great  advantage,  if  the  meat  be 
good  or  rather  fat ;  but  if  poor,  no  baking  will  give 
satisfaction.  The  time  of  baking  depends  much  upon 
the  state  of  the  oven,  of  which  the  cook  must  be  the 
judge.  The  preparation  of  the  articles  to  be  baked 
is  much  the  same  as  for  roasting. 

Frying  is  a  very  convenient  mode  of  cookery.  To 
make  sure  that  the  pan  is  quite  clean,  rub  a  little  fat 
over  it,  and  then  make  it  warm,  and  wipe  it  out  with 
a  clean  cloth.  It  is  best  to  fry  in  lard  not  salted,  and 
this  is  better  than  butter.  Mutton  and  beef  suet  are 
good  for  frying.  The  secret  in  frying  is  to  know 
when  the  fat  is  of  a  proper  heat — according  to  what 
•  you  wish  to  fry.  When  the  lard  seems  hot,  try  it  by 
throwing  in  a  bit  of  bread.  To  fry  fish,  potatoes,  or 
anything  that  is  watery,  your  fire  must  be  very  clear, 
and  the  fat  very  hot.  When  taking  up  fried  articles, 
drain  off  the  fat  on  a  wire  sieve. 

To  Cook  Poultry.  All  kinds  of  poultry  and  meat 
can  be  cooked  quicker  by  adding  to  the  water  in 
which  they  are  boiled  a  little  vinegar  or  a  piece  of 
lemon.  By  the  use  of  a  little  acid  there  will  be  a 
considerable  saving  of  fuel,  as  well  as  shortening  of 
time.  Its  action  is  beneficial  on  old  tough  meats, 
rendering  them  quite  tender  and  easy  of  digestion. 
Tainted  meats  and  fowls  will  lose  their  bad  taste  and 
odor  if  cooked  in  this  way,  and  if  not  used  too  freely 
no  taste  of  it  will  be  acquired. 

For  particulars  in  cooking  the  different  meats,  see 
Bacon,  Beef,  Fowl,  Ham,  Mince  Meat,  Mutton,  Pork, 
Rabbit,  Turkey,  Veal,  Venison,  Pies  and  the  follow- 
ing miscellaneous  preparations : 

To  Cure  Meat.  To  one  gallon  of  water  add  i  J^ 
pounds  of  salt,  ^  pound  of  sugar,  ^  ounce  of  salt- 
peter, half  an  ounce  of  potash.  In  this  ratio  the  pickle 
may  be  increased  to  any  quantity  desired.  Let  these 
be  boiled  together  until  all  the  dirt  from  the  sugar 
rises  to  the  top  and  is  skimmed  off.  Then  throw  it 
into  a  tub  to  cool,  and  when  cold,  jxiur  it  over  your 
beef  or  nork,  to  remain  the  usual  time,  say  four  or  five 
weeks.  '  The  meat  must  be  well  covered  with  pickle, 
and  should  not  be  put  down  for  at  least  two  days 
after  killing,  during  which  time  it  should  be  slightly 


968 


MEDIC— MEDICINE. 


sprinkled  with  powdered  saltpeter,  which  removes  all 
the  surface  blood,  etc.,  leaving  the  meat  fresh  and 
clean.  Some  omit  boiling  the  pickle,  and  find  it  to 
answer  well;  though  the  operation  of  boiling  purifies 
the  pickle  by  throwing  off  the  dirt  always  to  be  found 
ia  salt  and  sugar.  If  this  recipe  is  properly  tried  it 
will  never  be  abandoned.  There  is  none  that  sur- 
passes it,  if  so  good. 

To  Preserve  Meat.  A  process  for  preserving 
meat  in  cans  is  this  :  Pack  the  meat,  in  its  raw  state, 
into  tin  cans  of  any  desired  size.  Solder  down  the 
lids,  the  top  of  each  having  a  small  tin  tube  inserted 
in  it,  which  communicates  with  the  interior  of  the  tin. 
These  tubes  must  next  be  inserted  in  the  exhauster, 
which  is  a  receptacle  connected  with  a  machine 
designated  a  Torricellian  vacuum,  an  apparatus  in 
which  the  air  is  exhausted  by  the  action  of  water. 
The  tins  are  then  placed  in  the  cooking-hath,  and  at 
the  proper  juncture  the  vacuum  is  created,  at  a  tem- 
perature varying  from  180"  to  228°.  At  this  stage 
another  feature  of  the  invention  comes  into  play.  The 
vacuum  having  been  created,  a  supply  of  gravy  is 
turned  on  from  a  receptacle,  and  the  tins  filled  with 
the  fluid.  The  feed-pipes  of  the  tins  are  nipped  and 
the  cases  hermetically  sealed.  By  thus  filling  the 
tins  with  the  gravy  the  difficulty  of  collai)se,  which 
once  prevented  large  tins  from  being  used,  is  obviated, 
■while  the  whole  space  of  the  package  is  utilized. 

To  Pickle  Me.\t.  Moist  sugar,  2  pounds;  bay  or 
•common  salt,  4  pounds;  saltpeter,  y^  jxiund;  fresh- 
ground  allspice,  2  ounces ;  water,  6  to  8  quarts.  Dis- 
solve. Used  to  pickle  meat,  to  which  it  imparts  a* 
fine  red  color  and  a  superior  flavor. 

Medic  (med'ic),  one  name  of  lucern  or  alfalfa. 

Medicine,  literally,  that  which  heals  or  cures;  in 
common  usage,  a  drug  taken  into  the  stomach  or 
veins  for  the  purjwse  of  curing  one  of  disease.  Medi- 
cines are  weighed  by  what  is  called  "apothecaries' 
weight"  in  the  arithmetics. 

The  following  table  will  be  found  a  very  accurate 
way  of  measuring  quantities  and  is  convenient  for  the 
household  where  there  are  no  scales  or  measures- 


A  pint 
A  tumbler 
A  tea-cup 
A  wine-glass 
A  table-spoon 
A  dessert-spoon 
A  tea-spoon 


usually 

►  contains  ^ 

about 


16  ounces. 
10  ounces. 

6  ounces. 

2  ounces. 

4  drams,  or  Yi  ounce. 

2  drams. 

I  dram,  or  60  drops. 


These  quantities  refer  to  ordinary-sized  spoons  and 
vessels.  Some  cups  hold  half  as  much  more,  and 
some  tablespoons  contain  6  drams.  Many  persons 
keep  a  medicine-glass,  which  is  graduated  so  as  to 
show  the  number  of  spoons  it  contains. 

Whenever  a  tea  or  tablespoon  is  mentioned,  it 
means  the  same  as  it  should  say  si)oonful ;  the  same 
of  cup,  in  fluid  measures;  but  in  dry  measures,  where 
a  SDOon  or  siX)onful  is  mentioned,  the  design  is  that 


the  spoon  should  be  taken  up  moderately  rounding, 
unless  otherwise  mentioned. 

A  tablespoonful  is  often  mentioned  as  a  measure 
or  quantity  in  a  recipe  or  prescription.  By  this  is 
generally  meant  a  nieasure  or  a  bulk  equal  to  half  an 
ounce  of  water.  By  a  dessert-spoonful  is  meant  half 
a  tablesixjonful,  and  a  teaspoonful  is  equal  to  a  dram 
of  water.  Drop  is  a  vague  measure,  because  the  quan- 
tity depends  ujxsn  the  consistency  of  the  liquid  and 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  mouth  of  the  bottle.  •  One 
drop  is  considered  by  the  medical  profession  to  mean 
one  grain,  60  drops  being  a  fluid  drachm. 

TABLE    OF    DOSES    OF    MEDICINES. 

Aconite,  tincture  of,  15  to  20  drops. 
Aloes,  powdered,  10  to  15  grains. 
Antimonial  wine,  i  teaspoonful. 
Balsam  copaiba,  Y^  teasixionful. 
Blue  mass,  5  to  10  grains. 
Camphor,  5  to  10  grains. 
Calomel,  5  to  20  grains. 
Castor  oil,  i  to  3  tablespoonfuls. 
Chalk,  prepared,  10  to  20  grains. 
Chalk,  mercurial,  5  to  20  grains. 
Chloroform,  30  to  60  drops  (in  syrup). 
Chlorate   potash,    15    to    30   grains  (in  sweetened 
water  or  lemonade). 

Croton  oil,  i  drop  (in  pill  or  liquid). 

Cream  tartar,  J^  to  i  teasjxxjnful. 

Dover's  jMwder,  5  to  10  grains. 

Elixir  vitriol,  5  to  10  drops.  ■ 

Ether,  sulphuric,  J^  a  teasjx)onful. 

Epsom  salts,  i  to  2  tablesiX)onfuls. 

Ergot,  powder,  10  to  20  grains. 

Essence  peppermint,  ^  to  i  teasixxDnful. 

Hive  syrup,  j4  to  i  teaspoonful. 

Hoff"man's  anodyne,  J^  teaspoonful. 

Iodide  potassa,  i  to  5  grains. 

Ipecac,  ]X)wder  (emetic),  30  to  50  grains. 

Jalap,  \x)wder,  10  to  30  grains. 

Laudanum,  10  to  30  drops. 

Magnesia,  calcined,  J^  to  i  teaspoonful. 

Morphine,  J^  to  j{  grain. 

Number  Six,  i  teasiX)onful. 

Oil  peppermint,  i  to  2  drops. 

Opium,  powder,  i  grain. 

Paregoric,  i  to  3  teaspoonfuls. 

Pipevine,  i  to  3  grains. 

Quinine,  i  to  4  grains. 

Rhubarb,  ]X)wder,  10  to  30  grains. 

Soda,  carbonate,  10  to  30  grains. 

Sulphur,  ]X)wder,  i  teaspoonful. 

Sugar  of  lead,  i  to  2  grains. 

Syrup  squills,  i  teaspoonful. 

Syrup  ipecac,  i  teaspoonful    (for  children). 

Syrup  rhubarb,  i  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 

Spirits  nitre,  i  teaspoonful. 

Spirits  camphor,  J^  a  teaspoonful. 

Spirits  hartshorn,  10  to  15  drops. 

Spirits  lavender  (compound),  ^  a  teaspoonful. 

Spirits  turpentine,  5  to  20  drops. 


MEGRIMS— MERCUR  Y. 


969 


Tartar  emetic  (emetic),  i  to  2  grains. 
Tannin,  i  to  2  grains. 
Tincture  arnica,  30  drops  to  i  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  assafoetida,  ^  a  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  Cayenne,  J^  to  i  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  iodine,  10  to  20  drops. 
Tincture  iron  (muriate),  10  to  30  drops. 
Tincture  lobelia,  i  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  rhubarb,  2  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 
Tincture  valerian,  i  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  bark,  2  to  4  teaspoonfuls. 
Tincture  ginger,  i  teaspoonful. 
Tincture  kino,  %  to  i  teaspoonful. 
Wine,  colchicum,  10  to  20  drops. 
Wine,  ipecac,  Y^  to  i  teasixjonful. 
White  vitriol  (emetic),  40  grains. 

The  above  doses  are  for  adults ;  children  of  1 2  years 
may  take  half  the  quantity;  five  years,  one-fourth; 
and  younger  in  projxjrtion. 

Note.  The  dose  of  medicine,  as  a  general  rule, 
may  be  repeated  once  in  three  hours.  Liquids  should 
be  given  in  a  little  sweetened  water.  Powders  may 
be  mixed  in  syrup  or  molasses. 

Rules  for  Proportioning  Doses,  Having  Re- 
ference to  Age  and  Sex.  When  for  adults  (3010 
50  years  old)  the  dose  is  i  dram,  or  60  grains,  20 
years  old,  it  is  40  grains  ;  13  years,  30  grains;  7  years, 
20  grains;  4  years,  15  grains;  3  years,  10  grains;  2 
years,  7  to  8  grains ;   i  year,  5  grains. 

For  babes  under  i  year,  the  dose  should  go  down 
by  months,  at  alx)ut  the  same  rate  as  by  years  for 
those  over  i  year. 

Again,  for  persons  in  advanced  life,  say  from  60 
years,  the  dose  must  begin  to  lessen  about  five  grains, 
and  from  that  on,  5  grains  for  each  additional  10  years. 
Females,  however,  need  a  little  less  generally  than 
males. 

Sex,  temperament,  constitutional  strength  and  habits 
of  individuals  must  be  taken  into  account.  Nor  does 
the  same  rule  apply  to  all  medicines.  Calomel,  for 
instance,  is  generally  borne  better  by  children  than 
by  adults,  while  opium  affects  them  more  powerfully 
and  requires  the  dose  to  be  diminished.  The  rule 
must  also  vary  in  castor  oil,  the  proportion  of  which 
cannot  be  reduced  so  much. 

Megrims  (me'grimz):  see  page  791. 

Melilot  (mel'i-lot),  sweet  clover;  a  good  honey 
plant,  but  spreading  as  a  persistent  weed.  A  speci- 
men of  it  drying  in  a  room  yields  a  sweet,  fragrant 
odor.     See  page  273. 

Melon.     See  Muskmelon  and  Watermelon. 

Melocotoon  (mel  o-co-toon'),  a  quince  or  large 
kind  of  peach. 

Meningitis  (men-in-ji'tis),  inflammation  of  the 
membranes  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord. 

Mercury,  a  liquid  metal  called  quicksilver,  which 
differs  from  all  other  metals  in  being  fluid  in  the  tem- 
perature of  this  climate.     It  has,  however  been  frozen 


both  by  the  natural  cold  of  high  northern  latitudes,  as 
in  Minnesota,  and  by  artificial  cold  produced  by 
mixture  of  snow  and  aqua  fortis.  It  is  found  to  con- 
geal at  40  degrees  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit's  scale. 
Mercury  unites  with  other  metals,  forming  a  soft  mass 
termed  an  amalgam.  On  this  property  depends  the 
art  of  gilding,  and  the  art  of  coating  lookmg-glasses. 
There  are  but  few  mines  of  quicksilver;  the  greatest 
quantity  is  procured  in  Spain.  In  its  metallic  state 
it  is  used  as  a  medicine.  There  is,  however,  a  prev- 
alent idea  in  the  minds  of  ignorant  people  that  doctors 
and  veterinary  surgeons  give  this  substance  to  force  a 
passage  through  the  bowels,  and  that  if  it  fails  the 
bowels  and  stomach  will  be  ruptured  or  torn.  If  the 
patient  should  die,  the  blame  is  not  unfrequently  laid 
on  the  use  of  quicksilver  by  the  doctor,  when  this 
substance  was  never  thought  of  for  any  such  purjx)se. 
Quicksilver  has  no  action  whatever  on  the  animal  sys- 
tem, either  in  health  or  sickness. 

Mercury  with  Chalk,  Gray  Powder,  is  used 
in  diarrhoea  in  calves,  in  doses  from  ten  to  fifteen 
grains,  given  with  a  little  ginger  and  mixed  with 
wheat-flour  gruel. 

Bi-CHLORIDE  OF  Mercury.  See  Corrosive  Subli- 
mate. 

Nitrate  of  Mercury  Ointment.  This  is  the 
citron  or  golden  ointment,  and  is  a  good  remedy  in 
ringworm.  Unfortunately,  however,  it  spoils  with  long 
keeping,  and  not  being  made  extemporaneously,  it  is 
often  rancid  and  of  little  value. 

Oxide  of  Mercury,  Red  Precipitate,  is  used  in  the 
treatment  of  unhealthy  sores,  in  the  form  of  powder 
and  ointment. 

Sulphate  of  Mercury,  Turpeth  Mineral.  A 
medicine  of  no  use  and  should  be  expunged  from  the 
books  on  horse  and  cattle  diseases. 

Sub-chloride  of  Mercury,  Calomel.  A  medi- 
cine many  practitioners  never  use  and  will  not  recom- 
mend for  internal  administration.  In  the  form  of  the 
black-wash,  and  sprinkled  upon  sores,  it  is  a  good 
remedy.  Calomel  is  recommended  for  thrush  in  the 
feet,  and  is  inserted  in  the  cleft  of  the  frog. 

Mercurial  Ointment.  This  is  sold  in  the  drug 
stores.  The  ointment  of  mercury  is  chiefly  used  in 
skin  diseases,  as  mange  in  horses  and  dogs.  Equally 
as  good  a  remedy,  however,  will  be  found  in  sulphur 
and  its  preparations,  which  are  not  only  more  safe,  but 
more  certain  of  curing  the  case. 

Mercurial  Poisons.  The  symptoms  when  a  per- 
son is  poisoned  by  corrosive  sublimate,  calomel,  red 
precipitate,  vermilion,  turpeth  mineral/ prussiate  of 
mercury,  are  acid  metallic  taste;  tightness  and  burn- 
ing in  the  throat;  pain  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth, 
stomach,  and  bowels ;  anxiety  of  countenance ;  nausea ; 
and  vomiting  of  bloody  and  bilious  fluids  ;  profuse 
purging,  and  difficulty  of  making  water ;  pulse  small, 
hard  and  quick;  skin  clammy;  icy  coldness  of  the 
hands  and  feet;  and  death  in  24  or  36  hours. 

Antidote:  White  of  eggs  mixed  with  water;  milk; 
flour  and  water,  mixed  pretty  thick;  linseed  tea;  and 
barley   water.      Treatment :  Give   large   draughts   of 


970 


MESENTER  Y- METRIC  S  YS  TEM. 


warm  water,  if  you  canjiot  get  anything  else :  strong 
emetic  of  ipecacuanha,  the  stomach-pump,  a  dose  of 
castor  oil  and  laudanum.  Foment  the  bowels  with 
poppy-head  fomentations,  and  apply  leeches  if  the 
belly  is  very  tender. 

Mesentery,  a  great  folded  membrane,  within  the 
abdomen  of  a  vertebrated  animal,  including  the  intes- 
tines in  its  folds,  retaining  them  in  their  places,  and 
enclosing  within  its  laminae  the  nerves  and  vessels 
which  connect  the  nutrimental  evolutions  of  the  intes- 
tines with  the  circulation.  This  membrane  is  simply 
a  prolongation  of  the  peritoneum ;  and,  though  event- 
ually possessing  many  duplicatures,  is  single  in  its 
upper  part.  An  inflammation  in  it  is  called  mesen- 
teritis,  and  requires  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner 
as  kindred  abdominal  inflammations. 

Mesmerism,  the  art  of  introducing  an  extraordinary 
or  abnormal  state  of  the  nervous  system,  in  which  the 
actor  claims  to  control  the  actions,  and  communicate 
directly  with  the  mind,  of  the  recipient.  The  actor, 
however,  makes  such  claim  to  the  recipient  rather  than 
to  the  public,  in  order  to  obtain  and  keep  control  of 
him.  Mesmerism  is  often  of  great  medical  service ; 
and  when  it  avails,  it  is  of  course  preferable  to  dosing 
the  system  with  medical  nostrums. 

MescLuite  (mes-ke'tay  or  mes-keet'),  a  rich,  native 
grass  in  Western  Texas. 

Meteorology,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  phe- 
nomena which  occur  in  the  atmosphere, — of  their 
causes  and  effects.     See  Weather. 

Metheglin :  see  Mead. 

Metric  System.  As  this  is  fully  explained  in  all 
our  modern  school  arithmetics,  we  will  give  only  a 
condensed  view  here,  with  a  few  practical  sugges- 
tions. For  all  the  (dozen)  irregular  tables  of  weights 
and  measures  now  in  use,  the  "metric"  system  sub- 
stitutes only  one,  small,  symmetrical  table,  where  the 
multiples  are  all  tens  or  tenths. 

values  of  the  root  words. 
Name.     Ab'n.  Svm.  Value. 

meter        em      m       39.3685  inches, 
liter  el       1        61.533  cu.  in.,  or  dm  cubed, 

gram         eg       g        iS-433  grains,  or  cm  of  water. 
are  ar       a      119.589  sq.  yds,  or  Dm  squared, 

stere         es       s        36.609  cu.  ft.,  or  m  cubed, 
tonneau    ton      t  2,203  pounds,  nearly. 

VALUES  OF  THE  PREFIXES. 

milli-            1  m  .001 

centi-  c  .01 

deci-  d  .1 

....  I. 

deca-  D  10. 

hect-  H  100. 

kil-  K  1,000. 

myria-  M  10,000. 

Each  prefix  is  attached  to  each  root-word,  forming 
self-explanatory  derivatives.     A  millimeter  is  there- 


fore i,oooth  of  a  meter;  a  centimeter,  looth  of  a 
meter,  a  decimeter,  one-tenth  of  a  meter;  a  deca- 
meter, 10  meters;  a  hectometer,  100  meters,  etc.; 
and  so  on  with  the  other  terms.  A  milliliter  is  looth 
of  a  liter;  a  kiloliter,  1,000  liters,  etc.  The  meter  is 
for  linear  measure,  the  liter  is  for  liquid  measure,  the 
gram  (or  gramme)  for  weight,  the  are  for  surface 
measure,  and  the  stere  for  cubic  measure.  The 
"  tonneau"  is  an  unnecessary  compromise  term  which 
some  persons  use. 

By  the  adoption  of  this  system  the  worst  half  of  all 
commercial  arithmetic  would  be  done  away  with,  and 
all  the  irregular  and  vexatious  tables  of  weights  and 
measures,  covering  several  pages  of  our  present  arith- 
metics, with  the  many  accompanying  pages  required 
to  explain  and  apply  them,  would  be  superseded  by 
the  following : 

milli- 

centi-  meter 

deci-  liter 

gram 

deca-  are 

hecto-  stere 

kilo- 

myria- 

Not  all  of  the  above  will  be  needed  in  practice  in 
this  country,  the  following  terms  probably  being  all 
that  will  ever  come  into  use  here  : 

Name.  Symbol.  Prox.  Val. 

em  m  1.09  yard 

centem  cm  .4  inch 

dekem  Dm  2  rods 

kilem  Km  5^  mile 

miliar  ma  i  square  foot 

deciar  da  Yi  square  rod 

hectar  Ha  2}^  acres 

myriar  Ma  J^  square  mile 

es  s  xYi  cubic  yards 

centes         cs  Yi  cubic  foot 

deceg  dg  i^  grains 

hecteg  Hg  3^^  ounces 

kileg  Kg  2.4  pounds 

ton  T  2,203  pounds,  nearly 

el  1  I  quart 

decel  dl  .8  gill 

dekel  Dl  2^^  gallons 

hectel  HI  3.1  bushels 

It  is  suggested  that  the  most  convenient  method  of 
reading  metric  quantities  may  be  as  thus  illustrated  : 

7.02  dl^seven  decels,  nought,  two. 
45.817  Dm=forty-five  dekems,  eight,  one,  seven. 
.036  Hg=nought,  three,  six  hectegs. 

For  the  convenience  of  some  we  will  add— 

I  foot=304.8  mm 

I  sq.  ft.=  .93  ma 

I  quart=  .937  1,  or  937  ml 

I  pound=  453  g 


MEXICAN  FALCON— MILK. 


971 


Mexican  Falcon.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  birds 
met  with  on  our  western  plains  is  the  Mexican  or 
Prairie  falcon,  known  also  as  the  Lanier  falcon. 
I'hey  have  brown  feathers  on  the  back,  while  the 
breast  has  many  long  dark  sixits,  shaped  like  arrow 
heads,  on  a  yellowish-white  ground.  Its  beak  is 
short,  broad  and  stout,  head  wide,  and  iis  talons 
large  and  strong.  Its  legs  are  feathered,  but  its  toes 
are  bare.  Its  length  is  about  17  inches,  with  a 
stretch  of  wings  41  inches.  Its  motions  are  quick, 
though  exceedingly  graceful,  and  in  its  flight  it  cuts 
the  air  like  an  arrow.  Like  all  the  Falconidae,  or 
diurnal  birds  of  prey,  it  is  always  stern  and  unrelent- 
ing in  appearance,  and  is  ever  on  the  look-out  to  cap- 
ture and  eat  some  bird  more  feeble  than  itself.  They 
are  noted  for  their  ferocity  and  bravery  and  are  never 
lath  to  attack  an  enemy  much  larger  and  stronger 
than  itself. 

Miasm,  or  Miasma,  infection  floating  in  the  air. 

Mica,  a  mineral  capable  of  being  cleaved*  into 
elastic  plates  of  extreme  thinness.  It  is  sometimes 
colored,  but  it  is  always  more  or  less  transparent,  and 
is  very  useful  in  lanterns,  doors  of  stoves,  etc. 

Mice.  To  destroy,  see  Rats.  For  field-mice,  see 
Moles. 

Middleman.  As  the  term  implies,  this  means  the 
man  between  the  producer  and  the  consumer.  He  is 
a  non-producer  and  non-consumer,  yet  realizes  profits 
on  goods  others  produce  and  consume,  because  he 
carries  from  one  to  the  other. 

Midge,  a  minute  insect  infesting  wheat  and  goose- 
berries. The  wheat  midge  is  treated  under  the  head  of 
Wheat.  The  gooseberry  midge  injures  gooseberries 
by  depositing  its  egg  in  the  fruit,  and  the  larva,  or 
grub,  having  hatched,  feeds  inside,  and  causes  the 
gooseberry  to  present  a  prematurely  ripe  appearance, 
to  turn  red  and  then  drop  from  the  bush.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  pick  all  fallen  fruit  from  the  ground  and 
burn  immediately,  as,  although  this  may  not  be  the 
rneans  of  freeing  the  bushes  the  same  season,  the  ber- 
ries being  already  destroyed  or  infected,  the  follow- 
ing year  there  will  be  scarcely  any  midges  to  attack 
the  crop. 

Midriff  (mid' riff),  the  Diaphragm.    See  page  680. 

Migratory,  migrating  or  moving  to  the  North  or 
South  with  the  seasons,  as  is  done  by  numerous  birds 
and  fishes. 

Milch,  furnishing  milk :  applied  only  to  beasts,  as 
milch  cows. 

Mildew,  a  thin,  whitish,  powdery  or  cobweb-like 
coating,  consisting  of  minute  fungi  and  found  on  vari- 
ous diseased  and  decaying  substances.  Almost  any 
organic  substance  kept  in  confined  moist  air  at  a 
summer  temperature,  will  become  covered  with 
mildew. 

Often  people  are  greatly  troubled  and  perplexed  by 
mildew  from  damp  closets,  and  we  therefore  give  the 


following  receipts  for  removing  it  from  goods  of  vari- 
ous kinds  : 

For  Re.moving  Mildew.  Dissolve  chlorate  of  lime 
in  sufficient  w.ater  to  cover  the  goods ;  put  in  the  goods, 
let  stand  a  few  minutes,  ring  out  and  spread  in  the 
sun ;  repeat  two  or  three  times  and  the  mildew  will 
entirely  disappear;  then  take  up,  wash  and  boil,  and 
you  will  not  only  find  the  mildew  removed,  but  your 
clothes  nicely  bleached. 

To  take  Mildew  out  of  Muslin.  Soak  several  days 
in  sour  milk,  then  wash,  and  dry  in  hot  sun.  Repeat 
if  necessary.  During  the  summer  washing  is  made 
much  easier  by  soaking  clothes  in  sour  milk,  taking 
care  to  wring  out  of  milk  and  soak  in  water  over  night. 

Milriew  can  be  taken  out  with  bar-soap  and  pow- 
dered chalk.  Wet  the  cloth,  rub  on  the  mixture,  and 
lay  it  in  the  sun. 

Preventive.  By  putting  an  earthen  bowl  or  deep 
plate  full  of  quicklime  into  the  closet,  the  lime  will  ab- 
sorb the  dampness  and  also  sweeten  and  disinfect  the 
place.  Rats,  mice  and  many  bugs  that  are  apt  to 
congregate  in  damp  places  have  a  dislike  to  lime.  As 
often  as  the  lime  becomes  slacked  throw  it  on  the 
com[X)st  heap  if  in  the  country,  or  into  the  ash-barrel 
if  in  the  city. 

MUe.  The  statute  mile  is  5,280  feet,  or  1,760 
yards.  The  geographical  or  nautical  mile  is  2,029 
yards,  or  6,087  feet.  Some  authorities  give  it  as  a 
little  less. 

Milfoil,  yarrow;  a  tansy-like  weed  common  in  old 
pastures,  meadows  and  waste  places. 

Milk,  a  whitish,  opaque  fluid,  composed  of  a  fatty 
substance,  which  forms  butter,  a  caseous  substance, 
which  forms  cheese,  and  a  watery  element,  known  as 
serum  or  whey,  in  cheese-making.  Milk  is  obtained 
only  from  the  class  of  animals  called  mammalia,  and 
is  intended  by  nature  for  the  nourishment  of  their 
young.  The  milk  of  each  animal  is  distinguished  by 
some  peculiarities,  but  that  of  the  cow  is  of  vastly 
more  importance  to  us  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and 
of  course  will  receive  our  greatest  attention.  To  this 
animal  we  are  indebted  for  three  of  the  most  useful 
articles  of  food, — milk,  butter  and  cheese. 

The  butter  matter  in  pure  milk  varies  in  amount 
from  about  two  and  a  half  to  six  and  a  half  per  cent., 
the  cheesy  element  from  three  to  ten  per  cent.,  and 
the  serous  matter,  or  whey,  from  80  to  90  per  cent. 
To  the  unassisted  eye  milk  looks  of  a  perfectly  uni- 
form nature  and  consistence  throughout.  It  contains, 
however,  myriads  of  minute  globules  of  very  unequal 
size  which  under  a  microscope  will  be  seen  floating  in 
the  watery  matter.  These  are  enveloped  in  a  delicate 
film  of  cheesy  matter  and  are  so  minute  that  they  will 
pass  through  the  finest  filter-paper.  (See  Flecks  in 
Milk,  page  486.)  Milk  readily  mixes  with  water 
although  of  less  specific  gravity  or  weight.  Its 
average  specific  gravity  is  1,025,  that  of  water  being 
one.  The  various  elements  of  milk  being  of  different 
specific  gravities,  changes  begin  to  take  place  in  it  as 
soon  as  it  is  at  rest.    The  butter  material  being  oily 


972 


MILK. 


and  lighter  than  the  remainder  of  the  fluid,  rises  to  the 
top  and  forms  cream,  while  the  heavier  serous  matter 
or  whey  sinks  to  the  bottom.  At  a  high  temperature 
acidity  soon  sets  in  and  hastens  this  sepairation  of  the 
whey  from  the  other  constituents.  It  is  consequently 
easy  to  distinguish  the  three  principal  elements  of 
milk.  The  strength  of  milk  is  imparted  to  it  by  the 
caseous  or  cheesy  element;  its  richness  by  the  buttery 
or  oily  substance,  and  its  sweetness  by  the  sugar  of 
milk  which  it  contains. 

The  projxjrtions  of  these  elements  vary  consider- 
ably according  to  the  breed  of  the  animal,  the  food,  the 
length  of  time  after  calving,  etc.  The  first  of  these 
questions  will  be  found  fully  treated  under  the  ^lead 
of  Cows.  The  udder  of  the  cow  is  divided  into  what 
may  be  termed  sections  or  compartments,  of  which 
there  are  four.  The  two  teats  of  the  hind  sections 
give,  as  a  rule,  more  milk  than  the  teats  of  the  front 


practice.  In  order  to  render  the  flow  of  milk  richer 
and  more  uniform,  cows  are  sometimes  spayed,  or 
castrated,  as  described  on  page  304.  A  moist  climate 
is  held  to  be  much  more  favorable  to  the  production 
of  milk  than  a  dry  one;  consequently  in  very  dry  sea- 
sons the  quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  the  cow  will  be 
smaller  than  in  moist,  mild  seasons,  though  the  milk 
will  be  richer  in  quahty.  In  summer,  milk  is  richer  in 
cheesy  matter  and  less  buttery  than  in  winter.  Even 
when  feeding  is  precisely  the  same,  milk  is  whiter  in 
winter  than  in  summer.  The  milk  of  the  same  cow 
is  at  certain  seasons  bluer  than  at  others.  This  is 
often  noticed  in  exceedingly  hot  weather.  The  first 
milk  drawn  from  the  cow  is  the  poorest ;  the  quality 
progressively  improves  until  the  last  drop. 

Milk  which  is  carried  to  a  considerable  distance,  so 
as  to  be  much  agitated,  and  cooled  before  it  is  put 
into  pans  to  settle  for  cream,  never  throws  up  so  much^ 


^^NX  QajiiU, 


Arrangement /or  Siea. 

sections.  Milk  is  one  of  the  most  sensitive  of  all 
fluids  to  external  influences.  The  action  of  many  of 
these  is  not  well  understood.  Even  in  the  cow  her- 
self it  is  probable  that  the  milk  of  the  various  divis- 
ions of  the  udder  differs  to  some  extent  in  quality. 
It  is  quite  certain  that  marked  differences  both  in 
composition  and  quality  are  noticeable  in  the  milk  of 
different  cows,  even  when  fed  on  the  same  food.  It 
is  conceded  by  all  conversant  with  the  subject  that 
the  effect  of  food  upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  milk  is  more  direct  and  powerful  than  anything 
else.  This  is  natural,  inasmuch  as  the  food  is  the 
source  from  which  all  the  secretions  of  the  body  are 
derived.  The  great  importance  of  this  portion  of  our 
subject  is  at  once  manifest.  As  usual  in  such  cases, 
there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  among  authorities 
as  to  the  best  and  most  profitable  method  of  feeding 
milch-cows.  But  there  are  certain  leading  ]X)ints 
upon  which  there  is  tolerable  unanimity  of  view  and 


\ming  Milk  Cans. 

nor  SO  rich  cream,  as  if  the  same  milk  had  been  put 
into  pans  directly  after  it  was  milked. 

When  exposed  to  heat  milk  boils  at  199°,  water 
boiling  at  212°;  and. in  the  boiling  a  curd  of  caseous 
matter  is  partly  coagulated,  rising  to  the  surface  in 
form  of  a  pellicle  or  thin  skin ;  if  this  be  removed  it 
is  soon  succeeded  by  another,  and  the  effect  would  go 
on  till  the  residuum  would  have  a  watery  appearance 
and  be  incapable  of  furnishing  any  more  such  pellicle. 

The  accompanying  illustration  represents  a  very 
convenient  arrangement  for  washing,  steaming  and 
drying  milk  cans,  covers,  pans,  etc.  A  is  a  tank  con- 
taining water  which  is  heated  by  steam  and  conveyed 
from  the  boiler  through  the  pipe  a  h.  After  being, 
washed  in  this,  the  cans  are  inverted  and  placed  on 
the  table  over  the  pipes  e  and  d.  Steam  is  then 
turned  into  them  until  they  become  heated,  when 
they  are  removed  and  placed  right  side  up.  Then 
being  hot,  all  moisture  on    the  inside  evaporates  and. 


MILK,  CONDENSED. 


973 


passes  off  with  the  steam,  leaving  them  perfectly  dry 
and  sweet.  Covers,  small  cans,  pans,  etc.,  may  be 
steamed  by  piling  them  on  the  table  and  placing  a 
blanket  or  box  over  them. 

We  very  fully  treat  of  the  selection,  feeding,  care 
and  management  of  milk  cows  in  the  article  on  Cow, 
and  the  proper  mode  of  milking  and  training  the  calf 
in  the  same  article  and  in  the  article  Milking.  Cream, 
Butter,  Dairy  and  Cheese  are  treated  under  their  re- 
spective heads. 

Milk  of  V.\rious  Animals.  There  is  consider- 
al)le  difference  in  the  milk  of  various  animals. 

The  milk  of  the  human  subject  is  much  thinner 
than  cow's  milk  and  contains  more  saccharine  matter. 
It  yields  much  cream,  but  no  butter  can  be  procured 
from  it  by  agitation. 

Asses'  milk  comes  tlie  nearest  to  human  milk  of 
any  other ;  it  has,  likewise,  more  saccharine  matter 
than  milk  from  the  cow,  and  is  thinner,  with  a  larger 
proixjrtion  of  curd.  It  is  considered  as  the  lightest 
and  easiest  to  digest  of  any,  hence  it  is  a  jwpular 
remedy  in  consumption,  but  is  apt  to  cause  diarrhoea 
in  very  delicate  persons,  if  taken  in  too  great  a  quan- 
tity. Artificial  asses'  milk  may  be  prepared  by  dis- 
solving two  ounces  of  sugar  of  milk  in  a  pint  of 
cow's  milk.  Or  the  following  preparations  are  used 
freely  as  substitutes  for  asses  milk,  and  may  be  ad- 
ministered in  cases  of  consumption  and  general  de- 
bility, a  teacupful  three  or  four  times  a  day,  either 
plain  or  with  a  spoonful  of  rum.  Mix  the  whites  of 
two  eggs  with  three-fourths  pint  new  cow's  milk,  and 
one  ounce  sugar ;  add  three-fourths  ounce  syrup  of 
tolu. 

Goat's  milk  is  something  thicker  and  richer  than 
cow's  milk.  It  has  a  peculiar  aroma,  contains  a  great 
deal  of  curd,  and  makes  excellent  cheese ;  also  afford- 
ing butter,  which  is  whiter  than  that  from  the  cow, 
and  is  said  to  keep  longer.  The  milk  of  the  goat  is 
much  used  in  .Spain,  Italy,  and  the  south  of  France. 

Ewe's  milk  has  the  appearance  of  cow's  milk.  It 
affords  a  larger  quantity  of  cream,  forming  a  soft  and 
very  fusible  butter.  Its  curd  is  very  soft  and  unctu- 
ous, and  when  mixed  with  that  of  the  cow,  it  gives  it 
a  rich  appearance.  It  makes  excellent  cheese,  and 
in  greater  quantity  than  any  other  milk,  but  contains 
the  least  sugar  of  any. 

Mare's  milk  contains  more  sugar  than  that  of  the 
ewe,  and  hence  it  is  much  used  in  Tartary  for  making 
a  fermented  liquor.     It  contains  scarcely  any  butter. 

Camel's  milk  is  used  only  in  Africa. 

Buffalo's  tnilk'x?,  smx'Aoysd  in  India;  it  is  nearly 
the  same  with  that  of  the  cow,  but  rather  tliinner. 

To  Keep  Milk  Sweet.  A  teasix)onful  of  fine 
salt  or  horse-radish  in  a  pan  of  milk  will  keep  it 
sweet  for  several  days.  Milk  can  be  kept  a  year  or 
more  as  sweet  as  when  taken  from  the  cow  by  the 
following  method:  Procure  bottles,  which  must  be 
perfectly  clean,  sweet,  and  dry;  draw  the  milk  from 
the  cow  into  the  bottles,  and  as  they  are  filled,  imme- 
diately cork  them  well,  with  pack-thread  or  wire. 
Then  spread  a  little  straw  in  the  bottom  of  a  boiler. 


on  which  place  the  bottles,  with  straw  between  them, 
until  the  boiler  contains  a  sufficient  quantity.  Fill  it 
up  with  cold  water,  and  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  boil 
draw  the  fire  and  let  the  whole  cool  gradually.  When 
quite  cold,  take  out  the  bottles  and  pack  them  in 
sawdust  in  hampers,  and  stow  them  away  in  the 
coolest  place  in  the  house. 

To  Deodorize  Milk.  It  frequently  occurs  in  the 
spring,  when  the  farmers  are  feeding  the  cows  on 
ruta-bagas,  or  turnips,  that  the  milk  becomes  so 
strongly  impregnated  by  their  disagreeable  taste  and 
odors  as  to  be  unfit  for  butter-making.  To  obviate 
this,  put  a  pinch  of  finely  pulverized  salti)eler  into 
every  gallon  of  cream ;  a  little  saltpeter  worked  into 
butter  that  has  become  sour,  or  rancid,  will  render  it 
sweet  and  palatable. 

Milk  for  Infants.  When  it  becomes  necessary 
to  feed  infants  on  milk  other  than  that  of  the  mother, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  always  have  it 
pure  and  fresh.  Goat's  milk  being  much  more  like 
human  milk  than  that  of  the  cow,  is  preferable;  but 
wlien  this  cannot  be  had  some  directions  for  the  prep- 
aration of  cow's  milk  become  necessary.  First,  assure 
yourself  of  the  perfect  health  of  the  cows,  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  then  get  the  milk  from  different  ones, 
night  and  morning.  Add  to  it  a  little  loaf-sugar  and 
about  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  water.  The  water 
should  be  hot  and  the  sugar  dissolved  in  it ;  then  jwur 
it  slowly  into  the  milk,  and  allow  it  to  simmer  a  little 
over  the  fire.  Throw  it  away  if  scorched  in  the  least. 
This  should  be  done  morning  and  evening.  The  cup 
and  spoon  used  to  feed  the  infant  should  never  be 
used  for  any  other  purix)se  whatever,  and  should  be 
immediately  scalded  after  using. 

For  milk  for  infants  six  months  old,  take  one  pint 
of  milk  and  one  pint  of  water,  boil  it  and  add  one 
tables iX)onful  of  flour.  Dissolve  the  flour  first  in  half 
a  teacupful  of  water;  it  must  be  strained  in  gradually, 
and  boiled  hard  twenty  minutes.  As  the  child  grows 
older,  one-third  water.  If  properly  made,  it  is  the 
most  nutritious,  at  the  same  time  the  most  delicate 
food  that  can  be  given  to  young  children. 

Milk,  Condensed.  This  is  milk  from  which  the 
water  has  been  driven  off  by  evajxjration  and  to 
which  sugar  has  been  added.  It  is,  therefore,  really 
preserved  milk.  The  following  is  a  process  :  The  milk 
is  strained  into  a  receiving  vat  from  which  it  pass- 
es through  a  second  strainer  and  into  the  heating 
cans.  These  are  set  in  water,  the  milk  in  them  heat- 
ed to  90°  and  passed  through  another  strainer  into  a 
large  wooden  vat,  at  the  bottom  of  which  there  is  a 
copper  steam  coil.  Here  the  milk  is  heated  to  nearly 
the  boiling  point.  A  pound  and  a  quarter  of  the  best 
white  sugar  is  added  for  every  gallon  of  milk,  after 
which  the  milk  is  drawn  off  into  a  cylindrical  copper 
vacuum  pan  provided  with  a  coil  of  copper  pipe  and 
a  jacket  underneath  for  steam.  Here  the  milk  is 
subjected  to  steam  heat  for  three  hours,  and  is  then 
drawn  off  into  cans,  and  stirred  until  the  temperature 
is  reduced  a  little  below  70".  It  is  then  emptied  into 


974 


MILK  FE  VER— MILKING. 


drawing  cans  provided  with  faucets,    and   drawn   off 
into  smaller  cans  as  required. 

Milk  Fever.  In  the  human  subject  this  usually 
occurs  about  the  third  day  after  delivery.  No  medi- 
cal treatment  is  required  except  to  keep  the  bowls  free 
and  to  draw  the  breasts  when  they  are  full.  For  milk 
fever  in  cows,  see  page  231. 

Milking.  Few  things  exert  a  greater  or  more 
lasting  influence  on  the  productiveness  of  the  cow 
than  the  method  of  milking.  A  slow,  careless 
milker  will  soon  dry  up  the  best  cow  in  the  world, 
as  is  well-known  to  every  observant  farmer.  The 
construction  of  the  udder,  which  will  be  found  de- 
scribed in  the  proper  place,  will  readily  account  for 
this.  Cleanliness  of  the  most  scrupulous  kind  is 
absolutely  essential  in  a  good  milker.  Without 
this,  the  milk  is  in  constant  danger  of  spoiling. 
The  udder,  the  hands  of  the  milker  and  every 
iitensil  employed  should  be  carefully  washed  before 
the  milking  begins.  As  elsewhere  frequently 
stated,  the  pails  should  be  well  scalded  with  boiling 

►  water.     The  fonn 

of  pail  represented 

by  Fig.  I,  is  one  of 

the  best  inventions  of  the 

age  in  the  dairy  line.     It 

is   a   pail,    milk-stool,   and 

strainer,  all  combined  into  one 

apparatus.     The  milker  sits  on 

I  the  pail  and   milks  into  the  fun- 

.,„  „  •,  <-     ,  »el,    which    IS    supported    by   a 

Fig,  I.— .!/;«•  Patl.  Slool        ,  '  ,  ,  '^'^  ■'  , 

and  Strainer,  combined,  rubber  tubc,  and  SO  caunot  be 
broken  by  a  kick  from  the  cow,  or  by  other  acci- 
dent. Such  a  milk  pail,  also,  cannot  be  kicked  over 
by  the  cow  while  it  is  in  proper  use  by  the  milker. 
The  funnel  can  be  fixed  higher  or  lower,  to  suit 
different  cows.  The  milk  is  thoroughly  protected 
from  dirt,  and  even  from  the  foul  odors  common  to 
the  barn-yard. 

Morg's  pyram'dal 
milk-strainer  (Fig. 
2)  is  probably  the 
most  perfect  for  the 
purpose  of  straimng 
milk.  The  bowl  is 
seamless,  and  the 
bottom  is  easily  de- 
tached, by  a  turn  or 
two,  for  cleaning,  as 
shown  in  the  cut. 
The  whole  appara- 
tus is  neatl)'  finished 
and  easily  kept  from 
rusting. 

The  milker  should 
begin     gently    and 

Fig.  I.— More'. 1  Pyramidal  Milk  Strainer,  gradually,     b  11  t 

should  increase,  the  soeed  of  his  movements  stead- 


ily until  the  udder  is  emptied.  The  vessel  used  to 
receive  the  milk  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  it 
all,  so  that  there  be  no  need  of  clianging  the  pail. 
If  the  milking  be  in  any  way  interrupted,  cows 
not  infrequently  hold  back  their  milk.  Extreme 
care  should  be  taken  to  strip  the  udder  to  the  last 
drop,  and  to  do  it  quickly.  Any  slowness  or  care- 
lessness has  a  direct  effect  on  the  yield  of  the  cow. 


VlG.l.  —  Gradicaled  .Milk  Testing'  Tubes. 

Milk  left  in  the  udder  either  becomes  caked,  or  is 
re-absorbed  into  the  system,  and  tends  to  diminish 
the  milk-giving  quality  of  the  cow.  Especially  is 
thoroughly  dry  milking  necessary  in  the  case  of 
young  cows  with  their  first  calf.  The  mode  of 
milking,  and  the  length  of  time  they  can  be  made 
to  hold  out,  will  influence  their  milking  qualities 
ever  after.  The  greatest  development  of  their 
milk-glands  will  largely  depend  upon  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  milked  after  their  first  calf.  At 
this  period  they  should  have  the  most  milk-produc- 
ing food.  Gentleness  is  especially  to  be  exercised 
in  their  regard ;  by  coaxing  and  caressing  they  may- 
be brought  up  gentle  and  quiet.  On  the  other 
hand,  nothing  tends  to  drj'  up  a  young  cow 
more  than  harshness  or  cruelty.  The  same  is  true 
of  older  cows.  The  longer  the  young  cow,  with 
her  first  and  second  calf,  can  be  made  to  hold  out, 
the  greater  the  prospect  of  confirming  her  in  this 
habit.  She  should  be  induced,  if  possible,  by  the 
use  of  juicy,  sweet  food,  to  hold  out  even  up  to  the 
time  of  calving,  if  it  be  deemed'  desirable  to  milk 
her  so  long,  and  she  may  acquire  this  habit  for  life. 
Some  of  the  best  cows  develop  their  finest  quali- 
ties slowly,  so  tliat  the  full  yield  of  a  cow  must  not 
be  expected  the  first  year  after  calving.  No  cow 
is  fully  developed  until  her  fifth  or  sixth  year. 
Attention  to  the  above  points  cannot  be  too 
strongly  insisted  upon.  There  is  in  milch  cows  a 
constant  tendency  to  dry  up  which  must  be  guarded 
against  with  the  greatest  care  until  the  habit  of 
yielding  a  large  and  constant  quantitv  has  become 
fixed  in  them. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  in  detail  upon  the 


MILKING— MIL  LE  T. 


975 


best  method  of  carrying  milk  to  market.  Practice 
in  this  regard  varies  according  to  locahty,  climate, 
and  the  distance  which  the  milk  has  to  be  carried. 
It  is  to  the  dairyman's  interest  to  watch  the  im- 
provements made  and  to  adopt  the  in. 

The  specific  gravity  of  milk,  as  before  stated,  is 
somewhat  greater  than  that  of  water,  but  it  varies 
considerably  in  different  cows  and  in  different 
yields  of  the  same  cow.  The  richer  the  milk  is 
in  cream,  the  less  will  be  its  specific  gravity.  Salt 
fed  to  the  cow  will,  within  a  few  hours,  make  the 
specific  gravity  vary  from  one  to  three  per  cent. 
Thick  milk  throws  up  much  less  of  the  cream  it 
actuall}'  contains  than  thinner  milk.  The  addi- 
tion of  water  will  largely  increase  the  yield  of 
cream,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  milk  left  behind. 

Cows  are  usually  milked  twice  a  day,  in  the 
earh'  morning  and  in  the  evening.  Milking  but 
once  a  day  of  course  lessens  the  quantity  of  the 
yield,  but  increases  its  richness.  For  some  weeks 
after  calving,  and  in  the  height  of  the  flow,  cows 
ought,  undoubtedly,  to  be  milked,  if  possible,  three 
times  a  day.  In  young  cows,  this  practice,  after 
calving,  develops  the  udder  and  the  milk  veins. 
Frequent  milking  increases  the  secretion  of  thj 
fluid,  and  should  never  be  neglected,  either  in  the 
case  of  young  cows,  or  of  very  large  milkers, 
at  the  height  of  the  flow,  which  will  last  for  two 
or  three  months  after  calving.  The  greater  gentle- 
ness of  women  renders  them  better  adapted  than 
men  for  milking.  If  possible,  the  same  person 
should  always  milk  the  same  cow,  and  should  not 
be  changed  unless  there  are  urgent  reasons  for  it. 
The  milk  of  every  cow  added  to  the  dairyman's 
stock  should  be  tested,  so  as  lo  determine  the  milk- 
giving  qualities  of  each,  which  w^ill  be  found  to 
vary  very  considerably.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
the  poorest  milk-producers  should  be  weeded  out 
of  the  stock  and  replaced  by  better  ones. 


p  w  //  a 


Fig.  ^.—Milk-  Testitli;  Tubes. 

By  the  testing  tubes  represented  by  Fig.  4  the 
milk  furnished  by  each  patron  is  sampled,  and  the 
tube  reserved  for  his  particular  use.  The  gradu- 
ated tubes  represented  by  Fig.  3  on  preceding  page, 
are  for  more  general  use. 


Milk-pans,  oh  Coolers.  The  material  of 
which  milk-pans  lor  dairy  use  are  generally  made, 
is  either  tin  or  earthenvv;ire.     The  main  objection 

to  the  former 
is  the  trouble 
of  keeping 
them  clean ;  to 
the  latter  their 
liability  to 
break,  and 
their  weight. 
The  lead  con- 
tained in  the 
glaze  of  many 
kinds  of  earth- 
enware, upon 
which  the  acid 
of  milk  acts, 
is  a  serious  ob- 
jection. When 
glazed  with 
salt,  they  un- 
doubtedly 
form  the  best, 
although  not 
the  handiest, 
coolers.  Much 
diversity  of 
opinion  exists 
with  regard  to 

Fig.  i.— Crane  for  Hoistinff  MOk.  the    best    form 

of  tin  milk-pan  or  cooler.  Some  prefer  a  very 
shallow  form,  others  the  forms  introduced  by 
Cooley  and  Hardin,  which  are  deep,  for  which  see 
article  on  Butter. 

Milk-teeth,  the  fore  teeth  of  a  foal,  which  come 
at  the  age  of  about  three  months,  and  are  cast 
within  two  or  three  years.  Also,  the  first  set  of 
teeth  in  a  child,  20  in  number,  consisting  of  the  four 
front  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  two  pairs  of  canines  (or 
"  eye-teeth  ")  and  two  pairs  of  grinders  ("  double 
teeth"). 

Milkweed.  A  well-known  weed,  of  several 
species,  the  milky  juice  of  which  is  supposed  to  be 
semi -poisonous. 

Millet.  In  its  growth  and  manner  of  bearing 
its  seeds,  the  millet  strongly  resembles  a  minia- 
ture broom-corn.  It  reaches  a  height  of  two  and 
a  half  to  four  feet,  with  a  profusion  of  stalks  and 
leaves,  which  constitute  excellent  forage  for  cattle. 
From  80  to  100  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  have 
been  raised,  and  with  straw  equivalent  to  one  and 
la  half  or  two  tons  of  hay;  but  an  average  crop 
may  be  estimated  at  about  one-third  this  quantity. 
Owing  to  the  great  waste  during  the  ripening  of 
the  seed,  from  the  shelling  of  the  earliest  of  it 
before  the  last  is  matured,  and  the  frequent  depre- 
dations of  birds  which  are  fond  of  it,  millet  is 
more  profitably  cut  when  the  first  seeds  have  be- 


976 


MILT— MOLE. 


gun  to  ripen,  and  harvested  for  fodder.  It  is  cured 
like  hay,  and  on  good  land  yields  from  two  to  four 
tons  per  acre.  All  cattle  relish  it,  and  it  is  fully 
equal  to  good  hay. 

Millet  requires  a  dry,  rich  and  well  pulverized  soil. 
It  will  grow  oil  thin  soil,  but  best  repays  on  the  fertile. 
It  should  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills,  from  May  first 
to  July  first,  according  to  latitude,  climate,  soil,  etc. 
If  for  hay,  and  sown  broadcast,  40  quarts  per  acre 
will  be  required;  if  sown  in  drills  for  the  grain,  eight 
quarts  of  seed  will  suffice.  It  will  ripen  in  60  to  75 
days,  with  favorable  weather.  When  designed  for 
fodder,  the  nearer  it  can  approach  to  ripening,  with- 
out waste  in  harvesting,  the  more  valuable  will  be 
the  crop.     See  page  599. 

Milt,  the  spleen ;  also  the  "  soft  roe"  of  fishes,  or 
the  spermatic  part  of  the  males. 

Blince    Meat.     Three   pounds  of  raisins,  stoned ; 

3  pounds  of  currants ;  3  pounds  of  beef  suet,  chopped 
fine;  i  ix)und  of  bread  crumbs;  i/^  pound  of  mixed 
candied  peel ;  i  Y^,  pounds  of  fillet  of  beef,  previously 
cooked.  Salt,  sugar,  spices  and  ginger  to  taste.  Each 
ingredient  to  be  chopped  up  separately  and  very  fine. 
Mix  all  well  together,  and  take  especial  care  that  the 
beef  is  well  mixed  with  the  other  ingredients.  Moisten 
with  a  bottle  of  brandy  and  stir  occasionally. 

Excellent  mince  meat  is  made  as  follows :  Two 
pounds  currants;  5  pounds  peeled  and  cored  apples; 
2  pounds  lean  boiled  beef;  i  pound  beef  suet ;  ^ 
pounds  citron;  2>^  pounds  coffee  sugar;  3  ix)unds  of 
raisins;  2  tablesjxionfuls  cinnamon;  i  nutmeg,  and  i 
tablespoonful  each  of  mace,  cloves  and  allspice,  i 
pint  wine,  cider  and  brandy.  Wash  the  currants,  dry 
and  pick  them,  stone  the  raisins,  remove  the  skin  and 
sinews  from  the  beef  and  chop  each  ingredient  up 
separately  and  very  fine ;  place  as  soon  as  done  in  a 
large  pan,  set  on  the  stove,  let  it  just  come  to  a  boil, 
mix  thoroughly,  pack  in  jars,  keep  in  a  cool  place. 

Lemon  Mince  Meat.  Take  i  large  lemon;  3  large 
apples  ;  4  ounces  of  beef  suet ;   Y^  pound  of  currants  ; 

4  ounces  of  white  sugar;  i  ounce  of  candied  orange 
and  citron.  Chop  up  the  apples  and  beef  suet ;  mix 
them  with  the  currants  and  sugar ;  then  squeeze  the 
juice  from  a  large  lemon  into  a  cup;  boil  the  lemon 
thus  squeezed  till  tender  enough  to  beat  to  a  mash  ; 
add  to  it  the  mince  meat ;  pour  over  it  the  juice  of 
the  lemon  and  add  the  citron  chopped  fine. 

Minim,  in  apothecaries'  measure,  is  about  one 
drop. 

Minnow,  a  small  and  well  known  fresh-water  fish 
of  the  carp  family.  It  seldom  exceeds  three  inches 
in  length  and  is  usually  seen  much  smaller.  It  equals 
many  of  the  most  famous  fish  in  the  delicate  flavor  of 
its  flesh.     It  IS  extensively  used  by  anglers  as  bait. 

Mint-julep,  a  drink  consisting  of  brandy,  sugar 
and  pounded  ice,  flavored  with  sprigs  of  mint. 

Mirrors,  To  Clean.  Take  a  newspaper,  fold  it 
small,  dip  it  in  a  basin  of  clear,  cold  water.     When 


thoroughly  wet,  squeeze  it  out  as  you  do  a  sponge, 
then  rub  it  pretty  hard  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
glass,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  so  wet  as  to  run  down 
in  streams;  in  fact,  the  paper  must  only  be  completely 
moistened  or  dampened  all  through.  Let  it  rest  a 
few  minutes,  then  go  over  the  glass  with  a  piece  of 
fresh,  dry  newspaper,  till  it  looks  clear  and  bright. 
The  insides  of  windows  may  be  cleaned  in  the  same 
way;  also  spectacle  glasses,  lamp  glasses,  etc. 

Mite.     The  mite  family  comprises  very  small,  often 
microscopic,  spider-like  insects,  some   of   which   are  ■ 
found  almost  everywhere,  both  on  animals  and  plants 
as  well  as  decaying  substances,  as   parasites.      Thus 
we  have  the  itch  mite,  flour  mite,  etc. 

Moire  Antique  (mwor  an-teek'),  a  silken  cloth  with 
a  clouded,  mottled  or  watered  appearance,  made  for 
ladies'  dresses. 

Molar,  one  of  the  grinding  or  "  double"  teeth.  In 
man  there  are  12  of  these,  counting  the  "wisdom" 
teeth,  \yhich  are  generally  developed  when  the  indi- 
vidual is  18  to  21  years  of  age. 

Molasses,  the  uncrystallizable  part  of  the  saccha- 
rine juice,  either  naturally  so  or  rendered  uncrystalliz- 
able through  the  process  of  heating.  When  fermented 
it  yields  rum  by  distillation.     See  Cane. 

Mold:  see  Mildew. 

Mole.  I.  A  well-known  species  of  burrowing  ani- 
mal with  a  very  soft  fur.  2.  A  spot,  mark  or  small, 
permanent  protuberance  on  the  human  body,  from 
which  one  or  more  hairs  sometimes  grow.  3.  A  plow 
of  peculiar  construction,  for  forming  underground 
drains.  This  word  has  several  other  meanings,  but 
they  are  of  no  practical  interest  to  the  non-profes- 
sional man. 

To  Remove  Flesh  Moles.  Apply  muriatic  acid; 
use  the  end  of  a  broom  straw,  and  apply  to  the  mole 
until  it  sinks  perfectly  flat ;  only  one  application,  well 
applied,  being  necessary;  it  will  be  sore  for  over  a 
week,  and  will  come  off  in  a  small  scab,  and  soon  heal 
over. 

Meadow  Mole.  The  common  ground  mole  or 
"  meadow  mole,"  as  this  little  animal  is  often  called, 
is  of  interest  from  a  zoological  point  of  view,  but  in 
this  article  we  will  deal  only  with  the  practical  side 
of  the  subject  in  its  relations  to  agticulture  and  liorti- 
culture.  The  mole  is  both  useful  and  hurtful.  When 
his  services  more  than  counterbalance  the  injury  he 
commits,  he  should  be  left  unmolested.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  he  becomes,  as  he  often  does,  an  intoler- 
able nuisance,  he  may  be  more  or  less  successfully 
dealt  with  in  the  manner  we  will  proceed  to  describe. 

It  is  very  annoying  to  see  a  handsome  lawn  cov- 
ered with  unsightly  ridges  plowed  by  the  noses  and 
paws  of  these  httle  depredators;  but  the  knowledge 
that  they  are  the  natural  enemies  of  the  numerous 
worms  and  grubs  that  sometimes  make  fearful  war 
uixjn  the  roots  of  growing  young  crops,  renders  it  often 
difficult  to  decide  whether  the  moles  are  to  be  wel- 


MOLINE—MOR  TA  GE. 


977 


corned  as  allies  or  combated  witli  such  means  as  are 
available. 

The  mole  is  a  purely  carnivorous  animal  and  never 
does  any  damage  to  plant  life  except  in  pursuit  of  his 
prey.  He  may  break  and  disturb  the  tender  roots  of 
young  plants,  but  he  does  not  devour  them,  and  he  is 
often  wrongly  blamed  for  injury  which  has  been  com- 
mitted by  the  insect  depredators  he  has  caught  and 
devoured. 

The  field  mouse,  on  the  contrary,  does  devour 
tender,  succulent  roots,  and  the  mole  is  too  often 
charged  with  the  damage  thus  sustained  by  farmers, 
in  addition  to  that  really  due  to  his  burrowings. 

The  simplest  form  of  trap,  and  one  that  will  prove 
effectual  in  catching  these  little  animals  if  skillfully 
employed,  is  the  jar  mole  tiap  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration.     A  glass  or  stoneware  jar  is  sunk 


•     Mole  Trap. 

into  the  ground  under  the  runs  as  indicated  in  the 
engraving.  The  moles,  while  running  along,  fall  into 
the  jar,  and  the  vertical  slippery  sides  of  the  jar  pre- 
vent their  getting  out  again.  Field  mice  are  also 
fre(piendy  caught  in  these  traps,  which  leads  to  the 
suspicion  that  they  are  the  authors  of  much  of  the  mis- 
chief attributed  to  moles,  whose  burrows  form  con- 
venient avenues  for  the  intruders. 

Moline  (mo'li:i),  the  crossed  iron  that  supports 
the  upper  mill-stone. 

MoUebart  (mol'ly-bart),  an  agricultural  imple- 
ment used  in  Flanders,  consisting  of  a  large  shovel, 
drawn  by  a  horse  and  guided  by  a  man. 

Molting,  the  periodical  shedding  of  the  plumage 
of  birds  and  the  hair  of  cjuadrapeds. 

The  molting  of  birds  occurs  twice  a  year,  and  is 
either  total  or  partial.  A  total  molt  generally  takes 
place  once  a  year,  and  a  partial  molt  accompanies 
the  change  of  tints  in  the  plumage  which  certain 
■species  undergo  at  the  season  of  breeding.  A  new 
plumage  is  developed  at  evei^'  molt ;  and,  according 
to  the  species  and  the  season,  it  either  may  or  may 
not  have  the  same  tints  as  the  old  plumage.  The 
winter  plumage  of  some  species  is  always  different  in 
•color  from  the  summer  plumage. 

The  horse  retains  the  hair  of  his  mane  and  tail  in 
a  perennial  way,  but  sheds  all  his  other  hair  twice  a 
year.  His  fine,  short  coat  of  summer  would  be  of 
insufficient  service  to  him  in  winter,  and  his  heavy 
long  coat  of  winter  would  be  oppresrive  to  him  in 
62 


summer;  and  therefore,  like  all  other  animals  which 
need  a  similar  change,  hcreceives  from  the  beneficence 
of  his  Creator  a  regular  change  of  clothing  in  beauti- 
ful adaptation  to  his  wants  and  comfort.  But  as  he 
lives  in  a  somewhat  artificial  state,  he  experiences 
some  suffering  and  requires  some  special  attention 
from  his  keeper  during  the  progress  of  the  change. 
He  experiences  excited  action  in  the  vessels  of  the 
skin,  and  is  in  consequence  slightly  feverish,  and 
becomes  chilled,  thirsty,  irtitable  and  weak.  He 
suffers  more  at  the  autumnal  tlian  at  the  vernal  molt- 
ing, for  the  production  of  the  long,  heavy  coat  of 
winter  makes  greater  demands  upon  his  system  than 
the  production  of  the  short,  light  one  of  summer.  The 
curry-comb  ought  to  be  sparingly  applied  during 
molting,  lest  it  should  too  rapidly  force  off  the  old 
coat  before  the  new  one  be  duly  produced. 

Momentum,  or  Impetus,  the  force  of  a  moving 
body. 

Monger,  a  trader  or  dealer. 

Monkey,  in  mechanics,  an  apparatus  for  disengag- 
ing and  securing  again  the  ram  of  a  pile  engine. 

Monkey-wrench,  one  which  has  an  adjustable 
jaw,  worked  by  a  screw. 

Moon  Blindness,  a  disease  in  the  eyes  of  horses. 
It  is  treated  on  page  762  under  the  head  of  .Specific 
Ophthalmia 

Moose,  the  largest  of  the  deer  genus.  They  in- 
habit the  northern  jwrtion  of  the  United  States  and 
live  in  swampy  places. 

Moose  Elm,  the  red  elm. 

Moose-wood,  the  striped  maple:  see  Maple. 

Morass,  a  peaty  marsh,  so  soft  and  spongy  and 
saturated  with  water  as  not  to  be  able  to  bear  animals 
on  its  surface. 

Mordant,  any  substance,  as  alum  or  copperas,  that 
gives  fixity  to  dyes,  rendering  them  indelible  or  fast. 
It  is  requisite  in  the  case  of  every  dye  which  of  itself 
merely  stains  cloth  and  can  be  washed  out  with 
water.  It  possesses  an  affinity  for  both  the  dye  and 
the  cloth. 

Morel  (morel),  an  edible  mushroom,  brown,  egg- 
shaped,  and  growing  in  the  shade  of  trees  in  June. 

Morello,  a  variety  of  cherry  which  is  hardy  in  the 
Northern  States,  the  fruit  being  large,  juicy  and 
purple,  or  almost  black  when  ripe :     see  Cherry. 

Morgan  Horse:  see  page  690. 

Morphine,  an  alkaloid  obtained  from  opium  and 
possessing  the  narcotic  and  sedative  »powers  of  that 
substance:   see  Opium. 

Mortgage,  a  conveyance  or  transfer  of  real  or  per- 
sonal property  to  secure  the  grantee  or  assignee  the 
payment  of  some  debt,  or  the  performance  of  some 
agreement,  with  a  condition  or  understanding  that,  in 
case  the   debt  is   paid   or   the   undertaking   is    per- 


978 


MOR  TIFICA  TION—MO  TH. 


formed,  within  a  certain  time,  and  in  the  specified  man- 
ner, tlie  conveyance  or  assignment  shall  be  void  and 
the  land  or  personal  property  revert  to,  or  rather  still 
belongs  to,  the  mortgagor.  Although  the  title  to  the 
property  named  appears  to  pass  to  the  mortgagee  by 
such  a  deed,  the  law  of  this  country  holds  that  it  does 
not ;  that  the  mortgage  is  merely  a  security  and  not  a  sale 
and  the  mortgagor  retains  the  tide  and  control  of  the 
land,  subject  to  the  mortgagee,  until  a  decree  of  court 
"forecloses"  or  shuts  out  his  "equity  of  redemption" 
or  right  to  redeem  the  land  by  paying  the  mortgage 
after  it  becomes  due. 

Blank  forms  of  mortgages  are  so  easily  obtained, 
being  on  sale  in  every  hamlet  throughout  the  Union, 
we  deem  it  quite  unnecessary  to  give  them  here.  We 
wish  to  make  a  few  practical  observations  ujx)n  the 
principle  of  mortgaging  property.  In  general  it  is 
very  hazardous  to  place  a  mortgage  over  a  farm,  and 
the  circumstances  should,  indeed,  be  most  extra- 
ordinarily pressing  that  would  induce  a  farmer  to 
cover  his  only  piece  of  property  with  a  mortgage. 
Golden  visions  of  wealth  gained  in  a  certain  specula- 
tion may  induce  him  to  mortgage  his  farm  to  secure 
the  necessary  funds  in  order  to  carry  out  his  scheme. 
Profits  in  speculative  business  are  so  uncertain  that 
nineteen  times  out  of  twenty  he  will  be  disappointed 
and  cripple  himself  financially  and  perhaps  lose  bis 
farm. 

It  has  been  said  of  a  mortgage  on  the  farm  that  it 
is  in  many  respects  worse  than  a  cancer  on  the  body. 
Everything  then  which  should  go  to  nourish  and 
strengthen  the  one  goes  to  the  other,  and  both  body 
and  farm  grow  haggard  and  are  lost  if  the  affliction 
be  not  removed.  No  wonder  it  is  termed  "mortgage" 
'  or  "dead  pledge."  It  usually  kills  the  land  while  the 
mortgagor  holds  possession  by  eating  its  profits  in 
interest. 

Could  we  present  in  tabular  form,  so  that  a  single 
view  would  cover  all,  the  statistics  of  fir.ancial  ruin 
caused  by  mortgages  and  other  process  of  securing 
debts  instead  of  paying  Ihem,  or  better  still,  never 
making  them,  it  would  cause  many  a  farmer  to  stop 
before  he  rushes  into  the  mire  from  which  so  many 
never  get  out. 

Mortifleation :  see  Gangrene. 

Mosaic  (mo-za'ik),  inlaid  work,  in  which  the  effect 
of  painting  is  produced  by  the  use  of  pieces  of  colored 
stone  or  other  hard  substance,  natural  or  artificial. 
The  figures  are  generally  geometrical  and  symmetrical, 
and  the  blocks  containing  them  constitute  expensive 
ornamentation  in  walks,  walls  and  other  structures. 

Mosquitoes,  To  Clear  a  Room  of,  take  of  gum 
camphor  a  piece  about  Yi  the  size  of  an  egg,  and 
evaix)rate  it  by  placing  it  in  a  tin  vessel,  and  holding 
it  over  a  lamp  or  candle,  taking  care  that  it  does  not 
ignite.  The  smoke  will  soon  fill  the  room  and  expel 
the  mosquitoes. 

To  Keep  Away  Mosquitoes.  Dip  a  piece  of 
sponge  or  flannel  in  camphorated  spirits,  and  make  it 
fast  to  the  top  of  the  bed-stead.    A  decoction  of  penny- 


royal, or  some  of  the  bruised  leaves,  rubbed  on  the 
exposed  parts,  will  effectually  keep  off  these  trouble- 
some insects. 

For  remedy  for  mosquito   bites,  see  Insect  Bites, 

page  872. 

Moth.  These  numerous  and  beautiful  insects, 
which  are  seldom  seen  except  at  night,  were  included 
by  Linnaus  in  the  genus  Flialccna.  Since  his  time, 
however,  naturalists  have  divided  them  into  an  im- 
mense number  of  different  groups.  Of  the  moth 
family  the  genus  Tinea  are  those  most  destructive,  in 
their  larva  state  they  devouring  almost  every  kind  of 
substances.  The  winged  moth  enter  through  the 
cracks  into  the  closets,  drawers,  chests,  or  get  under 
the  edges  of  carpets,  or  into  the  folds  of  curtains  and 
garments  and  deposit  their  eggs,  which  hatch  into 
caterpillars  in  about  15  days,  and  immediately  begin  10 
gnaw  the  substances  within  reach  and  cover  them- 
selves with  the  fragments,  shaping  them  into  hollow 
rolls  and  lining  them  with  silk.  They  generally  live 
in  these  rolls  through  the  summer,  enlarging  theni  as 
they  grow,  and  carrying  on  their  work  of  destruction, 
but  in  the  autumn  become  torpid,  change  to  pupas 
in  the  spring,  and  in  20  days  come  forth  winged 
moths,  which  in  turn  lay  their  eggs  for  a  new  brood. 
The  various  species  are  all  noxious,  and  however  bril- 
liant the  perfect  insects  may  be  they  should  be  de- 
stroyed wherever  found. 

To  Secure  Goods  from  Moths.  The  destruction 
caused  by  these  htde  pests  can'  be  counted  only  by 
millions  yearly,  and  they  are  the  plague  of  every 
housekeeper.  Unless  you  can  hermedcally  seal  a 
cask  or  box,  you  can  scarcely  keep  the  miller  out,  as 
she  will  crawl  through  a  good  sized  pin-hole.  There- 
fore something  offensive  must  be  used,  and  perhaps 
there  is  nothing  so  effective  and  cheap  as  petroleum 
paper;  or  even  the  common  tar  roofing  paper  will  an- 
swer. Buy  your  paper  in  rolls,  cut  in  sections  long 
enough  to  cover  the  inside,  the  bottom  and  the  sides, 
and  lap  over  on  the  top  of  the  box.  All  of  the  inside 
of  the  box  must  be  covered,  and  on  the  inside  of  this 
again  place  wrapping  paper  to  prevent  the  contact  of 
nice  clothing  with  the  petroleum  paper.  Use  a  large 
box — no  matter  about  being  very  tight,  as  the  paper 
will  cover  the  holes — and  pack  in  all  your  woolens 
and  furs,  filling  it  full.  Bring  the  paper  up  which 
has  been  hanging  over  the  sides  of  the  box,  and  let  it 
cover  the  whole  so  that  the  miller  cannot  enter  with- 
out crawHng  over  the  petroleum  paper,  which  she  will 
never  do.  Nail  on  the  cover  of^  your  box  and  your 
clothing  is  safe  for  three  years,  if  you  want  to  leave  it 
that  long.  It  is  much  cheaper  and  does  not  evajxjrate 
like  camphor,  and  the  carbolic  acid  in  it  seems  to  act 
like  an  antiseptic  on  the  animal  fiber  of  the  wool,  to 
preserve  and  make  it  healthful. 

To  Keep  Moths  from  Carpets.  Moths  will  work 
in  carpets  in  rooms  that  are  kept  warm  in  the  winter 
as  well  as  the  summer.  A  sure  method  of  removing 
the  pests  is  to  ix)ur  strong  alum  water  on  the  floor  to 
the  distance  of  half  a  yard  around  the  edges  before 


MO  THER—MUCK. 


979 


laying  the  carpets.  Then  once  or  twice  during  the 
season  sprinkle  dry  salt  over  the  carpet  before  sweep- 
ing. Insects  do  not  like  salt,  and  sufficient  adheres 
to  the  carpet  to  prevent  them  alighting  upon  it. 

To  Secure  Woolens  from  Moths.  Carefully 
shake  and  brush  woolens  early  in  the  spring,  so  as  to 
be  certain  that  no  eggs  are  in  them ;  then  sew  them 
up  in  cotton  or  linen  wrappers,  putting  a  piece  of 
camphor  gum,  tied  up  in  a  bit  of  muslin,  into  each 
bundle,  or  into  the  chests  and  closets  where  the  arti- 
cles are  to  lie.  No  moth  will  approach  while  the 
smell  of  the  camphor  continues.  When  the  gum  is 
eva|X)rated  it  must  be  renewed. 

To  preserve  furs  from  moth  see  page  551. 

Mother,  of  vinegar  and  other  liquors,  a  thick  slimy 
substance  of  a  fungoid  nature,  different  from  either 
the  scum  or  the  dregs. 

Motorpathy  (mo-tor -pa-thy),  movement  cure.  See 
Hygiene. 

Moult.     See  Molting. 

Mouse-piece,  the  piece  of  beef  cut  from  the  part 
next  below  the  round,  or  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
latter:  called  also  "mouse  buttock." 

Mouse.     See  Rat. 

Mousselin  (moos-leen ),  muslin. 

Mouth.  For  scald  mouth  and  inflammation  of  the 
mouth  of  the  horse,  see  page  79 r. 

An  excellent  wash  for  common  sore  mouth  is 
a  solution  of  chlorate  of  potash.  Make  a  strong  solu- 
tion, wash  the  sore  and  swallow  a  little  occasionally. 
A  few  of  the  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potash  put  in  the 
mouth  and  left  to  dissolve  will  prove  very  effective 
and  is  a  very  mild  remedy.  Yellow  root  (golden  seal) 
is  very  effective  in  cases  of  sore  mouth.  Take  some 
of  the  root  in  the  mouth  and  chew,  or  put  some  of 
the  powder  on  the  sores.  A  mild  cathartic  should 
be  taken. 

Mow  (mou),  a  pile  of  hay  or  sheaves  of  grain  de- 
posited in  a  barn ;  also,  the  place  in  a  barn  where  hay 
or  grain  in  the  sheaf  is  stowed.  To  "mow-burn"  is  to 
heat  and  ferment  in  the  mow,  as  hay  when  housed  too 
green  or  wet. 

Mower,  a  machine  for  cutting  grass  and  clover. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  machines  upon  the 
farm.  It  is  also  at  present  one  of  the  most  common. 
They  are  so  widely  and  universally  distributed  through- 
out the  country,  and  their  use  and  care  so  thoroughly 
understood  that  we  need  give  but  a  reference  to  them. 
The  competition  in  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the 
various  patterns  is  so  brisk  that  a  farmer  need  not 
be  at  a  loss  in  his  selection.  As  to  the  general  care  of 
the  machine  we  refer  the  reader  to  page  842,  under 
the  head  of  Implements. 

Mowing,  the  cutting  down  of  grain,  grass  or  weeds, 
either  with  a  scythe  or  mower.  Before  the  days  of 
mowing  machines  the  art  of  mowing  with  the  scythe 
was  difficult  to  attain  to  a  high  degree.     This  imple- 


ment is  seldom  used  at  present,  except  in  corners  of 
fences,  or  on  very  rocky  or  stumpy  land. 

Mucilage:  see  Glue. 

Muck.  A  mass  of  decomposing  matter,  consisting 
largely  of  dead  vegetable  substances,  and  Very  suit- 
able for  manuring  purposes. 

Swamp  muck  is  formed  by  the  imperfect  decompo- 
sition of  vegetable  matter.  It  consists  of  the  more  or 
less  completely  decomposed  remains  of  countless  gen- 
erations of  marshy  plants,  mosses,  grasses  and  sedges, 
together  with  the  materials  which  have  been  washed 
in,  or  blown  in  from  the  surrounding  land.  It  is  the 
product  of  cool  and  moist  situations.  In  moist  and 
cool  climates  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  materi- 
als is  slow,  while  the  growth  of  the  plants  furnishing 
this  mateiial  is  rapid.  In  tropical  countries,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  rapidity  of  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter,  no  deposit  of  peat  occurs  except  in  cool  moun- 
tainous elevations. 

In  consequence  of  the  varying  conditions  under 
which  this  vegetable  decomposition  may  proceed,  there 
may  be  found  in  the  same  bed  three  well-marked 
varieties  of  muck :  First,  we  find  mossy  materials 
which  have  undergone  little  change,  having  the  origi- 
nal plant  structure  very  perfectly  preserved,  of  a  brown 
color,  and  when  dry  very  light  and  spongy,  like  com- 
pressed hay.  This  substance  is  of  no  value  as  a  ma- 
nure, not  having  reached  such  a  stage  of  decomposi- 
tion as  to  develop  any  valuable  qualities.  Second,  we 
have  material  which  has  decomposed  so  completely 
that  only  traces  of  the  original  vegetable  structure  can 
be  detected.  The  inaterial  is  a  solid,  unctuous  mass, 
which  cuts  like  soft  clay  or  old  cheese,  and  may  be 
termed  cheesy  muck.  It  is  of  a  dark  brown  or  black 
color,  and  usually  the  darker  the  color  the  better  the 
quality,  because  this  darker  color  shows  that  it  has 
combined  with  some  alkaline  substance  by  which  its 
quality  is  improved.  This  cheesy  muck  is  usually 
formed  by  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  under 
water.  When  this  cheesy  muck  is  dried  it  shrinks  in 
volume,  forming  a  hard,  coaly  mass,  and  may  remain 
exposed  to  the  weather  for  years  without  much  change. 
Third,  when  this  cheesy  muck  has  been  exposed  to 
the  air  so  as  to  be  thoroughly  acted  on  by  the  frost, 
we  find  a  dark  brown  or  black  powdery  mass,  which 
is  not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  vegetable  matter 
or  mould  of  soils.  It  is  this  which  is  of  so  much  value 
to  the  farmer,  and  is  the  only  kind  of  muck  which  is 
fit  for  immediate  application  to  the  soil,  or  for  any  use 
except  to  form  comixssts  with  fermentable  manures  or 
with  alkaUne  substances.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  the  cheesy  muck,  thrown  on  the  land 
under  such  circumstances  that  it  will  be  thoroughly 
frozen  before  it  dries  out,  will  thereby  be  changed  to 
this  powdery  muck.  The  action  of  the  frost  and 
weather  on  muck  must  be  considered  as  almost  indis- 
pensable for  the  successful  use  of  it  as  a  manure. 

How  TO  Use  Muck.  If  the  bog  is  near  the  barn- 
yard, draw  the  muck  immediately  to  it;  otherwise 
deposit  it  with  wheelbarrows  in  ridges  not  more  than 


980 


MUCUS— MULCH. 


two  feet  deep  on  the  most  convenient  bank;  let  it 
drain  and  dry  until  after  the  fall  harvest,  and  then 
gradually  draw  it  into  the  yards  to  be  worked  over  by 
domestic  animals;  dump  it  upon  the  drier  portions  of 
the  yard,  around  a  basin  which  should  let  nothing 
escape.  '  The  following  May  it  will  be  in  the  best  con- 
dition to  apply  to  the  crops^  All  the  manure  made 
during  the  winter  should  be  spread  over  that  which 
lies  in  the  yard,  and  afterward  new  muck  drawn  in,  to 
be  worked  over  by  the  animals,  and  so  on.  Or,  apply 
ashes,  salt  and  lime  to  the  muck-heaps,  letting  them 
stand  a  full  year,  and  it  will  be  good  for  use. 

Muck  may  be  used  to  deodorize  and  preserve  in  an 
inoffensive  form  the  manural  matter  derived  from  dead 
animals.  When  a  dead  animal  is  properly  covered 
with  muck,  no  offensive  gases  escape  and  all  the 
manural  matters  are  preserved. 

Mucus,  the  viscid,  ropy  secretions  of  the  mucous 
membrane.  This  is  the  membrane  which  lines  the 
mouth,  nostrils,  exterior  of  the  eyes,  lungs,  stomach, 
intestines,  bladder  and  urinary  apparatus.  Mucus  is 
a  substance  generally  liquid,  and  appears  to  be  em- 
ployed by  nature  for  the  purjxjse  of  lubricating  mov- 
able parts,  or  protecting  them  from  the  action  of 
other  substances. 

Muflftn,  a  light,  spongy  cake,  circular  and  fiat ;  also, 
an  earthen  table  plate  of  moderate  size. 

Corn  Muffins.  Two  cups  yellow  Indian  meal, 
one  cup  flour,  three  eggs,  four  tablesjxxjnfuls  of  sugar, 
and  a  little  salt,  a  piece  of  lard  or  butter  the  size  of  an 
egg,  one  teaspoonful  saleratus  and  two  of  cream  tar- 
tar. The  cream  tartar  must  be  put  in  dry  with  the 
flour,  and  the  saleratus  mixed  with  a  little  warm  wa- 
ter and  put  in  last  of  all ;  mix  all  together  with  milk 
as  thick  as  pound-cake  batter.  Pour  in  corn-muffin 
pans  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven. 

Brown  Flour  Muffins.  One  quart  tepid  water, 
half  cup  yeast,  one  tablespoonful  of  Indian  meal,  two 
of  molasses,  two  pints  Graham  flour,  one  pint  wheat, 
one  teaspoonful  of  soda  about  half  an  hour  before 
baking — as  thick  as  soft  gingerbread ;  bake  half  an 
hour,  or  in  greased  rings  on  a  griddle. 

Flour  Muffins.  One-half  cup  of  butter,  one- 
half  cup  of  sugar,  two  cups  of  milk,  three  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  yeast  powder  rubbed  thoroughly  into  a  scant 
quart  of  flour,  and  a  little  salt;  bake  in  muffin  rings. 

Rice  Muffins.  Take  one  cup  of  cold  boiled  rice, 
one  pint  of  flour,  two  eggs,  one  quart  of  milk,  one  ta- 
blesjxwnful  of  butter,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
beat  very  hard  and  bake  quickly. 

Hominy  Muffins.  Take  two  cups  of  fine  hominy, 
boiled  and  cold ;  beat  it  smooth  ;  stir  in  three  cups 
of  sour  milk,  half  a  cup  of  melted  butter,  two  tea- 
s|X)onfuls  of  salt,  two  tablesixxjnfuls  of  white  sugar; 
then  add  thiee  eggs  well  beaten,  one  teasiX)onful  of 
soda  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  one  large  cup  of 
flour;  bake  quickly. 

Oatmeal  Muffins.  Put  a  cup  and  a  half  of  oat- 
meal and  half  a  cup  of  corn  meal  to  soak  in  two  cups 
of  sour  milk  for  an  hour  or  more.     Add  two   eggs,   a 


tablespoonful  of  sugar,  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a 
half  teasjxwn  of  soda  dissolved  in  a  tablespoonful 
of  hot  water.  Heat  the  muffin  tins  and  grease  them 
well.     Bake  in  a  quick  oven. 

Mulberry.  The  red  mulberry,  the  only  native 
species  of  mulberry  in  the  United  States,  is  a  tree  na- 
tive in  our  western  forests,  having  a  leaf  like  that  of 
an  elm,  and  ripening  in  July,  bearing  a  fruit  like  a 
long  blackberry,  which  is  very  delicious  to  the  taste, 
though  it  is  very  subject  to  worms.  It  is  rarely 
,  picked  from  the  tree,  as  it  falls  as  soon  as  ripe ;  and 
it  is  therefore  the  custom,  with  cultivated  trees,  to 
keep  the  surface  of  the  ground  underneath  in  a  short 
turf,  so  that  the  fruit  may  be  gathered  from  clean 
grass. 

Several  varieties  are  cultivated  in  the  older  coun- 
tries, but  none  in  the  northwestern  portion  of  the 
United  States.  In  Europe  the  Black  is  the  leading 
variety,  and  in  the  eastern  ixjrtion  of  America  the 
Ever-bearing  and  the  Johnson  are  the  principal  kinds 
in  cultivation.  Several  varieties  of  the  white  mulberry 
are  cultivated  for  silk. 

The  Russian  mulberry  was  first  brought  to  this 
country  by  the  Russian  Mennonites,  a  few  years  ago. 
In  Russia  the  fruit  is  used  as  we  use  raspberries  and 
blackberries.  The  tree  is,  as  near  as  we  can  learn,  a 
cross  between  the  black  mulberry  and  the  native 
Russian  variety.  It  grows  very  large,  frequently 
reaching  a  height  of  50  feet.  The  timber  is  hard  and 
durable  and  the  fence  posts  made  from  it  have  the 
lasting  qualities  of  catalpa  or  red  cedar.  A  part  of 
the  trees  have  beautiful  cut  leaves,  and  some  of  them 
have  as  many  as  twelve  lobes.  The  bark  is  grayish 
white,  branches  drooping.  The  Russians  also  use  it 
as  a  hedge  plant,  and  it  stands  shearing  as  well  as 
any  tree  on  the  list.  It  also  grows  as  readily  from 
cuttings  as  cottonwood  or  willow.  The  tree  is  per- 
fectly hardy.  Mercury  30°  below  zero  and  not  even 
the  twigs  injured. 

The  best  soil  for  the  mulberry  is  a  deep,  rich,  sandy 
loam.  The  tree  requires  little  or  no  pruning,  and  is 
of  very  easy  culture.  It  is  usually  propagated  by 
cuttings  three  feet  long,  planted  half  their  depth  in 
the  ground  in  the  spring.  Cuttings  made  of  pieces 
of  the  roots  will  also  send  up  shoots,  which  will  grow 
well. 

Mulch,  the  placing  of  straw,  leaves,  or  other  litter 
around  the  roots  of  trees.  Covering  the  soil  with  a 
mulch  is  valuable  in  many  ways,  besides  the  decay 
of  the  material  placed  upon  the  ground,  of  the  added 
fertility  of  the  manure  or  straw.  A  certain  amount  of 
moisture  must  be  retained  in  the  soil  to  allow  the 
fibrous  roots  to  feed  to  the  best  advantage.  If  there  is 
more  than  the  required  amount  of  water,  the  soil  is 
too  cold  for  the  best  results,  and  the  air  is  excluded 
by  the  water  to  an  extent  that  prevents  or  retards 
chemical  action.  When  ammonia  escapes  from  de- 
caying vegetation  or  from  the  soil  and  passes  into  the 
atmosphere,  it  does  not  chemically  unite  with  other 
substances,   but  simply   remains    suspended,   to    be 


MULE. 


981 


brought  to  the  earth  by  the  first  rain.  If  the  soil  be 
covered  by  a  heavy  mulch  this  atmospheric  ammonia 
is  retained  and  hoarded  for  plant  food. 

A  heavy  mulch  breaks  the  force  of  the  rains,  and 
prevents  them  from  compacting  the  soil.  It  also  pro- 
tects the  surface  from  freezing  as  readily  as  when  ex- 
posed, and  thus  keeps  it  longer  open  to  the  action  of 
the  air  and  moisture. 

The  throwing  out  of  winter  grain  is  often  prevent- 
ed, because  this  is  generally  due  to  the  frequent 
freezing  and  thawing  of  the  surface  soil.  When  wet 
surface  soil  freezes,  it  is  raised  up,  and  the  young 
plants  growing  in  are  raised  with  ii;  when  the  frost  is 
thawed  out,  the  soil  falls  back  to  its  original  [wsition, 
"while  parts  of  jthe  crown  or  root  of  the  crop  remain 
elevated.  The  next  freeze  takes  hold  lower  down 
and  lifts  them  again,  and  the  next  thaw  leaves  them 
higher  up,  until  frequently  in  the  spring  a  crown 
of  clover  or  wheat  stands  three  inches  out  of  the 
ground. 

Mulching  prevents  the  rapid  freezing  or  thawing, 
so  the  changes  are  not  so  frequent.  It  also  prevents 
the  baking  of  the  soil. 

Mule,  the  offspring  of  the  male  ass  and  the  female 
horse.  The  offspring  of  the  male  horse  and  the  fe- 
male ass  is  the  hinny.  We  refer  the  reader  to  the  ar- 
ticle on  Hinny,  where  the  difference  between  the  mule 
and  hinny  and  their  respective  peculiarities  are  dis- 
cussed. Mules  are  incapable  of  reproduction,  as  with 
few  exceptions  all  hybrids  are.  They  are  more  high- 
ly esteemed  and  generally  used  in  the  South  than  in 
the  North.  They  are  more  hardy  in  constitution, 
more  muscular  in  proportion  to  their  weight  and  more 
patient  than  horses.  They  are  also  less  subject  to 
disease,  longer-lived,  recpiire  less  care  and  attention, 
and  can  subsi':t  on  less  food.  They  are  especially 
adapted  to  hard  and  rough  roads,  being  very  sure- 
footed. Indeed  there  is  no  more  useful  or  willing 
animal  than  the  mule,  and  perhaps  no  other  domestic 
animal  has  received  so  little  attention  and  been  so 
greatly  abused.  Po])ular  opinion  of  his  nature  has  not 
been  favorable,  and  he  has  therefore  had  to  labor  and 
plod  through  hfe  against  the  prejudices  of  the  people. 
Still,  both  in  peace  and  in  war,  he  has  been  the  great 
friend  of  man,  serving  him  well  and  faithfully.  Could 
he  tell  man  what  he  most  needed  it  would  be  kind 
treatment. 

The  mule  is  not  naturally  vicious,  as  is  supposed, 
and  wholly  incapable  of  appreciating  kindly  treat- 
ment. His  heels  are  his  means  of  defense,  and  are 
dangerous  to  those  who  wantonly  provoke  him  and 
place  themselves  in  liis  way.  His  long  ears  are  sensi- 
tive and  by  roughly  handling  them  his  combative- 
ness  is  easily  aroused,  and  distrust  is  awakened  to 
that  degree  that  renders  him  almost  unmanageable. 
Yet  he  may  be  so  raised  and  trained  as  to  make  him 
gentle, obedient,  even  affectionate.  One  thing  should 
always  be  observed,  however,in  dealing  with  him, and 
that  is  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  his  heels,  which  he 
throws  out  as  instinctively  when  startled,  irritated  or 


approached  by  a  stranger  as  a  cat  thrusts   out  her 
paws. 

The  mule  was  known  and  much  used  by  the 
ancients,  but  what  prompted  his  production  must 
forever  remain  a  mystery.  He  was  found  useful  in 
making  long  journeys,  climbing  mountains  and  cross- 
ing deserts,  and  when  tood  and  water  were  scarce 
and  horses  would  have  perished.  He  was  used  by 
men  of  rank,  and  even  rulers,  in  ancient  times,  as 
beasts  of  burthen.  They  were  employed  to  draw 
the  carriages  of  Roman  ladies,  and  within  the  present 
century  the  coaches  of  the  Spanish  nobility  have 
been  drawn  by  them. 

Breeding.  The  mule  is  a  hybrid  and  cannot  breed 
either  with  its  own  or  other  classes  of  animals ;  conse- 
quently it  is  necessary  to  breed  asses,  or  imjxjrt  them, 
to  keep  up  the  stock  of  mules.  It  has  been  a  pre- 
vailing custom  to  use  anything  in  the  shape  of  an 
ass,  no  matter  how  inferior,  for  breeding  [)urposes. 
The  mares  generally  recommended  for  mule  breeding 
are  big,  homely  ones.  '1  his  is  all  wrong.  To  raise 
good  mules  it  is  just  as  important  to  have  good 
parents  as  it  is  in  breeding  any  kind  of  animals  To 
produce  a  good,  well-proportioned  mule,  a  good,  com- 
pact and  serviceable  mare  must  be  bred  to  a  well- 
marked,  well-built  and  excellent  jack.  It  is  of  greater 
importance,  however,  to  have  a  good  jack  than  an 
excellent  mare.  A  blooded  mare  should  be  used  for 
breeding  horses  if  anything.  Her  offspring,  couijled 
with  a  jack,  would  not  be  nearly  so  valuable  as  if  put 
to  a  good  stallion.  Besides,  the  connection  with  the 
jack  will  likely  prevent  her  from  ever  giving  birth  to 
a  pure  colt.  If  bred  to  a  stallion  after  having  pro- 
duced a  mule,  the  mare  will  be  almost  sure  to  have  a 
colt  marked,  to  quite  a  degree,  like  the  ass.  A  bad 
temper  in  a  mare,  or  any  tendency  toward  a  vicious 
disposition,  should  wholly  disqualify  her  for  breeding 
mules.  The  Norman  blood  is  perhaps  the  best  to  be 
sought  in  the  mare. 

Care  of  the  Colt.  When  fully  matured  the 
mule  is  a  remarkably  healthy  and  hardy  animal,  but 
in  his  earliest  years  is  quite  tender  and  timid.  While 
young  he  requires  as  good  care  and  as  much  atten- 
tion as  does  the  horse  colt.  He  does  not  re([uire  as 
much  corn  and  oats  as  the  common  colt,  but  he 
should  have  abundance  of  good  hay,  plenty  of  fresh 
water  and  ample  shelter.  If  castration  is  to  be  per- 
formed it  should  be  done  before  the  mule  is  six 
months  old,  and  it  will  generally  be  better  to  do  it  as 
early  as  the  fourth  month.  The  operation  requires  as 
much  care  and  skill  as  it  does  for  the  horse  colt. 
This  is  described  on  page  700. 

Breaking.  The  mule  does  not  require  as  complete 
a  course  of  training  as  the  horse,  because  its  range  of 
work  is  more  limited ;  but  so  far  as  it  does  go  it  should 
be  thorough.  In  breaking  the  mule  most  persons  are 
apt  to  get  out  of  patience  with  him  ;  but  patience  is 
the  most  essential  thing  in  breaking  the  mule.  He  . 
is  an  unnatural  animal,  and  hence  more  timid  than 
the  horse  and  more  difficult  to  be  made  to  understand 
what  you  want;  but  when  he  does  and  has  confidence 


982 


MU LEY— MUSH. 


in  you,  you  will  have  but  little  difficulty  in  making 
him  iierform  his  duties.  Begin  early  to  handle  him 
and  do  so  often.  Teach  him  to  lead,  to  be  tied  up 
and  to  have  things  put  ujxjn  his  back  and  to  feed 
from  the  hand.  Never  spring  at  him,  nor  yell  at  him, 
never  jerk  him,  never  strike  him  with  a  club.  Show 
him  that  you  are  friendly  and  have  no  desire  to  hurt 
him.  In  this  way  the  young  mule  may  be  taught 
almost  as  readily  as  the  horse. 

Mules  seem  generally  to  be  born  kickers.  It  makes 
no  difference  how  they  are  bred,  the  moment  they  are 
able  to  stand  up,  and  you  touch  them,  they  will  kick. 
In  beginning  to  break  them,  therefore,  kicking  is  the 
first  thing  to  guard  against  and  overcome.  This  is 
most  easily  remedied  by  kind  treatment.  Harsh 
treatment  will  invariably  make  him  worse.  Observ- 
ing these  and  the  statements  made  on  breaking 
horses  in  the  article  on  the  Horse,  the  mule  may  be 
subdued  and  made  useful. 

General  Observations.  If  has  been  said  that 
the  nmle  never  scares  or  runs  away.  This  is  not  true. 
lie  is  not  so  apt  to  get  frightened  and  run  away  as 
the  horse  is,  but  any  one  who  has  had  long  experience 
with  them  knows  that  they  will  both  get  frightened 
and  run  away.  They  do  not,  however,  lose  all  their 
sense  when  they  get  frightened,  and  run  away  as  the 
horse  does.  Bring  a  mule  back  afte^  he  has  run 
away,  and  in  most  cases  he  will  not  want  to  do  it 
again.  A  horse  that  has  once  run  away,  however,  is 
never  safe  afterward. 

Avoid  spotted  or  dapple  mules  ;  they  are  the  very 
poorest  animals  you  can  get.  They  cannot  stand 
hard  work;  and  once  they  get  diseased  and  begin  to 
lose  strength,  there  is  no  saving  them.  Many  of  the 
snow-white  mules  are  of  the  same  description,  and 
about  as  useless.  Mules  with  the  white  muzzle,  or,  as 
some  term  it,  white-nose  white,  and  with  white  rays 
around  the  eyes,  are  also  of  but  little  account  as  work 
mules.  They  can  stand  no  hardship  of  any  kind.  In 
purchasing  mules,  you  must  look  well  to  the  age,  form, 
height,  eyes,  size  of  bone  and  muscle  and  disposition ; 
for  these  are  of  more  importance  than  his  color.  Get 
these  right  and  you  will  have  a  good  animal. 

If  any  gentleman  wants  to  purchase  a  mule  for  the 
saddle,  let  him  get  one  bred  closer  after  the  mare  than 
the  jack.  They  are  more  docile,  handle  easier,  and 
are  more  tractable,  and  will  do  what  you  want  with 
less  trouble  than  the  other.  If  possible,  also,  get  mare 
mules;  they  are  much  more  safe  and  trusty  under  the 
saddle,  and  less  liable  to  get  stubborn.  They  are  also 
better  than  a  horse  mule  for  team  purposes. 

Diseases.  The  mule  is  not  so  susceptible  to* dis- 
ease as  the  horse;  but  in  those  he  is  afflicted  with  he 
does  not  materially  differ  from  the  nobler  animal.  He, 
however,  suffers  less  from  them,  owing  to  lack  of 
sensibility.  For  diagnosing  diseases  and  treatment, 
see  Diseases  in  the  article  on  Horse. 

Muley,  hornless ;  applied  to  cattle — as  the  polled 
cattle ;  also  a  stiff,  long  saw,  not  stretched  in  a  gate, 
and  moved  much  more  rapidly  than  an  ordinary  gate 
saw. 


Mull,  to  soften  or  bring  down  in  spirit ;  or  to  heat, 
sweeten  and  spice,  as  to  mull  ale,  wine,  etc. 

Mullet,  a  genus  or  family  of  fishes. 

Mumps,  an  enlargement  of  the  glands  of  the 
neck;  an  affection  confined  almost  exclusively  to 
children,  and  contagious  in  its  nature.  The  swell- 
ing generally  takes  place  near  the  angle  of  the  lowei 
jaw,  and  where  it  is  articulated  with  the  upper  jaw, 
and  sometimes  causes  such  an  enlargement  that  the 
distended  gland  hangs  down  like  a  bag.  In  general, 
however,  the  glands  are  only  partially  distended, 
though  by  their  pressure  on  the  tonsils  they  cause 
both  difficulty  of  swallowing  and  partial  deafness. 
Mumps  is  generally  attended  with  a  degree  of  inflam- 
matory fever,  and  when  severe,  is  accompanied  with 
shortness  of  breathing,  hot  skin  and  other  febrile 
symptoms.  The  attack  generally  reaches  its  height 
in  four  days  and  then  declines.  Sometimes  the 
swelling  suddenly  disappears,  as  in  gout,  and  makes 
its  appearance  upon  some  other  part  of  the  body; 
this  is  regarded  as  an  unfavorable  symptom. 

Treatment.  This  is  very  simple  and  consists  of  a 
mild  diet  and  gentle  laxatives,  occasional  hot  foment- 
ations and  wearing  a  piece  of  flannel  around  the 
throat. 

Murrain,  an  infectious  and  fatal  disease  among 
cattle,  much  prevalent  in  ancient  times.  It  was  one 
of  the  plagues  of  Egypt  before  the  exodus  of  the  Isra- 
elites. Visitations  of  plagues  or  murrain  uixin  cattle 
are  mentioned  and  described  by  Homer,  Hipixjcrates, 
Plutarch,  Livy  and  Virgil.  Even  in  modern  times 
epidemics  have  spread  through  Europe  destroying 
almost  all  the  cattle.  The  term  murrain  has  largely 
gone  out  of  use,  new  names  being  substituted,  accor- 
ding to  the  precise  form  of  the  disease.  See  page  233. 

Miish,  "Indian  meal  boiled  in  water." — Webster. 
But  the  terms  "oatmeal  mush,"  "Graham  mush,"  "rye 
mush,"  etc.,  are  so  common  among  educated  people 
that  we  presume  Webster's  definition  a  little  deficient. 
Again,  he  gives  no  idea  as  to  the  projxDrtions  of  meal 
and  water,  distinguishing  the  article  from  gruel  or  por- 
ridge. In  this  article  we  will  regard  mush  as  a 
"dish  made  of  meal  or  flour  and  water,  not  as  solid  as 
bread  on  the  one  hand,  and  thicker  than  porridge  on 
the  other." 

General  recipe:  Bring  the  water  to  boiling  and  then 
gradually  stir  in  the  meal  or  flour,  avoiding  the  forma- 
tion of  lumps. 

Corn-Meal  Mush.  In  addition  to  the  general 
direction  just  given,  boil  for  an  hour  or  more, — either 
over  a  hot  fire  and  by  constant  stirring,  to  prevent 
burning,  or  over  a  slow  fire,  without  sdrring.  The 
former  method  is  probably  the  best,  as  the  slightly 
scorched  portion  is  stirred  from  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  through  the  mass,  giving  it  the  parched  or 
spicy  flavor  of  well-baked  corn  bread. 

One  of  the  most  ]X)pular  arricles  of  food  is  fried  or 
browned  mush.  With  a  smooth,  sharp  case-knife, 
kept  wet  with  cold  water,  cut  cold  mush  into  slices 


MUSHROOM— MUSKMELON. 


983 


one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  brown  on  a  buttered 
griddle.     Eat  while  hot. 

Oat.meaI,  Mush.  Mix  a  cup  of  medium  oatmeal 
with  a  teaspoon  of  salt  and  a  cup  of  cold  water. 
Put  three  cups  of  water  in  a  double  boiler;  if  you 
have  none  use  a  tin  pail  set  in  a  kettle  of  boiling 
water.  When  the  pint  of  water  boils  briskly  stir  in 
the  moistened  oatmeal ;  let  it  cook  for  five  minutes, 
then  stir  again,  after  which  take  out  the  spoon,  put  on 
the  cover  and  cook  for  an  hour;  two  hours  will  make 
it  all  the  better.  The  double  boiler,  or  a  substitute 
for  one,  is  a  necessity  in  making  oatmeal  porridge ; 
to  be  good  it  must  be  cooked  a  long  time,  and  should 
neyer  be  stirred  after  beginning  to  l)oil  until  it  is  done, 
for  stirring  while  cooking  makes  oatmeal  gummy. 
The  steamed  oats  which  come  put  up  in  packages 
reciuire  only  a  few  minutes  cooking,  but  cost  double 
as  much  as  the  oatmeal  which  is  sold  by  the  pound. 
When  wanted  for  an  early  breakfast  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  cook  the  [jorridge  at  supper  time  in  a  small  stone 
jar  set  in  a  kettle  of  water.  Put  a  cover  or  plate  on 
top  and  leave  the  jar  in  the  hot  water  all  night.  If 
left  on  the  back  of  the  stove  it  will  be  just  right  for 
breakfast.  Serve  with  rich  milk  or  cream  and  sugar 
if  desired.  It  is  of  special  importance  that  oatmeal 
be  fresh.  After  its  manufacture  it  becomes  bitter  very 
rapidly. 

Graham  Mush.  After  stirring  the  flour  into  the 
boiling  water,  let  it  stand  over  a  moderate  heat  with- 
out stirring  for  a  few  minutes,  and  it  is  done.  Per- 
haps the  most  palatable  form  of  this  dish  is  to  eat  it 
when  about  lukewarm,  or  nearly  cold,  with  sweet 
cream  or  rich  milk.  This  "  pudding "  also  can  be 
sliced  and  fried  (or  browned)  like  corn-meal  mush. 

Rye  Mush,  is  similarly  made. 

Other  mushes  generally  go  by  other  names,  as, 
blanc  mange,  Iceland  moss  pudding,  manioc  and 
tapioca  puddings,  etc. 

Mushroom,  a  well-known  esculent  species  of  fun- 
gus. Mushrooms  are  eaten  by  every  civilized  nation, 
when  fresh.  The  difficulty  in  obtaining  non-jx)ison- 
ous  kinds,  and  the  distressing  and  sometimes  fatal 
effects  of  eating  jxjisonous  fungi,  deter  many  persons 
from  using  them  at  all. 

When  a  fungus  is  pleasant  in  flavor  and  odor,  con- 
sider it  wholesome;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  have  an 
offensive  smell,  a  bitter,  astringent,  or  styptic  taste,  or 
even  if  it  leave  an  unpleasant  flavor  in  the  mouth,  it 
should  not  be  considered  fit  for  food.  The  color,  fig- 
ure and  texture  of  these  fungi  do  not  afford  any  char- 
acters on  which  we  can  safely  rely;  yet  it  may  be 
remarked,  that  in  color,  the  pure  yellow,  gold  color, 
bluish-pale,  dark  or  luster  brown,  wine-red,  or  the 
violet,  belong  to  many  that  are  esculent;  whilst  the 
pale  or  sulphur-yellow,  bright  or  blood-red,  and  the 
greenish  -belong  to  the  few  but  iX)isonoiis.  The  safe 
kinds  have  most  frequently  a  compact,  brittle  texture; 
the  flesh  is  white ;  they  grow  more  readily  in  open 
places,  such  as  dry  pastures  and  waste  lands,  than  in 
places  humid  or  shaded  by  wood.     In  general,  those 


should  be  suspected  which  grow  in  caverns  and  sub- 
terraneous passages,  or  on  animal  matter  undergoing 
putrefaction,  as  well  as  those  whose  flesh  is  soft  or 
watei^. 

To  Stew  Mushrooms.  Peel  and  put  them  in  milk 
and  water,  and  let  them  soak  for  half  an  hour;  then 
put  them  in  a  saucepan  covered  very  close ;  shake 
them  every  now  and  then.  Let  them  stew  on  a  trivet 
for  half  an  hour;  then  add  a  small  crust  of  well- 
toasted  bread,  a  small  blade  of  mace,  and  a  quarter 
of  a  pint  of  cream.  Next,  take  out  the  mace,  and  put 
the  crust  into  the  middle  of  the  dish.  If  the  cream 
does  not  thicken  it  sufficiently,  add  the  yolk  of  an  egg 
and  half  a  teasixjonful  of  vinegar  before  it  is  used. 

Mushroo.m  Pudding.  Rub  into  half  a  ix)und  of 
bread-crumbs  two  ounces  of  butter,  adding  pepper  and 
salt,  with  sufficient  water  to  render  the  bread  moist; 
cut  up  and  add  to  these  one  pint  of  small  mushrooms; 
line  the  basin  with  your  paste,  put  in  the  above,  cover 
with  a  paste,  tie  it  up  in  a  cloth,  and  boil  for  an  hour 
and  a  half. 

Canned  Mushrooms  in  Sauce.  About  half  a  can 
with  two  beefsteaks.  Drain  the  mushrooms  fronr  their 
liquor  and  fry  (saute)  in  a  small  frying-pan  with  a 
little  butter.  Add  pepper  and  salt.  When  they  have 
accpiired  a  slight  color  draw  them  to  one  side  of  the 
pan,  put  in  a  heaping  teasiX)onful  of  flour  and  rub  it 
smooth  in  the  hot  butter,  still  keeping  the  pan  over 
the  fire,  and  when  the  flour  has  become  slightly 
browned  pour  in  the  mushroom  liquor  gradually  and 
a  few  sjxwnfuls  of  water.  Shake  in  the  mushrooms, 
let  all  boil  up,  squeeze  in  the  juice  of  a  quarter  of  a 
lemon  and  ix)ur  over  the  beefsteak  in  the  dish. 

Muskmelon.  This  very  valuable  member  of  the 
Cucumber  family  was  originally  introduced  into 
Europe  from  Asia  by  the  Roman-s,  and  very  early 
found  its  way  to  our  own  shores.  It  is  grown  to  its 
greatest  perfection  in  Persia  and  Arabia,  where  it  is 
used  as  common  food.  The  flesh  of  this  fruit  is  very 
delicious,  being  succulent,  cool  and  highly  flavored. 

Cultivation.  Select  a  warm,  light  soil,  which  is 
indeed  better  than  cold,  rich  soil ;  but  a  rich,  warm 

soil  is  best ;  thor- 


oughly work  the 
soil,  manure  with 
a  rich  com  post, 
and  have  the  hills 
six  feet  apart;  do 
not  excavate  hills, 
but  work  the 
manure  just 
under  the  sur- 
face, as  the  roots 

Fig.  I Extra  Early  Cantaloupe.  of  all  vineS  natur- 

ally seek  warmth ;  pinch  the  terminals  of  the  more 
vigorous  vines  occasionally.  In  planting  put  a  dozen 
or  more  seeds  to  the  hill,  allowing  for  freezing  or  bugs, 
but  do  not  leave  more  than  two  to  the  hill.  Sprink- 
ling the  young  plants  occasionally  with  air-slaked  lime 
or  plaster  will  guard  them  against  insects.    Hoe  often 


984 


MUSLIN— MUS  TARD. 


until  the  vines  touch.     In  regions  so  cool  as  to  render 
the  crop  doubtful,  the  seeds  shoyld  be  planted  in  pots 


Fig.  2. — Pineapple  Cantaloupe. 

in  hot-beds  about  a  month  ahead,  and  the  plants  set 
out  in  hills  about  the  first  corn-hoeing  time.  Very 
often,  covering  with  hand-glasses  or  wire-gauze  boxes 
will  be  necessary  to  guard  them  against  insects  or 
frosts.  The  striped  bugs  must  be  chased  away  by 
throwing  dust  at  them. 

V.ARIETIES.  Christiana.  Remarkable  for  early 
maturity. 

Sill's  Hybrid.  Salmon  color,  flesh  rich,  sweet  and 
delicious. 

Torreys.  Green-fleshed,  large,  earlier  than  Cas- 
saba. 

Shaw's  Golden  Superb.  Small,  but  superb  in 
quality. 

Skillman's  Fine-Netted.  Early  and  of  delicious 
flavor. 

Early  Nutmeg.     Green-fleshed ;    highly  scented. 

Long  Yellow.  Large,  sweet,  productive ;  a  well- 
known  sort. 

Green  Citron.  Green-fleshed;  sweet,  melting  and 
rich-flavored. 

Ward's  Nectar.  Early,  exceedingly  prolific,  sweet, 
rich  and  green-fleshed. 

Early  Jenny  Lind.  An  early  sort ;  a  favorite  with 
■gardeners. 

New  White  Japan.  Flesh  greenish  white  ;  early 
■and  prolific;  sweet,  delicious. 

Pineapple.  Oval,  rough-netted,  thick-fleshed,  juicy 
and  sweet. 

Prolific  Nutmeg.  Hardy,  medium  size,  flesh  thick, 
igreen,  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Cassaba,  or  Persian.  Large,  oblong,  flesh  yellow- 
ish green,  rich  and  sweet. 

Munrocs  Little  Heath.  Very  prolific  and  hardy  ; 
large  ribs,  pale-neited,  scarlet  flesh,  fine  flavor. 

Long  Valparaiso.     Large  and  of  fine  quality. 

Colorado.     Extra  fine,  large  and  sweet. 

Promising  new  varieties  are  the  Persian,  Bay  View, 
Chicago  Nutmeg,  Surprise,  Log-of-Wood,  Algiers  Can- 
taloupe, Silver-Netted,  Hardy  Ridge,  Improved  Can- 
taloupe. 

The  cantaloupe  is  a  class  of  favorite  kinds.  It 
derived  its  name  from  a  place  near  Rome  where  it 
•was  first  cultivated  in  Europe.  It  is  a  native  of 
Armenia.  The  nutmeg  melon  is  also  a  popular 
variety.     In  many  markets  the  names  cantaloupe  and 


nutmeg  are  used  more  generally  than  that  of  musk- 
melon,  and  even  sometimes  to  designate  other  than 
their  respective  varieties  of  muskmelon. 

MusKMELON  Butter.  Take  very  ripe  melons,  so 
ripe  as  to  be  soft ;  cut  them  in  two  once  and  take  out 
the  seeds  ;  then  scrape  the  melon  from  the  rind  with 
a  knife,  and  to  every  4  gallons  of  melon  take  5  jxiunds 
of  light-brown  sugar;  put  into  a  kettle  and  boil  the 
same  as  apple  butter;  when  cooked  enough,  season, 
while  hot,  with  lemon  to  suit  the  taste. 

Muslin,  thin,  cotton  cloth.  To  wash  Muslins,  see 
page  908. 

Must,  the  expressed  juice  of  the  grape  before  fer- 
mentation; also,  sour  moldiness;  fustiness. 

Mustang  Ponies:  see  page  693. 

Mustard.  This  is  a  hardy  and  easily  cultivated  salad 
plant.  The  chief  varieties  are  the  black,  the  white  or 
yellow  and  the  Chinese. 

Table  Mustard.  Mix  3  sixKsnfuls  of  ground 
mustard  with  2  of  salt  and  9  of  water.  Mix  to  a 
smooth  paste,  add  6  spoonfuls  more  of  water,  and 
mix. 

French  Mustard.  Take  J^  pound  of  best  yellow 
mustard,  pour  over  it  Yi  pint  each  of  water  and  vine- 
gar; add  a  pinch  of  salt  and  a  piece  of  calamus  root  the 
size  of  a  pea ;  put  it  on  the  fire  and  when  it  boils  add 

1  tablesiX)onful  of  flour;  let  it  boil  twenty  minutes, 
stirring  it  constantly.  Just  before  taking  it  ofi"  stir  in 
a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  or  honey.  When  cool,  put  it 
into  bottles  and  cork  tightly. 

Mustard  Plaster.  Mustard  seed  is  a  very  jMwer- 
ful  stimulant  and  rubefacient.  When  moistened  and 
applied  to  the  surface  it  occasions  great  irritation.  It 
is,  however,  not  necessary  to  produce  blistering  to 
prove  its  good  effects  in  this  way.  The  following  is 
an  excellent  mode  of  making  a  mustard  plaster  for 
chronic  inflammation,  colds,  sore  throats,  inflamma- 
tions of  the  lungs,  liver  and  bowels,  sprains,  etc. : 
Take  i  part,  by  measure,  of  mustard;  5  parts  flour 
and  5  of  Indian  meal.  Mix  the  mustard  in  a  little 
hot  water,  and  when  smooth,  add  about  2  parts  boil- 
ing water,  and  when  all  is  dissolved  stir  in  the  flour 
and  then  the  meal,  thoroughly,  adding  more  boiling 
water  if  necessary.  Spread  on  a  thick  cloth  double 
folded  to  retain  heat  and  moisture.  Cover  with  mos- 
quito netting  or  lace,  and  nothing  closer,  sew  around 
the  edges;  apply  to  the  painful  spot;  fasten  with 
bandages  and  wear  till  dry,  or  for  24  hours,  and  then 
put  on  a  fresh  one.     Continue  to  renew  these  for  i  or 

2  weeks.  When  the  skin  becomes  too  tender  add 
I  more  spoonful  of  flour  and  meal  each.  When  these 
plasters  can  no  longer  be  borne,  use  powdered  ginger 
instead  of  mustard,  and  then  finish  with  plain  Indian 
meal  poultice  alone. 

Another:  In  making  a  mustard  plaster  use  only 
the  white  of  an  egg  (no  water);  a  mixture  is  thus 
formed  which  will  draw  perfectly,  but  which  will  not 
blister  or  break  the  skin.  It  is  especially  suited  for 
young  and  tender  skin. 


MUTTON. 


985 


Veterinary  Uses.  In  veterinary  practice  mustard 
is  used  as  an  irritant  on  the  body  where  the  Spanish 
fly  would  be  improper  and  dangerous.  On  the  belly 
and  over  the  loins  are  the  usual  places  where  mustard 
is  applied.  In  lumbago  and  sprains  of  the  back  and 
loins  and  in  pain  in  the  bowels  mustard  is  useful.  The 
mode  of  application  of  mustard  is  as  follows:  If  the 
hair  of  the  part  be  long  cut  it  off,  then  foment  the 
part  with  warm  water  and  immediately  rub  into  the 
the  parts  a  handful  of  the  best  flour  of  mustard.  This 
is  more  effectual  than  laying  a  paste  or  [xiultice  with- 
out rubbing. 

Mutton,  the  flesh  of  sheep  when  slaughtered 
and  dressed. 

The  recent  increasing  demand  for  good  mutton  in 
the  United  States  has  led  to  the  extensive  im[X)rta- 
tion  of  sheep  particularly  adapted  for  food.  Flocks 
of  these  breeds  are  now  found  nearly  all  over  the 
country.  The  wool  of  the  mutton  sheep  is  also 
eagerly  sought  for,  being  more  abundant  on  the  heavy 
classes,  though  of  coarser  quality.  For  superior 
mutton  qualities,  the  South  Down  stands  pre-eminent 
everywhere,  though  this  supremacy  is  vigorously  dis- 
puted by  the  breeders  of  the  Black-face  of  Scotland, 
the  Cheviot  of  the  border  and  the  Exmoor  of  the 
Somerset  hills.  But  in  their  desire  to  grow  fine  mut- 
ton sheep,  the  farmers  and  breeders  of  this  country 
have  not  lost  sight  of  the  valuable  wool  qualities,  and 
those  breeds  which  combine  the  best  qualities  as  the 
producers  of  both  mutton  and  wool  are  receiving  the 
most  attention.  Hence,  in  the  West,  the  Cotswold  is 
the  general  favorite,  for  its  large  size,  the  length  and 
quality  of  its  fleece,  hardihood,  tendency  to  fatten  and 
its  rich  though  somewhat  coarse  meat.  In  the  blue- 
grass  regions  the  Lincoln  is  receiving  preference  for 
his  long,  lustrous  wool  and  great  size.  In  the  hilly 
countries  devoted  to  sheep  husbandry,  the  Merino 
and  South  Down  with  their  crosses  are  used,  though 
the  mutton  of  the  Merino  is  of  a  very  inferior  quality 
and  (juantity.  One  of  the  features  of  this  breed  of 
sheep,  which  compensates  in  a  measure  for  their  lack 
of  mutton  qualities,  is  the  possibility  of  keeping  them 
in  large  droves,  without  injury,  while  none  of  the  long- 
wool  classes  can  be  profitably  kept  in  flocks  of  100, 
and  even  smaller,  are  better.  The  quality  and  flavor 
of  mutton  depends  not  only  on  the  breed  of  sheep 
but  on  the  pasturage  and  feed.  High,  dry  pasture 
lands  of  a  limestone  nature,  will  make  much  better 
mutton  than  the  rich,  damp  soil  of  the  Western 
prairie,  or  the  production  of  a  lengthened  stall  feed- 
ing on  roots.  Sheep  stall  fed  will  make  fine  and 
heavy  meat  if  ground  meal  is  partially  substituted  for 
roots  and  a  dry,  well-ventilated  shed  is  used.  Mut- 
ton as  food  is  considered  as  highly  nutritious,  light 
and  easy  of  digestion,  but  the  meat  of  the  male  has  a 
strong,  sheepy,  disagreeable  flavor  and  is  usually 
tough.  The  meat  of  the  ewe  is  good  if  under  two 
years  old,  but  after  that,  especially  if  not  well  fatted, 
it  is  inclined  to  become  coarse  and  tough.  The  mut- 
ton of  the  wether  is  most  esteemed,  next  to  that  of 
lambs.     See  page    964.     The  flesh  of  the   lamb  is 


mild,  tender   and  juicy,  and   at   its   best    when  the 
animal  is  well  fatted  on  its  mother's  milk,  and  is  from 
six   to  ten    months  old.     Between   the  "lamb"   and 
"mutton  "  period  in  its  growth  it  is  not  so  fine-flavor- 
ed, and   as  mutton  it  does  not  reach  its  fullest  color 
and  flavor  till  five  years  old.     Good  mutton  is  dark 
colored   and  marble-like.      See   pages    964-5.     The 
quality  of  mutton  is  improved  for  cooking  by  hanging 
up  in  the  air  as  long  as  it  can  be  kept  without  taint, 
and  it  will  keep  longer  than  the  flesh  of  any  domestic 
animal.     Of  the  long-wools,  the  Leicester  is  consider- 
ed by  English  breeders  to  possess  the  finest  fattening 
qualities,   maturing   early   and   easily  and   affording 
meat  of  great  weight  and   prime  quality.     The  Lin 
coin  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds  and  posesses  good 
mutton  qualities;  the  Cotswold  are  of  a  hardy  consti- 
tution,  mature    well   and    make    excellent   mutton, 
though    rather    fat.     They   are    probably   the    best 
adapted  of  any  long-wool  breeds  to  the  West.     The 
carcass  of  a  good  Cotswold  lamb  should  weigh,  at 
eight  or  ten  months,  100  [X)unds  or  more,  and  a  full- 
grown,  well  fatted  animal  may  be  made  to  weigh  200 
pounds  of  dressed  meat.     Under  heavy  feeding  the 
mutton  sheep  takes  flesh  easily,  and  like   the  hog, 
develops  heavy  layers  of  fat  on  the  ribs. 

The  middle-wools  do  not  become  so  grossly  fat  as 
the  mutton  breeds  but  are  of  a  finer  flavor,  good 
weights  of  carcass  being  from  70  to  100  jxjunds.  Of 
these  the  South  Downs,  Hampshire  Downs,  Shroj)- 
shire  Downs  and  Oxfordshire  Downs  have  been  im- 
ported into  this  country  to  a  considerable  extent. 
The  Hampshire  Downs  incline  to  the  greatest  weight 
and  the  South  Downs  to  the  finest  quality. 

The  terms  "  long-wools,"  and  "  mutton  sheep,"  as 
applied  to  the  different  breeds,  are  synonymous,  and 
in  quality  of  mutton,  rank  second  to  the  middle- 
wools,  while  the  fine-wools — Merinoes,  etc., — are  in- 
ferior in  quality  of  mutton,  probably  owing  to  their 
thick,  greasy,  strong  smelling  coat,  and  their  want  of 
a  tendency  to  fatten.  However  good  the  natural 
qualities  of  the  sheep  for  mutton,  the  flavor  of  the 
meat  depends  to  a  great  extent  on  external  circum- 
stances, thos?  which  are  fattened  exclusively  on 
good  sheep  pastures,  yielding  the  choicest  meat,  and 
those  fed  on  grain,  or  grain  with  a  light  supply  of 
roots,  being  better  than  those  fattened  exclusively  on 
roots.  Fattening  in  a  close  and  crowded  pen  also 
has  a  tendency  to  give  the  meat  a  rank  taste.  Much 
also  depends  on  the  manner  of  killing  and  dressing; 
the  sheep  should  be  kept  from  food  for  some  hours 
before  it  is  slaughtered,  and  it  should  be  hung  up  to 
dress,  and  pains  taken  to  prevent  the  wool  or  outside 
of  the  skin  from  touching  the  meat,  and  the  hand 
which  is  used  to  crowd  the  pelt  off"  should  be  firsl 
carefully  washed.  To  kill  a  sheep,  lay  it  on  its  side 
on  a  bench  and  pass  a  common,  sharp  butcher  knife 
through  the  neck,  close  to  the  lower  jaw,  holding  the 
edge  of  the  knife  against  the  neck  bone,  so  as  to  sever 
both  jugular  veins.  Hold  him  still  until  dead,  to  pre- 
vent him  mopping  the  blood  with  his  wool.  Split  the 
skin  along  the  windpipe,  to  the  breast  but  not  over  it; 


gS6 


MUTTON. 


now  skill  the  brisket  by  splitting  the  skin  on  both 
sides  in  a  triangular  form,  taking  hold  of  the  apex  and 
pounding  lightly  with  the  handle  of  the  knife.  The 
next  step  is  to  skin  the  hocks,  insert  the  gambrel  and 
hang  up  the  body,  and  run  the  knife  up  into  the  chest, 
resting  its  back  on  the  windpipe  and  cutting  outward 
to  the  center  of  the  breast-bone,  to  let  any  blood  that 
may  have  accumulated  in  the  chest  pass  off  without 
staining  the  neck  which  is  not  yet  skinned.  Skin  a 
fore  leg,  and  then  pass  up  the  side,  splitting  the  skin 
on  the  belly  only  as  fast  as  required,  and  separating 
it  from  the  flesh,  by  holding  it  firmly  in  the  one  hand, 
while  the  flesh  is  crowded  away  from  it  by  the  closed 
fingers  of  the  other.  The  knife  will  be  necessary  at 
the  flank,  but  the  hind  leg  and  ham  are  best  skinned 
by  crowding  the  fist  upwards  and  backwards.  When 
one  side  is  completed  and  the  pelt  fastened  back  so 
it  cannot  fall  on  and  stain  the  meat,  go  over  the  other 
s:de  in  the  same  manner.  Remove  the  bowels  with- 
out breaking,  and  then  cut  out  the  brisket  and  take 
out  the  heart  and  lungs,  and  rinse  out  with  clean  cold 
water,  without  the  use  of  a  clojji,  and  you  have  a 
clean  carcass.  See  Sheep ;  also  Mutton  and  Lamb, 
on  pages  964-5. 

Mutton,  To  Cook.  We  very  fully  treated  of  the 
distinguishing  features  of  the  different  cuts  of  mutton, 
and  the  best  way  of  selecting,  on  pages  964-5.  Here 
we  give  only  the  methods  of  serving  in  various  palat- 
able and  [wpular  dishes. 

Roast  Shoulder  of  Mutton.  Take  out  the  bone  and 
fill  the  space  with  a  stuffing  made  of  bread  crumbs, 
salt  pork  chopped  fine,  pepper,  salt  and  sage,  or  sweet 
marjoram.     Time,  a  quarter  of  an  hour  to  each  pound. 

Stewed  Leg  of  Mutton.  Make  a  stuffing  of  finely 
chopped  beef  suet,  bread  crumbs,  an  onion  chopped 
finely,  pepper,  salt,  and  a  little  ground  clove.  Make 
incisions  in  the  leg,  and  stuff  it  well ;  tie  a  little  bun- 
dle of  basil  and  parsley  together;  lay  in  the  bottom  of 
the  ix)t,  and  on  it  place  the  mutton  ;  just  cover  with 
water,  and  stew  slowly  for  two  hours ;  when  tender, 
take  out  the  mutton  and  add  to  the  liquor  a  large 
spoonful  of  flour,  made  smooth  with  a  little  water; 
stir  it  well,  and  in  five  minutes  take  it  off  and  strain 
it;  pour  it  back  into  the  pot,  and  add  ^  wineglassful 
of  catsup  and  lay  the  mutton  in  till  it  is  served. 

Mutton  Chops  can  be  either  broiled  or  fried  plain, 
or  with  eggs  and  crumbs. 

Stuffed  Leg  of  Mutton.  Boil  two  large  white  onions 
until  tender,  then  chop  fine ;  add  bread  crumbs  and 


sage  to  taste,  a  little  salt  and  pepper ;  then  slit  the 
sinewy  part  of  the  leg  and  insert  the  stuffing  and 
roast. 

Mutto?i  Cutlets.  Take  a  piece  of  the  best  end  of 
a  neck  of  mutton,  saw  off  the  bones  short,  remove 
the  gristle  and  fat,  cut  the  cutlets  about  one-third  of 
an  inch  in  thickness,  shape  and  trim  them  neatly; 
beat  them  with  a  cutlet  bat  dipped  in  water;  pepper,' 
salt  and  broil  them  over  a  brisk  fire. 

Irish  Stew.  Put  two  pounds  of  mutton  cutlets  or 
chops,  and  four  pounds  good  potatoes,  peeled  and 
sliced,  in  alternate  layers  in  a  large  saucepan  or  slew- 
pan,  season  to  taste  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  a  finely 
shred  onion ;  add  a  pint  of  cold  water,  and  simmer 
gently  for  two  hours.     Serve  very  hot. 

Cold  Mutton  Broiled.  Cut  in  thick  slices  cold 
boiled  leg  of  mutton ;  it  should  not  be  cooked  too 
much  or  it  will  fall  into  pieces ;  salt  and  pepper  it  and 
then  broil.  Serve  very  hot,  and  add  a  thick  sauce 
flavored  with  fresh  tomatoes,  or  tomato  sauce. 

To  Fry  Lamb  Steaks.  Dip  each  piece  into  well- 
beaten  egg,  cover  with  bread  crumbs  or  corn  meal, 
and  fry  in  butter  or  new  lard.  Serve  with  mashed 
fHDtatoes  and  boiled  rice.  Thicken  the  gravy  with 
flour  and  butter,  adding  a  little  lemon  juice,  and  ix)ur 
it  hot  upon  the  steaks,  and  place  the  rice  in  spoonfuls 
around  the  dish  to  garnish  it. 

Leg  of  Lamb.  Boil  it  in  water  to  cover  it ;  when 
half  done  add  two  cups  of  milk  to  the  water,  with  a 
large  spoonful  of  salt.  It  should  be  served  with 
spinach  and  caper  sauce.  Time,  about  one  hour  and 
a  quarter. 

To  Roast  Lamb.  The  hind  quarter  of  a  lamb  usually 
weighs  from  seven  to  ten  pounds ;  this  will  take  about 
two  hours  to  roast.  Wash  it  well,  put  it  into  the  pan, 
salt  it  and  dredge  with  flour;  put  some  water  in  the 
pan;  have  a  brisk  fire  and  baste  it . frequently  while 
roasting.     Serve  with  mint  sauce. 

To  Roast  the  Fore  Quarter  of  Lamb.  An  hour  and 
a  half  to  roast  this  piece;  it  is  considered  by  some 
the  best  roasting  piece  ;  it  should  be  frequently  basted. 
To  make  the  gravy  take  all  the  drippings,  add  a  very 
little  water,  salt  and  flour,  and  give  it  one  boil. 

Mint  Sauce,  to  serve  with  roast  Jamb.  Take  a  bunch 
of  green  mint  and  chop  it  very  fine  with  a  knife;  add 
a  teacup  of  sugar,  and  a  teacup  of  sharp  vinegar. 
Stir  this  up,  and  send  it  to  the  table  in  a  gravy  tureen 
or  sauce-boat. 


N 


AG,  a  small  horse,  suitable  for  the  saddle, 
or  for  a  variety  of  kinds  of  light  labor. 

Nail,  the  flattened  claw  on  the  toe  or  fin- 
'  ger  of  an  animal.     It    is   similar   in  chemical 
composition  to  horn. 

In-growing  Toe    Nails.     We  give  the  fol- 
lowing two  excellent  remedies  for   this  painful 
affliction : 

Cut  a  notch  about  the  shape  of  a  V  in  the  end  of 
the  nail,  about  one  quarter  the  width  of  the  nail  dis- 
tant from  the  in-growing  side.  Cut  down  as  nearly  to 
the  quick  as  possible,  and  one-third  the  length  of  the 
nail.  The  pressure  of  the  boot  or  shoe  will  tend  to 
close  the  opening  you  have  made  in  the  nail,  and 
this  soon  affords  relief.  Allow  the  in-growing  portion 
of  the  nail  to  grow  without  cutting  it,  until  it  gets  be- 
yond the  flesh. 

Another:  Lift  up  the  cgmer  of  the  nail ;  put  un- 
derneath a  bit  of  cotton  wool ;  keep  it  under  for  a 
time,  wearing  shoes  tight  on  the  instep  and  loose  at 
the  toes,  with  low  heels.  Short,  wide  shoes,  or  high- 
heeled  shoes  or  boots  cause  this  trouble,  as  well  as 
corns  and  bunions.  Laced  shoes  are  the  best,  as 
buttoned  shoes  stretch,  and  let  the  foot  down  into 
the  toe  when  walking.  Keep  the  corners  of  the  nails 
well  cut  down,  and  a  cure  will  soon  be  effected,  but 
never  if  the  toes  press  against  the  shoe  in  walking. 

To  Whiten  the  Finger  Nails.  Take  2  drams 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  i  dram  of  the  tincture  of 
myrrh,  4  ounces  of  spring  water,  and  mix  them  in  a 
bottle.  After  washing  the  hand,  dip  the  fingers  in  a 
little  of  the  mixture,  and  it  will  give  a  delicate  ap- 
pearance to  the  hand.  Rings,  with  stones  or  pearls 
in  them,  should  always  be  removed  from  the  hands. 

Nankeen,  a  species  of  cloth  made  from  cotton.  It 
was  originally  a  Chinese  manufacture  only,  and,  it 
is  said,  derived  its  pale  salmon-colored  tint  from  the 
natural  color  of  a  kind  of  cotton  grown  in  that  country. 

Naphtha,  a  highly  inflammable  fluid  characterized 
by  a  strong,  empyreumatic,  peculiar  odor,  and  gener- 
ally a  light  yellow  color,  but  is  rendered  colorless  by 
being  carefully  and  thoroughly  rectified.  It  burns 
with  a  white  flame,  emitting  much  smoke ;  it  boils  in 
platinum  vessels  at  158"  Fahrenheit;  it  continues 
liquid  down  to  zero :  it  has,  when  highly  rectified,  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.753  at  ^'°  Fahrenheit;  it  is 
insoluble  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  alcohol;  and  it 
combines,  in  all  proportions,  with  petroleum  and  oils. 
It  exhibits  some  observable  varieties  of  composition 


and  appearance  and  even  undergoes  some  slight 
change  by  being  kept  in  exposure  to  the  air.  Most 
kinds  of  it  are  believed  to  be  quite  destitute  of  oxy- 
gen ;  and  almost  all  are  devoid  of  ix)wer  to  tarnish  jxjt- 
assium,  a  substance  ix)ssessing  most  powerful  affinity 
for  oxygen.  The  normal  comixisition  of  naphtha  is 
supposed  to  be  six  equivalents  of  carbon  and  six  of 
hydrogen.  Natural  naphtha  occurs  abundantly  on  the 
shores  of  tlie  Caspian  and  in  some  parts  of  Italy  ;  and 
artificial  naphtha,  as  obtained  by  distilling  coal  tar, 
has,  of  late  years,  become  so  general  an  article  of 
commerce  as  to  be  almost  everywhere  well  known. 

Narcotic,  a  medicine  which  induces  stupefaction 
or  deadens  the  power  of  sensation.  Narcotics  are 
supix)sed  to  act  directly  on  the  nerves  and  the  brain, 
and  indirectly  on  the  vascular  system ;  and  they  at 
first  excite  or  stimulate,  but  afterwards,  and  very 
rapidly  and  for  a  very  long  time,  produce  a  sedative 
effect.  They  are  useful  medicines  in  certain  condi- 
tions and  stages  of  disease,  but  they  cannot  be  safely 
administered  to  a  horse,  far  less  to  a  human  being, 
without  the  guidance  of  such  high  skill  and  science 
as  few  but  professional  men  possess ;  and  in  all  cases 
they  act  upon  the  healthy  system,  or  in  frequently  re- 
peated doses,  as  downright  ix)isons,  depressing  the 
vital  forces,  wasting  the  nervous  energy,  and  producing 
some  of  the  worst  forms  of  both  chronic  and  mental 
disease;  and  need  only  to  be  given  in  sufficiently 
large  doses  to  cause  almost  immediate  death.  Two 
of  the  most  common  kind  of  them  are  tobacco  and 
opium;  and  the  myriads  of  infatuated  men  who  daily 
use  the  former  are  just  as  suicidal  and  not  by  any 
means  so  cleanly  as  the  thousands  who  use  the  latter 
in  Turkey  and  China.  Two  other  chief  narcotics 
and  at  the  same  time  virulent  poisons,  are  digitalis 
and  hellebore.     See  Opium. 

Poison  by  Narcotics.  The  effects  of  poisoning  by 
narcotic  substances  as  opium,  thornapple,  hemlock, 
etc,  are  faintness,  nausea,  vomiting,  stupor,  delirium, 
and  death.  Treatment:  G  ve  emetics, large  draughts 
of  fluids,  tickle  the  throat,  apply  smelling-salts  to  the 
nose,  dash  cold  water  over  the  face  and  chest,  apply 
mustard  poultices,  and  above  all,  endeavor  to  rouse 
the  patient  by  walking  between  two  persons  ;  and  if 
possible  by  electricity;  and  give  40  drops  of  sal-vola- 
tile in  strong  coffee  every  half  hour. 

Nasal  Gleet:  seepage  774. 

Nasal  Polypus:  see  page  793. 

Nasturtium  or  Indian  Cress,  a  highly  ornamental 


988 


NATIVE  CATTLE— NEURALGIA. 


plant,  whose  leaves  are  used  for  salad  and  seed-pods 
for  pickles.  Sow  in  May  in  drills  an  inch  deep  and 
three  feet  apart,  or  in  hills  four  feet  apart  each  way, 
and  either  brush  them  like  peas,  or  plant  them  near  a 
fence  or  hedge  upon  which  they  can  run.  The  dwarf 
kind,  however,  does  not  need  this  latter  treatment. 
The  principal  varieties  are :  the  tall  dark,  which  has 
crimson  flowers ;  the  tall  yellow,  which  has  rich  yellow 
flowers ;  and  the  dwarf. 

Native  Cattle:  see  page  204. 

Natural,  according  to  nature ;  normal,  according  to 
rule,  or  the  requirements  of  perfection;  artificial,  made 
by  man  or  animal.  Hence,  disease  is  natural,  in  the 
philosophical  sense,  but  not  normal ;  and  bird's  nests 
and  human  habitations  are  both  natural  and  artificial ; 
but  to  products  of  art  neither  the  term  normal  nor  ab- 
normal applies.  The  term  "  natural "  is  often  used  in 
the  sense  of  normal. 

Navicular  Bone.  This  bone,  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  horse's  limb,  is  situated  behind  and  beneath  the 
pastern  lione,  and  above  the  heel  of  the  coffin-bone, 
andforms  a  joint  with  these  bones,  and  acts  as  a  most 
important  part  in  sustaining  the  junction  between  the 
pastern  and  the  foot. 

Navicular  Joint  Lameness:  see  page  793 

Near.  The  "  near  "  side  of  a  team  is  the  left  side, 
and  the  near  horse  or  ox  is  the  left  one  of  the  team. 
The  term  originated  in  the  fashion  of  guiding  a  team 
at  the  right  of  the  driver  when  the  latter  is  walking, 
in  which  case  the  left  animal  is  near  the  driver,  and 
the  other  one  "  off"  from  him. 

Neat  Cattle,  all  cattle  of  the  ox  species.  See 
Catde. 

Neat's-foot  Oil,  the  oil  obtained  by  boiling  feet 
of  cattle. 

Nectarine.  This  is  what  some  scientists  would 
call  a  sub-species  of  peach,  a  nectarine  Iree  some- 
times bearing  peaches  as  well  as  nectarines.  Indeed,  it 
is  iraiMssible  to  distinguish  a  nectarine  tree  from  a 
peach  tree;  but  the  fruit  is  smaller,  perfectly  smooth 
without  down,  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  wax-like  and 
exquisite  of  all  productions  for  dessert.  In  flavor  it 
is  perhaps  scarcely  so  rich  as  the  finest  peach,  but  it 
has  more  piquancy,  partaking  of  the  peach-leaf  flavor. 
The  nectarine  is  a  shy  bearer  in  this  country  and  its 
fruit  is  generally  destroyed  by  the  curculio.  For  the 
production  of  the  largest  fruit  the  branches  should  be 
shortened  in  annually.  The  culture  is  in  all  respects 
similar  to  that  of  the  peach,  which  see. 

The  four  best  varieties  of  the  nectarine  for  cultiva- 
tion in  the  North  are  the  following : 

Boston.  Large  and  handsome ;  ripens  in  Septem- 
ber; bright  yellow,  with  a  very  deep  red  cheek,  shaded 
off  by  a  slight  mottling  of  red ;  flesh  yellow  to  the 
stone,  sweet  but  not  rich,  with  a  pleasant  and  peculiar 
flavor ;  separates  from  the  stone,  which  is  small  and 
ixjinted. 


Elruge.  Medium  size,  greenish  yellow,  with  a  dark 
red  cheek ;  flesh  pale  green  to  the  stone,  or  slightly 
stained  there  with  pale  red ;  juicy  and  high  flavored, 
melting;  stone  oval,  rough,  and  of  a  pale  color ;  sepa- 
rates from  the  stone.     Ripens  in  September. 

Hunt's  Tmvny.  Medium  size,  a  prominent  swollen 
point  at  the  top  and  one  side  of  the  suture  enlarged; 
pale  orange  with  a  dark  red  cheek,  mottled  with 
numerous  russety  specks;  flesh  deep  orange,  juicy,, 
melting,  rich  and  good,  separates  from  the  stone; 
ripens  Aug.  5  to  15.     Tree  an  abundant  bearer. 

Red  Roman.  Large,  roundish,  a  little  flattened  at 
the  top,  greenish  yellow,  with  a  brownish,  muddy  red 
cheek ;  flesh  firm,  greenish  yellow,  deep  red  at  the 
stone,  juicy,  with  a  rich,  high  vinous  flavor;  clings  to 
the  stone  ;  ripens  in  September ;  tree  healthy  and  pro- 
ductive ;  leaves  with  kidney-shaped  glands ;  flowers 
large. 

Nerves,  tubular  cords  of  the  same  substance  as. 
that  which  composes  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow. 
They  extend  from  one  or  other  of  the  nerve  centers 
to  every  part  of  the  body.  They  convey  impressions 
from  and  to  the  brain,  preside  over  the  functions  of 
the  different  organs  and  regulate  motion  and  the 
senses.  When  the  nerves  become  affected  it  requires, 
longer  time,  and  is  far  more  difficult  to  restore  than 
any  other  |X3rtion  of  the  animal.  Those  persons  with 
nervous  constitutions,  whicji  are  characterized  by  great 
excitability  of  the  nervous  system  and  extreme  sensi- 
bility to  external  impressions,  should  adopt  a  nutri- 
rious  and  not  too  stimulating  diet.  Easily  digested 
food  should  be  taken.  We  cannot  even  attempt  to 
treat  the  long  train  of  afflictions  to  which  the  nerves 
are  subject,  directly  and  indirectly,  more  than  is  done 
under  the  heads  of  respective  diseases.  As  a  nerve 
stimulant  nux  vomica  is  the  most  \X)werful  and  ex- 
hilarating. This  is  the  great  nerve  srimulant  of  most 
physicians.  Put  from  3  to  5  drops  in  a  tumbler  of 
water  and  take  of  this  a  teaspoonful  every  two  or 
three  hours.  Owing  to  the  slowness  with  which  the 
nerves  are  built  up  this  must  be  continued  for  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time.  American  valerian  is  a 
most  excellent  agency  for  quieting  nervous  irritability. 
It  can  be  given  in  a  powdered  root,  teaspoonful  doses,, 
or  from  3  to  5  grains  of  the  extract. 

Nervines,  medicines  relieving  pain  without  produc- 
ing narcotism. 

Nervousness :  see  Nerves. 

Net,  a  textile  fabric  of  netted  meshes,  for  catching 
fish,  ensnaring  rabbits,  ensnaring  birds,  protecting 
fruit  trees  from  the  depredations  of  birds,  and  several 
other  purposes.  Nets  for  fishing  are  exceedingly  var- 
ious in  form  and  size,  and  require  to  be  minutely 
adapted  to  the  several  methods  of  fishing,  and  in 
some  instances  to  the  capture  of  parricular  species  of 
fish. 

Neuralgia,  simply  pain  in  the  nerves,  attended 
with  neither  swelling  nor  inflammation.  The  most 
general  seat  of  neuralgic  affliction  is  in  the  face  and 


NEUROTOMY— NITER. 


989 


head.  The  pain  then  shoots  from  the  mouth  to  the 
eyes,  often  to  the  ears  and  over  the  cheek,  palate, 
teeth  and  jaws.  The  pain  follows  the  course  of  some 
particular  nerve,  and  at  times  is  of  the  most  excru- 
ciating character. 

Treatment.  Constipation  is  often  the  cause ;  first 
give  a  gentle  aperient ;  then  make  a  bean  poultice  of 
common  white  beans ;  boil  and  mash,  spread  on  thin 
cotton;  this  will  retain  the  heat  a  long  time.  Hot 
oatmeal  gruel  heats  the  system  quickly  and  thor- 
oughly, and  is  very  beneficial  in  cases  of  colds, 
neuralgia  or  rheumatism.  Another:  Prepare  horse- 
radish, by  grating  and  mixing  in  vinegar,  the  same 
as  for  table  purposes,  and  apply  to  the  temple  where 
the  head  or  face  is  affected,  or  on  the  wrist,  when  the 
pain  is  in  the  arm  or  shoulder. 

Neurotomy  (nu-rot'o-my),  the  dividing  of  the 
nerves  in  any  extreme  part  of  an  animal,  in  order  to 
destroy  the  pain  of  severe  or  laming  disease  in  the 
region  with  which  they  communicate.  It  is  usually 
performed  in  navicular  diseases,  when  other  treatment 
has  failed. 

Nicking,  a  barbarous  operation  on  horses'  tails, 
intended  to  make  them  maintain  a  cocked  or  elevated 
position.  It  was  formerly  much  more  fashionable, 
and  accompanied  with  far  more  cruelties,  and  per- 
formed in  a  far  more  sweeping  and  unrelenting  man- 
ner than  at  present ;  but  still  it  is  too  common  and 
too  savage,  and  reflects  disgrace  both  on  the  taste  and 
the  morality  of  multitudes  of  persons  who  have  to  do 
with  horses.  The  depressing  muscles  of  the  horse's 
tail,  in  a  natural  state,  are  stronger  than  the  erecting 
ones,  and  the  fitful  purpose  of  reversing  this  order,  so 
as  to  give  the  erecting  muscles  the  ascendancy  of 
power  a,nd  make  the  tail  be  more  or  less  curved  out- 
ward or  elevated  is  all  the  aiX)logy  which  the  jockeys 
and  farriers  and  horse-breeders  have  to  offer  for 
inflicting  this  great  torture  upon  the  most  useful  of  the 
domesticated  animals. 

The  horse  about  to  be  nicked  is  either  cast  or  held 
fast  with  the  side-line;  several  deep  cross-cuts  are 
made  in  the  under  side  of  the  tail  after  it  has  been 
docked.  A  cord  is  usually  fastened  to  the  hair  of  the 
tail  and  carried  over  a  pulley  attached  to  the  ceiling, 
and  thus  kept  drawn  up  over  the  back  by  a  weight 
until  the  wounds  heal.  This  they  will  do  by  granu- 
lation filling  up  the  spaces,  thus  making  the  nicking 
complete.  Thus  keeping  the  wounds  open  for  so  long 
is  a  much  worse  horror  than  the  nicking  itself 

So  violent  and  prolonged  is  the  pain  inflicted,  that, 
in  rare  cases  lock-jaw  and  death  have  been  the  con- 
sequence. A  woman  who  dies  from  trying  to  make 
an  "insect"  of  herself  by  tight-lacing,  and  ahorse 
which  dies  from  being  made  a  monster  by  means  of 
docking  and  nicking,  are  both  victims  to  savagely  per- 
verted taste,  but  the  former  kills  herself  and  the  latter 
is  killed  by  his  master.     See  Dock. 

Nightmare.  This  distressing  complaint  comes  on 
with  a  sense  of  great  weight  on  the  chest,  and  a 
dreaming  of  sometiiing  very  frightful  and  horrible, — 


bad  persons,  specters  of  various  shapes,  wild  bea:sts, 
infuriated  animals  in  pursuit,  and  which  the  patient 
cannot  escape,  though  apparently  he  makes,  or  tries 
to  make  the  greatest  efibrts  to  escape;  he  attenqjts  to 
cry  out,  but  generally  in  vain.  The  sensation  is  very 
distressing  and  painful.  Sometimes  the  uneasiness 
continues  after  he  awakes,  so  as  to  prevent  his  turn- 
ing or  moving  in  bed  for  some  time. 

Nightmare  arises  from  distension  of  the  stomach; 
from  indigestible  matter  in  the  stomach  of  heavy 
supper-eaters,  which,  pressing  up  the  diaphragm,  im- 
pedes respiration,  and  renders  it  short  or  convulsed ; 
hence  people  are  most  subject  to  it  after  a  heavy 
supper,  and  when  they  lie  on  the  back.  It  rarely 
occurs  in  any  other  position.  Those  subject  to  it 
should  therefore  avoid  sleeping  in  a  bed  which  is 
hollow  in  I  he  center,  as  this  induces  the  sleeper  to  lie 
on  his  back.  The  pillow  should  be  moderate  in 
tiiickness,  so  that  the  head  should  not  be  raised  too 
high. 

Nightshade,  an  order  of  plants,  many  of  which 
are  familiar  and  some  useful,  as  common  or  black 
nightshade,  deadly  nightshade,  Irish  jxitato,  tomato, 
egg  plant,  jimson  weed,  tobacco,  red  or  Cayenne  pep- 
per, apple  of  Peru,  bittersweet,  henbane,  belladonna, 
ground  cherry,  horse  nettle,  matrimony  vine,  etc. 
Although  some  of  these  plants  are  remarkably  differ- 
ent from  others  in  the  list,  some  being  articles  of  food 
and  some  being  poisonous,  they  all  do  have  a  nature 
in  common.  They  are  placed  together  in  one  family 
by  botanists  on  account  of  similarity  in  the  structure 
of  their  seed  vessels.  The  plan  and  internal  appear- 
ance of  their  flowers  are  also  remarkably  alike.  The 
common  nightshade,  bearing  black  berries  the  size  of 
small  currants,  is  not  poisonous.  The  true,  medicinal 
bittersweet  of  this  order  is  not  the  climbing  ''  bitter- 
sweet," well  known  as  a  wild  vine  throughout  the 
country.  The  horse  nettle  is  also  called  ball  nettle, 
or  bull  nettle,  and  is  a  pestilent  weed. 

Night  Soil,  human  excrement.     A  most  valuable 

manure. 

Night  Sweats.  These  sweats  come  on  during 
sleep  and  are  the  result  of  general  debility  or  weak- 
ness, and  occur  mostly  with  consumptives.  To  relieve 
night  sweats,  dissolve  15  grains  sulphate  of  quinine  in 
}^  ounce  essence  of  tansy,  y^  ounce  alcohol,  ]/^  ounce 
water,  and  30  drops  muriatic  acid.  A  teasjjoouful 
to  be  taken  two  or  three  times  during  the  day  and  at 
bedtime.  In  connection  with  this  remedy,  cold  sage 
tea  is  recommended  to  be  used  freely  as  a  drink. 

Nippers,  the  four  teeth  in  the  front  part  of  a 
horse's  mouth,  two  in  the  upper  jaw  and  two  in  the 
under.  See  page  678.  The  name  nippers  is  also 
given  to  some  kind  of  pincers. 

Niter,  or  Saltpeter,  is  both  a  natural  and  an  arti- 
ficial product.  It  is  found  in  this  country  and  in  In- 
dia in  abundance,  and  is  manufactured  largely  in 
Euro[)e,  especially  Germany.  Medicinally,  niter  is 
considered  refrigerant,  diuretic  and  diaphoretic,  and  is 


990 


NITRA  TES—NO  TE. 


known  to  be  a  powerful  antiseptic.  It  has  long  been 
used  by  veterinarians  as  a  diuretic,  and  as  a  febrifuge 
in  low  fevers.  Cheaper  and  better  medicines  are 
daily  in  use  for  this  purjwse.  Niter  is  not  a  chea[) 
medicine,  nor  yet  is  it  an  indispensable  one.  The 
days  are  long  since  past  when  emetic  tartar,  niter 
and  digitalis  were  the  remedies  used  in  all  cases  of 
inflammation,  irritation  and  fever.  This  formula  has 
in  its  day  deceived  many  a  man,  and  has  been  the 
means  wliereby  many  thousands  of  valualile  animals 
have  been  lost.  Wherever  niter  is  indicated,  sulphite 
of  soda  will  answer.  A  bundle  of  fresh  cut  grass 
given  to  a  horse  will  have  a  better  and  more  soothing 
effect  than  niter. 

Poison  by  Niter.  This  sometimes  occurs.  In 
such  cases  the  symptoms  are,  heartburn,  nausea,  vio- 
lent vomiting,  purging,  convulsions,  difficult  breathing, 
violent  pain  in  the  bowels,  kidney  and  bladder,  with 
bloody  urine.  The  treatment  consists  in  the  speedy 
removal  of  the  poison  from  the  stomach,  and  the 
administration  of  gum  arable,  slippery  elm,  etc.,  in 
drinks.  Laudanum  to  allay  the  pain  and  irritation 
and  cordials  to  sustain  the  system.  No  antidote  is 
known. 

Nitrates,  the  salts  of  nitric  acid.  Some  of  them 
have  an  imjxirtant  connection  with  the  soil,  and  play 
an  imixjrtanl  part  with  the  chemistry  of  vegetation ;  and 
both  these  and  others,  as  well  as  nitric  acid  itself, 
possess  considerable  value  in  medicine  and  arts. 

Nitrogen,  or  Azote,  an  elementary  gaseous  body. 
When  pure  it  is  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas, 
neither  combustible  nor  capable  of  supjwrting  com- 
bustion or  respiration.  It  is  fatal  to  life  when  inhaled 
in  an  unmixed  state.  It  forms  about  79  per  cent,  of 
air. 

Nocturnal,  relating  to  the  night.  Many  birds  and 
insects  are  termed  nocturnal  because  they  prey  only 
at  night. 

Norman  Horses:  see  page  691. 

Noae,  the  organ  of  smell  and  one  of  the  pieces 
of  the  complicated  and  wonderful  mechanism  of 
respiration.  It  combines  the  two  offices  of  smelling 
and  inhaling  in  order  that  the  properties  of  the  air 
and  effluvia  of  bodies  may  at  all  times  be  even  invol- 
untarily brought  under  cognizance  ;  and  like  the  eye, 
the  ear,  the  mouth  and  every  other  complex  part  of 
the  animal  organization,  it  affords  countless  and 
glorious  indications  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of 
the  Creator. 

Carnivorous  animals  have  but  a  dull  sense  of  the 
smell  of  vegetable  bodies,  and  exhibit  a  lamellar 
structure  in  the  gauzily  osteons  cells  over  which  the 
substance  of  the  olfactory  nerves  is  spread;  while 
herbivorous  animals,  which  require  to  exercise  a  nice 
and  searching  discrimination  between  the  parts  of 
herbage  which  are  wliolesome  and  the  parts  which 
are  unwholesome,  have  a  very  keen  sense  of  the 
smell  of  vegetables,  and  exhibit  a  spiral  and  con- 
voluted  structure,  and   therefore   a  vastly  extended 


aggregate  surface  in  the  cells  or  supporting  framework 
of  the  outspread  olfactory  nerves. 

Bleeding  of  the  Nose.  This  is  often  a  trouble- 
some coini)laint  with  many  persons.  Males  are  more 
subject  to  it  tlian  females.  It  generally  occurs  in  per- 
sons prcdisixjsed  or  who  are  subject  to  it,  and  is 
brouglit  on  by  violent  exertion,  bending  the  body  with 
the  head  downward,  or  picking  the  nose.  It  often 
occurs  without  warning,  but  is  often  preceded  by 
•giddiness,  flushed  face  and  itching  in  the  nostrils.  It 
is  often  the  result  of  habitual  costiveness. 

Treatment.  Usually  cold  water  applied  to  the 
back  of  the  neck  and  face,  and  taken  up  the  nostrils, 
will  sto])  the  flow.  By  pressing  the  artery  tiiat  passes 
over  the  middle  of  the  lower  jaw-bone,  or  a  little  back, 
ujx)u  the  side  on  which  the  bleeding  occurs,  and  which 
is  indicated  by  a  slight  depression  in  the  lx)ne,  relief 
will  be  afforded.  This  slops  the  sui)ply  of  blood. 
Strong  salt  water  inhaled  through  the  nostrils  is  often 
beneficial.  If  the  bleeding  is  caused  by  costiveness, 
the  bowels  should  be  moved. 

Nose-bag,  a  bag  containing  grain  attached  to  the 
head  of  a  horse  in  such  manner  as  to  permit  him  to 
eat  its  contents.  It  also  means  a  bag  used  for  steam- 
ing horses  with  a  cold,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  48,  page 
754. 

Notary,  or  Notary  Public,  a  person  appointed  by 
the  governor  of  a  State  to  certify  oaths,  de;x)sitions, 
deeds,  notes,  marriages,  etc.  His  certificate  (or  at- 
testation and  seal),  affixed  to  a  document  renders  it 
authentic  as  evidence  in  the  courts,  but  does  not 
affect  the  correctness  or  incorrectness  of  the  document 
itself. 

Note,  of  hand,  or  promissory  note,  is  a  written  or 
printed  promise  to  pay  a  specified  sum  at  a  specified 
time  for  value  received,  and  may  be  with  or  without 
interest.  The  "face  of  a  note"  is  the  amount  specified. 
If  it  is  drawn  to  the  payee  or  order,  or  bearer,  it  is 
negotiable.  In  those  States  where  the  rate  of  interest 
is  not  fixed  by  law,  the  rate  should  be  specified,  but 
elsewhere  it  is  unnecessary  to  specify  the  rate.  If  the 
interest  is  to  be  paid  semi-annually  it  should  be  so 
stated.  The  words  "  value  received"  should  not  be 
omitted.  If  a  note  is  made  ])ayable  to  your  order,  and 
you  wish  to  retain  it,  withhold  the  endorsement  on 
the  back,  so  that  if  the  note  be  lost  or  stolen  you  will 
not  suffer  harm,  for  it  has  no  value  except  to  yourself 
until  you  endorse  it.  If  any  one  else  endorses  your 
name  ujxsn  it  it  is  a  forgery.  But  if  a  note  is  endorsed 
and  is  lost  or  stolen,  and  comes  into  the  hands  of  a 
third  person  for  a  valuable  consideration,  wlio  holds 
it  innocently  (that  is,  believes  the  jierson  from  whom 
he  received  it  was  the  rightful  owner),  it  is  no  longer 
yours,  in  law,  but  his.  If  you  part  with  a  note  i)av- 
able  to  your  order,  and  do  not  wish  to  guarantee  it, 
endorse  it  and  write  over  your  name  the  words,  "With- 
out recourse  to  me."  Without  those  words  over  your 
name,  you  would  be  holden  for  a  time,  and  by  a  timely 
protest  your  resixansibility  would  be  perpetuated. 


NURSERY. 


991 


Nursery,  a  field  or  farm  where  trees  or  plains  are 
propagated  and  cultivated  until  they  are  of  sufficient 
size  for  transplanting  where  they  are  to  jjermanently 
remain.  We  very  fully  treat  of  the  manner  of  pro- 
pagating all  kinds  of  trees  and  plants  under  their  re- 
spective heads;  and  as  the  nursc;ry  business  is  gener- 
ally carried  on  by  experts  or  professional  nurserymen 
and  not  by  farmers,  we  need  say  but  little  on  the 
subject  of  propagating  in  the  nursery.  We  treat  of 
the  care  and  management  of  trees  in  general  in  the 
article  Orchard.  It  will  scarcely  justify  the  farmer  to 
raise  his  own  nursery  stock,  since  he  can  purchase 
his  trees  and  plants  much  cheaper  than  he  can  grow 
the  seedlings  and  graft  or  bud  them.  The  same  may 
also  be  said  of  ornamental  trees.  When,  however, 
large  numbers  of  forest  trees,  or  where  groves  or 
wind-breaks  are  to  be  planted,  it  is  certainly  better 
that  the  trees  be  bought  when  quite  young  and  plant- 
ed in  nursery  rows  to  remain  there  until  of  sufficient 
size  to  permanently  transplant. 

Thus,  seedlmg  conifers  from  four  to  twelve  inches 
high,  and  deciduous  trees  one  or  two  years  old,  and 
nursery  stock  either  recent  grafts  or  of  one  year's 
growth,  may  be  ordered  and  planted  out,  the  ever- 
greens in  rows  two  feet  apart  and  pretty  thick  in  the 
rows.  As  they  begin  to  crowd  each  other  in  the  row, 
take  out  every  other  one  until  they  stand  two  by  two 
feet.  Then  take  out  every  other  row,  and  again 
every  other  plant  in  the  remaining  rows.  Those  left 
will  make  specimen  plants  for  various  ornamental 
purix)ses.  Deciduous  seedlings  should  be  planted 
four  feet  apart,  as  to  the  rows,  by  twelve  inches  in  the 
row,  thinning  out  as  may  be  necessary,  as  heretofore 
directed.  Eventually  they  may  stand  sixteen  by 
sixteen  feet,  and  these  may  be  allowed  to  grow  up  in- 
to a  grove,  or  the  wind-break  may  be  planted  thickly 
and  thinned  out  as  necessary,  leaving  enough  to 
stand  for  permanent  growth.  The  idea  in  all  this  is 
that  trees  and  plants  while  young  can  be  cultivated 
and  taken  care  of  more  economically  in  compact 
bodies  than  when  planted  out  at  the  distances  at  which 
they  are  finally  to  stand.  One  plant  will  also  sup- 
port and  act  as  a  nurse  to  another  if  not  too  much 
crowded.  The  pruning,  pinching,  and  training  is 
more  easily  performed,  and  they  may  stand  in  the 
home  nursery  much  longer  and  be  transplanted  far 
more  safely  than  direct  from  the  commercial  nursery 
rooms,  and  for  the  reason  that  they  will  not  have  to 
be  earned  long  distances.  Thus,  by  buying  quite 
young  stock  (maiden  trees)  they  may  stand  until 
quite  of  large  size,  four  or  five  years  for  apples  and 
pears,  three  to  four  years  for  plums  and  cherries,  and 
be  safely  transplanted  with  an  abundance  of  fil)rous 
roots,  especially  if  they  have  been  root-pruned  the 
June  previous  to  being  finally  transplanted.  This  is 
done  by  thrusting  a  sharp  spade  deeply  down  to  cut  the 
leading  roots  at  a  distance  of  eighteen  inches  to  two 
feet  from  the  stem  of  the  tree,  according  to  size. 
Thus,  they  will  be  found  the  succeeding  spring  to  be 
furnished  with  an  abundance  of  fibrous  roots.  It 
would  be  better  that  this  root-pruning  be  done  two 
6.1 


years  before  the  final  transplanting,  when  the  roots 
may  be  cut  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  from  the 
stems  of  the  trees.  Thus,  a  five  or  six  year  old  tree 
may  be  transplanted  and  with  ordinary  care  will 
scarcely  be  checked  in  growth. 

The  object  in  pruning  nursery  trees  should  be  to 
develop  them  in  every  part,  to  produce  a  stout, 
stocky,  sturdy  little  tree,  one  that  may  be  turned  out 
upon  the  bleak  prairie  and  be  able  to  withstand  the 
blasts.  To  produce  this  result,  the  leaves  should 
never  be  stripped  from  the  shoots  to  make  them  ex- 
tend their  growth,  for  the  sake  of  making  more  leaves; 
the  nurseryman  should  know  the  value  of  leaves, 
as  constituting  the  great  evaporating  surface  that 
plays  the  most  im[X)rtant  part  in  causing  the 
ascent  of  the  crude  sap,  and  also  in  its  elaboration 
after  it  has  been  taken  up  into  the  organization  of  the 
plant.  Leaves  should  be  carefully  preserved,  and  in 
the  trimming,  which  is  necessary,  this  should  be  borne 
in  mind.  To  make  vigorous,  stocky  trees,  the  side 
branches  should  be  encouraged  rather  than  pruned 
off.  The  tops  may  sometimes  need  to  be  pinched,  to 
force  out  the  laterals,  and  to  encourage  their  growth; 
if  two  shoots  start  together  as  rivals,  one  of  them 
should  be  topped  or  cut  back,  or  twisted  and  broken, 
but  not  cut  off  at  its  origin,  unless  there  be  plenty  of 
lateral  branches  or  twigs  to  furnish  the  tree.  When 
these  become  too  long,  they  may  be  spurred-in,  either 
in  the  fall  and  winter  when  cutting  grafts,  or  in  the 
summer,  during  the  growing  season.  Whenever  it 
becomes  necessary  to  trim  off  any  of  these  laterals,  it 
is  best  to  do  it  at  mid-summer,  as  the  healing  of  the 
wounds  made  at  this  period  is  very  rapid.  Heading 
off  the  nursery  trees  is  to  force  them  to  branch  uni- 
formly the  second  year,  to  form  their  heads  at  the 
right  place ;  this  is  to  be  done  toward  spring,  and  is 
applicable  especially  to  those  varieties  that  are  prone 
to  make  a  single  shoot  the  first  year  without  branch- 
ing, and  which  have  not  been  pinched  in  or  headed 
during  the  previous  summer  to  force  out  side  branch- 
es. Cherries,  plums,  and  pears,  and  some  apples,  are 
very  apt  to  make  this  kind  of  growth.  The  age  of 
trees  for  planting  depends  so  much  upon  the  views  of 
planters  that  the  nurseryman  can  not  always  control 
the  period  at  which  he  shall  clear  a  block  of  trees. 
Peaches  should  always  be  removed  at  one  year  from 
the  bud.  Plums  and  dwarf  pears  will  be  ready  to  go 
off  at  two  years  from  the  bud  or  graft;  so  with  apples 
and  cherries.  But  many  persons,  purchasers  and 
sellers,  prefer  larger  trees,  and  they  recommend  that 
the  trees  should  remain  one,  two,  or  even  three  years 
longer  in  the  nursery. 

Nursery  Agents  deserve  a  notice  in  this  connec- 
tion. In  pioneer  districts  this  class  of  vampires  drive 
a  lucrative  business,  as  every  settler  is  anxious  to  get 
an  orchard  and  has  been  too  busy  to  post  himself  on 
the  nursery  business,  and  he  is  too  easily  wrought 
ujxjn  by  wily  and  unprincipled  traveling  peddlers; 
but  in  course  of  time  these  farmers  have  some  expe- 
rience with  these  swindlers,  become  more  wealthy  and 
more  informed  about  the  wicked  ways  of  the  world 


992 


NUTMEG—NUX    VOMICA. 


generally,  and  therefore  proof  against  the  old-time 
frauds.  They  have  orchards,  too,  from  the  stock  of 
reliable  nurserymen  and  from  various  friends,  and 
therefore  are  not  in  haste  to  order  trees  by  or  through 
strangers.  They  can  afford  to  deliberate  and  adopt  a 
safe  course  in  the  renewal  of  their  stock.  Many  also 
become  independent,  being  able  to  do  their  own  plant- 
ing, grafting,  etc. 

In  view  of  the  shameless  abuses  of  the  itinerant 
agency  system,  many  nurserymen  employ  no  traveling 
canvassers  at  all,  and  so  advertise ;  while  a  few — as 
honest  men,  too,  as  the  other  class — proceed  on  the 
principle  of  making  special  efforts  to  find  trade,  and 
send  out  men  "on  the  road."  And,  of  course,  there 
are  some  nurserymen  who  are  not  as  reliable  as  they 
should  be. 

The  question  of  suppressing  the  irresix)nsible fruit- 
tree  agency  business  has  often  come  up  in  the  horticul- 
tural conventions,  but  up  to  the  latest  no  scheme  has 
been  settled  upon  except  jxypular  education  in  these 
matters.  No  education,  however,  can  supersede  the 
necessity  of  carrying  out  business  principles  in  busi- 
ness matters, — the  necessity  of  writing  down  with  ink 
every  detail  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  contract.  It 
is  best  to  deal  with  the  nearest  nurseryman  of  good 
reputation,  and  if  he  is  too  distant  for  personal  visits 
to  yourorchard,  contract  with  him  for  partial  payments. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  if  not  most  farmers  are 
careless  or  incompetent  in  the  proper  cultivation  of 
trees,  and  inculpate  the  faithful  nurseryman  for  fail- 
ures he  should  charge  to  himself.  It  is  really  best, 
therefore,  for  nurserymen  to  undertake  to  stock  only 
that  ainount  of  territory  around  them  which  they  can 
inspect  and  for  which  they  can  become  personally 
responsible:  then  both  parties  can  be  satisfied. 
Nurserymen,  therefore,  will  be  such  only  on  a  com- 
paratively small  scale. 

Nursery  agents  generally  resort  to  one  or  more  of 
the  following  expediencies:  Exhibition  of  highly 
colored  or  exaggerated  pictures  of  the  fruit  they 
pretend  to  introduce;  canned  fruit  of  jncked  speci- 
mens of  a  superior  kind,  represented  to  be  the  aver- 
age of  the  variety  he  pretends  to  introduce ;  charging 
double  price,  and  asking  only  half  cash  in  hand,  pre- 
tending to  have  the  endorsement  of  well  known  nurs- 
erymen and  horticulturists,  etc.,  etc.  If  every  farmer 
and  farmer's  wife  would  only  follow  the  simple  busi- 
ness rule,  not  to  take  a  stranger's  word  for  anything, 
but  have  every  condition  of  the  bargain  plainly  writ- 
ten down  and  signed,  risking  nothing,  no  fraud  could 
be  practiced  by  traveling  agents.  It  is  not  within  the 
constitutional  bounds  of  legislation  to  prohibit  busi- 
ness men  from  traveling  to  sell  their  stock:  and  so 
long  as  there  are  people  to  be  "gulled"  there  will  be 
unprincipled  persons  to  "gull"  them. 

Nutmeg.  The  nutmeg  is  the  seed  of  the  Myris- 
tica  moschata.  There  are  two  kinds  of  nutmeg, 
distinguished  as  the  male  and  female,  the  former  large 
and  oblong,  the  latter  soft  and  round.  The  females 
have  the  most  aroma  and  fragrancy,  the  males  are 
spo'.igy.     The  nutmeg  itself  is  enclosed  in  a  hard 


shell.  Mace  is  the  soft  fleshy  coat  which  envelopes  it. 
It  is  inferior  to  and  cheaper  than  the  nutmeg,  in  the 
place  of  which  it  is  often  used.  By  pressure  nutmegs 
yield  a  fatty  oil  used  in  medicine.  Nutmegs  yield  by 
distillation  a  very  fine  essential  oil,  which  is  very 
grateful,  and  jwssesses  the  flavor  of  the  spice  in  per- 
fection, two  drops  being  nearly  equal  to  a  ix)und  of 
the  powder. 

Nutmeg  Melon :  see  Muskmelon. 

Nuts,  botanically,  the  fruit  of  a  tree  or  shrub,  con- 
sisting of  a  hard  shell  enclosing  the  germ  and  its 
envelopes  called  the  kernel.  Thus,  hickories,  wal- 
nuts and  oaks  bear  nuts.  The  seeds  of  the  cherry, 
peach,  etc.,  are  termed  pits  or  stones,  and  those  of  the 
apple,  orange,  etc.,  are  pips.  Thus,  nuts  are  kernels 
contained  directly  in  a  more  or  less  hard  shell ;  pits 
(or  drupes)  are  nuts  enveloj^ed  in  a  pulpy  pericarp  or 
fleshy  covering;  pip  fruits  are  those  fleshy  fruits  con- 
tainuig  the  seeds  directly  in  the  pulp,  or  else  in  scaly 
compartments  in  the  middle  of  the  fruit. 

Nux  Vomica,  SxRVCHNrA,  an  alkaline  principle 
from  the  seeds  of  an  East  India  tree;  solid,  crystal- 
lized, inodorous,  bitter  and  excessively  poisonous.  It 
is  a  very  popular  remedy  among  many  physicians  as 
a  nerve  stimulant  and  tonic,  generally  being  given  in 
from  a  fraction  of  a  drop  to  five  drops  of  a  tincture. 
A  few  drops  (from  three  to  six)  are  put  in  a  tumbler 
of  water,  and  a  teas[xx)nful  of  the  solution  given 
every  hour  or  so. 

Nux  vomica  is  a  valuable  agent  in  the  cure  of  dis- 
eases in  all  animals.  The  jxiwdered  nut  is  uncertain 
in  its  effects ;  therefore  only  the  tincture  and  alkaloid 
should  be  used.  It  is  used  when  the  nerves  are 
weak,  just  as  aconite  is  used  when  the  nerves  are 
strong  and  excited.  The  one  medicine  is  used  in 
depression  and  the  other  in  diseases  of  exalted  symp- 
toms. Paralysis  or  palsy  is  the  loss  of  power  in  the 
motive  nerves  of  the  part  affected.  Therefore,  nux 
vomica  is  used  in  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  all  ani- 
mals, and  in  glass-eye  in  the  horse,  depending  up)on 
the  want  of  nervous  energy  in  the  optic,  or  nerve  of 
vision.  For  horses  and  cattle,  the  dose  is  from  lo 
to  20  drops  of  the  tincture,  repeated  three  or.  four 
times  a  day. 

Strychnine,  Dose.  To  horses  and  cattle,  give 
one  grain,  once  a  day,  gradually  increasing  the  dose 
until  three  grains  are  given  in  the  day.  To  get  the 
full  benefit  from  it  it  will  have  to  be  given  for  a  week 
or  two,  if  the  animal  has  not  got  well  by  that  time. 

In  the  use  of  strychnine,  care  and  good  judj-uient 
must  be  exercised,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
however  useful  a  drug  or  medicine  may  be,  its  abuse 
is  readily  accomplished.  Strj'chnine  should  be  admin- 
istered in  feed,  if  the  animal  will  eat  it;  if  not,  give 
it  in  gruel  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  Twelve  grains  is 
the  dose  required  to  kill  a  full-grown  horse. 

Poison  by  Nux  Vomica.  Evacuate  the  stomach 
with  stomach  pumps  or  emetics  and  give  bromine 
chlorine,  iodine,  prussic  acid,  prussiate  of  potassa  or 
chloroform.     See  Poisons. 


o. 


AK.  There  are  22  species,  with  an  indefinite 
number  of  varieties  by  hybridizing  of  this 
i^  magnificent  tree,  such  as  Black  oak,  White 
'^  oak,  Chestnut  oak.  Pin  oak,  Willow  oak,  Red 
oak,  Scarlet  oak,  Spanish  oak.  Post  oak,  etc., 
etc.  These  all  differ,  not  only  in  the  formation 
of  their  leaves  and  fruit,  but  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  their  manner  of  growth,  and  the 
wood  of  each  possesses  its  own  peculiar   properties. 

Some  of  the  varie- 
ties are  quite  small, 
growing  only  tothe 
height  of  two  or 
three  feet,  but  by 
far  the  largest 
number  are  lofty 
trees  with  wide- 
spread branches. 

Some  species  of 
oak  retain  their 
foliage  during  the 
winter,  as  the  Live 
oak.  This  tree  in- 
habits the  Southern 
Via.  i.-stag Btttu.  (Lucanus  Dama.)  States,  wlierc  it  Oc- 
casionally grows  to  a  considerable  size.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  most  valuable  wood  known  for  ship-building, 
on  account  of  its  great  durability.  In  South  Carolina 
the  Live  oaks  are  often  hung  with  the  graceful  fes- 
toons of  a  beautiful  moss,  which  dangles  from  their 
branches  in  pendant  masses  of  several  yards  in 
length.  Of  all  the  varieties  of  the  oak,  the  black 
and  white  are  with  us  the  most  abundant  and  most  use- 
ful. These  oaks  often  attain  a  great  size,  and  live  to  a 
very  advanced  age. 
A  timber  or  piece  of 
black  oak  will  rot 
upon  the  inside  first 
while  the  exterior 
may  be  hard  and 
sound.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  white 
oak  always  com- 
mences decay  first  Fig. 
upon  the  outside,  re- 
maining sound  upon  the  inside.  It  will  last  ten  to 
twenty  times  as  long  as  the  black  oak  in  places  of  ex- 
^sure,  and  is  used  for  a  greater  variety  of  puriwses 
than  .any  other  wood. 

Oak  Insects.     The  oaks  are  subject  to  the  attacks 

63 


2, — Parellel  Lon^httrn. 
paralleliim.) 


(Elaphidion 


of  various  insects,  including  the  leaves,  the  inner 
bark  and  young  wood;  and  they  also  bore  into  the  solid 
wood.  They  are  described  in  the  insect  article  on 
pages  850,  854  and  863. 

Oak  Bark. 
This  is  a  good 
astring e n  t  in 
veterinary  prac- 
tice for  outward 
use  or  for  sores 
which  d  i  s- 
charge  or  run 
matter.  The 
bark  is  boiled: 
half  an  ounce 
is  an  excellent 


Fig.  3. — Oak  Tree  Curculio, 


to  a  pint  of  water.  This  decoction 
remedy  for  drying  up  the  moisture  of  greasy  heels,  so 
troublesome  in  horses.  In  diarrhoea  in  calves,  given 
in  four-drachm  doses,  much  good  will  result. 

Oak  Apple,  spongy  excrescences  found  on  oak 
trees ;  when  hard  they  are  called  gall-nuts.  These 
are  fully  treated  under  head  of  Gall-fly. 

Oatmeal  at  the  present  day  seems  to  comprise 
every  grade  of  prei^ared  oats,  from  coarse-cut  grains 
to  the  finest  flour,  both  cooked  and  uncooked.  The 
uncooked  groats  require  slow  boiling  for  several 
hours,  while  the  steam-cooked  and  crushed  recjuire 
scarcely  anything  more  than  l)ot  water  poured  upon 
them  to  prepare  them  for  eating.  See  Bread,  Mush 
and  Pudding.  OatmeaWn  all  its  forms  is  popular  in 
some  countries  as  an  ingre<tent  of  a  beverage.  Either 
raw  or  cooked,  a  spoonful  of  it  is  put  into  a  glass  of 
cold  water,  which  may  be  drank  almost  immediately. 
This  is  both  a  demulcent  (mucilaginous)  and  a  nutri- 
tious drink,  and  is  a  favorite  among  the  laboring 
classes  of  England  and  Scotland. 

The  so-called  "oatmeal  "  crackers  of  the  groceries 
in  this  country  may  be  made  of  almost  any  kind  of 
flour.  A  few  groats  are  mixed  in  with  the  dough, 
apparently  with  the  foolish  purpose  of  making  the 
uninitiated  believe  the  crackers  are  made  out  of  gen- 
uine oatmeal.  These  crackers  are  probably  as  good 
as  common  crackers,  but  the  consumer  soon  cloys 
upon  them. 

The  use  of  oatmeal  in  the  United  States  has  be- 
come ix)pular  within  a  few  years.  Fifteen  years  ago 
nearly  all  that  we  used  came  from  Canada,  where 
they  raise  a  superior  grade  of  oats  for  the  purpose  of 


994 


OA  TS— OIL-CLOTHS. 


manufacture  into  table  food ;  then  Mr.  Schumacher, 
at  Akron,  O.,  began  to  make  it  popular,  and  lately 
there  have  been  established  factories  in  nearly  every 
State  in  the  Union,  which,  as  before  intimated,  man- 
ufacture every  grade  of  "  oatmeal,"  both  cooked  and 
uncooked,  from  groats  to  fine  flour. 

Oatmeal  should  always  be  used  as  fresh  as  possible, 
as  by  standing  it  soon  becomes  bitter. 

Oats,  a  member  of  the  order  of  grasses,  probably 
ranking  next  to  Indian  corn  in  im|X)rtance  as  a 
cereal  product  in  the  United  States.  It  is  extensively 
used  as  feed  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  is  rapidly  be- 
coming a  favorite  food  for  man.  It  is  much  easier 
of  culture  than  wheat,  and  can  be  grown  on  soil  that 
would  scarcely  produce  a  good  crop  of  any  other 
grain.  Exactly  where  the  oat  came  from  is  not  known, 
probably,  however,  from  central  Asia.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  perhaps  de- 
rived their  knowledge  of  it  from  the  Celts,  Germans 
and  other  natives  of  Northern  Europe. 

Cultivation.  Oats  are  cultivated  through  a  wide 
range  of  latitude,  and  on  a  greater  variety  of  soil  than 
any  other  grain.  The  average  yield  on  good  soils  is 
30  to  40  bushels  per  acre,  and  on  the  richest,  when 
well  cultivated,  it  has  exceeded  70  bushels.  It  is 
exposed  to  fewer  injuries  than  other  grain,  being 
seldom  affected  by  rust,  smut  or  insects.  The  wire- 
worm  is  most  destructive  to  it,  especially  when  sown 
on  fresh  sod.  The  most  effectual  mode  of  extirpating 
these  and  other  troublesome  insects,  is  to  turn  the 
sod  over  late  in  the  fall,  so  that  they  may  be  frozen 
to  death.  Deep  plowing  in  the  spring  may  cover 
them  up  so  thoroughly  that  not  many  of  them  will 
find  their  way  to  the  surface  in  time  to  dq  much 
injury. 

Oats  will  thrive  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil  that  is 
not  very  wet.  Standing  water  is  death  to  the  plant. 
They  follow  corn  or  potatoes  very  well.  No  green 
barnyard  manure  should  be  applied  to  the  land,  but 
fertilizers  will  not  injure  the  crop.  Well-rotted  com- 
post may  be  harrowed  in  with  profit.  On  many  soils 
two  or  three  bushels  of  salt  per  acre  may  be  used. 
When  sown  on  sod  it  shoi^l^never  be  omitted. 

Sow  early,  and  at  the  Ate  of  two  to  four  bushels 
per  acre.  I'hey  may  occupy  a  turf,  or  follow  any  of 
the  well-manured  hoed  crops.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
steep  for  smut  as  for  wheat,  unless  the  grain  were 
hulled.  Harrow  and  roll  well  and  the  work  of  culti- 
vation is  done. 

Oats  frequently  ripen  unevenly,  and  if  a  large 
pro)X)rtion  is  backward,  the  proper  time  for  cutting 
will  he  as  soon  as  the  grain  in  the  latest  may  be  rub- 
bed -out  of  the  straw  by  hand.  Oats  are  sufficiently 
ripe  for  harvesting  after  they  have  passed  into  the 
milk  state  and  are  easily  compressed  between  the 
thumb  and  finger.  The  lower  part  of  the  stalk  will 
then  be  yellowish,  having  ceased  to  draw  nutriment 
from  the  soil.  Oats  may  be  stacked  01  stowed  away 
in  the  barn  like  wheat. 

Varieties.  The  Common  White  is  the  most  cul- 
tivated in  the  United  States,  being  hardy  and  a  good 


bearer,  weigliing  32  to  35  pounds  ber  bushel.  In 
some  places  the  Black  oats  are  preferable.  The 
Somerset,  the  Bohemian,  the  .Houghton,  the  White 
Schonen,  the  Early  Yellow  and  the  Canada  and 
other  kinds  have  local  success,  and  many  have  been 
tried  in  this  country  with  very  little  success.  The 
jxjpular  kinds  in  the  Old  World  are,  besides  the 
White  and  the  Black,  the  Red,  the  Poland,  the  Black 
Poland,  the  Friesland  or  Dutch,  the  Potato,  the 
Georgian,  the  Siberian,  Tartarian  or  Horse-mane,  the 
Winter,  the  Hopetown,  the  Dyock  and  the  Skinless. 

Off.  The  "off "  animal  in  a  team  is' the  one  on 
the  right  side:  see  Near. 

Oil.  This  substance  in  its  purest  state  consists  of 
carbon,  hydrogen  and  a  small  proportion  of  oxygen, 
and  its  distinctive  characteristics  are,  that  it  is  greasy 
and  insoluble  in  water,  not  uniting  with  it  by  itself. 
Oils  are  divided  into  two  great  classes,  expressed  or 
fixed  oils  and  volatile  or  essential  oils.  The  former 
is  so-called  because  they  do  not  boil  or  become 
volatilized,  and  do  not  inflame  until  they  are  heated 
to  600''.  When  nearly  to  this  point  they  give  out  a 
vaix)r  which  is  very  inflammable;  in  fact,  the  oil  dots 
not  ignite  until  it  is  brought  into  a  state  of  vaix)r. 
On  this  account  wicks  are  necessary  to  enable  the  oil 
in  lamps  to  burn.  Through  them  a  small  quantity  is 
ex[X)sed  to  a  high  temperature,  when  it  ignites.  The 
volatile  or  essential  oils  are  treated  in  the  article 
Essential  Oil. 

Fluid  oils  are  obtained  both  from  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  When  obtained  from  the 
animal  in  the  solid  state  they  are  called  fat  and 
tallow.  Fish  oil  is  generally  fluid.  Fixed  vegetable 
oil  occurs  in  plants,  associated  with  mucilage,  some- 
times in  the  fruits,  as  in  nuts;  occasionally  in  the 
pulp  surrounding  the  seeds,  as  in  the  olive;  but  most 
frequently  in  the  seed  themselves,  as  linseed,  rape- 
seed,  etc.  The  degree  of  cold  at  which  oils  congeal 
or  become    solid  varies  extremely. 

Oil-cakes,  the  remains  of  seeds  after  the  oil  has 
been  expressed.  Especially  does  this  refer  to  the 
remains  of  linseed  after  the  oil  has  been  pressed  out. 
Several  of  the  oil  cakes  are  remarkably  rich  and 
nutritive,  and  are  used  for  fattening  cattle.  Hemp, 
rape,  mustard  and  other  cakes  make  excellent  manure. 

Oil-cloths.  In  buying  an  oil-cloth  for  a  floor  en- 
deavor to  obtain  one  that  was  manufactured  several 
years  before,  as  the  longer  it  has  been  made  previous 
to  use,  the  better  it  will  wear,  the  paint  having  be- 
come hard  and  durable.  An  oil-cloth  which  has 
been  made  within  the  year  is  scarcely  worth  the  buy- 
ing, as  the  paint  will  be  defaced  in  a  very  little  time, 
it  requiring  a  long  while  to  season.  An  oil-cloth 
should  never  be  scrubbed  with  a  brush,  but  after 
being  first  swept,  it  should  be  cleaned  by  washing 
with  a  large,  soft  cloth  and  lukewarm  or  cold  water. 
On  no  account  use  soap,  or  take  water  that  is  hot,  as 
either  of  these  will  certainly  bring  off"  the  paint. 
When  it  has  dried  you  may  sponge  it  over  with  milk, 


OINTMENT— OLEOMARGARINE. 


995 


which  will  brighten  and  preserve  the  color,  and  then 
wipe  it  with  a  dry,  soft  cloth. 

Ointment  is  a  composition  of  animal  fat  or  fixed 
oil  with  other  substances,  for  external  uses  ;  it  differs 
from  liniment  and  salves  in  consistence  only,  being 
thicker  than  the  latter  and  thinner  than  the  former. 
When  it  contains  a  large  projxjrtion  of  wax,  and  of  a 
consistence  between  that  of  ointment  and  plaster,  it 
is  called  cerate.  Ointments  are  not  only  used  to  de- 
fend wounds  from  the  action  of  the  cold  air,  but  also 
to  assuage  pain  and  inflammation,  to  produce  a 
healthy  discharge  from  ulcers,  and  often  as  an  exter- 
nal dressing,  to  retain  on  the  part  such  other  applica- 
tions as  may  be  necessary  to  destroy  fungus,  etc. 

We  give  several  recipes  for  making  many  of  the 
best  ointments  known.  In  preparing  ointment 
observe  the  following:  Their  solidity  should  not  ex- 
ceed that  oT  good  butter  at  ordinary  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere.  When  the  active  ingredients  are 
powdered  substances,  nothing  can  be  more  suitable 
to  form  the  mass  of  the  ointment  than  good  lard,  free 
from  salt;  but  when  they  are  fluid,  prepared  suet,  or 
a  mixture  of  suet  and  lard,  will  be  necessary  to  give  a 
proper  consistency  to  the  compound.  In  some  few 
instances  wax  is  required  for  this  purpose. 

Ointment  for  Old  Sores.  Red  precipitate,  Y^ 
ounce;  sugar  of  lead,  J^  ounce;  burnt  alum,  i  ounce; 
white  vitriol,  J^  ounce  or  a  little  less;  all  to  be  very 
finely  pulverized;  have  mutton  tallow  made  warm, 
y^  pound;  stir  all  in,  and  stir  until  cool. 

Neuralgia  Ointment.  Take  2  drachms  each  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  chloroform,  and  make  into 
a  salve  with  r  ounce  lard,  for  external  application. 

Belladonna  Anodyne  Ointment.  Mix  3  drachms 
fresh  and  good  extract  of  belladonna,  Y^  drachm 
powdered  opium  and  3  drachms  lard.  For  neuralgia, 
etc.,  apply  with  friction  for  6  lo  8  minutes. 

Oint.ment  for  Piles.  Triturate  8  grains  of  mor- 
phia in  I  ounce  melted  spermaceti  ointment,  until  the 
morphia  is  dissolved;  then  add  i  J^  drachms  of  galls 
in  impalpable  powder,  12  to  15  drops  essential  oil  of 
almonds,  and  stir  until  the  mass  is  cool. 

Itch  Ointment.  Washed  sulphur,  ij^  ounces; 
chloride  of  lime,  2  drachms;  hog's  lard,  4  ounces. 
Mix  and  make  into  an  ointment. 

Foot-rot  Ointment.  Lard  and  Venice  turpentine, 
4  ounces  of  each ;  melt  and  add  i  ounce  blue  vitriol. 
Good  for  cows  or  sheep. 

Cracked-Hoof  Ointment.  Tar  and  tallow,  equal 
parts,  melted  together. 

Egyptian  Ointment.  A  detergent  application  for 
foul  ulcers,  etc.  Mix  by  heat  and  agitation,  10  parts 
verdigris,  i  part  calcined  alum,  14  ])arts  strong  vine- 
gar, and  32  parts  thick  puriSed  honey. 

Tar  Ointment.  Tar  and  mutton  suet,  equal 
parts;  melt  together  and  stir  till  cold.  This  is  an 
excellent  remedy  for  scald-head  and  ringworm. 

Magnetic  Ointment.  Lard,  raisins  cut  in  pieces 
and  fine-cut  tobacco,  equal  weights;  simmer  well 
together,  then  strain  and  press  out  all  from  the  dregs. 
This  is  an   excellent  ointment  for  salt-rheum  and 


other  skin  diseases.     It  is  also  good  for  piles,  bruises 
and  cuts. 

Okra,  or  Gumbo.  A  plant  of  the  mallows  fam- 
ily, the  young  jx)ds  of  which  are  used  in  soups.  For 
the  extreme  North  sow  in  hot-bed,  and  transplant  to 
rich  mellow  soil,  one  foot  apart,  thinning  to  two  feet 
apart  in  the  row,  the  larger  kinds  to  three  feet  apart. 
The  varieties  are.  Early  Dwarf:  white,  small  and 
round;  jx)ds  smooth  ;  most  desirable ;  and  the  Long 
Green,  —  pods  long  and  green,  later  and  more 
productive. 

Okra  Gumbo  is  made  by  taking  two  quarts  of 
ripe  tomatoes  and  one  quart  of  okra  cut  in  rings; 
put  them  over  the  fire  with  about  three  quarts  of  wa- 
ter and  let  the  mixture  come  to  a  boil ;  take  one 
chicken ;  cut  it  up  and  fry  brown,  with  plenty  of 
gravy  ;  put  it  in  with  the  okra  and  tomatoes ;  add 
several  small  onions  chopped  fine;  salt  and  pepper 
to  taste;  a  little  corn  and  Lima  beans  are  an  im- 
provement, if  you  have  them.  Let  all  simmer  gently 
for  several  hours.  To  be  served  with  a  tablespoonful 
of  boiled  rice  and  green  garden  pepper  cut  fine  to 
each  soup  plate. 

Oleomargarine  (o-le-o-mar'ga-rin),  a  preparation 
made  from  tallow,  which,  with  cocoanut,oHve  and  palm 
oil  and  salt,  as  flavoring,  and  annatto  as  coloring,  is 
used  for  butter,  and  for  adulterating  butter  and 
cheese.  This  is  quite  extensively  sold  in  cities  for 
butter.  In  many  of  them,  however,  laws  are  enacted 
prohibiting  its  sale  under  any  other  than  its  real 
name.     (See  page  164). 

To  Detect  Oleomargarine.  Prof.  Thomas  Tay- 
lor, microscopist  to  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  gives  the  following  practical  tests  for  de- 
tecting oleomargarine : 

"As  a  result  of  some  recent  chemical  experiments 
I  have  discovered  a  very  valuable  and  economical 
test,  which  may  be  easily  employed  by  dealers  and 
housekeepers  in  the  detection  of  oleomargarine.  The 
test  is  a  very  simple  one,  and  consists  in  combining  a 
small  iwrtion  of  the  sample  to  be  tested  with  the  acid 
in  the  proportion  of  one  grain  of  the  substance  to 
two  drops  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  the  color  which  the 
mixture  assumes  determining  its  character. 

"  When  pure  butter  is  combined  with  the  sulphuric 
acid  in  the  above  proportions  it  changes  immediately 
to  an  opaque  whidsh  yellow.  Within  five  minutes  a 
change  in  color,  beginning  at  the  edge,  takes  place, 
and  it  becomes  a  very  pale  shade  of  scariet.  In  thirty 
minutes  the  color  deepens  percepdbly.  Fresh  oleo- 
margarine, made  from  beef  fat,  when  treated  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  becomes  at  first  a  transparent  amber 
color.  In  the  course  of  about  twenty  minutes  the 
color  changes  to  a  deep  crimson. 

"When  beef  oleomargarine  is  stale  or  decomposing 
it  turns  under  the  acid  treatment  quickly  to  a  deep 
transparent  amber,  and  changes  in  less  than  twenty 
minutes  to  a  dark  opaque  brown. 

"  Fresh  oleomargarine  with  a  lard  basis,  when  first 
treated,  changes  quickly  to  a  transparent  amber,  per- 


996 


OLIVE— ONION. 


haps  a  shade  paler  than  in  the  case  of  the  stale'  beef 
oleomargarine.  The  color  changes  in  the  course  of 
half  an  hour  to  deep  brown. 

"  Fresh  oleomargarine  having  a  vegetable  basis, 
such  as  peanut  or  cocoa  fat,  on  the  application  of  the 
acid  changes  in  color  to  a  very  pale,  transparent  am- 
ber, and  in  about  thirty  minutes  changes  to  pale  pink 
tinges  with  violet. 

In  cases  where  butter  is  mixed  with  oleomargarine 
in  quantity  the  tint  will  change  corresponding  to  the 
proportions. 

"  With  a  little  experiment  any  one  may  quickly  be- 
come an  expert  in  distinguishing  butler  from  the  ole- 
omargarines by  the  process  described  above. 

"As  sulphuric  acid  corrodes  most  animal  and  vege- 
table substances,  acting  quickly  and  destructively,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  it  with  care.  It  should  be  kept 
in  a  small  vial  with  a  glass  stopper.  When  experi- 
menting with  it  a  small,  solid  glass  rod  should  always 
be  used  for  mixing  purposes  and  other  manipulation. 
No  metallic  or  wooden  implements  should  be 
employed." 

Olive.  The  olive  tree  is  interesting  from  historical 
recollections.  It  was  the  leaf  of  this  tree,  brought  in- 
to the  ark  by  the  dove,  that  gave  the  first  evidence  of 
the  waters  of  the  deluge  having  abated,  since  which 
time  it  has  been  employed  as  an  emblem  of  peace. 
The  olive  (Oka  Europma)  is  extensively  cultivated  in 
Southern  Europe  for  the  oil  obtained  from  its  fruit. 
It  has  also  been  successfully  cultivated  on  the  coasts 
of  Alabama,  Florida,  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  but 
to  no  great  extent.  It  is  a  low  branchy,  evergreen 
tree,  from  20  to  30  feet  high,  with  stiff,  narrow, 
bluish-green  leaves.  It  is  extremely  hardy  and  will 
grow  in  soil  scarcely  fit  for  any  other  production,  if 
only  dry.  The  fruit  is  smooth  and  oval,  about  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  being  about  the  size 
of  a  small  plum.  When  ripe  it  is  of  a  deep  violet 
color.  It  is  rather  bitter,  but  has  a  pulp  replete  with 
a  bland  oil.  Olives  are  chiefly  cultivated  for  the 
oil  which  they  produce,  and  which,  in  the  countries 
where  they  grow,  form  a  necessary  article  in  the 
•culinary  art  as  butter  with  us.  It  is  quite  extensive- 
ly used  by  many  in  this  country  as  a  salad  oil.  The 
fruit  is  also  pickled. 

Omelet,  a  kind  of  pancake  or  fritter,  made  chiefly 
of  eggs.  We  add  some  excellent  recipes  for  making 
omelet  of  various  styles. 

Simple  Omelet.  Take  four  eggs  and  beat  as  light 
as  [X)ssible.  For  every  egg  add  a  tablespoonful  of 
milk.  Put  a  piece  of  butter  in  the  omelet  pan,  and 
when  hot  jx)ur  in  the  mixture.  With  a  fork  scrape 
the  egg  very  lightly  toward  the  center  of  the  pan  as  it 
cooks,  and  when  done  fold  it  together  with  a  pan- 
cake turner. 

Green-Corn  Omelet.  Take  twelve  ears  of  green 
■corn;  five  eggs;  salt  and  pepper  to  suit  the  taste; 
split  the  middle  of  each  row  of  corn,  and  then  scrape 
from  the  cobs. 

Oyster  Omelet.     Cook  15  oysters  rare  done  in   a 


little  saucepan,  with  a  spoonful  of  milk,  scrap  of 
butter,  and  thickening  to  make  white  sauce  of  the 
liquor.  Break  4  eggs  in  a  bowl,  put  in  a  sjwonful  of 
milk  and  beat.  Add  a  pinch  of  salt.  Shake  a  table- 
sjx)onful  of  melted  lard  about  in  the  large  omelet  fry- 
ing-pan, and  before  it  gets  very  hot  pour  in  the  omelet 
and  let  it  cook  rather  slowly.  Loosen  the  edges  with 
a  knife  when  it  is  nearly  cooked  enough  to  shake. 
When  the  omelet  is  nearly  done  in  the  center  place 
the  oysters  with  a  spoon  in  the  hollow  middle  and 
pull  over  the  further  edge  to  cover  them  in.  Slide 
on  the  dish,  smooth  side  up.  Garnish  with  parsley 
and  lemon. 

Egg  and  Oyster  Omelet.  Beat  up  four  eggs, 
and  season  to  suit ;  chop  up  six  large  oysters,  make  a 
batter  of  half  a  cup  of  flour  and  half  a  pint  of  milk; 
mix  the  whole  together,  stir  well,  and  fry  slowly, 
adding  by  the  teaspoonful.  ■ 

Omnivorous,  eating  both  animal  and  vegetable 
food.  Most  birds  are  omnivorous,  are  as  also  the 
swine,  bear,  etc. 

Onion.  The  onion  was  cultivated  in  very  remote 
times,  having  been  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
who  worshiped  it  under  some  mystic  significance 
2,000  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Herodotus  tells  us 
that  in  his  time  there  was  an  inscription  on  the  great 
pyramid  stating  that  a  sum  amounting  to  1,600 
talents  had  been  expended  for  this  vegetable 
consumed  by  the  workmen  during  the  process 
of  its  erection.  The  onion  was  a  favorite  vege- 
table with  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
has  been  cultivated  all  over  the  world.  It  is  very 
nutritive,  and  is  much  more  succulent  and  of  a  milder 
flavor  in  southern  countries  than  in  northern  cli- 
mates, Onions  are  wholesome  employed  in  anyway. 
When  young  they  are  eaten  as  a  salad.  They  are 
also  eaten  raw,  being  served  with  salt,  pepper  and 
vinegar;  they  are  boiled,  roasted  and  pickled,  and 
also  served  in  many  ways  in  combination  with  other 
food.  Indeed,  the  onion  forms  one  of  the  essential 
productions  of  the  kitchen  garden,  but  the  odor  which 
they  give  the  breath  is  a  great  objection  to  their  use. 
By  chewing  a  little  parsley  this  may  be  removed. 

Cultivation. 
More  than  all  other 
garden  vegetables  on- 
ions have  to  be  plant- 
ed early  in  the  spring, 
for  very  few  varieties 
will  germinate  and 
grow  in  hot  weather. 
Select  ground  which  is 
mellow  and  enriched 
with  old  manure;  old 
onion  ground  is  bet- 
ter, be  it  ever  so  old. 
Plow  it  four  or  five 
Fu;.  i.—siivtr  Skin.  inchcs  deep,  roll  and 

harrow  when  dry,  mark  off"  in  drills  about  14  inches 
apart  and  sow  the  seed,  covering  them  very  shallow. 


OPIUM. 


997 


2. — Dtin-o 


When  up  thin  to  three  or  to  six  inches  apart,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the 
varieties  sown ;  keep 
perfectly  free  from 
weeds  b  y  frequent 
hoeing.  Onion  sets, 
raised  on  the  toj)s,  do 
not  iiave  to  be  planted 
any  thicker  than  they 
are  allowed  finally  to 
stand,  as  they  are 
very  hardy  and  not 
subject  to  disease  or 
insects.  When  ma- 
ture, pull  them  up  in 
,crs  i.itow  Onion.  ^^  weather,  allow 
them  to  become  perfectly  dry,  and  then  store  them 
away  in  a  cool  place. 

Varieties.      Large    Red    Wethersfield.     An    old 
standard;     pleasant-flavored,    grows    very    large,   is 
hardy,  very  productive  and  keeps  well. 
Extra  Early  Red.     One  of  the  best. 
Early  Flat  Red.     A  very  quick  grower,  and  one  of 
the  best  for  the  North. 

Itarly  Red  Globe.  One  of  the  earliest,  most  pro- 
ductive and  handsome  of  all  the  red  sorts. 

Large  Yellmu  Strasburgh.     Late  standard  variety. 
Danvers  Yellmv.     Large,  round,  earlier  than  Large 
Yellow,  very   profitable;     i,ioo   bushels   have   been 
raised  from  one  acre. 

Early  Cracker.  A  decided  improvement  on  Large 
Yellow,  being  much  earlier;  the  kind  for  a  short 
season. 

Large  Flat  White  Italian.  A  mild-flavored,  large 
onion  grown  from  sets. 

Nasebys  Mammoth.     Another  Italian  variety. 
Marzajole    or    New    Neapolitan.      A    silver-skin 
variety;  white. 

Southport  White  Globe  and  Red  Globe  are  remark- 
ably handsome  and  productive,  but  should  not  be 
raised  north  of  latitute  41'. 

New  Queen.  A  new  English  white  onion;  earliest 
of  all. 

Potato  Onion.  Propagated  by  the  bulbs. 
To  Cook  Onions.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  boil  onions 
in  milk  and  water;  it  diminishes  the  strong  taste  of 
that  vegetable.  It  is  an  excellent  way  of  serving  up 
onions,  to  cho])  them  after  they  are  boiled,  and  put 
them  in  a  stewpan,  with  a  little  milk,  butter,  salt,  and 
pepper,  and  let  them  stew  about  fifteen  minutes. 
This  gives  them  a  fine  flavor. 

Baked  Onions,  Boil  in  milk  and  water  until  just 
done,  then  drain  and  place  the  onions  in  a  buttered 
baking-pan.  Put  a  bit  of  butter  and  some  pepper 
and  salt  over  each  one,  and  add  a  little  of  the  water 
in  which  they  were  boiled.  Brown  them  quickly  on 
the  grating  of  the  oven  and  serve  hot. 

EscALLOPED  Onions.  Take  eight  or  ten  onions  of 
good  size,  slice  them  and  boil  till  tender.  Lay  them 
in  a  baking-dish,  ])utting  bread  crumbs,  butter  in 
small  bits,  pepper  and  salt  between  each  layer,  until 


the  dish  is  full,  putting  bread  crumbs  last;  add  milk 
or  cream  until  full.  Bake  20  minutes  or  half  an  hour. 
Onions  and  Green  Tomatoes.  Slice  as  many 
green  tomatoes  as  you  like,  fine,  put  on  to  cook  with 
a  little  water,  look  out  for  burning,  take  one-third  as 
many  onions.  When  both  are  neariy  done  season 
with  drippings  of  butter  and  plenty  of  salt  till  it  has 
the  right  taste. 

Opium  is  the  most  pleasant  of  narcotics.  It  pro- 
duces, like  tea  and  coffee,  pleasant  exhilaration,  and 
in  large  doses,  stupor  and  death.  The  use  of  it  has 
become  most  extensive  in  China,  where  it  is  so  preva- 
lent that  most  of  the  Chinese-manufactured  tobacco  is 
said  to  contain  an  infusion  of  it.  Opium  is  mostly 
procured  from  [wppies,  which  are  intensely  impregna- 
ted with  it.  In  the  fluid  state,  called  laudanum,  it  is 
often  procured  from,  lettuce,  and  this  is  quite  as  poi- 
sonous as  that  of  the  poppy.  Hence  the  drowsiness 
observed  after  eating  lettuces,  especially  when  the 
full-flavored  stalks  are  eaten.  Opium  is  too  extens- 
ively used  by  idle  and  ignorant  persons  in  charge 
of  children  to  save  them  the  trouble  of  doing  their 
duty  as  nurses.  All  the  "soothing"  syrups  sold  for 
giving  to  children  are  more  or  less  impregnated  with 
laudanum,  which  always  injures  and  often  proves 
fatal.  There  is  no  habit  so  utterly  demoralizing  or 
so  hard  to  break  or  mitigate  as  that  of  oj  ium-eating. 
A  man  of  otherwise  high  moral  jjrinciples  will  lie, 
cheat  and  steal  for  it  when  the  terrible  habit  is  once 
contracted.  There  is  neither  ease,  life,  activity 
nor  mental  }X)wer  for  him,  unless  under  its  influ- 
ence. The  victim  of  ordinary  intoxication  is  less 
deplorable  and  more  easily  reclaimed  than  the  opium- 
eater,  or  smoker. 

There  are  several  medical  preparations  of  opium. 
Of  these  morphia  or  morphine  is  the  most  important. 
It  is  sold  in  the  drug  stores  in  the  form  of  white  crys- 
tals, as  also  in  that  of  liquid.  Each  fluid  ounce  con- 
tains one  grain  of  morphine  or  the  true  jjtinciple  of 
the  opium  and  one  grain  of  the  morphine  is  eciual  to 
three  grains  of  opium  or  45  drops  of  the  tincture  of 
opinm,  commonly  known  as  laudanum.  The  latter  is 
the  most  costly  of  all  preparations  of  opium.  These 
preparations  are  used  in  veterinary  practice  some. 
The  dose  for  a  horse,  of  the  liquid  opium,  is  from  20 
to  40  grains.  Horses  will  scarcely  show  the  least 
effect  of  the  administration  of  from  two  to  four 
drachms  of  the  powdered  opium.  On  cattle  it  even 
has  a  much  less  eff"ect  than  on  horses.  Cows  can 
take  one  ounce  and  sheep  one-half  drachm  of  }X)W- 
dered  opium  without  suffering.  The  dose  of  crude  or 
jxjwdered  opium  for  horses  is  from  one  to  two  drachms 
and  for  cattle  two  to  four  drachms.  Aconite  has 
largely  taken  the  place  of  opium  in  veterinary  prac- 
tice. Laudanum  is  used  in  lotions  and  liniments  for 
the  relief  of  pain. 

Poison  by  Opium.  When  a  person  has  taken  an 
overdose  of  opium,  morphine  or  laudanum,  instantly 
give  an  emetic,  and  keep  it  up  till  the  danger  is  over. 
Strong  coffee  is  an  excellent  stimulant.     Or  give  mag- 


698 


ORANGE. 


nesia,  chlorine,  charcoal  or  iodine.  Electrical  shocks 
are  a  very  efficient  remedy  for  stupor.  If  respiration 
falls  below  ten  a  minute,  artificial  respiration  should 
be  tried.     Prevent  stupor  by  forced  exercise. 

Orange.  Scientifically  speaking,  this  delicious 
fruit  is  a  berry.  The  pulp,  the  membranes  which 
separate  its  various  sections  and  the  skin  are  only 
a  thickening  of  the  pericarp  or  seed-vessels.  The 
natural  office  of  the  oringe  is,  therefore,  only  to  bear 
seed.  It  has  been  brought  to  its  present  condition 
by  development. 

The  cultivation  of  this  fruit  possesses  rare  charms, 
and  in  California  and  Florida  is  receiving  that  atten- 
tion which  so  delicious  and  profitable  a  fruit  deserves. 
The  orange  tree  is  of  very  slow  growth,  requiring 
about  16  years  for  the  seedling  to  attain  its  normal 
proportions.  It  then  stands  about  25  feet  high,  with 
a  spread  of  branches  of  about  the  same  distance,  and 
a  circumference  of  trunk,  near  the  ground,  of  nearly 
three  feet. 

As  the  orange  tree  attains  its  maturity,  its  cylin- 
drical trunk  changes  to  one  of  eccentric  longitudinal 
corrugations,  although,  if  healthy,  the  bark  still  re- 
mains smooth.  The  wood  of  the  orange  tree  is 
close-grained,  hard  and  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish. 
It  is  of  a  clear  yellow  color,  embodying  a  suggestion 
of  the  fruit  itself  The  leaves  are  ovate  in  form, 
slightly  serrated  and  of  a  thick,  leathery  texture. 
When  newly  forming  they  are  of  a  bright  yellow  hue, 
"but  as  they  mature  they  change  to  a  dark  green, 
with  the  upper  surface  presenting  a  decided  gloss. 
The  tree  is  an  evergreen  and  it  has  numerous  sea- 
sons of  growth  during  the  year,  with  slight  dormant 
intermissions. 

The  orange  tree  blossoms  early  in  February,  and 
•continues  in  flower  until  the  last  of  March.  The 
blossom  is  a  pure  white,  of  a  most  exquisite  texture, 
and  its  fragrance  is  so  great  as  to  be  almost  surfeit- 
ing. The  fruit  sets  in  February  or  March  and  at- 
tains its  maturity  one  year  thereafter,  when  the  tree 
■blossoms  again.  The  orange  clings  to  its  stem  with 
great  tenacity,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  fruit  of 
a  former  year's  growth  still  on  the  tree  when  a  sec- 
ond crop  is  attaining  maturity.  The  quality  de- 
teriorates, however,  if  it  is  allowed  to  remain  long 
;after  maturity.  In  time  the  juice  is  absorbed  en- 
,tirely,  leaving  the  pulp  a  dry,  spongy  mass. 

The  orange  tree  grows  to  an  extrenie  age,  there 
being  trees  in  Spain  600  or  700  years  old.  Accord- 
ing to  a  writer  in  El  Diario  de  la  Marina,  "theie  is 
still  flourishing  in  the  porch  of  tlie  Convent  of  Santa 
Sabina,  in  Rome,  an  orange  tree  said  to  have  been 
planted  in  A.  D.  1200.  Another,  in  the  Monastery 
of  Tondi,  is  supix)sed  to  have  been  planted  by  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  in  1278.  In  the  Moorish  Alcazar 
of  Seville,  Spain,  exists  one  that  was  planted  during 
the  reign  of  Pedro  I,  between  1350  and  1366.  Others 
here  known  to  be  340  years  old  are  described  as 
having  a  height  of  from  13  to  15  meters,  with  trunks 
from  1.24  to  1.40  meters  in  circumference.    Age  is 


not,  however,  indicated  by  size,  as  in  Andalusia 
there  are  many  younger  trees  that  are  considerably 
larger  than  these.  In  Alcala  de  Guadaira  are  two, 
the  trunks  of  which  at  one  meter  above  the  ground 
are  respectively  2.50  and  2.60  meters  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  yield  of  some  orange  trees  in  Malta  and 
Naples  is  simply  astounding,  reaching  as  high  as 
30,000  oranges  to  the  tree,  and  in  the  estate  known 
as  the  Huerta  Grande,  in  Mairena  del  Alcor,  there 
are  two  that  are  said  to  have  borne  38,000  oranges 
each  in  a  season." 

Location  and  Soil.  Having  decided  to  grow 
oranges,  these  two  questions  should  first  be  settled 
upon.  In  California  there  are  three  different  kinds 
of  orange-growing  country:  the  lowlands,  the  middle 
lands  and  the  mesas  or  table  lands.  The  former, 
owing  to  the  damp,  cold  condition  of  the  ground,  are 
not  adapted  to  orange  culture.  The  temperature 
here  also  goes  below  the  limit  of  endurance  by  or- 
anges and  lemons.  The  middle  lands  constitute 
the  greater  portion  of  the  cultivated  lands  of  Cali- 
fornia. With  reference  to  elevation,  soil  and  water- 
supply,  these  lands  are  greatly  diversified,  and  are 
therefore  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  products. 
Oranges  are  grown  here  with  varying  success,  but 
close  to  the  ocean  the  tree  does  not  thrive.  How- 
ever, as  the  valley  recedes  the  sea  breezes  are  mod- 
ified, a  greater  altitude  is  reached  and  more  favorable 
is  the  location  for  citrus  culture.  It  is  now  considered 
by  the  best  horticulturists  that  the  mesas  are  the 
most  favorable  for  orange  culture.  These  and  the 
interior  valleys,  where  conditions  of  soil,  climate 
and  water-supply  are  suitable,  are  recommended  by 
authorities. 

As  to  soil,  the  orange  flourishes  best  in  a  sandy 
loam.  It  should  be  loose,  well-drained  and  warm. 
On  rolling  or  elevated  lands  a  southern,  southeastern 
or  southwestern  exposure  is  desirable.  The  orange 
luxuriates  in  warmth,  and  the  more  the  tree  and  the 
ground  in  which  it  stands  are  exposed  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  the  better.  They  should  also  be  free 
from  exposure  to  severe  winds.  Should  their  nat- 
ural location  be  exposed,  make  a  break  by  planting 
cypress  or  other  trees. 

Selecting  Trees.  The  work  of  selecting  trees 
should  be  commenced  early,  and  only  the  best 
should  be  taken.  Such  need  not  necessarily  be  the 
most  expensive.  A  tree  which  is  two  years  old  in 
its  budded  growth,  and  four  years  old  in  its  stock, 
and  which  is  healthy  and  vigorous,  standing  from 
five  to  seven  feet  high,  may  be  accounted  first-class. 
The  health  of  a  tree  is  best  indicated  by  the  dark 
green  of  the  matured  foliage.  If  it  have  a  yellowish 
cast,  beware  of  the  tree.  But  do  not  confound  the 
sickly  hue  of  the  older  leaves  with  the  yellowish 
green  of  the  new  growth.  The  two  are  readily  dis- 
tinguishable. 

In  selecting  varieties  it  is  not  necessary,  in  fact  is 
unwise,  to  attempt  to  cultivate  too  great  a  number. 
Of  the  more  than  100  varieties  there  are  only  a  few 
that  should  be  depended  upon.     Among  these  are : 


LISBON     LETMON, 


BONNIE    BRAE  LEMONS. 


ORANGE. 


999 


Riverside  Navel,  Washington  Navel,  Umbilical, 
Bahia,  Embigou.  Medium  size,  round,  skin  smooth 
and  of  fine  texture;  nearly  seedless;  juicy;  high- 
flavored;  pulp  melting;  quality  the  best.  The  pe- 
culiarity which  gives  this  fruit  its  name  and  marks 
it  beyond  any  question  is  a  protuberance  in  the 
blossom  end  which  closely  resembles  the  human 
navel  (see  illustration  on  the  accompanying  colored 
plate).  This  is  in  reality  a  little  kernel,  enveloped 
in  the  skin,  which,  when  examined,  proves  to  be  an 
aborted  orange.  The  tree  is  semi-dwarf  and  has  a 
few  small  tliorns. 

Mediterranean  Sweet.  Medium  to  large;  oval;, 
pulp  and  skin  of  fine  texture;  flavor  delicate,  less 
acid  than  any  other  variety  of  orange  grown  in  Cali- 
fornia; nearly  seedless;  ripens  late.  The  tree  is  a 
semi-dwarf,  almost  tlioinless  and  has  a  tendency  to 
overbear.  Fruit  should  be  thinned  vigorously  to  en- 
sure a  fair  growth  of  wood  and  development  of  fruit 
remaining. 

Thin-Skinned  or  Paper-Rind  St.  Michael.  Fruit 
small,  round,  thin-skinned,  high-flavored  and  a  de- 
licious sub-acid;  one  of  the  best  budded  varieties 
and  destined  to  increase  in  popularity;  keeps  well 
and  therefore  a  good  shipper.  Trees  dwarfish  in 
habit,  thorny. 

Maltese  Blood.  This  variety  derives  its  name 
from  the  peculiar  marking  of  the  pulp,  which  seems 
to  be  streaked  and  clotted  with  blood.  This  queer 
characteristic  varies  with  fruit  from  different  trees. 
The  older  the  tree  grows  the  more  marked  the  fruit. 
It  is  a  little  under  medium  size,  smooth,  round  and 
fine-textured;  juicy;  high-flavored,  and  the  pulp 
tender  and  melting.  The  tree  is  a  semi-dwarf; 
thornless,  or  only  slightly  thorny. 

Konah.  A  California  seedling  from  seed  grown 
on  Konah  Island ;  most  of  the  characteristics  of  a 
first-class  seedling,  the  chief  advantage  being  in  the 
uniformity  of  fruit;  thick  rind,  juicy,  large.  The 
tree  grows  to  the  full  size  of  a  seedling  and  is  thorny. 

Du  Roi.  Size  medium,  round,  skin  firm;  fruit 
apt  to  be  ribbed  somewhat  like  a  muskmelon.  Trees 
prolific,  vigorous,  few  thorns.  Long  grown  in  Flor- 
ida and  more  recently  in  California. 

Acapulco.  Tree  a  vigorous,  strong  grower ;  rind, 
thick  and  rough  ;  pulp,  coarse ;  flavor,  good  ;  regular 
but  late  bearer. 

Homosassa  Of  Florida  origin ;  size  of  fruit  me- 
dium, somewhat  flattened,  very  heavy;  color  bright; 
skin  very  smooth,  thin,  tough  and  dense  ;  pulp  fine, 
sweet  and  juicy;  flavor  full  and  vinous;  membrane 
covering  segments  of  pulp  very  thin  and  small ; 
ripens  very  early  and  keeps  and  carries  well;  quality 
best.     Tree  prolific,  vigorous,  very  thorny. 

Early  Oblong,  Thornless  Bell.  Grown  in  Florida. 
Fruit  medium  size,  oblong,  thick  skin ;  lacking  the 
sub-acid  of  other  sorts;  quality  fair.  Though  its 
color  does  not  turn  much  before  the  other  sorts,  its 
juices  attain  perfection  one  or  two  months  earlier, 
when  it  should  be  marketed.  Tree  bears  young; 
prohfic;   vigorous;    not    as    large   as   some;    leaves 


elliptical,  acute  and  scattering;  branches  slender 
and  thornless. 

Peerless,  Rembert's  Best.  Large;  round;  color, 
light,  clear  orange  ;  skin  smooth,  fine  and  thin;  juicy; 
juice  sub- acid  ;  flavor  delicious;  quality  best.  Tree 
prolific,  vigorous  and  very  thorny.  Native  seedling. 
This  and  the  following  are  grown  in  Florida. 

Magnum  Bomitn.  Size  large  to  very  large  ;  flat- 
tened; color  light,  clear  orange;  skin  smooth  and 
glossy;  grain  fine,  tender  and  melting;  fruit  heavy 
and  juicy ;  juice  sweet,  rich  and  vinous ;  quality 
besti  Tree  prolific,  vigorous  and  very  thorny.  Na- 
tive seedling. 

Planting  Trees.  Orange  trees  should  be  set 
from  lo  to  30  feet  apart,  according  to  the  habits  of 
the  variety.  Dwarfs  are  usually  planted  10  feet 
apart,  semi-dwarfs  18,  and  standards  24.  In  trans- 
planting orange  trees  it  is  best  to  take  them  in  their 
dormant  stage,  as  they  do  not  then  feel  the  shock  of 
removal  as  much  as  when  they  are  active.  These 
periods  are  as  follows: 

Middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April;  the 
month  of  June  ;  the  month  of  September;  middle  of 
November  to  the  middle  of  December. 

Many  transplant  in  the  first  season  with  excellent 
results.  The  danger  to  be  provided  against  at  that 
time  is  in  the  cold  weather  which  is  likely  to  prevail. 
If  the  roots  suffer  a  chill,  the  tree  is  irretrievably 
stunted,  if  not  killed  outright.  June  is  the  most 
popular  time  for  transplanting. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  trimming  the  trees 
before  transplanting.  A  vigorous  pruning  should 
never  be  omitted. 

Cultivation.  When  the  rainy  season  has  well 
set  in,  the  orchard  should  be  plowed  with  a  single 
plow,  throwing  a  furrow  against  the  trees  on  each 
side,  and  leaving  a  dead  furrow  in  the  middle.  The 
single  plowing  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  is  ample  for 
this  kind  of  cultivation,  if  the  soil  is  reasonably 
loose.  Aside  from  the  one  or  two  plowings,  the  rest 
of  the  year's  work  is  done  with  the  cultivator,  fol- 
lowed, in  some  instances,  by  the  harrow  or  clod- 
crusher  or  "  slicker." 

Irrigation.  From  the  ist  of  April  to  the  istof 
November  may  be  accounted  California's  rainless 
season.  It  is  during  this  rainless  period  that  irriga- 
tion becomes  necessary  to  sustain  vegetable  life. 
Orange  trees,  to  thrive  well  and  bring  forth  profitable 
crops,  must  be  irrigated.  It  is  a  mistake,  however, 
to  suppose  that  because  some  water  is  good,  a  great 
deal  more  water  is  better. 

Insects.  The  orange  tree  has  its  enemies,  such 
as  grasshop|)ers,  rabbits,  gophers,  fungus  growth, 
and  a  muliit.ide  of  insects.  These  are  described 
and  treated  at  length  in  a  work  by  Hon.  Matthew 
Cooke,  to  which  we  refer. 

Picking,  Packing  and  Shipping.  Oranges  begin 
to  attain  their  best  flavor  in  February,  and  that  is 
the  time  the  market  should  be  opened.  The  fruit  on 
the  outer  branches  most  exposed  to  the  sun  ripens 
first  and  is  the  best.     The  orange,  unlike  most  other 


rooo 


ORANGE— ORCHARD. 


fruits,  does  not  begin  to  deteriorate  directly  after 
ripening  and  then  drop  from  its  stem.  It  will  hold 
its  juices  in  perfect  preservation  from  March  until 
June,  after  which  it  suffers  gradual  loss,  but  remains 
palatable  until  August  or  September. 

It  is  a  bad  plan  to  leave  oranges  unpicked  later 
than  March  and  April,  at  which  time  the  tree  puts 
forth  its  blossoms  tor  the  next  crop.  The  proper 
season  for  picking  oranges  is  then  from  February  to 
April.  In  no  case  should  the  oranges  be  dropped 
to  the  ground  or  thrown  even  a  few  feet  to  theif  re- 
ceptacle. Oranges  should  not  be  gathered  in  wet' 
weather  or  when  there  is  dew  on  the  trees. 

When  carried  to  tlie  packing-house,  the  oranges 
should  be  spread  upon  shelves  or  racks,  not  more 
than  two  or  three  layers  deep,  all  having  glaring  de- 
fects being  at  that  time  rejected.  The  fruit  is  thus 
left  from  two  to  five  days,  during  which  a  portion  of 
the  water  is  evaporated  from  the  skin,  leaving  it 
more  tough  and  elastic  and  not  so  subceptible  to 
damage  by  bruising  as  in  the  fresh  state. 

The  fruit  should  be  carefully  sorted,  cleaned  and 
graded.  It  should  be  wrapped  in  paper,  which, 
though  involving  some  expense,  is  a  protection  to 
the  fruit  against  bruising  while  in  transit ;  it  absorbs 
surplus  moisture,  thus  preventing  rot,  and  places 
the  fruit  in  the  market  in  a  tasty  manner. 

From  loo  to  250  oranges  may  be  put  in  a  box. 
They  should  be  counted  as  packed,  and  the  number 
marked  on  each  box. 

When  old  orange  trees  become  sickly  and  prac- 
tically useless  by  reason  of  exhausted  vitality  or  in- 
sect pests,  they  may  be  restored  by  adopting  the 
following  course :  Denude  the  tree  of  leaves  alto- 
gether, cutting  away  all  of  the  top  except  the  leading 
branches.  Wash  these  branches  and  the  trunk 
thoroughly  with  an  insecticide  and  wrap  the  trunk 
in  burlap  to  protect  it  from  the  sun.  Manure  the 
ground  about  the  tree  and  irrigate  thoroughly.  The 
tree  will  send  out  a  multitude  of  new  shoots,  which 
should  be  thinned  out  judiciously.  In  one  year  the 
tree  will  have  a  fine  top,  and  in  two  years  will  begin 
to  bear  again.  In  this  way  diseased  trees  may  gen- 
erally be  entirely  reclaimed. 

Orange  Jelly.  Make  a  syrup  with  a  pint  of 
water  and  a  pound  of  loaf  sugar,  boil  it  with  the  thin 
rind  of  four  oranges  and  two  lemons,  skim  it  carefully, 
and  add  the  juke  of  eight  oranges,  and  let  it  boil 
about  20  minutes ;  skim,  and  add  the  juice  of  a  lemon 
and  either  a  pint  of  calf's-foot  jelly  or  gelatine;  stir 
well.  Carefully  peel  a  couple  of  sweet  oranges,  slice 
and  remove  the  seeds.  Fill  the  mold,  disjxjsing  of 
pieces  of  oranges  in  it  in  a  symmetrical  fashion ; 
when  set,  turn  it  out  by  dipping  mold  in  warm  water. 

Ambrosia.  Take  8  fine  sweet  oranges,  peeled  and 
sliced;  ^  cocoanut,  grated,  and  J^  cup  powdered 
sugar.  Arrange  the  orange  in  a  glass  dish,  spread 
the  grated  cocoanut  thickly  over  it,  sprinkle  this 
lightly  with  sugar,  cover  with  another  layer  of  orange, 
and  so  on  until  the  top  is  reached,  which  should  be 
of  cocoanut  and  sugar.     Serve  immediately. 


Orchard,  a  field  or  enclosure  devoted  to  the  grow- 
ing of  the  larger  fruits.  Under  the  heads  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  fruits,  their  propagation,  culture  and 
care  is  very  fully  treated,  and  in  the  articles  Horti- 
culture, Budding,  Grafting,  Forestry,  Fruits,  Mulch- 
ing, Soil,  Drainage,  Manure,  Fertilizers,  etc.,  valuable 
aids  to  the  care  and  management  of  the  orchard  and 
its  products  are  detailed.    Orchard  grass  is  treated  on 

page  599-    . 

In  selecting  a  site  for  an  orchard  some  care  should 
be  exercised.  Do  not  think  that  you  can  plant  an 
orchard  anywhere  and  meet  with  success  in  fruit- 
growing. In  former  times  the  general  custom  was  to 
select  low  and  sheltered  places,  by  the  side  of  streams 
in  the  river  valleys;  but  diis  is  being  abandoned  as  a 
wrong  theory.  iLocations  least  liable  to  the  ravages 
of  frost  are  the  best.  A  "warm  place  "  is  a  danger- 
ous place  for  trees.  Elevated  sites  for  orchards  are 
growing  more  in  favor,  for  it  must  be  remembered 
that  low  places  and  flats  are  the  resting  places  for 
cool  air  which  settle  at  the  bottom,  and  are  therefore 
subject  to  untimely  frosts.  In  the  Northwest, 
orchards  should  be  on  northern  slopes,  in  order  to 
prevent  a  too  early  swelling  of  the  buds  in  spring. 

Whoever  would  jjlant  an  orchard  properly,  should 
first  determine  to  give  up  the  land  to  the  trees,  and 
decide  that  whatever  shall  be  done  to  it  shall  be  done 
for  the  benefit  of  the  trees  alone,  and  not  for  any 
secondary  crop  whatever.  The  land  upon  which  an 
orchard  is  to  be  planted  in  the  spring  should  be  pre- 
pared the  preceding  fall;  but  if  this  has  not  been  done, 
delay  planting  until  the  land  can  be  pro])erly  pre- 
pared. When  the  trees  that  you  ordered  arrive  you 
had  better  let  them  remain  heeled  in  for  several 
weeks  rather  than  to  set  them  hurriedly  in  holes,  as  if 
they  were  posts.  "  Heeling  in  "  is  an  abbreviation  of 
the  old  gardening  temi  of  "laying  in  by  the  heels,"  and 
means  a  temporary  covering  of  the  roots  with  earth. 
To  do  this,  open  a  ditch  in  a  place  where  water  will  not 
stand,  and  as  much  sheltered  from  the  winds  as  pos- 
sible ;  if  convenient  let  it  run  north  and  south ;  in 
this,  place  the  trees  inclined  about  45  degrees  or  less, 
so  that  they  may  shade  one  another,  and  as  they  are 
put  in,  have  fine  mellow  soil  well  worked  in  among 
the  roots  so  that  no  cavities  are  left.  Be  careful  of 
the  labels ;  if  there  are  many  of  a  kind  separate  the 
varieties  by  a  stake.  See  to  it  that  the  trees  are  put 
in  in  such  a  manner  that  there  will  be  no  doubt  about 
the  identity  of  the  varieties  when  they  are  taken  out. 
The  soil  for  the  orchard  should  be  manured,  plowed 
and  harrowed  as  if  for  a  crop  of  corn.  As  the 
amount  of  absorbing  or  root  surface  has  been  greatly 
reduced  by  the  taking  up  of  the  trees,  no  matter  htiw 
carefully,  the  evajwrating  or  leaf  surface  should  also 
be  diminished.  Recollect  that  every  bud  is  an  unde- 
veloped leafy  branch,  and  every  bud  removed  takes 
off  many  leaves.  Before  the  trees  are  planted  this 
eva]X)rating  surface  must  be  lessened  by  cutting  back 
the  branches.  How  much  to  cut  away  is  a  matter  of 
judgment,  but  it  is  safe  always  to  cut  away  one-third 
of  the  shoots;  and  if  the  roots  have  been  badly  mutil- 


ORNAMENTAL  CURRANT. 


loot 


) 


ated,  one-half  or  two-thirds  may  be  removed  to  the 
benefit  of  the  tree. 

The  common  method  of  setting  out  an  orchard  is 
to  plant  the  trees  in  a  square,  but  if  a  more  uniform 
space  is  desired  on  all  sides  of  each  tree,  what  is 
called  the  quincunx  is   preferable. 

In  laying  out  your  orchard  in  this  form,  first  decide 
upon  the  distance  for  the  trees  and  make  an  equal- 
sided  triangle  of  light  stuff  with  the  sides  of  that  dis- 
tance. Place  the  frame  at  the  end  of  the  first  row 
and  the  three  corners  will  determine  the  position  of  as 
many  trees.  After  laying  off,  and  marking  the  places 
with  stakes  for  a  few  trees,  in  this  way,  the  rest  of  the 
orchard  can  be  set  without  the  use  of  the  frame. 
Recording  the  orchard  should  not  be  omitted.  Labels 
soon  fall  away  and  are  not  reliable,  but  a  map  or 
record  of  the  trees  by  rows  and  numbers  is  easily  and 
quickly  made,  and  is  permanent  and  useful.  Trees 
that  have  been  girdled  by  mice  or  rabbits  will  recover 
if  a  mound  of  earth  be  made  to  cover  the  wound, 
provided  the  inner  bark  is  not  destroyed.  When  the 
girdling  is  complete,  the  only  hope  of  saving  the  tree 
is  to  insert  grafts  between  the  bark  below  and  above 
the  girdled  place.  Take  small  shoots  from  the  same 
tree,  sharpen  both  ends,  and  insert  them  in  cuts  made 
with  a  sharp  chisel  above  and  below,  bridging  the 
wound;  afterwards  cover  with  clay  or  grafting  wax. 
Cut  off  any  limbs  of  trees  that  have  been  broken  down 
during  the  winter  by  ice  and  snow,  make  the  wound 
smooth  and  cover  it  with  melted  grafting  wax  or  paint. 
Old  trees  may  be  renovated  by  trimming  out  decay- 
ing branches,  manuring  the  soil  and  scraping  the 
trunk,  to  remove  the  loose  bark  and  the  eggs  and 
chrysalids  of  various  destructive  insects.  After  scrap- 
ing, the  trees  should  receive  a  strong  alkaline  wash; 
there  is  nothing  so  good  for  this  as  home-made  soft 
soap,  mixed  with  water  until  thin  and  applied  to  the 
trunks  and  branches  with  a  large  paint  or  whitewash 
brush. 

Nurserymen  usually  describe  trees  in  their  cata- 
logues as  "  second  class,"  "  medium,"  "  first  class" 
and  "extra."  The  difference  in  these  classes  is  prin- 
cipally, if  not  wholly,  in  the  size  and  height  of  the 
trees;  and  as  most  farmers  desire  the  best,  they  sup- 
jx)se  that  the  large  "extra"  trees  merit  that  description, 
and  hence  order  them.  The  fact  is,  however,  that  a 
small  tree  will  grow  faster  and  (if  a  fruit  tree)  come 
into  bearing  condition  sooner  than  a  large  one,  and  in 
half  a  dozen  years  the  tree  that  was  planted  when 
small  will  be  larger  and  finer  than  the  other.  The 
larger  the  tree  the  larger  the  roots  which  it  has,  and 
the  larger  the  roots  the  less  fibers  there  will  be  u]X)n 
them.  A  tree  that  has  plenty  of  fibrous  roots  will 
grow  readily  if  proper  care  is  used  in  its  transplant- 
ation; but  no  amount  of  skill  can  coax  a  tree  to  live 
and  flourish  wliich  is  destitute  of  these  little  fibers. 
The  roots  of  large  trees  are  always  more  or  less 
mutilated  in  the  process  of  taking  up,  while  small 
trees  sustain  little  injury  from  this  source.  Dealers 
in  trees  assert  that  experienced  men  buy  small,  thrifty 
trees,  while  those  who  are  just  starting  are  anxious  for 


the  largest  to  be  had.  Those  who  wish  to  set  out 
trees  will  do  well  to  learn  from  the  experience  of  those 
who,  at  considerable  loss  to  themselves,  have  demon- 
strated that  small  trees  are  the  ones  to  buy. 

If  thrifty  trees  are  set  in  a  hole  cut  in  a  wet  meadow 
and  the  sods  put  back,  except  for  a  foot  or  so  about 
the  tree,  as  is  often  done,  such  trees  cannot  thrive, 
and  many  will  not  survive  the  first  season.  Such 
orchard  planting  is  a  waste  of  money,  and  if  no  other 
land  can  be  used,  wait  until  the  land  can  be  drained 
and  made  fit  for  planting.  Having  the  land  in  proper 
condition  for  producing  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  corn, 
and  having  laid  out  ihe  orchard,  marking  the  place 
for  each  tree  with  a  small  stake,  open  a  broad,  shal- 
low hole,  and  with  the  tree  in  the  center,  spread  the 
roots  in  all  directions  (see  page  511),  and  work 
soil  in  among  the  roots,  leaving  no  masses  of  roots 
or  large  hollow  spaces  about  them.  Set  each  tree 
carefully,  as  it  is  a  matter  of  a  life-time,  and  on  it  de- 
pends largely  the  success  or  failure  of  the  orchard. 
While  the  trees  are  small  they  need  special  care. 
The  ground  should  be  well  tilled  and  thoroughly 
manured.  Hoed  crops  may  be  grown  between  the 
rows,  but  the  very  act  of  planting  an  orchard  indicates 
that  the  land  is  devoted  to  the  production  of  fruit.  If 
another  crop  interferes  in  any  way  with  the  best 
growth  of  the  trees,  that  crop  is  out  of  place. 

It  is  sometimes  said  "the  orchard  has  run  out,"  but 
it  is  only  another  way  for  saying  that  the  trees  are 
crying  for  manure.  The  earlier  in  the  season  this 
manure  is  applied  the  better.  Good,  well-rotted 
stable  manure  is  the  best,  but  should  there  be  an 
abundance  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  a  dressing 
of  lime  will  often  i)roduce  gratifying  results.  Wood 
ashes  or  bones  will  not  come  amiss  upon  an  old 
"worn-out"  orchard. 

Pruning  maybe  done  in  March  or  June,  but  should 
not  be  done  in  April  or  May,  for  these  reasons :  in 
March  the  sap  is  partially  dormant  and  the  wound 
will  become  dried  before  the  sap  reaches  it,  and  there- 
fore it  will  not  bleed ;  in  June,  or  in  blossom  time 
the  sap  has  passed  up  through  the  ixsres  of  the  wood, 
forcing  out  the  leaf  and  changed  its  nature,  and  is  on 
the  return  to  supply  the  fruit  with  nutriment,  and  to 
form  a  new  layer  of  wood  under  the  bark  and  there 
becomes  thick  and  gludnous  and  will  not  bleed,  and 
the  tree  being  in  full  vigor  of  growth  the  wounds  will 
readily  heal,  while  in  April  and  May  the  sap  is  mov- 
ing up  through  the  ix)res  of  the  wood,  and  is  very 
thin  and  will  readily  bleed. 

Orchards  should  be  cultivated  to  low  crops  or  kept 
in  fallow  until  the  trees  are  well  in  bearing,  when 
orchard  grass,  timothy  or  white  clover  may  be  allowed 
to  take  possession  of  the  ground. 

Ornamental  Currant.  This  member  of  the 
saxifrage  family  is  cuUivated  for  its  spicy-scented, 
bright-yellow  flowers  in  early  spring.  The  berries  are 
blackish  and  insipid.  The  red-flowering  species  is 
rare  in  cultivation,  while  the  golden  is  common  every- 
where. 


ORNAMENTAL  TREES— OXEN. 


Ornamental  Trees:  see  Landscape  Gardening, 
Forestry  and  Floriculture. 

Omittiology,  that  department  of  natural  history 
which  treats  of  birds.  It  should  receive  no  little  attention 
from  the  farmer.  He  should  familiarize  himself  with 
characteristics,  habits,  etc.,  of  the  birds  common  to  his 
section.  It  will  not  only  enable  him  to  guard  against 
those  that  ravage  his  crops,  and  to  know  those  that 
assist  him,  by  keeping  off  the  numberless  insects, 
but  will  afford  him  rare  pleasure.  The  study  of  the 
feathered  tribe  is  very  fascinating.  We  treat  many 
birds  in  their  alphabetical  order„and  many  others  in 
the  article  Birds. 

Ossify,  to  form  into  bone. 

Ounce,  480  grains,  or  one-twelfth  of  a  pound  of 
troy  weight ;  in  avoirduixjis  it  is  one-sixteenth  of  a 
pound,  or  437  ^  troy  grains. 

Ovarium,  in  plants,  a  hollow  case  enclosing  young 
seeds  which  contain  one  or  more  cells,  and  finally  be- 
comes the  fruit.  The  ovarium  is  always  situated  in 
the  center  of  the  flower,  and,  in  connection  with  the 
stigma  and  style,  constitute  the  female  system  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom. 

Overshot  Wheel,  a  water  wheel  the  circumference 
of  which  is  furnished  with  cavities  or  buckets,  into 
which  the  stream  of  water  is  delivered  at  the  top, 
turning  the  wheel  by  its  weight. 

Oviparous,  developing  young  in  eggs  which  are 
afterwards  separated  from  the  parent,  and  which  are 
usually  hatched  after  exclusion  from  the  body. 

Ovoviviparous,  oviparous,  but  hatching  the  young 
while  within  the  body.  The  viper,  flesh  fly  and  some 
fish  are  ovoviviparous. 

Oven  Brick :  see  Brick  Oven. 

Overreach :  see  page  7  94. 

Owl.  There  are  few  groups  of  birds  so  decidedly 
marked  and  so  easy  of  recognition  as  the  owl.  The 
round,  puffy  head,  the  little  hooked  beak  just  appear- 
ing from  the  downy  plumage  with  which  it  is  sur- 
rounded, the  large,  soft,  blinking  eyes,  and  the  curious 
disk  of  feathers  which  radiate  from  the  eye,  are  such 
characteristic  distinctions  that  an  owl  can  at  once 
be  detected.  They  are  almost  without  exception  noc- 
turnal in  their  habits.  The  principal  varieties  known 
here  are  the  barn  owl,  the  great  horned  owl,  the  red, 
screech,  the  long-eared,  the  short-eared,  great  gray, 
the  barred  owl  and  the  little  owl.  All  of  them  are 
carnivorous  and  they  generally  feed  on  young  turkeys, 
chickens,  hares,  squirrels,  rats,  mice,  small  birds, 
beetles  and  other  insects,  etc. 

Oxalic  Acid.  In  cases  of  poisoning  with  oxalic 
acid  or  salts  of  sorrel,  chalk  and  water  may  be 
administered  as  a  chemical  antidote,  with  the  view 
of  producing  the  insoluble  oxalate  of  lime.  Emetics 
should  also  be  applied.  The  effects  of  such  poison 
are  vomiting  and  acute  pain  in  the  stomach,  general 


debility,  cramps  and  death.     Lime  water  or  magnesia 
in  large  draughts  should  be  given. 

Oxen,  the  gelded  males  of  neat  cattle.  These,  until 
they  have  matured,  are  known  as  steers.  "  Horned 
horses,"  as  the  New  England  fathers  were  wont  to 
style  their  oxen,  are  not  so  much  in  use  in  this  coun- 
try as  they  formerly  were,  horses  and  mules  being  es- 
teemed preferable  and  moie  in  accordance  with  the 
speedy  disposition  of  the  times.  In  New  England 
they  are  still  much  used  on  the  rugged  and  uneven 
farms  of  that  region,  as  well  as  in  other  mountainous 
sections.  In  New  England,  the  Devons,  red,  shapely 
and  sprightly,  have  always  been  most  highly  esteemed 
for  draft  purposes,  the  breed  having  been  imix)rted 
into  the  country  at  an  early  day.  The  Herefords 
have  also  been  somewhat  prized  as  oxen,  and  the 
various  gradations  of  these  breeds  with  the  native 
scrubs  have  been  used.  The  best  time  for  breaking 
steers  is  when  they  are  a  few  months  old;  in  other 
words  they  should  be  so  handled  as  never  to  need 
what  is  commonly  termed  "breaking."  Miniature 
yokes  may  be  placed  on  them  when  they  are  quite 
young,  before  they  suspect  the  object.  Careful  and 
l)atient  boys  may  take  this  matter  in  charge,  and  begin 
yoking  and  driving  them  when  yearlings.  The  after 
management  of  the  ox  will  be  a  very  easy  matter,  if  the 
calf  has  beentreated  as  indicated  above.  The  goad  and 
the  lash  should  be  used  sparingly.  The  yelling  and 
shouting  of  the  average  driver  are  absurd  and  more  than 
useless.  As  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  dumb  animals, 
when  once  the  beast  knows  what  the  master  wants  that 
the  brute  will  perform.  Care  should  be  taken  in  break- 
ing steers  not  to  blunderingly  or  carelessly  get  them  into 
tricks  or  notions,  through  fear,  like  dodging,  starting, 
or  running  away.  Oxen,  while  at  work,  are  usually 
large  consumers  of  food.  They  will  devour  enormous 
quantities  of  hay  if  they  are  not  given  a  feed  of  grain 
or  roots.  A  good  feed  for  working  cattle  is  turnips, 
carrots  or  mangold-wurzels  chopped,  and  corn  meal, 
or  meal  and  bran  mixed,  ix)ured  over  them.  Oxen 
kept  on  this  feed  will  not  consume  so  mftch  hay  as 
otherwise,  and  will  be  maintained  in  good  heart  for 
labor.  When  oxen  are  worked  in  winter  they  should 
be  shod.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  the  boxes 
of  yokes  too  small,  nor  yet  too  large ;  in  both  cases 
the  animal  will  labor  uneasily. 

Ox-Yoke.  To  make  this  yoke  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  stick  of  light,  strong  timber,  such  as  butternut, 
walnut,  sycamore,  basswood,  soft  maple,  or  wild 
cherry,  each  of  which  is  excellent  material.  The  size 
of  the  stick  necessary  is  10  by  16  inches  and  5  feet 
long.  This  should  be  sawed  in  two,  c\itting  out  two 
pieces  of  the  heart,  making  two  pieces  10  by  7.  One 
side  and  one  edge  of  the  piece  should  be  dressed 
square ;  the  center  found,  the  first  bow-hole  is  then 
bored  12  inches  from  this  center;  the  second  bow- 
hole  12  inches  from  the  first.  Mark,  and  bore  the 
holes  from  each  side,  making  them  meet  in  the 
center,  to  secure  accuracy.  A  2-inch  auger  should 
be  used,  and  the  holes  then  burned  with  a  hot  iron 


ox  YGEN—OZONE. 


1003 


to  make  them  smooth.  The  yoke  is  then  laid  out  3}^ 
inches  thick  in  the  center  between  the  bow-holes,  and 
6j4  inches  thick  in  the  center  between  the  two  bows, 
where  the  ring  is  placed ;  the  ends  are  beveled  off,  and 
lines  of  proper  curvature  laid  out  between  the  points 
marked.  The  yoke  may  be  fashioned  with  jig  or 
band  saw,  or  adz,  and  should  then  be  finished  up 
true  and  square  from  the  face  side  with  a  drawing 
knife.  It  should  then  be  laid  upon  its  back  and  4^ 
inches  marked  off  from  the  center  for  the  width  of  the 
yoke,  taking  off  about  154^  inches  from  each  side. 
The  ends  are  then  tapered  off  and  rounded.  The 
bottom,  or  inside,  of  the  yoke  must  now  be  rounded, 
first  by  a  broad  chamfer,  and  then  rounding  and 
finishing  smooth;  the  top  is  left  square,  except  to 
chamfer  the  corners  or  edges  of  the  yoke.  The  bows 
are  28  to  30  inches  in  length  and  2  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Instead  of  a  staple,  use  a  broad  iron  strap, 
which  goes  around  the  yoke,  having  screws  cut  on 
the  end  and  a  plate  held  down  by  nuts  screwed  over 
it,  to  clasp  the  yoke  and  strengthen  it.  In  the  bottom 
of  the  strap  is  placed  two  pieces  of  cast  iron,  which 
have  a  flange  uixjn  the  edge,  and  four  slight  pro- 
jections upon  the  top,  for  which  small  holes  are  bored 
in  the  wood.  The  two  castings  are  so  formed  that 
when  they  are  placed  in  position  they  have  a  hole  in 
the  middle,  in  which  the  ring  is  inserted;  the  strap  is 
placed  around  them  and  put  uixin  the  yoke,  and  the 
nuts  on  the  top  screwed  tight.  Such  a  yoke  is  much 
stronger  than  if  the  staple  passed  through  it. 

Oxygen,  a  colorless,  odorless  and  tasteless  gas. 
It  is  somewhat  heavier  than  air,  its  specific  gravity 
being  1.1056.  Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  element 
in  nature.  It  exists  free  in  the  atmosphere,  of  which 
it  forms  a  fifth  part.  Combined  with  other  elements, 
it  constitutes  two-thirds  of  the  entire  globe.  Water 
is  eight-ninths  oxygen  by  weight.     Fully  one-half  of 


the  weight  of  all  minerals,  three-quarters  of  the  weight 
of  all  animals,  and  four-fifths  of  the  weight  of  all 
vegetables  is  oxygen.  It  is  capable  of  entering  into 
combination  with  all  the  elements  except  fluorine. 
But  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  usually  obtained  heat 
is  necessary  to  bring  about  the  union.  Combustion, 
in  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term,  is  union  with  oxygen, 
attended  with  light  and  heat.  When  hydrogen,  sul- 
phur, charcoal  and  iron,  for  example,  are  brought  in 
contact  with  oxygen  at  a  suitable  temperature,  they 
burn,  evolving  heat  and  light  and  producing  oxides 
of  these  substances.  Oxygen  is  therefore  an  intense- 
ly active  substance,  m  which  the  rapidity  of  ordinary 
combustion  is  vastly  increased.  Oxygen  gas  is  es- 
sential to  respiration — that  is,  to  the  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid  from  the  blood,  but  requires  to  be 
diluted  with  nitrogen,  as  in  the  air;  otherwise  it 
destroys  life  by  producing  over-activity.  Seeds  can- 
not germinate  without  oxygen,  and  must  not  therefore 
be  buried  too  deep  in  the  compact  soil.  The  leaves 
of  trees,  also,  cannot  perform  their  functions  without 
its  presence,  although  they  are  always  exhaling  a 
large  quantity  of  the  gas.     See  Ozone. 

Oysters,  To  Cook  :  see  page  482. 

Oyster  Plant,  or  Vegetable  Oyster :    see  Salsify. 

Ozone,  is  oxygen  in  an  active  or  highly  electro- 
negative state.  In  a  word,  it  is  active  oxygen.  (See 
Oxygen).  It  is  half  as  heavy  again  as  oxygen. 
Ozone  is  found  free  in  the  air  after  a  thunder-storm. 
It  acts  to  oxidize  and  destroy  impurities  in  the  air. 
Atmospheric  ozone  burns  up  miasmatic  exhalations, 
and  hence  preserves  the  air  pure.  It  is  especially 
active  during  a  thunder-storm.  The  recently  in- 
vented processes  and  apparatus  so  extensively 
advertised  for  generating  ozone  for  purposes  of  dis- 
infection, cost  much  more  than  they  are  really  worth. 


ACE  or  Amble,  a  certain  gait  of  a  horse  in 
which  both  legs  of  one  side  are  raised  at 
once.  It  is  one  of  the  most  easy  gaits  for  a 
saddle-horse,  yet  it  is  not  recognized  in  the  art 
of  horsemanship.  The  action  of  the  pacer  is 
l^  neither  so  safe  nor  so  pleasant  as  that  of  a  racker, 
whose  feet  are  set  down  one  after  the  other  in 
regular  one-two-three-four  time.  This,  however,  is 
only  a  variety  of  the  pacing  gait. 

The  word  "  pace  "  also  signifies  the  peculiar  man- 
ner of  locomotion  in  a  horse  or  other  animal.  The 
natural  paces  of  a  horse  are  the  walk,  the  trot,  the 
gallop  and  in  a  few  instances  the  "pace,"  or  amble,  as 
described  in  the  above  paragraph. 

Pack,  a  large  collection  of  hounds,  25  couple 
constituting  a  true  pack.  It  means  also  a  number  of 
wolves  together.     See  Flocks. 

Pack- Saddle,  a  saddle  adapted  to  the  carrjring  of 
heavy  packages  or  burdens. 

Paddock,  a  small  pasture  immediately  adjoining  a 
stable. 

Paint  and  Painting.  There  is  perhaps  nothing 
that  pays  so  well  in  the  care  of  the  farm  buildings  as 
the  use  of  paint ;  and  not  only  for  the  protection  it 
affords,  but  the  superior  elegance  it  gives  to  the  plain- 
est structure  by  its  tasteful  application  makes  it  too 
valuable  to  be  ignored  or  neglected  by  the  farmer. 
As  almost  all  painting  is  done  by  professional 
artisans,  we  deem  it  unimportant  to  the  farmer 
to  go  into  a  detailed  description  of  the  process. 
When  you  have  any  painting  to  do,  it  should 
be  done  in  the  fall,  winter  or  early  spring,  as 
all  paint  applied  in  cool  weather  dries  slowly 
and  makes  a  hard,  glossy  surface;  if  applied  in  hot 
weather  the  wood  rapidly  absorbs  the  oil,  leaving  the 
lead  on  the  outside,  to  crumble  off.  The  mild  days 
of  February  and  March  are  well  adapted  to  outside 
house  painting.  No  room  should  be  painted  while  in 
use. 

The  character  of  the  work  to  be  done  will  determine 
the  kind  of  brushes  to  use.  One  or  two  flat  and  three 
round  brushes  of  various  sizes  will  be  sufficient,  and 
wire-bound  ones  are  the  most  durable.  After  use, 
the  brushes  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  tur- 
pentine and  covered  with  tallow. 

If  the  house  be  new,  the  knots  should  be  covered 
with  a  varnish 'of  gum  shellac  and  alcohol,  to  prevent 
the  exudation  of  resinous  substance,  which  would  dis- 
color the  paint.     The  first  coat  should  be  made  of 


white  lead  and  fresh,  raw  linseed  oil,  boiled  oil  and 
turpentine  being  used  in  the  subsequent  coats.  For 
inside  work,  equal  parts  of  boiled  oil  and  turpentine 
are  used  for  the  first  coat,  and  75  per  cent,  turpentine 
is  used  for  the  second,  and  nearly  all  turpentine  for 
the  third.  The  color  desired  should  be  in  the  second 
and  third  coats,  the  first  being  simply  white  lead.  In 
repainting  old  houses,  sand  paper  or  pumice  stone 
should  be  used  to  smooth  down  all  irregularities  of 
the  surface,  and  then  paint  as  if  applying  a  second 
coat. 

Good  mixed  paints  can  be  purchased  in  small  cans, 
thus  saving  the  trouble  of  mixing  them. 

We  give  recipes  for  making  some  cheap  paints, 
which  the  farmer  can  make  and  apply  himself  on  out 
buildings,  fences,  etc. 

Cheap  Paint.  Take  a  bushel  of  well  burnt  lime, 
white  and  unslaked,  20  pounds  of  Spanish  whiting, 
17  pounds  of  rock  salt,  and  1 2  jwunds  of  brown  sugar. 
Slake  the  lime  and  sift  out  any  coarse  lumps  and 
mix  it  into  good  whitewash  with  about  40  gallons  of 
water,  and  then  add  the  other  ingredients,  and  stir 
the  whole  together  thoroughly,  and  put  on  two  or 
three  coats  with  a  common  brush.  This  is  a  cheap 
paint.  Five  dollars'  worth  ought  to  make  the  build- 
ing look  a  hundred  dollars'  worth  better.  This  makes 
a  coat  that  does  not  wash  off,  or  easily  rub  off,  and  it 
looks  well,  while  it  will  go  far  to  preserve  the  wood. 
It  is  therefore  especially  adapted  to  the  outside  of 
buildings  that  are  exposed  to  the  Meather.-  Three 
coats  are  needed  on  brick  and  two  on  wood.  If  you 
want  to  get  a  fine  cream  color,  add  3  jxsunds  of  yellow 
ochre  to  the  above.  If  you  prefer  a  brown  color,  add 
4  pounds  of  umber,  i  pound  of  Indian  red  and  i 
lX)und  of  lampblack.  If  you  want  a  gray  or  stone 
color,  add  4  pounds  of  raw  umber  and  2  jxiunds  of 
lampblack.  This  will  be  more  durable  than  common 
whitewash. 

Fire  and  Water-proof  Paint.  Slack  stone  lime 
by  putting  into  a  tub,  covered,  to  keep  in  the  steam ; 
when  slacked,  pass  the  powder  through  a  fine  sieve, 
and  to  every  6  quarts  add  a  quart  of  rock-salt 
and  a  gallon  of  water;  then  boil  and  skim  clear; 
to  every  5  gallons  of  the  liquid  add  pulverized  alum, 
I  pound;  pulverized  copperas,  ^  pound,  and  stir 
slowly ;  add  powdered  potash,  i/i  pound ;  then  very 
fine  sand  or  hickory  ashes,  4  pounds;  then  use  any 
coloring  matter  desired,  and  apply  with  a  brush.  It 
looks  better  than  any  ordinary  paint,  and  is  as  durable 
as  slate ;  will  stop  small  leaks  in  roofs,  prevent  moss 


PALA  TE— PAREGORIC. 


1005 


from  growing  thereon,  make  it  incombustible,  and 
render  bricks  impervious  to  water. 

Palate,  the  roof  of  the  mouth  of  an  animal.     In 

young  horses,  particularly  when  they  are  changing 
their  teeth,  the  palate  is  generally  very  full  or  swollen, 
and  sometimes  protrudes  lower  than  the  upper  front 
teeth  and  is  supposed  to  occasion  difficulty  in  feed- 
ing.    See  the  article  Lampas,  page  787. 

Palpitation  of  the  Heart:  see  Heart. 

Pancakes,  or  Griddle-Cakes.  Use  a  frying-pan 
for  pancakes;  heat  it;  put  in  a  teaspoonful  or  two  of 
lard  and  run  it  quickly  over  the  bottom  ;  then  \k>\ix  in 
a  large  ladleful  of  batter — enough  to  cover  the  bottom 
of  the  pan  with  a  thin  sheet.  Turn  with  a  tin  spatula, 
very  carefully,  to  avoid  tearing  it. 

Clean  snow  is  a  good  substitute  for  egg,  in  pan- 
cakes, 2  tables poonfuls  being  equivalent  to  one  egg. 

Common  Pancakes.  Beat  3  eggs,  and  stir  them 
into  a  pint  of  milk;  add  a  pinch  of  salt,  and  sufficient 
flour  to  make  it  into  a  thick  smooth  batter;  fry  them 
in  boiling  fat,  roll  them  over  on  each  side,  drain  and 
serve  them  very  hot,  with  lemon  and  sugar. 

Another  recipe :  Take  i  teacupful  of  sour  cream 
and  3  teacupfuls  of  sweet  milk;  add  a  level  teasix)on- 
ful  soda,  and  teaspoonful  salt  dissolved  in  a  little  hot 
water,  and  flour  enough  to  make  a  batter  that  will 
pour  (not  drop)  in  a  heavy  stream  from  a  spoon. 

Bread  Pancakes.  Soak  pieces  of  stale  bread  in 
water  until  ([uite  soft;  drain  through  a  sieve,  then  rub 
the  bread  through  a  colander.  To  a  quart  add  three 
eggs  and  milk  enough  to  make  a  soft  batter. 

Buckwheat  Cakes:  see  page  152. 

Graham  Griddle  Cakes.  One  pint  of  milk,  half 
a  cup  of  sour  cream,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  the 
same  of  salt;  stir  in  Graham  flour  not  as  stiff  as  for 
fine  flour  cakes  (no  eggs);  have  the  griddle  quite  hot; 
or  with  yeast  the  same  as  with  buckwheat. 

Corn-Meal  Griddle  Cakes.  Scald  half  a  pint  of 
Indian  meal ;  half  a  pint  of  the  same,  dry ,  flour,  and 
stir  all  into  a  pint  of  milk,  with  a  tablespoonful  of 
butter  and  i  egg.     Spread  very  thin  on  the  griddle. 

Another:  Take  i  quart  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk, 
gill  of  molasses,  teaspoonful  baking  soda,  a  little  salt, 
I  egg,  and  mix  with  meal  enough  to  make  a  good 
baiter;  have  lard  enough  in  a  flat  kettle  boiling  to 
swim  the  cakes;  dip  a  spoon  in  the  lard  to  drop  the 
cakes,  or  omit  the  molasses  and  eat  with  butter. 

Green-Corn  Griddle  Cakes.  Mix  i  pint  of  gra- 
ted green  corn  with  three  tablesixjonfuls  of  milk;  i 
teacup  of  flour,  half  a  cup  of  melted  butter,  one  egg, 
a  teas]X)onful  of  salt,  and  a  little  pepper.  Drop  this 
upon  a  griddle  and  cook  well. 

Oatmeal  Griddle  Cakes.  Take  i  ^  cups  oat- 
meal, 2  teasix)onfuls  of  sugar,  i  saltspoonful  of  salt, 
and  a  piece  of  soda  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Stir  all 
well  together  with  cold  water  and  let  it  stand  all  night. 
In  the  morning  put  i  egg,  i  cup  of  milk,  and  enough 
flour  to  give  it  the  right  consistency  of  a  batter.     Fry 


in  a  griddle  with  very  little  fat — a  small  piece  of  beef 
suet,  whigh  is  the  best  to  use. 

Oatmeal  Cakes.  Take  2  cups  of  cold  boiled  oat- 
meal; mix  I  egg  through  it;  i  tablespoonful  of  sugar, 
and  pepared  flour  enough  to  make  into  cakes ;  dip 
each  side  into  rolled  cracker  and  fry  brown. 

Common  Flat-Jacks.  One  quart  sour  milk,  thicken 
it  with  flour;  2  teaspoonfuls  of  saleratus  and  a  little 
salt. 

Pancreas  (pan'cre-as),  a  glandular  viscus  of  the 
abdomen,  situated  beneath  the  stomach,  and  one  of 
the  most  imixjrtant  of  the  digestive  organs.  This  is 
the  sweet-bread  in  the  lower  animals. 

Panic  Grass,  a  genus  of  grasses  with  spreading 
tops,  many  of  which  are  common  throughout  the 
United  States,  some  being  useful  as  forage.  There 
are  17  species  in  the  Northern  States,  all  but 
one  of  which  are  native.  The  introduced  species  is 
the  familiar  "  barnyard  "  grass.  Besides  the  above, 
the  Hungarian  grass  or  millet  is  a  true  panic  grass. 

Barnyard  Grass.  This  is  an  annual,  growing  two 
or  three  feet  high,  with  a  heavy,  juicy  stem  and  rough, 
heavy  seed-tops.  Its  favorite  habitat,  as  denoted  by 
its  name,  is  the  barnyard,  growing  sometimes  even 
upon  manure  heaps.  It  is  greedily  eaten  by  horses 
and  cattle,  and  makes  hay  of  passable  quality.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country  it  has  been  cultivated. 

Slender  Crab -Grass.  This  is  a  Southern  annual, 
with  straight  steins,  terminated  by  three  to  five  slen- 
der and  erect  spikes  of  flowers.  The  leaves  are  one 
to  two  inches  long,  smooth  below  and  sometimes  a 
little  hairy  above.  It  grows  mostly  in  dry,  sandy  soil, 
and  is  of  little  value. 

Guinea  Grass.  This  is  a  perennial  of  vigorous 
growth,  a  nadve  of  Africa  and  extensively  cultivated 
throughout  the  tropics. 

Old-witch,  Tickle  and  similar  grasses  belong  also 
to  the  genus  Panicum, 

Pansy,  the  most  gorgeous  and  fantastic  flower  of 
the  violet  family.  It  is  a  familiar  and  hardy  annual, 
of  easy  cultivation.  Florists  have  made  many  beau- 
tiful varieties  of  it,  so  that  one  can  order  almost  any 
color  or  mode  of  variegation.  It  will  probably  never 
become  too  old-fashioned  for  popular  favor. 

Par,  of  the  value  of  its  face,  or  100  per  cent. 

Paraflane,  a  tasteless,  inodorous,  fatty  matter  dis- 
tilled from  cannel  coal  and  other  sources. 

Paralysis,  of  horse  :  see  page  794. 

Parasite,  plants  which  attach  themselves  to  other 
plants,  and  animals  which  live  in  or  on  the  bodies  of 
other  animals,  so  as  to  subsist  at  their  expense.  The 
dodder  is  a  parasitic  plant,  the  louse  and  the  intes- 
tinal worm  parasitic  animals.  There  are  parasites 
which  prey  uiwn  every  part  and  every  organ  of  the 
human  body.  The  principal  species  are  noticed 
under  their  respective  heads  and  in  the  article  on 
Insects,  Injurious. 

Paregoric,    an   anodyne  made  of  a   mixture  of 


ioo6 


PARIS  GREEN— PASTURE. 


opium,  oil  of  anise  and  camphor,  the  latter  to  modify 
its  effects  to  some  extent,  making  it  quite"  safe  for 
children.  The  dose  for  an  adult  is  from  one  to  two 
teaspoonfuls. 

Paris  Green :  see  page  865  under  head  of  Use  of 
Poisons. 

Carbonate  of  lime  will  be  found  a  good  substitute 
for  Paris  green  or  London  purple  in  destroying  potato 
beetles.  A  few  pounds  dusted  from  a  dredging  box 
is  enough  for  an  acre  of  potatoes.  There  has  been 
no  such  terror  added  to  farm  life  of  late  years  as  the 
introduction  of  deadly  arsenical  poison  into  daily  use, 
and  any  innocent  material  that  would  be  as  effective 
would  certainly  be  very  welcome.  The  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  human  or  other  animal  life  has 
been  lost  through  the  careless  use  of  Paris  green  is 
saddening,  and  the  worst  of  it  is,  the  casualties  increase 
as  the  public  becomes  familiarized  with  the  handling 
of  the  poison.     See  Arsenic. 

Parotid.  Gland,  the  largest  of  the  salivary  glands, 
seated  under  the  ear  and  near  the  angle  of  the  lower 
jaw.  For  inflammation  of  the  parotid  gland  in  the 
horse,  see  page  794. 

Parsley,  a  hardy  biennial  plant  used  for  soup  and 
garnishing  meats.  Sow  in  drills  one  foot  apart  in 
light,  rich  soil.  The  seed  is  usually  from  15  to  25 
days  vegetating.  Thin  plants  to  four  inches  apart 
when  two  inches  high.  The  beauty  of  the  plant  may 
be  increased  by  several  successive  transplantings. 

The  best  recomuiended  varieties  are  the  dwarf 
curled,  the  fine  doubled  curled,  Myatt's  garnishing, 
Uunnett's  selected,  Carter's  Covent  garden  garnishing, 
Carter's  champion,  fern-leaved,  moss  curled  and  En- 
field matchless. 

Parsnip.  The  parsnip  belongs  to  the  same  tribe 
of  plants  as  the  carrot  and  grows  in  similar  soil. 
Give  the  richest  and  deepest  soil  to  the  long  varieties  ; 
the  turnip  sort  will  grow  well  on  shallow  soil ;  pulver- 
ize the  ground  well  and  plant  the  seed  in  earliest 
spring  in  rows  18  inches  apart,  covering  tlie  seed 
about  half  an  inch  deep.  To  keep  well  in  the  ground 
over  winter,  draw  a  little  earth  over  the  tops.  For 
winter  use  they  may  be  pulled  in  the  fall  just  before 
the  ground  freezes,  buried  thinly  and  allowed  to 
freeze,  or  be  frozen  without  burying  if  they  are  cooked 
at  their  first  thawing.  This  is  more  convenient  than 
to  dig  frozen  ground  for  them  to  the  depth  of  a  foot 
or  more  during  the  winter. 

Varieties.  Large  or  Lotig  White  Dutch.  The 
standard  kind. 

Hollmu-Crmvned,  Cup  or  Guernsey.  Superior  in 
quality. 

Round  Early  or  Turnip.  Good  for  shallow  soil 
and  easy  to  pull. 

Abbott's  Hollo%v-Cro7vned.     Smooth  and  sweet. 

Sutton's  Student.     A  good  English  variety. 

Maltese.     A  new,  long  English  variety. 

Parsnips  are  not  sufficiently  appreciated,  perhaps 
because   of  their  too  sweet  taste ;    but   this   can   be 


overcome  to  a  palatable  extent  by  judicious  cookery; 
they  are  excellent  when  sliced  after  boiling  and 
warmed  in  a  sauce  made  by  mixing  flour,  butter  and 
milk  over  the  fire  and  seasoning  it  with  salt  and  pep- 
per ;  as  soon  as  warm  they  are  served  with  a  little 
chopped  parsley  and  a  squeeze  of  lemon  juice.  Pars- 
nips fried  brown  with  slices  of  salt  pork  and  a 
seasoning  of  salt  and  pepper  make  an  excellent  dish. 
Parsnips  are  always  good  the  first  season  they  are 
planted,  and  also  the  next  spring  when  they  first 
come  up  they  are  good;  but  after  they  take  their  second 
growth  they  are  always  poisonous  and  will  always 
kill  anyone  that  eats  them. 

Partridge:  see  Ruffed  Grouse,  page  611. 

Parturition  (par-tu-rish'un),  the  act  of  bringing 
forth  young.  We  treat  of  the  parturition  of  domestic 
animals  in  their  respective  articles. 

Paste.  Paste  for  Scrap-Books.  For  a  paste  that 
will  not  strike  through  the  paper,  we  may  recommend 
ordinary  flour  paste,  with  the  addition  of  about  five 
per  cent,  of  alum.  To  keep  the  paste  from  s[X)iling, 
a  little  carbolic  acid  and  about  five  grains  of  corrosive 
sublimate  to  the  pound  may  be  added.  The  acid  has 
the  effect  of  preventing  the  fonnation  of  microscopic 
growths  and  animalcules,  and  the  sublimate  effectually 
keeps  away  the  flies  and  winged  insects  which  are 
apt  to  lay  their  eggs  in  the  paste,  where  they  will 
hatch  in  spite  of  the  carbolic  acid.  Recently  salicylic 
acid  has  been  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

A  Good  Paste  That  Will  Keep.  Four  parts,  by 
weight,  of  glue  softened  in  fifteen  parts  of  water,  then 
heat  with  the  water  until  a  clear  solution  is  obtained, 
and  add  sixty-five  parts  of  water  with  stirring.  Mix 
thirty  parts  of  starch  with  water  to  a  thin  milk,  and 
stir  this  into  the  glue  solution,  and  keep  the  mixture 
at  the  boiling  point  for  a  time.  Stir  in  a  few  drops  of 
carbolic  acid,  and  store  in  covered  vessels  to  prevent 
loss  of  water.     It  will  not  sour. 

Pastern,that  part  of  the  horse's  foot  between  the 
fetlock  joint  and  coronet  of  the  hoof.  It  is  the  seat  of 
ringbone. 

Pastry,  food  made  with  baked  paste,  as  pies,  tarts, 
etc.,  which  see. 

Pasture,  grass  land  entirely  devoted  to  the  grazing 
of  stock.  For  the  various  kinds  and  cultivation  of 
forage  proper  for  pastures,  see  Grass  and  Clover. 

Pastures  ought  to  be  properly  divided,  and  this 
work  requires  a  great  deal  of  judgment.  Good  fenc- 
ing is  costly,  and  it  is  a  ditificult  jwint  to  determine 
between  the  advantage  of  small  ranges  and  the  ex- 
pense and  inconvenience  of  keeping  up  numerous  di- 
visions. Milk  cows,  working  animals  and  fattening 
stock  need  the  most  copious  pasturage;  then  young 
stock;  while  sheep  will  thrive  on  shorter  feed  than 
either,  and  greedily  consume  most  plants  which  the 
others  reject.  By  this  means  a  field  will  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  of  all  plants  which  animals  will  eat, 
and  the  remainder  should  be  extirpated.  The  same 
care  should  be  taken  to   prevent  the  propagation  of 


PA  TENTS— PEA. 


1007 


weeds  in  pastures  as  in  other  fields.  Every  pasture 
should,  if  possible,  be  provided  with  running  water 
and  shade  trees,  or  other  ample  protection  against  the 
summer  sun.  In  the  absence  of  trees  light  and 
cheap  slieds  can  be  made.  Excessive  heat  exhausts 
and  sometimes  sickens  animals.  Pastures  ought  also 
to  be  protected  against  "  poaching,'  or  treading  up  in 
the  spring  or  late  in  autumn,  when  the  ground  is  sofl. 
Wherever  a  spot  of  ground  becomes  bare  it  should  be 
renewed  with  fresh  seed,  manure  and  cultivation. 
Mosses  should  be  destroyed. 

^Vhile  pastures  do  not  need  manuring,  they  do  gen- 
erally need  fertilization  by  the  use  of  salts,  ashes, 
gypsum,  lime,  etc.  In  the  course  of  time  pastures  be- 
come exhausted  and  reejuire  rotation.  See  Manure. 
In  natural  grasslands,  which  have  a  good  natural  or 
even  an  artificial  drainage,  pastures  should  very  rarely 
or  never  be  broken  up.  As  a  rule,  the  older  they  are 
the  better.  They  become  filled  with  a  large  variety 
of  grasses,  all  nutritious  and  valuable  in  their  seasons, 
and  when  once  Ijroken  up  it  will  take  many  years, 
even  if  well  re-secded,  to  firmly  establish  them  again. 

The  treatment  of  pastures  must  of  necessity  differ 
largely  in  various  jjarts  of  our  country,  depending 
upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  the  extent  and  char- 
acter of  bottom  land  in  which  they  may  be  situated, 
the  kind  of  stock  to  which  they  are  devoted,  the  dens- 
ity of  the  population,  the  circumstances  and  habits 
of  the  people,  etc. 

Whether  a  frequent  change  of  pasture  for  stock  is 
the  most  beneficial,  is  still  an  undecided  question. 

Patents  are  granted  by  the  United  States,  to  per- 
sons who  invent  any  new  and  useful  machinery  or 
compound.  The  grant  is  called  letters  patent,  and 
runs  for  fourteen  years.  The  several  States  have  no 
]X)wer  to  issue  letters  patent.  It  is  an  exclusive 
right  of  the  general  Government.  Letters  are  usually 
obtained  by  a  petition  in  writing  signed  by  the  per- 
son who  has  made  the  invention.  This  petition  must 
contain  a  statement  of  the  residence  and  citizenshij) 
of  the  party  applying  and  that  he  desires  to  obtain 
letters  patent  of  the  United  States  for  a  new  and 
useful  machine,  naming  it.  This  petition  must  be 
accompanied  Ijy  specifications  which  must  particular- 
ly and  minutely  describe  the  manner  of  construction 
and  working  of  such  machine.  Also,  there  must  be 
a  drawing  in  duplicate,  sliowing  a  front  and  side  view 
of  the  machine.  In  addition  to  the  petition,  specifi- 
cations and  drawings,  there  must  also  be  forwarded  a 
small  and  perfect  machine,  called  a  model.  These 
when  perfected  are  sent  to  the  Commissioner  of  Pat- 
ents, Washington,  D.  C.,who  will  examine  the  same, 
and,  if  he  finds  that  it  is  new  and  useful,  will  issue 
letters  patent  to  the  inventor.  A  person  may  obtain 
a  patent  for  an  improvement  on  a  part  of  a  machine 
as  well  as  for  one  entire.  All  patented  articles  must 
be  plainly  stamped  or  marked  "patented,"  giving  the 
date  of  the  patent,  in  order  to  preserve  to  the  inven- 
tor his  rights  under  his  letters  patent. 

The  i)atent  law  provides  a  penalty  of  $100  for 
every  marking  of  an  article  as  patented  when  no  pat- 


ent has  been  issued  therefor.  Patents  are  assignable 
in  whole  or  in  part,  by  an  instrument  in  writing  known 
as  a  patent  deed.  This  instrument  to  render  it  valid 
as  against  third  persons  must  be  recorded  in  the  Pat- 
ent Office  at  Washington. 

The  person  to  whom  such  patent  deed  is  made  is 
called  an  assignee,  and  the  person  to  whom  letters 
patent  are  issued  is  called  the  patentee. 

The  patentee  may,  by  an  instrument  in  writing 
under  seal,  grant  to  another  person  or  corporation 
the  exclusive  right  to  make  and  sell  his  patented 
article  in  the  United  States  or  some  portion  thereof. 
Never  buy  a  patent  right  or  any  interest  in  one  unless 
from  some  reliable  person  with  whom  you  are  ac- 
quainted or  who  comes  well  recommended.  Have 
nothing  to  do  with  tlie  thousand  and  one  fellows  who 
travel  round  selling  patent  churns,  etc.,  for  nine 
times  out  of  ten  they  are  swindlers  and  frauds. 

Pathology,  the  science  or  doctrine  of  disease.  As 
physiology  teaches  the  nature  of  the  functions  of  the 
body  in  a  state  of  health,  so  pathology  relates  to  the 
va  rious  derangements  of  these  functions,  which  con- 
stitute disease. 

Pawing,  a  horse  striking  the  ground  with  his  fore 
foot  while  he  is  in  a  standing  posture.  It  is  a  habit 
of  no  consequence  when  moderate,  but  becomes  a 
vice  when  frequent  and  violent.  For  a  remedy  see 
page  7  13. 

Pawpaw,  a  small  tree  bearing  heavy,  oblong,  pulpy, 
edible  fruit.  The  flowers  and  foliage  of  the  tree  are 
very  handsome,  but  the  fruit  is  not  generally  admired. 

Pea.  The  pea  has  long  been  known  as  a  culinary 
vegetable  in  China,  Japan  and  India,  but  probably 
not  originally  a  native  of  a 
very  warm  climate.  The 
pea  is  now  raised  all  over 
the  civilized  world  for  eat- 
ing green,  or  at  the  time 
when  the  seed  are  fully 
formed  but  not  ripe.  Be- 
sides the  ordinary  culinary 
pea  there  is  a  variety  known 
as  the  Chick  pea,  which  is 
cultivated  as  food  for  horses 
in  some  countries,  and  also 
the  Cow  pea,  which  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  the 
South  as  food  for  horses, 
cattle  and  swine  (see  Cow 
pea).  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct classes,  the  dwarf  and  the  running.  While  the 
dwarfs  are  early  and  require  no  brush,  the  taller  or 
running  varieties  produce  qualities  we  do  not  find 
among  the  dwarfs.  Hence  we  must  conUnue  to  pro- 
pagate the  taller  varieties. 

The  principal  insect  infesting  the  pea  is  the  familiar 
weevil.  Fig.  2,  which  may  be  driven  out  by  a  little 
heat  when  the  seed  is  gathered.  It  is  advised  to  plant 
those  varieties  not  subject  to  this  pest. 


Fig. 


-  McLean* s  Little  Gent, 


ioo8 


PEACH. 


■  Pea  Weevil. 


The  culture  of  the  pea  is  very  simple,  as  every  one 
knows.  In  planting  cover  very  shallow,  say  only  an 
inch  deep.  The  dwarf 
varieties  will  stand  lib- 
eral manuring,  but 
with  this  treatment  the 
tall  kinds  will  run  too 
much  to  vine.  The 
dwarf  varieties  may  be 
in  rows  two  feet  apart, 
but  the  taller  should 
be  four  feet  apart  or  in 
rows  alternating  three 
and  four  feet  apart,  the 
wider  spaces  for  walking  through  in  picking  time. 

VARIETIES. 

For  earliest  planting,  which  may  be  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring,  the  varieties 
may  be  as  follows  : 

Dwarf,  Wrinkled  and  Sweet  : 
Carter's  Extra  Early  Premium  Gem.      More    pro- 
lific and  longer  podded  than  the  Little  Gem. 

Laxton's  Alpha.  The  best  early  wrinkled  market 
pea. 

Other  Dwarfs: 

Tom  Trumb.  One  of  the  very  earliest ;  very  pro- 
ductive ;  pods  well  filled ; 
height  of  vine  lo  inches. 

Mc Lean 's  Blue  Peter, 
Pods  larger  than  Tom  Thumb 
but  not  so  numerous ;  vines 
lo  inches  high. 

Hancock.  The  best  early 
hard  pea. 

Carter's  First  Crop.  Ear- 
liest of  all. 

Extra  Early  Dan  O'- 
Rourke.  Early,  standard; 
vines  two  feet  high. 

Kentish  Invicta.  Crop 
ripens  all  together;  vines 
25^  feet  high;  a  new  English 
variety. 

Second  planting: 
'  Dwarf,  Wrinkled  and  Sweet: 
McLean's  Little  Gem.     One  of  the  most  popular. 
McLeans  Advancer.     Probably  the   best    of    this 
class. 

Hair's  Dwarf  Mammoth.  Very  large;  vines  18 
inches  high. 

Other  Dwarfs.  Carters  Little  Wonder.  A  kind 
of  wrinkled  Marrow,  which  may  supersede  the  Ad- 
vancer, the  seed  being  larger;  vines  20  to  24  inches 
high,  and  of  very  robust  habit. 

Fill-Basket.     Large,  handsome  and  prolific. 
Brown  Dwarf  Marrowfat.     The  earliest  of  all  the 
Marrowfats. 

Dwarf  Blue  Imperial.  An  old,  standard  sort; 
vines  two  feet. 

Royal  Dwarf  Marrowfat.     Not  so  tall  as  Large 


Fig.  3.  —  Champion  o/ 
England  Pea 


White  Marrowfat;  earlier  than  Champion  of  England. 

For  late  planting : 

Dwarfs.  Yorkshire  Hero.  Peas  remarkably  large 
and  fine;  vines  2j^  feet  high;  wrinkled,  sweet. 

McLean's  Premier.  Said  to  have  every  good 
quality;  vines  2j4  feet  high;  wrinkled,  sweet. 

Carter s  Challenger .  A  dark  green  Marrow;  2j^ 
feet  high. 

Divarf  Sugar.     A  string  pea  with  edible  pods. 

Tall  Varieties.     The  wrinkled  and  sweet  are: 

Champion  of  England.     Well  known;  standard. 

Carter's  Commander-in-Chief.  A  green  Marrow 
with  long,  well-filled  pods. 

Other  Tall  Varieties.  Large  White  Marrowfat. 
Standard. 

Black-Eyed  Marrowfat.     Another  old  favorite. 

Laxton's  Supreme.     One  of  the  green  Marrow  class, 


American  IVontier  Pea. 


yielding  remarkably  long  and  well-filled  pods ;  vines 
five  feet. 

Laxton's  Superlative.  New  candidate  for  jxipular 
favor. 

To  Cook  Peas.  Peas  should  be  well  jjicked  over 
but  not  washed;  put  them  into  a  coarse  lace  bag 
made  double,  or  a  fine-netted  one  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  put  them  into  boihng  water;  let  them  boil 
for  half  an  hour;  put  them  into  the  dish  with  a  little 
salt  and  butter.  As  peas  grow  older  they  should  be 
boiled  longer;  and  when  they  are  quite  old  put  a 
pinch  of  soda  into  the  water  in  which  they  are  to  be 
boiled. 

To  can  peas  see  page  185. 

Peach.  This  certainly  ranks  among  the  most 
delicious  of  all  the  fruits  cultivated.  Pliny  states  that 
the  peach  was  originally  brought  from  Persia,  where 
it  grows  naturally.  Although  not  a  tropical  fruit  it 
requires  a  great  deal  of  warmth  to  bring  it  to  per- 
fection.    On  the  virgin  soils,  and  in  the  eariy  settle- 


PEACH. 


1009 


ment  of  our  country,  the  peach  was  easily  propagated 
and  bore  abundant  crops,  but  it  is  now  the  most  un- 
certain of  all  fruits  attempted  to  be  cultivated.  In- 
deed, so  liable  is  it  to  casualties,  as  to  have  become 
almost  entirely  discarded  in  large  sections  of  ihe 
United  States  where  it  was  once  cultivated  without 
difficulty.  It  is  now  generally  cultivated  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale  for  markets  in  certain  favorable  sections 
by  those  who  make  its  culture  an  exclusive  business. 

Propagation.  This  is  very  easy.  A  stone  plant- 
ed in  the  autumn  will  vegetate  the  ensuing  spring, 
grow  three  or  four  feet  high,  and  may  be  budded  in 
A\igust  or  September.  Two  years  from  this  time  it 
will  usually  produce  a  small  crop  of  fruit,  and  the 
next  season  bear  abundantly,  unless  the  growth  is 
over-luxurious.  In  nursery  culture  it  is  customary  to 
bury  the  peach-stones  in  autumn,  in  some  exjxised 
spot,  in  thick  layers  covered  with  earth,  where  they 
are  allowed  to  lie  all  winter.  As  early  in  the  spring 
as  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  the  stones  are 
taken  up,  cracked,  and  the  kernels  planted  about  an 
inch  deep  in  a  mellow  soil,  in  the  nursery  rows  where 
they  are  to  grow.  In  the  latter  part  of  this  season 
they  should  be  budded,  the  buds  being  mserted  ([uite 
near  the  ground.  The  next  March  the  stock  should 
be  headed  back,  and  the  trees  will,  under  favorable 
conditions,  grow  five  or  six  feet  high  this  year.  Be 
sure  that  the  peach-stones  are  from  orchards  where 
there  are  no  yellows.  To  render  the  peach  quite 
dwarf  plum  stock  of  hard  wood  should  be  employed. 

Soil  and  Situation.  The  very  best  soil  for  the 
peach  is  a  rich,  deep,  sandy  loam ;  next  to  this  a 
strong,  mellow  loam ;  next  a  thin  sandy  soil,  and  the 
poorest  is  a  heavy,  compact  clay  soil.  The  best 
situation  is  a  southerly  slope  near  the  top  of  a  hill 
where  high  winds  are  broken  off.  In  districts  of 
country,  however,  where  the  fruit  in  the  blossom  is 
liable  to  be  cut  off  by  spring  frosts,  it  is  safer  to  plant 
on  the  north  sides  of  hills  or  on  eastern  sides  of  large 
bodies  of  water.  In  setting  in  the  orchard  the  trees 
may  be  16  to  25  feet  apart,  according  to  the  expect- 
ed size  of  the  tree.  Whether  to  transplant  from  the 
nursery  into  the  orchard  in  the  fall  or  spring  depends 
upon  local  conditions. 

Cultivation.  As  to  the  cultivation  of  the  orchard 
bv  the  plow,  many  horticulturists,  especially  in  the 
North,  are  in  favor  of  the  method,  while  at  the  South 
they  say  that  the  plow  injures  the  surface  roots, 
damaging  the  tree  and  the  crop.  In  most  peach 
orchards  in  the  East  and  South,  the  soil,  being  ]X)or,  is 
enriched  by  what  is  added  to  the  surface;  the  roots 
of  the  trees  therefore  grow  near  the  surface  and  are 
easily  destroyed  by  the  plow.  As  to  pruning,  there 
is  a  great  difference  of  opinion  as  well  as  of  practice. 
The  Michigan  cultivators  generally  shorten  in  the 
long  and  heavy  branches,  thin  out  the  smaller  ones 
where  too  numerous,  leaving  a  few  small  twigs  next 
to  the  main  trunk  on  the  south  side,  to  prevent  sun 
scald.  February  and  March  are  the  best  time  for 
pruning;  but  much  may  be  saved  to  the  tree  as  well 
as  to  the  orchardist  if  he  can  discriminate  in  time, 

G4 


by  rubbing  off  the  buds  before  they  grow  into  large 
limbs.  Of  course,  as  with  all  fruit  trees,  the  peach 
tree  should  not  be  allowed  to  overbear.  A  heavy 
mulching  put  on  the  ground  around  the  trees  when  it 
is  frozen,  and  permitted  to  remain  on  in  the  spring, 
will  prevent  the  trees  from  blooming  too  early. 
Sometimes  it  pays  to  cover  the  trees,  by  wrapping  old 
calico  around  them  for  winter  protection. 

Training  peach  trees  against  walls  or  espaliers  is 
but  little  practiced  in  this  country. 

Insects  and  Diseases.  The  peach  borer  does 
great  mischief  to  this  tree  by  girdling  and  devouring 
the  whole  circle  of  bark  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  It  is  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  pene- 
trates and  devours  the  bark  and  sap  wood,  and,  after 
passing  the  winter  in  the  tree,  it  enfolds  itself  in  a 
cocoon  under  or  upon  the  bark,  and  emerges  again 
in  a  winged  form  in  June,  when  it  commences  de- 
positing eggs  in  the  soft  portion  of  bark  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Metnedies:  Heap  up  around  the  tree 
a  foot  high,  earth,  ashes,  etc.,  in  the  spring,  and  re- 
move from  the  tree  in  the  fall,  so  that  if  there  are  any 
grubs  there,  the  winter  will  freeze  them  out;  or,  draw 
away  a  little  earth  from  the  tree  in  the  spring,  and 
wrap  the  body  up  with  strong,  coarse  paper,  a  foot 
high,  securing  it  with  tying  and  replacing  the  earth; 
or,  hunt  for  the  grubs  with  a  sharp  knife  and  kill 
them. 

Leaf  curl  usually  appears  in  May  or  June  ;  the 
leaves  curl  up,  become  thick  and  swollen,  with  hol- 
lows on  the  under  side  and  reddish  swellings  on  the 
upper;  in  two  or  three  weeks  they  fall  off  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  new  and  vigorous  leaves.  The  blister  is  a 
similar  affection  in  the  leaf  and  leaf-stem,  and  both 
these  injuries  are  caused  by  the  peach-tree  louse  and 
fungus.  Remedy  :  Rub  off  the  affected  twigs  as  soon 
as  discovered  dviring  the  summer  and  prune  them  off 
during  the  winter.  In  the  latter  season  they  can  be 
easily  recognized  by  the  fine  fungus  threads. 

The  peach  curculio  makes  extensive  ravages  in 
some  parts  of  the  West.  The  remedy  for  it  is  similar 
to  that  for  the  plum  curculio,  except  that  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  there  be  unity  of  action  over  a 
large  extent  of  country,  and  for  this  purix)se  State 
legislation  is  requisite. 

Extremes  of  cold  and  heat,  although  alone  are  not 
sufficient  to  injure  the  tree  materially,  when  accom- 
panied by  other  exposures,  seem  to  aggravate  disease 
and  hasten  death.  It  is  maintained  that  the  peach 
fruit  bud  can  stand  a  temperature  of  at  least  40° 
below  zero  without  injury,  provided  it  is  protected  by 
a  layer  of  snow,  or  otherwise  kept  shaded,  and  not 
exixised  to  severe  winds.  Very  often  a  peach  tree 
stands  opposite  an  opening  between  buildings,  or  at 
an  exposed  corner,  where  the  wind  is  unusually  severe 
or  constant.  Late  frosts  in  spring  often  kill  the  fruit. 
No  one  need  expect  that  such  trees  should  bear  fruit. 
A  long  drouth  in  connection  with  hot  weather  hastens 
the  maturity  of  the  fruit,  which  is  consequently  thin 
and  imperfect. 

Of  all  the  diseases  which  attack  the  peach,  the 


loio 


PEACH. 


yellows  is  by  far  the  greatest  epidemic, — or,  if  we  may 
coin  a  word,  epidendric.  Most  peach-growers  regard 
the  yellows  as  contagious.  The  symptoms  of  this 
incurable  disease  are:  The  production  upon  the 
branches  of  very  slender,  wiry  shoots  a  few  inches 
long  and  bearing  starved,  diminutive  leaves;  these 
shoots  are  not  protruded  from  tlie  extremities  but 
from  latent  buds  on  the  main  jwrtions  of  the  stem  and 
larger  branches;  the  leaves  are  very  narrow  and  small, 
pale  yellow  or  colorless.  The  fruit  ripens  prema- 
turely, has  specks  and  large  spots  of  purplish  red,  and 
internally  the  flesh  is  more  deei)ly  colored,  especially 
around  the  stone.  These  symptoms  are  generally 
slight  the  first  season,  and  are  aggravated  each  suc- 
ceeding season  until  the  tree  dies.  The  fruit  from 
the  tree  the  first  season  of  attack  seems  as  good  to 
the  palate  as  ever;  but  its  healthful  character  is  dubi- 
ous :  after  the  first  year  it  should  of  course  never  be 
€ateii.  This  disease  is  propagated  by  budding  and 
grafting,  as  well  as  by  the  seeds.  The  cause  of  the 
yellows  is  still  a  mystery;  some  think  it  a  result  of 
overbearing,  or  bad  cultivation,  or  both.  Mr.  Down- 
ing says  that  the  yellows  has  but  little  progress  in 
European  countries,  where  pruning  is  practiced  and 
overbearing  not  allowed.  Remciiy  .•  Prompt  and 
total  destruction  of  the  tree;  and  for  this  purpose 
State  legislation  seems  to  be  necessary,  as  many  per- 
sons are  too  slow  in  applying  the  remedy,  and  are 
conseciuently  tlie  source  of  a  public  calamity.  Even 
the  ground  which  has  been  occupied  by  affected  trees 
should  not  again  be  planted  with  the  peach  until  after 
several  years. 

A  species  of  "rot"  sometimes  attacks  the  fruit  of  the 
pach-tree  in  the  West,  for  which  no  specific  remedy 
is  yet  proiwsed. 

Varieties.  We  aill  describe  only  those  varieties 
■which  are  recommended  for  cultivation  : 

Akxaiidfr,  Akxanticrs  Early,  Amsdetis  June. 
Medium  size,  greenish  white,  nearly  covered  with  red; 
a  partial  cling;  end  of  July;  veiy  good  dessert  and 
market;  fruit  showy  and  of  good  flavor.  Amsden's 
June  is  thought  by  some  to  be  a  distinct  variety  from 
the  Alexander. 

Allen's  October,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  best  for 
profit.        ^ 

Chinese  Cling.  Large,  sides  compressed,  suture 
quite  shallow,  skin  creamy  white,  shaded  and  mar- 
bled with  red ;  flesh  white,  red  at  the  stone,  which  is 
adherent,  melting,  and  of  a  rich,  vinous  flavor;  ripens 
first  to  middle  of  September. 

Coolcdge's  Favorite.  Large,  especially  on  one  side, 
suture  prominent  at  the  top  only,  white,  with  a  fine, 
crimson,  mottled  cheek,  juicy,  rich  and  high-flavored ; 
very  good  dessert  and  market;  tree  unusually  product- 
ive and  is  very  hardy ;  middle  of  August. 

Barnard.  Fair  size,  dark-red  on  yellow  ground, 
freestone,  flesh  yellow,  firm  and  of  an  aromatic  flavor, 
good  dessert  and  very  good  market,  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember; apt  to  overbear,  when  the  fruit  is  small;  tree 
very  hardy. 

Crawford's  Early.    Large,  the  swollen  jwint  at  the 


top  prominent,  the  suture  shallow ;  skin  yellow,  with 
a  fine  red  cheek;  flesh  yellow,  free, best,  early  August; 
tree  vigorous,  fruitful  and  hardy. 

Crawford's  Late.  Very  large,  fine  dark-red  on  a 
yellowish  ground;  flesh  deep  yellow,  but  red  at  the 
stone ;  a  rich  vinous  flavor;  best ;  early  September; 
tree  lacks  productiveness  when  young  or  on  light  soil. 

Crockett's  Late  White.  Medium  to  large,  oblong, 
greenish  white,  some  red  in  the  sun ;  flesh  pale,  sweet, 
not  very  juicy,  free ;  last  of  September. 

Early  Beatrice.  Small,  whitish  red,  somewhat  mar- 
bled, freestone,  very  good  dessert,  fair  market,  middle 
of  August;  a  beautiful  peach. 

Early  Louise.  Medium  size,  purple  red  on  green- 
ish white  ground,  freestone,  very  good  dessert  and, 
market;  early  August;  high  quality. 

Early  Rivers,  Rivers'  Early.  Large,  yellowish 
pink  or  pale  straw  color,  freestone,  best  dessert  and 
market,  but  lacks  color  for  the  latter  purjx)se;  middle 
of  August. 

Early  York,  Large  Itarly  York.  Medium  to  large, 
pale  red,  thickly  dotted  over  a  pale  ground  in  the 
shade  but  quite  dark  red  in  the  sun ;  flesh  greenish 
white,  remarkably  tender  and  melting,  free,  very  good 
dessert  and  market ;  last  of  August.  The  Red  Rare- 
ripe is  larger,  more  deeply  marked  with  the  siiture, 
ripens  later  and  is  riciier  flavored. 

Felt's  Rareripe  is  a  new  and  promising  variety. 

George  the  Fourth.  Medium  to  large,  deeply 
divided  by  a  broad  suture,  one  side  larger,  pale  yel- 
lowish white,  finely  dotted  with  bright  red  and  deep- 
ening into  a  dark  red  cheek  on  one  side  ;  flesh  pale, 
red  at  the  stone,  which  is  small,  free  and  of  a 
remarkably  rich  and  luscious  flavor;  best  dessert,  jwor 
market  on  account  of  tenderness;  last  of  August;  tree 
very  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  bears  regular  and  mod- 
erate crops. 

Hale's  Early.  Medium  size,  greenish,  mostly 
covered  and  mottled  with  red  when  ripe;  flesh  white, 
best  dessert  and  very  good  market  •  middle  of  August; 
subject  to  rot;  tree  hardy  and  productive. 

Haines'  Early  Red.  Medium  size,  depressed  at 
the  top,  suture  well  marked,  one  side  of  the  fruit 
larger  than  the  other,  pale  white,  marked  with  red 
and  nearly  covered  with  deep  red;  flesh  greenish 
white,  fair  dessert  and  market;  last  of  August ;  hardy 
and  productive. 

Heath  Cling.  Very  large,  narrowing  to  both  ends 
and  terminating  at  the  top  with  a  large  swollen  point; 
suture  distinct  on  one  side ;  skin  downy,  cream-col- 
lored  white,  with  a  faint  tinge  of  red  or  brown  in  the 
sun ;  flesh  greenish-white,  exceedingly  juicy  and 
luscious,  very  good  dessert  and  market ;  October;  needo 
a  long  season. 

Indian  Cling  is  a  variety  recommended  for  th_ 
West. 

Lemon  Cling,  Kennedy's  Carolina,  Yellow  Pine- 
apple, etc.  Large,  narrowed  at  the  top,  with  a  ter- 
minal ]X)int  like  a  lemon :  skin  fine  yellow,  with  a 
dark  brownisli-rcfl  cheek ,  flesh  firm,  vellow,  slight 
red  at  the  stone,  rich,  sprightly,  vinous,  sub-acid;  fair 


PEACH— PEA-FO  WL. 


ion 


dessert,  very  good  market;  ripens  end  of  September. 

La  Grange.  Large,  greenish  white  with  some  red 
occasionally  on  the  sunny  side;  flesh  pale,  high- 
flavored,  free-stone;  end  of  September;  one  of  the 
best  for  profit  in  Central  Illinois. 

Morris'  White  Rareripe.  Medium,  suture  of 
moderate  depth,  swollen  jwint  small ;  skin  rather 
downy,  greenish  white  on  all  sides  at  first,  but  white 
with  a  creamy  tint  when  fully  ripe,  and  having  a 
slightly  purplish  cheek  where  fully  exposed  to  the 
sun;  flesh  white  to  the  stone,  a  little  firm;  free-stone; 
fair  dessert  and  market;  best  cooking  and  valuable 
particularly  for  canning  on  account  of  its  color. 

Mountain  Rose.  Large, white  and  red;  free-stone; 
very  good  dessert  and  market;  very  fine  in  respect  of 
form,  size  and  color;  beginning  of  September. 

Old  Mixon  Cling.  Large,  suture  distinct  only  at 
the  top,  one  side  of  the  fruit  slightly  larger;  skin  yel- 
lowish white,  dotted  with  red,  or  with  a  red  cheek, 
varying  from  pale  to  lively  red;  flesh  pale  white;  best 
dessert  and  cooking;  veiy  good  market;  middle  of 
September ;  an  old  standard  for  profit. 

Old  Mixon  Free.  Large,  one  side  swollen,  suture 
visible  only  at  the  top,  cavity  but  slightly  sunk  at  the 
stem;  skin  pale  yellowish  white  marbled  with  red, 
the  cheek  a  deep  red;  flesh  white  but  quite  red  at 
the  stone ;  sugary,  vinous,  very  good  dessert ;  best 
market;  middle  of  September;  an  old  variety  which 
still  holds  a  high  position  as  a  market  peach. 

President.  Large,  suture  shallow,  very  downy, 
pale  yellowish  green,  with  a  dull  red  cheek;  flesh 
white  but  deep  red  at  the  stem,  high  flavor;  stone 
very  rough,  free  ;  middle  of  September. 

Rivers'  Early:  See  Early  Rivers'. 

Slocum.     Ripens  the  beginning  of  September. 

Smock  Free.  Large,  narrow  toward  the  stem,  rather 
compressed  on  the  sides;  liglit  orange  yellow  mottled 
with  red  or  often  with  dark  red  cheek  when  fully  ex- 
posed; free-stone;  flesh  bright  yellow,  red  at  the 
stone,  fair  dessert,  best  market;  October;  one  of  the 
latest  profitable  market  peaches  in  Southern  Michi- 
gan. 

Snmv.  Medium  to  large,  suture  faint  except  at  the 
top;  skin  thin,  clear,  beautiful  white  or  yellowish 
white  on  all  sides ;  flesh  clear  white  to  tlie  stone ;  fair 
market  and  dessert;  middle  of  September;  free-stone; 
young  growth  yellowish  green ;  blossoms  also  white. 

Stump  the  World.  Very  large,  brownish  red  on 
white  ground,  very  good  dessert,  best  market,  end  of 
September;  free-stone. 

Troth's  Early,  Troth's  Early  Red.  Medium, 
whitish,  bright  red  in  the  sun;  flesh  white,  red  at  the 
stone,  which  is  free ;  medium  dessert ;  good  market, 
early  in  August ;  tree  productive. 

Venus  {Belle  Pausse?  Vincuse  Native  f)  is  a  small 
fine-flavored  peach,  very  productive. 

Ward's  Late  Free.  Large,  white  with  a  beautiful 
crimson  cheek;  flesh  white,  slightly  tinged  with  red 
at  the  stone;  very  good  dessert;  first  of  October. 

Yelloiv  Alberge.  Medium,  with  a  well  marked 
furrow   running    half    round ;    yellow   with   a   deep 


purplish  red  cheek  ;  flesh  yellow  but  deep  red  at  the 
stone,  which  is  free ;  a  luscious  fruit ;  middle  of 
August. 

Yocum  is  a  new  and  promising  seedUng. 

To  Pickle,  Preserve  and  Spice  Peaches.  For 
the  best  mode  of  canning  peaches,  see  page  184.  We 
give  the  following  excellent  and  well-tried  methods  of 
preparing  peaches  : 

To  Preserve  Peaches.  Take  fine  ripe  ones,  pare, 
cut  in  two,  and  remove  the  stones.  Take  double  re- 
fined white  sugar,  finely  pulverized.  Weigh  sugar 
and  fruit,  and  let  them  balance  evenly  —  that  is, 
pound  for  pound.  Put  the  fruit  in  a  large  earthen 
bowl,  and  strew  over  it  one-half  of  the  sugar,  and  let 
it  stand  till  morning.  Then  take  all  the  juice  from 
them  and  put  it  into  a  preserving  kettle  with  the  rest 
of  the  sugar.  Set  over  a  moderate  fire,  and  boil  and 
skim  it.  While  boiling,  and  after  the  scum  has  quit 
rising,  put  in  the  peaches,  and  cook  until  they  are 
clear  as  amber,  but  not  soft  enough  to  break  up.  Put 
away  in  bowls  and  small  vessels;  when  cool  cover 
with  thick  paper  over  which  you  have  brushed  the 
white  of  an  egg.  We  always  find  preserved  fruit  to 
keep  best  in  a  well  ventilated  closet  or  cupboard  on 
the  ix)rch. 

I^ickled  Peaches.  To  ten  pounds  of  the  fruit  add 
one-half  gallon  of  vinegar  a"nd  three  pounds  of  sugar 
and  one-half  ounce  each  of  cloves,  cinnamon,  and 
allspice.  Scald  the  vinegar,  sugar,  and  spices,  and 
turn  it  over  the  fruit  the  next  morning.  Drain  the 
liquor  off  and  scald  it  again,  and  once  more  pour  it 
over  the  fruit  while  hot,  and  the  succeeding  morning 
scald  the  whole  mass  of  fruit  and  liquor  together, 
and  you  will  have  delicious  pickles. 

Another:  This  is  a  good  recipe  for  all  sweet 
pickles.  Take  peaches  of  full  growth,  ripe,  but  not 
soft,  wipe  them  with  a  flannel  cloth  or  pare  them; 
stick  three  or  four  cloves  in  each  peach,  lay  them  in  a 
stone  jar,  put  one-half  pound  sugar  to  one  quart  of 
good  vinegar;  add  cinnamon  and  other  spices  to  the 
taste;  let  the  vinegar  come  to  a  boil,  skim,  and  jxsur 
it  on  the  peaches.  Let  them  stand  two  weeks,  then 
pour  off  the  vinegar  and  boil  it ;  pour  it  on  again  and 
they  are  fit  for  use. 

Spiced  Peaches.  Take  four  pounds  of  brown  sugar 
and  one  gallon  of  vinegar.  Cling  peaches  are  usually 
preferred,  as  they  cook  up  less  than  the  free-stone. 
The  peaches  should  be  brushed  and  cut  from  the  pits 
in  halves.  The  pickles  may  not  last  so  long  as  if 
cooked  whole,  but  will  afford  more  pleasure  to  visitors 
in  the  eating  than  the  full  orbed  ones.  Stick  three  or 
four  cloves  in  each  peach,  tie  a  small  quantity  of 
spice  in  a  cloth.  Put  the  peaches  in  a  stone  jar,  boil 
the  syrup  and  pour  it  over  the  peaches  boiling  hot. 
Cover  tight,  let  them  stand  a  couple  of  days,  pour  off" 
the  vinegar,  heat  and  skim  and  again  pour  over  the 
peaches.  Do  this  three  or  four  times.  Free-stones 
are  better  left  on  the  pits. 

Pea-FowL  Pea-fowls  are  bred  and  kept  for  an 
ornament.  Sometimes  they  are  found  uiKin  thefaim, 
but  they  have  no  business  there,  if  other  poultry  is 


IOI2 


PEA-NUT— PEAR. 


kept.  They  are  naturally  an  ill-natured  bird,  and 
will  fight  and  kill  other  poultry,  especially  the  cock, 
which  will  kill  young  chickens,  and  it  is  said  will  eat 
them.  Public  parks  are  the  only  place  for  pea-fowls. 
There  their  beauty  is  attractive,  and  whenever  they 
choose  to  indulge  in  one  of  their  unearthly  screeches, 
they  are  far  enough  away  not  to  deafen  everybody. 
But  although  naturally  wild  and  ill-natured,  pea- 
fowls, if  they  are  well  taken  care  of,  become  tame, 
and  often  act  very  intelligently,  tapping  on  the  win- 
dow, if  they  are  neglected,  and  doing  other  things  to 
show  that  they  would  like  to  be  attended  to.  The 
hen  always  seeks  and  makes  her  own  nest,  and  lays 
and  sits  in  strict  seclusion.  Sometimes  the  attempt 
is  made  to  hatch  pea-fowl's  eggs  under  a  common 
hen,  but  the  common  hen  cannot  or  will  not  raise  a 
brood  of  pea-chicks.  She  will  not  remain  with  them 
longer  than  two  months,  while  the  pea-hen  remains 
with  her  chicks  full  six  months ;  and  they  need  her 
care  all  that  time,  too.  The  manner  of  rearing  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  reaiing  turkeys.  They 
must  be  kept  from  the  rain,  and  fed  about  as  turkeys 
are  fed,  with  the  addition  of  some  worms  or  finely 
chopped  raw  meat.  It  requires  three  years  for  them 
to  develop  into  maturity.  Of  course  there  is  no  profit 
in  them,  considered  as  poultry.  They  are  not  very 
often  found  upon  the  table,  although  it  is  said  that  a 
year-old  bird  makes  very  fine  eating.  As  these  birds 
pair  of  course  there  must  be  as  many  males  as  females. 

Pea-nut.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  Slates  the 
pea-nut,  or  goober,  as  it  is  known  in  some  sections  of 
the  South,  is  quite  extensively  raised.  One  peculiar- 
ity of  the  pea-nut  is  that  when  the  plant  flowers,  the 
young  seed-pod  enters  the  ground  where  the  seed 
ripens.  The  usual  mode  of  cultivating  it  is  to  plant 
in  drills  three  feet  apart,  one  nut  in  a  place,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  12  inches  apart.  Weeds  are  not  permitted 
to  grow  among  them,  and  at  the  time  when  they 
blossom  the  drills  are  bedded  up  so  as  to  make  a 
mellow  surface  for  the  young  nuts  to  strike  in.  When 
ripe  the  vines  are  pulled  and  dried,  without  getting 
wet,  the  nuts  whipped  off,  cleaned  up  in  a  common 
fanning-mill  and  sacked  for  market.  A  light  gray 
soil,  not  very  sandy,  is  best  adapted  to  their  growth. 

Pear.  This  may  be  said  to  be  a  modern  fruit,  es- 
pecially as  a  good  article  of  dessert.  The  wild  varie- 
ties are  the  most  austere  of  all  fruits,  and  the  pear  of 
ancient  times  was  but  little  better ;  but  the  modern 
cultivated  pear  stands  at  the  head  of  luscious  and 
nutritious  fruits.     Dietetically  it  is  perfect. 

Propagation.  The  pear  is  propagated  by  grafting 
or  budding  on  seedling  or  sucker  stocks,  the  former 
being  far  preferable.  To  raise  good  seedling  stocks, 
clean  the  seed  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  fruit  has 
matured,  and  sow  it,  as  apple  seeds,  in  drills,  in  deep, 
rich  soils.  The  ground  should  be  trenched  20  inches 
to  two  feet  deep  and  enriched  with  manure  or  a  com- 
post mixed  with  ashes.  If  the  young  plants  do  not 
have  a  vigorous  growth  from  the  start  they  are  apt  to 
be  killed  out  by  diseases  and  insects.     At  the  end  of 


two  years  the  seedlings  should  be  transplanted  to  the 
nursery  rows  for  budding. 

Budding,  which  is  preferable  to  grafting,  is  best 
done  about  the  first  of  August.  To  prevent  winter- 
killing, the  young  trees  should  be  covered  in  the  fall, 
or  they  may  be  heeled  in,  in  a  sheltered  place.  The 
thorn  makes  a  very  good  slock  for  the  pear,  except 
that  if  grafted  above  the  ground  the  tree  is  often  apt 
to  be  broken  off  by  high  winds  at  the  ixjint  of  union : 
this  is  obviated  by  grafting  a  little  below  the  surface. 
The  thorn  is  especially  good  for  clayey  soils.  To  ren- 
der the  pear  a  dwarf,  quince  stock  is  generally  pre- 
ferred. The  dwarf  pear,  however,  is  usually  short- 
lived, seldom  enduring  more  than  15  or  20  years  in 
bearing,  but  it  is  a  pretty  and  economical  way  of  rais- 
ing a  good  many  sorts,  and  getting  fruit  speedily,  in  a 
small  garden. 

The  young  pear,  not  being  very  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  fibrous  roots,  should  never  be  transplanted 
from  the  nursery  to  the  orchard  after  they  have  be- 
come very  large.  Small,  thrifty  plants  five  or  six  feet 
high  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

Soil,  Situation  and  Culture.  The  best  soil  for 
this  fruit  tree  is  a  strong  loam  of  moderate  depth,  on 
a  dry  or  well  drained  sub-soil.  A  soil  that  is  too  rich 
and  deep,  like  some  of  the  Western  alluvials,  forces 
the  tree  into  such  luxuriant  growth  that  its  wood  can- 
not all  ripen  well,  and  is  liable  to  be  killed  by  winter 
blight.  Soils  that  are  too  light,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  be  improved  by  trenching  if  the  sub-soil  is  ' 
heavier,  or  by  top  dressing  with  heavy  muck  and  river 
mud,  if  it  is  not.  In  the  North  it  is  better  to  plant 
on  a  southern  slope. 

It  is  the  general  opinion  at  the  present  day  that  for 
a  long  time  past  too  much  pruning  has  been  practiced 
upon  the  pear  tree.  Shortening  in  or  pruning  back 
the  ends  or  shoots,  either  in  summer  or  winter,  re- 
tards the  fruit-producing  period  and  abridges  the 
productiveness  of  the  tree.  Fruiting  spurs  will  not 
form  where  the  growths  are  constantly  interrupted  and 
excited  by  pruning.  In  soils  of  moderate  fertility  and 
in  a  favorable  climate,  young  shoots  will  in  most 
cases  be  covered  with  fruiting  spurs  the  second  yeai 
after  their  formation  if  left  to  their  natural  mode  and 
condition  of  growth.  The  only  pruning  then  that  is 
really  essential,  after  the  tree  has  become  established, 
is  to  thin  out  the  crowded  branches.  If  low-headed 
trees  are  preferred,  those  branches  which  have  be- 
come destitute  of  fruiting  spurs  near  the  body  of  the 
tree  may  be  cut  out  and  a  young  shoot  be  allowed  to 
take  the  place  of  the  one  removed.  There  will  be  no 
lack  of  young  shoots  for  this  purpose,  as  they  will 
be  produced  from  the  base  of  the  cut  branch.  Select 
the  strongest  and  best  place  to  occupy  the  vacancy, 
if  such  occupancy  is  desired.  This  mode  of  cutting 
back  branches  is  more  essenrial  with  dwarfs,  as  the 
quince  roots  are  unable  to  support  a  tall,  heavy- 
headed  tree;  but  in  all  other  respects  dwarf  pear 
trees  sho\ild  be  treated  the  same  as  standards. 

The  pear  succeeds  so  well  as  an  open  standard 
and  requires  so  little  care  for  pruning  that  training  is 


PEAR. 


1013 


seldom  thought  of  in  this  country  except  for  dwarfs, 
or  in  the  gardens  of  the  curious  or  skillful.  The 
method  generally  pursued  here  is  to  cultivate  the 
trees  as  bushes,  with  low  heads,  rather  than  as  pyra- 
mids, quenouilles  or  espalier.  To  do  this  the  main 
shoot  is  headed  back  more  severely  than  the  branches. 
If,  for  this  purpose,  summer  pinching  has  been 
neglected,  the  heading  should  be  done  the  latter  part 
of  winter  by  the  use  of  the  knife,  shortening  back 
from  one-half  to  two-thirds  on  the  preceding  year's 
growth. 

In  orchard  culture  the  pear  is  usually  planted 
about  30  feet  distant  each  way ;  in  small  gardens, 
where  the  trees  are  cultivated  as  dwarfs,  20  feet  dis- 
tant is  sufficient.  Some  fruit-growers  are  in  favor  of 
what  is  called  clean  cultivation,  which  consists  in 
keeping  the  surface  of  the  ground  clear  of  weeds  by 
light  plowing,  etc.  This  cultivation  should  com- 
mence early  in  the  season  and  not  be  continued  later 
than  the  middle  of  July.  After  a  standard  tree  has 
been  set  for  three  or  four  years  the  cultivation  should 
cease  and  grass  allowed  to  grow,  which  should  be 
mowed  and  placed  around  the  tree.  Every  autumn 
the  ground  should  have  a  toptiressing  of  manure  and 
lime;  this  is  better  than  an  occasional  heavy  manur- 
ing. In  warmer  latitudes,  where  the  growing  season 
is  longer,  the  pear  can  receive  more  extended  cultiva- 
tion, as  it  has  time  to  ripen  its  wood  before  winter. 

Diseases  and  Insects.  By  far  the  greatest  enemy 
to  the  pear  is  a  disease  called  the  pear  blight,  or  fire 
blight.  This  alone  does  more  mischief  in  a  pear 
orchard  than  all  the  diseases  and  insects  together  in 
an  apple  orchard.  So  extensive  is  it,  indeed,  that 
many  persons  deem  it  unprofitable  to  undertake  to 
raise  any  pears  at  all.  As  to  the  cause  and  remedy 
for  pear  blight  opinions  are  as  various  as  they  are 
concerning  anything  within  the  whole  domain  of 
horticulture.  The  symptom  of  this  dreaded  affection 
is  plain  enough,  which  is  simply  the  death  of  the 
tree,  by  piece-meal,  commencing  with  some  of  the 
branches  and  extending  over  the  whole  tree.  Usual- 
ly, however,  the  devastation  is  only  partial;  it  is 
always  very  capricious  in  all  its  features.  Mr.  Down- 
ing teaches  us  very  distinctly  that  there  are  two  kinds 
of  blight, — one  caused  by  an  insect,  the  other  by 
frozen  sap.  He  describes  the  insect  at  length  and 
characterizes  the  effect  of  his  work  as  follows:  "In 
June  or  July  shoots  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches 
suddenly  turn  brown,  and  in  two  or  three  days  the 
leaves  become  quite  black  and  dry,  and  the  wood 
shriveled  and  hard.  The  disease  usually  progresses 
farther  down  gradually  to  the  point  where  the  insect 
laid  its  egg.  sometimes  farther."  In  the  blight  caused 
by  frozen  sap  a  thick,  brownish,  sticky  matter  exudes 
from  the  tree  and  sometimes  drops  from  the  limbs 
where  wounded  with  a  knife,  and  in  the  spring  black- 
ened patches  are  to  be  seen,  which  extend  further 
and  further  during  the  summer.  But  also  other 
causes  are  assigned,  as  fungus,  peculiarities  of  climate, 
root-pruning,  excessive  top-pruning,  or  some  other 
mistake  in  cultivation,  situation,   etc.    While  many 


young  scientists  look  at  the  diseased  part  through  a 
microscope  and  announce  to  the  world  with  con- 
fidence that  the  fungus  which  he  sees  is  the  cause  of 
the  malady,  an  older  scientist  queries  which  was  the 
cause  of  the  other.  Every  dead  or  dying  plant  is 
permeated  with  microscopic  fungoids.  The  remedies 
of  course  are  still  more  various;  as,  varnishing  with 
raw  linseed  oil,  washing  with  strong  lye,  or  with  lime 
and  sulphur,  saturating  the  soil  with  unbleached 
ashes,  planting  the  trees  scattering  in  a  peach  orchard 
or  otherwise,  cutting  out  the  black  patches  as  they 
appear,  confining  sulphur  in  an  auger  hole  just  below 
the  affected  part,  etc.,  etc.  The  most  reliable  of  all 
these  remedies  is  perhaps  the  most  troublesome  one, 
— that  of  closely  searching  for  and  promptly  cutting 
off  and  burning  the  affected  twigs.  Some  think  there 
are  signs  of  the  disease  running  itself  out.  As  a  pre- 
ventive the  tree  should  be  taken  from  unaffected 
districts,  planted  in  a  dry  soil,  avoiding  severe  sum- 
mer pruning;  if  there  is  a  vigorous  young  growth  in 
the  fall  and  danger  of  winter  coming  on  before  it  is 
sufficiently  ripened,  lay  bare  the  roots  two  or  three 
weeks,  and  during  the  winter  cut  out  all  limbs  which 
have  discolored,  or  soft,  sappy  spots  on  them. 

A  slimy,  slug-like  worm,  of  a  dull  olive  brown,  and 
nearly  half  an  inch  long,  sometimes  eats  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaves  of  the  pear-tree  during  the  summer. 


Pear.  Tree  Slug. 

The  best  way  to  destroy  it  is  to  sprinkle  over  the 
leaves  early  in  the  morning,  ashes,  plaster,  dry  dust, 
quick-lime,  jxjwdered  white  hellebore,  or  Persian 
insect  powder,  or  showering  the  tree  with  a  solution 
of  carbolic  acid  or  carbolic  soap-suds. 

The  pear-leaf  blister  is  caused  by  an  insect,  the 
smallest  of  all  true  insects,  being  only  a  200th  of  an 
inch  long.  The  blisters  are  reddish  spots  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  principally  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaves;  afterward  these  spots  turn  brown 
by  the  death  of  the  parts.  As  many  of  these  mites 
find  their  way  down  the  stem  of  the  leaf  to  the  bud, 
and  show  marks  of  their  presence  at  the  latter  place, 
the  affected  branches  can  be  identified,  cut  off  and 
burned.  Prompt  and  early  attention  to  this  work  is 
the  only  reliable  remedy  proposed. 

A  species  of  curculio  attacks  the  pear  in  some  sec- 
tions, but  its  ravages  are  not  very  extensive.  For 
remedy,  see  Plum. 

Scaling  of  the  bark  is  a  disease  similar  to  the  blight, 
but  is  not  extensive. 

The  fruit  of  the  pear  tree  is  sometimes  subject  to 
splitting  and  cracking  open,  and  the  omnipresent  fun- 
gus is  discovered  in  this  case  also,  as  a  "cause,"  in 
the  estimation  of  those  who  look  through  a  micro- 


IOI4 


PEAR. 


scope  for  the  first  time ;  but  like  many  other  mysteri- 
ous diseases  and  troubles,  this  affection  is  clearly  and 
definitely  referred,  for  our  enlightenment,  to  "the 
effect  of  atmospheric  influences.' 

The  pear  is  a  peculiar  fruit  in  one  respect,  namely, 
it  has  usually  to  be  picked  from  the  tree  and  ripened 
in  the  house.  A  very  few  varieties  should  be  allowed 
to  ripen  on  the  tree.  The  proper  season  for  gathering 
is  when  a  few  full-grown  specimens,  but  worm-eaten, 
fall  to  the  ground,  or  when  there  is  a  change  of  color, 
or  the  fruit  separates  easily  from  the  stem.  They 
should  be  laid  away  in  shallow  drawers,  or  boxes  like 
bureau  drawers,  on  a  thickness  of  woolen  cloth,  with 
another  woolen  cloth  laid  over  ihem,  and  in  a  cool, 
dry  room ;  then,  according  to  variety,  from  three  days 
to  three  weeks  they  will  be  in  their  best  condition  for 
eating.  Winter  dessert  pears  should  be  allowed  to 
hang  on  the  tree  as  long  as  possible, — until  the  nights 
become  frosty ;  they  should  then  be  picked  and  wrap- 
ped separately  in  dry  paper,  and  packed  in  kegs,  bar- 
rels or  small  boxes,  and  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  room  free 
from  frost. 

Varieties.  Bartlett.  Large,  oblong,  obtuse  pear- 
shaped,  uneven,  skin  very  thin  and  smooth,  clear 
yellow,  with  a  soft  blush  on  the  sunny  side  in  exposed 
specimens,  rarely  marked  with  faint  russet;  stem  one 
to  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  stout,  inserted  in  a 
shallow  cavity ;  basin  shallow ;  flesh  white,  exceeding- 
ly fine-grained,  buttery,  somewhat  musky  and  of  a 
highly  perfumed  vinous  flavor;  very  good  dessert  and 
cooking,  best  market,  first  part  of  September.  One  of 
the  worst  to  blight.  Tree  upright,  with  yellowish-brown 
shoots  and  narrow,  folded  leaves. 

Belle  Lucrative,  Fondante  d'Automne.  Medium 
size,  variable  in  form,  from  obovate  to  obtuse,  pear- 
shaped  to  globular;  pale  yellowish  green,  slightly 
russeted;  stem  little  more  than  an  inch  long,  stout, 
often  fleshy,  obliquely  inserted  in  a  slight,  irregular 
cavity;  basin  of  moderate  depth;  flesh  sugary  and 
rich,  best  dessert,  fair  cooking  and  market,  last  por- 
tion of  September ;  tree  moderately  vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive.    Shoots  yellowish-brown. 

Beurre  d'Anjou.  Large,  obtuse,  pear-shaped,  green- 
ish, sprinkled  with  russet,  sometimes  shaded  with 
dull  crimson,  sprinkled  thickly  with  brown  and  crim- 
son dots;  stem  short,  thick,  fleshy;  cavity  surrounded 
by  russet;  flesh  whitish,  not  very  fine,  brisk  vinous 
flavor,  pleasantly  perfumed,  best  for  all  purposes,  No- 
vember; tree,  vigorous  and  productive. 

Beurre  Giffard.  Medium  size,  pear-shaped,  tapering 
to  the  stem,  which  is  rather  long;  skin  greenish  yel- 
low, marbled  with  red  on  the  sunny  side ;  flesh  white, 
delightfully  perfumed  and  vinous,  very  good  dessert, 
fair  cooking  and  market,  early  August;  must  be  gath- 
ered early,  and  does  not  continue  long;  tree  of  mod- 
erate growth,  with  slender,  reddish  shoots. 

Bloodgood.  Medium  size,  turbinate,  inclining  to 
obovate,  regular,  pale  green,  sprinkled  with  small  rus- 
set dots  and  considerably  covered  with  russet;  stem 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  curved ;  flesh  yellowish 
white,  gritty  around  the  core,  rich,  very  good  dessert, 


fair  cooking  and  poor  market,  August ;  skin  thin  and 
of  a  musky  perfume ;  core  small.  Tree  short-jointed, 
with  deep  reddish-brown  wood,  and  bears  early  and 
regularly. 

Buffum.  Medium  size,  oblong  obovate,  a  little 
smaller  on  one  side,  fair,  deep  yellow  (brownish  green 
at  first)  finely  suffused  over  half  the  fruit,  with  bright 
red  sprinkled  with  small  brown  dots  or  a  little  russet; 
stem  an  inch  long;  cavity  slight,  basin  moderate; 
flesh  white,  buttery,  not  very  juicy,  but  sweet  and  of 
good  flavor ;  good  for  all  purposes,  September.  This 
pear  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  upright,  reddish 
brown  shoots,  and  peculiar  brownish  green  of  the  fruit 
before  ripening.  Tree  very  productive,  healthy  and 
vigorous,  but  the  fruit  is  liable  to  vary  in  quality. 

Clapp's  Favorite.  Large,  slightly  pear-shaped, 
uneven,  pale  lemon  yellow,  marbled  and  faintly 
splashed  with  crimson  and  fawn  where  fully  exjwsed 
to  the  sun,  thickly  sprinkled  with  brown  dots  and 
sometimes  patches  and  traces  of  russet ;  stem  nearly 
an  inch  long,  somewhat  fleshy  and  stout;  cavity  and 
basin  slight ;  flesh  white,  fine-gramed,  buttery,  sweet, 
vinous,  etc. ;  very  good  for  all  purposes,  but  inclined 
to  rot  at  the  core ;  early  September.  Tree  a  strong 
grower  and  highly  recommended  for  the  latitude  of 
Iowa. 

Doyenne  d'Alencon.  Medium  size,  nearly  pear- 
shaped,  rough,  yellow,  shaded  with  dull  crimson  or 
carmine,  sprinkled,  netted  and  patched  with  russet 
brown  dots;  stem  of  moderate  length,  rather  large; 
cavity  medium;  basin  deep,  round;  flesh  somewhat 
granular,  buttery,  sprightly,  rich  and  highly  perfumed, 
very  good,  December  to  April.  Tree  moderately  vig- 
orous and  productive;  young  shoots  dull  olive  brown. 

Duchesse  d'Angouleme.  A  very  large  and  mag- 
nificent pear  for  all  purposes,  but  at  the  Nprth  it  loses 
quality;  oblong  obovate-,  with  an  uneven,  somewhat 
knobby  surface,  dull  greenish  yellow  and  considerably 
streaked  and  spotted  with  russet;  stem  one  to  two 
inclies  long,  very  stout  and  bent;  cavity  irregular, 
deep;  basin  knobby;  flesh  has  all  the  good  qualities. 
Tree  is  a  strong  grower  but  is  unproductive  if  its  cul- 
tivation is  neglected.     Not  subject  to  blight. 

Flemish  Beauty,  and  many  other  names.  Large, 
nearly  pear-shaped,  slightly  rough,  pale  yellow,  but 
mostly  covered  with  marblings  and  patches  of  light 
russet,  becoming  reddish  brown  at  maturity  on  the 
sunny  side;  stem  rather  short;  cavity  deep,  round 
and  peculiarly  narrow;  basin  small  and  round;  flesh 
yellowish,  not  very  fine-grained,  musky,  very  sweet, 
good  for  all  purposes,  September ;  fruit  very  showy, 
but  soon  decays  at  the  center,  drops  and  sometimes 
scabs;  must  not  be  allowed  to  mature  on  the  tree; 
generally  the  best  market  variety  for  the  Northwest. 

Easter  Beurre, Bergamotte  de  la  Pentecote,  Doyenne 
d'Hiver,  etc.  Large  roundish  obovate,  obtuse,  often 
rather  square  in  figure,  yellowish  green,  sprinkled 
with  russet  dots  and  some  russet,  which  give  it  a 
brownish  cheek  in  some  specimens ;  stem  rather 
short,  stout ;  cavity  obtuse  and  abruptly  sunken ;  eye 
small;    basin   shallow,   plaited   and   angular;    flesh 


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FEAR. 


1017 


white,  fine-grained,  very  buttery,  melting  and  juicy, 
with  a  rich  and  sweet  flavor;  fair  dessert,  good  cook- 
ing, poor  market,  January  to  March;  tree  upright, 
thrifty,  does  better  in  the  South  ;  requires  a  warm 
exposure  and  a  favorable  season. 

Glout  Morceau,  Victoria,  etc.  Rather  large,  vary- 
ing in  form,  but  usually  obovate  obtuse  pear-shaped, 
smooth,  thin,  pale  greenish  yellow,  marked  with 
small  green  dots,  and  sometimes  with  patches  of 
greenish  brown ;  stem  rather  slender  and  straight,  an 
inch  or  more  long;  cavity  small  and  regular;  basin 
moderately  deep ;  flesh  has  all  the  good  qualities,  but 
in  heavy  soils  is  somewhat  astringent ;  better  on  the 
old  trees  and  well  ripened.     December. 

Gray  Doyenne,  Doyenne  Gray,  Red  Doyenne,  etc. 
Medium  size,  obovate,  but  usually  a  little  rounder 
than  the  White  Doyenne ;  wholly  covered  with  a 
smooth  cinnamon  russet,  rarely  a  little  ruddy  next 
the  sun;  stem  half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
curved;  cavity  deep  and  abrupt;  basin  smooth, 
shallow ;  best  for  all  purposes ;  October.  Shoots  up- 
right, grayish  brown. 

Howell.  Rather  large,  roundish  pear-shaped, 
light  waxen  yellow,  often  with  a  finely  shaded  cheek, 
thickly  sprinkled  with  minute  russet  dots  and  some 
russet  patches ;  stem  medium ;  cavity  is  generally 
wanting ;  basin  rather  large  and  uneven;  flesh  whit- 
ish, brisk,  vinous,  very  good  for  all  purposes ;  October. 
Tree  a  good  bearer  but  subject  to  blight. 

Julienne.  Small,  but  varying  in  different  soils,  ob- 
ovate, regular,  clear  bright  yellow  on  all  sides  ;  stem 
light  brown,  speckled  with  yellow,  a  little  more  than 
an  inch  long,  pretty  stout;  cavity  shallow;  basin 
shallow  and  a  little  plaited ;  flesh  white,  firm  at  first, 
half  buttery,  sweet  and  moderately  juicy;  August. 
Tree  thrifty  and  upright,  with  light  yellowish  brown 
shoots. 

Lawrence.  Medium  size,  obovate  obtuse  pear- 
shaped,  nearly  regular,  lemon  yellow  with  traces  and 
patches  of  russets  and  thickly  speckled  with  minute 
brown  dots;  stem  of  medium  length  and  rather  stout; 
cavity  russeted  and  irregular ;  basin  broad,  shallow, 
uneven  or  slightly  corrugated,  and  thinly  russeted ; 
very  good  to  best;  December.  Tree  a  moderate  grow- 
er, healthy,  vigorous,  an  early  and  abundant  bearer. 

Louise  Bonne  de  Jersey,  William  IV.  Large,  ob- 
long pear-shaped,  a  little  one-sided,  glossy,  pale  green 
in  the  shade  but  overspread  with  brownish  red  in  the 
sun  and  dotted  with  numerous  gray  dots ;  stem  about 
an  inch  long,  curved,  rather  obliquely  inserted,  with- 
out depression,  or  with  a  fleshy,  enlarged  base  ;  eye 
open  ;  basin  shallow,  uneven  ;  flesh  greenish-white, 
very  good  for  all  purposes,  September  and  October 
Fruit  of  better  quality  on  the  quince  than  on  the 
pear.  Tree  very  productive;  should  be  grown  as  a 
dwarf. 

Madeleine,  Sainte  Madelaine,  Citron  des  Cannes, 
etc.  Medium  size,  obovate  pear-shaped ;  stem  long 
and  slender ;  set  on  the  side  of  a  small  swelling ;  pale 
yellowish-green,  very  rarely  with  a  little  brownish 
blush  and  russet  specks  around  the  stem ;  basin  very 


shallow,  furrowed  ;  flesh  slightly  perfumed,  good  des- 
sert and  cooking  and  fair  market ;  July  ;  sometimes 
slightly  astringent ;  the  earliest  pear  of  good  quality. 
Tree  has  long,  erect  olive-colored  branches. 

Onondaga.  Large,  obtusely  pear-shaped  ovate 
obovate,  somewhat  coarse  and  uneven,  thickly  covered 
with  russet  dots,  fine  rich  yellow  at  maturity,  gener- 
ally with  some  traces  of  russet,  and  sometimes  with  a 
sunny  cheek ;  stem  rather  stout,  of  medium  length, 
inclined;  cavity  small,  basin  narrow  and  somewhat 
uneven  ;  flesh  buttery,  slightly  granular,  good  dessert, 
very  good  cooking  and  market ;  late  autumn  ;  a  showy 
fruit.  Tree  very  vigorous  and  productive '  young 
wood  olive  brown. 

Ott.  A  seedling  of  the  Seckel ;  small  roundish 
obovate,  greenish  yellow,  partially  netted  with  russet, 
reddish  on  the  sunny  side  ;  stem  long,  curved  ;  cavity 
shallow ;  basin  round,  open  ;  flesh  sugary,  perfumed 
and  aromatic,  excellent,  but  somewhat  valuable ; 
middle  of  August.  Tree  moderately  vigorous  and 
very  productive ;   young  wood  reddish  olive   brown. 

Passe  Colmar  and  many  other  names.  Rather 
large,  varying  considerably  from  obovate  to  obtuse 
pear-shaped ;  skin  rather  thick,  yellowish  green,  be- 
coming yellow  at  maturity,  a  good  deal  sprinkled  with 
brown  russet,  especially  around  the  stem  and  blos- 
som end  ;  stem  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  cavity  ob- 
tuse, uneven,  sometimes  wanting';  basin  shallow; 
flesh  yellowish  white,  buttery,  rich,  juicy,  sweet,  aro- 
matic, good  to  very  good ;  December  and  January. 
Tree  vigorous  and  an  abundant  bearer,  but  very  vari- 
able in  the  quality  of  fruit;  shoots  long  and  bending, 
and  of  a  dark  olive  brown. 

Prende  du  Pont,  although  an  inferior  pear,  is  hardy 
in  Northern  Illinois.  Not  described  under  this  name 
in  Downing's  work.     Is  it  Prairie  du  Pont  ? 

Rousselet  Stuttgard.  Small,  pear-shaped,  greenish 
yellow,  netted  and  patched  with  russet  and  sprinkled 
with  russet  and  green  dots,  brownish  crimson  in  the 
sun ;  stem  rather  long,  curved,  enlarged  at  its  inser. 
tion,  generally  without  depression ;  basin  shallow , 
flesh  rather  coarse,  juicy,  half  melting,  with  a  spicy 
aroma.  Last  of  August.  One  of  the  most  reliable 
of  the  early  kinds.  Tree  vigorous  and  a  good  bearer; 
young  wood  reddish  purple. 

Seckel.  Small,  regularly  formed,  obovate,  brownish 
green  at  first,  becoming  dull  yellowish  brown,  with  a 
lively  russet  red  cheek;  stem  one-half  to  three- fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  slightly  curved ;  cavity  shallow  and 
basin  almost  wanting;  flesh  whirish,  buttery,  very 
juicy  and  melting,  with  a  peculiarly  rich,  spicy  flavor 
and  aroma.  Mr.  Downing  does  not  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce this  the  richest  and  most  exquisitely  flavored 
variety  known;  best  dessert;  fair  market,  October; 
tree  hardy,  vigorous,  very  productive,  but  sometimes 
tardy,  and  carries  a  symmetrical  head. 

White  Doyenne,  Doyenne  White,  Virgalieu,  and  a 
score  of  other  synonyms.  Medium  to  large,  regulariy 
formed,  obovate,  varies  in  proportionate  length  on 
different  soils  ;  skin  smooth,  clear,  pale  yellow,  regu- 
lariy sprinkled  with  small  dots,  and  often  with  fine 


I 


ioi8 


PEARL  BARLE  Y— PEN  MA  NSHIP. 


red  cheek;  stem  brown,  three-fourths  to  one  inch 
long,  a  little  curved;  cavity  small,  round;  basin  shal- 
low; flesh  white,  fine-grained,  very  buttery,  highly 
delicious,  best  dessert;  good  cooking  and  market, 
October ;  tree  hardy,  has  all  the  good  qualities  and  is 
an  old  standard  variety  ;  tlie  branches  are  strong,  up- 
right, yellowish  gray  or  light  brown. 

Winter  Nelis.  Medium  size,  narrowed  toward  the 
stem  ;  yellowish  green  at  maturity,  dotted  with  gray 
russet  and  a  good  deal  covered  with  russet  patches 
and  red  streaks,  especially  on  the  sunny  side;  stem 
one  inch  and  half  long,  bent;  cavity  narrow  and  basin 
shallow;  flesh  yellowish  white,  fine-grained,  buttery, 
highly  flavored  and  rich ;  best  dessert,  good  cooking 
and  market;  December  and  January;  fruit  in  the 
West  inclined  to  be  knotty;  tree  hardy,  healthy,  a 
regular  bearer,  etc.;  branches  diverging,  rather  slender; 
dark  reddish  brown. 

To  Preserve  and  Pickle  Pears.  The  mode  of 
canning  pears  is  given  on  page  184. 

Fresh  Pears.  Take  nice,  ripe  Bartlett  pears;  pare 
them,  cut  in  halves  and  core  them ;  weigh,  and  to 
each  ix)und  of  fruit  allow  6  ounces  of  sugar;  cook  the 
pears  until  they  are  soft  in  a  little  sugar  and  water,  and 
put  the  pears  and  syrup  hot  into  the  jars ;  seal  im- 
mediately. 

Spiced  Pears.  Take  4  pounds  of  sugar  and  i  gal- 
lon of  best  cider  vinegar;  pare  and  halve,  as  many 
pears  as  the  syrup  will  cover;  tie  cinnamon,  cloves 
and  allspice  in  a  cloth,  and  boil  till  the  fruit  looks 
clear.  If  intended  to  be  kept  some  months,  it  will  be 
better  to  put  them  in  self-sealing  cans.  Do  not  put 
in  too  much  spice  as  it  will  make  them  dark. 

Preserved  Pears.  Peel  the  pears  and  core  them ; 
cut  them  in  halves ;  weigh  them ;  take  i  pound  of 
sugar  to  I  pound  of  fruit.  It  is  best  not  to  have  them 
too  hard ;  if  so,  they  should  be  boiled  in  water  first. 
Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar;  put  in  some  preserved 
ginger,  and  lemon  sliced,  to  flavor  it ;  boil  the  pears 
until  quite  soft ;  take  them  out  in  a  dish  to  cool ;  boil 
the  syrup  10  or  15  minutes  longer. 

Pickled  Pears.  Put  up  the  same  as  for  sweet 
pickled  peaches.  Any  kind  of  fresh  fruit  can  be  put 
up  in  the  same  way. 

Pearl  Barley:  see  page  58. 

Feat,  a  substance  which  seems  to  be  closely  allied 
to  coal,  and  which,  there  is  no  doubt,  has  been  pro- 
duced by  the  decay  and  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter.     See  Fuel. 

Pecan  (pe-con),  a  species  of  the  hickory  genus  of 
trees,  which  bears  soft-shell,  sweet,  edible  nuts,  which 
are  as  finely  flavored  as  the  hickory-nut.  The  diffi- 
culty of  collecting  pecans  in  quantity  accounts  for 
their  comparatively  high  price  in  the  market. 

Peck,  a  measure  of  capacity  comprising  two  gal- 
lons, or  one-fourth  of  a  bushel. 

Pectorals,  medicines  which  relieve  coughs  and 
Other  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs. 


Felts,  the  dry,  unprepared  skins  of  animals,  espe- 
cially the  skins  of  sheep  or  lambs. 

Femmican,  dried  buffalo  meat  mixed  with  about 
five-ninths  melted  fat;  put  into  a  tin  or  skin  while  still 
soft  and  warm.  It  is  largely  used  by  the  Indians  and 
travelers  in  unsettled  regions. 

Penmanship.  Literally,  "  penmanship"  is  synony- 
mous with  "  writing,"  both  signifying  the  expression 
of  thought  by  the  use  of  characters  made  upon  a 
smooth  surface  with  a  pwinted  instrument;  but  by  the 
growth  of  language  the  former  term  has  come  to  be 
limited  to  the  art  of  making  graceful  characters  in  the 
expression  of  thought,  while  the  latter  includes  this 
with  spelling,  grammar,  composition,  and  ofttimes 
even  good  sense  and  a  high  order  of  thought.  We 
sometimes  say  a  man  is  a  good  writer,  when  we  mean 
that  he  expresses  good  ideas,  and  in  good  language. 


History. 


Penmanship  was  invented  more  than  3,000  years 
before  Christ,  and  was  at  first  very  crude  and  clumsy, 
pictures  being  employed  instead  of  letters.  That 
system  was  called  hieroglyphic.  These  pictures,  by 
increasing  use,  became  more  simple  in  their  outline 
until  they  were  called  letters,  having  lost  most  of 
their  resemblance  to  the  objects  originally  delineated. 
This  gradual  process  is  well  illustrated  on  the  last 
three  pages  of  Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary. 
The  letters  thus  formed  were  still  more  simplified 
and  refined,  until  what  is  called  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet was  formed.  But  the  Phoenician  alphabet  was 
invented,  as  a  still  easier  one  to  write,  and  from  this 
the  Greek  and  Latin  alphabets  were  mostly  derived. 
The  phonographic  alphabet,  however,  invented  in 
England  in  1837,  is  the  simplest  |x>ssible. 

Penmanship,  performed  in  a  " workman'-like  man- 
ner, is  a  modern  invention,  and  the  one  now  in  vogue 
as  the  most  workmanlike,  or  beautiful,  is  called 
"Spencerian,"  after  the  inventor,  the  late  P.  R. 
Spencer,  of  Geneva,  O.  It  is  also  called  "  semi- 
angular,"  being  a  compromise  between  the  most  rapid- 
ly written,  angular  style,  but  least  legible,  and  the 
most  legible,  but  more  slowly  written,  round  hand. 
For  the  printing-office  the  heavy,  round-hand  is  pre- 
ferred, while  for  deliberate  corresixindence  and  book- 
keeping the  semi-angular  is  generally  chosen. 


Importance 

The'importance  of  good  penmanship  is  nearly  al- 
ways under-estimated.  No  matter  what  position  in 
life  one  may  hold,  the  ability  to  write  a  good,  clear, 
legible  hand  is  a  priceless  jxjssession.  It  gives  one 
a  higher  standing  among  all  classes  of  people,  is  a 
real  aid  to  proper  habits  of  thought  and  pure  lan- 
guage, and  an  actual  necessity  to  the  man  of  busi- 
ness. 


PENMANSHIP. 


1019 


Materials. 

Paper.  Ruled  foolscap,  smooth  and  heavy,  is  the 
best  paper  for  practice,  and  therefore  the  best  for  the 
finest  execution.  Weight  it  down  at  the  top,  so  that 
no  hesitation  in  moving  the  pen  over  it  will  be  pro- 
duced by  fear  of  displacing  it.  In  writing,  always 
have  under  the  hand  an  extra  sheet  or  scrap  of  paper 
to  protect  the  writing  paper  against  the  oil  and  dirt 
of  the  skin. 

Pen.  For  fine  or  beautiful  writing,  a  sharp,  well- 
made  steel  pen  is  best.  Any  steel  pen,  however, 
is  so  rapidly  corroded  with  ink  that  it  becomes  un- 
fit for  use  after  a  day  or  two  of  service.  When 
one  has  very  much  rapid  writing  to  do  the  gold 
is  preferable,  as  it  is  smoother  and  therefore  not 
so  apt  to  produce  pen  palsy  ;  and  it  will  last  for  years. 
Good  steel  pens   are  difficult  to  find  in  the  market. 

Ink.  The  best  is  that  which  flows  freely  and  is  jet 
black  when  it  first  goes  upon  the  paper.  To  prevent 
ink  from  spreading,  and  to  give  it  body  and  luster,  a 
little  gum  arabic  is  dissolved  in  it.  Fluid  inks,  like 
Arnold's,  although  not  black  when  first  used,  are 
favorites  in  business  offices,  as  they  do  not  rot  the 
paper,  are  durable,  and  the  writing  done  with  them 
can  be  copied  by  pressure  against  moistened  sheets 
of  paper.  Red  ink  is  used  for  some  purposes  in 
book-keeping,  but  inks  of  other  fancy  colors  are  sel- 
dom used,  for  any  purpose. 

Whatever  ink  you  get,  see  that  it  is  not  of  that  un- 
certain sort  that  flows  irregularly  and  produces  dif- 
ferent shades  according  to  the  flow. 

The  inkstand  or  bottle  should  be  kept  corked  when 
not  in  use ;  and  if  a  glass  one,  it  should  be  kept  in 
a  dark  place,  as  light  decomposes  most  kinds  of  ink. 
Do  not  pour  different  kinds  of  ink  together.  Some- 
times, it  is  true,  an  improvement  can  be  made  in 
this  way,  but  often  the  mixture  results  in  an  ink  too 
IXKjr  to  be  used  at  all.  For  convenience,  it  is  best  to 
have  just  enough  ink  in  the  stand  or  bottle  to  supply 
the  pen  properly  when  it  is  dipped  in  with  the  ix)int 
striking  the  tx)ttom.  When  ink  becomes  too  thick  to 
flow  freely,  thin  it  with  strong  tea. 

India  ink  is  the  best  for  drawing  and  heavy  shad- 
ing. Most  of  the  so-called  "  India  ink  "  of  the  stores 
is  counterfeit. 

Always  have  a  pen-wiper  at  hand.  The  best  ma- 
terial is  either  soft,  parous  paper,  or  chamois  or  buck- 
skin. 


Position,  etc. 

Writing  masters  and  the  books  generally  teach  that 
to  write  well  one  should  sit  erect ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  many  of  tlie  teachers  themselves,  when  they 
become  fully  engaged  on  a  piece  of  writing  and  are 
not  thinking  of  setting  an  example  of  jxisition,  will 
bend  over  the  upper  jxjrtion  of  the  body  more  or  less. 
Now,  while  an  erect  position  of  the  body  is  essential 


to  health  and  a  good  appearance,  it  generally  throws 
the  eyes  a  little  too  far  away  from  the  table  for  begin- 
ners in  writing,  especially  when  fine,  close  work  is  re- 
quired. Physiologists  and  oculists  tell  us  that  the 
normal  distance  of  the  eyes  for  reading  ordinary  type 
is  sixteen  inches,  and  that  this  distance  does  not 
change  materially  during  the  growing  years  of  child- 
hood and  youth.  Sitting  erect,  therefore,  to  give  a 
certain  angle  to  the  elbow  and  freedom  to  the  muscles 
involved,  would  give  the  half-grown  child  about  the 
normal  range  of  vision  for  writing,  but  the  adult  near- 
ly twice  that.  The  latter  must  therefore  at  least  bend 
his  head  over  or  incline  his  body  down  toward  the 
left,  in  order  fully  to  accommodate  himself  to  the  best 
position.  There  is  an  irreconcilable* conflict  here  be- 
tween nature  and  art.  Of  course,  certain  aged  people 
and  long-sighted  persons  will  find  the  "regulation" 
position  just  the  thing  for  them. 

Again,  the  old  precept  that  the  right  side  of  the 
body  should  be  toward  the  table  or  desk  is  not  insist- 
ed on  at  the  present  day,  except  so  far  as  the  writer 
desires  to  rest  his  elbow  upon  it ;  and  a  good  penman 
does  not  always  need  that. 

HoLHng  the  Pen.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  "make" 
a  child  hold  the  pen  just  as  an  adult  does,  or  deems 
necessary  ;  still,  it  is  well  to  know  what  the  model  is, 
and  aim  at  it.  The  pen  should  be  held  between  the 
thumb  and  the  tip  of  the  second  finger,  with  the  tip 
of  the  first  finger  resting  upon  the  upper  side.  The 
rear  portion  of  the  fore-arm  should  restuponthe  table, 
while  the  fore  part  and  the  hand  should  be  free.  The 
third  and  fourth  fingers  should  be  partially  folded  un- 
der the  hand,  and  the  tip  of  the  little  finger,  under- 
neath the  third,  be  allowed  to  rest  upon  the  paper, 
glide  along  over  it,  and  thus  form  a  support,  guide, 
etc.,  for  the  movements.  Hold  the  back  of  the  hand 
pretty  well  upward,  so  that  the  first  knuckle  will  be 
almost  directly  over  the  thumb. 

The  pen  should  be  held  with  as  light  a  grasp  as 
practicable,  which  accomplishment  will  be  naturally 
attained  by  practice  and  the  lapse  of  years. 

Movement.  The  "  finger  "  movement  is  made  by 
'the  fingers  only,  when  the  whole  fore-arm  rests  upon 
the  desk,  and  is  not  favored  by  the  best  penmen  ex- 
cept for  copy -hand,  card-making,  etc.,  where  great  pre- 
cision is  required. 

The  "  whole-arm  "  movement  is  made  when  the 
whole  arm  is  free  from  any  support,  except  that  the 
hand  rests,  as  before  stated,  upon  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers.  This  movement  is  called  into  play  in  making 
large,  flourished  capitals. 

The  "  muscular  "  or  "  combined  "  movement  con- 
sists in  moving  the  whole  of  the  fore  arm  with  the 
hand  as  one  piece,  while  only  the  elbow  joint  rests  on 
the  table  and  serves  as  a  kind  of  pivot.  This  is  evi- 
dently the  best  for  all  kinds  of  ordinary  writing,  and 
is  less  fatiguing  than  any  other.  It  is  necessarily 
combined  more  or  less  with  the  finger  movement,  the 
latter  being  specially  called  into  use  in  the  formation 
of  loops  and  long  up-and-down  strokes. 


\ 


I020 


PENMANSHIP. 


THE  PBINCIPLES. 


The  principles,  or  simple  strokes  of  the  pen,  with 
which  all  letters,  both  small  and  capital,  are  mostly 
formed,  are  eight  in  number,  and  wdth  the  exception 
of  the  first,  are  taken  from  the  oval, — 


/y  f  /069  c/ 


8 


The  first  four  are  for  the  small  letters,  and  the  last 
four  for  the  capitals.  The  first  principle  is  a  straight 
line  inclined  to  the  right  at  an  angle  of  about  thirty- 
eight  degrees  from  the  perpendicular.  Its  length  is 
that  of  the  body  of  the  small  letters,  or  "  one  space" 
high.  The  pupil  should  practice  writing  this  simple 
stroke  until  he  can  make  it  perfectly  at  every  effort. 

Do  not  attempt  any  shading  or  heavy  marks  of  any 
kind,  until  you  have  learned  to  write  all  the  letters 
perfectly. 

Principle  No.  2  is  the  right-hand  lower  quarter  of 
the  oval,  and  is  struck  upward.  No.  3,  also  written 
upward,  is  the  left-hand  upper  section  of  the  oval. 
Practice  writing  these  until  you  satisfy  yourself 

Next,  join  these  three  elements  together  at  a  round 
angle,  almost  sharp.  This  is  the  Spencerian,  or  "semi- 
angular,"  feature  of  penmanship.     Principles  2  and 

1,  however,  join  at  the  top  sharply,  as  in  the  letter^ 

No.  4  is  three  times  the  height  of  i,  2  and  3.  The 
second,  or  downward  stroke,  is  perfectly  straight,  and 
at  the  same  angle  as  No.  i.  Make  the  turn  at  the 
top  as  graceful  as  possible.  The  place  of  crossing 
the  two  strokes  is  a  little  over  one-third  the  height. 

The  pupil  will  at  once  observe  th»t  by  the  use  of 
the   first   three   marks  above  described   the   letters, 

■^^    'yi-     1^     'C     are  formed.   He  may  now  practice 

writing  these  letters.     Then  principle  No.  4,  to  form 


and  invert  it  to  form 


7/ 


These  are 


called  "  extended  loop"  letters. 

The  width  of  the  body  of  each  small  letter  should 
be  two-thirds  of  a  "space,"  except  that  m  is  twice 
two-thirds,  and  w  once  and  a  half  two-thirds,  or  one 
full  space. 

After  the  learner  has  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  all  the  foregoing  elements,  and  has  by  practice 
become  able  to  write  all  the  above  letters  with  a  fair 
degree  of  grace,  he  is  ready  to  commence  the  analy- 
sis of  each  letter,  taking  one  at  a  time. 

Extension. — The  unextended  letters  occupy  what 


are    generally    termed   one  "  space,"  and  they  are: 

The  "extended"  letters  comprise  all  the  rest,  which 
are   divided    into  four  classes,  namely: 

I.  Those  letters  involving  the  fourth  principle,  as: 


y^ 


2.  Those  involving  the  fourth  principle  inverted,  as: 

//// 

3.  "Stem  "  letters,  extending  two  spaces  high,  as: 

4.  Stem  letters  extending  a  space  and  a  half  below 
the  line  of  writing.    4i    w. 

Small   Letters. 

3,  3,  2,  I,  2.  Be  sure  to  close  this  letter  at 
^■f^"^  the  top,  to  prevent  its  resembling  u,  and  to 

come  fully  down  to  the  line  with  the  princi- 
ple I,  to  prevent  a  similarity  to  o.  It  has  one  semi- 
angle,  namely,  at  the  last  turn.  The  downward 
written  third  principle  retraces  the  upward  for  half  its 
length.  Take  particular  care  that  this  retracing  be  so 
exact  that  no  shading  is  effected.  This  letter  touches 
the  ruled  line  at  three  points. 

4,  2.  This  letter  is  finished  with  the  second 
principle  extended  to  its  full  height,  and  there 
tipped  by  a  short  horizontal  curve,  concave 

side  upward.  This  little  curve  may  be  considered  a 
section  from  the  base  of  the  oval.  The  usual  faults 
are  to  curve  the  downward  stroke  in  the  middle,  and 
to  close  by  joining  the  upper  extremity  of  the  third 
principle  to  the  fourth. 

2,  a  turn,  i,  3,  2.  On  reaching  the  termi- 
^-C^  nation  of  the  first   stroke,  a  slight  downward 

motion  is  made,  followed,  with  a  semi-angular 
turn,  by  continuing  up  to  the  top  with  the  second 
principle  (very  short,  of  course),  thus  forming  a 
small  direct  oval.  By  strictly  observing  these  di- 
rections one  will  avoid  making  a  c  apjiear  like  an 
e  or  an  /,  as  is  very  often  done.  It  is,  however, 
just  as  graceful  to  introduce  this  letter  with  principle 
2,  then  lifting  the  pen,  and  recommencing  at  the  point 
usually  called  the  "dot."  By  this  method  its  first 
portion  is   made  to  resemble  the  first    portion   of  a. 

/  3,  3,  2,  I,  3.     These  principles  are  the  same 

^'f^'^  as  those  for  a,   but  No.  i  is  extended  to  twice 

its  elementary  height,  or  two  "spaces,"  where 

the  junction  is  made  square  instead  of  sharp.  A 
slight  shading,  therefore,  necessarily  results  at  that 
point.  In  rapid  wriung,  the  most  common  fault  in 
the  construction  of  this  letter  is  the  omission  to  close 


PENMANSHIP. 


t02I 


the  third  principles  with  the  first,  at  the  height  of  one 
space.  To  this  point  the  downward  stroke  retraces 
the  upward.  Another  error  is  to  form  a  loop  by  the 
first  two  principles. 

2,   I,  2.     This  letter  is  very  simple.     In  rapid 
^•^/  writing  it  is  too  generally  merged  into  an  un- 
dotted  i.    The  introductory   in    the   example 
here  requires  a  lifting  of  the  pen. 

y^  4,  2,  2.  Extend  principle  4  two  spaces  below 
^if-'^  the  line,  and  then,  by  a  semi-angular  turn  to 
/'  the  right,  move  the  pen  up  just  above  the 
ruled  line,  and  there  finish  by  a  second  principle, 
either  with  or  without  a  small  round  loop  at  the 
juncture.  The  width  of  this  letter  below  the  line 
should  be  the  same  as  that  above.  The  most  com- 
mon faults  are  to  curve  the  downward  stroke  in  the 
middle,  and  to  omit  closing  the  second  principles 
with  the  first  above  the  line  of  writing.  Another 
fault  is  to  introduce  the  letter  with  the  second  and 
first  principles,  instead  of  the  fourth,  and  still  another 
is  to  make  the  lower  portion  too  broad  or  too  short. 
The  upward  stroke  of  the  lower  portion,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, is  not  strictly  a  second  principle. 

3,  3,  2, 4  (inverted),  or  a,  with  the  inverted 
/  fourth.     The  most  common  fault  in  general 

practice  in  writing  this  letter  is  to  leave  the 

top  of)en,  making  the  whole  character  verge  toward  a 
y.  Rapid  writing  tends  also  to  throw  it  into  the  form 
of  a  figure  8. 

4,  3,  I,  2.     The  most  usual  error  in  the  form- 
/  ation  of  this  letter  is  to  convert  the  second 

upward  stroke  (principle  No.  3)  either  into  a 

straight  line  or  the  opposite  curve,  No.  2.  Vlso, 
we  are  generally  inclined  to  make  the  crossing  of  the 
fourth  principle  too  low  down. 

2,  I,  2.     The  dot  should  be  one  space  above, 
^^■^   and  in  line  with  the  body  of  the  letter.     The 
most  prevalent  error,  in  connection  with  this 
letter,  is  the  omission  to  dot  it. 

■  2,  4  (inverted).     It  is  the    practice  of  some 

/^  good  penmen  to  make  the  top  of/  and/  square, 
like  the  apex  of  /. 

4,  and  a  wavy  imitation  of  the  printed  form. 
^/  The  right-hand  portion  of  this  letter  is  vari- 
ously analyzed  by  teachers  of  penmanship. 
We  would  advise  the  learner  to  jaractice  from  any 
graceful  copy.  After  making  the  fourth  principle, 
some  penmen  extend  up  a  space  and  a  half  high  with 
the  third  principle,  then  down  a  little  with  the  sec- 
ond, and  finish  with  the  first  and  second,  as  above. 
Others,  after  writing  No"  4,  lift  the  pen  to  the  top  of 
the  second  space,  come  down  a  little  more  than  half 
way  with  either  a  principle  i  or  a  compound  consist- 
ing of  the  third  and  second  joined  without  inter- 
ruption, meeting  No.  4  just  below  the  upper  line  of  the 
first  space,  and  then  finishing  the  usual  way.     It  is 


^ 


very  difficult  to   form  this  letter  gracefully,  and  the 
faults  in  its  execution  are  many. 

/4,  2.  The  turn  at  the  base  of  this  letter  is 
semi-angular.  A  common  error  in  rapid  writ- 
ing is  to  make  this  letter  too  low. 

3>  ')  3!  I)  3i  1 1  2.     If  the  elements  as  here 
.^^^     numbered  are  strictly   written,   this   letter 
will  be  properly  formed.     The  spacing  be- 
tween the  first  principles  should  be  uniform. 

3,  I,  3,  I,  2.     Probably  the  most  common 
-^^     fault  in  ordinary  writing  is  to  change  this  let- 
ter into  11. 

2,  3,  2,  and  short  horizontal  curve.  The  slant 
■^JL  of  this  letter  should  of  course  be  that  of  prin- 
ciple I,  and  this  is  determined  by  imagining 
its  longitudinal  axis  extended.  Conceive  a  line 
drawn  through  its  greatest  length,  and  see  that  the 
letter  is  so  made  that  this  imaginary  line  is  parallel 
with  principle  No.  i  of  the  other  letters.  A  common 
fault  is  to  finish  this  letter  with  principles  i  and  2  in- 
stead of  the  horizontal  curve,  thus  making  it  appear 
like  an  a. 


^ 


2,  I  (extended),  3,  i,  2.  The  base  of  the  ex- 
tension should  be  square.  It  will  thus  ap- 
pear slightly  shaded,  like  the  top  of  /.     In 

order  to  avoid  the  common  fault  of  spreading  this 
letter  too  much,  principle  3  should  be  shortened,  and 
commenced  on  the  stem  about  half  a  space  high. 
Half  angles  at  the  junctions  of  principles  3,  i,  2. 

3,  3,  2,  I  (extended  a  space  and  a  half  be- 
low), connecting  line,  3.  The  first  portion  of 
this  letter  is  made,  of  course,  on  the  same 

plan  as  a.  The  first  principle  is  then  extended  a 
space  anjl  a  half  below  the  ruled  line,  where  the 
characteristic  half  angle  is  made,  and  the  pen  is  di- 
rected up  to  the  ruled  line,  where  it  smoothly  glides 
into  tlie  formation  of  the  third  principle,  thus  complet- 
ing the  letter. 

2,  I  (with  a  "  shoulder"),  2.  This  letter  and  the 
^     next  are  extended  slightly  above  the   upper 

line  of  the  first  space,  where  a  "shoulder"  is 
formed.  In  this  letter  this  little  turn  is  made  by  re- 
tracing principle  2  to  the  upper  line,  and  then  curving 
to  the  right  sufficiently  to  introduce  principle  1  with  a 
similar  but  opposite  curve.  The  base  of  this  letter 
should  be  a  half  wider  than  the  top.  A  common  er- 
ror is  to  form  a  small  circle  at  the  top.  Otlier  errors 
are,  to  make  the  letter  too  spreading,  and  to  merge  it 
into  an  undotted  /. 

2,  shoulder,  3,  2.     Some  writing  masters  intio- 
d-    duce  this  letter  with  a  straight  line  extending 
upward.     The  shoulder,  like  that  of  r,  is  com- 
menced by  retracing  principle  2,  and  then  introduces 
principle  2  again,  but  with  a  greater  curvature,  extend- 


1022 


PENMANSHIP. 


ing  this  down  to  the  line,  and  slightly  upward  to  the 
left  until  it  meets  the  introductory  line.  Some  pen- 
men make  a  dot  here,  and  consider  the  letter  finished; 
others  retrace  the  base  of  this  curve  and  finish  with 
the  second  principle,  or  with  the  compound  of  2  and 
3.  In  tvriting  for  printers  it  is  well  to  make  this  let- 
ter more  like  the  printed  form.  The  most  common 
fault,  in  writing  this  letter,  is  to  merge  it  into  an  un- 
dotted  /. 

^  2  (extended  a  space  and  a  half  high),  i,  2. 
/■■^"^  Avoid  leaving  the  top  perfectly  sharp.  The 
most  universal  error  with  reference  to  this  let- 
ter is  the  omission  to  cross  it.  The  cross  is  a  light, 
straight,  short  horizontal  mark  through  the  stem  just 
above  the  upper  line  of  the  first  space.  To  avoid 
spreading  the  ink,  this  little  mark  is  often  made  after 
the  stem  and  disconnected  from  it;  and  it  is  also 
often  converted  into  a  flourish,  either  after  the  stem 
or  entirely  above  it.  Avoid  the  fault  of  spreading 
this  letter  at  the  base.  The  downward  stroke  should 
retrace  the  upward  for  about  half  its  length,  and  then 
depart  from  it  so  gradually  that  no  interruption  is  vis- 
ible in  either  stroke. 

2,  I,  2,  r,  2.  The  most  common  fault  is  to 
^'^^  convert   the    middle    upward   stroke   into   a 

straight  line  or  the  opposite  curve,  thus  merg- 
ing it  an  n. 

^jy  3)  i>  2,  and  short,  horizontal  curve.     Width 
/' ^     only  one-half  the  height.     Do  not  turn  prin- 
ciple 2  into  a  straight  line. 

^jy'     2,  I,  2,  I,  2,  and    short,  horizontal   curve. 
The  last  part  is  of  the  proportions  of  v 

3,  1,3,  and  cross.  The  cross  is  made  by  an 
x'J^'^  upward  stroke,  at  a  slightly  lower  inclination 

than  principle  i.  Some  penmen  make  a  per- 
pendicular mark  instead  of  the  first  principle. 


-r 


3.  I.  2.  4  inverted, 
make  a  ^  of  this. 


Do  not  close  the  top  and 


.  3,  1,4  inverted.     The  last  principle  is  intro- 
duced by  a  curve,  and  sometimes  a  loop  also. 
There  are  several  methods  of  writing  this  let- 
ter, equally  good. 

JUNCTION,  ETC. 

As  the  learner  will  have  already  observed,  the  in- 
troductory and  terminal  elements  of  each  letter  are  so 
formed  and  arranged  as  to  render  mutual  junctions 
easy  and  graceful.  A  letter,  for  example,  ending  with 
principle  No.  2,  readily  joins  with  a  succeeding  letter 
commencing  with  the  same  principle,  this  curve,  as  it 
were,  serving  a  double  purpose,  as  nu.  But  fully  as 
often  the  succeeding  letter  commences  with  principle 
No.  3,  in  which  case  a  kind  of  compromise  is  effected 


by  uniting  the  two  principles  into  what  is  termed  a 
compound  curve ;  as,  nn. 

The  2d,  3d  and  4th  principles  introducing  letters  at 
the  beginning  of  words  arc  commenced  a  little  below 
the  line. 

The  letters  in  each  word  should  be  so  written  as  to 
appear  to  be  equi-distant,  even  at  some  sacrifice  in 
the  stroke  of  the  primary  elements. 

Uniformity  of  slant  is  particularly  essential  to  beauty. 

With  the  foregoing  instructions,  the  pupil  ought 
now  to  become  able,  by  practice,  to  write  any  word 
correctly,  so  far  as  the  small  letters  are  required,  es- 
pecially if  he  has  any  mechanical  talent  and  a  sense 
of  the  beautiful.  There  are  variations  from  the  forms 
above  given,  equally  correct  and  beautiful,  which  the 
learner  will  see  in  the  writings  of  others  and  select 
according  to  his  taste. 


Capitals. 

The  frame-work  from  which  the  capital  letters  are 
principally  constructed  are  given  on  page  1020,  and 
numbered  from  5  to  8  inclusive. 

The  Direct  Oval,  nunibered  the  5th,  the  width 
of  which  is  two-thirds  its  height.  It  is  called  direct, 
because  it  is  of  itself  one  of  the  capital  letters,  al- 
though such  a  naming  of  this  figure  is  in  "direct"  con- 
tiadiction  to  what  is  understood  by  the  term  in  natural 
philosophy,  or  mechanics.  Practically  it  does  not  dif- 
rer  from  the  spiral,  before  described.  It  is  the  prac- 
tice, however,  to  contract  the  spiral,  in  finishing  tiic 
final  flourish,  by  directing  the  pen  back  and  upward 
toward  the  middle  of  the  last  oval,  as  exemplified  on 
these  pages. 

The  Contracted  Oval,  or  spiral,  the  body  of  which 
is  half  the  height  of  the  stem.  This  is  numbered 
the  6th.  The  proportions  of  this  oval  are  of  course 
the  same  as  those  of  the  larger,  and  the  second  down- 
ward line  must  be  as  nearly  parallel  with  the  main 
stem  as  practicable,  to  cross  at  the  base,  if  continued 
into  A  flourish.  It  forms  the  termination  of  several 
capitals. 

The  Capital  Loop,  being  No.  6  inverted.  It  is 
number  7.  The  same  proportions  and  parallelisms 
must  be  observed.  It  is  still  further  contracted,  as 
an    introductory  to  two  or  three  letters. 

The  Capital  Stem,  the  oval  portion  one  and  a  half 
spaces  high,  numbered  the  8th.  It  is  a  matter  of  taste 
whether  the  downward  jwrtion  ofthis  character  should 
be  perfectly  straight  for  most  of  its  length,  or  a  com- 
pound curve,  with  the  curvatures  barely  visible.  If 
learners  are  taught  or  permitted  to  curve  at  all,  they 
are  inclined  to  curve  too  much.  Its  inclination  being 
of  the  standard  regulation,  the  finishing  oval  is  neces- 
sarily more  inclined  than  the  thirty-eight  degrees,  but 
this  does  not  mar  the  beauty  of  form  in  the  outline  of 
the  letters  to  which  it  belongs. 

All  the  above  rest  on  the  line,  are  three  spaces 
high,  and  have  the  standard  inclination,  namely, 
thirty-eight  degrees  from  the  perpendicular. 


PENMANSHIP. 


102  1 


-Plain  Capitals. 


Flourished  Capitals.  ■ 


f^Z^'d'ii^a/ac 


2i6'aa{), 


a.'h'. 


ay 


mmM' 


PENMANSHIP. 


the  ' 
or  a. 


We  now  proceed  to  analyze  each  capital  letter,  with 
such  instructions  and  cautions  as  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary. 

,  1 .  The  pen  has  to  be  lifted  once 
or  twice  in  the  construction  of  this 
letter.  The  finishing  stroke  in  the 
middle  may  be  either  a  light, 
straight,  horizontal  line,  or  a  curve 
from  the  left-hand  lower  section  of  the  oval  page. 

Indirect  oval  full  size,  principle  2 
struck  downward,  small  loop,  and 
indirect  oval  half  size.  The  first 
stroke,  or  stem,  however,  may  be 
that  of  principle  8.  The  spaces  on 
the  right  of  the  stem  should  be  only  one-fifth  as  wide 
as  that  on  the  left.  The  width  of  the  upper  and  the 
lower  sections  should  be  equal,  and  the  upward,  fin- 
ishing stroke  of  the  small  oval  should  have  the  same 
inclination  and  be  the  exact  counterpart  of  the  right- 
hand  section  of  the  same.  The  lower  oval  may  be 
slightly  larger  than  the  upper. 

Principle  6,  introduced  like  principle  4. 
The  downward  final  stroke  should  be 
such  that  if  continued  a  spiral  would 
result,  like  a  series  of  barrel  hoops 
three-fourths  uix)n  each  other  in  a  di- 
rect line.  The  axis  of  the  small  oval  should  be  par- 
allel, or  rather  coincident,  with  that  of  the  indicated 
larger  one. 

Capital  stem,  small  loop  at  the  base, 
direct  large  oval,  continued  into  a 
smaller  one,  with  the  sides  parallel  and 
axis  of  the  standard  slant.  At  the  base 
the  pen  should  touch  the  line  in  two 
places,  as  the  example  shows,  and  the  width  of  the 
space  on  the  right  of  the  stem  should  be  one-fifth  of 
that  on  the  left. 

Two  direct  spirals  joined  by  a  small  loop, 
the  upper  spiral  being  only  half  the 
length  of  the  lower.  While  this  is  a 
beautiful  letter  to  form,  and  apparently 
easy  to  write,  the  faults  committed  with 
reference  to  it  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  It  should 
never  be  introduced  by  the  long  upward  stroke  of  the 
pen,  as  if  a  principle  4  were  required,  although  this 
form  is  often  set  as  copy. 

3,  2,  compound  horizontal,  8,  with 
alight  horizontal  cross  line  in  the 
middle,  tipped  with  another  light 
stroke  parallel  to  8.  Principles  3 
and  2,  introducing  what  is  called 
cap,  "  form  a  figure  about  half  the  size  of  an  o 
Principle  8  should  commence  immediately  un- 
der the  middle  of  the  compound  curve  of  the  cap. 
.Some  writers  connect  principle  8  with  the  cap  without 
lifting  the  pen,  thus  forming  a  loop  similar  to  the 
base  of  capital  Z  inverted. 
65 


2,  3,  2,  and  8.  The  upper  jxir- 
tion  may  be  considered  principles, 
contracted  to  two  spaces.  As  an 
oval  it  should  be  of  the  same  width 
top  and  bottom.  The  finish  of 
principle  8  is  generally  a  dot.  A  continuation,  as  in 
the  example  here  given,  is  considered  a  flourish. 
Principle  8  in  this  letter  is  two  spaces  high.  Be  care- 
ful to  have  the  general  slope  of  each  section  of  this 
capital  precisely  alike. 

7,  6.  Principle  7  in  this  letter  has 
its  loop  contracted  to  less  than  half 
size.  Another  form  of  this  letter, 
equally  tasteful,  consists  of  2,  8,  6, — 
the  first  portion  thus  being  acapital  S, 
but  finishedjvith  principles  3  and  i  combined,  three 
spaces  in  height,  as  here  illustrated, 
and  a  small  loop  and  turn  near  the 
base,  for  the  cross,  more  easily  illus- 
trated than  described.  The  latter  form 
requires  a  lifting  of  the  pen,  but  is  (irobably  more  in 
use  at  thepresent  day  than  the  first  form  above  given. 

3,3,8.  The  first  two  upward  strokes 
of  the  i^en  in  this  letter  are  connected 
by  a  small  loop,  which  should  be  bi- 
sected by  the  stem  8.  To  make  this 
turn  gracefully  requires  considerable 
practice,  as  the  finishing  stroke  should  cross  the  in- 
troductory at  right  angles. 

3,  8  extended.  This  is  the  same 
as  the  preceding,  but  finished  with  the 
inverted  4th,  written  proportionally 
larger.  Always  extend  this  letter 
below  the  line. 


"*  7,  8,  compound  curve,  6.  In  this 
letter  the  proportions  and  con- 
nections are  best  shown  by  the 
example.  The  right-hand  por- 
tion comprises  the  same  elements 

as  are  in  the  small  letter.     This  is  not  so  diflScult  a 

letter  to  write  as  it  appears  to  be. 

Direct  oval,  occupying  the  middle 
portion  of  the  spaces,  finished  by  a 
modified  No.  8.  The  base  should 
touch  the  ruled  line  in  two  places,  the 
loop  at  the  base  should  be  perfectly 
horizontal,  and  the  finishing  stroke  should  be  No.  2 
made  as  near  the  stem  as  practicable.  The  stem 
should  intersect  the  horizontal  curve  at  the  middle. 
This  capital  contains  two  compound  curves,  and  is  a 
beautiful  letter  with  which  to  practice  them. 

8,  I  and  3  extended,  6.  It  is 
almost  imix)ssible,  in  ordinary 
practice,  to  keep  the  top  of  this 
letter  wide  enough,  or  the  base 
narrow  enough.    See  that  the 


1026 


PENMANSHIP. 


a  half  angle. 


axes  of  the  implied  ovals  are  parallel  and  incline  to 
the  rii;ht  of  the  perpendicular  the  required  thirty-eight 
degrees. 

8,  1,3.  The  last  stroke  is  only  two 
spaces  high,  and  ends  with  a  dot. 
It  should  be  parallel  with  principle 
8  in  the  letter,  and  the  junction  with 
principle  i  at  the  base  should  form 
This  is  the  same  as  the  first  part  of  M. 

5.  This,  as  before  intimated,  might  be 
more  strictly  termed  an  oval  spiral.  The 
top  and  bottom  should  be  of  equal  width, 
and  the  major  axis  at  the  regular  inclina- 
tion. Close  it  at  the  top,  and  on  crossing 
at  the  center  of  the  base,  continue  round  and  com- 
plete the  letter  (or  flourish)  with  the  2d  principle. 

^This  is  equal  to  the  first  portion  of  B, 
already  described.  A  small  dot,  touch- 
^  ing  the  stem,  is  the  finishing  point  of 

V^rf^  this  letter.     Instead  of  the  loops  on 

the  left  of  the  stem,  it  is  just  as  well 
to  form  an  indirect  No.  5,  finishing  as  above. 

7,  finished  as  L.  The  figure  2,  de- 
scribed a  little  further  on,  is  made  on  the 
same  plan.  Of  course,  as  will  be  seen, 
the  descending  portion  of  principle  7 
here  is  curved. 


/^\ 


8,  2,  I,  2,  with  connecting  lines  and 
and  loops.  This  is  the  same  as  Z', 
above  described,  finished  with  i,  2. 
The  small  connecting  loop  should 
be  in  equal  sections  on  each  side  of 

the  stem,  or  a  sharp  junction  can  be  made  at   that 

place  without  a  loop. 

2,  8.  The  downward  stroke  should 
cross  the  upward  about  midway,  and 
the  finishing  should  likewise  be  pre- 
cisely a  space  and  a  half  high.  In 
rapid  writingitis  almost  impossible  for 
many  persons  to  avoid  merging  S  and  L  into  each 
other;  and  yet,  especially  in  writing  for  printers,  there 
is  scarcely  anything  more  important  in  the  whole 
range  of  penmanship. 

3,  2,  compound  horizontal,  8 ;  or,  the 
same  as  F,  without  the  cross  at  the 
middle.     It  is  advisable  not  to  con- 
tinue the  flourish  across  the  middle 
of  this  letter,  else  it  will  be  too  much 
like  a  capital  F. 

7,  2,  6.  Although  this  is  an  easy 
letter  to  form,  it  is  well  to  fix  in  the 
memory  the  elements  which  it  com- 
prises, as  it  occurs  so  rarely  in  prac- 
tice that  one  is  liable  to  forget  the 
theoretical  principles  of  its  formation. 


7,  2  and  3  compounded  and  ending 
with  a  dot  two  spaces  high.  It  com- 
mences and  ends  like  a  IV.  Do  not 
make  the  angle  at  the  base  sharp,  or 
the  upward  stroke  a  straight  line. 

7,  slightly  curved;  2,  prolonged  three 
spaces  high;  i,  extended  down  to  the 
ruled  line;  3,  extended  two  spaces  high 
and  terminating  in  a  dot.  The  first 
and  second  angles  are  sharp ;  the  third 
is  a  half  angle. 

7,  6.  Principle  7  here  is  of  course 
greatly  curved.  Another  method  of 
framing  this  capital  is  the  plan  of  the 
small  X.  There  is  seldom  an  occasion 
for  writing  this  letter  as  a  capital,  and 
hence  one  is  liable  to  forget  the  plan  of  its  formation. 

3,    I,   2,    4   inverted.     Another    method, 
equally  good,  is  to  finish  on  the  line,  in- 
stead of  below  it,   with  a   small   capital 
stem, — principle  8, — like  G.     This  letter  * 
may  also  be  introduced  with  principle  7. 

7 ,  slightly  curved,  and  4  inverted.  This 
also,  by  anothermethod,  is  completed  on 
the  line,  by  an  outline  similar  to  the 
printed  form.  Its  principles  may  be  re-  .. 
garded  as  2,  horizontal  curve,  i,  and  hori- 
zontal compound  curve. 

Two  compound  and  one  simple  curve.  The 
first  is  essentially  principle  8,  or  the  capital 
stem;  after  turning  at  the  base  a  similar 
compound  curve  is  struck  upward,  a  space 
and  a  half  high;  a  turn  is  made  to  the  left 

there,  and  the  simple  curve  brought  down  two-thirds 

of  the  way,  finishing  with  principle  2. 


The  Arabic  Figures. 

All  the  numerals  are  made  a  little  more  than  a 
space  high,  and  from  the  same  elements  that  form 
the  letters,  as  above  described. 


1.  2,  I.  This  is  so  simple  as  to  need  no  further 
explanation. 

2.  7 ,  and  horizontal  comixjund  curve,  or  a  capital  Q. 
J.  Two  open  indirect  ovals,  connected  by  a  small 

loop,  the  upper  oval  one-half  the  length  of  the  lower. 
It  is  capital  E  reversed. 

4.  I,  horizontal  straight  mark,  i.  The  two  strokes 
of  principle  i  are  parallel,  two-thirds  of  a  space  apart; 
and  the  first  one  may  be  only  one  space  high,  and 
should  be  square  at  the  top.    The  horizontal  mark 


PENMANSHIP. 


/  / 

/a.  ^mu  dnunad  e^ina/m  me  nw^nan  mead/.  V 

'o.    \^v^  \ix^^'^  W)A/;v  W  VJj\^^^5AW/^<^;   Wy^  (W  vu^^. 
y*^'    (lW  Aem  ana  ^ale  ad  a  dunn^  fnolmna  m  ^^y4ia^.  tJ   t^    ^    A, 

/.     G^    ez^^  €i^€d-   ^<^-^^<^    ■u.-a^M^u   tz^ii    ^^i^u^^nc-e   u^-e'H    u.^^l-e€i. 

^S.    Jl  /ba/  iA  knorm  ^§  u  mniiiMde  of  mo/f^<U.  JI  S  B  ?)  S 
y/^.  Gruuuedd  {^iJt-ai  Id  ein/?J  d/t^nma  ^m^uiaei.    C^m/ 


ro30  PENMANSHIP. 


•« — FIRST    LESSON. — ?<■ 


yyy-/y/yy</       y      y      ^      ^  ^      ^      y/ 

•« — SECOND    LESSON. — S<- 

•^          -^        .^          '/^          '/^           .A^2          ^          ^^i?           "i^          v^^           /'^          ■'^l'          -^f-          -^^  ^          ^          -^^         "^^ 

-/^^^      vy<j^'/->'^       tt      €■      ■{.      <J-      -tc      ■^nu'i't      ■yyi€.^      €ii^  -i-^      -t^'H      ■U'^h 

^ — THIRD   LESSON. — 1<- 

^    </    a,    n    /  A  ^    /  A    -e    c    -(.    I    d.    i/-    -tu    z    ^   J.  y    ^    A    I  -ci 


€1 

••S — FOURTH    LESSON. — '^ 


yf        ^        S        ^        S         &        / 


■« — FIFTH    LESSON. — 1*^ 

(J^^S'^^^cf'^^    C'T    m  ^    f   f 

■4 — SIXTH    LESSON. — 5<- 

oil/     S^^y.       ^ti^^i       ^^^i      (i^     J^u^n      ^e^yi      (J^nd    ^^^ 
S2^i^n        ^/      cJ^u^i       ofk^        (Q^iJ       Se-n        ^u-t^/      (%u^ 


^ — SEVENTH    LESSON. — K- 


C?i'fn-eUC€i.        G0€.'H4€i'yn't4^        '-^<j.Ai^m.J-ud'^        ^<MiyC€./      ^-^^n^ltz/d 
C^Aa,€l€iy^^  j£^^(i't^^€iy  P^€ynU^€i/  af^<i^i/i<^^ 


PENMANSHIP. 


1031 


C?ve/lt€l€l'et 


•^ — EIGHTH    LESSON. — S<- 


'^tZ'Hfl-Ud'^i 


Y 


«-<2- 


'(^(Pt^ 


■4>A^ 


't-^n.-t-iZ^H 


■C'i'Kifvn^iyn 


■n^Cdt^^'^ 


'JAd^^'n^ 


■^■i'U^.'id.'i^-e- 


c-e^no.'iu.^c 


-NINTH    LESSON. — 1^ 


l-u.^n^iynri.-^    A-untt/ 


'^idd^id'iJlfl^ 


<>/f^'Z.^^-M.d4^'n 


J2/(Q'n<i--tu     '/nt 


I — TENTH    LESSON. — S* 


■e     AliiA-e-i.    d-lu-ci-'U    ■dj^  '^'n-ci.'n--^4^/^(/  m    ■m-fid^/        Cy'^nf^-a-i-Zu^/y/ 


^ — ELEVENTH   LESSON. — ¥■ 


fe. 


PCe-. 


-(.€■€    -id    tz    -m-a^nd-ie-i.    <?/    dci     0-i-i^^-i^-f4.^    d^^e^^i^    €id 


In    a-e    AiZ'le-(/ 


■H^'i'^   jf€t€.e^     ut€^    £^-'Ld'^    ig-i%^'/<?,    In-e-n/    ^i4.'li^j      ^■C'K     ea^^iiz-oe/ 


■€*<%  AMcr**-^  «* 


« — TWELFTH   LESSON. — g*- 


■4*9-t£.       6*****'*?,         jr/5<t       ■ct'f^^iA 


tj^-tt'!^  ■p»t€w-0^^     *r      y%&« 


PENMANSHIP. 


1033 


should  be  about  one-fourth  of  a  space  above  the  ruled 
line.  In  the  example  above  given  it  is  slightly 
curved,  which  is  just  as  well. 

J.  I,  open  indirect  oval,  and  dash  or  curve. 
Principle  i  is  only  a  third  of  a  space  in  length,  and 
the  oval  portion  is  connected  with  it  by  a  small  loop, 
and  may  end  with  a  dot.  The  finish  at  the  top  may  be 
precisely  the  same  as  for  v  and  some  other  letters. 

6.  6,  contracted  within  the  limits  above  specified, 
but  should  never  be  shaded  on  the  final  stroke. 

7.  Diminutive  i,  horizontal  compound  curve,  i  ex- 
tended a  little  below  the  line,  ending  square. 

8.  3,  2,  3.  Some  writers  strike  this  in  the  opposite 
direction,  thus:   i,  2,  3. 

g.  3,  2,  I.  This  is  the  same  as  a  o\ g,  with  the  in- 
troductory and  finish  omitted.  Like  7,  it  should  end 
square,  a  little  below  the  line. 

o.  3,  2,  horizontal  curve.  This  is  the  same  as  o, 
extended  a  little  higher. 

As  figures  should  never  be  connected,  no  "intro- 
ductories"  and  "  finishing  "  strokes — principles  2  and 
3 — are  furnished  them.  But  it  is  just  as  important  to 
make  graceful  figures  as  letters. 


Shading. 

Shading  is  a  gradual  swell  or  enlargement  in  aline, 
and  the  general  principle  for  its  application  in  pen- 
manship is  to  shade  only  those  elements  in  a  letter 
which  are  uncrossed  by  other  elements.  As  a  rule, 
there  should  be  only  one  to  three  shades  in  a  whole 
word;  and  these  should  be  so  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  word,  the  sentence  and  the  page,  as 
to  make  them  appear  well  balanced.  We  will  now 
classify  the  small  letters  in  the  order  of  their  prefer- 
ence in  this  regard: 


€1 


^/     / 


^      The       first    downward 


stroke  in  each  of  the  letters  given  above  is  the  part 
to  be  written  heavily.  The  heaviest  of  the  shade  is 
in  the  middle  of  the  curve,  and  the  swell  should  be 
perfectly  gradual  from  point  to  point.  In  very  heavy 
writing  the  lower  part  of  the  inverted  4th  principle  is 
also  shaded  in  all  the  letters  containing  it ;  and  for 
some  fancy  writing  those  parts  only  are  shaded. 

■C    <c    yl'  Shading  heaviest  at  the  square  ends  of 
these  letters. 
^     l-    d    'tt-     -W-     'U,    -^     These  constitute  the 

third  group  of  small  letters,  in  the  order  of  choice,  that 
may  be  shaded  in  any  given  word. 

The    other    letters — y/x     -C     ■&     -(■     'V     -i^     ■^ 

■X  — should  rarely,  if  ever,  be  shaded.  When  they 
are,  the  first  downward  stroke  is  the  place  to  apply  the 


principle.     -C    €■    -C       ^  would       require       the 

gradual  swell,  and  ^  y  ^  that  which  is 
heaviest  at  the  junction,  making  that  part  square,  as 
the  top  of  -el 


Flourishing. 

In  this  art  precept  and  example  are  equally  neces- 
sary ;  and  no  one  should  attempt  it  until  he  can  form 
all  the  letters,  as  taught  by  the  elements,  with  a  fair 
degree  of  gracefulness  and  rapidity.  In  other  words, 
the  learner  must  have  attained  full  control  of  the 
muscles  which  are  called  into  play  in  writing  before 
he  undertakes  the  far  more  difficult  task  of  flourishing. 

The  art  of  flourishing  by  no  means  consists  of  hap- 
hazard sweeps  of  the  pen,  but  of  systematic  turns. 
The  general  rule  for  this  highly  ornamental  art  is  to 
continue  the  spiral  that  has  already  been  begun  in 
the  letter,  which  is  nearly  always  a  capital.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  letter,  the  continuation,  of 
course,  consists  in  beginning  the  introductory  further 
back.  The  extent  of  the  flourish  depends  altogether 
upon  the  taste  of  the  writer.  The  finish  is  generally 
a  contracted  oval.  There  is  scarcely  any  Hmit  to  the 
ingenious  devices  in  which  an  accomplished  amateur 
may  indulge;  but  the  rule  is  to  keep  the  flourishing 
line  parallel  with  its  neighboring  lines,  or,  as  at  the 
commencement  or  the  closing,  across  other  lines  at 
right  angles  as  nearly  as  practicable,  consistent  with 
an  easy,  gradual  change  from  the  spiral  to  the  con- 
tracted oval.  In  other  words,  avoid  acute  angles 
and  abrupt  turns  as  much  as  jx)ssible. 

Off-hand  flourishing,  not  connected  with  letters,  is 
best  done  by  holding  the  pen-holder  to  the  right,  yet 
keeping  the  point  square  upon  the  paper.  The  first 
and  second  fingers  should  be  under  the  holder,  and 
the  thumb  above  it.  The  pen  is  thus  in  position  for 
horizontal  strokes.  The  body  must  be  so  raised  that 
the  whole  arm  will  swing  clear  from  the  table,  the 
hand  resting  upon  th^  nail  of  the  little  finger.  In  the 
execution  of  the  work,  ahvays  move  from  left  to  right, 
shifting  the  paper  around  instead  of  your  hand,  to  suit 
the  direction  of  the  curves  you  are  about  to  make. 

In  conclusion,  we  can  confidently  say  that,  with 
enthusiasm  or  love  of  the  art,  the  study  of  the  forego- 
ing principles  and  directions,  inspection  of  good  ex- 
amples or  specimens  and  considerable  practice,  the 
pupil  will  certainly  succeed. 

Teaching  Penmanship. 

Although  text-books  and  copy-books  have  been 
abundant  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  sufficient  for 
all  capable  persons  to  become  proficient  in  the  art  of 
penmanship,  yet  the  demand  is  fully  as  great  as  ever 
for  wriring  teachers,  if  not  even  greater;  for  the  peo- 
ple now  see  more  than  ever  the  necessity  of  good 


I034 


PENMANSHIP. 


penmanship;  and,  while  they  have  not  the  energy  lo 
learn  the  art  from  the  books  alone,  the  most  of  them 
will  welcome  a  teacher  and  endeavor  to  accomplish 
something  under  the  inspiration  of  hislivingpresence. 
Instruction  books  are  a  necessity,  for  reference  as  a 
guide  to  accuracy  and  completeness,  but  there  is  no 
substitute  for  the  real  presence  of  a  faithful  friend. 

As  there  are  a  few  incompetent  and  unprincipled 
teachers  in  the  country,  it  is  well  for  the  good  ones 
so  to  instruct  the  people,  both  by  precept  and  exam- 
ple, that  they  may  distinguish  the  good  from  the 
bad.  But  such  instruction  cannot  be  given  in  a  few 
sentences  of  boasting  or  denunciation,  but  by  faithful 
conversation  and  conduct  continued  through  several 
weeks  of  time. 

After  a  capable  person  has  made  himself  proficient 
in  this  fascinating  art,  he  will  probably  have  sorne 
ways  of  his  own  as  to  the  best  method  of  teaching  it; 
and,  indeed,  one  can  generally  teach  better  in  his  own 
way  than  in  that  of  some  one  else.  Still,  as  almost 
any  one  will  pick  up  a  few  good  items  from  the  pub- 
lished experience  of  others,  we  venture  here  to  sug- 
gest some  aids,  from  which  a  beginner  may  derive 
benefit. 

The  success  of  a  school  mainly  depends  upon  the 
teacher.  He  is  the  life  and  soul  of  the  class.  If  he 
possess  love  of  order,  tact,  versatility,  knowledge  of 
human  nature  and  self-possession,  with  ability  to  il- 
lustrate principles  and  entertain  his  class  with  anec- 
dotes and  pleasantries,  he  can  succeed  pecuniarily  as 
well  as  sociably  and  professionally.  If  he  desires 
to  follow  the  business  for  a  number  of  years,  it  is  well 
to  select  a  dozen  or  twenty  villages,  and  continue  his 
rounds  in  them  once  or  twice  a  year  regularly.  There 
is  money  in  a  good  reputation.  By  this  policy  very 
little  special  advertising  will  be  necessary  in  the  sub- 
sequent rounds,  and  all  the  machinery  of  the  business 
will  run  easily. 

In  advertising,  it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  endeavor  to 
attract  attention  by  odd  or  sensational  dodges,  or 
even  by  boasting.  His  advertisement  in  the  local 
newspaper  may  be  something  like  this: 

"  Writing  School. — Mr.  W.»L  Austin  will  open  a 
Writing  School  in  Caledonia  Hall  Monday  Evening 
next,  at  7  o'clock  promptly.  See  specimens  at  Hyde's 
Book  Store.  No  payments  for  tuition  will  be  received 
in  advance.  Terms,  $2. 50  for  the  course,  payable 
during  the  last  week  of  the  term." 

Generally,  in  addition  to  the  above,  a  favorable  ed- 
itorial notice  can  be  obtained,  which  will  greatly  aid 
the  enterprise. 

It  is  usually  a  good  plan  also  to  issue  a  hand-bill 
or  circular,  which  may  be  worded  or  planned  like  the 
following : 

"  Writing  School.  Mr.  W.  L.  Austin,  of  Detroit, 
Mich.,  will  give  the  first  of  a  course  of  twelve  lessons 
in  penmanship  at  Caledonia  Hall,  beginning  Monday 
evening,  Oct.  8,  1883,  and  continuing  every  evening, 
except  Sunday,  until  completed.  Terms  $2.50.  No 
money  received  in  advance.     Stationery  and  all  the 


necessary  material,  of  the  best  quality,  furnished  pu- 
pils at  the  lowest  prices,  or  students  may  bring  their 
own.  Also,  bring  a  lamp,  with  a  shade.  Come  early, 
and  do  not  miss  the  first  lesson. 

Commendations. 

"Mr.  W.  L.  Austin,  who  has  been  a  resident  of  this  city  a  number  of 
years,  is  a  young  man  of  excellent  character  and  a  very  fine  penman. 
He  proposes  to  teach  the  coming  season,  and  1  take  much  pleasure  in 
recommending  him  to  all  who  desire  good  instruction  in  the  very  useful 
art  of  writing.— Rev.  Aakon  D.  Phelps,  Pastor  of  Chnsliao  Church. 

"Mr.  Austin  has  just  closed  a  large  and  successful  writing  school  here; 
and  it  is  the  opinion  of  those  who  attended  that  it  is  the  best  ipe  have 
ever  had.  His  work  is  thorough,  and  he  is  in  all  respects  an  hoooraUe 
young  man. — Logatuport  {/nd.)  SenttMf/" 

"Specimens  on  exhibition  at  Hyde's  Book  Store." 

A  large  poster,  which  should  contain  but  few  words, 
might  be  thus  worded: 

"Writing  School.  See  small  bills,  giving  fulU 
particulars  of  W.  L.  Austin's  Writing  School,  soon  to 
begin  here.  Specimens  of  his  penmanship  at  Hyde's 
Book  Store." 

Of  course  the  above  would  be  tastefully  displayed, 
according  to  the  typographer's  art. 

The  best  way  to  advertise  and  canvass  is  some- 
thing like  this:  I,  To  have  a  circular  left  at  every 
house  in  the  community;  2,  Call  at  the  newspaper 
offices,  insert  a  short  advertisement,  and  ask  the  edi- 
tor to  call  attention  to  the  opening  of  the  school, 
giving  him  one  of  your  circulars,  by  which  he  may  see 
that  you  are  well  spoken  of  as  a  penman,  as  a  teacher 
and  as  a  gentleman  ;  3,  Have  a  dozen  or  two  of  the 
large  jxjsters  put  up  about  the  village  ;  4,  Visit  the 
families  of  the  place,  not  to  get  subscriptions,  but  to 
show  your  work  and  what  you  proixjse  to  do ;  5,  Vis- 
it the  schools  of  the  place,  exhibiting  specimens  of 
your  penmanship,  showing  how  attendance  at  your 
school  will  not  interfere  with  the  daily  studies  of  the 
scholars,  and  giving  the  teachers  free  tickets  to  your 
course. 

It  is  very  important  that  a  good  room  should  be  ob- 
tained for  the  writing  school,  and  kept  neat  and  com- 
fortable during  the  exercises.  A  school-room  is  best, 
where  seats  and  desks  are  already  supplied.  The 
charge  for  the  use  of  such  a  room  is  usually  but  a 
trifle  or  nothing.  Give  free  tickets  to  those  who  are 
responsible  for  the  room  and  who  grant  you  permission 
to  use  it. 

Do  not  advertise  your  school  contingently, — that  is, 
conditioning  it  upon  the  amount  of  patronage  you  re- 
ceive; for  that  is  a  sure  way  to  fail.  Say  positively 
you  will  commence  on  such  an  evening,  at  such  an 
hour,  naming  the  place. 

The  school  assembled,  take  pains  to  secure  the 
strictest  order  and  quietness.  During  the  exercises 
no  whispering  should  be  allowed,  and  the  stillness 
should  be  so  perfect  that  if  any  pupil  is  using  a  scratch- 
ing pen  it  can  be  heard. 

Slips  are  best  for  copies,  as  they  can  be  easily  slid 

down  on  the  sheet  and  kept  near  the  pen.     About 

two  dozen  copies  will  generally  be  sufficient  to  occupy 

the  rime  of  most  pupils  during  the  term,  and  should 

I  be  arranged  to  embrace  all  the  principles  and  exercises 


PENMANSHIP— PEPPER. 


1035 


it  is  necessary  for  the  student  to  understand  in  plain 
writing.  These  copies  may  be  written  or  printed  :  the 
printed  are  more  perfect  and  save  the  teacher  much 
drudgery.  The  printed  forms  should  exhibit  the  true 
character  of  the  letters  as  they  should  be  written  with 
the  pen,  and  not  be  merely  printed  from  "script" 
type 

Numbered  in  the  order  of  their  succession,  from  one 
to  twenty-four,  these  slips  should  be  wrapped  togeth- 
er in  a  package,  which  should  be  pasted  on  the  inside 
of  the  copy-book,  on  the  cover,  whence  they  can  be 
drawn  as  required  by  the  student.  When  the  copy  is 
finished,  the  slip  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  package.  The  wrapper  holding  the  copies  should 
be  firm  and  tight  enough  to  prevent  the  copies  from 
falling  out  of  their  places.  If  the  copies  are  kept 
clean  and  smooth,  they  can  be  used  again.  '  Another 
plan,  but  more  laborious,  is,  for  the  teacher  to  distrib- 
ute the  copies  at  the  commencement  of  each  session 
•of  the  school,  and  collect  them  at  the  close. 

Those  of  the  class  who  excel  may  be  furnished 
■with  copies  of  various  commercial  forms,  or  even  of 
examples  of  flourishing  or  fancy  shading,  on  which  to 
practice  toward  the  close  of  the  term. 

Should  a  second  term  of  lessons  be  given  to  the 
same  students,  they  should  for  half  a  dozen  evenings 
■  review  the  copies  of  the  first  term,  after  which  they 
may  be  drilled  in  commercial  forms,  composition  of 
business  letters,  flourishing,  etc.,  according  to  their 
tastes,  capacity  and  stage  of  advancement. 

All  copies  should  be  prepared  before  the  school 
commences. 

More  than  in  anything  else,  is  it  necessary  for  the 
writing  teacher  to  be  prompt  in  opening  each  session 
at  the  hour  appointed:  otherwise  troubles  will  increase 
upon  his  hands.  The  causes  of  this  are  so  obvious 
that  we  need  not  repeat  them. 

A  portion  of  the  time,  during  each  session,  while 
the  pupils  are  practicing  the  elements,  the  teacher 
will  find  it  convenient  to  have  the  whole  class  make 
their  pen  movements  in  unison,  as  singers  in  keeping 
time.  The  teacher  leads  by  calling  out  the  principles 
by  number,  as,  3,  1,3,  i,  2,  while  the  whole  class  fol- 
low, forming  for  example  the  letter  n.  This  process 
can  be  followed  with  all  the  letters,  both  large  and 
small.  There  is  considerable  advantage  in  such  a 
a  practice,  derivable  more  from  recondite  elements  of 
human  nature — metaphysical  reasons — than  from  any- 
thing visible. 

The  copies  which  we  have  given  on  pages  1 030-1 
are  adapted  to  a  course  of  twelve  lessons  in  penman- 
ship, so  arranged  as  to  be  both  progressive  and  com- 
plete. 

On  calling  the  school  to  order  and  furnishing  every 
member  with  the  necessarj'  outfit,  it  is  well  to  have 
each  write  a  sentence  as  well  as  he  can,  at  the  top  of 
the  first  page,  as  a  specimen  with  which  to  compare 
his  best  at  the  close  of  school.  This  will  be  a  great 
satisfaction  to  each  pupil,  as  well  as  an  evidence  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  teacher. 


Then  draw  the  oval  on  the  blackboard,  and  explain 
how  principles  2  and  3  are  taken  from  it.  Next  drill 
on  jxjsition,  holding  the  pen,  movements,  etc.,  and 
proceed,  as  indicated  by  the  copies  in  this  work. 

A  session  of  an  hour  and  a  half  to  two  hours  is 
sufficiently  long,  and  during  the  evening  there  should 
be  an  intermission  of  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

Pennyroyal,  a  perennial  plant  of  the  mint  family. 
It  flowers  in  August  and  September;  it  is  warm, 
pungent,  aromatic,  stimulating  and  diaphoretic,  like 
spearmint,  but  not  so  agreeable.  The  infusion  is 
warming  to  the  stomach  and  allays  sickness.  It  re- 
lieves spasms,  hysterics,  flatulency  and  colic,  and 
promotes  expectoration  in  dry  comsumptive  coughs. 
It  promotes  perspiration  and  is  most  valuable  in  ob- 
struction of  the  menses.  It  is  very  disagreeable  to 
mostinsect^  and  will  therefore  drive  them  away 

Peony  (pe'o-ny),  a  very  gorgeous,  hardy  flovrer 
propagated  from  the  roots.  It  presents  a  wonderful 
combination  of  colors.  Plant  in  spring  or  autumn 
and  leave  in  the  ground  undisturbed  until  you  wish 
to  propagate  by  dividing  the  roots.  It  will  grow  in 
any  soil  not  covered  in  winter  and  spring  with  surface 
water. 

Medical  Properties  and  Uses.  The  root  is  the 
part  used,  and  is  considered  an  excellent  nervine 
and  anti-spasmodic  tonic.  When  fresh,  the  root  has 
a  strong,  disagreeable  smell,  and  rather  sickening, 
bitter-sweetish  taste;  when  dried,  these  unpleasant 
properties  are  measurably  lost.  It  has  long  been 
used  as  an  anodyne  and  anti-spasmodic  remedy  in 
certain  nervous  affections,  as  epileptic  and  other  fits, 
in  St.  Vitus'  Dance,  and  also  in  whooping-cough.  For 
this  latter  complaint,  it  is  thought  best  to  use  it  in 
combination  with  the  black  cohosh  root,  in  the  form 
of  syrup.  Peony  is  generally  used  in  infusions,  one 
ounce  or  so  of  the  root  coarsely  powdered  or  bruised, 
to  one  pint  of  boiling  water.  Dose  from  a  third  to  a 
half  a  teacupful,  three  or  four  times  a  day;  of  the 
powdered  root,  about  a  teaspoonful  three  times  a 
day,  in  case  of  fits  or  chorea.  It  was  regarded  by  the 
ancients  as  a  sovereign  remedy  for  fits  or  epilepsy. 

Pepper.  A  well-known  spice  of  an  aromatic  odor, 
and  an  extremely  pungent  and  acrid  taste. 

Black  pepper  is  the  fruit  of  a  species  of  climbing 
vine,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  found  on  the 
slopes  of  mountains  in  the  southern  parts  of  both 
peninsulas;  it  is  also  cultivated  extensively  in  Mala- 
bar, and  the  eastern  islands,  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo, 
and  those  which  are  near.  It  was  formerly  known 
only  as  the  product  of  these  countries,  the  whole  globe 
being  supplied  from  them;  but  it  has  been  lately  in- 
troduced into  Cayenne.  The  berries  grow  in  spikes 
of  from  twenty  to  thirty,  are  at  first  green,  and  when 
ripe  are  of  a  bright  red  color.  After  being  gathered, 
which  they  are  while  green, are  spread  outon  mats,  with 
their  skins  on  and  dried  in  the  sun  ;  thus  they  become 
black  and  more  or  less  shrivelled.    Those  which  are 


1036 


PEPPER-GRASS—PE  WEE. 


least  ripe  and  in  the  fittest  state  for  gathering,  shrivel 
the  least;  but  when  they  are  more  ripe  they  often 
shrivel  up  entirely  or  remain  nothing  but  dust.  The 
quality  of  pepper  is  tested  by  rubbing  it  between  the 
hands,  and  what  is  easily  reduced  to  powder  is  un- 
sound and  bad. 

White  pepper  is  not  the  product  of  a  separate  plant, 
but  is  made  from  the  black  by  steeping  it  in  lime  and 
water  and  the  removal  of  its  black  skin.  Pepper  is 
sold  extensively  ground.  This  is  never  pure,  but 
adulterated  with  various  cheaper  articles. 

Red  pepper  {Capsicum)  is  a  name  given  to  numer- 
ous herbaceous  plants  natives  of  tropical  countries,  but 
some  varieties  are  cultivated  throughout  the  United 
States  in  gardens.  The  pods  are  the  part  used,  being 
yellow  or  red  when  ripe.  The  red  (Cayenne)  pepper 
of  commerce  is  the  long,  small  red  pepper. 

This  powerful  spice  has  become  a  necessary  article 
in  cooking  and  seasoning,  and  is  much  esteemed  for 
its  flavor  and  the  quality  which  it  is  supposed  to 
possess  of  promoting  or  aiding  digestion.  It  is  very 
doubtful,  however,  if  its  use  is  conducive  to  health.  In 
fact,  the  black  variety  may  be  considered  very  detri- 
mental. The  Cayenne  is  preferable,  yet  should  be 
used  sparingly. 

To  pickle  pepper  and  make  pepper  mangoes,  see 
article  on  Pickles. 

To  cultivate  the  red  or  Cayenne  variety,  start  in  a 
cold  frame  or  hot-bed,  transplant  the  young  plants 
toward  the  close  of  May  in  a  very  warm  location,  in 
rows  18  inches  apart;  thin  plants  to  a  foot  apart  in 
the  rows;  or,  when  but  few  are  wanted,  it  is  more 
economical  to  sow  the  seed  where  the  plants  are  to 
remain.     Very  rich  ground  is  necessary. 

Varieties.  Spanish  Monstrous.  Six  inches  long 
and  two  in  diameter. 

Chili.  Sharply  pointed,  two  inches  long  and  half  an 
inch  thick. 

Long  Yellow.    The  name  is  properly  descriptive. 

Large  Bell.     A  standard  sort. 

Cayenne.  Small,  long  and  tapering;  very  hot; 
best  for  seasoning  pickles. 

Large  Sweet  Mountain.  Very  large  and  excellent 
for  rriangoes. 

Cherry.     Small,  smooth  and  round;  a  great  bearer. 

Squash,  or  Flat.  Best  for  pickling ;  in  most  popu- 
lar use. 

Long  Red,  or  Santa  Fe.     Very  productive. 

Yellow  Squash.     A  fine,  large  variety. 

Pepper- grass:  see  Cress. 

Peppermint,  an  herb  used  for  sauces,  perfumes 
and  in  medicines.  It  is  distilled  and  its  oil  formed 
into  an  essence.  It  belongs  to  the  same  family  as 
spearmint  and  pennyroyal,  both  which  are  cultivated 
in  a  similar  manner.  The  soil  should  be  moist,  mel- 
low and  rich.  The  roots  are  put  in  the  ground  about 
six  inches  apart,  and  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  about 
corn-planting  time.  In  the  garden  they  may  be  set 
one  foot  apart  each  way.  In  drying  it  must  be  done 
in  the  shade  and  the  branches  not  permitted  to  get 


wet.  When  for  the  oil  they  should  be  cut  when  in 
blossom.  St.  Joseph  county,  Mi;h.,  is  the  principal 
point  in  the  United  States  for  the  cultivation  of  this 
plant. 

Pepsin,  the  active  principle  of  the  gastric  juice  of 
animals.   See  Dyspepsia. 

Perambulator,  or  Odometer,  a  wheel  so  con- 
nected with  another  wheel  in  machinery  as  to  measure 
the  distance  traveled.  It  can  be  attached  to  a  wagon 
and  measure  the  distance  it  travels  along  the  road. 

Perch,  in  long  measure,  five  and  one-half  yards  or 
a  rod ;  the  one-fortieth  of  a  rood  in  land  measure. 
Stone  masonry  is  usually  measured  by  the  perch, 
meaning  a  mass  i6J^  feet  long  and  a  foot  each  in 
height  and  breadth,  or  16}^  cubic  feet.  Perch  is  the 
name  of  a  family  of  excellent  fresh-water  fish  de- 
scribed on  page  473. 

Percheron  Horse :  see  page  692 . 

Perennial  (per-en'ni-al)  herbs  are  plants  that 
die  down  to  the  ground  in  the  autumn,  while  the  roots 
continue  to  live  and  send  up  plants  annually  for  many 
years.  Such  roots  should  be  divided  each  year  in  the 
spring.  Annuals  are  plants  whose  roots  live  but  one 
year,  the  plant  reproducing  its  sjjecies  by  seed  :  bien- 
nials are  such  as  spring  from  the  seed,  forming  a  plant 
during  the  first  year  which  does  not  mature  it.«  seed 
until  the  second  season,  when  it  dies. 

Perry,  the  cider  of  pears. 

Persimmon.  This  fruit  is  grown  between  latitudes 
30°  and  40"  north.  It  is  seldom  seen  north  of  the 
latter  point,  but  is  common  south  of  it.  The  tree 
averages  about  35  feet  in  height,  and  resembles  the 
white  ash,  but  when  trimmed  and  cultivated  has 
symmetrical  heads  like  the  hard  maple.  The  fruit 
when  green  is  remarkably  astringent,  but  when  ripe  is 
sweet  and  luscious  and  very  palatable-  The  fruit 
varies  from  that  of  a  small  plum  to  a  medium-sized 
peach,  and  is  very  difficult  to  keep. 

Perspiration,  the  insensible  transpiration  or  exha- 
lation continually  going  on  at  the  surface  of  the  skin 
and  membranes.    Sensible  perspiration  is  called  sweat. 

Petroleum,  a  bituminous  oil  obtained  from  under 
the  earth.  It  is  the  crude  oil  from  which  kerosene 
and  other  oils  are  distilled. 

In  veterinary  practice  petroleum  or  rock  oil  was  for- 
merly recommended  in  chest  diseases,  but  it  has  been 
succeeded  by  more  certain  and  successful  drugs  for 
this  puriwse.  However,  it  is  still  occasionally  used 
as  an  external  application  for  sores  and  for  the  de- 
struction of  lice,  etc.,  in  the  skin.  It  is  apt  to  leave 
a  blemish  by  causing  the  hair  to  fall  off,  and  in  some 
cases  in  which  it  has  been  used  extensively  the  hair 
did  not  come  on  again.  The  better  way  to  use  coal 
oil  is  to  mix  equal  parts  with  some  other  oil  having 
no  acrid  principle. 

Pewee,  or  Phebe  Bird.  This  is  a  small,  well- 
known  bird  of  the  North.     It  lingers  around  bridges, 


PHEASANT— PICKLING. 


1037 


old  mills  and  caves,  in  some  secure  part  of  which  it 
makes  its  nest  of  mud,  grass  and  moss,  with  soft  lin- 
ing within  to  receive  the  pure  white  eggs  with  feddish 
sjx)ts  near  the  larger  end.  It  is  quite  domestic  and 
innocent  of  mischief  The  wood  pewee  comes  a  little 
later  than  the  above  and  loves  the  dark,  quiet  retreats 
of  the  forest.  Here,  sitting  on  a  dry  branch,  it  may 
always  be  found  in  summer  and  early  autumn,  watch- 
ing for  insects,  and  uttering  its  low,  melancholy  notes. 
It  makes  its  nest  on  a  horizontal  branch,  constructing 
it  of  lichens  and  mosses  without  and  of  fine  grasses 
and  hairs  within.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five,  light 
yellowish,  and  spotted  with  reddish  on  the  larger  end. 
The  short-legged  pewee  is  a  familiar  bird  throughout 
North  America. 

Pheasant.     See  Ruffed  Grouse,  page  61  r. 

Phebe  Bird:  see  Pewee. 

Phlegm  (flem),  the  mucous  liquid  thrown  up  from 
the  bronchia  or  lungs. 

Phonography:  see  Short-Hand. 

Phosphate,  a  salt  formed  by  a  combination  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  salifiable  base,  as  lime.  It  is 
necessary  to  the  formation  of  bone  and  therefore  be- 
comes a  most  valuable  mineral  manure.  Soil  defi- 
cient of  phosphate  does  not  furnish  animals  sufficient 
of  this  bone-making  substance. 

Phosphorus,  an  elementary  substance,  not  me- 
tallic, solid,  colorless,  brilliant,  and  very  inflammable. 
In  common  air  it  burns  with  great  rapidity.  At  ordi- 
nary temperature  it  naturally  attracts  the  oxygen  of 
the  air,  and  burns  spontaneously,  emitting  a  luminous 
vapor. 

Phrenitis  (fre-ni'tis),  in  cattle,  see  page '233;  in 
horses,  see  Inflammation  of  the  Brain,  page  749. 

Phylloxera  (fil-ox'e-ra):  see  pages  590  and  862. 

Physician:  see  Doctoring. 

Physiology,  the  science  which  treats  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  organs  of  animals  or  vegetables. 

Piccalilli,  To  Make:  To  one  peck  of  green 
tomatoes  take  3  good-sized  heads  of  cabbage,  12 
green  peppers  and  2  large  onions.  Slice  your  toma- 
toes, put  them  in  salt  and  water  over  night,  drain 
well  in  morning;  chop  tomatoes,  cabbage,  pepper  and 
onions,  mix  them  all  thoroughly  together,  cover  with 
vinegar,  cook  until  quite  tender,  then  drain  through 
a  colander;  then  take  i  pint  of  grated  horse-radish,  a 
half  ounce  each  of  allspice,  cloves  and  mustard;  mix 
with  I  pint  of  sugar,  and  vinegar  enough  to  cover  the 
whole;  stir  all  well  together  and  put  in  a  stone  jar. 

Pickling  is  the  term  used  to  express  the  mode  of 
preserving  animal  or  vegetable  substances  from 
putrefactive  fermentation,  or  decomposition,  by  im- 
mersion in  vinegar.  Almost  any  eatable  plant  may 
be  pickled,  and  the  number  so  used  is  very  great. 

We  have  given  directions  for  making  almost  all 
kinds  of  pickles  in  the  articles  of  the  respective  fruits 


and  vegetables :  we  will  therefore  only  give  such  in  this 
connection  as  are  mixed,  and  the  cucumber  pickle. 

In  pickling  observe  the  following  rules:  Always 
procure  the  best  vinegar,  as  the  success  of  your  pickles 
depends  on  its  quality.  Use  glass  bottles  for  your 
pickles;  if  earthen  jars  they  must  be  unglazed,  as  the 
vinegar  acting  upon  the  glaze  produces  a  mineral 
poison.  Use  saucepans  lined  with  earthenware,  or 
stone  pipkins  to  boil  your  vinegar  in.  If  you  are 
compelled  to  use  tin  or  copper,  do  not  let  your  vin- 
egar remain  in  one  moment  longer  than  necessary. 
Do  not  allow  it  to  cool  in  them,  as  thus  it  would  then 
become  poisonous.  Employ  also  wooden  knives  and 
forks  in  the  preparation  of  your  pickles.  Fill  the  jars 
three-fourths  full  with  the  articles  to  be  pickled,  and 
then  fill  the  bottle  or  jar  with  vinegar. 

When  greening,  keep  the  pickles  covered  down,  as 
the  evaporation  of  steam  will  injure  the  color.  A 
little  nut  of  alum  may  be  added  to  crisp  pickles,  but 
it  should  be  very  small  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
or  it  will  give  a  disagreeable  flavor. 

Cucumber  Pickles.  Make  a  pickle,  or  brine,  in  a 
clean  tub,  that  will  bear  a  small  potato;  wash  the 
cucumbers  and  put  them  in;  cover  with  cabbage 
leaves,  and  place  something  heavy  on  the  top  to  keep 
them  under  the  brine;  let  them  lie  in  this  as  long  as 
you  wish.  To  make  a  few  at  a  time,  take  them  out 
and  let  them  remain  in  cold  water  over  night;  then 
put  half  vinegar  and  half  water,  and  a  small  piece  of 
alum  in  the  kettle  with  the  pickles,  and  set  them  on 
the  back  of  the  range.  Be  careful  not  to  let  them 
boil.  Turn  them  over  every  fifteen  minutes,  so  tney 
will  all  get  done  through;  you  can  tell  by  breaking 
one  in  half,  and  if  it  rs  green  it  is  done.  Take  them 
out,  put  in  a  stone  jar,  throw  away  the  vinegar,  put  in 
fresh  vinegar,  with  some  cloves,  peppers  and  allspice, 
a  few  of  each;  let  it  boil  up,  and  throw  it  over  the 
pickles  in  the  jar,  and  then  cover.  They  will  be 
ready  for  use  in  a  few  days.  Can  be  kept  a  year  if 
desired. 

Mixed  Pickles.  Take  anything  that  can  be 
pickled,  such  as  onions,  sliced  cucumbers,  cabbage, 
mangoes,  peppers,  small  green  tomatoes,  cauliflowers, 
martinoes,  celery,  green  beans,  nasturtiums,  water- 
melon rind,  small  green  cucumbers  and  Chili  peppers. 
Lay  them  in  salt  and  water,  with  enough  turmeric  to 
turn  them  yellow.  Let  them  stand  twenty-four 
hours,  stirring  frequently;  then  drain  and  dry  them, 
and  put  them  into  the  jars.  To  every  quart  of  vine- 
gar allow  a  tablespoonful  of  mustard-seed,  one  of 
turmeric  and  one  of  whole  black  peppers,  some  garlic 
if  you  like.  Spice  to  your  taste  with  mace,  cloves, 
ginger,  red  pepper  and  horse-radish.  Boil  all  but 
the  mustard-seed  in  a  bag  with  the  vinegar;  let  it 
stand  till  cold.  Boil  some  eggs  quite  hard,  mash 
them  in  enough  sweet  oil  to  make  a  paste;  then  stir 
it  into  the  vinegar,  and  pour  over  the  pickles.  Put 
a  handful  of  salt  to  every  jar.  Let  them  stand  three 
days,  covered  tight,  and  they  will  be  ready  to  use. 

Mangoes.  Cut  out  a  small  strip  at  the  side  of  the 
peppers,  and  take  out  the  seed  with  a  teaspoon;  fill 


1038 


PICTURE  FRAMES— PIE. 


them  with  chopped  onion,  peppers,  horse-radish, 
mustard-seed,  cloves  and  allspice.  Sew  on  the  piece 
taken  out,  and  prepare  them  the  same  as  for  cucum- 
bers; they  should  remain  in  the  salt  and  water  forty- 
eight  hours. 

Green  Tomatoes.  The  same  as  for  cucumbers;  a 
few  green  peppers  can  be  put  in  with  them. 

Green  Peppers.  Take  fresh,  hard  peppers;  take 
out  the  seed  and  fill  each  one  with  chopped  cabbage, 
onion  and  whole  mustard-seed;  put  on  the  top  that 
you  remove  to  take  out  the  seed  and  to  fill  it ;  tie  it 
on  with  a  string  to  keep  the  stuffing  in,  and  put  them 
into  salt  and  water ;  let  them  remain  in  it  forty-eight 
hours.  Then  pour  over  them  hot  vinegar.  They 
can  be  put  into  the  salt  and  water  before  the  chopped 
cabbage  is  put  into  them,  if  preferred. 

Pickled  Onions.  Peel  the  onions,  which  should 
be  fine,  white  ones — not  too  large.  Let  them  stand 
in  strong  brine  four  days,  changing  it  twice.  Heat  more 
brine  to  a  boil,  throw  in  the  onions,  and  boil  three 
minutes.  Throw  them  at  once  into  cold  water,  and 
leave  them  there  four  hours.  Pack  in  jars,  inter- 
spersing with  whole  mace,  white  pepper-corns  and 
cloves.  Fill  up  with  scalding  vinegar,  in  which  you 
have  put  a  cupful  of  sugar  for  every  gallon.  Cork 
while  hot.  They  will  be  ready  for  use  in  a  month, 
but  will  be  better  at  the  end  of  three  months. 

Pickled  Cauliflower.  Pick  the  whitest  and 
closest  bunches.  Cut  into  small  sprays  or  clusters. 
Plunge  into  a  kettle  of  scalding  brine  and  boil  three 
mimites.  Take  them  out,  lay  upon  a  sieve  or  a  cloth, 
sprinkle  thickly  with  salt,  and,  when  dry,  brush  this 
off.  Cover  with  cold  vinegar  two  days,  setting  the 
jar  in  the  sun.  Then  pack  careTully  in  glass  or  stone- 
ware jars,  and  pour  over  them  scalding  vinegar 
seasoned  thus :  To  one  gallon  allow  a  cup  of  white, 
sugar,  a  dozen  blades  of  mace,  a  tablespoonful  of  celery 
seed,  two  dozen  white  pepper-corns  and  some  bits  of 
red-pepper  pods,  a  tablespoonful  of  coriander  seed,  and 
the  same  of  whole  mustard.  Boil  five  minutes.  Re- 
peat the  scalding  once  a  week  for  three  weeks;  tie  up 
and  set  away.  Keep  the  cauliflowers  under  the 
vinegar  by  putring  a  small  plate  on  top. 

Pickled  Cabbage  is  generally  called  "sour  krout" 
(German,  sauer  kraut).     To  make  it,  see  page  1 1 13. 

Picture  Frames,  To  Clean  :  see  Furniture. 
Pie  Plant:  see  Rhubarb. 

Pie.  We  give  the  following  well-tried  recipes  for 
making  many  different  kinds  of  pies.  To  make  a 
good  pie  crust  take  a  quart  of  flour,  which  will  make 
four  large  pies.  Sift  the  flour  and  stir  in  a  quarter  of 
a  pound  of  butter  and  ateaspoonful  of  baking  powder, 
then  moisten  with  ice  water  if  you  have  it,  using  just 
as  little  as  will  make  the  flour  stick  together.  The 
secret  of  good,  tende*  paste  is  speedy  work.  Do  not 
work  it  with  warm  hands. 

Apple  Pie.  Peel  the  apples,  slice  them  thin,  pour 
a  little  molasses  and  sprinkle  some  sugar  over  them; 


grate  on  some  lemon   peel  or  nutmeg.     If  you  wish 
to  make  it  richer,  put  a  little  butler  on  the  top. 

But^r  Pie.  Very  rich.  Take  a  piece  of  nice 
butter,  not  too  salt,  large  as  a  hen's  egg;  5^  of  a  cup 
of  sugar,  I  cup  of  sweet  cream,  i  tablespoonful  of 
flour.  Stir  butter,  sugar  and  flour  together ;  then  stir 
in  the  cream ;  add  nutmeg  if  liked ;  pour  into  a  crust ; 
put  crust  in  strips  across  the  top;  bake  until  slightly 
browned. 

Carrot  Pie.  A  very  good  pie  may  be  made  of  car- 
rots, in  the  same  way  that  you  make  pumpkin  pies. 

Chicken  Pie.  Take  2  or  3  nice  young  chickens  and 
boil  them  until  the  meat  will  come  off  the  bones  real 
easy,  then  pick  all  the  bones  out ;  make  a  crust  the 
same  as  for  other  pies  but  roll  it  rather  thicker ;  put 
your  crust  in  a  dripping-pan;  put  in  a  layer  of  chick- 
en seasoned  with  salt,  pepper  and  butter;  have  plenty 
of  broth ;  then  put  on  another  crust,  then  another 
layer  of  chicken,  then  put  in  all  the  broth,  then  the 
top  crust;  pinch  the  crust  firmly  around  the  top. 
Bake  in  a  slow  oven  about  two  hours. 

Chocolate  Pie.  Two  cups  of  sugar,  three-quar- 
ters of  a  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  milk,  three  and  a 
half  cups  of  flour  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  some 
condensed  baking  powder  sifted  into  it ;  five  eggs, 
leaving  out  the  whites  of  four.  Bake  in  Washington 
pie  tins  ;  this  will  make  three  pies  of  two  layers  each, 
with  the  chocolkte  between  and  on  top.  For  the 
chocolate  frosting  take  the  whites  of  the  four  eggs 
beaten  stiff,  with  one  and  a  quarter  cups  of  powdered 
sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  chocolate  placed  in  a 
saucer  and  steamed  over  a  teakettle  until  creamy ; 
one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla. 

Cocoanut  Custard  Pie.  Boil  one  quart  of  milk, 
take  it  from  the  fire  and  stir  into  it  six  well  beaten 
eggs,  half  a  pound  of  sugar  (if  you  do  not  use  the 
dessicated  cocoanut;  if  you  do,  less  sugar  is  required); 
a  pound  of  cocoanut,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vanilla. 
This  can  be  baked  with  a  crust  and  will  make  two 
large  pies,  or  without  a  crust  in  a  buttered  pudding 
dish. 

Cranberry  PrE.  It  should  be  made  in  the  same  way 
as  gooseberry,  allowing  the  same  amount  of  sugar  and 
a  little  more  water. 

Cream  Pie.  For  3  pies  take  7  eggs,  i  quart  sweet 
cream  or  milk,  i  pound  pulverized  sugar  and  2  ounces 
com  starch.  Flavor  to  taste.  Use  only  bottom  crust, 
and  bake  very  slowly. 

Another:  One  large  tablespoon  of  butter,  3  of 
sugar,  2  of  flour,  2  eggs  and  a  little  more  than  %  pint 
of  milk.  Beat  the  sugar  and  butter  to  a  cream ;  beat 
the  eggs  well  and  mix  them  with  the  milk;  then  stir 
in  the  flour,  etc.  Flavor  with  whatever  you  like. 
This  is  for  one  pie. 

Custard  Pie.  For  a  large  pie,  put  in  3  eggs,  a 
heaping  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  i  J^  pints  of  milk,  a 
little  salt  and  some  nutmeg  grated  on.  For  crust  use 
common  pastry. 

Dried-Apple  Pie.  Soak  the  apples  in  cold  water 
all  night,  having  first  looked  them  over  carefully  ;  in 
the  morning  look  them  over  again,  to  make  sure   that 


PIE. 


1039 


there  are  no  bits  of  core  left  on ;  rinse  in  several  wa- 
ters, then  cook  slowly  ;  when  done,  mash  with  a  pota- 
to masher,  till  the  sauce  is  smooth  and  far  removed 
from  lumpiness ;  sweeten  and  spice  to  suit  the  taste. 
If  you  have  any  boiled  cider,  put  in  just  enough  to 
moisten  the  apple,  then  make  a  crust  as  rich  as  for 
mince  pie ;  bake  till  top  is  slightly  browned.  Some 
dried  brackberries  cooked  with  the  apples  will  give 
an  excellent  flavor. 

Elderberry  Pie.  Stew  the  berries  very  juicy, 
adding  vinegar  enough  to  make  them  tart ;  sweeten 
and  spice  to  taste ;  thicken  with  flour ;  remove  from 
the  stove,  and  put  in  plenty  of  butter  or  a  pinch  of 
salt. 

Fruit  Pies.  Line  your  dish  with  a  good  crust  and 
fill  with  cherries,  peaches,  strawberries,  or  any  ripe 
fruit  that  you  have,  regulating  the  quantity  of  sugar 
by  the  sweetness  of  the  fruit ;  they  may  be  covered 
or  not  as  you  like.  Green  gooseberries  and  rhubarb 
should  be  stewed  and  sweetened  before  making  into 
pies. 

Game  Pie.  Divide  the  birds,  if  large,  into  pieces 
or  joints.  They  may  be  pheasants,  partridges,  etc. 
Add  a  little  bacon  or  ham.  Season  well.  Cover  with 
puff"  paste,  and  bake  carefully.  Pour  into  the  pie 
half  a  cupful  of  melted  butter,  the  juice  of  a  lemon, 
and  a  glass  of  sherry,  when  rather  more  than  half 
baked. 

Gooseberry  Pie  or  Tart.  Pick  off  all  the  stalks 
and  Uttle  blossoms,  and  put  them  on  to  stew  after 
they  have  been  washed ;  a  very  little  water  may  be 
put  in  the  bottom  of  the  sauce-pan  to  prevent  its 
burning.  To  each  quart  of  gooseberries  allow  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar.  When  they  are  all 
broken  add  the  sugar,  and  let  them  cook  for  a  few 
minutes  longer.  To  prepare  for  tarts,  a  little  more 
water  should  be  put  to  the  berries;  they  should  then 
be  strained,  and  to  each  pint  of  juice  put  a  pound  of 
sugar  and  boil  it  fifteen  minutes.  Line  the  plates 
with  paste,  fill  them  with  the  gooseberries,  and  put 
on  the  strips  or  an  upper  crust. 

Lemon  Pie.  One  lemon,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one 
tablespoon  corn  starch;  rub  smooth  with  a  little  water; 
one-half  cup  boiling  water,  one  egg;  butter  the  size 
of  a  walnut ;  one  crust. 

Another:  Line  a  common-sized  pie-plate  with  crust, 
rubbing  it  as  full  of  flour  as  you  can.  Take  one  large 
lemon,  grate  off"  the  yellow  part  and  squeeze  the  juice 
into  the  middle  of  the  pie ;  place  the  pulp  around 
the  edge ;  one  egg,  beaten  with  three-fourths  of  a  cup 
of  white  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  cold  water,  sprinkle  in 
some  of  the  grated  rind,  and  cover  with  a  crust. 

Lemon  Cream  Pie.  One  and  a  half  pints  milk,  3 
tablespoonfuls  corn  starch,  i  cup  sugar,  2  tablespoon- 
fuls  butter,  i  teaspoonful  each  extract  lemon,  cloves, 
and  cinnamon,  juice  of  2  lemons,  yolks  of  4  eggs.  Boil 
the  milk ;  add  the  corn  starch,  dissolved  in  little  of  the 
milk ;  when  it  re-boils  take  it  off,  beat  in  the  yolks, 
butter,  lemon  juice,  and  extracts ;  pour  at  once  into 
pie-plates,  lined  with  paste  having  a  high  rim,  and 


bake  in  a  hot  oven  until  the  paste  is  cooked  about 
twenty  minutes. 

Marlborough  Pie.  One  cup  of  stewed  dried 
apples,  sifted  or  made  fine  with  a  spoon ;  half  cup 
sugar,  one  cup  milk,  small  piece  of  butter  or  some 
sweet  cream  in  place  of  butter,  two  beaten  eggs,  nut- 
meg, no  top  crust. 

Meat  Pies.  Have  a  good  crust  ready;  let  your 
meat  be  cold,  put  in  seasoning  as  you  like,  and  cut 
small  pieces  of  butter  over  the  top,  before  putting  on 
the  upper  crust.     Allow  sufficient  moisture. 

Mince  Pies.  The  following  is  a  recipe  for  the  pastry 
of  mince  pies.  Directions  for  making  the  meat  are 
given  in  the  article  Mince  Meat.  Two  cupfuls  of 
flour,  one  cupful  of  lard,  half  a  cupful  of  ice  water,  a 
pinch  of  salt;  use  a  knife  to  cut  the  lard  through  the 
flour  until  fine;  then  add  the  water,  and  mix  with  the 
knife  until  no  flour  remains  in  the  bowl ;  roll  thin, 
and  place  small  bits  of  butter  over,  dredge  with  flour, 
fold  up,  and  repeat  the  process  twice,  using  half  a 
cupful  of  butter;  roll  the  crust  thin;  have  a  quick 
oven ;  it  will  rise  in  flakes. 

Molasses  Pies.  Take  four  eggs  and  one  heaped 
tablespoonful  of  flour;  beat  together  until  well  mixed; 
then  add  two  cups  of  molasses  and  one  tablespoonful 
of  good  vinegar;  have  paste  rolled  as  for  custard 
pies ;  bake  in  moderate  oven ;  care  should  be  taken 
or  they  will  burn  if  oven  is  too  hot.  These  will  jelly 
nicely.     The  above  quantity  is  enough  for  two  pies. 

Orange  Pie.  Two  oranges,  eight  tablespoonfuls 
of  sugar,  four  eggs,  two-thirds  tumbler  of  milk ;  beat 
the  yolks,  sugar  and  grated  peel  of  the  oranges,  being 
careful  not  to  grate  off. 

Pigeon  Pi^.  Lay  a  rim  of  paste  around  the  sides 
and  edge  of  a  pie  dish,  sprinkle  a  little  pepper  and 
salt  over  the  bottom  and  put  in  a  thin  beefsteak ;  pick 
and  draw  the  pigeons,  wash  them  clean,  cut  off"  the 
feet  and  press  the  legs  into  the  sides;  put  a  bit  of 
butter  and  a  seasoning  of  pepper  and  salt  in  the  inside 
of  each,  and  lay  them  in  the  dish  with  their  breasts 
upwards,  and  the  necks  and  gizzards  between  tliem ; 
sprinkle  some  pepper  and  salt  over  them  and  put  in  a 
wineglass  of  water ;  lay  a  thin  sheet  of  paste  over  the 
top,  and  with  a  brush  wet  it  all  over ;  then  put  a  puff 
paste  half  an  inch  thick  over  that,  cut  it  close  to  the 
dish,  brush  it  over  with  egg,  ornament  the  top,  and 
bake  it.  When  done,  pour  in  a  little  good  gravy. 
You  may  put  in  the  yolks  of  6  hard-boiled  eggs,  or 
leave  out  the  beefsteak  if  you  think  proper. 

Pork  Pie.  Take  the  skin  and  fat  from  a  loin  of 
pork,  and  cut  it  into  thin  steaks;  season  them  with 
pepper,  salt  and  nutmeg;  line  a  pie  dish  with  puff 
paste,  put  in  a  layer  of  ix)rk,  then  of  pippins  pared 
and  cored,  and  about  2  ounces  of  sugar;  then  place 
in  another  layer  of  pork,  and  half  a  pint  of  white  wine, 
and  lay  some  butter  on  top;  cover  it  over  with  puff 
paste,  pass  a  knife  through  the  top  to  leave  an  open- 
ing, cut  the  paste  even  with  the  dish,  egg  it  once  and 
bake  it. 

Potato  Pie.  One  pound  of  mashed  jx)tato  rubbed 
through  a  colander;  J^  pound  of  butter  rubbed  to  a 


i 


1040 


PIE— PIGEON. 


cream  with  2  cups  of  white  sugar ;  6  eggs,  the  whites 
and  yolks  beaten  separately;  the  juice  of  1  lemon, 
squeezed  into  the  potato  while  hot;  i  teaspoon  of 
nutmeg,  the  same  of  mace ;  bake  in  shells  of  paste,  or 
in  dishes  lined  with  good  paste,  without  covers.  To 
be  eaten  cold. 

Pumpkin  Pie.  Cut  up  and  peel  a  sweet  yellow 
pumpkin,  scrape  out  the  inside,  put  to  stew  with  only 
a  little  water ;  cover  the  pot  until  the  pieces  are  soft, 
then  stir  these.  Especial  care  is  to  be  taken  that  the 
pumpkin  does  not  scorch.  When  it  is  taken  out  and 
cold,  sift  through  a  colander;  if  there  is  too  much 
water  drain  in  a  clean  cloth.  To  2  quarts  of  the  pre- 
pared pumpkin  add  3  quarts  of  milk,  Yi  of  it  being 
thick  cream ;  1 2  eggs,  a  little  salt,  a  pint  of  molasses, 
a  teaspoonful  of  ginger,  and  cinnamon  to  suit  the  taste. 
Stir  well.  Have  a  pie  plate  lined  with  paste.  Stir  up 
from  the  bottom  and  fill  tlie  plates.  They  must  bake 
until  they  rise  up  in  the  middle. 

Rabbit  Pie.  Skin  and  wash  a  fine,  large  rabbit ; 
cut  it  into  joints  and  divide  the  head.  Then  place  it 
in  warm  water  to  soak  until  thoroughly  clean;  drain 
on  a  sieve  or  wipe  it  with  a  clean  cloth.  Season  it 
with  pepper  and  salt,  a  sprig  of  parsley  chopped  fine, 
and  I  shallot  if  the  flavor  is  liked  (but  it  is  equally 
good  without  it).  Cut  the  bacon  into  small  pieces, 
dredge  the  rabbit  with  flour,  and  place  it  with  the  bacon 
in  a  pie  dish,  commencing  with  the  inferior  parts  of 
the  rabbit.  Pour  in  a  small  cupful  of  water,  or  stock 
if  you  have  it;  put  a  paste  border  round  the  edges  of 
the  dish  and  cover  it  with  puff"  paste  about  half  an  inch 
thick.  Ornament  and  glaze  the  top,  make  a  hole  in  the 
center  and  bake  it.  , 

Rhubarb  Pie.  Take  the  tender  stalks  of  rhubarb, 
strip  off  the  skin  and  cut  the  stalks  into  thin  slices. 
Line  deep  the  plates  with  pie  crust,  then  pour  in  the 
rhubarb,  with  a  thick  layer  of  sugaf  to  each  layer  of 
rhubarb :  a  little  grated  lemon  peel  improves  the  pie. 
Cover  the  pies  with  a  crust,  press  it  down  tight 
around  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and  pick  the  crust 
with  a  fork,  so  that  the  crust  will  not  burst  while 
baking,  and  let  out  the  juices  of  the  pie.  Rhu- 
barb pies  should  be  baked  about  an  hour,  in  a  slow 
oven:  it  will  not  do  to  bake  them  quick.  Some 
cooks  stew  up  the  rhubarb  before  making  it  into  pies, 
but  is  not  so  good  as  when  used  without  stewing. 

Rice  Pie.  Boil  your  rice  soft ;  put  one  egg  to  each 
pie,  one  tablesjxwnful  of  sugar,  a  little  salt  and  nut- 
meg. 

Another:  Boil  ^  cup  of  rice  in  milk  till  tender; 
after  which  add  milk  until  it  is  a  thin  batter;  the  yolks 
of  4  eggs,  and  4  tablesf)oons  of  sugar.  Bake  with 
one  crust  till  brown ;  spread  over  the  top  a  frosting 
made  by  beating  together  whites  of  4  eggs  and  6  table- 
spoons of  sugar;  flavor  with  lemon;  put  in  the  oven 
five  minutes. 

Squash  Pie.  Boil  and  sift  a  good,  dry  squash,  thin 
it  with  boiling  milk  until  it  is  about  the  consistency  of 
thick  milk  porridge.  To  every  quart  of  this  add  3 
eggs,  2  great  spoonfuls  of  melted  butter,  nutmeg  (or 


ginger  if  you  prefer),  and  sweeten  quite  sweet  with 
sugar.     Bake  in  a  deep  plate  with  an  undercrust. 

Sweet-Potato  Pie.  Take  2  eggs,  2  cups  milk, 
about  a  cup  of  finely  mashed  potatoes,  mix  well,  and 
sweeten  to  taste  ;  bake  without  top  crust. 

Tomato  Pie.  Make  the  crusts  the  same  as  for 
apple  pies.  Partly  ripe  tomatoes  make  the  best  pies. 
Peel  and  slice  them;  three  tablespoonfuls  sugar,  a 
small  spoonful  flour,  butter  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  sea- 
son to  taste ;  lemon  flavoring  very  nice.  Green  toma- 
toes the  same,  only  less  flour. 

Green  Tomato  Pie.  Cut  off  both  ends  and  slice 
the  remainder ;  put  in  one  good  layer  of  tomatoes : 
then  add  four  tablespoons  water,  one  tablespoon  flour, 
mixed  with  half  cup  sugar;  now  sprinkle  a  little  cin- 
namon over,  put  on  your  crust,  and  bake  in  a  moder- 
ate oven. 

Veal  and  Oyster  Pie.  Cut  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  veal  into  small,  neat  cutlets,  and  spread  over  each 
a  thin  layer  of  minced  or  pounded  ham,  season  them 
with  pepper,  salt,  and  grated  lemon  peel,  and  roll 
each  cutlet  round.  Line  the  edge  of  a  pie  dish  with 
a  good  paste,  put  a  layer  of  rolled  veal  at  the  bottom, 
over  the  veal  a  layer  of  oysters,  then  of  veal,  and  the 
oysters  on  the  top;  make  a  gravy  with  a  cupful  of 
weak  gravy  or  broth,  the  peel  of  half  a  lemon,  the 
oyster  liquor  strained,  and  a  seasoning  of  pepper  and 
salt ;  cover  a  crust  over  the  top;  ornament  it  in  any 
way  approved,  egg  it  over,  and  bake  it  in  a  moderate 
oven.  When  done,  more  gravy  may  be  added  by 
pouring  it  through  the  hole  on  the  top  through  a  fun- 
nel, and  replacing  an  ornament  on  it  after  the  gravy 
is  added.  Very  nice  oyster  pies  can  be  made  with- 
out veal. 

Vinegar  Pie.  i  cup  vinegar,  i  cup  sugar,  2  eggs» 
r  cup  water,  and  i  spoonful  of  corn  starch  or  flour. 
Seasoned  with  lemon,  it  is  equal  to  a  lemon  pie.  This 
makes  a  large  pie.  B.ake  with  two  crusts.  As  soon 
as  it  boils  it  is  done.  Should  the  vinegar  be  very 
strong  use  more  water  and  less  vinegar. 

Pig :  see  Swine,  and  Pork,  page  964. 

Pigeon.  The  pigeon  belongs  to  the  dove  family 
of  birds.  It  is  bred  all  over  the  civilized  world  and 
has  been  from  a  very  early  period.  The  varieties, 
however,  known  to  the  Greeks  were  very  few,  but 
were  greatly  increased  among  the  Romans,  with  whom 
the  breeding  of  these  birds  was  quite  a  science.  The 
same  attention  to  them  has  continued  in  some  modern 
nations,  and  the  adepts  in  the  art  pretend  that  the  al- 
most innumerable  varieties  may  be  bred  to  a  feather. 
There  are  several  species  and  a  very  great  number  of 
varieties  of  the  pigeon.  Among  the  most  important 
are  the  following : 

Carrier  Pigeon.  This  is  a  domestic  variety  which 
from  very  ancient  times  has  been  employed  more  or 
less  for  the  transmission  of  intelligence.  In  early 
times  it  was  customary  to  attach  the  paper  upon 
which  the  message  was  written  to  the  neck ;  but  in 
latter  times  it  has  been  tied  to  the  upper  part  of  the 


PIG-NUT— PINE- APPLE. 


104 1 


leg.  Messages  have  been  carried  thousands  of  miles 
by  them.  They  have  been  known  to  travel  800  miles 
without  food. 

The  Wild  or  Passenger  Pigeon  is  extremely  rapid 
in  flight,  being  able  to  perform  long  journeys  at  the 
average  speed  of  a  mile  a  minute.  The  rapidity  with 
which  it  passes  through  a  wood  is  perfectly  astonish- 
ing ;  threading  its  way  amid  the  closely  grown  branches 
with  unerring  course,  it  flashes  upon  the  sight  like  a 
meteor  and  is  gone.  They  migrate  wholly  for  the 
purixjse  of  procuring  food,  and  hence  their  migrations 
do  not  occur  at  any  particular  season  of  the  year. 
They  go  wherever  they  can  find  a  supply  of  grain, 
rice  or  nuts.  The  number  that  sometimes  move  to- 
gether are  vast  beyond  conception.  Millions  associate 
in  a  single  roost,  completely  filling  a  forest  for  30  or 
40  miles  in  length  and  several  miles  in  breadth,  and 
literally  loading  and  lireaking  down  large  trees.  From 
their  roosts  they  fly  off"  hundreds  of  miles,  in  some 
cases,  to  feeeding  grounds  and  return  at  night. 

Immense  flocks  of  these  birds  are  not  so  often  seen 
now  as  formerly  ,  on  account  of  the  settlement  of  the 
country  and  the  destruction  of  the  forests ;  and  the 
birds  themselves  have  diminished  by  being  killed  in 
vast  numbers. 

There  are  other  domestic  varieties  besides  the  car- 
riers, known  as  the  tumblers,  runts,  etc. 

Pig-nut,  the  name  of  two  species  of  the  soft- 
shelled  hickory.  The  kernel  is  bitter,  but  after  being 
frozen  a  time  or  two  becomes  somewhat  edible. 

Pig-pen,  or  Piggery :  see  Swine. 

Pig- weed,  the  name  of  two  very  different  weeds, — 
Chenopodiiiin  album  and  Amarantus  retroflexus. 
The  former  is  also  called  lamb's-quarter  and  goose- 
foot.  See  Lamb's-quarter,  page  889.  The  Amarantus, 
as  the  name  denotes,  belongs  to  the  Amaranth  family, 
and  being  a  conmion  weed  in  rich  gardens,  is  easily 
identified.  It  is  sometimes  called  green  pig-weed. 
For  the  sake  of  definiteness,  we  should  drop  the 
name  pig-weed  altogether  and  call  the  first  mention- 
ed above  goose-foot  and  the  latter  green  amaranth. 
Although  both  these  weeds  are  abundant,  they  are 
easily  subdued. 

Pike,  a  family  of  voracious  fresh-water  fish:  see 
page  474.  There  is  also  a  variety  of  the  Perch 
family  known  as  the  pike:  see  page  473. 

Piles.  The  piles  is  a  very  common  affection  of  the 
veins  of  the  rectum,  which  occurs  in  both  sexes  and 
in  all  classes  of  society. 

The  patient  first  experiences  a  singular  itching  and 
uneasiness  about  the  parts,  which  is  soon  followed  by 
an  enlargement  of  the  veins,  causing  tumors  that  are 
filled  with  dark  blood.  These  tumors,  which  are 
sometimes  from  three  to  six  in  number,  are  extremely 
painful,  particularly  on  going  to  stool. 

When  the  bowels  are  in  a  constipated  state,  it  is 
often  very  difficult  to  procure  a  passage,  owing  to  the 
obstruction  produced  by  the  tumors ;  but  the  attend- 
ant irritation  brings  on  tenesmus  and  bearing  down, 

66 


which  forces  down  the  hardened  contents,  often  bring- 
ing with  them  the  tumors  when  they  are  situated 
low  in  the  bowel.  If  they  are  large,  they  will  usually 
remain  without,  and  thus  prove  a  source  of  great  an- 
noyance. But  the  tumors  frequently  burst,  and  thus 
will  bleed  sometimes  very  profusely. 

When  the  piles  bleed,  they  are  called  opert  or  bleed- 
ing piles,  and  when  they  do  not,  they  receive  the  name 
of  blind  piles. 

Piles  are  occasioned  by  a  relaxed  condition  of  the 
parts,  which  may  arise  from  the  use  of  drastic  purga- 
tives, particularly  those  that  spend  their  influence 
chiefly  on  the  lower  part  of  the  intestines,  such  as 
aloes,  and  the  most  of  the  pills  now  offered  to  the 
public.  Habitual  costiveness,  sedentary  habits,  and 
heavy  lifting,  may  also  bring  them  on. 

Piles  are  seldom  dangerous,  unless  they  become  so 
from  the  excessive  loss  of  blood  that  they  sometimes 
occasion. 

Treatment.  Recent  cases  of  piles  may  soon  be  re- 
lieved by  the  use  of  astringent  injections.  The  bow- 
els must,  however,  always  be  kept  regular  by  the  use 
of  proper  diet,  or  by  means  of  laxatives. 

Old  and  confirmed  cases  of  piles  are  sometimes 
considerably  difficult  to  cure.  In  the  treatment  of 
these,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  get  the 
bowels  into  a  good  condition  by  the  use  of  laxatives, 
or  laxative  enemas.  The  use  |of  astringent  injec- 
tions must  then  be  commenced,  and  continued  three 
or  four  times  a  day.  In  the  meantime  apply  the  fol- 
lowing ointment :  Flower  of  sulphur,  i  teaspoonful, 
mixed  with  one  tablespoonful  fresh  butter,  in  which 
there  is  no  salt.  This  must  be  applied  by  smearing 
it  on  a  rag  or  bit  of  linen,  which  should  then  be  intro- 
duced into  the  bowel,  and  left  to  remain  until  the 
syringe  is  used,  when  it  should  be  renewed. 

Sometimes  the  tumors  grow  hard  and  irritable,  and 
in  this  state  will  not  readily  yield  to  the  foregoing 
treatment.  A  poultice  made  with  slippery-elm  bark 
and  milk  will  be  found  to  give  great  relief  See 
Ointment,  page  995.  The  best  way  to  cure  them  is  to 
inject,  with  a  hypodermic  syringe,  a. solution  of  equal 
parts  of  carbolic  acid  and  sweet  oil. 

Pine.  There  are  many  species  of  this  most  useful 
of  all  trees.  It  not  only  furnishes  ornamental  trees 
in  great  variety,  but  furnishes  most  of  the  lumber 
used  on  this  continent,  and  affords  the  material  from 
which  tar,  pitch  and  turpentine  are  manufactured. 
The  white  pine  is  the  most  useful  of  all  the  pines,  as 
it  furnishes  the  largest  quantity  of  lumber.  It  has 
five  leaves  in  a  sheath,  pitch  pine  three,  the  red  pine, 
the  gray  scrub,  yellow,  Scotch,  Austrian,  etc.,  have 
two  leaves  in  a  sheath.  The  white  pine  is  one  of  the 
jjest  trees  for  prairie  planting.  We  have  referred  to 
the  pine  in  the  articles  Evergreen,  Forestry,  Land- 
scape Gardening  and  Hedge,  to  which  we  refer  the 
reader  for  further  observations. 

Pine-apple,  a  tropical  evergreen  fruit.  The  name 
seems  to  be  derived  from  the  general  resemblance  of 
the  fruit  to  some  large  cone  of  a  pine  tree.     In  rich- 


1042 


PINK— PLANTING. 


ness  of  flavor  the  fruit  cannot  be  surpassed,  and  it  is 
usually  pronounced  the  finest  in  the  world.  The 
pine-apple  is  propagated  by  planting  either  the 
crowns  or  tufts  which  grow  on  the  fruit,  or  by  the 
suckers  whicli  appear  on  the  fruit  stalk,  or  which  pro- 
ceed from  the  base  of  the  plant.  Exceedingly  fine 
fabrics  are  made  from  a  delicate  filament  obtained 
from  the  leaves  by  maceration. 

Preserved  Pine-apple.  A  px)und  of  sugar  to  a 
pound  of  pine-apple;  put  the  slices  in  water,  and  boil 
a  quarter  of  an  hour;  then  remove  them  and  add  the 
sugar  to  the  water;  put  in  the  apple  and  boil  fifteen 
minutes.     Boil  the  sirup  till  thick. 

Fink,  a  well-known,  hardy,  flowering  plant  of  the 
Carnation  family.  It  is  very  near  akin  to  the  true 
Carnation,  but  it  possesses  quite  distinct  characters 
of  its  own,  and  comprises  countless  numbers  of 
varieties  and  hybrids.  It  is  one  of  the  most  general- 
ly cultivated  and  highly  admired  of  flowers.  Pinks 
are  propagated  from  seeds  for  new  varieties  and  from 
pippings  for  the  continuation  and  multiplication  of 
existing  varieties. 

Pink  Eye:  see  page 782. 

Pip,  the  seed  of  an  apple,  or  any  other  pomaceous 
fruit. 

Pirouette  (pir-00-et'),  in  horse  training,  is  a  turn- 
ing round  and  round. 

Pisciculture,  the  culture  offish:  see  Fish. 

Pistil  (pis' til),  the  seed-bearing  organ  of  a  plant. 
Pistils  occupy  the  centerof  the  flower  and  terminate  the 
axis  of  growth.  A  pistil  is  composed  of  three  parts, — 
the  ovary,  or  seed-bearing  portion ;  the  style,  or  taper- 
ing portion,  into  which  the  apex  of  the  ovary  is  pro- 
longed, and  the  stigma,  usually  situated  at  the 
summit  of  the  style,  consisting  of  a  part,  or  sometimes 
a  mere  point,  of  the  latter.  The  ovary,  which  con- 
tains the  young  seeds,  is  of  course  a  necessary  part 
of  the  pistil;  the  stigma,  which  receives  from  the 
anthers  the  pollen  by  which  the  seeds  or  ovules  are 
vivified,  is  no  less  necessary,  but  the  intervening 
style  is  no  more  essential  to  the  pistil  than  the  fila- 
ment is  to  the  stamen,  and  is  therefore  not  uncom- 
monly wanting. 

Pitch,  tar  boiled  down  to  a  state  of  dryness.  It  is 
a  solid  black  substance  with  a  shiny  fracture,  and 
it  softens  at  90°  and  liquefies  in  boiling  water.  A 
good  plaster  for  sandcrack  and  other  veterinary  pur- 
poses, consists  of  one  pound  of  pitch  and  one  ounce 
of  bees-wax,  melted  together. 

Pith,  the  central  part  of  the  root,  stem  and 
branches  of  dicotyledonous  plants.  It  is  always 
comparatively  soft  and  spongy,  and  often  succulent. 
It  is  tubularly  enclosed  in  stems  and  branches  just  as 
marrow  is  tubularly  enclosed  in  bones,  and  it  has 
therefore  been  called  the  medulla  of  plants. 

Pithing,  the  instant  killing  of  an  animal  by  divid- 
ing the  spinal  manow  above  the  origin  of  the  phrenic 


nerve.  This  method  of  killing  takes  its  name  from 
the  word  "pith,"  which  the  butchers  in  some  coun- 
tries apply  to  the  spinal  marrow. 

Pitting,  a  method  of  planting  trees,  by  preparing  a 
pit  of  suitable  size  for  the  reception  of  each;  also,  a 
method  of  storing  potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  by  putting 
them  in  heaps  and  covering  with  straw  and  soil;  also, 
the  taking  of  the  pits  (stones)  out  of  stone  fruits,  as, 
to  pit  cherries. 

Plague,  a  name  applied  to  acute,  malignant  dis- 
eases of  live  stock,  as  Texas  fever,  pleuro-pneumonia, 
murrain,  etc.  It  is  very  indefinite  in  its  meaning,  and 
is  used  in  different  localities  to  designate  different 
epidemic  or  contagious  diseases  that  may  prevail 
among  live  stock.  See  the  article  Murrain,  on  page 
233- 

Flank.  When  lumber  is  sawed  in  pieces  it  has 
different  names  applied  to  it,  depending  upon  the  size 
and  form  of  the  pieces.  Thus,  when  a  piece  of  timber 
is  sawed  longitudinally,  so  as  to  produce  a  number  of 
plates  of  timber,  the  sides  of  which  are  parallel  to 
each  other,  such  pieces  are  called  planks.  Planks  are 
similar  to  boards,  only  thicker.  A  piece  sawed  as 
above  less  than  one  and  a  half  or  two  inches,  is  called 
a  board,  but  over  that,  and  up  to  three  or  four,  it  is 
called  a  plank;  larger  than  that  it  is  called  timber. 

Plant,  an  organized  and  living  body,  without  voli- 
tion, subsisting  exclusively  upon  inorganic  food, 
and  exhibiting  some  remarkable  analogies  to  an  ani- 
mal, but  originating  in  seed  and  completing  the  cycle 
of  its  existence  by  the  reproduction  once  or  oftener 
of  seeds  precisely  identical  in  kind  and  power  with 
that  from  which  it  sprang. 

Plantation,  a  word  used  to  denote  a  large  farm, 
devoted  to  special  crops,  as  cotton,  rice,  etc.  This  is 
its  significance  at  the  South,  but  in  the  North  it  is 
used  to  denote  the  nursery  or  plot  of  trees  of  different 
kinds. 

Planter,  a  machine  for  planting  special  seeds,  in 
hills,  as  corn-planter.  In  the  South  the  word  means 
the  owner  of  an  estate  or  farm  devoted  to  special 
crops,  as  cotton  planter. 

Planting,  the  depositing  of  a  young  plant,  or  of 
the  germ  of  a  plant,  in  the  place  where  it  is  intended 
to  grow  and  remain.  The  word  is  very  comprehens- 
ive in  meaning,  and  is  applied  to  almost  ever)-  kind 
of  deposition  of  productive  plantlet,  root,  cutting,  germ, 
or  seed,  whether  in  the  garden  or  field,  except  aspers- 
ive  sowing.  The  planting  of  slips,  the  planting  of 
sets,  and  the  planting  of  beans,  or  other  large  seeds, 
as  are  deposited  one  by  one,  are  common  modes  of 
expression,  and  in  spite  of  their  bearing  a  widely 
different  sense  from  such  a  phrase  as  the  planting  of 
trees.  They  are  everywhere  understood  and  do  not 
cause  any  confusion  or  mistake.  We  have  fully  dis- 
cussed the  planting  of  vegetables  and  cereals  in  their 
respective  articles,  and  the  planting  of  trees  in  the 
article  Forestry. 


PLASHING— PLO  W. 


1043 


Plashing,  a  mode  of  making  a  hedge  by  binding 
down  portions  of  the  shoots,  cutting  partly  through 
near  the  ground,  and  twisting  them  among  the  upright 
trees,  as  ilkistrated  by  Figures  4  and  5  on  page  655. 

Plaster.  Adhesive  or  lead  plaster,  for  binding  up 
wounds,  is  to  be  had  at  drug  stores  all  ready  for  use, 
as  also  "court  plaster"  (see  page  297).  Gypsum 
(sulphate  of  lime),  sometimes  called  "  land  plaster," 
or  simply  "  plaster,"  is  fully  treated  on  pages  457  and 
632.  It  is  also  used  in  surgery  for  dressing  limbs,  in 
orthopedic  surgery  for  supix)rting  a  deformed  body  or 
parts,  and  as  an  antidote  for  many  poisons,  especially 
the  acids. 

Plethora  (pleth'o-ra),  undue  fullness  of  the  blood- 
vessels of  animals. 

Pleura,  the  membrane  which  interiorly  invests  an 
animal's  breast  and  sides.  It  covers  the  lungs  so 
closely  as  almost  to  appear  a  part  of  them,  and  is  here 
called  pleura  pulmonalis,  and  where  it  lines  the  inside 
of  the  chest  it  is  called //(?«/"«  costalis. 

Pleurisy,  inflammation  of  the  pleura.  For  pleu- 
risy in  cattle,  see  page  233;  in  horse,  seepage  795. 

Pleuro-pneumonia,  in  cattle,  see  page   234. 

Plover,  a  genus  of  the  Grallce  or  waders,  distin- 
guished by  having  a  moderate-sized  compressed  beak, 
enlarged  at  the  end,  and  the  hinder  toe  exceedingly 
small,  not  touching  the  ground.  They  inhabit  all  parts 
of  the  world,  traversing  temperate  climates  in  the 
spring  and  autumn. 

Plow,  an  implement  which  loosens  and  turns  over 
the  soil  in  such  a  way  as  to  disintegrate  it  and  expose 
new  surfaces  of  it  to  the  atmosphere.  It  performs  sub- 
stantially the  same  work  as  the  digging  action  of  the 
spade. 

In  reference  to  its  history,  the  plow  has  been  used 
in  some  form  since  man  left  his  pastoral  state.  Illus- 
trations of  it  are  cut  in  the  ancient  monuments  of 
Egypt,  and  Moses  mentions  it  in  the  Bible.  It  was 
first  a  very  rude  and  simple  implement,  and  it  long 
retained  its  primitive  character  among  semi-barbarous 
tribes,  but  seems  to  have  become  speedily  improved 
among  the  most  enlightened  nations.  Some  old 
representations  of  it  on  coins  and  monuments  exhibit 
it  as  a  mere  wedge,  with  a  short  beam  and  a  crooked 
handle ;  but  accounts  of  it  in  the  sacred  and  classical 
writings  imply  that  among  the  Israelites,  the  Greeks 
and  the  Romans,  it  was  generally  known  and  used  as 
an  implement  of  considerable  complication  and  of 
great  power.  Some  improvements  were  made  during 
the  different  centuries,  but  it  has  been  left  for  America 
to  make  the  most  rapid  strides  in  improving  the  plow, 
as  well  as  other  agricultural  implements.  During  the 
last  fifty  years  greater  advances  have  been  made  than 
ever  before. 

Farm  implements  and  machines  for  working  the 
soil  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  simple  and  stout, 
because  they  mostly  meet  with  an  irregular  resist- 
ance consisting  of  hard  and  soft  soil  and   stones 


variously  mixed  together.  A  complex  machine  that 
meets  with  occasional  severe  obstruction,  receives  a 
blow  like  that  of  a  sledge,  and  when  this  is  repeated 
frequently  the  probability  is  that  some  part  will  be 
bent,  twisted,  knocked  out  of  place  or  broken.  If  the 
machine  be  light,  the  chances  are  in  its  favor;  but  if 
heavy,  its  momentum  is  such  that  it  can  scarcely 
escape  injury. 

Every  plow  should  do  good  work  and  do  it  easily. 
The  inversion  of  the  soil,  especially  if  incumbered 
with  vegetable  growth,  should  be  complete  and  per- 
fect ;  and  the  mass  of  earth  thus  inverted  should  be 
left  as  thoroughly  pulverized  as  practicable,  instead  of 
being  laid  over  in  a  solid,  unmoved  mass. 

The  point  and  cutting  edge  of  a  plow  perform  the 
first  work  in  separating  the  furrow-slice  from  the  land. 
It  is  imix)rtant  that  this  edge  should  not  only  do  the 
work  well,  but  with  the  greatest  possible  ease  to  the 
team.  The  force  required  to  perform  this  cutting  is 
55  per  cent.,  over  one-half  of  the  draft.  The  ix)int 
or  share  should  therefore  be  kept  sharp  and  form  as 
acute  an  angle  as  practicable.  Some  plows  which 
otherwise  work  well  are  hard  to  draw  because  the 
edge,  being  made  too  thick  or  obtuse,  raises  the  earth 
abruptly.  Where  stones  or  other  obstructions  exist  in 
the  soil  it  is  important  that  the  line  of  the  cutting  edge 
form  an  acute  angle  or  sharp  wedge  with  the  land-side. 
It  will  then  crowd  these  obstructions  aside,  and  pass 
them  with  greater  ease  than  when  formed  more  ob- 
tuse, for  the  same  reason  that  a  sharp  boat  moves 
more  freely  through  the  water  than  one  that  is  blunt 
or  obtuse.  But  when  the  soil  is  free  from  stones 
or  obstructions,  or  is  filled  with  small  roots  the  sharp- 
ness of  the  edge  is  more  important   than    its  form. 

A  prominent  difference  between  the  good  and  bad 
plows  result  from  the  form  of  the  mold-board.  To 
understand  the  best  form  it  must  be  observed  that 
the  slice  is  first  cut  by  the  forward  edge  of  the  plow, 
and  then  one  side  is  gradually  raised  until  completely 
turned  over,  or  bottom  side  up.  To  do  this,  the 
mold-board  must  combine  the  two  properties  of  the 
wedge  and  the  screw. 

The  cutting  part  of  the  plow  may  be  improperly 
formed  like  the  square  end  of  a  chisel,  and  the  sod 
may  slide  backward  on  a  rise,  with  a  very  slight  turn 
until  elevated  to  considerable  height  before  inversion; 
this  must  require  more  force  of  a  team  and  make  the 
plow  hard  to  hold  on  account  of  the  side  pressure. 

The  share  should  also  be  placed  so  as  to  cut  the 
slice  to  an  equal  thickness  on  each  side.  Some  plows 
are  made  so  as  to  cut  deepest  on  the  land-side,  form- 
ing a  sort  of  saw-teeth  section  to  the  removed  earth 
below,  and  leaving  what  is  called  crested  or  acute 
ridges  at  the  top.  Such  plowing  requires  as  much 
force  in  cutting  the  slice,  and  nearly  as  much  in  turn- 
ing it  over,  as  when  level  furrows  are  made,  and 
should  therefore  be  avoided.  The  same  result  is  pro- 
duced when  the  plow  is  unproperiy  gauged,  and  the 
plowman  is  compelled  to  press  the  handles  to  the  left 
to  keep  it  from  running  too  much  to  land,  which 
makes  it  too  laborious  for  both  man  and  team. 


■ 


I044 


PLOWS. 


Varieties.  In  olden  times  one  plow  did  all 
kinds  of  work ;  now  a  farmer  can  have  a  plow 
adapted  to  his  varied  wants;  for  to-day  plows 
are  manufactured  for  every  kind  of  soil,  to  do  any 
kind  of  work  desired,  in  any  manner  or  location. 


Fig.  \.—StubbU  Flow. 

We  have  endeavored  to  illustrate  in  this  article  the 
varieties  of  plows,  giving  a  short  description  of 
them  and  their  uses. 

Fig.  I  rep- 
resents a  good 
specimen  of  a 
standard 
stubble  plow, 
with  wood 
beam,  and 
peculiarly 
adapted  to 
light  soils, 
which  it  thor- 
oughly pul- 
verizes. It 
'  has  a  hard- 
ened iron-center  steel  mold,  hardened  slip  share, 
patent  wrought  frog  and  handle  brace,  both  right 
and  left  hand,  and  a  capped  standard. 

Fig.  2  represents  an  excellent  "  general-pur- 
pose "  plow  made  by  the  Long  &  Allstatter  Co., 
Hamilton,  O.     The   cut  exhibits  a  patent  coulter 


The  "  timber-land  "  plow  (Fig.  3)  is  right  or 
left  hand,  has  a  malleable  iron  standard,  high  land- 
side,  double  shin,  strapped  beam,  knee  cutter  and 
patent  wrought  frog.  Adjustable  for  either  two 
or  three  horses.  This  plow  is  built  with  particular 
reference  to  strength,  and  is  well  adapted  to  timber 
or  hazel-brush  lands  and  heavy  soil. 


Fig.   4 


Fig.  I.— Hand  Plow 


Fig.  4. — Iron  Beam  Ploz'j. 

a  good  specimen  of  the  iron-beam 
style.  It  is 
strong  and 
steady,  while 
it  gives  great 
clearance  un- 
der the  beam 
to  weeds, 
stubble,  grass 
and  brush, 
and  is  adjust- 
able for  two 
or  three 
horses. 

The    illus-  , 

for  General  Purposes.  trations        of 

the  various  kinds  and  styles  of  plows  given  in  this 
article,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  taken  from  those 
manufactured  by  Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  111.,  their 
plows  being  standard  throughout  the  United  States. 


Fig.  j.—  Timber-Land  Plom. 

and  weed  hook  attached.  The  plow  is  double- 
shinned,  made  of  hardened  steel,  has  a  liberal 
clearance  at  the  throat,  and  is  well  adapted  to  all 
kinds  of  heavy  work. 


Fig.  %,— Prairie  Breaker. 

Fig.  5  is  light  and  strong,  and  turtis  a  flat 
furrow  with  very  light  draft,  and  is  used  for  break- 
ing prairie.  It  has  a  capped  standard,  hardened 
iron-center  steel  mold,  unhardened  steel  slip  share, 
patent  wrought  frog,  with  rolling  cutter,  gauge 
wheel  and  extra  share,  right  and  left  hand. 


PLOWS. 


I04S 


Fig.  6. — AtioiAer  Breaker. 

Fig.  6  is  used  for  breaking  where  the  sod  is 
light.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  being  stocked 
with  draft  rod  and  dial  clevis,  and  in  the  shortness 
of  cutting  angle  and  flatness  of  share.  It  is  of  the 
same  general  construction  as  Fig.  5,  except  in 
points  indicated. 


Fig.  i.—A  Koad  Plow. 

Fig.  y  is  an  extra  strong  plow,  for  four  or 
horses,  and  is  well  adapted  to  road-grading. 


six 


Fig.  %.~"Wisconsin"  Breaker. 

The  "  Wisconsin  "  breaker  (Fig.  8)  has  a  long, 
heavy  land-side  bar,  welded  to  a  share,  heavy  shoe 
cutter,  with  or  without  a  gauge  wheel. 


Fig.  I),— Hillside  Plovj,  Moldboard  Side. 

Fig.  9  has  a  cast-steel  share  and  mold,  strong 
Iron  frame;  suitable  for  two  horses,  and  will  turn 
a  12,  13  or  14  inch  furrow,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil  and  steepness  of  incline. 

The  hillside  plow  (Fig.  10)  has  a  swivel  mold- 
board,  which  is  readily  turned  at  each  end  of  the 
furrow    converting   the   plow   alternately  into   a 


Fig.  \o.-~HUlside  I'lozv,  Land-side  Vieza. 

right-hand  and  a  left-hand  plow,  thus  enabling  one 
to  retrace  the  furrows  and  turn  all  the  soil  down 
hill. 


Fig. 


.—Turf  and  Slubble  Ploru. 

Fig.  1 1  represents  the   best  form  of  a  turf  and 
stubble  plow  for  heavy  and  tenacious  clay. 


Fig.  12.— "Lister"  Plom. 

The  "  Lister"  Plow  (Fig.  12)  is  one  of  the  best 
for  preparing  ground  for  drilling  corn,  as  it  throws 
the  earth  each  way  equally  and  tears  up  the  bot- 
tom by  a  small  sub-soiler.  Often  supersedes 
spring  plowing. 


Fig.  13. — Michigan  Double  Sod  and  Trench  Plow. 

The  Double  Michigan  Plow  (Fig.  13)  is  ac- 
knowledged to  be  the  very  best  plow  in  deep  soils, 
where  thorough  cultivation  or  trenching  is  desired. 
The  forward    plow,   called    the    "  skim "    plow. 


■ 


1046 


PLOWS. 


raises  and  partly  turns  over  the  top  of  the  soil,  and  the 
hinder  plow  brings  up  the  subsoil,  and,  completely 
inverting  the  whole,  places  the  subsoil  on  top, 
leaving  the  seed-bed  mellow  and  deep.  This  plow 
requires  a  four-horse  team. 


Fig.  h.— Subsoil  Piow. 

Fig.  14  is  a  subsoil  plow  intended  to  follow  an 
ordinary  old-ground  plow,  loosening  up  and 
exposing  the  subsoil  to  atmospheric  influences  to 
the  depth  of  10  to  14  inches,  and  leaving  the 
ground  in  best  condition  to  retain  moisture,  and 
the  crop  to  withstand  drought.  Where  the  sub- 
soil is  inferior  in  fertility  to  the  top,  this  mode  of 
treatment  is  preferable  to  trench  plowing.  Much 
used  by  nurserymen  for  root-pruning,  and  for  pre- 
paring soil  for  the  cultivation  of  grapes.  It 
requires  a  team  of  three  or  four  horses. 

There  are  other  varieties  of  single  plows,  not 
much  used,  especially  in  the  West,  as  the  shanked 
subsoiler  (several  varieties),  paring  plow,  mole 
plow  and  others.  An  adjustable  ditching  plow  is 
made,  which  saves  a  great  amount  of  labor. 


Fig.  15.—"  Highlander "  Plow, 

The  "Highlander"  (Fig,  15)  is  made  for 
heavy  land,  timothy  sod,  etc.  It  has  a  long,  easy 
turn  of  mold,  light  draft,  and  inverts  stubble  com- 
pletely without  "  flirting,"  leaving  "  readable  " 
furrows  to  be  pulverized  by  the  harrow.  Made 
of  the  same  materials  as  (Fig.  25)  and  with 
the  same  modern  improvements  in  all  details. 

Sulky  Plows.  One  of  the  greatest  improve- 
ments is  the  riding  or  "sulky"  plow,  which  is 
now  coming  into  general  use, especially  in  the  free 
soil  of  certain  Western  localities.  There  are  sev- 
eral styles  of  these  plows,  differing  in  details,  but 


all  agreeing  in  having  the  plow-beam  furnished 
with  wheels,  with  a  seat  for  the  driver,  while  the 
form  and  manner  of  attachment  of  the  plow  and 
coulter,  and  the  control  of  the  working  are  pecul- 
iar to  each  different  style.  Those  who  have  stud- 
ied the  mechanics  of  plowing,  find  that  a  large 
share  of  the  power  of  the  team,  some  say  one- 
third,  is  exerted  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the 
plow  on  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  furrow;  by 
supporting  the  plow  upon  wheels  this  friction  is 
largely  removed,  the  weight  of  the  plow  being 
mainly  supported  by  the  wheels.  The  force  re- 
quired to  cut  the  furrow  slice  is,  with  ordinary 
plows,  estimated  at  one-half  of  the  draught.  In 
the  sulky  plows,  great  care  is  taken  to  use  sharp- 
edged  coulters  of  the  most  serviceable  form.     An 


Fig.  16.— GilJ'in  Sulky  Plow. 

excellent  example  of  this  plow  is  the  Gilpin  sulky 
plow,  made  by  John  Deere  &  Co.,  and  which  is 
illustrated  in  the  annexed  cut.  This  style  has  but 
one  lever,  is  easy  to  operate,  is  adjustable  to  hill- 
side work,  to  various  depths,  etc.,  and  will  turn 
under  stalks  and  weeds  very  nicely. 

With  sufficient  power  one  man  can  run  a  set  of 
plows  at  once.  Thus  united  they  are  considered  a 
single  apparatus  or  machine,  and  denominated  the 

"gang  plow." 
Even  a  sulky 
gang  plow  (Fig. 
17)  has  been  con- 
structed, which 
operates  well.  It 
is  all  madeof  iron 
and  steel,  and  is 
quite  durable. 

Its  ingenious 
construction  and 
simplicity  are 
shown  in  the  fact 
that  by  one  lever 


no.  I'j.—Gatig  Pbm. 


PLOWS. 


1047 


it  is  operated  to  any  required  depth,  opens  up  the 
first  furrow  and  finishes  the  land  by  simply  mov- 
ing the  lever  from  one  notch  to  another,  the  plows 
maintaining  a  level  position  at  all  depths;  and  by 
pressing  the  same  lever  outward  until  it  locks  into 
a  lug  on  the  hub,  the  plows  are  lifted  clear  of  the 
ground  by  a  half  revolution  of  the  wheel. 

It  is  of  very  light  draft,  as  has  been  proved  in 
many  dynamometer  tests;  and  the  many  farmers 
having  them  in  use  have  become  satisfied,  by  com- 
parative team  tests,  that  no  draft  is  added  by  the 
weight  of  frame  and  driver;  and  this  is  accounted 
for  by  the  well-known  fact  that  a  heavy  load  can 


Fig.  tg.—Suiiy  Plow. 


bolted  to  the 
beam  cast- 
•ng;  65,  loop 
bolted  to 
brace  in  the 
plow  bottom 
and  having  a 
b  r e  a  k-p  ih 
near  the  ends 
which  gives 
way  when 
striking  ob- 
structions. 


Fig.  \%.—The  Plcnu  Sulky. 


be  carried  on  wheels  easier  than  a  lighter  one  can 
be  dragged  on  the  ground. 

The  '^  Buckeye  "  plow  sulky  (Fig  18)  is  one  that 
can  be  attached  to  any  plow,  made  for  the  purpose 
by  P.  P.  Mast  &  Co.,  Springfield,  O.  It  is  said  to 
work  well,  even  on  rough  ground,  and  that  with 
it  the  plowman  can  turn  a  square  coi-ner.  It  can 
also  be  used  with  three  horses  as  well  as  with  two. 

The  Hughes  sulky  plow  (Fig.  19),  made  by  the 
Long  A  Allstatter  Co.,  Hamilton,  O.,  is  a  good 
arrangement,  being  simple,  easy-working  and 
stout.  A  subsoiler  attachment  (Fig.  20)  is  furnished, 
with  these  points:  61,  blade;  62,  standard  with 
holes  to  regulate  the  depth;  63,  angle  piece  which 
prevents   accident    from    side   movement;    64,   is 


Fig.  3o. — Subsoiler  for  Sulky  Piow, 


The  soil  is  not 
thrown  to  the 
surface.  By 
its  use  an  or- 
dinary three 
horse  team 
with  one  of 
«Hughes"rid- 
ing  plows  can 
turn  a  furrow 
six  inches  deep 
and  subsoil 
from  four  to 
six  inches 
more,   thus 


1048 


PLOWS. 


|||=pnp 


plowing-  the  ground  thoroughly  from  ten  to  twelve 
inches  deep  with  less  draft  than  seven  inches  can  be 
reached  with  most  other  plows. 

The  plow  and  pulverizer  (Fig.  3 1)  is  indeed  a 
•'revolutionary"  farm  implement,  "turning  over" 
the  sod  most  completely,  thoroughly  pulverizing 
and  aerating  it,  burying  the  weeds  and  leaving  a 
fine  seed  bed, — all  in  one  operation.  It  is  claimed 
that  less  team  power  is  required  to  produce  a 
given  quantity  and  degree  of  mellow  ground  by 
this  machine  than  by  any  other  process,  as  for 
instance  the  common  plow  and  harrow  separately, 
and  that  therefore  both  time  and  labor  are  also 
saved  to  a  considerable  extent.  There  are  no  cogs 
or  other  weak  parts  to  get  out  of  order,  the  ma- 
chine is  adapted  to  drilling  in  seed,  and  applying 
fertilizers  at  the  same  time  that  it  breaks  and  pul- 
verizes the  land.  The  plows  are  quickly  elevated 
by  a  simple  lever,  and  the  whole  easily  turns  to  and 
from  the  fields  on  its  own  wheels.  It  is  made  by  the 
Sackett  Plow  and  Pulverizer  Compaiiy,New  York, 
ScuEW  Pulverizer.  The  office  of  the  plow 
is  to  turn  over  and  stir  the  soil ;  to  do  this  in  some 
better  and  more  effective  manner  than  with  the 
plow,  has  boen  the  object 
of  several  inventors.  One 
sought  to  accomplish  this 
by  means  of  revolving 
disks,  and  though  this 
.seemed  full  of  promise  at 
•first,  nothing  has  been 
heard  of  it  for  several 
years.  The  only  inven- 
tion for  "plowing"  other 
than  with  the  plow, 
which  to  our  knowledge 
has  reached  that  point 
when  it  is  offered  for 
sale,  is  the  Chicago  .Screw 
Pulverizer.  The  engrav- 
ing (Fig.  22)  shows  sufli- 
ciently  the  general  struct- 
ure of  the  implement 
or   machine;    this    has   a 

screw-shaped  blade,  which  must  cut  up  and  turn 
over  the  soil  in  a  most  effective  manner.  For 
breaking   up  prairie  sod,  and   for  preparing  the 

land  for  the 
wholesale 
cultivation  of 
wheat  and 
corn,  so  com- 
mon in  the 
Western 
States,  this 
pul  ve  rizer 
seems  admir- 


ably adapted. 

Fig,  22.—ScreK>  Pulvtrittr,  The     pulver- 


izer seems  to  have  made  for  itself  a  place  in  the 
agriculture  of  the  Western  and  Southern  States, 
including  Texas.  How  far  it  may  be  useful  on 
the  farms  of  the  older  States,  is  yet  to  be  shown, 
hut  the  evidence  as  to  its  utility  elsewhere  is 
abundant  and  interesting.  It  is  but  a  few  years 
ago — within  the  memory  of  most  of  our  readers — 
that  the  scythe  was  superseded  by  the  mowing 
machine.  That  the  plow  will  give  place  to  some 
other  implement,  we  do  not  doubt,  and  this  "Chi- 
cago Pulverizer  "  looks  as  if  a  long  step  had  been 
made  in  that  direction,  and  the  implement  appears 
to  be  an  improvement  of  real  value. 

Cultivating  Plows.    Figs.  23,  24  and  25  rep- 
resent cultivating  plows  which  are  well  adapted 


1^ 


Fig.  2\.— Flora  and  Pulverizer, 

to  deep  cultivation  and  to  work  in  hard  or  vvreedy 
ground.       Some   of    these   patterns   have  beaded 


Fig.  ti.—PoiiY  Plan. 


PLO  WING. 


1049 


steel-heeled   land-sides,  hardened   iron-center  steel 
molds,  patent  wrought  frog,  cast-steel  slip  shares, 


etc. 


The  double  diamond  plow  is  just  the  thing  to 
throw  the  earth  from  the  young  corn  both  ways  at 


Fig.  24. — Corn  Pioz'j^ 

once,  enabling  the  plowman  to  get  over  twice  as 
much  ground  as  with  a  single  diamond. 

All  diamond  plows  are  really  breaking  plows 
so  far  as  they  go,  made  small  or  narrow  so  as  to 
work  between  rows  of  plants.     They  are  just  the 


Fig.  25. — SmaU  Stirring  Plow. 

plows,  therefore,  to  tear  up  the  ground  deep,  or 
shave  off  stout  weeds  at  the  surface  of  the  ground; 
but  the  farmer  must  ever  bear  in  mind  that  they 
must  necessarily  fail  to  do  what  other  implements 
are  made  to  do,  namely,  pulverize  the  earth  and 
leave  it  level.      They  are  of  but  little  use,  there- 


FiG.  26. — Dottble  Diamond  Com  Plow. 

fore,  in  wet  or  cloddy  ground.  Every  farmer  will 
find  it  often  to  his  advantage  to  have  one  of  these 
plows  on  the  farm.  While  they  cannot  take  the 
place  of  pulverizing  plows,  or  light  cultivators, 
the  work  of  the  diamond  plow  cannot  be  done  by 
other  implements. 


Fig.  itj.—Single-ShoTielPlov). 

The   shovel   plow    series    commences  with  the 
single  shovel  (Fig.  27),  and  increases  in  number  of 


Fig.  2g,.—DotMfSh<nel Plovi. 

blades  (Figs.  28,  etc.)  until  it  becomes  what  we  call 
a  "  Cultivator  "  (which  see),  and  gradually  passes 
from  that  into  the  Harrow  (which  see). 


Fig.  29. — Double-Shovel  Breakpin  Plow. 

Flowing.  In  the  article  Flow,  above,  many 
principles  were  of  necessity  inculcated  which  es- 
sentially underlie  the  art  of  plowing,  but  they  all 
come  under  the  head  of  Plow  as  an  apparatus  or 
machine.  We  endeavor  to  make  this  article  com- 
plete by  explaining  everything  of  importance  that 
relates  to  the  manipulation  of  the  plow,  or  the  art 
of  plowing.  As  to  fall  and  spring  plowing,  deep 
and  shallow  plowing,  etc.,  the  wisdom  of  any  par- 
ticular course  depends  upon  the  circumstances  of 
the  case.  It  is  a  wise,  general  rule,  however,  to 
plow  when  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  be  it  fall, 
winter  or  early  spring.  Plow  in  the  fall  if  pos- 
sible, especially  green  sward,  because:  i.  The  sod 
rots  during  winter,  thus  fertilizing  the  soil  for  the 
coming  crop;  3.  The  pulverizing  effect  of  frost  is 
fully  realized ;  3.  The  team  and  plowman  can 
work  easier  in  the  comfortable  autumn  days;  4. 


los© 


PLOWING. 


There  is  less  hurry  than  in  the  spring;  5.  The  ac- 
tion of  tlie  atmosphere  upon  the  soil  for  a  longer 
time  is  beneficial;  6.  Dry  land  does  not  suffer  so 
much  from  drouth,  and  wet  land  may  be  worked 
on  earlier  in  the  spring. 

On  the  other  hand  the  following  difficulties  in 
fall  plowing  are  met  with:  i.  It  favors  the  spring- 
ing up  of  weeds,  necessitating  replovving  in  spring; 
2.  Fall  rains,  should  they  be  heavy,  will  pack  the 
surface  of  clay  soils,  which  the  frost  that  follows 
does  not  always  relieve,  and  never  if  pressed  dur- 
ing the  winter  by  a  deep  snow;  3.  In  this  case  the 
soil  turns  up  rough  in  the  spring,  and  generally  is 
too  wet  and  sticky,  effects  which  the  land  will 
show  for  a  year  or  two. 

These  objections  do  not  apply  to  light  soils. 
The  practical  farmer  will  be  able  to  decide  for 
himself.  He  must  know  his  soil,  and  much,  too, 
depends  upon  the  season  and  latitude.  Whenever 
it  is  possible  to  do  the  plovving  during  the  winter 
and  early  spring — before  freeing  and  thawing  is 
over — it  should  be  done,  because  every  day  then 
is  so  much  gained,  and  saves  an  equal  numbA'  for 
the  busy  season.  In  other  words,  it  puts  you  so 
many  days  ahead  with  your  work,  and  you  can 
keep  so  much  ahead  throughout  the  season. 

Plow  deeply — the  deeper  the  better — never  less 
than  6  to  10  inches.  If  you  have  been  plowing 
■  but  4  inches  this  year  do  not  go  down  8  inches 
.next,  unless  you  have  a  rich  loam.  In  clayey  soil 
•go  a  little  deeper  each  year,  and  give  the  virgin 
soil  the  benefit  of  the  air,  rain  and  frost.  Sink  the 
plow  gradually  to  its  greatest  depth,  and  you  have 
a  deep  surface  soil,  which  is  better  from  any  point 
of  view  than  a  shallow  one.  In  subsoil  plowing 
the  plow  may  be  made  to  reach  from  six  to 
eighteen  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
made  by  the  surface  plow.  The  depth  is  regulated 
by  the  clevis,  and  depends  upon  the  strength  of  the 
team.  It  is  a  difficult  plow  to  hold  and  to  pull, 
but  a  few  hours'  experience  will  master  it.  In  a 
soil  well  underdrained,  either  naturally  or  artifi- 
cially, subsoiling  has  a  most  beneficial  and  lasting 
effect.  Upon  land  which  needs  draining  no  per- 
manent benefit  is  derived.  A  run-down,  or  hide- 
bound meadow  or  pasture  may  often  be  restored 
to  usefulness  without  the  expense  of  breaking  up, 
by  running  a  large,  single  subsoil  pl(*w  under  it,  a 
foot  deep  and  two  feet  apart.  Apply  a  top-dress- 
ing, and  roll  the  fields  after  the  subsoil  plow  has 
done  its  work. 

To  adjust  the  plow  so  that  it  will  cut  a  furrow 
with  the  least  draft  to  the  team  and  the  least 
exertion  to  the  plowman,  the  team  must  be  hitched 
as  close  to  the  plow  as  it  can  be  and  not  have  the 
whiffle-trees  hit  their  heels  in  turiflng  at  the  cor- 
ners. As  the  length  of  the  traces  is  increased,  in 
plowing,  the  draft  increases.  Now  put  the  con- 
necting ring,  or  link,  or  dial  clevis,  at  the  end  of 


the  beam,  in  the  lowest  notch,  and  if  it  will  not 
run  deep  enough,  raise  it  another  notch  at  a  time 
until  it  will  run  just  deep  enough.  Next,  alter  the 
clevis  from  right  or  left,  as  may  be  necessary,  until 
the  plow  will  cut  a  furrow-slice  just  wide  enough 
to  turn  it  over  well.  If  the  plow  crowds  the  fur- 
row-slice without  turning  it  over,  it  shows  that  the 
furrow-slice  is  too  narrow  for  its  depth,  and  the 
plow  must  be  adjusted  to  cut  a  wider  slice.  On 
the  contrary,  if  the  plowman  is  obliged  to  con- 
stantly push  the  furrow-slice  over  with  his  foot, 
and  the  ground  he  is  plowing  be  very  smooth  and 
even,  it  shows  that  the  mold-board  is  too  narrow, 
or  not  sufficiently  spiral.  Sometimes,  by  adjust- 
ing a  plow  to  run  an  inch  deeper,  it  will  do  very- 
bad  work;  and  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  adjust 
it  to  cut  a  little  wider,  or  a  little  narrower,  before  it 
will  cut  the  furrow-slice  as  well  as  it  ought  to  be 
cut.  When  a  good  plow  is  correctly  adjusted  it 
will  glide  along,  where  there  are  no  obstructions, 
without  being  held,  for  many  rods.  When  a  plow 
is  constantly  inclined  to  fall  over  one  way  or  the 
other,  and  the  plowman  must  hold  it  up  all  the 
while,  to  keep  it  erect,  there  is  either  an  imper- 
fection in  the  plow,  or  it  is  not  adjusted  correctly. 
When  a  plow  '■Hips  up  behind,^''  and  does  not  keep 
down  flat  on  its  sole,  or  when  it  seems  to  run  all 
on  the  point,  either  the  point  is  too  blunt,  or  is 
worn  off  too  much  on  the  under  side,  or  there  is 
not  "dip  enough" — pitching  the  plow  downward 
to  the  point. 

To  make  a  plow  run  deeper,  raise  the  whiffle- 
trees  at  the  end  of  the  beam  one  or  more 
notches  higher  in  the  clevis,  or  lengthen  the 
draft  chains.  To  make.it  run  more  shallow, 
lower  the  draft  a  notch  or  more  in  the  clevis, 
or  shorten  the  draft  chains;  or,  which  should 
never  be  done,  shorten  the  back-bands  or  hip- 
straps  of  the  harness.  To  make  a  plow  take  a 
wider  furrow-slice,  carry  the  connecting  point  one 
or  more  notches  in  the  clevis  to  the  right-hand. 
A  notch  or  two  to  the  left-hand  will  make  a 
plow  cut  a  narrower  furrow-slice.  Or,  which  is 
seldom  allowable,  a  plow  may  be  made  to  nni 
more  shallow  by  putting  the  gauge-wheel  lower, 
so  as  to  raise  the  end  of  the  beam;  and  a  plow 
may  be  made  to  cut  a  narrower  furrow-slice 
by  carrying  the  handle  to  the  left  hand,  or  wider 
by  carrying  and  holding  them  to  the  right,  beyond 
an  erect  position,  neither  of  which  is  allowable 
except  for  a  temporary  purpose. 

The  practice  of  using  three  horses  for  plowing 
possesses  such  advantages  that  it  is  rapidly  extend- 
ing among  farmers.  Two  horses  alone  are  hardly 
strong  enough  for  such  deep  and  thorough  work 
as  the  best  farming  commonly  requires;  and  a 
single  plowman  can  cut  a  wider  and  deeper  fur- 
row with  three  horses,  and  consequently  do  more 
work   in  a   day.      When  four  are  employed,  an 


PLO  W-SHARE—PL  VM. 


1(35  ( 


additional  hand  for  driving  is  commonly  necessary ; 
and  another  disadvantage  is,  that  the  two  forward 
horses,  being  at  a  distance  from  the  plow,  draw  on  a 
nearly  horizontal  line,  and  with  much  of  the  waste  of 
power  resulting  from  a  line  of  draught  in  so  unfavor- 
able a  direction. 

In  plowing  an  acre  the  distance  traveled  is  as  fol- 
lows :  8-inch  farrow,  1 2  j/^  miles  ;  9-inch  furrow,  1 1 
miles;  lo-inch  furrow,  9  9-10  miles;  i i-inch  furrow, 
9  miles;  12-inch  furrow,  81^  miles.  In  cutting  a 
9-inch  furrow,  the  time  required  for  an  acre,  going  at 
the  rate  of  i  Y^  miles  an  hour,  is  7  hours  and  20  min- 
utes; \y^  miles,  6^  hours;  2|^  miles,  4  hours;  3}^ 
miles,  3  hours  and  eight  minutes. 

\'[\.  plowing  no  considerable  time  is  lost  in  turning 
corners,  as  the  following  table  shows.  Notice  that  in 
the  shortest  furrow  given  in  the  table  more  time  is  re- 
quired in  turning  than  in  plowing: 


Length 

Breadth 

Hours 

Time  Lost 

Time  Devoted 

of 

of 

of 

in 

to 

Furrow 

Furrow. 

Work. 

Turning. 

Plowing. 

234  feet  - 

10  inches 

10 

5  hours  II      minutes 

4  hours  14       minutes. 

447  feet . 

10  inches. 

10 

2  hours  44      minutes. 

7  hours  16      minut«s. 

600  feet  - 

10  inches. 

10 

2  hours    I      minute. 

7  hours  5Q      minutes. 

636  feet . 

10  inches. 

10 

I  hour    56^  minutes. 

8  hours    2,%  minutes. 

822  feet . 

10  inches. 

10 

I  hour    28      minutes. 

8  hours  32      minutes. 

Plow-share,  plow-shoe,  or  plow  point,  the  front  part, 
which  has  the  edge  for  cutting  the  ground  under- 
neath. 

Plum.  The  plum  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  many  centuries.  Tlie  Damson,  a  leading  variety, 
takes  its  name  from  Damascus,  where  it  grows  in 
great  quantities,  and  fron\  whence  it  was  taken 
into  Italy  as  early  as  114  B.  C.  Good  native  plums 
used  to  be  abundant  in  the  West,  but  at  the  present 
day  we  are  entirely  dependent  on  cultivation  for  tliis 
luscious  fruit,  and  even  then  there  is  generally  a  fail- 
ure, mainly  on  account  of  the  curculio.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Bristol,  in  Northern  Indiana,  good  plums 
are  raised  in  great  abundance.  Dried  plums  are 
called  prunes. 

Propagation  and  Culture.  Sow  the  seeds  of 
any  free-growing  variety,  not  the  Damsons,  and  bud 
them  when  two  years  old,  with  finer  sorts ;  plant  the 
stone  as  soon  as  gathered,  sowing  in  broad  drills  as 
peas,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  deep.  In  good  soil 
the  seedlings  will  reach  18  inches  to  two  feet  high  the 
next  season,  and  in  the  autumn  or  ensuing  spring 
they  may  be  taken  from  the  seed  beds,  their  lap-roots 
reduced,  and  all  that  are  of  suitable  size  planted  at 
once  in  the  nursery  rows,  the  smaller  ones  being 
thickly  bedded  undl  after  another  season's  growth. 
The  stocks  planted  out  in  the  nursery  will  ordinarily 
be  ready  for  grafting  or  budding  about  the  ensuing 
mid-summer;  the  buds  should  be  taken  as  soon  as 
they  are  sufficiently  firm ;  insert  them  on  the  north 
side  of  the  stock,  and  tie  the  bandage  more  rightly 
than  for  other  trees.  In  selecting  scions,  examine  to 
see  whether  they  have  been  winter-killed  or  injured  by 
the  weather  of  the   previous   season.     Grafting  by 


scions  is  done  in  April.  Seedlings  under  the  trees 
have  often  been  taken  up  for  suckers,  and  in  this  way 
many  spurious  varieties  have  been  propagated.  For 
dwarfing,  the  seedlings  of  the  Mirabelle  are  chiefly 
employed.  Open  standard  culture  is  the  universal 
mode  in  America,  as  the  plum  is  one  of  the  hardiest 
of  fruit  trees.  It  requires  little  or  no  pruning  beyond 
that  of  thinning  out  a  crowded  head  or  takmg  away 
decayed  or  broken  branches,  and  this  should  be  done 
before  mid-summer,  to  prevent  the  flow  of  gum.  Old 
trees  which  have  become  barren  may  be  renovated  by 
heading  them  in  pretty  severely,  covering  the  wounds 
with  a  solution  of  gum  shellac  and  giving  them  a  good 
top-dressing  at  the  roots.  In  cultivation,  however,  be 
careful  not  to  tear  the  roots,  as  the  tree  is  so  liable  to 
sprout,  especially  the  later  sorts. 

The  best  soil  is  a  heavy  clay  loam  in  a  wooded  sec- 
tion of  country  :  in  prairie  soil  the  trees  are  liable  to 
winter-kill.  While  they  need  a  great  deal  of  moisture, 
and  constantly,  the  ground  should  be  well  drained, 
like  the  bank  of  a  stream  where  we  see  the  native 
plum  in  its  greatest  perfection.  In  very  sandy  soil 
the  curculio  is  worse,  but  a  modicum  of  sand  is  good. 
A  soil  which  is  light  and  sandy  it  is  well  to  prepare 
by  adding  pure  yellow  loam  or  clay.  Very  heavy  clay 
burned  slowly  by  mixing  it  in  large  heaps  with  brush 
or  fagots,  is  at  once  an  admirable  manure  and  alterative 
for  such  soils.  Swamp  muck  is  also  one  of  the  best 
substances,  especially  that  from  salt-water  marshes. 
Common  salt  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  a  plum  orchard. 
Be  careful  not  to  stimulate  the  plum  to  too  rapid 
growth  by  high  cultivation.  Fertility  of  the  tree  is 
often  induced  by  cutting  out  a  narrow  ring  of  bark, 
or  by  driving  nails  into  it 

Insects  and  Diseases.  The  curculio  does  more 
harm  to  the  plum  than  all  other  insects  and  diseases 
together,  and  is  a  pest  so  persistent  and  successful 
that  most  people  are  discouraged  from  raising  this 
fruit  at  all.  About  a  week  after  the  blossoms  have 
fallen  this  smalt,  dark  brown  beetle  begins  its  work 
of  puncturing  the  young  fruit  near  the  stem,  making 
a  kind  of  crescent-shaped  wound,  in  which  it  lays  its 
eggs.  If  it  finds  that  the  little  plum  has  already  been 
visited  by  one  of  its  species  it  will  go  to  another; 
hence  all  the  fruit  is  soon  punctured.  The  insect  is 
so  small  and  shy  that  unless  we  watch  it  closely  it 
will  escape  our  notice;  but  if  we  strike  or  shake  the 
tree  suddenly  it  will  fall  in  considerable  numbers  upon 
the  ground,  drawn  up  as  if  dead,  resembling  a  ripe 
hemp-seed.  From  the  first  of  April  until  in  August 
this  insect  may  be  found,  but  its  depredations  are 
mostly  limited  to  May,  June  and  July.  The  remedies 
are,  at  first  the  chip  trap  during  the  flowering  season, 
then  the  intercepter,  which  is  a  mass  of  raw  cotton 
fixed  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree  with  stiff",  coarse 
paper  and  twine  so  as  to  catch  the  beetle  as  he  crawls 
up  the  tree ;  but,  most  reliable  of  all,  jarring  the  tree 
and  catching  the  insect  upon  a  sheet  spread  out  be- 
low and  killing  it.  This  work,  to  be  enrirely  success- 
ful, should  be  commenced  before  the  blossoms  f;ill. 
Take  a  sheet  about  nine  feet  square,  stretched  over  a 


I  OS  2, 


PLUM. 


frame,  with  a  slot  from  one  side  to  the  center  to  ad- 
mit the  body  of  the  tree,  and  this  mounted  on  low 
block  wheels;  this  is  run  under  the  tree,  as  indicated, 
and  the  large  limbs  one  after  another  are  jarred  by  a 
long-handled  mallet  which  has  cloth  or  rubber  fastened 
over  the  face  to  prevent  its  bruising  the  bark;  pick 
up  the  curculio  and  kill  them  as  fast  as  they  fall. 
Two  hands  can  go  over  a  hundred  trees  in  about  two 
hours ;  but  this  work  has  to  be  attended  to  two  or 
three  times  a  day  for  about  three  weeks,  then  once  or 
twice  a  day  for  three  weeks  more,  according  to  the 
■weather,  then  three  times  a  week  until  the  first  week 
in  August.  This  is  a  great  task,  but  where  every- 
thing else  is  favorable  for  a  good  crop  of  plums  one 
will  be  abundantly  rewarded  for  his  trouble.  The 
young  plums  that  drop  to  the  ground  wounded  with 
the  insect  should  be  picked  up  and  destroyed.  The 
first  that  fall,  however,  are  generally  so  small  that  it 
is  too  tedious  to  gather  them.  To  keep  the  ground 
enriched  with  plum  material,  some  orchardists  scald 
these  plums  and  throw  them  back  under  the  trees. 
Some  persons  have  been  successful  with  the  coal-tar 
smudge  under  the  trees ;  probably  this  remedy  would 
always  be  successful  if  thoroughly  and  persistently 
applied,  at  the  proper  times  and  for  the  whole  period 
of  exposure. 

The  plum-gouger  bores  a  small  round  hole  in  the 
plum,  deposits  eggs,  which  hatch  out  there  and  the 
young  find  their  way  to  the  kernel  and  kill  the  fruit. 
Remedy :  Coal-tar  smudge. 

Next  to  the  curculio,  the  greatest  obstacle  in  plum 
culture  is  the  disease  called  the  black  knot,  the 
knots,  or  black  gum.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it 
has  destroyed  the  whole  race  of  plum  trees.  The 
bark  first  becomes  swollen,  afterward  bursts  and  at 
length  assumes  the  appearance  of  large,  irregular, 
black  lumps,  with  a  hard,  cracked,  uneven  surface, 
quite  dry  within.  Purple-fruited  varieties  seem  to  be 
most  subject  to  this  disease.  The  cause  of  this  malady 
is  not  well  understood,  but  the  remedy  consists  simply 
in  looking  up  the  affected  parts  as  early  in  the  spring 
as  possible,  cutting  out  and  burning  them,  or,  if  the 
tree  is  very  badly  affected,  destroying  it  utterly.  Even 

then,  for  the  complet- 
est  success,  all  the 
neighbors  should  do 
likewise,  that  the  pesti- 
lence bred  on  their 
farms  do  not  spread 
around  and  become 
a  public  plague. 

Leaf  blight,  leaf  rust 
and  rot  are  also  dis- 
eases of  the  plum  that 
are  sometimes  a  lit- 
tle serious.  No  special 
remedy  other  than  general  good  care  can  be  relied 
on  as  protectives  against  them. 

Varieties.  The  following  list  comprises  the  best  for 
cultivation  throughout  the  North. 


Plum  Curculio. 


Chickasaw.  This  is  a  native  wild  species,  and 
does  best  grafted  in  April  on  wild  stocks.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  sloe.  The  fruit  is  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  round,  red  or  yellowish-red, 
of  a  pleasant  sub-acid  flavor,  and  ripens  pretty  early ; 
skin  thin;  branches  thorny,  head  rather  bushy,  and 
leaves  somewhat  narrow,  appearing  at  a  distance  like 
those  of  a  peach-tree.  The  full  height  of  the  tree  is 
about  12  to  14  feet. 

Damson.  Small,  oval,  about  an  inch  long,  purple, 
covered  with  thick  blue  bloom,  melting  and  juicy, 
rather  tart,  separates  partially  from  the  stone  ;  Sep- 
tember. Tree  enormously  productive,  but  a  slow 
grower  and  subject  to  the  knots;  branches  slender, 
a  little  thorny  and  downy.  Best  cooking,  good  mar- 
ket, but  rather  inferior  as  a  dessert. 

De  Soto.  A  comparatively  new  variety,  but  prom- 
ises well ;  more  like  the  European  than  any  other ; 
fruit  about  the  size  of  the  Miner,  is  a  clingstone, 
bright  red  when  ripe,  and  matures  two  to  four  weeks 
before  the  Miner ;  rich,  delicious  flavor,  and  the  tree 
an  excellent  bearer. 

German  Prune,  Common  Quetsche,  Damask,  etc. 
Long  oval,  nearly  two  inches  long,  peculiarly  swollen 
on  one  side  and  drawn  out  toward  the  stem  ;  suture 
distinctly  marked ;  skin  purple,  with  a  thick  blue 
bloom ;  stem  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  slender; 
flesh  firm,  green,  sweet,  and  pleasant;  separates  from 
the  stone,  which  is  flat,  very  long  and  a  little  curved  ; 
good  dessert,  cooking  and  market;  middle  of  Septem- 
ber. Valued  for  preserving  and  drying.  Fruit  hangs 
long  on  the  tree,  which  is  an  abundant  bearer. 
Branches  smooth. 

Coe's  Golden  Drop,  Golden  Gage,  etc.  Very  large, 
oval,  with  a  well  marked  suture,  light  yellow,  with  a 
number  of  rich,  dark  red  spots  on  the  sunny  side; 
stem  nearly  an  inch  long,  rather  stiff;  flesh  yellow, 
rather  firm,  adhering  closely  to  the  stone,  which  is 
quite  pointed ;  good  dessert  and  cooking,  very  good 
market ;  early  September;  a  beautiful  and  excellent 
plum ;  does  not  ripen  well  in  the  North.  Tree  mod- 
erately vigorous,  productive ;  branches  smooth. 

Green  Gage.  Rather  small,  round ;  suture  faint ; 
skin  green  or  yellowish-green  at  full  maturity,  when 
it  is  often  a  little  dotted  or  marbled  with  red ;  stem 
half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  slender;  flesh 
pale  green,  exceedingly  melting  and  juicy,  freestone, 
sprightly  and  luscious,  best  dessert,  very  good  cook- 
ing and  poor  market ;  early  August ;  the  standard  of 
quality  among  plums.  Tree  is  a  slow  grower,  should 
be  grafted  into  the  Miner;  is  an  abundant  and  regu- 
lar bearer,  though  in  wet  seasons  the  fruit  is  liable  to 
crack.  Branches  smooth  ;   buds  with  large  shoulders. 

Harris.  Freestone,  ripens  a  month  earlier  than 
the  Miner,  has  a  leaf  more  peach-shaped,  [xjinted  and 
thin,  but  in  other  respects  like  the  Miner. 

Imperial  Gage.  Large,  oval,  suture  distinct,  stem 
nearly  an  inch  long,  slightly  hairy  and  pretty  stout; 
cavity  even;  pale  green  until  fully  ripe,  when  it  is 
tinged  with  yellow,  showing  a  peculiar  marbling  of 
dull  green  stripes  and  covered  with   copious   white 


I 


PL  UNGE— POISONING. 


1055 


bloom;  flesh  greenish,  very  juicy,  rich,  agreeable,  best 
dessert,  cooking  and  maAet,  September.  Tree  a 
rapid  grower,  and  has  long,  dark  shoots,  slightly  downy. 

Italian  Prune.  Medium,  oval,  suture  moderate, 
dark  blue,  with  a  bloom;  stem  an  inch  long,  rather 
stout;  cavity  small;  flesh  dark  yellow,  juicy,  sweet, 
fair  dessert,  and  good  cooking  and  market,  Octolier. 
Tree  vigorous,  spreading;  branches  smooth. 

Lombard,  Bleecker's  Scarlet,  Beekman's  Scarlet. 
Medium,  roundish  oval,  slightly  flattened  at  either 
end;  suture  obscure;  stem  quite  slender,  scarcely 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  long;  cavity  broad  and 
abruptly  narrowed;  skin  delicate,  violet  red  and  dust- 
ed thinly  with  bloom;  flesh  deep  yellow,  pleasant, 
but  not  rich,  clingstone,  fair  dessert,  best  cooking  and 
market,  beginning  of  September.  Tree  vigorous, 
hardy  and  productive.     The  leading  market  variety. 

Miner,  or  Hinckley.  Medium  size,  oblong  pointed 
at  the  apex,  dark,  purplish  red,  with  a  fine  bloom, soft 
juicy,  vinous,  clingstone,  excellent,  early  October;  an 
improved  and  hardy  variety  of  the  Chickasaw; 
branches  smooth,  dark  red.  Propagated  from  pits,  it 
will  produce  an  endless  variety,  and  the  tree  should 
then  be  propagated  by  grafting  or  budding.  A  slight 
frost,  or  cold  winds,  cast  the  young  fruit.  Mr.  D.  B. 
Weir,  of  Lacon,  111.,  thinks  the  Hinckley  a  different 
variety  from  the  Miner,  the  former  being  larger,  a 
little  more  oblong,  of  a  dark  crimson  and  somewhat 
mottled. 

Newman.  A  typical  variety  of  the  Chickasaw. 
Medium,  roundish,  oval,  light  scarlet,  with  a  thin 
bloom,  soft,  light  pinkish  pulp,  juicy,  vinous,  cling- 
stone; ripens  in  August.  Tree  hardy,  healthy,  vigorous 
and  productive;  slender  grower,  is  a  beautiful  tree  in 
flower  and  fruit;  best  of  the  Chickasaw  class. 

Wild  Goose.  This  is  another  improved  variety  of 
the  Chickasaw.  Fruit  nearly  as  large  as  the  green 
gage,  purple,  with  a  blue  bloom,  juicy,  sweet,  cling- 
stone, last  of  July.  Tree  vigorous,  suckers  very 
persistently;  leaves  narrow,  twigs  slender.  Does 
well  but  in  few  places. 

To  Preserve  Plums.  To  every  pound  of  fruit 
allow  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  sugar.  Divide  the 
plums,  take  out  the  stones,  and  put  the  fruit  on  a  dish 
with  pounded  sugar  strewed  over;  the  next  day  put 
them  into  a  preserving  pan  and  let  them  simmer 
gently  by  the  side  of  tlie  fire  for  about  thirty  minutes; 
then  boil  them  quickly,  removing  the  scum  as  it  rises, 
and  keep  them  constantly  stirred,  or  the  jam  will 
stick  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  Crack  the  stones  and 
add  the  kernels  to  the  preserve  when  it  boils. 

Pickling  Plums.  IBest  vinegar,  i  pint;  sugar,  4 
pounds;  plums,  8  pounds;  spices  to  taste.  Boil 
them  in  the  mixture  until  soft;  then  take  out  the 
plums,  and  boil  the  sirup  until  quite  thick  and  pour 
it  over  them  again. 

Plunge.  A  horse  is  said  to  "plunge"  when  he 
leaps  heavily  and  violently  forward,  in  order  to  free 
himself  from  the  rider. 

Flush  is  a  woolen  fabric  having  a  sort  of  velvet 


nap  on  one  side,  composed  regularly  of  a  woof  of  a 
single  woolen  thread  and  a  double  warp;  the  one  of 
wool,  of  two  threads  twisted,  and  the  other  of  goat's 
and  camel's  hair.  Some  plushes,  in  imitation  of 
these,  are  made  of  other  materials. 

Pneumonia,  inflammation  of  the  substance  of  the 
lungs.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  kinds  of  inflammation, 
and  is  often  complicated  with  pleurisy  and  other  in- 
flammations of  the  chest.  For  pneumonia  in  the 
horse,  see  page  796;  in  cattle,  see  pages  234-5. 

Pod,  a  two-valved  pericarp  (the  seed-enveloping 
part  of  a  fruit)  with  a  linear  receptacle  along  the 
edges  of  which  the  seeds  are  alternately  arranged. 

Podophyllin  (po-do-fil'in),  the  medicinal  principle 
extracted  from  the  root  of  the  May  apple:  see  May 
Apple. 

Point,  a  feature  of  quality  in  an  animal ;  a  score 
made  or  counted,  in  any  competing  exercise ;  a  stand- 
ing on  game. 

Pointer,  a  dog  used  to  locate  game:  see  pages 
il^,  348-9- 

Points  of  Cattle:  see  page  207. 

Poisoning.  Cases  of  poisoning  are  so  common 
and  so  awful  in  their  eff"ects  that  we  have  deemed  it 
proper  to  treat  the  common  articles  of  poison,  giving 
the  symptoms  resulting  from  poisoning  by  each,  the 
antidotes  and  treatment  of  the  patient,  in  their  respect- 
ive alphabetical  order,  and  also  to  give  a  very  full 
list,  with  antidotes,  in  this  connection.  This  will  en- 
able a  person  to  tell  at  a  glance,  and  with  the  least 
possible  loss  of  time,  what  are  the  antidotes  for  the 
various  poisonous  articles.  We  have  very  fully  treated 
of  the  mineral,  vegetable  and  animal  poisons  com- 
monly met  with,  and  by  which  people  are  generally 
]X)isoned,  in  articles  under  their  respective  heads,  as 
Arsenic,  Mercury,  Iodine, Corrosive  Sublimate,  etc.,  etc. 

When  it  is  not  known  precisely  what  poison  a  per- 
son has  swallowed,  produce  copious  vomiting  as  soon 
as  possible,  by  warm  water  and  salt,  or  warm  water, 
salt  and  ground  mustard,  or  water  alone, — anything 
to  bring  about  vomiting.  In  taking  warm  water,  be 
sure  that  in  your  haste  you  do  not  administer  it  so 
hot  as  to  scald  the  patient.  Salt  and  ground  mustard, 
each  a  heaping  teaspoonful  in  a  glass  of  water,  will 
be  fouixi  a  quick  emetic.  This  should  cause  vomit- 
ing in  one  minute.  Some  of  these  emetics  should  be 
given  immediately  on  its  being  known  that  a  poison 
has  been  swallowed.  After  several  quarts  of  water 
have  thus  been  thrown  up  from  the  stomach,  give 
some  bland  beverage,  as  milk  or  whites  of  eggs,  with 
water:  no  sugar. 

When  it  is  known  what  substance  the  patient  has 
swallowed,  for  acid  poisons  the  following  should,  in 
general,  be  administered :  Large  draughts  of  chalk, 
whiting,  magnesia,  or  soap  in  water,  about  as  thick  as 
cream,  followed  by  milk  and  whites  of  eggs,  mixed 
with  water.  Or,  if  these  cannot  be  procured  at  once, 
warm  water,  salt  and  ground  mustard.     For  alkaline 


ios6 


POISONING. 


poison,  as  alkali,  potash,  soda,  ammonia,  etc.,  give 
vinegar  or  lemon  juice,  the  latter  in  great  abundance. 
In  the  absence  of  the  above,  an  emetic,  only  in  the 
form  of  pure  water,  may  be  given,  in  connection  with 
the  stomach-pump.     Avoid  drug  emetics. 

For  alkaloids,  such  as  morphine,  quinine,  etc., 
emetics  and  the  stomach-pump  must  be  relied  ujxjn 
rather  than  chemical  agents.  Astringent  liquids  may 
be  administered,  such  as  tannic  acid,  which  precipitates 
many  of  the  alkaloids  from  their  aqueous  solution, 
absorption  of  the  jX)ison  being  thus  retarded. 

After  the  poison  has  been  completely  removed,  the 
patient  should  be  placed  under  appropriate  treatment. 
After  irritant  poisons  have  been  taken,  stimulants 
and  sedatives  may  be  required.  After  narcotics 
strong  coffee  will  be  found  useful. 

The  following  is  a  very  full  list  of  poisons  with  their 
antidotes.  The  name  of  the  poison  is  given  first,  and 
the  antidotes  immediately  follow : 

Acetate  of  Morphia.  Infusion  of  galls ;  tannic 
acid;  green  tea;  coffee;  stimulants;  dash  of  cold 
water. 

Acetic  Acid.  Magnesia;  calcined  magnesia;  chalk; 
carbonate  of  soda. 

Aconite.  Tannic  acid ;  green  tea ;  bromine ; 
chlorine;  iodine. 

Alcohol.     Acetate  of  ammonia;  common  table  salt. 

Alum.     Carbonate  of  soda;  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

Antimony.    Astringents;  tannic  acid;  alkalies. 

Arsenic.  Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron;  hydrated 
magnesia. 

Arsenite  of  Copper.    Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 

Arsenic  Acid.     Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 

Arsenious  Acid.  Calcined  magnesia;  hydrated 
peroxide  of  iron. 

Bee  Sting.     Ammonia. 

Birthwort.  Calcined  magnesia  ;  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia. 

Bitter  Almonds.  Inhalations  of  ammonia;  chlorine; 
chloroform. 

Bittersweet.     Charcoal. 

Bitter  Vetch.     Charcoal. 

Black  Cherry.  Dashes  of  cold  water,  ammonia, 
chlorine  or  chloroform  inhaled. 

Black  Hellebore.     Cliarcoal. 

Black  Henbane.  Bromine ;  chlorine ;  iodine ;  vine- 
gar; ammonia. 

Blue  Mass.     Gluten ;  gold  ;  iodine. 

Bromine.     Albumen ;  starch ;  magnesia. 

Buckeye.     Ammonia;  alcohol. 

Calomel.     Gluten  ;  gold ;  iodine. 

Camphor.     Emetic. 

Carbonic-Acid  Gas.  Ammonia  inhaled,  cautiously ; 
dashes  of  cold  water. 

Cheese.     Charcoal;  emetics. 

Cherry  Laurel.  Dashes  of  cold  water ;  ammonia 
inhaled  ;  chlorine  or  chloroform  inhaled. 

Chloric  Ether.     Ammonia  by  inhalation. 

Chlorine  Gas.    Ammonia;  ether  by  inhalation. 

Chloroform.  Ammonia  by  inhalation ;  galvanic 
shocks. 


Chrome.     Carbonate  of  potassa ;  carbonate  of  lime. 

Citric  Acid.     Magnesia;  chalk;  carbonate  of  soda; 
carbonate  of  jx)tassa;  carbonate  of  lime. 

Crabs.     Milk ;  mucilage. 

Crawfish.     Charcoal. 

Creosote:     Albumen;  milk;  flour. 

Cissus.     Emetics. 

Cro7vfoot  tribe.     Charcoal. 

Cyanide  of  Potassium.    Sulphate  of  iron  in  solution. 

Deadly   Nightshade.     Bromide    chlorine;    iodine; 
emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 

Dogbane.     Charcoal. 

Elixir  of  Vitriol.     Magnesia;  lime;  chalk;  soda. 

Emetic  Tartar.     Tannic  acid ;   astringent  infusion  ; 
yellow  bark;  green  tea. 

Foot's  Parsley.     Tannic  acid;  green  tea;  bromide; 
chlonne ;  iodine. 

Foxglove.     Infusion    of   yellow  bark;  stimulants; 
galls;  tannic  acid;  green  tea. 

Fusil  Oil.     Emetic. 

Fungi.     Emetics  of  tartarized  antimony. 

Gad -Fly.     Solution  of  ammonia. 

Gnat.     Solution  of  ammonia. 

Gold.     Sulphate  of  iron  ;  mucilage. 

Hartshorn.     Vinegar ;  lemon  juice ;  demulcents. 

Hedge  Hyssop.     Charcoal. 

Hemlock,  Poison.     Emetics. 

Hornet.     Ammonia  in  solution. 

Hornet  Sting.     Ammonia. 

Hydrophobia.     Nitrate  of  silver ;  ammonia. 

Indian  War  Poison.     Common  salt;  sugar. 

Iodine.     Gluten  ;  wheat  flour  ;  starch. 

Ipecacuanha.     Bromide;  chlorine;  iodine. 

Iron  and  its  Salts.    Carbonate  of  soda;  carbonate  of 
magnesia. 

Jimson-weed.     Bromine;    iodine;    vinegar;    lemon 
juice. 

Land  Crab.     Milk;  charcoal. 

Lead  and  its  Salts.     Dilute  sulphuric  acid ;  iodide 
of  potassium ;  sulphate  of  soda ;  sulphate  of  magnesia. 

London  Purple.     Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron. 

Meadojv  Pimpernel.     Charcoal;  tannic  acid;  green 
tea. 

Mercury,  and  all  its  Oxides  and  Salts.     Albumen ; 
glulen;  iodine;  charcoal;  coffee;  ammonia. 

Mountain  Ash.     Charcoal. 

Muriate   of  Antimony.     Tannic  acid;  green   tea: 
astringent  infusions;  alkalies. 

Muriatic  Acid.     Carbonate  of  soda;  carbonate  of 
lime;  carbonate  of  potassa;  carbonate  of  magnesia. 

Mushrooms.    Sulphate  zinc  emetic;  common  table 
salt;  charcoal;  chlorine. 

Narcotina.     Astringents;  coffee;  ammonia. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  (lunar  caustic).     Common  table 
salt. 

Nitric  Acid.    Carbonate  of  lime;  magnesia:   chalk; 
carbonate  of  soda. 

Nitric  Ether.     Ammonia  by  inhalation. 

Nitrous  Acid.     Ammonia  inhaled  cautiously. 

Nux  Vomica.     Bromine;  chlorine;  iodine;  prussic 
acid;  chloroform. 


POISON  IVY. 


1057 


Oil  of  Turpentine.     Ammonia. 

Oleander.     Charcoal. 

Opiutn  and  its  Preparations.  Infusion  of  galls; 
astringents;  coffee;  magnesia;  chlorine;  iodine;  bro- 
mine. 

Oxalic  Acid.  Carbonate  of  magnesia;  lime;  plaster 
from  the  ceiling. 

Paris  Green.  Hydrated  peroxide  of  iron;  hydrate 
magnesia. 

Phosphoric  Acid.  Ammonia;  chlorinated  water; 
magnesia;  cold  water. 

Poison  Ivy,  Oak,  Sumac  and  Vine.     Charcoal. 

Poppy.     Infusion  of  galls;  coffee;  charcoal. 

Prussic  Acid.  Ammonia;  chlorine;  carbonate  of 
potassa  in  solution,  followed  by  sulphate  of  iron  in 
solution;  chlorinated  water;  stimulants. 

Putrid  Anitnal  Matter.     Ammonia ;  tonics. 

Quicklime.  Mineral  soda  water;  effervescing 
draughts. 

Ratsbane.     Chlorine;  bromine;  iodine. 

Rattle-snake.     Alcohol;  cinchonia;  ammonia. 

Red  Precipitate.     Albumen  ;  gluten. 

Scour-Grass.     Chlorine. 

Silver.     Common  table  salt. 

Snake-bites.  Whisky ;  ammonia  ;  cinchonia;  whorl- 
ed  milkweed 

Spanish  Fly.     ^Vhisky;  ammonia. 

Spurred  Rye.     Charcoal. 

Squirting  Cucumber,     Bromine  ;  chlorine  ;  iodine. 

Stavesacre.     Charcoal. 

Sugar  of  Lead.  Sulphate  of  magnesia;  sulphate 
of  soda;  phosphate  of  soda;  iodide  of  potassium. 

Sulphuric  Acid.  Magnesia;  carbonate  of  magne- 
sia; carb.  lime;  chalk;  carb.  soda;  whiting;  milk;  oil. 

Sulphuric  Acid  Gas.    Ammonia  inhaled  cautiously. 

Sulphuric  Ether.     Ammonia  by  inhalation. 

Swa/np  Leathenciood.     Chlorine;  bromine;  iodine. 

Tartaric  Acid.  Carbonate  of  lime ;  carb.  mag- 
nesia ;    plaster  from  the  ceiling. 

Thornapple.  Bromine;  chlorine;  iodine;  vinegar; 
lemon  juice. 

Tin.     Albumen;  flour;  milk. 

Toadstool.     Emetic  of  tartarized  antimony. 

Verdigris.     Albumen  (egg) ;  iron  ;  milk. 

Viper.     Alcohol;  ammonia. 

Wasp.     Ammonia  in  solution. 

White  Henbane.     Charcoal ;  vinegar ;  ammonia. 

Wormseed.     Emetics. 

Yello7v  Jessamine.     Ammonia;  charcoal. 

Zinc.  Salts  of  carbonate  of  soda;  albumen; 
astringents. 

Poisoning  in  the  horse:  see  pages  7 97  and  798. 

Poison  Ivy  and  Sumac.  There  is  a  common 
belief  that  "  Poison  Ivy"  and  "  Poison  Sumac"  are 
the  same  plant.  While  their  jx)isonous  effects  are 
much  alike,  the  two  plants  are  very  different.  The 
Poison  Ivy  {Rhus  toxicodendron)  is  a  prostrate  or 
climbing  vine.  It  is  also  known  as  "  ]X)ison  oak"  and 
"mercury  (often  marcury)  vine."  It  presents  two 
very  distinct  forms;    the   most   common   is   a   low 

67 


spreading  plant,  matting  itself  along  the  ground, 
rambling  over  stone  walls,  and  climbing  upon  fence- 
posts.  The  other  form  attaches  itself  to  the  trunks 
of  trees,  clinging  closely  by  its  abundant  rootlets,  and 
reaching  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees.  Though  very 
different  in  their  habit  of  growth,  no  botanical  differ- 
ence is  to  be  found  in  them,  and  all  the  many  forms 
are  considered  as  varieties  of  the  same  species.  This, 
while  its  leaves  vary  much  in  shape,  has  always 
comf)ound  leaves  of  three  leaflets;  that  is,  its  leaves 
are  divided  into  three  parts ;  these  parts  differ  some- 
what in  size,  and  especially  in  outline,  some  having 
the  margins  so  deeply  cut  as  to  suggest  the  name  of 
"poison  oak."  As  there  is  no  other  native  vine 
which  has  its  leaves  divided  into  three  parts,  that  is 
a  very  safe  guide  in  deciding  whether  a  suspected 
plant  is  poisonous  or  not.  The  common  Virginia 
creeper  (Ampelopsis  quinguefolia),  is  often  unjustly 
suspected  of  being  ixiisonous.  Besides  other  very 
marked  characters,  the  leaves  of  that  are  five-parted. 
The  ivy  is  found  almost  everywhere,  in  the  older 
States  at  least, — by  the  road-sides,  along  stone  walls, 
in  pastures,  on  trees  at  the  edges  of  woods, — in  fact, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  generally  distributed  of  all  our 
native  plants. 

Poison  Sumac,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  climb 
at  all,  but  is  always  an  erect  shrub  from  6  to  15  feet 
high,  and  noticeable  for  its  neat  and  cleanly  habit. 
It  is  always  found  in  moist,  swampy  places,  and  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  several  harmless  sumacs  by 
having  its  flowers  and  its  berries  in  loose  spreading 
clusters  and  not  close  upright  ones,  ag»in  the  harm- 
less species.  Both  the  poison  ivy  and  poison  su- 
mac are  well  known  for  the  qualities  indicated  by 
their  names  —  their  ability  to  poison.  It  is  probable 
that  a  very  small  minority  of  persons  are  affected  by 
this  jxjison.  The  few  are  poisoned  by  coming  into 
direct  contact  with  the  plant,  while  now  and  then  a 
person  is  so  susceptible  to  its  influence  as  to  be  poi- 
soned by  going  near  it,  without  actually  touch- 
ing it.  The  shrub  called  poison  sumac,  also 
improperly  called  "  dogwood,"  and  still  more  inac- 
curately "  [xjison  elder"  (the  true  dogwood  being 
harmless),  is  much  more  virulent  than  the  "  ivy," 
and  is  said  to  affect  persons  who  are  not  troub- 
led by  the  vine,  and  its  results  are  much  more 
obstinate  and  difficult  to  cure.  In  poisoning  the 
effects  vary  greatly :  some  are  troubled  by  only  a  few 
pustules  on  the  back  of  the  hand  and  between  the 
fingers ;  others  have  an  eruption  upon  the  face,  arms, 
and  the  insides  of  the  legs,  accompanied  by  the  most 
intolerable  itching.  In  severe  cases  there  is  a  high 
fever,  and  occasionally  the  poison  is  so  virulent  as  to 
cause  the  face  to  swell  and  quite  obliterate  all  the 
features,  leaving  just  an  opening  for  the  mouth  and 
completely  closing  the  eyes.  In  such  severe  cases, 
medical  aid  should  be  called,  to  reduce  the  fever  by 
proper  treatment.  The  effects  are  exceedingly  vari- 
able in  different  individuals,  and  in  the  great  majority 
they  amount  to  only  an  eruption  annoying  for  its  in- 
tense itching. 


1058 


POLAND  CHINA— POMEGRAN^E. 


Remedies  for  Poisoning.  The  great  number  of 
remedies  that  have  been  given  show  that  the  disease 
is  very  variable,  and  that  which  is  useful  in  one  case 
is  not  so  in  another.  Attention  to  the  general  health, 
coohng  the  system  by  saline  laxatives,  such  as  Epsom 
or  Rochelle  salts,  is  a  great  help.  Among  the  exter- 
nal applications  that  have  been  found  useful  are 
lime-water,  strong  salt  and  water,  or  the  application 
of  wet  salt,  a  solution  of  sugar  of  lead,  etc.  Various 
astringent  lotions  are  sometimes  useful.  In  some 
country  places  a  strong  decoction  of  hemlock  boughs, 
or  of  oak  leaves,  have  often  given  relief  A  similar 
astringent  effect  is  given  by  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron  (copperas)  in  a  teacupful  of  hot  water,  applied  as 
hot  as  can  be  borne.  The  medical  journals  have 
recommended  first  washing  the  parts  in  warm  water, 
without  soap,  and  then  applying,  with  a  brush  or 
feather,  the  tincture  of  Lobelia.  The  fluid  extract  of 
the  yellow  jessamine  (Gelsemiuni)  is  said  to  be  very 
efficacious,  applied  in  a  similar  manner.  Another 
medical  journal  highly  recommends  the  application 
of  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  first  pricking  any  large  pus- 
tules that  piay  have  formed.  The  latest  remedy  i^s 
the  common  "ragweed"  or  "Roman  wormwood," 
abundant  everywhere  in  fields.  It  is  said  that  if  this 
be  bruised  and  the  juice  that  is  squeezed  from  it  be 
applied  to  the  poisoned  surface,  the  relief  is  very 
marked.  From  the  fact  that  every  neighborhood,  in 
which  poisoning  is  frequent,  has  several  "  sure  cures," 
it  is  probable  that  there  is  as  much  difference  in  yield- 
ing to  remedies  by  poisoned  persons  as  there  is  in  the 
susceptibility  oLpersons  to  the  effects  of  the  poison. 
The  better  way,  in  case  of  poisoning,  is  at  once  to 
take  some  saline  purge,  with  due  regard  to  diet,  arid 
apply  such  remedies  as  have  been  found  useful  in 
the  locality. 

Poland  China,  a  breed  of  Swine.     See  Swine. 

Polecat,  a  word  often  used  to  designate  the  skunk, 
but  incorrectly  so.  The  polecat  is  an  European  ani- 
mal, never  seen  in  America,  and  belongs  to  the  weasel 
genus  of  the  weasel  family,  while  the  skunk  belongs 
to  another  genus  of  the  same  family.     See  Skunk. 

Pole  Strap,  or  Band,  the  strap  connecting  the 
belly-band  with  the  neck-yoke  and  passing  between 
the  fore-legs,  to  aid  in  holding  back ;  also  a  measure 
equal  to  16}^  feet. 

Polish.  In  connection  with  the  respective  topics,  as 
Furniture,  Harness,  Shoes,  Blacking,  etc.,  we  give  the 
best  methods  of  ix)lishing.  We  add  here  a  few  mis- 
cellaneous items.  The  easiest  and  most  economical 
wood  for  ]X)lishing  is  black  walnut.  In  oiling  it  with 
Unseed  oil,  mixing  in  a  little  gum  copal  will  prevent 
the  oil  from  entering  the  wood  too  much,  and  the 
latter  will  in  a  short  time  become  as  smooth  and  glossy 
as  a  coach  body.  To  polish  a  roughened  place  on  a 
piece  of  mahogany,  scrape  and  sandpaper  it,  wet  it 
and  then  rub  it  down  with  fine  pumice-stone,  in  the 
direction  of  the  grain,  keeping  the  surface  moist  all 
the  while.     Let  the  surface  dry  and  repeat  the  process 


the  third  time.  If  it  is  not  then  smooth  enough,  re- 
peat the  process,  with  cold-drawn  linseed  oil  instead 
of  water.  To  polish  a  varnished  surface  is  a  tedious 
process,  although  simple.  Put  2  ounces  powdered 
Tripoli  into  an  earthen  pot  or  basin,  with  water  enough 
to  cover  it;  then,  with  a  piece  of  fine  flannel  four 
times  doubled,  laid  over  the  end  of  a  piece  of  cork, 
rub  the  surface  with  the  ix)wder,  regularly  and  pa- 
tiently. Rough  brass  must  first  be  filed  as  smoothly 
as  possible,  then  rubbed  with  Tripoli  and  linseed  oil, 
as  above  for  varnish,  by  means  of  a  piece  of  old  hat 
felt.  For  ebony  or  black  rosewood,  after  the  foregoing 
process,  apply  finely  powdered  elder  coal.  To  polish 
marble,  rub  with  fine  sandstone  and  water,  then  finer 
stone  and  sand,  then  emery  powder  with  a  piece  of 
old  felt,  and  finally  with  putty  powder  and  fine  clean 
rags.  As  soon  as  a  fair  gloss  begins  to  appear,  con- 
tinue to  rub  with  the  rags  without  the  addition  of 
more  powder. 

Politeness :  see  Etiquette. 

Pollard,  a  tree  which  has  been  frequently  top- 
polled  or  headed  down  to  form  a  low,  brushy  top;  also 
the  fine  bran  or  inner  husk  of  wheat. 

Polled,  applied  to  certain  varieties  of  cattle  and 
denoting  hornless.  The  terms  "dodded,"  "muley" 
and  "  humble  "  have  the  same  signification. 

The  Polled  or  hornless  cattle  is  a  breed  but  recently 
introduced  in  this  country,  although  many  years  ago 
these  hornless  or  muley  cattle,  as  they  were  known 
among  the  Western  farmers,  were  bred  in  some  sec- 
tions. Among  the  Polled  breeds  of  cattle  thi^re  are 
several.  Of  these  the  Polled  Angus  or  Aberdeen, 
the  Suffolk,  the  Red  Polled  and  the  Galloways  are 
being  introduced  in  America.  These  are  bred  extens- 
ively in  England  and  Scotland,  the  Galloways  con- 
stituting one  of  the  most  important  breeds  in  Scot- 
land. 

Pollen,  the  organic  matter  by  which  impregnation 
is  effected  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Though  it  ap- 
pears to  the  naked  eye  like  a  mere  jxjwder,  yet  when 
examined  by  the  microscope  it  is  found  to  consist  of 
grains  of  definite  size  and  shape,  which  are  uniform 
in  the  same  plant,  but  often  very  different  in  different 
species  or  natural  families.  ' 

Poll- Evil:  see  page  798. 

Pomace :  see  Apple  Pomace. 

Pomade,  a  perfumed  composition  used  in  dressing 
the  hair.     To  make,  see  page  634. 

Pomegranate,  a  small  genus  of  ornamental  plants. 
The  common  pomegranate  is  a  native  of  Southern 
Europe,  is  a  hardy,  deciduous,  small  tree  or  tall  shrub, 
and  is  famous  for  both  the  beauty  of  iis  flowers  and 
the  medicinal  properties  of  its  root,  flowers  and  fruit. 
The  juice  of  the  fruit  resembles  that  of  the  orange, 
and  is  pleasantly  acid;  it  quenches  thirst,  and  is 
agreeably  cooling  and  gently  aperient.  A  kind  of 
orange  melon,  .of  a  most  delicious  muskmelon  fra- 
grance, growing  on  an  herbaceous  vine,  is  also  known 


POMMEL— POPP  V. 


I0S9 


in  this  country  as  "  pomegranate."  It  is  of  the  size  of 
a  small  orange,  perfectly  globular,  smooth,  and  striped 
like  a  citron  water-melon,  but  the  colors  are  alternately 
orange  and  yellow.  Not  much  raised  north  of  lati- 
tude 40". 

Pommel  (pum'l),  the  hinder  ]X)rtion  or  rim  of  a 
saddle. 

Pomology,  the  scientific  management  of  orchards, 
or  the  scientific  principles  of  everything  connected 
with  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees. 

Pony,  small  horse;  see  page  693. 

Pop-Corn,  a  small  species  of  maize,  the  grains  of 
which  when  parched  burst  open  and  expand  into  a 
peculiar,  sjxsngy,  light  mass,  and  as  an  edible  is  a 
luxury.  Itis  raised  in  a  rich  garden  soil,  on  the  same 
general  principles  as  field  corn  is  raised.  The  most 
popular  varieties  are  the  White,  Silver-laced,  Nonpa- 
reil, Dwarf,  Golden  and  Egyptian.  The  genuine  are 
the  smallest-eared,  as  its  aptness  to  mix  with  field 
corn  has  caused  most  jxip-corn  in  the  country  to  be- 
come adulterated,  and  such  does  not  pop  well.  To 
pop  this  corn,  it  should  be  dry  and  well-seasoned; 
and  many  prefer  to  have  it  popped  in  closed  frying 
pans  wherein  is  a  little  butter  or  salted  lard.  Ground 
pop-corn,  under  the  Tiame  of  "snow-flake  corn,"  is 
now  furnished  to  the  market,  in  ten-cent  packages  and 
in  barrels.  It  will  keep  good  for  many  months,  and  is 
always  "  ready  to  be  eaten," — ^naraely,  by  mixing  it 
cold  with  rich  sweet  milk  or  cream.  Pop-corn  balls, 
sweetened  and  unsweetened,  are  sold  by  street  ped- 
dlers in  all  public  places. 

To  Make  Fop-Corn  Balls.  Make  taffy  of  sugar 
or  molasses,  a  pint  of  either  to  a  gallon  of  popped 
corn.  Make  the  taffy  in  a  vessel  large  enough  to  stir 
the  corn  in  it  while  hot ;  then  let  it  cool,  and  make 
ball  of  desired  shape  with  the  hand  ;  butter  the  hands 
a  little  to  keep  it  from  sticking. 

Another:  Take  a  three-gallon  pan  and  fill  it  nearly 
level  full  of  popped  corn,  and  then  take  a  cupful  of 
molasses  and  a  little  piece  of  butter  and  boil  until  it 
will  set,  or  try  it  in  cold  water;  just  a  drop  will  do  in 
water,  and  if  it  sets  then  jMur  the  molasses  all  around 
on  the  corn.  Then  take  a  large  iron  spoon  and  stir 
well ;  when  well  mixed  butter  your  hands  well  and 
take  some  corn  in  both  hands,  as  much  as  you  can 
press  well  together,  and  you  will  have  a  large  and 
splendid  ball.  You  can  use  sugar  in  the  place  of  mo- 
lasses if  you  wish  it. 

Poplar,  trees  of  the  genus  Populus,  of  the  Willow 
family.  White  or  Silver-Leaf  poplar  is  a  familiar  or- 
namental tree.  Its  leaves  are  a  brilliant  silvery  white 
underneath,  and  conspiculously  exhibit  this  luster 
when  up-turned  by  the  breeze.  The  branches  of  the 
tree  spread  like  those  of  an  apple-tree,  and  the  roots 
are  so  given  to  scion-sprouting  as  toconstitute  a  serious 
objection  to  the  propagation  of  the  tree  in  the  land- 
scape. Lombardy  poplar  is  admired  by  some  for  the 
landscape,  but  on  the  windy  prairies  of  the  West  it 
fares  hard  and  becomes  ungainly.     It  excels  all  other 


trees  in  running  up  a  tall,  steeple-like  top.  Balsam 
poplar  and  the  well-known  balm  of  Gilead  are  two 
varieties  of  the  same  species.  Much  given  to  sprout- 
ing from  the  roots.  Quaking  asp  or  American  aspen, 
two  species,  as  well  as  the  Necklace  poplar  or  well- 
known  Cottonwood,  are  also  true  poplars.  But  the 
Tulip-tree  is  often  wrongly  called  poplar:  this  be- 
longs to  an  entirely  different  order  of  trees,  and  is 
much  used  as  box  material  and  in  other  ways. 


Fig  I. — Poplar  Gall  Loute. 


Figs.  I  and  2  illustrate  two  of  the  more  prominent 
gall  lice  which  work  upon  the  leaves  and  leaf-stems 
of   jxjplars.     The   character  of  their   work   is   also 


Fig.  2. — Poplar  Gail  Louse, 

shown,  and  the  true  size  of  the  insects  is  indicated  by 
crossed  hair  lines  in  the  cut.  The  figures  are  fully 
explained  on  pages  858-9. 

Poplin,  a  fabric  composed  of  a  warp  of  silk  and 
woof  of  worsted.  Irish  poplins  have  long  been  cele- 
brated as  dress  goods. 

Poppy,  a  showy  flower  which  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion for  many  generations.  The  form,  color  and  size 
are  similar  to  the  rose,  but  they  are  annuals,  and  are 
hardy  in  the  Northern  States.  There  are  several 
species  and  many  varieties.  Opium  is  obtained  from 
one  species,  and  of  course  characterizes  all  members 


■ 


io6o 


PORK— POTASH. 


of  the  poppy  family.     Blood-root  is  the  most  common 
wild  plant  of  this  order. 

Pork,  the  flesh  of  swine  after  being  prepared  or 
cut  for  use.  We  refer  the  reader  to  page  964,  where 
some  general  observations  are  made  on  this  subject 
under  the  head  of  Pork.  In  the  article  Swine  we 
treat  the  different  breeds  of  hogs,  their  care  and 
management;  in  the  article  Meat  we  give  the  modes 
of  preserving  meat,  and  in  those  of  Bacon  and  Ham 
tell  how  jxjrk  may  be  pickled  and  smoked;  therefore, 
we  have  here  to  give  only  the  methods  of  cooking 
pork  before  it  is  cured,  or  fresh  pork.  Directions  for 
cooking  ham  is  given  in  the  article  on   that   subject. 

Roast  Pork.  Pork  should  be  well  done.  When 
roasting  a  loin,  cut  the  skin  across  with  a  sharp  knife, 
otherwise  the  cracking  is  very  bad  to  manage.  A 
spare-rib  should  be  basted  with  a  little  butter,  a  little 
flour  and  sweet  herbs,  or  sage  and  onions,  as  best 
suits  the  taste.  Apple-sauce  should  be  served  with 
this  dish. 

To  Roast  a  Leg  of  Pork.  The  leg  to  be  roasted 
should  not  weigh  more  than  six  or  seven  pounds. 
Score  the  rind  or  skin  with  a  sharp  knife  all  around 
the  joint.  Baste  it  well.  It  will  yield  sufficient  drip- 
ping to  baste  itself  without  butter.  If  the  crackling 
and  fat  are  not  kept  on,  the  joint  will  not  require  so 
long  a  time  to  roast  it.  Sauce:  brown  gravy  or 
tomato. 

To  Boil  a  Leg  of  Pork.  Procure  a  nice,  small, 
compact  leg  of  pork,  rub  it  well  with  salt,  and  let  it 
remain  for  a  week  in  pickle,  turning  and  rubbing  the 
pickle  into  it  once  a  day.  Let  it  lie  for  half  an  hour 
in  cold  water  before  it  is  dressed,  to  improve  the  color; 
then  put  it  into  a  large  pot,  or  stewpan,  and  well  cover 
it  with  water.  Let  it  boil  gradually,  and  skim 
frequently  as  the  scum  rises.  On  no  account  let  it 
boil  fast,  or  the  meat  will  be  hardened,  and  the 
knuckle  end  will  be  done  before  the  thick  part.  When 
done,  serve  it  on  a  hot  dish  with  a  garnish  of  turnips 
or  parsnips. 

Pork  Chops.  Cut  the  chops  about  hajf  an  inch 
thick,  and  trim  them  neatly;  put  a  frying  pan  on  the 
fire,  with  a  bit  of  butter;  as  soon  as  it  is  hot,  put  in 
your  chops,  turning  them  often  till  brown  all  over; 
a  few  minutes  before  they  are  done,  season  with 
powdered  sage,  pepper  and  salt. 

Corned  Pork.  It  should  be  soaked  a  few  hours 
before  boiling,  then  washed  and  scraped,  and  put  into 
fresh  water.  It  must  not  be  boiled  fast,  but  put  into 
cold  water,  and  gradually  warmed  through;  skim 
frequently  while  boiling. 

A  leg  or  shoulder,  weighing  seven  or  eight  pounds, 
should  boil  slowly  for  four  hours.  When  taken  up  it 
must  be  skinned  carefully,  though  some  prefer  the 
skin  remaining  on,  as  it  loses  much  of  the  juice  by 
skinning.     It  is  very  nice  cold. 

To  Fricassee  Pork.  Cut  a  small  spare-rib  or 
chine  of  pork  into  pieces,  cover  with  water  and  stew 
until  tender;  remove  the  meat  and  flavor  the  gravy 


with  salt  and  pepper,  and  thicken  with  a  little  flour. 
Serve  in  a  deep  dish  in  the  gravy,  and  garnish  the 
dish  with  rice. 

To  Roast  a  Pig's  Head.  Boil  it  tender  enough 
to  take  the  bones  out.  Then  chop  some  sage  fine, 
mix  it  with  pepper  and  salt,  and  rub  it  over  the  head. 
Hang  it  on  the  spit,  and  roast  it  at  a  good  fire. 
Baste  it  well.  Make  a  good  gravy  and  pour  over  it. 
Apple  sauce  is  eaten  with  it. 

Pig's  Head  Boiled.  This  is  the  more  profitable 
dish,  though  not  so  pleasant  to  the  palate ;  it  should 
first  be  salted,  which  is  usually  done  by  the  pork 
butcher;  it  should  be  boiled  gently.  Serve  with  veg- 
etables. 

Pig's  Cheek.  Boil  and  trim  in  the  shape  of  ham, 
and  if  very  fat,  carve  it  as  a  cockle-shell;  glaze  it 
well,  or  put  over  it  bread  crumbs  and  brown  them. 

Pig's  Tongues.  Partially  boil  the  tongue  in  order 
to  remove  the  skin.  Pickle  them  as  you  would  pickle 
a  ham ;  lay  them  on  the  top  of  each  other  under  a 
heavy  weight.  Cover  the  pan  in  which  you  place 
them,  and  let  them  remain  for  a  week,  then  dry  them 
and  put  them  into  sausage  skins.  Fasten  them  up 
at  the  ends,  and  smoke  them. 

To  Roast  a  Pig.  It  should  not  be  more  than  a 
month  old;  it  is  better  a  little  less.  Clean  it  thor- 
oughly and  sprinkle  fine  salt  over  it  an  hour  before  it 
is  to  be  roasted.  Cut  off  the  feet  at  the  first  joint. 
Make  a  dressing  of  bread  crumbs,  a  little  salt,  pepper, 
sage,  sweet  marjoram,  an  onion  chopped  fine,  butter, 
two  eggs  and  a  little  salt  pork,  moistened  with  a  little 
milk;  stuff  the  pig  with  this  and  sew  it  up.  When 
placed  on  the  spit,  confine  the  legs  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  give  it  a  good  shape.  Rub  it  all  over  with 
butter  or  sweet  oil  to  keep  it  from  blistering ;  flour  it 
at  first  a  little;  as  soon  as  it  begins  to  brown,  dredge 
on  more  flour.  Turn  the  spit  every  three  or  four 
minutes;  if  the  flour  falls  off,  instantly  renew  it. 
When  it  has  all  become  of  a  dark  brown  color,  scrape 
it  off  into  a  plate  and  set  it  aside.  Put  into  the  gravy 
in  the  roaster  a  piece  of  butter,  and  baste  the  pig 
very  often  till  it  is  done,  which  it  is  when  the  eyes 
fall  out.  A  pig  weighing  nine  pounds  requires  four 
hours  to  roast.  The  feet  and  liver  should  be  boiled 
an  hour  or  two,  and  the  gravy  from  the  roaster  be 
poured  into  the  water  in  which  they  were  boiled. 
The  liver  should  be  cut  or  mashed  fine,  the  brains 
taken  out  and  added,  and  the  gravy  thickened  with 
the  browned  flour  scraped  from  the  pig.  A  small  pig 
will  roast  in  two  hours  and  a  half. 

Porridge :  see  Oatmeal. 

Post,  a  piece  of  timber,  stone  or  iron  set  upright  as 
a  stay.  For  fence  posts  see  page  451,  under  head  of 
Board  Fences,  and  for  gate  posts  see  article  on  Gate. 

Potash,  a  chemical  substance  which  derives  its 
name  from  the  ashes  and  the  pots  in  which  the  lix- 
ivium from  which  it  is  obtained  is  boiled  down.  Some 
of  its  old  names  were  vegetable  alkali,  salt  of  tartar 
and  alkali  of  niter:  see  page  904,  under  the  head  of 
Laundry. 


POTATO. 


1061 


Potato,  a  well-known  tuber,  popularly,  though  not 
with  botanical  correctness,  considered  as  a  root.  It 
belongs  to  the  family  Solanie  of  Jussieu,  almost  all 
the  species  of  which  are  of  a  poisonous  and  narcotic 
nature,  as  Belladonna  (FJeadly  Nightshade),  Hen- 
bane, etc.  It  is  the  most  important  vegetable  cul- 
tivated in  this  country,  as  well  as  in  many  others. 
It  is  a  native  of  South  America,  but  was  introduced 
into  England  from  North  America  in  1584,  and  into 
Ireland,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  at  the  same  time,  he 
having  procured  some  on  his  first  visit  to  America. 
In  Ireland  it  was  more  extensively  cultivated  and 
more  relied  upon  forfood  than  in  any  other  country,  and 
has  consequently  been  known  as  the  Irish  potato. 
It  was  introduced  into  the  northern  portion  of  Europe 
in  1620,  but  its  cultivation  was  not  extensive  until 
during  the  last  century.  The  jxjtato  is  easy  of  cul- 
tivation and  will  grow  in  almost  any  cool  climate. 
Humboldt  states  that  the  cultivation  of  the  potato  in 
the  Andes  extends  to  an  elevation  of  9,800  to  13,000 
feet  higher  than  wheat.  In  the  north  of  Europe  it 
reaches  beyond  the  limits  of  barley,  and  consequent- 
ly all  cereals.  In  tropical  regions,  according  to 
Johnson's  Physical  Atlas,  an   elevation  of  4,000  feet 


Fui.  1. — Colorado  Potato  B*ette, 
Tor  Explanation  of  Engraving  sec  page  S53. 

appears  to  be  necessary  for  its  growth.  It  is  success- 
fully cultivated  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  wliich 
produce  no  excellent  farinaceous  root  at  all — not 
even  the  yam. 

This  most  popular  of  all  vegetables  requires  cool 
seasons,  and  therefore  the  farther  North  in  the  United 
States  the  better  the  summer  climate  is  for  them. 
They  require  rich  ground,  moist  but  not  wet;  stand- 
ing water  injures  them  as  much  as  any  other  vege- 
table. To  keep  up  the  ([uality  of  the  variety,  large 
and  sound  potatoes  should  be  selected  and  cut  in 
pieces  having  from  one  to  three  eyes  each,  according 
to  the  necessity  of  making  the  most  of  what  seed 
you  have  on  hand.  Plant  two  or  three  of  these  pieces 
in  each  hill,  the  hills  three  feet  apart  each  way ;  or 
plant  in  drills  or  rows  with  the  ordinary  distance  be- 
tween them,  and  12   to  15  inches  apart  in  the  row. 


Lime  and  plaster  are  good  fertilizers.  As  soon  as 
they  are  well  up,  commence  hoeing  them,  and  con- 
tinue faithful  and  deep  cultivation  until  the  vines 
pretty  thoroughly  cover  the  ground.  When  they  are 
cultivated  by  the  hill  system,  the  hill  should  be  broad 
and  low,  and  dishing,  to  turn  the  rain  in  toward  the 
plant.  Where  high,  sharp  hills  seemed  to  have  been 
the  best,  the  success  was  probably  owing  to  more 
constant  and  thorough  pulverization  of  the  soil,  or 
some  other  cause. 

Early  potatoes  can  be  so  planted  that  other  crops, 
as  beans,  can  be  started  between  the  rows  ;  and  the 
potatoes  will  be  out  of  the  way  in  time  for  the  full 
prosperity  of  the  crop. 

From  careless  propagation,  fault  in  cultivation  or 
some  other  cause  varieties  deteriorate  in  quality,  and 
the  necessity  arises  of  introducing  new  varieties  at 
some. expense.  While  for  many  years  past  the  two 
most  popular  varieties  of  Irish  potatoes  have  been  the 
Early  Rose  and  the  Peach-blow,  they  are  now  about 
to  be  superseded  by  the  Early  Ohio,  the  Snow-flake, 
Brownell's  Beauty,  Compton's  Surprise,  Burbank's 
Seedling,  Beauty  of  Hebron,  Clark's  No.  i,  Moore's 
Seedling,  Late  Ohio,  Dunmore  and  others. 

More  than  any  other  vegetable  the  potato 
is  subject  to  disease ;  and  it  really  constitutes 
an  objection  to  their  dietetic  character,  that 
the  disease  is  often  imperceptible.  The  only 
remedy  for  any  and  all  diseases  of  the  potato 
consists  in  careful  propagation  and  cultiva- 
tion. 

The  (Colorado  jxjtato  beetle,  which  formerly 
threatened  to  put  an  end  to  the  cultivation 
of  this  article,  is  now  fortunately  greatly  di- 
minished in  its  numbers  by  the  lady-bug  and 
other  predaceous  insects ;  but  when  the  Col- 
orado beetles  attack  a  crop  to  such  an  extent 
that  offensive  warfare  is  necessary,  hand-pick- 
ing for  a  small  piece  and  the  use  of  Paris 
green  for  a  large  field  are  the  standard  meth- 
ods of  treatment.  Looking  for  the  eggs  on 
the  under  side  of  the  young  potato  leaves  as 
soon  as  they  are  up,  and  mashing  them, 
will  thin  out  the  bug  crop  comparatively  well; 
leaving  small  pile.5  of  inferior  ix)tatoes  scattered 
around  in  the  field,  will  attract  the  bugs  in  early 
spring,  and  early  in  the  morning  they  can  be  caught 
and  killed.  Planting  on  the  outside  a  few  rows  of 
such  tender-leaved  varieties  as  the  Pink-eye,  Early 
Goodrich,  Mercer  or  Shaker  Russet,  is  said  to  be  a 
protection  ;  also  planting  in  the  midst  of  a  corn  field 
is  said  to  be  effectual.  The  result  of  all  our  advice 
is,  therefore,  to  select  whichever  of  the  above  methods 
is  most  practicable.  Paris  green  is  a  jwison.  To 
apply  it,  mix  it  with  several  rimes  its  bulk  in  flour, 
and  sift  it  over  the  ix)tatoes  when  they  are  wet.  Be 
sure  and  stand  across  the  wind  from  it  and  not  per- 
mit it  to  alight  \.\\yo\\  you.  Some  persons  mix  this 
l»ison  in  water,  with  which  they  sprinkle  the  vines. 
As  it  is  thought  that  this  may  poison  th«  tubers,  it  is 


io62 


POTATO. 


simply  a  matter  of  caution  that  as  little  be  used  as 
will  effect  the  object  desired.     See  Paris  Green. 

Two  other  potato  beetles  are  described,  and  reme- 
dies given,  on  pages  850  and  853. 

Scab  on  potatoes  is  produced  by  minute  animals 
which  have  not  yet  been  thoroughly  studied.  The 
scab  shows  itself  first  on  the  surface  of  the  potato,  in 
rough  spots,  which  afterward  become  raised  like  blis- 
ters. These  collapse  subsequently,  and  leave  irregu- 
lar holes  or  pits  of  various  sizes  in  the  substance  of 
the  tuber.  They  do  not  seem  to  be  confined  to  any 
particular  age  of  the  plant,  as  they  make  their  ap- 
pearance on  very  young  tubers,  and  in  other  cases  not 
before  their  full  development.  About  the  predisposing 
conditions  and  prevention  of  these  parasites  little  defi- 
nite is  known.  Ashes  and  lime  do  not  prevent  or  destroy 
them.  We  have  found  them  plentiful  in  fields  where 
ashes  had  never  been  apphed,  and  also  with  and 
without  swine,  horse  or  cow  manure,  and  where  pota- 
toes had  not  been  planted  for  several  years.  In  this 
case  like  does  not  produce  like,  for  we  have  seen 
scabby  potatoes  produce  splendid  scab-free  potatoes; 
on  the  other  hand,  some  soils  which  seem  to  be 
saturated  with  scab  will  produce  scabby  potatoes  no 
matter  what  seed  is  used.  Some  varieties  are  more 
liable  to  scab  than  others. 

The  digging  of  potatoes  where  they  are  cultivated 
in  large  quantities  becomes  a  source  of  great  labor, 
and  until  quite  recently  no  effective  means  of  per- 
forming this  labor  with  machinery  had  been  adopted. 


2. — Potato   Digg^.r. 


Now  there  are  several  made  and  in  the  market.  In 
this  connection  we  present  the  illustration  of  one 
made  by  E.  S.  Bristol  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

The  storing  of  the  potato  crop  is  a  very  important 
item.  Potatoes  keep  well  either  in  cellars  or  pits,  if 
they  are  dry  and  in  good  order  when  dug.  It  is  better 
not  to  put  too  many  in  a  pile  or  pit.  They  are  then 
more  likely  to  heat  and  to  sprout  in  winter  or  early 
spring.  They  must  also  be  entirely  excluded  from 
the  frost.  They  will  freeze  much  easier  than  apples. 
If  they  should  sprout  in  the  cellar  shovel  them  over 
into  a  new  box  or  bin.  Potatoes  may  be  buried  in 
pits,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  16,  page  29,  also  described 
on  same  page. 

Grafting  Potatoes.     Grafting  potatoes    is    an 


operation  not  very  well  known,  and  is  undertaken  as 
a  means  of  combining  the  qualities  of  two  known 
varieties.  When  varieties  are  sought  by  crossing  the 
flowers,  the  result  will  partake  of  the  nature  of  a 
lottery ;  but  in  grafting  the  result  is  a  combination  of 
the  characteristics  of  both  varieties.  A  potato  is 
selected,  and  every  eye  scooped  out  A  single  eye 
from  the  variety  with  which  a  cross  is  desired  is  then 
inserted.  The  result  is  that  the  eye  grows,  but  in  its 
early  days  feeds  ujxjn  the  juices  of  the  potato  united 
with  it,  and  the  new  tubers  grown  from  it  partake  of 
the  character  of  both  parents.  A  red  jX)tato  with 
white  eyes  is  the  result  of  the  union  of  a  red  potato 
with  an  eye  from  a  white  one.  From  a  dark  red 
potato  and  the  eye  of  a  flesh-colored  one  was  ob- 
tained a  dark  potato  with  light  eye.  A  late  variety 
grafted  into  the  Snowflake,  which  is  early,  produced  a 
late  potato  exactly  resembling  the  Snowflake.  The 
new  potatoes  from  the  grafted  tubers  are  small,  but 
by.no  means  as  small  as  those  grown  the  first  year 
from  seed.  The  second  year  the  grafted  potatoes  will 
grow  to  full  size,  whereas  it  takes  four  years  to  grow 
new  potatoes  from  the  seed  to  their  natural  size.  This 
saving  of  time  is  a  great  advantage  which  is  claimed 
for  grafting  over  hybridization  by  seed. 

To  Cook  Potatoes.  Simple  Boiling.  To  boil 
potatoes  properly  they  should  all  be  of  the  same  sort, 
and  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  size.  Wash  off 
the  dirt  and  scrub  them  very  clean  with  a  hard  brush, 
but  neither  scoop  nor  apply  a  knife  to  them  in  any 
way,  even  to  clean  the  eyes.  Rinse  them  well 
and  arrange  them  compactly  in  a  sauce  pan 
so  that  they  may  not  lie  loose  in  the  water, 
and  that  a  small  quantity  may  be  sufficient  to 
cover  them.  Pour  the  water  in  cold  and  when 
it  boils  throw  in  one  large  teasixx)nful  of  salt 
to  each  quart  of  water,  and  simmer  the  pota- 
toes till  they  are  nearly  done,  but  for  the  last 
two  or  three  minutes  let  them  boil  rapidly. 
When  they  are  tender  quite  through,  which 
may  be  known  by  probing  them  with  a  fork, 
pour  all  the  water  from  them  immediately,  lift 
the  lid  of  the  sauce  pan  to  allow  the  steam  to 
escape,  and  place  them  by  the  side  of  the 
fire  till  the  moisture  is  wholly  gone  ;  then  peel 
and  send  them  to  the  table  as  quickly  as  possible,  in 
a  dish  in  which  the  lid  is  so  placed  that  the  steafti 
may  pass  off.  There  should  be  no  delay  in  serving 
after  they  have  been  once  taken  from  the  fire.  Some 
kinds  will  be  sufficiently  boiled  in  twenty  minutes, 
others  in  not  less  than  half  an  hour.  Pour  away  the 
water  as  soon  as  the  potatoes  are  cooked,  and  dry 
them. 

Mashed  Potatoes.  Boil  or  steam  the  potatoes  half 
an  hour,  turn  them  into  a  basin,  and  with  a  wood- 
en spoon  bruise  them  into  flour ;  to  three  jx)unds  of 
potatoes  add  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  three  ounces  of 
fresh  butter,  and  a  gill  of  cream  or  hot  milk.  Stand 
the  basin  in  a  sauce  pan  of  boiling  water  and  beat  the 
potatoes  for  five  minutes.    Serve  on  a  very  hot  dish, 


po  udAe  tte—fo  ul  tice. 


1063 


either  in  a  rough  cone  shape  or  smoothed  over  with  a 
knife.  The  ixjtatoes  should  be  well  mixed  with  the 
butter  and  cream. 

Potatoes  and  Milk.  Have  ready  some  boiled 
potatoes,  and  when  nearly  cold,  cut  them  into  slices 
and  cover  thfim  with  a  clean  cloth.  Take  a  stew  pan 
and  melt  3  ounces  of  butter  with  2  ounces  of  flour, 
stir  with  a  wooden  spoon,  and  add  gradually  a  gill  of 
warm  milk;  season  with  pepper  and  salt  and  a  little 
grated  nutmeg.  When  the  sauce  comes  to  the  boil 
put  in  the  sliced  potatoes,  and  let  them  gently  boil  for 
about  fifteen  minutes,  then  set  the  stew  pan  aside. 
Mix  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  with  a  gill  of  cream  and 
pour  into  the  stew  pan,  stirring  until  it  becomes  thick. 
Turn  it  u{X)n  a  hot  dish  and  serve.  Take  care  to  pre- 
pare the  sauce  carefully. 

Baked  Potatoes.  Wash  and  wipe  them  ;  put  them 
into  the  oven  with  the  skins  on,  and  bake  them  from 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour.  When  about 
half  done  prick  them  all  over  with  a  fork ;  or  if  that  is 
not  done,  break  them  a  little  as  soon  as  you  find  they 
are  done ;  this  is  to  let  out  the  steam  and  prevent  them 
from  getting  soggy. 

Potato  Croquettes.  Season  cold  mashed  pota- 
toes with  pepper,  salt  and  nutmeg.  Beat  to  a  cream 
with  a  tablespoonful  of  melted  butter  to  every  cupful 
of  potato.  Add  2  or  3  beaten  eggs  and  some  minced 
parsley.  Roll  into  small  balls ;  dip  in  beaten  egg, 
then  in  bread  crumbs,  and  fry  in  hot  lard. 

Fried  Potatoes.  Wash,  trim  and  dry  some  nice 
large  jxitatoes;  have  your  frying  kettle  ready  with 
some  nice,  clean  lard,  hot,  and  drop  them  in  it,  and 
cover;  let  them  fry  briskly  fifteen  minutes ;  take  them 
out  and  serve. 

Lyonnaise  Potatoes.  Half  a  ix)und  of  cold  boil- 
ed potatoes ;  2  ounces  of  onion  ;  a  heaping  teasjxjon- 
ful  of  chopped  parsley;  butter  Ihe  size  of  an  egg. 
Slice  the  cold  jxstatoes,  put  the  butter  into  a  sauce 
pan,  and  when  hot  throw  in  the  onion  (minced),  and 
fry  to  a  light  color;  add  the  ixstatoes ;  stir  until  jiot 
and  light  brown ;  then  mix  the  parsley  and  serve  hot. 

Steived  Potatoes.  Boil  the  ix;tatoes  till  tender ; 
cut  them  in  thick  slices;  take  J^  a  teaspoonful  of 
flour,  a  little  salt  and  butter,  and  chopped  parsley, 
and  a  teacupful  of  milk;  put  them  all  together  in  a 
sauce  pan  and  let  them  stew  about  20  minutes. 

Potato  Soup.  Pare,  slice  and  boil  in  3  pints  of 
water  6  or  8  common-sized  (wtatoes.  Crumb  fine  and 
brown  in  butter,  3  large  slices  of  rather  dry  bread. 
When  the  jwtatoes  are  done,  add  to  them  a  quart  of 
rich  sweet  milk,  and  the  bread  crumbs ;  salt,  pepper 
and  butter  to  suit  the  taste. 

Potatoes,  Watery.  Put  into  the  pot  a  piece  of 
lime  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg,  and  however  watery  the 
potatoes  may  be,  when  the  water  is  poured  off",  they 
will  be  perfectly  dry  and  mealy.  Or,  when  the  water 
nearly  boils,  pour  it  out  and  put  in  cold  salted  water; 
it  makes  them  mealy  without  cracking  them. 

Poudrette,  a  French  preparation  of  night-soil  em- 
ployed as  a  manure. 


Poultice,  a  medicinal  paste,  applied  hot  and  moist, 
and  possessing  either  emollient,  anodyne,  stimulating 
or  astringent  properties.  The  emollient  poultice  is 
the  most  common  and  acts  on  the  same  principle  as 
a  fomentation,  but  more  intensely.  Their  curative 
action  principally  depends  on  the  liquids  with  which 
they  are  moistened,  and  the  heat  retained  by  the 
mass.  The  addition  of  a  little  lard,  olive  oil,  or,  still 
better,  glycerine,  to  a  jxjultice,  promotes  emollient  ac- 
tion and  retards  hardening. 

The  object  of  the  anodyne  poultices  is  to  subdue 
or  kill  pain  of  a  local  character,  as  in  bruises,  sprains, 
etc.  Poultices  of  this  nature  are  usually  made  by 
preparing  a  strong  decoction  of  camomile  flowers  and 
poppy  heads,  and  then  filling  a  small  bag  of  camo- 
mile flowers,  and  after  soaking  it  in  che  hot  decoction, 
applying  it,  repeating  the  application  as  soon  as  it  be- 
comes cold.  Hemlock  is  an  excellent  anodyne 
poultice. 

Stimulating  jwultices  are  employed  to  excite  a 
healthier  action  in  the  part.  They  are  usually  made 
with  a  mixture  of  flour  and  mustard.  Sometimes,  to 
add  to  its  stimulant  qualities,  a  strong  infusion  of 
horse-radish  is  employed  instead  of  water.  A  blister- 
ing jx)ultice  is  simply  a  stimulating  poultice  intens- 
ified, and  mustard  is  about  the  only  article  employed 
for  this  purpose.     See  Mustard. 

Slipperv-Elm  Poultice.  The  best  poultice  for 
every  purjxjse  is  the  slippery-elm  bark;  it  may  be 
made  with  warm  milk  and  water,  or  with  soap-lye.  If 
tincture  of  myrrh  be  added,  it  is  valuable  in  boils, 
ulcers,  carbuncles,  etc.  Take  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
pulverized  slippery-elm  bark,  stir  in  hot  or  warm  milk 
and  water  to  the  consistence  of  a  poultice. 

Bread  Poultice.  Take  stale  bread  in  crumbs, 
pour  boiUng  water  over  it,  and  boil  till  soft,  stirring  it 
well ;  then  take  it  from  the  fire,  and  gradually  stir  in 
a  little  glycerine  or  sweet  oil,  so  as  to  render  the 
poultice  pliable  when  applied. 

Potato  Poultice.  Boil  the  common  potato,  mash 
or  bruise  soft,  and  then  stir  in  finely  pulverized  slip- 
pery-elm bark.  This  poultice  has  been  used  with 
success  in  ophthalmia  (inflammation  of  the  eyes)  of 
an  acute  character,  when  other  means  have  failed. 

Soap  Poultice.  Dissolve  i  ounce  scraped  or 
sliced  white  soap  in  'y(  pint  boiling  water,  and  mix 
with  sufficient  bread  to  make  a  poultice.  This  is  good 
for  scalds  and  burns. 

Charcoal  Poultices.  These  are  made  by  mix- 
ing charcoal  and  flour  and  linseed  meal,  in  nearly 
equal  quantities,  in  a  basin,  adding  hot  water,  and 
stirring  till  a  smooth  paste  is  made,  which  is  to  be  ap- 
plied, like  the  others,  on  flannel. 

Chloride  or  Lime.  May  be  made  in  the  same 
way,  or  by  mixing  the  meal  with  the  solution. 

Alum  Poultice.  Used  generally  as  an  astringent 
in  certain  chronic  inflammations  of  the  eye.  This 
ixjultice  is  made  by  mixing  the  white  of  two  or  more 
eggs  with  a  drachm  of  finely  jwwdered  alum;  put  the 
mixture  within  a  fold  of  muslin,  and  apply. 


1064 


POULTRY'. 


Poultry.  The  term  poultry  is  used  to  designate 
all  domesticated  fowls,  as  ducks,  geese,  fowls,  turkeys, 
Guinea  fowls  and  pea  fowls,  which  are  reared  or  kept 
for  profit  or  economical  use.  These  have  all  been 
treated  under  their  respective  heads.  In  this  article 
we  have,  therefore,  but  to  treat  of  poultry  in  general, 
referring  the  reader  for  more  explicit  information  of 
any  kind  to  the  article  on  it  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

Poultry-raising,  like  any  other  branch  of  business, 
^must  be  well  managed ^in  order  to  be  profitable.  Suc- 
cess largely  depends  on  having  a  good  location.  A 
farmer  who  lives  a  long  distance  from  a  large  town 
will  derive  little  profit  from  sending  fowls  to  market, 
as  the  cost  of  packages,  expressage  and  commissions 
will  be  large.  He  will,  however,  find  fowls  profitable 
to  raise  for  the  supply  of  his  own  table,  as  there  is 
difficulty  in  procuring  fresh  meat  on  farms  during  the 
warm  months  in  the  year.  Generally  the  farmer  will 
do  better  by  using  the  poultry  raised  at  home  and 
sending  more  beef  and  jxjrk  to  market.  The  cost  of 
shipping  beef  and  jwrk  is  much  less,  as  business  is 
now  conducted  on  railroads  and  in  stock-yards. 
There  is  much  trouble  in  keeping  meat  fresh  on  farms 
during  hot  weather,  and  in  curing  that  which  cannot 
be  consumed  within  a  few  days  after  the  animals  are 
slaughtered.  Fowls,  however,  can  be  killed  as  they 
are  wanted  for  the  table  without  loss.  Eggs  can  be 
produced  with  profit  on  almost  any  farm,  as  there  are 
now  good  facilities  for  sending  them  to  market  in  car- 
riers that  insure  their  safety  during  transportation. 
The  imi)roved  egg-carrier  is  of  very  great  value  to 
farmers  who  live  at  a  distance  from  market.  Improved 
methods  of  shipping  live  and  dressed  fowls  must  be 
devised  before  it  will  pay  to  produce  them  for  market 
on  farms  that  are  distant  from  towns.  In  France  and 
Belgium,  cars  specially  designed  for  carrying  poultry 
are  run  on  most  of  the  railroads.  It  is  reported  that 
|X)ultiy-cars  are  now  run  once  a  week  on  the  roads 
that  enter  Denver.  Some  of  them  contain  several 
stories  for  the  use  of  large  shippers,  and  others  are 
fitted  u])  to  contain  a  large  numljer  of  coops  belong- 
ing to  different  individuals. 

Generally  fowls  can  be  produced  for  market  with 
most  profit  on  farms  located  quite  near  large  towns. 
Fowls,  to  sell  well,  must  present  a  fine  condition  when 
^Jiey  are  exposed  for  sale.  They  should  not  be  dress- 
ed long  before  they  are  offered  to  customers.  By 
dressing  them  at  home  the  feathers  may  be  saved, 
and  they  will  be  tpiite  an  object  where  a  large  num- 
ber of  fowls  are  killed  on  a  place.  By  being  near  a 
market  the  prices  can  be  learned  from  day  to  day, 
and  advantage  taken  of  the  information  received. 
One  can  also  make  arrangements  to  supply  hotels, 
restaurants,  lx>arding-houses  and  private  families,  and 
thereby  obtain  retail  prices.  If  one  lives  near  a  large 
town  he  can  generally  derive  the  most  profits  from 
young  chickens  that  are  ready  for  the  market  early  in 
the  season.  Chickens  that  are  large  enough  for  the 
■gridiron  in  June  will  bring  more  money  than  the  same 
birds  will  if  they  are  kept  till  Christmas,  or  even  till 
the  following  spring.     By  marketing  them  early  many 


losses  are  avoided  and  much  feed  saved.  By  being 
near  a  large  town  another  advantage  can  be  secured. 
The  waste  grains  in  elevators,  the  screenings  in  mills 
and  the  corn  damaged  by  fire  and  water  can  be  pro- 
cured at  low  rates.  Much  refuse  meat  can  also  be 
bought  at  a  nominal  price  from  the  butoliers  and  per- 
sons engaged  in  slaughtering  animals.  Fresh  meat  is 
very  desirable  for  feeding  fowls  during  cold  weather, 
and  the  lack  of  success  of  many  [wultry-raisers  is 
chiefly  to  be  ascribed  to  their  failure  to  provide  meat 
in  some  form  for  their  birds  at  times  when  they  can- 
not procure  a  supply  of  some  substitute  for  it.  Fowls 
do  not  require  to  be  supplied  with  meat  during  warm 
weather,  as  they  can,  if  they  have  a  good  range,  pro- 
cure all  the  insects  they  desire. 

Turkeys  and  geese  are  more  profitable  to  raise  to 
supply  a  distant  market  than  chickens.  The  former 
are  more  in  demand  during  cold  weather,  when  poul- 
try can  be  shipped  to  the  best  advantage  and  at  the 
least  cost.  Turkeys  are  not  in  good  condition  to  eat 
in  the  summer,  and  geese  are  most  desirable  durjng 
quite  cold  weather,  as  they  contain  much  oil.  Chick- 
ens are  harder  to  transixjrt  than  turkeys  and  geese, 
and  are  preferred  for  eating  during  warm  weather. 
On  this  account  it  is  desirable  to  raise  them  near 
where  they  are  to  be"  marketed.  If  geese  and  ducks 
are  raised  for  the  market,  only  the  best  varieties  should 
be  used.  It  costs  no  more  to  feed  them,  and  they 
will  sell  for  twice  as  much  to  i)ersons  who  know  their 
value.  Geese  are  not  desired  by  many  persons,  ex- 
cept by  foreigners,  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  jxxjr  va- 
rieties are  kept,  and  kept  so  long  that  their  flesh  is 
very  tough.  Most  famiers  raise  geese  for  their  feath- 
ers, and  do  not  fatten  them  till  there  is  danger  of 
death  from  old  age.  In  European  countries,  where 
geese  and  ducks  are  more  generally  eaten  than  here, 
they  are  fed  liberally  during  the  summer  and  fattened 
before  they  are  old.  When  managed  in  this  way, 
their  flesh  is  ranked  among  the  luxuries,  and  com- 
mands a  ready  sale.  Poultry-raising  is  a  profitable 
branch  of  business  for  persons  of  small  capital,  and 
especially  so  for  farmers  who  have  help  that  cannot 
perform  very  hard  work.  Much  of  the  food  consum- 
ed by  fowls  can  be  raised  at  very  small  cost.  Geese 
will  live  several  months  in  the  year  on  grass  and  clo- 
ver, and  all  kinds  of  fowls  will  eat  buckwheat,  sun- 
flower seed,  as  well  as  the  seed  of  millet,  Hungarian 
and  broom-corn.  Turkeys  can  be  profitably  kept  in 
the  vicinity  of  beech  woods,  as  they  are  very  fond  of 
the  nuts,  which  are  produced  without  cost.  They 
want  a  wider  range  than  chickens,  and  cannot  be 
kept  in  confinement. 

Fekding  Poultry.  If  proper  food  has  been  given 
to  poultry,  at  regular  intervals,  in  sufficient  quantity, 
profit  is  the  natural  result  of  [wultry  raising,  while 
haphazard  management  results  disastrously.  In  the 
feeding  and  management  of  ix>ultry  there  is  more  lax 
discipline  observed  among  farmers  than  with  any 
other  kind  of  stock.  There  is  far  too  much  corn,  in 
different  forms,  fed  to  breeding  jwultry,  and  to  layers 
to  secure  the  best  results ;  for  corn  has  a  great  ten- 


PO  UND—PREGNANC  Y. 


1065 


dency  to  produce  fat,  which  is  not  desirable  where 
plenty  of  eggs  are  expected,  the  fat  forming  so  thickly 
on  and  around  the  ovaries  and  other  organs  as  to 
effectually  prevent  the  fowls  from  laying.  In  cold 
weather,  warmth  and  heat  are  necessary,  and  feeding 
corn  moderately  to  the  laying  hens  is  not  so  objec- 
tionable as  it  is  during  the  warm  summer  months, 
while  over-fat  fowls  are  more  liable  to  disease  and 
ailments  tlian  those  only  in  good  condition.  For  the 
laying  fowls  no  better  food  can  be  given  for  a  princi- 
pal diet  than  sound,  whole  wheat,  though  it  must 
not  be  given  in  the  same  quantities  as  corn.  Screen- 
ings are  not  all  objectionable,  jjrovided  they  are  not 
musty  or  spoiled,  though  tlie  price  at  which  they  are 
usually  sold  makes  them  more  expensive  than  good 
wlieat,  for  the  simple  reason  that  scarcely  one-half 
the  screenings  is  wheat  or  will  be  consumed  by  the 
poultry,  the  greater  part  being  cheat,  cockle,  weed 
seeds,  etc.  For  the  fattening  of  iwultry  corn  is  the 
very  best  and  cheapest  food  which  can  be  given  to 
accomplish  it.  To  secure  the  greatest  profit  from  the 
ix)ultry  it  is  economy  in  the  end  to  keep  the  birds 
growing  rapidly  from  the  start,  and  a  couple  of  weeks 
before  they  are  to  be  marketed  have  them  penned  up 
and  fed  principally  on  soft  food,  such  as  scalded  corn 
meal,  well  boiled  mush,  oatmeal  mush  (if  the  meal 
can  be  gotten  cheaply),  etc.,  feeding  twice  a  day  at 
first  and  toward  the  last  three  times,  only  what  they 
will  eat  up  with  an  appetite,  and  confining  the  birds 
in  a  darkened  room,  giving  them  light  only  at  feeding 
time. 

Killing  Poultry.  The  process  of  killing  and 
dressing  ix)ultry  for  market  is  quite  an  art  and  if 
nicely  performed  will  prove  very  renumerative.  First, 
fatten  them  well,  and  allow  them  to  remain  in  the 
pens  twenty-four  hours  without  food  previous  to  being 
killed.  Then,  when  you  kill  them,  instead  of  wring- 
ing their  necks,  cut  their  heads  off  at  a  single  blow 
with  a  sharp  axe  or  cleaver,  and  then  hang  them  up 
by  their  legs  and  allow  them  to  lileed  freely,  and  pick 
them  immediately,  while  warm.  Some,  however,  pre- 
fer to  run  a  small  pen-knife  into  the  jugular  vein  by 
the  side  of  the  neck,  just  under  the  joles.  In  this 
case,  let  the  heads  remain  on.  The  fowl  should  be 
bandaged,  to  prevent  struggling;  and  indeed,  this 
ought  to  be  done  in  all  cases  where  the  knife  is  em- 
ployed, afterward  hanging  up  by  the  feet  to  bleed 
freely.  When  the  head  is  cut  off,  the  skin  should 
afterward  be  drawn  neatly  over  the  stump  and  tied. 
Poultry  should  be  plucked  or  ])icked  whilst  still  warm, 
when  the  feathers  will  be  removed  with  much  less 
difficulty.  Fowls  are  generally  picked  quite  clean, 
but  it  looks  better  in  the  case  of  young  chickens  to 
leave  a  few  feathers  about  the  tail.  They  will  eat 
best  if  nothing  further  is  done  to  them ;  but  it  im- 
proves the  appearance  greatly  for  market  to  plunge 
the  carcass,  immediately  after  plucking,  into  a  vessel 
of  boiling  water  for  a  few  moments,  which  will 
"plump"  it  a  great  deal  and  make  the  skin  look 
bright  and  clean.  After  scalding,  turkeys  and  fowls 
should  be  hung  by  the  legs,  and  water-fowl  by  the 


neck.  For  sending  to  city  market  they  should  not  be 
drawn,  as  they  will 'keep  much  better  without,  and 
bring  a  better  price;  but  in  selling  for  home  consump- 
tion, the  birds  should  be  properiy  prepared  for  table. 
If  after  drawmg,  the  cavity  be  filled  with  charcoal 
broken  in  small  pieces,  the  fowl  may  be  kept  sweet  a 
considerable  time.  After  removing  the  intestines, 
wipe  out  the  blood  with  a  dry  cloth,  but  no  water 
should  be  used  to  cleanse  them.  With  a  moist  cloth 
take  off  the  blood  that  may  be  found  upon  the  car- 
cass, and  hang  them  in  a  cool,  dry  room  until  ready 
to  carry  to  market,  or  otherwise  to  be  used.  Do  not 
remove  the  gizzard  from  its  place  ;  but,  if  the  fowl  be 
very  fat,  make  a  larger  hole,  turn  the  leaves  out,  and 
fasten  them  with  a  small  skewer.  When  prepared  in 
this  way,  your  poultry  will  be  much  nicer,  and  entitled 
to  a  better  price  than  when  butchered  and  dressed 
in  the  ordinary  way.  There  is  scarcely  any  other 
product  of  the  farm  which  pays  so  well  to  be  nicely 
prepared  as  poultry.  Much  of  the  poultry  exposed 
for  sale  has  been  through  the  process  of  scalding  to 
facilitate  picking;  this  practice  should  never  be  re- 
sorted to.  It  turns  the  rich  jellow  of  the  fat  into  a 
tallowy  hue,  and  oftentimes  starts  the  skin,  so  that  it 
peels  off  unless  very  carefully  handled.  They,  may 
be  plucked  with  equal  facility  and  with  better  effect 
in  preserving  the  flesh  immediately  after  death  and 
before  they  have  had  time  to  cool.  Much  care  and 
attention  is  required  after  the  poultry  is  dressed  and 
cool.  It  should  be  carefully  packed  in  baskets  or 
boxes,  and,  above  all,  it  should  be  kept  from  the 
frost. 

Pound.  5,760  grains,  or  12  ounces  make  a  Troy 
pound,  while  7,000  Troy  grains,  or  16  ounces,  make  a 
pound  avoirdupois. 

Power:  see  Horse-Power. 

Power  of  Attorney,  a  written  instrument,  un- 
der seal,  by  which  one  or  more  persons  authorize  one 
or  more  persons  to  do  some  lawful  act  by  the  latter, 
for,  or  instead  of,  and  in  the  place  of  the  former. 
This  authority,  given  in  the  written  instrument,  is 
either  general  or  special.  If  special,  it  authorizes  the 
transaction  of  some  particular  business.  If  general, 
it  authorizes  the  attorney  to  transact  all  the  business 
of  the  maker  or  constituent.  The  death  of  either 
party  destroys  the  authority  to  act  further. 

Powers  of  attorney  require,  in  addition  to  acknowl- 
edgment, two  witnesses. 

Prairie,  an  extensive  tract  of  land  destitute  of 
trees,  covered  with  coarse  grass.  They  are  usually 
gently  undulating  or  rolling  lands  but  sometimes  are 
quite  level.  The  prairies  of  the  West  are  noted  for 
the  tall,  luxuriant  grass,  being,  in  wet,  swampy  places, 
several  feet  high.  On  the  prairies  of  Illinois,  before 
cultivated,  it  often  grew  to  the  height  of  from  six  to 
eight  feet. 

Prairie  Chicken,  the  pinnated  grouse;  see  page 
611. 

Pregnancy,  the   state  of  being  with  young.     See 


io66 


PREMIUM— PRESER  VES. 


Generation,  Gestation,  and  the  respective  principal 
domestic  animals. 

Premium,  in  insurance,  the  sum  paid  an  insurance 
company  for  assuming  a  risk. 

Preserves.  This  mode  of  keeping  fruit  was  much 
more  generally  practiced  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
the  present  system  of  canning  fruits  than  at  present. 
The  process  is  very  simple  and  can  be  performed 
by  almost  any  one.  It  consists  in  cooking  equal 
quantities  of  fruit  and  sugar  together  until  the  former 
is  done.     In  making  preserves,  observe  the  following: 

I.  The.  fruit  must  be  fresh.  2.  Fruit  and  syrup 
must  be  cooked  in  separate  kettles.  3.  Use  only 
copper,  granite  or  porcelain-lined  kettles:  never  tin  or 
iron;  do  not  allow  fruit  to  stand  in  other  than  glass, 
porcelain  or  earthen-ware,  otherwise  poison  is  gener- 
ated. 4.  Never  use  wire  sieves  or  iron  pots,  as  they 
mar  flavor  and  color.  5.  Stir  fruit  with  either  wooden 
or  silver  spoon,  never  iron.  6.  Preserve  jars,  when 
filled,  should  be  carefully  covered.  7.  Store  in  a 
cool,  dry  place.  8.  Examine  occasionally  the  first 
two  months  after  making  to  see  that  fermentation  is 
not  taking  place;  whenever  it  is  discovered,  boil  it 
over,  scald  the  jar  and  return  the  fruit.  9.  Label, 
giving  name  and  variety  of  fruit  and  date  of  pre- 
serving. 

The  preparation  of  the  fruit  is  similar  to  that  for 
canning.  Plums  may  be  skinned  the  same  as  peaches. 
Remove  the  cores  from  crab-apples  and  the  stones 
from  cherries.  Boil  the  peach  and  plum  pits  and  use 
the  water  in  making  the  syrup. 

Preserves  may  be  put  in  any  kind  of  vessel,  almost, 
to  keep.  Cans,  jars  or  bottles  may  be  used.  To 
cover  tightly,  which  should  be  done,  apply  the  white 
of  an  egg,  with  a  brush,  to  a  single  thickness  of  white 
tissue  paper,  with  which  to  cover  the  jars,  lapping 
over  an  inch  or  two.  It  will  require  no  tying,  as  it 
will  become,  when  dry,  very  tight  and  strong  and  im- 
pervious to  the  air. 

The  process  of  preserving  is  simply  as  follows : 
Put  the  prepared  fruit  into  the  syrup  while  quietly 
boiling  and  boil  until  just  soft,  without  breaking  the 
pieces.  When  done,  place  carefully  in  jars,  pour  the 
syrup  over  it  and  Seal  as  above  directed.  A  few  drops 
of  lemon-juice  improves  pear,  plum  and  crab-apple 
preserves.  Peaches  will  be  firmer  by  allowing  the 
uncooked  pieces  to  lie  in  the  syrup  over  night.  Fruit 
is  hardened  at  the  expense  of  flavor  by  letting  it  soak 
10  or  15  minutes  in  alum-water  before  cooking.  Pre- 
serves should  be  boiled  in  a  kettle  without  a  cover. 

Apple  Preserves.  Same  as  quince.  Select  from 
good  fruit ;  a  few  slices  of  quince  or  the  juice  of  2 
lemons  to  3  pounds  of  fruit  improves  them  much. 

Cherry  Preserves.  Sweet  cherries  will  not  do. 
Remove  the  pits,  preserving  every  drop  of  juice.  Use 
pound  for  ix)und  of  sugar;  place  in  the  preserving 
kettle  a  layer  of  fruit,  then  of  sugar,  until  both  are 
used  up;  pour  on  the  juice,  and  boil  gently  until  the 
sirup  begins  to  thicken,  then  place  in  jars. 


Citron  Preserves.  Pare,  core  and  slice,  or  cut 
into  fancy  pieces;  take  6  jxsunds  citron,  6  pounds 
sugar',  4  lemons  and  i^  pound  of  ginger-root.  Slice 
lemons  into  preserving  kettle,  boil  half  an  hour  in  a 
little  clear  water,  then  strain.  Put  slices  into  another 
dish  with  a  little  cold  water;  cover,  and  allow  them 
to  stand  over  night.  In  the  morning  wrap  the  ginger- 
root,  after  bruising  it,  in  a  thin  muslin  cloth,  and  boil 
in  three  pints  clear  water  until  the  water  is  highly 
flavored;  remove  the  bag;  place  the  sugar  and  ginger- 
water  in  the  preservmg-kettle,  boil  and  skim  as  long 
as  scum  rises.  Put  in  the  citron  and  juice  of  the 
lemons  prepared  the  day  before;  boil  until  the  fruit  is 
transparent,  but  not  broken,  then  place  in  jars  and 
seal.  The  ginger  and  lemons  may  be  omitted,  but 
they  add  materially  to  the  flavor  of  the  preserves. 

Crab -Apple  Preserves.  Select  perfect  fruit, 
leaving  the  stems  in.  The  old  Siberian  is  the  best 
variety.  Put  in  a  kettle  with  enough  warm  water  to 
cover  them;  simmer  until  the  skins-break;  drain  and 
skin.  Remove  the  cores  with  a  pen-knife  through 
the  blossom  end.  Take  one  {X)und  of  sugar  and  one 
gill  of  water  to  each  pound  of  fruit  for  sirup.  When 
purified,  and  still  hot,  put  in  the  fruit,  cover  the  kettle, 
and  simmer  until  the  apples  are  a  clear  red,  and 
tender.  Then  take  out  with  a  skimmer  and  spread 
upon  dishes  to  cool  and  harden.  Now  add  to  the 
sirup  the  juice  of  one  lemon  to  three  jxjunds  of  fruit, 
and  boil  until  clear  and  rich.  Fill  jars  three-quarters 
full  with  apples;  pour  in  sirup,  and,  when  cool,  seal. 
Grape  Preserves.  Squeeze  the  pulp  from  each 
grape,  and  boil  them  until  tender;  press  through  a 
cullender,  add  the  skins  to  the  pulp  and  juice,  with  a 
cup  of  sugar  to  each  pound  of  fruit,  and  boil  till  thick; 
then  jar. 

Musk-Melon 'Preserves.  ■  Take  ripe,  sound  mel- 
ons; remove  the  seeds,  peel,  and  cut  in  pieces.  Put 
in  a  stone  jar  and  cover  with  scalding-hot  vinegar. 
Let  it  stand  until  next  day,  then  jxjur  off  the  vinegar, 
heat,  and  pour  on  again.  Repeat  daily  until  fourth 
day,  when  the  fruit  should  be  weighed.  For  each 
five  ix)unds  add  three  jwunds  sugar,  one  quart  sirup, 
and  spices  to  suit.  Put  all  together,  and  simmer  un- 
til tender.  The  second  day  after  pour  off"  the  simp, 
boil  it  down  until  there  is  just  enough  to  cover  the 
fruit,  then  jar. 

Peach  Preserves.  Prepare  as  indicated  in  the 
remarks  on  the  process  of  making  preserves,  extract- 
ing the  pits  to  use  in  the  sirup. 

Quince  Preserves.  Prepare  fruit  as  for  canning. 
Take  three-quarters  pound  sugar  to  one  pound  fruit, 
with  one  pint  water  to  two  pwunds  sugar  for  sirup; 
boil  the  quinces  until  they  are  easily  pierced  with  a 
broom-straw,  and  no  longer;  place  the  hot  fruit  in  the 
boiling  sirup,  then  in  jars,  and  seal. 

Raspberry  Preserves.  Take  raspberries  that  are 
not  too  ripe,  and  put  them  to  their  weight  in  sugar, 
with  a  little  water.  Boil  softly,  and  do  not  break 
them;  when  they  are  clear,  take  them  up,  and  boil 
the  sirup  till  it  be  thick  enough;  then  put  them  in 


PRICKLY  PEAR— PROTEST. 


1067 


again,  and  when  they  are  cold,  put  them  in  glasses 
or  jars. 

To  Preserve  Strawberries  Whole.  Take  equal 
weights  of  the  fruit  and  refined  sugar,  lay  the  former 
in  a  large  dish,  and  sprinkle  half  the  sugar  in  fine 
powder  over';  give  a  gentle  shake  to  the  dish  that  the 
sugar  may  touch  the  whole  of  the  fruit;  next  day 
make  a  thin  sirup  with  the  remainder  of  the  sugar, 
and  instead  of  water  allow  one  pint  of  red  currant 
juice  to  every  pound  of  strawberries;  in  this  simmer 
them  until  sufficiently  jellied.  Choose  the  largest 
scarlets,  or  others  when  not  dead  ripe. 

Tomato  Preserves.  Small  tomatoes  are  best. 
Red  make  red  preserves;  yellow  ones  make  yellow. 
Peel  and  prick  with  a  needle;  boil  slowly  in  preserv- 
ing sirup  for  half  an  hour,  with  the  juice  of  one  lemon 
to  each  two  pounds  of  tomatoes,  and  the  bag  of 
ginger-root,  if  desired.  Sirup  should  be  three-quarters 
pound  sugar  to  one  pound  fruit.  Skim  out  tomatoes 
and  place  in  the  sun  two  or  three  hours  to  dry  and 
and  harden.  Purify  the  sirup  with  the  white  of  an 
egg  and  skimming.  Then  pour  over  the  tomatoes 
after  placing  them  in  jars. 

Water-Melon  Preserves.  Same  as  citron,  for 
which  they  are  an  excellent  substitute,  and  less  ex- 
pensive. 

Prickly  Pear.  There  are  two  species  of  the 
prickly  pear  growing  native  in  the  United  States,  be- 
sides a  number  of  other  species  in  house  cultivation. 
The  kind  prevailing  in  the  Western  States  is  different 
from  that  of  the  Atlantic  States.  They  all  grow  in 
sand,  bear  large,  yellow,  lily-like  flowers,  and  a 
fruit  which  is  sometimes  pickled  and  used  as  sauce. 
This  is  the  most  familiar  cactus  in  this  country. 

Prince's  Feather,  the  name  of  two  widely  different 
ornamental  but  coarse  herbs.  One  is  a  red-topped 
amaranth  and  the  other  a  crimson-flowered  knot- 
weed.  The  former  grows  about  five  feet  high  and 
the  latter  often  seven  or  eight  feet  in  height.  Their 
name  is  derived  from  the  similarity  of  the  flower 
spikes  to  red  feathers. 

Prionus,  a  large  beetle  burrowing  into  the  roots  of 
poplars,  fruit-trees,  grape-vines,  etc.:  see  page  863. 

Privy.  For  the  preservation  of  health,  of  garden 
manure  and  for  convenience,  more  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  construction  and  care  of  the  privy 
than  is  generally  done.  Many  of  them  are  so  care- 
lessly constructed  and  illy  kept  as  to  actually  become 
a  nuisance  and  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  household.  This  is  all  unnecessary.  A 
few  dollars'  expenditure,  a  little  extra  labor  and  some 
attention  will  construct  a  tasteful,  clean  and  easily 
kept  and  purified  closet.  It  should  be  accessible, 
indeed,  very  conveniently  located,  and  sheltered  from 
the  storms  and  ^hidden  from  the  road  by  a  high  fence, 
lattice  work  or  evergreens.  Of  course,  where  running 
water  can  be  introduced  into  a  house  and  the  facilities 
for  complete  drainage  provided,  closets  may  be  con- 
structed in  a  country  residence  without  great  trouble 


or  expense.  Unless,  however,  all  the  arrangements 
connected  with  them  can  be  made  perfectly  effective, 
we  would  not  advise  their  introduction,  as  they  some- 
times become  intolerable  nuisances. 

The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  rear 
elevation  and  transverse  section  of  a  fonn  of  dry- 
earth  closet,  particularly  adapted  to  the  country.  It 
entirely  dispenses  with  the  dangerous  and  offensive 
vault,  and  substitutes  in  its  place  a  sled  box,  say  8  by 
2j^  by  2  feet,  inserted  under  the  seat  through  an 


L^ 


:Lki 


Sections  of  a  Dry-Earth.   Closet. 

opening  in  the  rear.  It  should  be  of  strong  plank, 
covered  inside  with  a  good  coating  of  tar.  At  either 
side  of  the  building  are  attached  boxes  closing  tight- 
ly with  lids,  and  communicating  with  the  exterior  by 
means  of  convenient  openings.  The  boxes  are  to  be 
filled  with  dry  muck,  road  dust  or  ashes,  and  from 
two  to  four  quarts  of  either  of  these  deoaorizers 
should  be  thrown  down  every  day.  If  any  odor  is 
noticed  increase  the  amount.  When  it  is  nearly  full, 
hitch  to  it  and  draw  it  away  to  the  compost  heap.  Its 
contents  will  be  found  entirely  inoffensive.  It  might 
be  located  in  any  outbuilding  if  found  more  con- 
venient. 

Unslacked  lime  sprinkled  in  the  vault  will  be 
found  an  excellent  deodorizer.  Carbolic  acid  is  also 
effective  as  a  disinfectant,  but  copperas  water  or  road 
dust  are  very  effective  deodorizers;  especially  is  the 
latter  good  in  a  dry  closet.  The  former  is  used  in 
vaults  filled  with  water,  by  dissolving  copperas  in  water 
in  proportion  of  a  pound  to  the  gallon  of  water,  and 
sprinkling  in  the  vault. 

Promissory  Note:  see  Note. 

Propagation,  the  reproduction  and  reproductive 
diffusion  of  organized  beings.  The  propagation  of  all 
the  higher  and  middle  orders  of  animals  is  effected 
only  by  generation,  and  that  of  cultivated  plants  is 
effected,  according  to  the  particular  constitution  of 
classes  and  species,  by  one  or  more  of  several 
methods, — from  seeds,  cuttings,  buds,  grafts,  suckers, 
layers,  stolons,  bulbs,  tubers,  germs  and  divisions  of 
the  roots:  see  Varieties. 

Protest,  in  business  transactions,  is  the  official 
written  declarati<jn  of  a  notary  that  a  bill  or  note  was 


io68 


P.ROUD  FLESH— PUDDING. 


presented  by  him  for  payment,  and  that  such  pay- 
ment was  refused,  for  reasons  specified  in  the  protest. 

Proud  Flesh,  a  popular  n£vme  given  to  a  fungous 
growth  in  wounds  that  do  not  heal  by  the  first  inten- 
tion. This  prevents  the  wound  from  healing.  They 
are  red,  flabby  elevations  that  spring  up,  sometimes 
round  the  edge  of  the  ulcerated  surface,  or  in  its 
center,  in  circumscribed  patches,  or  separate  cones  or 
elevatiorjs,  and  are  indicative  of  a  rapid  but  weak 
action  in  the  part ;  they  are  in  themselves  perfectly 
harmless,  though,  according  to  popular  belief,  their 
presence  is  regarded  as  indicative  of  serious  mischief, 
if  not  of  danger.  A  lotion  pf  sulphate  of  zinc,  or 
bluestone,  in  the  proportion  of  2  or  3  grains  to  the 
ounce  of  water,  if  applied  on  lint  once  or  twice  will 
generally  reduce  such  exuberant  growths,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  stimulates  the  vessels  of  the  parts  to  a 
more  equal  and  steady  action.  Should  the  lotions 
above  not  answer  the  purjxise,  a  small  quantity  of 
burnt  alum  may  be  scattered  over  the  granulations. 

Provender,  dry  food  for  stock. 

Prunes,  dried  plums. 

Pruning,  the  act  of  trimming  or  removing  the 
superfluous  branches  or  twigs  of  plants.  See  the  re- 
spective article  to  be  pruned  and  the  articles  Nursery 
and  Orchard. 

Prussic  Acid.  This,  in  modern  chemistry,  is 
called  hydrocyanic  acid ;  but  it  is  still  popularly 
known  by  its  former  name,  which  was  derived  from 
its  being  a  constituent  of  the  pigment  Prussian  blue. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  virulent  poisons  known,  a  drop 
or  two  laid  on  the  tongue  being  sufficient  to  occasion 
death.  It  is  a  sedative  poison,  and  one  which  no  one 
has  any  use  for  except  when  prescribed  as  a  medicine 
by  a  physician.  The  person  who  has  been  poisoned 
by  it  experiences  nausea,  giddiness,  debility,  hurried 
pulse,  weight  and  pain  in  the  head,  eructations  hav- 
ing the  flavor  of  the  acid  (that  of  peach  kernels), 
spasm,  tetanus,  convulsions  and  death.  Ammonia  is 
an  antidote,  but  it  should  be  employed  in  a  very  con- 
centrated form.  Liquid  chlorine  has  also  been  found 
efficacious. 

Pudding.  For  boiled  puddings  you  will  require 
either  a  mold,  a  basin  or  a  pudding  cloth;  the  former 
should  have  a  close-fitting  cover,  and  be  rubbed  over 
the  inside  with  butter  before  putting  the  pudding  in  it, 
that  it  may  not  stick  to  the  side;  the  cloth  should  be 
dipped  in  boiling  water,  and  then  well  floured  on  the 
inside.  A  pudding  cloth  must  be  kept  very  clean, 
and  in  a  dry  place.  Bread  puddings  should  be  tied 
very  loosely,  as  they  swell  very  much  in  boiling. 

The  water  must  be  boiling  when  the  pudding  is  put 
in,  and  continue  to  boil  until  it  is  done.  If  a  pudding 
is  boiled  in  a  cloth  it  must  be  moved  frequently  while 
boiling,  otherwise  it  will  stick  to  the  sauce  pan. 

There  must  always  be  enough  water  to  cover  the 
pudding  if  it  is  boiled  in  a  cloth;  but  if  boiled  in  a 
tin  mold,  do  not  let  the  water  quite  reach   the  top. 


A  pudding  boiler,  recently  invented,  is  the  best  for 
boiled  puddings. 

To  boil  a  pudding  in  a  basin,  dip  a  cloth  in  hot  wa- 
ter, dredge  it  with  flour  and  tie  it  closely  over  the 
basin.  When  the  pudding  is  done  take  it  from  the 
water,  plunge  whatever  it  is  boiling  in,  whether  cloth 
or  basin,  suddenly  into  cold  water,  then  turn  it  out 
immediately ;  this  will  prevent  its  sticking.  If  there 
is  any  delay  in  serving  the  pudding,  cover  it  with  a 
napkin,  or  the  cloth  in  which  it  was  boiled ;  but  it  is 
better  to  serve  it  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  cloth, 
basin  or  mold. 

Always  leave  a  little  space  in  the  pudding  basin 
for  the  pudding  to  swell ;  or  tie  the  pudding  cloth 
loosely  for  the  same  reason. 

Bread  or  rice  puddings  require  a  moderate  heat  for 
baking;  batter  or  custard  requires  a  quick  oven. 

Eggs  for  puddings  are  beaten  enough  when  a  spoon- 
ful can  be  taken  up  clear  from  the  strings. 

Souffles  require  a  quick  oven.  These  should  be 
made  so  as  to  be  done  the  moment  for  serving,  other- 
wise they  will  fall  in  and  flatten. 

Suet  Crust  for  Puddings.  One  pound  of  flour, 
6  ounces  of  beef  suet,  a  cupful  of  cold  water.  Strip 
the  skin  from  the  suet,  chop  it  as  fine  as  possible,  rub 
it  well  into  the  flour,  mix  it  v.ith  a  knife,  work  it  to  a 
very  smooth  paste  with  a  cupful  of  water,  and  roll  it 
out  for  use. 

Sauce.  For  a  good  or  easily  made  pudding  sauce 
take  I  tablespoonful  of  butter,  2  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour,  ^  of  a  cup  of  sugar.  Pour  hot  water  over  these, 
stir  well  and  boil  until  thick;  flavor  with  lemon  or 
nutmeg  and  a  teaspoonful  of  vinegar. 

Apple  Pudding.  Peel  the  apples  and  put  them  in 
a  kettle  in  halves,  with  a  pint  of  water,  a  small  lump 
of  butter,  a  little  salt,  nutmeg,  and  a  handful  of  sugar; 
make  a  soda  biscuit  crust  about  one-third  inch  thick, 
and  put  it  on  the  top  of  the  apples;  make  a  hole  in 
the  center  of  the  crust;  boil  until  the  apples  are  thor- 
oughly cooked.  Serve  with  a  hot  sauce.  A  plate 
turned  upside  down  in  a  kettle  will  prevent  it  from 
burning. 

Apple  Dumpling.  Three-quarters  of  a  pound  of 
flour,  3  ounces  of  suet  chopped  fine,  2  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder,  i  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  mix  with  milk 
enough  to  knead ;  roll  it,  but  not  as  thin  as  for  pie 
crust.  Pare  7  large  apples;  core  and  quarter  them, 
keeping  each  apple  by  itself,  and  place  the  quarters 
together  again;  cut  the  paste  in  squares  to  cover  each 
apple;  tie  them  in  pieces  of  cloth,  leaving  a  very  little 
room  to  swell.  Boil  an  hour,  putting  them  into  a  steam- 
er; cover  the  steamer  with  a  piece  of  cotton-flannel, 
cut  round ;  this  will  absorb  the  steam  that  rises  to  the 
cover,  and  the  dumplings  will  be  drier.  Serve  them 
with  sweet  sauce. 

Apple  and  Tapioca  Pudding.  Peel  and  core  6 
large  apples,  pack  them  closely  in  the  baking  dish 
you  intend  serving  your  pudding  in ;  fill  the  cored 
parts  tightly  with  sugar  and  a  short  stick  of  cinna- 
mon ;  put  a  gill  of  hot  water  on  your  apples,  cover 


PUDDING. 


1069 


closely  and  bake  for  an  hour ;  be  careful  the  apples 
do  not  brown  on  the  bottom ;  turn  them  two  or  three 
times.  Take  a  teacupful  of  French  tapioca,  which  is 
finer  and  more  delicate  than  any  other,  and  soak  in 

3  cupfuls  of  water  for  three  or  four  hours,  keeping  it 
in  a  warm  place,  but  not  where  it  will  boil ;  pour  the 
dissolved  tapioca  over  the  baked  apples  and  bake  for 
another  hour  in  a  moderate  oven.  The  pudding  can 
be  eaten  either  with  pulverized  sugar  or  a  hard  sauce 
made  with  an  ounce  of  butter  and  2  ounces  of  sugar 
well  creamed  together  and  the  beaten  yolk  of  an  egg 
thoroughly  stirred  in  ;  put  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  in  the 
water  you  soak  your  tapioca  in. 

Batter  Pudding.  One  quart  of  milk,  4  eggs,  6 
spoonfuls  of  flour,  a  little  salt.     Bake  20  minutes. 

Bkead  Pudding.  Soak  the  bread  in  cold  water, 
then  squeeze  it  very  dry,  take  out  the  lumps  and  add 
boiling  milk,  about  y^  a  pint  to  i  pound  of  soaked 
bread,  beat  up  2  eggs,  sweeten,  add  a  little  nutmeg, 
and  bake  the  pudding  slowly  until  firm.  If  desired 
a  few  raisins  may  he  added. 

Butter  Pudding.     One  cup  raisins,  i  of  molasses, 

1  of  sweet  milk,  J^  cup  butter,  3  cups  flour,  i  spoon- 
ful soda;  steam  two  hours;  cream  and  sugar  for  sauce. 

Children's  Pudding.  To  make  a  nice  pudding 
for  the  children's  dinner,  take  3  eggs,  3  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour,  I  quart  of  milk  and  a  little  salt;  make  into  a 
batter,  then  have  some  apples  nicely  peeled  and 
cored,  place  them  in  a  well  buttered  pie  dish,  then 
pour  the  batter  over  Ihem.  Let  it  bake  one  hour  and 
a  half  and  make  a  nice  sweet  sauce  for  it. 

CocoANUT  Pudding.  Grate  cocoanut,  then  stew  it 
slowly  in  i  quart  of  milk;  pour  this  on  a  half  loaf  of 
baker's  bread ;  when  cold  add  i  pound  sugar,  and  Y^ 
pound  of  butter,  beaten  to  a  cream ;  then  add  6  eggs 
and  bake. 

Corn-Starch  Pudding.  Boil  i  quart  of  milk,  then 
beat  the  yolks  of  4  eggs,  with  4  tablespoonfuls  of  corn 
starch  and  a  little  milk ;  stir  into  the  boiling  milk, 
let  it  boil  up  once  and  turn  into  a  pudding  dish;  then 
beat  the  whites  of  the  eggs  to  a  froth  and  add  4  siMon- 
fuls  of  white  powdered  sugar;  cover  the  pudding  with 
the  mixture,  and  set  in  the  oven  and  brown  lightly. 
Flavor  with  vanilla,  lemon,  etc. 

Cottage  Pudding.  One  pint  bowl  flour,  i  teacup 
milk,  r  egg,  ^  teacup  sugar,  i  siX)on  soda  in  the  milk, 

2  s|X)ons  cream  tartar  in  the  flour;  bake  half  an  hour. 
Plain  Cracker  Pudding.     Four  crackers,  pound- 
ed and  sifted;  a  small  piece  of  butter;   \%.  pints  of 
milk,  scalded,  and  poured  on  the  crackers  and  butter; 

4  eggs;  sugar  to  sweeten  ;  nutmeg. 

Another.  Cracker  i)udding  that  can  be  made  in 
twenty  minutes.  Take  2  quarts  of  sweet  milk,  sweet- 
en to  taste,  put  into  a  pan  over  a  kettle  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  when  hot  stir  in  5  well-beaten  eggs,  then  have 
ready  a  dozen  crackers,  split  and  buttered ;  drop  in 
with  a  handful  of  raisins;  flavor  with  lemon;  do  not 
stir  the  pudding  after  putting  in  the  crackers. 

Cream  Pudding.    Five  eggs  beaten  light,  2  cups  of 


nice  sour  cream,  and  i  sixsonful  soda ;  stir  in  flour  to 
make  it  as  stiff  as  cake.  For  sauce,  make  i  quart  of 
flour  starch,  add  a  lump  of  butter,  put  in  sugar,  and 
flavor  with  lemon.  It  will  bake  while  your  [xitatoes 
are  boiling  for  dinner. 

English  Pudding.  Mix  i  tablespoon  of  melted 
butter  in  i  pint  of  sweet  milk;  beat  very  light  the 
yolks  of  7  eggs,  then  beat  the  yolks  in  the  milk,  with 
flour  sufficient  to  make  a  thin  paste  (say  16  table- 
spoonfuls) ;  beat  whites  of  eggs  very  light ;  stir  in 
whites,  and  bake  immediately  in  a  hot  oven  yi  of  an 
hour,  in  a  pound-cake  or  pudding  dish.  Eat  with 
sauce. 

Fig  Pudding.  Hah"  a  pound  of  bread  crumbs,  }^ 
pound  figs,  6  ounces  of  suet,  6  ounces  brown  sugar; 
mince  the  figs  and  suet  nicely,  a  little  salt,  2  eggs, 
well  beaten,  nutmeg  to  taste,  boil  in  a  mold  4  hours. 
Serve  with  wine  sauce. 

Boiled  Fruit  Pudding.  One  quart  crushed  wheat, 
I  teaspoonful  cinnamon,  'Y,  teaspoonful  cloves,  2  cups 
sugar,  2  eggs,  ^  a  pound  of  suet,  chopped  fine,  i  tea- 
spoonful cream  tartar,  J^  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  J^ 
cup  of  molasses,  J^  pound  of  raisins  chopped  fine, 
citron  or  lemon  peel  if  desired.     Boil  2  hours. 

Hard-Times  Pudding.  Half  a  pint  of  molasses, 
half  a  pint  of  water,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  soda,  one  tea- 
siX)onful  of  salt;  thicken  with  sifted  flour,  to  a  batter, 
thick  as  cup  cake,  put  into  pudding  boiler,  half  full, 
to  allow  for  swelling;  boil  steadily  for  three  hours; 
eat  with  or  without  sauce. 

Indian  Pudding.  Take  one  quart  of  sweet  milk; 
put  it  over  the  fire,  and  let  it  come  to  a  boil.  Just  as 
quick  as  it  boils  stir  in  three-fourths  of  a  teacup  of 
Indian  meal  and  one  level  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Take 
off  from  the  fire  immediately,  as  it  burns  quickly,  and 
that  would  spoil  the  pudding.  Beat  one  egg  with 
one  cup  of  sugar;  add  one  tablespoonful  of  molasses; 
stir  this  into  one  quart  of  cold  sweet  milk  ;  next  add 
this  to  the  hot  mush,  and  stir  it  real  well  to  beat  out 
the  lumps,  should  there  be  any;  next  put  it  in  a  bake- 
pan.  Grate  a  little  nutmeg  on  the  top,  and  drop  a 
few  lumps  of  butter  on  the  top,  just  as  you  put  it  in 
the  oven:  bake  nearly  three  hours.  This  is  good 
without  fruit,  but  is  better  with  two  or  three  handfuls 
of  raisins  or  currants. 

Old-Fashioned  Baked  Indian  Pudding.  Take 
a  large  cup  of  meal  and  a  teacupful  of  molasses  and 
beat  them  well  together,  then  add  to  them  a  quart  of 
boiling  milk,  some  salt,  and  a  small  piece  of  butter; 
let  it  stand  a  while  in  the  dish  you  are  going  to  bake 
it  in  until  it  thickens,  and  when  you  put  it  into  the 
oven  ixjur  over  it  from  half  to  a  pint  of  milk,  but  do 
not  stir  it  in,  as  this  makes  it  pasty.  Bake  two  or 
three  hours. 

Lemon  Pudding.  Five  ounces  of  cofl'ee  sugar^ 
one  of  butter,  one  quart  of  milk,  one  pint  of  stale 
bread  crumbs,  one  lemon,  four  eggs.  Grate  the  lemon 
rind,  and  crumble  the  bread;  beat  the  yolks  of  the 
eggs  in  the  pudding  dish ;  add,  gradually,  the  sugar, 


■ 


1070 


PUDDING. 


lemon  rind,  and  butter  rubbed  to  a  cream;  then  the 
milk  and  bread  alternately.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  un- 
til firm.  Beat  the  whites  to  a  stiff  froth  with  four 
tablespoonfuls  powdered  sugar,  and  enough  of  the 
lemon  juice  to  flavor;  spread  this  over  the  top  and 
brown  in  the  upper  part  of  the  oven.  To  be  eaten 
hot  or  cold. 

Marlborough  Pudding.  Grate  apples  enough 
to  make  eight  ounces,  add  to  this  eight  ounces  of 
white,  fine  sugar  which  has  been  well  rubbed  on  the 
rind  of  a  large  lemon,  six  well  beaten  eggs,  three  ta- 
blespoonfuls of  cream,  the  strained  juice  of  three 
lemons,  eight  ounces  of  butter,  add  quantity  at  pleas- 
ure of  orange  flower  or  rose-water.  Line  a  pie  dish 
with  rich  puff  paste,  put  in  the  mixture  and  let  it  bake 
in  a  quick  oven. 

Oatmeal  Pudding.  Stir  half  a  cupful  of  oatmeal 
into  three  cupfuls  of  boiling  milk.  Cook  for  half  an 
hour.  When  partly  cool  add  a  cupful  of  sugar,  two 
cupfuls  of  apple  sauce,  three  beaten  eggs  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  extract  of  vanilla.  Bake  half  an  hour  in 
a  moderate  oven  and  serve  when  cold  or  partly  cooled 
with  sweetened  cream. 

Orange  Pudding.  Four  sweet  oranges  peeled  and 
picked  to  pieces,  and  put  in  a  deep  pudding  dish, 
with  two  cups  of  sugar.  Put  a  quart  of  milk,  the 
yolks  of  three  eggs,  and  two  dessertspoonfuls  of  corn 
starch  on  to  boil.  Take  off,  cool  it,  and  pour  it  on  the 
oranges.  Then  beat  the  whites  to  a  stiff  froth,  put  it 
over  the  pudding,  and  place  it  in  the  oven  until  it  is 
of  ,a  light  brown  color. 

Peach  Roll-Up.  One  quart  of  flour,  a  lump  of 
butter  the  size  of  a  walnut,  a  pinch  of  salt,  enough 
milk  or  water  to  make  a  soft  dough.  Roll  out  half  an 
inch  thick,  put  on  a  layer  of  nice  ripe  peaches.  Be- 
gin at  one  side  and  roll  up  nicely,  then  lay  in  buttered 
basin,  and  steam  an  hour  or  longer ;  or  boil  in  tin  pail 
set  in  a  kettle  of  boiling  water.  Cut  in  slices,  eat 
with  sweetened  cream  or  butter  and  sugar. 

Pie-Plant  Pudding.  Take  slices  of  stale  bread, 
butter  them,  put  a  layer  in  the  bottom  of  a  pudding- 
dish,  next  a  layer  of  pie-plant,  plenty  of  sugar,  and  a 
little  nutmeg;  do  so  until  the  dish  is  full,  having 
bread  on  the  top;  don't  be  too  sparing  of  the  butter; 
put  in  about  two  cups  of  water,  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  size  of  your  pudding-dish;  it  must  not  be  too 
dry  nor  too  juicy ;  cover  with  an  earthen  plate,  and 
bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  a  brisk  oven. 

Cheap  Plum  Pudding.  One  cup  suet,  one  cup 
raisins,  one  cup  currants  and  citron  mixed,  one  egg, 
one  cup  sweet  milk,  half  a  teacup  molasses,  one  tea- 
spoonful  soda,  three  and  a  half  cups  flour,  a  little 
salt.  Boil  three  hours.  Serve  with  hard  or  liquid 
sauce. 

.  Plum  Pudding.  A  pint  of  bread  crumbs;  pour 
over  them  one-half  pint  boiling  milk  and  let  it  cool 
thoroughly.  Then  add  one  pound  stoned  raisins, 
one-half  jxjund  currants,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter 
minced  fine,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  one  table- 


spoonful  of  sugar,  one  small  teaspoonful  cloves,  nut- 
meg, and  cinnamon,  each;  five  eggs,  beaten  light. 
Flour  your  fruit  before  mixing,  and  boil  three  hours. 
Eat  with  hot  brandy  sauce. 

Another.  One  pound  of  raisins,  one-half  pound 
currants,  one-half  cup  of  suet,  two  cups  sugar,  one 
cup  of  milk,  one  cup  of  flour,  one  pound  of  bread 
crumbs,  four  eggs.  Mix  raisins,  currants,  suet,  sugar 
and  bread  crumbs  in  a  large  pan.  Then  beat  the 
whites  and  yolks  of  eggs  together  and  mix  with  milk 
and  pour  over  the  ingredients  in  the  pan ;  then  add 
spice  to  suit  the  taste.  Flour  the  pudding  bag  and 
leave  plenty  of  room  to  swell.  Boil  three  or  four 
hours. 

Mock  Plum  Pudding.  One  cup  finely  cut  suet, 
one  of  dried  currants,  one-third  cup  of  molasses,  two- 
thirds  cup  of  milk  or  water,  one  teaspoonful  allspice, 
cloves  and  cinnamon  mixed,  three  cups  of  flour ;  mix 
well  and  steam  three  hours. 

Pumpkin  Pudding.  Pare  the  pumpkin  and  put  it 
down  to  stew,  strain  it  through  a  colander;  two 
pounds  of  pumpkin  to  one  pound  of  butter,  one  pound 
of  sugar,  and  eight  eggs  ;  beat  to  a  froth ;  one  wine- 
glass of  brandy,  half  wine-glass  of  rose-water,  one 
teaspoonful  mace,  cinnamon,  and  nutmeg  all  to- 
gether. 

Queen  of  Puddings.  One  pint  of  fine  bread 
crumbs,  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg  rubbed  in, 
a  teacupful  of  fine  sifted  loaf  sugar,  the  rind  of  one 
lemon  grated,  yolks  of  four  eggs,  and  a  pint  of  milk. 
Mix  these  ingredients  together  in  a  pie-dish,  and 
bake  in  a  quick  oven  until  well  set,  but  be  careful  not 
to  let  the  pudding  get  leathery ;  it  will  take  only  a 
short  time.  When  cool,  spread  a  layer  of  apricot  or 
strawberry  jam  over  the  top.  Whip  the  whites  of  the 
four  eggs  with  a  teacupful  of  sifted  sugar  and  either 
the  juice  of  the  lemon  or  a  small  teaspoonful  ot 
essence  of  lemon,  into  a  very  stiff  froth,  and  throw 
lightly  over,  making  it  as  rocky  as  possible,  and  piling 
it  up  higher  in  the  center.  Very  slightly  brown  it  by 
putting  it  into  the  oven  for  a  few  minutes,  or  passing  ' 
a  salamander  over  it. 

Quick  Pudding.  One  pint  milk,  one  pint  flour, 
three  eggs  and  a  little  salt. 

Rice  Pudding.  For  a  six-o  clock  dinner  the  rice 
and  milk  should  be  put  on  early  in  the  forenoon. 
The  best  thing  to  cook  it  in  is  a  double  kettle.  Let  it 
simmer  on  the  back  of  the  stove — it  must  never  boil 
— until  a  couple  of  hours  before  dinner.  It  will  then 
be  a  thick,  creamy  substance.  Then  salt  and  sweet- 
en it  to  taste,  put  it  into  a  pudding  dish,  and  bake  it 
in  a  moderate  oven,  until  it  is  of  a  jelly-like  thickness 
and  the  top  is  slightly  browned.  It  can  be  eaten  either 
hot  or  cold.  If  the  latter  is  preferred,  the  pudding 
may  be  made  the  day  before,  if  that  is  most  conven- 
ient. If  desired  a  flavoring  may  be  added.  This  is 
emphatically  the  perfect  pudding  of  its  kind. 

Snow  Pudding.  One  ounce  of  gelatine ;  pour  on 
it  a  pint  and  a  half  of  boiling  water;  add  two  teacups 
of  white  sugar,  the  grated  peel  and  juice  of  two  lem- 


P  ULLET—P  UMP. 


1071 


ons ;  strain  into  a  deep  dish  to  cool ;  when  it  com- 
mences to  jelly,  add  to  it  the  whites  of  four  well 
beaten  eggs,  beat  until  the  dish  is  full,  put  in  molds 
and  set  in  a  cool  place. 

Steamed  Pudding.  Two  eggs,  two  cups  butter- 
milk, and  half  cup  of  butter,  or  one  cup  of  cream  and 
one  of  buttermilk,  one  cup  of  currants,  half  teaspoon 
of  soda,  a  little  salt ;  to  be  eaten  with  sweetened 
cream. 

Suet  Pudding.  Mix  one  pound  of  flour  very  dry 
with  half  a  pound  of  finely  chopped  suet,  add  eggs 
and  a  pinch  of  salt ;  make  it  into  a  paste  with  the 
water,  beating  it  all  rapidly  together  with  a  wooden 
sjxjon.  Flour  a  pudding  cloth,  put  the  paste  into  it, 
tie  the  cloth  tightly,  and  plunge  it  into  boiling  water. 
The  shape  may  be  either  a  roll,  or  a  round  ball. 
When  it  is  done,  untie  the  cloth,  turn  the  pudding 
out,  and  serve  very  hot. 

Tapioca  Pudding.  Soak  over  night,  or  melt  on 
the  back  of  the  stove,  in  water  sufficient  to  cover 
it,  a  small  teacup  of  tapioca ;  add  a  quart  of  milk,  let 
come  slowly  to  boil,  beat  two  eggs,  add  a  little  salt, 
sugar,  and  flavoring  to  taste.  This  is  quickly  made 
and  is  wholesome.  Or,  after  the  tapioca  is  melted, 
add  milk,  sugar,  eggs,  salt,  and  flavoring,  and  bake  in 
a  moderate  oven.  A  very  little  butter  may  be  added 
whether  boiled  or  baked. 

Wash-Day  Pudding.  One  pint  of  flour,  three 
eggs,  one  teacupful  of  pounded  sugar,  one  cupful  of 
milk,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful 
cream  of  tartar,  one  full  tablespoonful  of  butter;  rub 
the  soda  through  the  flour,  dissolve  the  cream  of  tar- 
tar in  the  milk  and  stir  all  together  quickly,  just  be- 
fore dinner  is  served;  bake  in  a  quick  oven,  and  eat 
with  sauce,  either  hard  or  soft.  Bake  in  small  tins 
or  open  pans.     This  forms  nice  tea  cakes. 

Pullet.  The  term  chicken  is  applied  to  the  young 
female  fowl  till  she  is  four  months  old,  after  which 
she  is  a  pullet  till  she  begins  to  lay,  when  she  is  a 
hen.  The  male  is  a  chicken  until  he  is  three  months 
old,  after  which  he  is  a  cockerel  until  he  is  one  year 
old,  when  he  is  known  as  a  cock.  When  deprived  of 
the  faculty  of  procreation  he  becomes  a  cajxjn. 

Pulse.  Pulse  is  the  impulse  given  to  the  blood  by 
the  heart,  and  is  usually  felt  by  pressing  on  the  "  radial 
artery  "  at  the  wrist.  The  rapidity,  regularity,  and 
force  of  the  circulation  are  thus  judged. 

The  range  of  the  pulse,  as  to  frequency,  in  a  healthy 
adult,  is  usually  60  to  80  beats;  but  there  are  per- 
sons whose  pulses  rarely  beat  60  times  a  minute; 
while  there  are  others  not  out  of  health  in  whom  the 
frequency  exceeds  80.  The  pulse,  it  will  thus  be 
seen,  is  extremely  capricious.  Before  any  correct  in- 
ferences can  be  drawn  from  it  the  peculiarities  of 
each  individual  must  be  carefully  considered.  Thus, 
slight  mental  affections,  indigestion,  irritability,  and 
many  other  causes  producing  modification  of  the 
pulse,  do  not  admit  of  any  general  description.  The 
terms  hard,  full,  soft,  and  wiry  pulse  are  used  to  indi- 
cate other  obvious  modifications  independent  of  the 


number  of  pulsations.  The  average  pulse  of  a 
healthy  infant  is,  for  the  first  year,  from  about  120  to 
108;  for  the  second,  from  108  to  90;  for  the  third, 
from  100  to  80;  from  the  seventh  to  the  twelfth  year, 
the  pulsations  are  about  70.  When  the  pulse  exceeds 
140  beats  in  a  minute  it  is  not  easy  to  count  it  pre- 
cisely. But  to  this  it  attains  in  some  febrile  diseases. 
When  it  is  above  90  it  is  called  febrile.  The  pulse 
of  the  adult  female  usually  exceeds  that  of  the  adult 
male  of  the  same  age  by  ten  to  fourteen  beats  a 
minute.  The  pulse  is  less  frequent  as  the  stature  is 
greater,  about  four  beats  for  a  half  a  foot  in  height. 
Muscular  exertion  increases  its  frequency.  It  is 
slower  during  sound  sleep.  The  difference  between 
standing  and  lying,  in  the  former  is  one-fifth  of  the 
whole,  in  the  latter  one-eighth.  In  actively  breathing 
birds  the  pulse  beats  100  in  a  minute. 
See  page  220  for  pulse  of  lower  animals. 

Pumice  Foot:  see  page  800. 

Pumice  Stone,  a  substance  frequently  ejected 
from  volcanoes,  of  various  colors,  as  gray,  white,  red- 
dish, brown  or  black.  It  is  used  for  polishing  var- 
nished surfaces,  highly  varnished  wood  and  other 
delicate  work.  It  is  used  both  in  powder  and  the 
lump.  It  is  capable  of  putting  the  highest  polish 
upon  materials  of  any  known  substance. 

Pump,  a  contrivance  for  raising  fluids  through 
pipes.  The  simplest  and  most  common  form  or  style 
is  that  of  the  ordinary  lift  or  suction  pump.  It  is 
of  great  antiquity,  being  invented  in  120  B.  C.  The 
force  pump  diff"ers  from  the  common  sucking  pump 
in  having  a  solid  piston-head  without  a  valve,  and  the 
spout  attached  below  the  piston.  By  suction  the 
water  cannot  be  brought  from  a  depth  of  more  than 
33  feet  below  the  piston,  but  it  can  afterwards  be 
sent  up  to  any  height  desired  in  a  pipe.  These  two 
contrivances  are  sometimes  combined. 

We  wish  to  make  the  following  practical  sugges- 
tions in  buying  pumps  and 
keeping  them  in  order:  The 
value  of  a  pump  is  determined 
by  its  durability,  simplicity, 
the  ease  with  which  it  oper- 
ates and  its  protection  from 
frost. 

Before  buying  a  pump  find 
the  exact  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  platform  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  well.  Also  learn 
the  depth  of  water  in  the  well 
during  dry  seasons.  Do  this 
that  you  may  be  able  to  tell 
what  kind  of  pump  to  get  and 
its  length.  Never  put  a  pump 
in  a  well  of  greater  depth  than 
it  is  designed  for.  Should  you 
do  this  it  will  be  an  expense 
and  atmoyance  to  you,  and 
Fig.  z.— Cistern  Pump,  will  never  work  easily. 
The  cylinder  should  never  be  over  20  feet  from  end 


1072 


PUMP. 


of  suction  pipe,  for  the  pump  to  work  easy ;  therefore, 
after  ascertaining  the  depth  of  the  well,  select  the 
pump  suited  for  that  depth,  of  such  size  of  cylinder 
as  may  be  desired. 


Fig,  2. — Forct  Putn^. 

See  that  the  small  waste  hole  is  open  to  prevent 
freezing. 

Always  allow  at  least  6  inches  between  the  bottom 
of  well  and  strainer.  Never  let  the  cylinder  or  end 
of  suction  pipe  or  strainer  rest  on  the  bottom  of  the 
well,  as  sand,  dirt  or  gravel  are  liable  to  be  drawn 
into  the  cylinder  and  destroy  the  valves. 

It  is  advisable  to  use  a  foot  valve  on  the  bottom  of 
the  suction  pipe  wlien  the  pump  is  required  to  draw 
water  a  long  distance. 

The  platform  should  be  made  of  ij^-inch  lumber 
and  firmly  secured  to  top  of  well. 

If  the  pump  loses  its  priming  and  the  water  runs 
down,   the    trouble    is   always    below   the    plunger. 


Either  the  check-valve  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 

is  worn  out  or  something  has  lodged  under  it  pre- 
venting its  closing  down  on  the  seat  perfectly,  or  the 

bottom  of  the  cylinder  is  not  screw- 
ed on  tight.    Either  of  these  causes, 

although    not    the    fault    of    the 

pump,    will    prevent    its   working 

perfectly.     If,  on  examination,  you 

find  that  a  piece  of  gravel  or  dirt 

has  lodged  under  the  check-valve, 

the  suction  pipe  is  probably  set  too 

close   to  the   bottom  of  the  well. 

The  valve  should  wear  for  years, 

but  if  after  long  service  it  becomes 

worn  out   it   should   be   replaced 

with  new,  solid  leather. 

If  the  pump  works  hard,  and  the 

handle  on  being  pushed  down  is 

inclined  to  jerk  back,  the  suction 

pipe  or  strainer  is  stopped  up  and 

will  not  allow  the  water  to  enter 

the  cylinder  freely ;  in  such  cases 

it  will  usually  be  found  that  the 

lower  end  of  the  suction  pipe  or 

strainer  is  embedded  in  the  sand 

or  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the  well, 

or  that  something  floating  in  the 

water  has  stopped  up  the  entrance 

to  the  pipe. 

If  the  pump  does  not  throw  a 

full  stream,  and  the  water  comes 

out  of  the  spout  foamy,  some  of  the 

joints  are  not  screwed  up  tight  and 

they  leak  air. 

Fig.  I  represents  a  short  cistern 

pump,  with  3-inch  cylinder,  2  feet 

below   the    platform.      It   is   well 

adapted  to  be  set  upon  a  sink  or 

stand  in  the  house,  and  is  very 
convenient  by 
the  use  of  hosCj 
for  filling  reser- 
voirs on  the  stove,  or  tubs  at  a 
distance  from  the  pump,  as  well 
as  a  means  of  protection  against 
fire. 

Fig.  2  represents  a  force  pump 
suitable  to  wells  from  10  to  200 
feet  in  depth.  It  is  made  by  the 
Stover  Wind  Engine  Co.,  Freejxjrt, 
111. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  force  pump 
with  cylinder  several  feet  below 
the  platform.  It  may  be  attached 
to  a  windmill.  This  and  the  one 
represented  by  Fig.  i  are  made  by 
Mast,  Foos  &  Co.,  Springfield,  O. 
Fig.  4  illustrates  a  good  iron 
pump,  suitable  for  household  pur- 
ix)ses.  It  is  made  by  the  Sand- 
wich Enterprise  Co.,  Sandwich,  111. 


Windmill  Force 
Pump. 


Fig.  4.—  House  Pump. 


PUMPKIN— F  YROMETER. 


1073 


Pumpkin,  large,  coarse  edible  fruit  of  the  gourd 
family.  Both  the  vine  and  fruit  are  the  heaviest  of 
all  the  gourd  order.  In  the  early  settlement  of  this 
country,  and  especially  of  the  Northwest,  the  pump- 
kin was  extensively  cultivated  for  culinary  purposes, 
but  of  late  has  been  very  largely  supplanted  by  the 
squash  for  this  purjxise.  It  is,  however,  very  generally 
raised,  usually  among  corn,  as  food  for  stock.  The 
cultivation  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  squash,  which 
see.     The  principal  varieties  are  as  follows: 

Sweet.     Small,  but  best  for  stewing  and  for  pies. 

Large  Cheese.  Like  the  crook-neck  squash;  fine 
for  cooking. 

Connecticut  or  Large  Field.     Best  for  stock. 

Michigan  Mammoth.  A  heavy  cropper;  soft- 
shelled  ;  good  for  stock. 

Negro,  or  Nigger.  Small,  dark-skinned;  the 
pumpkin  from  which  New  England  grandmothers 
made  their  famous  pumpkin  pies. 

Tree.  Grows  in  bush  form  and  bears  its  fruit  in  a 
cluster  near  the  base;  good  for  pies. 

Pupa,  an  insect  in  the  state  intermediate  between 
the  larva  state  and  the  fully  developed. 

Purging,  free  and  excessive  alvine  discharge  :  see 
Cathartics. 

Purslane,  often  called  "  parsley,"  is  perhaps  the 
most  common  weed  in  rich,  cultivated  grounds.  It 
is  a  member  of  the  Portulaca  family,  has  fleshy,  mu- 
cilaginous stems  and  leaves  and  yellow  flowers,  and 
grows  almost  prostrate  on  the  ground,  forming  a  heavy 
mat.  Pigs  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  it  is  doubtless 
good,  nutritious  food  for  them.  It  is  sometimes  used 
as  greens,  being  boiled  with  meat  and  vegetables, 
especially  with  mustard,  to  give  the  mess  some  degree 
of  piquancy.  Medically  it  is  reputed  to  be  a  cooling 
diuretic. 


Purulent  Matter:  see  Pus. 

Pus,  foul  matter  which  collects  in  a  diseased  part ; 
as  in  a  common  boil.  It  varies  in  appearance  and 
consistency  and  chemical  comjwsition  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  sore  which  forms  it.  In  bad  and 
refractory  sores  it  is  thin,  transparent,  acrid  and  fetid  ; 
and  in  a  healing  or  well-conditioned  one,  it  is  yellow- 
ish-white, creamy,  opaque,  bland  and  inodorous. 
Healthy  pus,  as  the  latter  kind  is  called,  is  insoluble 
in  water,  is  thickened  but  not  dissolved  by  alcohol 
and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  103.  It  forms  a  soapy 
whitish  fluid  with  soda  or  potash,  a  transparent  jelly 
■with  ammonia,  and  seems  to  be  more  nearly  allied  to 
albumen  than  the  other  animal  principles.  The  dis- 
tinguishing of  pus  from  catarrhal  mucus  is  important 
in  diagnosis  of  chest  diseases,  and  may  be  effected 
by  means  of  the  following  tests :  when  the  two  are 
mixed  with  water,  the  pus  sinks  and  the  mucus  floats; 
when  the  two  are  separately  dissolved  in  potash,  the 
pus  is  precipitated  by  water,  and  the  mucus  is  not ; 
and  when  they  are  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  is  afterwards  added,  the  pus  subsides  to  the 
bottom,  and  the  mucus  continues  in  suspension. 

Putrefaction,  the  spontaneous  and  ultimate  de- 
composition of  organic  substances.  The  more  nitro- 
gen there  is  in  the  substance  the  more  rank  and 
repulsive  is  the  odor. 

Pyrometer,  an  instrument  for  the  measurement  of 
temperatures  above  those  which  we  are  able  to  esti- 
mate by  the  mercurial  thermometer.  Mercury  boils  at 
660'',  above  which  point  it  is  incapable  of  measuring 
heat,  although  many  temperatures  connected  with  the 
most  common  processes  are  greatly  above  this  point; 
as,  for  example,  the  heat  of  a  common  fire,  the  melt- 
ing of  iron,  silver,  copper  and  gold. 


68 


Q 


TJAIL,  a  most  excellent  bird  of  the  Par- 
tridge family  and  of  the  same  order  as  the 
domestic  cock,  prairie-chicken  and  other 
grouse,  turkey,  etc.  There  are  several 
species,  but  the  most  important  is  known  as 
the  quail  in  the  North  and  partridge  in  the 
South,  and  scientifically  as  Oj-iyx  Virginianus. 
It  is  also  known  in  many  sections  as  "  Bob  WTiite," 
deriving  this  name  from  the  note  which  the  male 
gives  utterance  to.  Its  clear  whistle  is  composed  of 
three  notes,  the  last  being  the  loudest.  In  the  sum- 
mer when  his  mate  is  sitting  and  in  the  early  fall,  the 
male  bird  sits  on  the  fence  or  on  a  low  tree  and 
whistles  "  Bob  White"  for  an  hour  at  a  time.  They 
have  quite  a  variety  of  notes,  which  they  utter  when 
several  of  them  meet,  as  if  in  social  converse.  It  is 
ten  inches  in  length;  the  prevailing  color  above  is  a 
brownish  red,  the  under  part  white,  tinged  with 
brown  before,  and  marked  with  obtusely  V-shaped 
spots  of  black ;  the  head  is  beautifully  marked  with 
pure  white  and  black.  The  female  has  the  white 
markings  of  the  head  replaced  by  brownish  yellow, 
and  the  black  wanting.  They  build  their  nest  near 
a  tuft  of  grass,  and  lay  from  lo  to  i8  pure  white  eggs. 
The  Mountain  quail  of  California  is  the  largest  and 
perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  varieties.  Be- 
sides these  are  the  Texas  quail,  Arizona  quail  or 
Gambel's  partridge,  and  the  Valley  or  Meadow  quail. 
In  fair  weather,  the  favorite  feeding  ground  of  the 
quail  is  on  the  wheat  stubble,  and  generally  not  far 
from  a  brook  or  slough,  if  there  be  one  in  the  field. 
It  is  protected,  in  certain  seasons,  in  almost  every 
State  by  law. 

Quarter,  the  fourth  part  of  anything,  or  the  divi- 
sion of  a  carcass  comprising  one  of  the  limbs;  or,  25 
or  28  pounds  weight,  according  as  the  "  hundred- 
weight" is  reckoned  at  100  or  1 12  pounds;  or  a  meas- 
ure of  grain  equal  to  eight  bushels. 
Quicksilver,  mercury.     See  Mercury. 

Quidding,  throwing  out  of  half  masticated  food 
from  the  mouth  by  horses,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  54, 
on  page  758.  It  is  caused  by  some  disease,  or  sore- 
ness of  the  mouth. 

Quills,  the  hard  and  strong  feathers  of  geese, 
swans,  turkeys,  crows,  ostriches  and  some  other  birds. 
In  former  times  the  quill  was  in  general  use  for  writing 
and  drawing,  and  consequently  much  more  sought 
than  at  present. 


eat,  but  is  excellent  when  cooked,  made  into  marma- 
lade, preserved  or  served  with  other  fruits ;  dried 
quince  is  a  good  article  of  diet.  The  tree  seldom 
grows  higher  than  15  feet,  and  when  properly  grown 
and  laden  in  the  fall  with  its  golden  fruit,  is  very 
ornamental.  It  has  large  white  and  pale  pink  blos- 
soms, which  appear  rather  later  than  those  of  other 
fruit  trees. 

Propagation  and  Cultivation.  The  quince  is 
easily  propagated  from  seeds,  layers  or  cuttings. 
From  the  seeds,  however,  it  is  somewhat  liable  to 
vary  in  its  fruit,  sometimes  yielding  the  apple-shaped 
and  sometimes  the  pear-shaped  variety.  Budding, 
upon  free-growing  sorts,  as  the  Angers,  is  often  prac- 
ticed, but  perhaps  the  best  method  is  to  prepare  cut- 
tings in  autumn,  heel  them  in  for  the  winter,  and 
plant  them  in  a  shaded  situation  in  very  early  spring. 
Quince  stocks  are  extensively  used  in  engrafting  or 
budding  the  pear  when  it  is  wished  to  render  that 
tree  dwarf  in  its  habit.  Moist  but  well-drained  ground 
is  the  best  for  the  quince.  High  land  is  better  than 
low,  and  it  should  be  kept  rich  and  mellow.  As  to 
aspect,  a  northern  exposure  is  said  to  be  best. .  For 
a  fertilizer,  salt,  iron  cinders  or  coal  dust,  or  perhaps 
better  all  three,  are  recommended.  Look  about  the 
roots  and  trunk  of  the  tree  two  or  three  times  a  year  for 
the  borer,  probing  for  him  and  destroying  with  a  wire. 

Varieties.  The  three  best  variedes  of  quince 
seem  to  be  the  following : 

Angers.  A  strong,  rapid-growing  sort,  an  abund- 
ant bearer ;  fruit  large,  of  fine  quality,  but  does  not 
cook  quite  as  tender  as  the  Apple  quince ;  will  keep 
longer;  'flesh  a  little  harsher  and  more  acid. 

Orange,  Apple,  or  Apple-Shaped.  Large,  roundish, 
with  a  short  neck ;  bright,  golden  yellow ;  fair  and 
smooth;  ripe  in  October.  Tree  has  rather  slender 
shoots  and  oval  leaves;  very  productive.  This  is  the 
variety  most  extensively  cultivated  for  the  fruit. 

Reas  Mammoth,  a  very  large  variety  of  the  Orange 
Quince;  a  strong  grower,  healthy  and  productive. 

Quinine,  an  alkaline,  u'ncrystallizable,  whitish  sub- 
stance, the  active  principle  of  cinchona  or  Peruvian 
bark.  It  is  the  greatest  remedy  known  for  intermit- 
tent diseases,  and  is  taken  quite  successfully  as  a 
tonic.  A  full  dose  for  an  adult  is  from  10  to  15 
grains,  but  as  a  tonic  from  i  to  2  grains  is  sufficient. 
The  dose  for  a  horse  is  from  20  to  40  grains  three 
times  a  day.  It  is  good  in  influenza,  lung  fever,  etc., 
but  is  too  costly  for  general  veterinary  purposes. 


Quince.     This  fruit  in  its  raw  state  is  not  fit  to  Quitter :  see  page  800. 

1074 


R 


I?"  ABBET,  a  rectangular  cut  made  upon  the 
edge  of  a  board,  iron  or  wheel,  so  that  it 
may  be  kept  from  sliding  off  in  one  direc- 
tion ;  also,  a  sloping  cut  made  in  the  edge 
of  a  board  to  form  a  joint  with  another  board 
similarly  cut.    The  word  is  also  used  to  denote 
the  action  of  making  such  a  cut. 

Babbit,  a  species  of  gnawing  quadruped  of  the  hare 
genus.  It  nestles  in  brush  and  in  the  trunks  of  trees, 
and  often  ascends  their  hollow  as  far  as  their  branch- 
es. The  Gray  rabbit  is  common  throughout  a  large 
part  of  the  United  states,  is  fifteen  to  sixteen  inches 
in  length,  the  general  color  yellowish-brown  with  a 
tinge  of  reddish,  the  lower  parts  pure  white.  It  does 
not  turn  white  in  winter.  When  first  started,  the 
Gray  rabbit  runs  with  great  swiftness,  but  soon  stops 
to  listen.  It  is  well  known  to  hunters  that  they  can 
stop  it  when  first  startled,  by  whistling.  If  pursued, 
and  if  the  woods  be  open,  it  enters  the  first  hole  it 
can  find.  It  often  falls  a  prey  to  the  weasel,  as  well 
as  to  other  larger  enemies.  Its  flesh  is  excellent  food. 

Domestic  Rabbits.  While  the  name  rabbit  is 
applied  to  several  species  of  this  animal  in  this  coun- 
try, it  is  probable  that  there  is  no  genuine  North 
American  rabbit,  but  our  species  of  this  genus  are 
hares.  They  do  not  construct  burrows,  as  does  the 
true  rabbit,  and  are  mainly  solitary  in  their  habits. 
All  of  our  domesticated  rabbits  are  therefore  imix)rted. 

Dutch  Rabbit.  The  most  hardy  of  all  the  domes- 
tic rabbits  is  the  common  white  and  black  or  Dutch 
rabbit.  This  is  the  smallest  variety  but  its  flesh  is 
more  delicate  and  palatable  than  the  larger  kinds. 
It  is  occasionally  gray,  slate  color,  yellowish  or 
brindle,  mixed  with  white.  The  white  is  in  a 
ring  around  the  neck,  a  streak  up  the  face,  and 
on  the  tip  of  each  foot.  The  does  of  this  variety 
are  excellent  mothers,  and  will  foster  and  rear 
young  ones  not  their  own  without  the  least  objection, 
and  being  good  feeders,  can  take  care  of  a  large  litter 
without  any  trouble.  They  produce  from  five  to  seven 
young  at  a  litter,  and  when  full  grown  will  weigh 
from  three  to  five  pounds. 

The  Lop-Eared  Rabbit  is  the  most  popular  of  all 
varieties ;  it  is  remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  ear, 
which  sometimes  reaches  21  or  22  inches.  In  color 
this  variety  differs  greatly;  in  fact  it  may  be  said  to 
be  of  all  colors,  but  the  tortoise  shell  is  a  favorite  and 
somewhat  rare  color.  It  weighs,  when  in  good  condi- 
tion, from  10  to  12  ix»unds. 

Silver-Gray  Rabbit.     This   is   an    Asiatic   variety, 


being  a  native  of  Siam.  They  are  plump  and  solid 
and  weigh  from  six  to  nine  pounds.  When  young 
they  are  black,  but  as  they  grow  older  white  hairs  ap- 
pear mingled  with  the  black,  and  at  maturity  they 
are  a  solid  silver-gray,  except  at  the  tip  of  the  nose. 

The  Belgian  Hare  Rabbit,  which  is  of  a  solid  red- 
dish color,  is  the  largest  variety  known;  it  reaches  a 
weight  of  10  or  12  pounds  when  fattened.  They  are 
easily  kept,  are  excellent  feeders,  are  docile  and  not 
pugnacious  although  timid,  and  are  alarmed  even  by 
a  mouse. 

The  Himalayan  or  Chinese  Rabbit  is  a  beautiful 
little  aftimal,  being  mostly  pure  white,  excepting  on 
the  ears,  the  tip  of  the  nose  and  the  feet,  which  are 
black.  They  weigh  about  five  iK)unds  when  fully 
grown  and  fat.  They  are  not  difficult  to  rear  if  cau- 
tion is  taken  to  protect  them  from  the  sudden 
changes,  and  provide  them  with  warm  pens  and  nests. 

There  are  several  other  varieties  known  to  fanciers. 
The  so-called  Patagonian,  a  cream-colored  rabbit 
from  Savoy,  is  very  large.  The  Angora,  like  the  goat 
of  that  country,  has  long,  silky  fur,  which  has  to  be 
combed  to  keep  it  in  good  order. 

The  Common  rabbit,  which  is  of  all  sizes,  shapes 
and  colors,  is  the  most  frequently  met  with.  It  is  a 
cross  breed  in  which  the  most  common  varieties  have 
mingled  until  it  has  no  distinctive  mark.  But 
although  common  in  every  respect,  it  is  far  from  use- 
less, because  it  is  the  best  kind  for  a  person  who 
wishes  to  raise  rabbits  to  begin  with,  and  a  pair  may 
often  be  procured  for  such  a  moderate  sum  as  to  be 
within  the  means  of  almost  any  country  boy  who  has 
the  most  meager  supply  of  pocket  money. 

Care  and.  Management.  In  beginning  to  keep 
rabbits,  one  should  avoid  the  mistake  of  attempting 
to  rear  the  rarer  and  more  expensive,  as  well  as  the 
less  hardy  varieries.  The  common  gray  or  black  and 
white  rabbits  can  be  procured  cheaply,  and  a  hutch 
made  of  a  few  boards  and  laths  will  be  a  cheap  and 
yet  sufficient  lodging.  When  these  can  be  kept  suc- 
cessfully, all  the  difficulties  conquered,  and  a  good 
stock  of  experience  has  been  gained,  then  the  stock 
may  be  increased,  and  the  more  desirable  varieties 
kept. 

In  selecdng  rabbits,  those  about  six  months  old 
should  be  procured,  and  kept  for  three  or  four  months 
before  they  are  paired.  Young  rabbits  are  to  be 
known  by  the  short  claws,  which  do  not  project  be- 
yond the  fur  of  the  foot,  and  by  the  small  teeth.  A 
healthy  animal  is  known  by  the  clearness  and  the 


1075 


1076 


RABIES— RA  CING. 


pure  white  color  of  the  eye.  The  appearance  of  a 
yellow  tinge  to  the  white  portion,  with  a  swollen  or 
pot  belly,  are  signs  of  bilious  disorder  and  deranged 
liver,  which  is  the  most  frequent  and  dreaded  disease. 
This  is  caused  by  over-feeding  on  soft,  wet  food.  In 
good  health  the  droppings  are  in  round  balls,  having 
no  disagreeable  odor  when  fresh,  and  the  animal  is 
lively  and  sprightly.  Three  does  and  one  buck  are  a 
safe  number  to  begin  with,  although  six  or  eight  does 
may  be  mated  with  a  single  buck. 

The' essentials  in  rearing  and  keeping  rabbits  are 
warmth,  dryness,  good  food  in  moderation,  and  per- 
fect cleanliness  of  the  lodging. 

The  general  management  of  rabbits  varies  with  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  kept.  The  most  hardy 
kind  may  be  kept  out  of  doors  the  whole  year,  and 
indeed  any  variety  may  be  kept  in  open  courts  in 
mild  weather,  if  warm  shelter  is  provided  during 
stonns. 

Soft,  short  oat  straw  or  chaff,  or  pine  sawdust  is  the 
best  bed.  Clean  oat  straw  will  be  eaten  very  readily, 
and  the  refuse  will  serve  for  litter.  The  feed  should 
consist  of  some  sliced  ruta-baga,  carrot  or  cabbage  in 
the  morning;  whole  oats  or  crushed  corn  wilf  make 
the  evening  meal  for  full-grown  animals.  Young 
rabbits  require  crushed  oats  and  bran,  or  ground  oats 
and  bran  as  usually  used  for  horse  feed.  Sweet,  fine 
meadow  hay,  dried  lawn  clippings,  or  clover,  may 
also  be  provided  for  them.  Peas  or  corn  steeped  in 
water  and  the  water  poured  off  are  good  food  for  fat- 
tening, and  two  tablespoonfuls  a  day  will  be  sufficient 
for  a  full-grown  rabbit.  In  cold  weather  a  supper  of 
thick  corn-meal  mush,  given  warm,  but  not  hot,  will 
be  beneficial;  barley  and  cut  iX)tatoQS  boiled  dry  and 
mixed  with  corn  meal  or  linseed  meal,  may  be  given 
for  a  change.  The  feed  should  be  given  three  times 
a  day,  and  only  so  much  as  will  be  eaten  clean.  A 
pinch  of  sulphur  and  salt  should  be  given  once  a 
week.  A  bed  of  chiccory  may  be  grown  for  them, 
and  dandelions  are  also  useful.  Very  little  water  is 
needed,  but  if  some  is  offered  once  a  week,  a  sip  or 
two  may  be  taken.  A  little  warm,  sweet  milk  is  very 
acceptable  to  them,  but  the  dish  should  be  removed 
as  soon  as  they  have  taken  what  they  wish. 

Rabbits  should  be  paired  first  in  February  or 
March.  The  does  should  not  be  bred  until  five  or 
six  months  old,  and  four  litters  in  a  year  are  as  much 
as  should  be  raised.  The  buck  should  not  be  left 
with  the  doe  at  coupling  for  more  than  a  few  minutes. 
When  the  doe  is  about  to  litter,  she  will  begin  to 
make  a  nest  by  carrying  hay  and  straw  to  a  corner  of 
the  pen.  When  this  is  seen,  the  pen  should  be  at 
once  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  with  a  little 
chloride  of  lime  or  diluted  carbolic  acid,  and  then 
sprinkled  with  fine  sawdust.  The  dates  of  littering 
may  be  known  by  adding  thirty  days  to  the  record  of 
coupling.  The  day  before  littering  a  dish  of  fresh 
water  should  be  given  to  the  doe,  and  this  will  pre- 
vent the  killing  of  the  young,  which  is  said  to  be 
caused  by  the  intense  thirst  experienced  at  this  time. 

No  dogs  or  strangers  should  be  permitted  near  the 


pens,  and  every  movement  should  be  so  quiet  as  not 
to  startle  the  doe,  which  is  now  very  excitable.  The 
young  rabbits  should  never  be  touched.  If  any  die, 
the  doe  will  bring  them  to  the  door  of  the  pen. 
Nursing  does  should  have  warm  milk  and  bread 
given  liberally  morning  and  evening  for  the  first  three 
weeks;  after  that,  carrots  cut  into  slices,  and  thick 
corn  mush,  and  soaked — but  drained — peas  may  be 
given.  After  fifteen  days  the  young  rabbits  may  be 
seen  peeping  out  of  the  nest,  and  in  three  weeks 
should  be  removed  to  a  clean,  warm  pen.  When  a 
month  old  the  young  will  leave  the  nest  and  will  be- 
gin to  feed  with  the  dam.  After  two  to  four  weeks 
more  they  may  be  removed,  one  at  a  time,  so  as  to 
dry  up  the  milk  gradually.  A  little  salt  maybe  given 
to  help  dry  the  milk.  After  they  are  four  months  eld, 
the  young  rabbits  will  begin  to  quarrel  and  fight,  and 
should  be  separated,  the  bucks  being  put  into  separate 
pens,  and  the  does  left  four  or  six  weeks  together, 
until  ready  for  breeding. 

At  eight  weeks  old  the  young  rabbits  molt,  and 
then  require  a  little  extra  care.  Some  crushed  oats, 
fresh  carrots,  and  plenty  of  fresh,  but  not  cold,  air 
should  be  given  at  this  time.  Young  growing 
rabbits  will  eat  constantly,  and  should  be  provided  for 
liberally.  By  carefully  observing  them,  their  habits 
will  soon  be  learned,  and  all  their  necessities  soon 
discovered.     Prompt  attention  should  then  be  given. 

To  Prepare  and  Cook  Rabbits.  Skin  tlie  rabbit. 
First  cut  off  the  feet  and  the  tail;  cut  the  skin  down 
the  belly  and  around  the  neck;  begin  at  the  head 
and  draw  the  skin  off  whole;  open  it  and  take  out 
the  entrails;  be  sure  and  get  them  perfectly  clean; 
put  them  into  cold  water  and  let  them  soak  until  the. 
blood  is  all  washed  out;  then  have  a  dressing  made  as 
for  chicken,  fill  the  bodies  and  sew  them  up.  Roast 
or  bake  them  the  same  as  other  game,  basting  often 
with  butter.  They  require  about  an  hour  to  cook. 
Make  the  gravy  of  the  drippings  with  a  little  butter, 
salt,  flour,  and  some  currant  jelly  if  you  choose. 

Baked  or  Pot-Pie.  The  same  as  for  pigeons  or 
chicken. 

Rabies :  see  Hydrophobia;  for  rabies  in  the  horse, 
'see  page  801. 

Race,  a  variety  or  breed  of  horses  or  cattle  or 
other  domestic  animals;  also,  a  trial  of  speed  between 
two  or  more  animals,  particularly  between  two  or  more 
horses. 

Racing.  This  term  is  understood  to  mean  a  trial 
of  speed  under  stringent  conditions  or  rules,  and  in 
the  way  of  public  amusement  and  gaming,  between 
two  or  more  trained  race-horses.  We  refer  to  the 
speed  made  by  the  fastest  horses  on  this  continent 
since  racing  has  received  any  considerable  attention, 
in  the  article  Speed ;  and  in  that  of  Horse,  have 
treated  the  breeds  of  horses  generally  used  for  racing, 
and  therefore  have  little  to  say  here.  The  general 
spirit  of  the  race-course,  however,  certainly  has  a  de- 
moralizing and  immoral  tendency  u]»n  the  young. 
It  is  this  feature  in  the  State  and  county  fairs  that  has 


RACK— RAIL. 


1077 


caused  so  much  discussion  in  every  State  and  county 
and  has  been  a  detriment  to  the  farmer.  Traveling 
jockeys  have  taken  the  money  that  should  have  been 
distributed  among  the  home  producers.  Not  only  that, 
but  they  have  taken  the  money  of  the  young  men 
(and  many  older  ones,  too,  that  should  have  known 
better)  in  the  way  of  bets.  Never  permit  yourself  to 
wager  money  on  race  horses;  for  though  you  may  be 
a  judge  capable  of  selecting  the  best  horse,  you  must 
remember  that  it  is  but  seldom  that  the  race  is  really 
a  test  of  the  speed  of  the  respective  animals.  It  is 
almost  always  arranged  beforehand  which  horse  shall 
win  the  respective  heats  and  the  race.  Knowing 
this,  the  jockeys  send  out  men  to  make  bets  in  their 
behalf.  Thus  not  only  are  the  large  purses  captured 
but  hundreds  of  dollars  are  carried  away  through  the 
medium  of  bets.  Therefore,  never  risk  your  money 
on  horse-racing,  especially  of  this  character;  for  if  you 
do  it  is  rarely  ever  you  win. 

We  are  aware  that  horse-racing  is  very  jxjpular 
with  many;  and  none  can  deny  that  it  is  a  grand 
and  exciting  scene  to  witness  several  magnificent 
specimens  of  this  noble  animal  flying  through  the  air, 
as  it  were,  exerting  every  muscle  and  straining  every 
nerve,  and  seeming  to  enjoy  the  contest  as  much  as 
the  enthusiastic  spectators.  Certainly  such  a  scene 
will  attract  the  attention  of  almost  every  lover  of  the 
horse;  but  what  is  it  all  for.''  We  do  not  require  fleet, 
long-winded  horses  as  they  do  on  the  deserts  of  Arabia, 
or  the  dashing  speed  needed  on  the  plains  of  South 
America;  and  therefore  these  contests  are  not  to  de- 
velop any  useful  merit  in  the  animal,  but  simply  to 
gratify  an  abnormal  desire  of  merciless  men  and 
women.  As  above  remarked,  the  moral  tendency  of 
the  race-course  is  evil,  and  one  of  the^nost  demoraliz- 
ing outgrowths  is  that  of  learning  young  men  to  be 
reckless  with  their  money.  The  habit  of  betting 
once  contracted  the  train  of  evil  that*  follows  it  will 
often  prove  disastrous,  morally  and  financially.  On 
this  basis,  more  than  any  other,  is  the  race-course  to 
be  condemned. 

Rack,  a  frame  for  holding  articles  like  a  box,  or 
large  chamber:  seepage  215. 

Radish,  a  plant  of  the  mustard  family.  The  radish 
is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  China,  but  has  long 
been  cultivated  here.  They  contain  little  else  than 
water,  woody  fiber  and  acrid  matter,  which  resides  in 
the  external  part;  they  cannot,  therefore,  be  very  nutri- 
tive, and  are  very  hard  to  digest.     For   summer   use 

sow  in  early  spring, 
either  broadcast  or 
in  drills,  taking  care 
not  to  sow  too  thick 
and  so w  in  soi  1 
which  is  well  pul- 
verized to  a  good 
de  pth;  cover  the 
seed  a  half  an  inch 
deep;  water  fre- 
•.]uently  in  dry  weather  •  the  more  rapid  the  growth 


the  better  the  quality ;    for 


I'lCi.  I. — Extra  lia^ly  lied  Turnip  RadUk. 


a  succession,  sow  every 
two  weeks.  The 
olive-shaped  varie- 
ties are  more  ten- 
der, sweet  and 
early  than  the  long 
kinds,  and  not  so 
apt  to  be  worm- 
eaten.  As  soon  as 
the  plants  are  up 
commence   sprink- 

FiG.  2. — Golden  Globe  Radish,  lintT      freclv     with 

ashes,  to  keep  away  the  little  black  fly. 

Varieties.  Red  Turnip-Rooted.  A  standard 
early  variety. 

White  Turnip-Rooted.  For  sum- 
mer and  winter  use.     Sow  in  summer. 

Yellow     Turnip.  Rich  color ;  early . 

Olive  Scarlet.  Early,  quick  growth, 
tender,  handsome. 

French  Breakfast.  A  beautiful 
variety  of  the  Olive  Scarlet,  ■white  at 
the  extremity. 

Wood's  Frame.  Excellent  for  cul- 
tivation under  glass;  in  shape  between 
Olive  and  Long. 

Chinese  Rose  Winter.  Best  for 
winter  use. 

Black  Spanish  Long,  and  also  the 
Round.     CJood  for  winter  use. 

White  Russian  Winter.  Largest  of 
all  for  winter  use. 

Figs.  I,  2  and  3  illustrate  the  best 
new  varieties. 

Rag-bolt,  an  iron  pin  with  barbs 
on  its  shank  to  retain  it  in  its  place. 

Ragout  (ra-goo'),  a  dish  made  of  p^^  ^.-Ung 
fragments  of  meat,  sometimes  of  more  ScarUt  straf- 
than  one  kind,  mixed,  stewed  and  ^'"^"i  R'-^dhk. 
highly  seasoned.  Differs  from  hash  only  in  not  hav- 
ing vegetables  cooked  up  with  it. 

Ragout  of  Cold  Beef.  Slice  rare  cold  beef 
thinly  ;  put  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  an  egg  into  a 
frying  pan  ;  lay  in  the  slices  of  meat  and  lirown  it 
slightly ;  add  to  it  a  blade  of  mace,  or  a  little  nutmeg, 
Cayenne  pepper  and  salt,  a  wine-glassful  of  mush- 
room catsup  and  a  tablesix)onful  of  browned  flour; 
stir  all  together  over  the  fire,  and  add  J^  pint  of  the 
broth  made  of  the  trimmings  of  beef,  and  simmer 
5  minutes. 

Ragouts  of  other  meats  may  be  made  in  a  similar 
manner,  and  those  who  are  not  prepared  to  add  all 
the  ingredients  above  mentioned  can  make  the  dish 
palatable  enough  in  a  simpler  style.  Some  go  so  far 
as  to  add  Port  wine  and  a  little  browning  to  their 
ragouts. 

Rail,  a  piece  of  timber  or  metal  extending  from 
one  post  or  fastening  to  another,  as  in  fences,  balus- 
trades, staircases,  etc.    Also,  several  species  of  water- 


L 


1078 


RAIN— RAPE. 


fowl,  of  the  order  of  Waders.  The  most  common 
species  in  this  country  is  of  a  greenish-brown  color 
above,  and  ashy  blue  with  white  markings  below. 
Next  are  the  Virginia  rail,  the  Clapper  rail  or  mud- 
hen,  the  King  rail  or  marsh  hen,  and  the  Little  Black 
rail,  most  of  which  range  near  the  ocean. 

Rain :   see  Climate  and  Weather. 

Rain  Gauge,  a  graduated  vessel  for  measuring 
the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  during  each  storm. 
Sufficient  exactness  can  be  attained  by  setting  out 
into  an  open  place,  uninfluenced  by  objects  on  the 
ground  (on  the  top  of  a  building  is  a  good  place)  a 
cylindrical  vessel.  After  the  rain  is  over  the  number 
of  inches  (and  fraction)  of  depth  of  water  in  the  vessel 
will  indicate  the  average  amount  of  rain  for  that 
section. 

Raisins  (ra'zns),  dried  grapes,  especially  certain 
kinds  of  grapes  dried  in  a  particular  manner,  so  as  to 
produce  a  highly  flavored  sugar.  Raisins  are  used 
in  so  many  culinary  preparations  and  in  so  many  ways 
that  we  cannot  even  enumerate  them  here.  The 
skins  and  seeds  are  indigestible  and  yet  innoxious. 
The  fresher  this  fruit  is  the  better.  Old  raisins  be- 
come sour  and  wormy.  Kaisins  stewed  with  other 
fruits  make  a  very  good  sauce. 

Rake,  a  toothed  implement  for  gathering  hay, 
cleaning  stubble,  pulverizing  small  beds  of  soil,  cover- 
ing small  garden  seeds,  etc.  This  implement  as  used 
in  making  hay  is  described  in  that  article.  The 
sharp-edged  lawn  rake  has  been  replaced,  since  the 
introduction  of  the  lawn  mower,  by  one  similar  to  the 
old  hay  rake,  only  with  teeth  much  closer.  Likewise 
six  and  eight  inch  rakes  in  company  with  wheel  hoes 
have  displaced  the  common  rake  for  gardening 
purposes. 

In  purchasing  a  garden  rake  it  is  false  economy  to 
select  a  cheap  cast-iron  one,  instead  of  the  Hghter 
and  stronger  steel  implement.  See  that  the  handle 
is  long,  tough  and  flexible,  for  in  manipulating  the 
soil,  the  backward  movement  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  forward  one.  In  wooden  rakes  the  handle, 
and  especially  the  teeth,  should  be  of  tough,  second- 
growth  wood. 

Rake  Head,  the  cross  bar  of  a  rake,  which  holds 
the  teeth. 

Ram.  A  hydraulic  or  water  ram  is  an  apparatus 
for  raising  water  several  times  higher  than  its  source 
by  the  momentum  of  the  current,  in  successive  beats 
or  strokes.  A  battering  ram  is  a  heavy  beam  which 
is  thrust  endwise  against  an  object.  The  word  also 
means  a  male  sheep,  known  also  as  a  tup  and  buck. 
This  word  however,  and  that  of  doe  for  the  female,  are 
incorrect,  as  they  only  refer  to  the  deer.     See  Sheep. 

Ramie  (ra-mee'),or  Grass-Cloth  Plant,  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Nettle  family  from  China,  valuable  for  its 
textile  fibers.  It  is  a  perennial  and  grows  three  to 
four  feet  high,  with  ovate  leaves,  which  are  white- 
downy  beneath.     Within  the  last  20  years  it  has  been 


extensively  planted  in  the  South.  The  chief  objection 
to  its  manufacture  lies  in  the  difficulty  of  economical- 
ly separating  the  fiber.  In  India  and  China,  where 
labor  is  so  wonderfully  cheap,  the  cost  of  separating 
the  fiber  is  said  to  be  about  $150  a  ton,  and  the  prod- 
uct in  England  is  valued  at  $375  a  ton.  Ramie 
fiber  differs  from  that  of  other  members  of  its  family, 
in  that  it  cannot  be  separated  from  the  stalks  by  the 
usual  rotting  process ;  and  the  English  have  succeed- 
ed in  inventing  machinery,  which  they  keep  secret,  that 
cuts  off  the  fiber  by  a  complication  of  knives,  and 
they  are  therefore  monopolizing  the  trade  in  Europe 
and  in  this  country.  Almost  all  the  dress  goods, 
mixed  with  brilliant  materials  and  imitating  silk  fab- 
rics, are  made  in  part  of  ramie. 

Cultivation.  The  soil  must  be  deep,  rich,  light, 
moist  and  well  drained;  and  it  must  also  be  thor- 
oughly cleared  of  weeds,  plowed  eight  or  ten  inches 
deep,  twice  if  {X)ssible,  and  thoroughly  harrowed. 
Plant,  in  winter,  the  roots,  "ratoons"  or  rooted  layers, 
which  have  been  carefully  cut,  and  not  torn,  from  the 
mother  plant.  Furrows  five  or  six  inches  deep  and 
five  feet  apart  are  opened  with  the  plow,  and  the 
roots  are  laid  lengthwise  in  them,  in  close  succession 
if  the  fiber  is  the  object ;  for  nursery  purposes  they 
are  given  much  more  room.  These  are  covered  with 
a  hoe,  and  during  the  spring  and  summer  are  cultiva- 
ted like  corn.  The  stands  are  thickened  by  layering, 
so  that  after  the  first  cutting  the  stems  grow  smooth 
and  straight. 

Rancid  (ran  sid),  having  a  rank  smell;  strong- 
scented  ;  sour ;  musty ;  as,  old  oil  or  butter.  To  pre- 
vent and  rectify  rancidity,  see  the  respective  article^ 

Range,  a  word  of  considerable  "  range  "  of  signifi- 
cation. Folio wfng  are  those  coming  vnthin  the  scope 
of  this  volume : 

1.  A  CooKiNp  Apparatus.  This  is  a  large  cooking 
stove,  with  reservoirs  for  heated  water.  More  strictly, 
a  kitchen  range  is  an  extended  cooking  apparatus  of 
cast  iron,  set  in  brick  work,  and  containing  pots,  oven, 
etc.  They  are  needed  only  in  establishments  where 
a  great  amount  of  cooking  is  done,  as  hotels,  board- 
ing-houses, etc. 

2.  Distance  of  Shot;  the  horizontal  distance  to 
which  a  shot  or  other  projectile  is  carried;  sometimes, 
though  less  properly,  the  path  of  the  shot,  or  the  line 
it  follows  from  the  gun  to  its  final  lodgment. 

3.  Pasture;  the  extent  of  land  over  which  live 
stock  usually  wander;  as,  cattle  range. 

4.  Direction  from  a  Given  Meridian.  In  the 
land  system  of  the  United  States,  the  term  is  applied 
to  a  row  or  line  of  townships  lying  between  two  suc- 
cessive meridian  lines  six  miles  apart,  and  numbered 
in  order  east  and  west  from  the  "principal  meridian  " 
of  each  great  survey,  the  townships  in  the  range  being 
numbered  north  and  south  from  the  "base  line,' 
which  runs  east  and  west;  as,  township  No.  6  N., 
range  7  W.,  from  the  fifth  principal  meridian.  See 
Township. 

Rape,  or  Colewort,  a  plant  resembling  the  brown 


RASH—RASPBERR  Y. 


1079 


mustard  and  used  for  greens.  The  seed,  which  also 
resembles  that  of  the  mustard,  yields  oil,  and  is  fed 
to  caged  birds. 

Rash,  or  Nettle  Rash:  see  Hives. 

Rasp,  a  kind  of  coarse  file,  on  which  the  cutting 
prominences  are  distinct,  being  raised  by  the  oblique 
stroke  of  a  sharp  punch,  instead  of  a  chisel,  as  is  the 
case  with  a  file.  Every  farmer  needs  one  for  rasping 
iron  and  another  for  rasping  wood. 

Raspberry.  This  most  excellent  fruit  is  fast  becom- 
ing a  favorite,  both  as  a  delicious  edible  fruit  and  as  a 
profitable  and  easily  cultivated  variety.  The  cultiva- 
tion is  simple,  the  yield  generally  large  and  the  mar- 
ket price  sufficiently  high  to  make  its  culture  gener- 
ally profitable. 

Propagation  and  Cultivation.  The  raspberry 
is  propagated  by  suckers  or  new  plants  from  the  tips 
of  the  canes,  some  varieties  mainly  by  one  process  and 
some  by  the  other.  The  black-caps,  yellow-caps  and 
purple  cane  varieties  are  generally  propagated  by 
lightly  burying  the  tips  of  the  canes  in  the  latter  part 
of  August  or  the  beginning  of  September.  If  unmo- 
lested, however,  they  generally  succeed  in  reaching 
the  ground  sj^ntaneously,  but  in  the  garden  the  proc- 
ess can  be  advantageously  aided  by  the  hoe.  The 
red  varieties,  not  counting  the  purple  cane,  propagate 
themselves  mainly  by  suckers,  that  is,  plants  from  the 
roots.  Some  of  the  red  varieties  indeed  are  so  given 
to  sprouting  in  this  way  that  the  tendency  is  consider- 
ed a  serious  objection  to  their  cultivation.  The  rasp- 
berry can  also  be  propagated  by  sections  of  the  roots 
two  or  three  inches  in  length  buried  in  the  spring : 
this  method  is  virtually  that  of  forcing  suckers. 

Transplanting  is  generally  done  in  the  fall,  and  in 
the  spring  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  at  them  be- 
fore vital  activity  commences  and  the  jjlants  are 
somewhat  sensitive  or  tender.  If  the  two  fields  are 
near  together,  however,  the  young  plants  can  be 
taken  up  early  in  the  spring,  with  as  much  earth  at- 
tached to  the  roots  as  possible,  and  transplanted  with 
as  great  success  as  in  the  fall;  but  some  horticul- 
turists wait  in  the  spring  until  the  young  shoots  are 
about  six  inches  high  before  setting  them  out. 

The  best  soil  is  a  deep,  rich  loam,  kept  tolerably 
moist.  In  those  sections  of  the  country  which  arc 
subject  to  drouths  it  is  advised  to  water  the  ground 
by  pipes  running  underneath  the  surface  and  supplied 
by  wind-mill  pumps.  The  raspberry  is  very  dependent 
upon  an  aVjundance  of  water.  The  better  varieties  are 
said  to  yield  the  best  and  most  fruit  if  grown  on  the 
north  side  of  a  tight  board  fence,  in  the  latitude  of 
Iowa,  while  the  poorer  varieties  do  better  on  the 
south  side  of  the  fence. 

The  distance  between  rows,  and  especially  of  the 
plants  in  the  row,  depend  a  great  deal  upon  the  kind 
of  plants  and  style  of  cultivation  contemplated. 
Western  gardeners  generally  adopt  the  "hedge" 
method,  making  every  row  a  hedge  as  compact  as 
possible,  one  to  two  feet  wide,  to  keep  down  the 
weeds   and   grass   and   for  mutual   support   of  the 


branches  in  fruit.  Large  and  bushy  varieties  should 
be  set  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row  in  rows  eight 
or  nine  feet  apart,  while  the  lighter-groiving  kinds 
may  be  set  18  inches  apart  in  the  row,  in  rows  about 
six  feet  distant;  but  in  each  case  every  rod  or  so 
there  should  be  left  a  space  wide  enougli  for  a  wagon- 
track.  It  is  the  practice  of  some  to  put  several  plants 
in  each  place,  thus  making  a  broad  and  heavy  stool. 
As  soon  as  the  plants  are  set  mulch  heavily  with 
straw,  stable  manure  or  litter,  which  has  no  grass 
seed.  Some  gardeners  think  it  is  better  to  put  it  on 
from  6  to  12  inches  deep  after  the  first  season,  for 
winter  protection,  keeping  the  ground  moist  and  pre- 
venting the  spattering  of  loose  earth  up  uix)n  the  ripe 
fruit  by  rains.  They  take  pains  to  press  this  mulch- 
ing in  between  the  canes.  The  second  season  the 
mulching  is  either  left  on  the  ground  and  the  weeds 
pulled  by  hand  as  they  appear,  or  it  is  removed  some- 
what and  clean  cultivation  given.  This  cultivation 
should  always  be  shallow,  and  with  the  strong-suck- 
ering  kinds  so  managed  as  to  cut  off  the  suckers  as 
much  as  possible.  Deep  plowing  injures  the  roots. 
Some  give  clean  cultivation  from  the  start.  In  all 
cases  level  cultivation  is  advisable.  , 

As  to  pruning,  there  is  a  great  difference  of  doc- 
trine as  well  as  of  practice  among  Western  horticul- 
turists.    Amateur  cultivation,  of  course,  contemplates 
a  great  deal   more   care   than   can  be  expected   in 
ordinary  field  culture,  which  is  followed  only  for  profit. 
It  is  generally  advised,  however,  to  give  the  plants  at 
least  two  pinchings  or  clippings  a  season, — the  first 
in  June,  to  keep  the  principal  canes  shortened  back, 
and  the  second  later,  to  shorten  back  both  the  prin- 
cipal   canes  and  the   branches.     The  smaller  kinds 
are  kept  back  to  about  2  or  25^  feet,  and  tlie  larger 
kinds  to  3  to  4  feet,  while  the  branches  are  shortened 
back  to  10  or  20  inches  respectively.     The   second 
pinching  of  the  branches  leave  them  3  to  6  inches 
longer   than  the  first  had.     This  plan,  of  course,  is 
more  necessary  with  the  large-cane  varieties.     The 
Antwerps,  Black-caps   and  Purple  Canes   are   often 
neglected  until  the  March  following,  when  the  scythe 
or   shears  or  knife  is  very  liberally   used.     Directly 
after  the  fruiting  season  is  over  all  the  old  and  useless 
wood  should  be  cut  out,  leaving,  among  the  strong- 
growing  kinds,  the  canes  10  to  15  inches  apart.     By 
tying  the  Black-caps  to  stakes  and  careful  pruning 
and  adjustment,  the  branches  will  be  more   evenly 
distributed,  an  advantage  in  respect  to  both  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  hedge  and  the  amount  and  quality  of 
fruit.     Bear  in  mind  always  that  the  main  point  in 
training  is  to  bring  the  foliage  into  the  direct  sunlight 
as  much  as  jxissible. 

As  the  raspberry  field  should  be  renewed  every  few 
years,  a  good  general  plan  is  the  following:  Plant 
the  Black-caps  in  rows  about  9  feet  apart  and  about 
2 '%,  feet  apart  in  the  row ;  raise  the  first  season  cab- 
bage, beets  or  some  other  early  vegetable  between 
the  rows ;  the  second  se?,son  plant  strawberries  mid- 
way between  the  rows,  keep  them  clean  and  let  the 
runners  run  as  they  please ;  after  that  cultivate  only 


io8o 


RASPBERR  Y. 


with  the  scythe.  In  this  way  full  crops  of  both  rasp- 
berries and  strawberries  may  be  realized  for  five  or 
six  years,  when  all  may  be  plowed  under  and  the 
ground  planted  to  something  else.  In  this  method 
summer  pruning  is  superseded,  the  old  wood  being 
broken  down  in  the  spring.  They  are  left  standing 
through  the  winter,  to  protect  the  younger  plants. 

Continuous  cold  east  winds  in  the  spring  are 
thought  to  blast  the  raspberries. 

Varieties.  It  is  a  good  plan  to"  have  a  trial  bed 
for  new  varieties,  and  not  plant  extensively  of  any  of 
them  until  they  are  fully  tried. 

Brandywine.  Large,  bright  red,  firm,  beautiful; 
good  for  shipping  a  long  distance,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  varieties  in  Central  and  Southern  Illi- 
nois; prolific,  but  not  a  strong  grower. 

Bristol.  A  variety  by  this  name  does  well  in  some 
places. 

Burm  Seedling.  This  is  a  new  variety  which 
promises  well  for  the  West.  It  originated  at  Manhat- 
tan, Kansas. 

Clarke.  Large,  conical,  rather  soft,  juicy,  sweet; 
grains  large,  quite  hairy,  bright  crimson  ;  canes  very 
strong, Vigorous,  upright;  spines  purplish,  rather  long 
and  stiff;  foliage  large,  flat,  thick,  and  endures  heat 
and  cold  better  than  any  European  kind  we  have; 
better  suited  to  light,  sandy  soil,  not  entirely  hardy, 
yet  a  good  variety  for  Northern  Illinois.  It  is  one  of 
the  Antwerps. 

Cuthbert,  Queen  of  the  Market.  Fruit  hardly  as 
rich  as  that  of  the  Turner,  but  is  large,  of  a  bright 
red  color,  very  firm,  and  the  variety  is  immensely 
productive;  foliage  thick  and  leathery  and  holds  on 
well  in  autumn. 

Davison's  Thornless.  This  is  a  well-tested  variety 
of  the  Black-Cap,  being  very  profitable  in  the  hands 
of  some,  but  entirely  abandoned  by  others.  It  is  sub- 
ject to  an  insect  which  causes  a  rust  or  blast  on  both 
leaf  and  stalk. 

Dooli tile's  Improved  Black-Cap  is  the  best  known 
cuUivated  black  raspberry,  and  in  the  hands  of  many 
is  still  one  of  the  most  profitable. 

Florence.  This  variety  is  hardy  and  productive, 
but  is  not  yet  very  extensively  planted. 

Franconia.  Large,  obtuse  conical,  dark  purplish 
red,  of  a  rich  and  fine  flavor ;  canes  hardy,  spreading, 
yellowish  brown,  with  scattered,  rather  stout  purple 
spines;  leaves  rather  large,  very  deep  green;  suckers 
badly. 

Ganargua.  Very  large,  round  oblong,  very  pro- 
ductive, fair  to  very  good  dessert  and  cooking  and 
canning,  but  poor  for  market  on  account  of  its  dirty 
looking  color,  having  a  thick  bloom ;  does  not  sucker. 

Gregg.  Very  large,  round,  black-cap,  pulpy,  good 
flavor,  enormously  productive,  and  one  of  the  most 
profitable  varieries  for  the  West,  if  not  altogether  the 
most  profitable. 

Highland  Hardy,  This  is  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  the  Kirtland,  and  is  a  profitable  kind  for  Central 
and  Southern  Illinois. 

Hudson    River   Antwerp.     Large,    conical,    firm. 


rather  dull  red,  with  slight  bloom,  not  very  juicy  but 
of  a  pleasant,  sweet  flavor;  canes  short  but  of  sturdy 
growth,  almost  spineless,  of  a  peculiar  gray  or  mouse 
color;  an  old  variety,  not  much  planted  at  the  pres- 
ent day. 

Kirtland.  Medium  size,  grains  small,  light  crimson, 
slight  bloom,  tender,  not  very  juicy  or  high  flavored; 
separates  freely;  a  vigorous,  upright  grower,  not  much 
branched;  spines  whitish,  not  very  stout  or  numerous; 
the  earliest  to  ripen;  suckers  freely;  a  most  valuable 
early  variety  in  Southern  Illinois. 

Mamjiwth  Cluster,  McCormick,  Miami  Black-Cap, 
Large  Miami  Black-Cap.  Meduim  to  large,  obtuse 
conical,  fair  dessert,  very  good  cooking  and  market; 
canes  strong,  vigorous,  immensely  productive,  bearing 
large  clusters  outside  of  the  leaves,  on  which  account 
one  can  gather  them  more  rapidly  than  any  other 
variety;  its  grayish  bloom  hinders  its  sale  among 
strangers,  as  it  looks  like  mildew;  somewhat  late; 
subject  to  blight  in  some  situations;  under  the  man- 
agement of  some  horticulturists  it  is  the  most  profit- 
able variety  they  can  raise.  Some  think  the  Miami 
is  a  disdnct  variety,  not  quite  so  large  as  the  Mam- 
moth Cluster,  but  it  may  be  confounded  with  the 
Little  Miami  Black-Cap,  which  is  indeed  of  a  more 
brownish  red,  not  quite  as  sweet  and  not  quite  as  late 
in  ripening. 

Millers  Daily.  Large,  juicy,  and  of  excellent 
flavor;  plant  hardy,  productive-,  and  said  to  produce 
a  few  berries  for  several  months  after  the  fruiting 
season. 

IVew  Rochelle.  Large  to  very  large,  juicy,  subacid, 
blackish,  with  a  clay-colored  bloom,  good  dessert,  best 
cooking,  but  poor  for  the  market  on  account  of  its  color. 

Ohio  Ever-Bearing.  A  black-cap  variety,  bearing 
fruit  until  very  late  in  the  season,  on  which  account 
it  is  esteemed  by  some,  but  when  not  productive  the 
picking  is  too  tedious.  It  should  therefore  be  very 
highly  cultivated.     The  fruit  is  of  very  good  quality. 

Orange,  Brinckles  Orange.  Large,  beautiful  orange, 
a  little  soft,  sweet,  and  of  excellent  flavor;  canes 
strong,  branched;  spines  white  and  strong;  very 
productive. 

Fhiladelphia.  Medium  to  large,  dark  crimson  or 
purplish  red,  rather  soft,  moderately  juicy,  mild  sub- 
acid, but  of  a  peculiar,  unsatisfying  flavor;  sei)arates 
freely,  indeed,  too  freely,  and  is  yielding  its  place  to 
better  varieties ;  canes  vigorous,  tall,  branching,  al- 
most free  from  spines,  and  suckers  most  vigorously; 
subject  to  insects  and  in  some  places  is  winter-killed; 
its  liability  to  the  last  calamity  is  thought  to  be  due 
to  the  work  of  small  insects  which  destroy  the  leaves 
in  summer  and  prevents  the  ripening  of  the  canes. 
With  all  these  draw-backs  some  extensive  growers 
make  more  money  out  of  this  variety  than  any  other. 
It  is  very  good  for  canning. 

Furple  Cane.  Medium  size,  purplish  maroon, 
slight  bloom,  soft,  juicy  and  rich,  good  dessert,  best 
cooking,  but  poor  market  on  account  of  its  softness. 

Reliance,  Good,  moderately  firm,  hardy,  and 
prolific. 


RAT. 


io8i 


Seneca,  Seneca  Black-Cap.  Medium  to  large,  pur- 
plish black,  light  brown,  juicy,  the  sweetest  and  best 
of  the  Black-Caps ;  showy  ;  canes  vigorous  and  pro- 
ductive; spines  reddish,  strong  and  numerous. 

Sweet  Home.  Same  as  the  Mammoth  Cluster  ex- 
cept that  the  berry  is  a  little  longer,  according  to 
some. 

Thwack.  Very  hardy,  productive,  canes  short,  not 
exceeding  four  feet ;  requires  no  pruning,  but  suckers 
extensively ;  fruit  large,  firm  and  good. 

Turner.  A  red  variety  of  the  Antwerp  class,  and 
one  of  the  most  profitable  varieties  in  Central  and 
Southern  Illinois.  Should  be  planted  in  rows  five  or 
six  feet  apart,  with  very  few  canes  to  the  hill  and  the 
hills  about  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row ;  give 
clean  cultivation  and  keep  free  from  suckers,  to  which 
it  is  very  subject.  It  is  comparatively  free  from  in- 
sects and  the  red  rust;  it  ripens  its  fruit  rather  grad- 
ually,— too  gradually  when  the  crop  is  not  heavy, as  it 
makes  the  picking  too  tedious.  This  variety  also  fails 
in  the  hands  of  some  gardeners. 

Wiuaiit.     A  hardy  and  good  berry. 

The  three  best  Black-Cap  varieties  for  the  latitude 
of  Northern  Illinois  and  Iowa  are  the  Mammoth  Clus- 
ter, Gregg  and  Seneca_,  and  the  three  best  red  varie- 
ties are  the  Cuthbert,  Turner  and  Kirtland.  The 
Miami  and  Doolittle  are  among  the  best  in  the  esti- 
mation of  some;  but  so  much  is  due  to  situation, 
season,  and  cultivation  that  no  general  classification 
of  the  "  best"  can  be  regarded  as  infallible. 

Rat.  The  rat  family  comprises  rats,  mice,  and 
their  immediate  allies,  in  all  more  than  300  species, 
some  of  which  are  found  in  every  country  on  the 
globe.  None  are  of  large  size,  the  muskrat  being  the 
largest,  and  some  are  the  smallest  quadrupeds  known, 
except  the  shrews.  There  are  four  species  of  the 
genus  Mus,  or  rats  and  mice,  in  the  United  States. 
These  are  the  Norway  or  brown  rat,  the  black  rat, 
the  roof  rat  and  the  house  mouse. 

Norway  or  Brown  Rat.  The  common  brown  or 
Norway  rat,  now  so  extensively  diffused  over  this 
country,  was  conveyed  to  England  about  1750  in  the 
timber-ships  from  Norway;  and  hence  it  has  received 
one  of  its  common  names.  Many  years  subsequently 
it  was  brought  to  this  country  in  European  ships,  and 
has  been  gradually  propagated  from  the  seaports  over 
the  greater  part  of  our  continent. 

The  brown  rat  takes  up  its  residence  about  wharfs, 
store-houses,  cellars,  granaries  etc.,  and  destroys  the 
common  black  rat  and  mouse,  or  entirely  expels  them 
from  the  vicinities  it  frequents.  To  chickens,  rabbits, 
young  pigeons,  ducks,  and  various  other  domestic 
animals  it  is  equally  destructive,  when  urged  by  hun- 
ger and  opiX)rtunity.  Eggs  are  also  a  favorite  article 
of  food  with  this  species,  and  are  sought  with  great 
avidity  ;  in  fact,  everything  that  is  edible  falls  a  prey 
to  their  voracity,  and  can  scarcely  be  secured  from 
their  persevering  and  audacious  inroads.  When  at- 
tacked, and  not  allowed  an  opixjrtunity  of  escaping, 
he  becomes  a  dangerous  antagonist,  leaping  at  his 
enemy  and  inflicting  severe  and  dangerous  wounds 


with  his  teeth.  The  most  eager  cat  becomes  imme- 
diately intimidated  in  the  presence  of  one  of  these 
rats  thus  penned  up,  and  is  very  willing  to  escape  the 
dangers  of  an  encounter.  The  brown  rat  is  amaz- 
ingly prolific,  and,  but  for  its  numerous  enemies  and 
its  own  rapacious  disposition,  would  become  an  in- 
tolerable pest.  Happily  for  the  world,  in  addition  to 
man,  to  the  weasel,  the  cat  and  some  species  of  dog 
etc.,  rats  frequently  find  destructive  enemies  in  each 
other,  both  in  the  adult  and  young  state.  The 
strongest  of  the  species  prey  upon  the  weaker,  and 
are  the  most  merciless  destroyers  of  their  own  kind. 
The  cunning  of  these  rats  is  not  less  than  their  impu- 
dence ;  it  is  almost  imjxjssible  to  take  them  in  traps, 
after  one  or  two  have  been  thus  caught,  as  the  rest 
avoid  it  witii  scrupulous  care,  however  tempting  may 
be  the  bait  it  contains. 

Black  Rat.  The  black  rat  was  much  more  com- 
mon previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  brown  rat 
than  at  present.  It  is  now  found  only  in  situations  to 
which  the  brown  rat  has  not  extended,  and  is  almost 
as  injurious  and  destructive,  resembling  it  closely  in 
manners  and  habits.  It  is  of  a  deep  iron-gray,  and 
indeed  nearly  of  a  black  color  above,  and  of  an  ash 
color  on  the  lower  part  of  its  body.  Its  legs  are  near- 
ly naked,  and  on  its  fore  feet,  instead  of  the  rudimen- 
tal  thumb,  it  has  a  claw.  The  length,  from  the  nose 
to  the  root  of  the  tail,  is  seven  inches;  the  tail  itself 
is  almost  eight  inches  long.  The  black  rat  was  also 
carried  from  Europe  to  this  country. 

Roof  Rat.  The  roof  rat,  or  white-bellied  rat  of 
the  Southern  States,  is  smaller  than  the  brown  rat. 
It  was  originally  from  Egypt,  where  it  frequented  the 
thatched  roofs  of  houses;  hence  its  name. 

Mouse.  The  house  mouse,  originally  from  Europe 
and  Asia,  is  grayish-brown,  finely  lined  with  darker, 
passing  into  ashy  lead,  with  reddish  tinge  on  the 
belly;  the  feet  are  ashy  brown. 

To  Destroy  and  Drive  Away  Rats  and  Mice. 
The  preparations  for  driving  away  and  destroying 
these  pests  are  numbered  by  hundreds,  so  that  it 
would  be  quite  out  of  place  to  attempt  to  give  all  of 
them.  We  therefore  will  give  a  few  of  the  effective. 
As  above  referred  to,  it  is  often  very  difficult  to  catch 
any  considerable  number  in  traps,  however  good  the 
trap  may  be,  for  they  are  so  cunning  as  to  avoid  them 
after  two  or  three  have  been  caught.  The  surest  way 
to  get  rid  of  them,  perhaps,  is  by  some  special  poison, 
or  by  means  of  peculiarly  scenting  the  traps.  Arsenic 
has  been  extensively  used  for  this  purpose,  but  the 
fatal  accidents  which  frequently  occur  when  this 
poison  is  kept  about  the  house  render  it  a  very  ob- 
jectionable resource.  Whatever  poison  is  prepared 
for  rats  or  mice,  it  is  well  to  place  close  beside  it  a 
shallow  vessel  of  water.  If  the  animal  can  obtain 
water  it  will  drink  as  soon  as  it  has  swallowed  the 
poison,  and  die  directly  on  the  sixit  instead  of  running 
to  its  hole,  perishing  there,  and  so  causing  a  disagree- 
able smell. 

Gum  camphor  placed  about  the  haunts  of  mice  will 


io82 


RA  TAFIA— REAPER. 


drive  them   away :  so   will   most  odoriferous   drugs. 

Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  squills  is  an 
excellent  poison  for  rats.  The  powder  should  be 
mixed  with  some  fatty  substance  and  spread  upon 
slices  of  bread.  The  pulp  of  onions  is  also  good. 
Rats  are  very  fond  of  either. 

To  Drive  Rats  Away  From  a  Building.  Dis- 
solve 2  ounces  glue,  2  ounces  tincture  assafoetida  and 
2  ounces  potash  in  water,  and  add  }^  ounce  phos- 
phorus to  the  mixture.  Then,  in  a  wire  cage  trap, 
baited  with  corn  meal  scented  with  pil  of  anise, 
catch  two  or  three  rats ;  if  they  are  very  numer- 
ous, more  rats  will  probably  be  necessary;  singe 
the  hair  partly  off  these  in  such  a  way  as  to  hurt 
them  as  little  as  possible,  then  give  them  a  slight 
coating  with  the  above  mixture,  heated  warm;  let 
them  loose  into  their  holes,  and  there  will  be  no  more 
trouble  with  the  rats  for  months  to  come.  This  mix- 
ture will  last  two  years.  Or,  take  chloride  of  lime, 
and  scatter  it  dry  all  around  and  into  their  holes,  and 
wherever  they  haunt,  and  they  will  leave  at  once. 

Ferrets  are  very  successful  exterminators  of  rats. 

As  prevention  is  better  than  cure,  it  is  wise  to  make 
all  buildings  rat-proof,  which  we  show  how  to  do  in 
the  article  on  Residence  and  elsewhere  in  this 
volume. 

Ratafia  (rat-a-fe'a),  a  fine  spirituous  liquor,  flavored 
with  •  cherries,  apricots,  peaches  or  other  fruit  and 
sweetened  with  sugar.  It  is  made  chiefly  for  the 
purpose  of  flavoring  pies,  puddings  and  other  dishes. 

Ratchet,  a  bar  or  mechanism  turning  upon  a  pivot 
while  the  other  end  falls  into  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  or 
rack,  allowing  the  latter  to  move  in  one  direction  on- 
ly,— used  for  preventing  backward  movement,  or  for 
converting  reciprocating  into  forward  motion.  A 
ratchet  wheel  is  one  with  slanting  teeth,  which  catch 
a  ratchet,  and  is  thus  prevented  from  turning  back. 

Ratchet  Wheel,  a  wheel  cut  with  teeth  like  those 
of  a  sa.v,  against  which  a  click  or  ratchet  presses, 
admitting  free  motion  to  the  wheel  in  one  direction, 
but  insuring  it  against  reverse  motion. 

Ratoon  (ra-toon),  a  sprout  from  the  root  of  the 
sugar  cane,  ramie,  etc.,  raised  in  the  Southern  States. 

Rat-tail,  like  a  rat's  tail  in  form ;  as,  a  rat-tail 
file,  which  is  round,  rasped  or  roughened  and  taper- 
ing. The  term  rat-tail  is  also  a  name  for  an  excres- 
cence growing  from  tlie  pastern  to  the  middle  of  the 
shank  of  a  horse.     See  page  801. 

Rattlesnake,  a  snake  with  a  series  of  horny  but- 
tons on  the  end  of  the  tail,  which  rattle.  More 
strictly,  it  is  a  snake  of  the  genus  Crotalus,  of  yael- 
lowish-brown  color,  and  having  rattles,  with  which 
they  make  a  noise  on  the  approach  of  danger. 

The  common  rattlesnake  is  three  to  four  feet  long, 
sulphur-brown  above,  with  two  rows  of  confluent, 
lozenge-shaped  brown  spots;  tail  black;  it  has  but 
few  teeth,  and  in  the  place  of  a  couple  it  has  a  pair  of 
sharp-pointed,  movable  fangs,  so  arranged  as  to  con- 
vey poison  from  a  gland  at  their  base  into  the  wound 


which  they  inflict  upon  an  animal.  It  has  a  deep 
pit  between  the  eye  and  the  nostril.  The  snake  is 
generally  sluggish  and  never  attacks  animals  unless 
disturbed  or  hungry;  but  the  slightest  noise  will 
arouse  it,  when  it  will  immediately  coil,  rattle  vio- 
lently and  strike  at  whatever  comes  within  reach.  It 
never  pursues  the  object  of  its  anger,  as  some  people 
imagine,  but  strikes  on  the  six)t,  recoils  and  repeats 
the  blow  as  often  as  it  can  until  it  ascertains  that  its 
enemy,  real  or  imagined,  is  gone.  Its  food  is  young 
rabbits,  squirrels,  birds  and  toads,  which  it  secures  by 
lying  in  wait  for  them.  The  number  of  rattles  do  not 
indicate  the  numlser  of  years  of  age  of  this  snake,  as 
has  been  supix)sed. 

The  Diamond  rattlesnake  of  the  Southern  Atlantic 
States  is  eight  feet  long. 

The  Prairie  rattlesnake,  or  Massasauga,  is  of  an- 
other genus  than  the  foregoing,  growing  to  the  length 
of  20  or  30  inches. 

The  Copperhead  and  Water  Moccasin  are  members 
of  the  rattlesnake  family,  but  are  of  diff'erent  genera 
from  all  the  foregoing.  The  latter  flourishes  in  the 
Southern  States  only  and  is  more  dangerous  than  the 
Common  rattlesnake,  as  it  hangs  on  low  branches  of 
trees  over  the  water  and  atfacks  everything  that 
comes  along  without  giving  the  slightest  warning. 

As  the  country  becomes  more  densely  populated, 
all  these  venomous  reptiles  are  gradually  killed  off", 
until  they  will  finally  disappear  altogether.  For  the 
treatment  of  their  bites,  see  page  10 1. 

Razor,  For  instructions  to  hone,  strap  and  keep 
razor  in  order,  see  Shaving. 

Reach :  see  Coupling  Pole. 

Ready  Reckoner,  a  book  which  contains  extended 
mathematical  tables,  to  supersede  tedious  arithmetical 
calculations.  Many  kinds  have  been  published,  but 
they  are  generally  found  to  be  more  tedious  to  operate 
than  the  ordinary  common-school  method.  To  the 
farmer  they  are  therefore  of  no  practical  value. 

Reaper,  a  machine  for  cutting  cereal  grains,  by 
means  of  horse  labor.  It  is  one  of  the  grandest  agri- 
cultural inventions  of  modern  times.  While  as  far  back 
as  2,000  years  ago  there  were  machines  used  for  cut- 
ting grain  driven  by  oxen,  yet  it  is  only  within  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century  that  the  modern  machine 
has  been  considered  a  success.  Inventors,  how- 
ever, have  been  triumphant  in  overcoming  all 
obstacles  and  objections,  and  now  the  American 
reaper  has  a  world-wide  reputation. 

The  successful  introduction  of  these  machines  was 
an  immeasurable  step  in  advance  ujxin  the  old  meth- 
ods of  cutting  grass.  They  come  in  at  a  season  when 
the  work  of  a  farm  is  peculiarly  laborious,  when  labor 
is  held  at  higher  than  the  usual  high  rate  of  wages, 
when  the  weather  is  often  fickle,  either  oppressively 
hot  and  trying  to  the  physical  system,  or  catchy  and 
lowering,  and  they  relieve  the  severest  strain  uix)n 
the  muscles  at  the  time  of  harvest.  Our  reapers  are 
at  the  same  time  self-rakers.  We  can  reap  and  gather 


REAR—REFRIGERA  TOR. 


1083 


from  15   to  20  acres  a  day  in  the  most  satisfactory 
manner. 

In  1870  inventive  talent  was  earnestly  directed  to 
self-binding  machines.  The  first  successful  attempt 
in  this  direction  was  tlie  Marsh  harvester,  which  cut 
the  grain  and  carried  it  to  tables  at  which  two  ex- 
pert binders  would  tie  the  bands  as  fast  as  delivered, 
working  from  8  to  12  acres  per  day  according  to  the 
heft  and  standing  of  the  grain.  It  will  not  be  neces- 
sary to  follow  inventive  talent  further  in  the  perfection 
of  reaping  machines:  suffice  it  to  say,  the  earlier  in- 
ventions have  been  improved  on  and  elaborated. 
Lightness  of  draft  combined  with  great  strength ;  the 
avoidance  of  undue  friction,  and  last,  motion ;  the 
power  of  starting  with  a  clean  cut  in  heavy,  and,  in- 
deed, green  and  tangled  bottom ;  automatic  raking, 
and  later  automatic  binding,  and  the  delivery  of  the 
bound  sheaves  in  piles  ready  for  shocking, — all  these 
points  have  been  successfully  elaborated  within  the 
last  decade.  Besides  this,  machines  do  not  now 
easily  get  out  of  order. 

Rear,  to  raise  up  the  fore  part  of  the  body  and 
stand  on  the  hind  feet  only  :  said  generally  of  horses. 

Rearing,  of  horse  :  seepage  712. 

Receipts  and  Bills.  One  of  the  simplest  trans- 
actions of  business  is  that  of  taking  a  receipt  for  the 
payment  of  money.  As  a  general  rule,  receipts  should 
be  taken  for  the  payment  of  money,  and  a  receipted 
bill  in  payment  of  all  things  purchased.  A  bill  re- 
ceipted is  especially*  important  when  one  is  in  the 
habit  of  buying  on  credit,  for  the  most  careful  mer- 
chant may  present  you  a  bill  you  have  already  paid, 
and  a  careless  merchant  is  more  liable  to  do  it.  See 
that  the  bills  are  dated  and  signed.  Examine'  the 
extensions  and  footings. 

Red-bud,  or  Judas  Tree,,  a  low  tree  common  in 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  from  latitude 
41°  southward.  Its  principal  merit  is  in  yielding  a 
showy  head  of  crimson  flowers  in  early  spring  before 
the  leaves  appear.  Its  seed  is  produced  in  pods  like 
peas.  A  European  species  has  larger  flowers,  and  is 
barely  hardy  in  the  Northern  States  except  as  a 
shrub,  where  it  is  sometimes  set  in  the  landscape. 
Still  another  variety  flourishes  in  California  and  Texas. 

Red  Clover :  see  Clover. 

Red  Lead,  the  red  oxide  of  lead;  used  principally 
in  painting,  plumbing  and  the  manufacture  of  flint 
glass. 

Red  Pepper:  see  Pepper. 

Red-top,  a  well-known  grass  raised  for  hay. — 
probably  next  in  value  to  timothy:  see  page  593. 

Red  Water,  a  common  and  severe  disease  in  cattle 
and  sheep.  For  Sheep  see  that  article,  for  Cattle  see 
page  238. 

Reel,  the  revolving  frame  of  a  reaping  machine, 
to  throw  the  standing  grain  against  the  knives;  also 
the  instrument  attached  to  the  but  of  an  angling  or 


fishing-rod  for  winding  in  the  line:  see  page  479. 

Refrigerant  (re-frij'er-ant),  cooling,  freezing. 

Refrigerator,  a  box  for  keeping  articles  cool  in 
summer  by  means  of  ice.  In  the  articles  Ice  and  Ice 
House  we  spoke  of  the  value  of  ice  during  the  sum- 
mer season,  and  gave  instructions  for  building  ice- 
houses, putting  up  and  preserving  ice.  In  con- 
nection with  the  plans  illustrated  in  the  latter  article 
we  wish  to  give  a  most  excellent  design  for  a  large 
refrigerator,  one  which  requires  but  one  fiUing  during 
the  year.  The  plan  represents  a  building  25  feet 
square,  inside  measure,  and  22  feet  from  the  floor  of 


A   Large  Re/rigerntor. 

the  cold  room  to  the  ceiling  over  the  ice.  The  ice 
room  is  12  feet  high  and  the  cold  room  nine  feet. 
Pillars  are  required  under  the  center  of  the  ice.  The 
opening  for  putting  in  the  ice,  shown  just  under  the 
pulley  in  the  illustration,  has  two  doors,  with  a  space 
between.  Each  door  is  a  foot  in  thickness.  The 
window  in  the  cold  room  has  three  set  of  sash.  The 
walls  are  13  inches  thick,  of  brick,  lined  with  17 
inches  sawdust.  Thirty-six  inches  of  sawdust  are 
put  on  the  floor  over  the  ice. 

The  drainage  of  the  ice  is  carried  off  by  a  series  of 
V-shaped  tin  or  iron  troughs,  which  run  between  the 
joists,  all  of  which  carry  the  water  to  one  jxjint,  where 
it  is  conveyed  outside  by  a  trap  pipe.  These  troughs 
reach  over  to  the  center  of  the  top  of  the  joists,  and 
are  soldered  together,  so  that  no  water  will  drip  on 
tlie  floor  below.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  plan 
there  is  no  sawdust  or  other  preservative  in  contact 
with  the  ice,  and  the  air  of  the  room  circulates  around 
and  over  the  ice.  As  long  as  the  temperature  of  the 
goods  stored  is  above  the  temperature  of  the  room, 
there  will  be  a  gentle  draft  around  the  mass  of  ice, 
and  of  course  all  the  moisture  in  the  air,  vajxjrs  and 
odors  from  the  goods,  will  condense  on  the  ice  and 
pass  off,  so  that  you  can  keep  milk,  cream,  butter, 


1084 


REIN— RESIDENCE. 


fruits  and  meats  all  in  the  same  chamber  without 
danger  of  injuring  the  flavor  of  either.  The  atmos- 
phere of  the  room  is  always  dry,  sweet  and  pure,  and 
the  temperature  will  range  from  34°  in  winter  to 
36°  in  summer,  and  will  preserve  fruit  perfectly  from 
season  to  season.  The  ice  does  not  rest  directly  on 
the  joists;  but  there  is  a  bed  of  oak  lath,  about  1  y^ 
by  3  inches,  laid  across  the  joists,  about  4  or  5  inches 
apart,  on  which  the  ice  is  laid. 

Rein,  the  guiding  strap  of  a  bridle,— generally  used 
in  the  plural,  as  "the  reins." 

Remittent  or  Bilious  Fever.  This  form  of 
periodical  fever  is  scarcely  less  common  than  the  in- 
termittent fever  or  fever  and  ague.  It  differs  from 
it  in  being  more  violent  in  its  attack,  as  well  as  in 
having  its  first  and  last  stages  less  distinct,  and  its 
middle  or  hot  stage  of  much  longer  continuance,  so 
that  the  intermission  is  very  short,  and  in  some  cases 
scarcely  observable. 

Marsh  miasma  is  considered  the  general  remote 
cause  of  remittent  as  well  as  intermittent  fever.  Thus 
it  is  mostly  confined  to  low  grounds  or  marshy  dis- 
tricts, and  places  bordering  on  sluggish  streams. 
The  disease  is  more  common  in  Southern  latitudes 
and  occurs  mostly  in  autumn. 

Symptoms.  A  sense  of  languor  or  debility,  and  re- 
laxation, attended  with  lassitude  and  peevishness,  or 
irritableness  of  temper.  Generally  there  is  a  remark- 
ablyincreased  sensitiveness  to  cold,  and  shortly  before 
the  febrile  paroxysms  set  in,  there  is  a  distressing  ten- 
derness of  the  skin,  so  that  the  slightest  touch  causes 
pain.  At  tmies,  transient  chills,  alternated  with 
slight  flashes  of  heat,  are  experienced  at  this  stage. 
These  symptoms  continue,  longer  or  shorter,  until 
finally  the  fever  is  fully  established.  The  sufferings 
of  the  patient  are  now  much  enhanced  by  intense  pains 
in  the  head,  eyes,  back  and  limbs,  particularly  in  the 
bones  of  the  legs.  There  is  also  an  intolerable  sore- 
ness of  the  flesh,  lasting  for  many  days.  The  skin  is 
dry,  and  the  mouth  and  eyes  also  lacjj  moisture.  The 
tongue  is  covered  with  a  thick  brownish-yellow  fur, 
and  the  thirst  intolerable.  These  symptoms,  accom- 
panied with  a  high  fever,  run  on  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
period,  when  they  moderate  down  somewhat,  or  give 
way  entirely,  for  a  short  time,  to  a  slight  perspiration. 
This  remission  generally  occurs  in  the  morning,  and 
lasts  only  an  hour  or  two,  when  another  paroxysm, 
perhaps  much  more  severe,  sets  in. 

Treatment.  If  treatment  is  begun  in  the  heat  of  a 
paroxysm,  and  the  pulse  is  hard,  full  and  quick,  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  for  the  comfort  of  the  patient  is 
to  cool  the  surface,  either  by  a  cold  shower  bath,  wet 
sheets,  or  sponging,  as  the  strength  of  the  patient,  or 
other  circumstances,  may  indicate.  The  paroxysm  is 
usually  broken  up  by  this  means,  and  a  free  perspira- 
tion and  refreshing  sleep  will  often  ensue.  The  bath- 
ing should  be  continued  until  the  desired  effect  is 
produced.  An  emetic  comix)sed  of  equal  parts  of 
lobelia  and  sanguinaria  may  now  be  given,  and  its 
operation  promoted  by  liberal  draughts  of  boneset  tea. 


If,  after  the  operation  of  the  emetic,  the  pulse  be 
soft  and,  in  the  adult  age,  not  over  75  or  80  to  the 
minute,  and  the  skin  is  moist,  it  may  only  be  neces- 
sary to  follow  up  the  use  of  some  diaphoretic  drink,  as 
the  infusion  of  boneset,  or  the  acetate  of  anmionia.    ' 

On  the  following  day,  a  cathartic  should  be  given. 

The  bowels  must  be  kept  free.  As  soon  as  an  inter- 
mission is  produced,  and  in  cases  where  there  is  no 
delirium  or  tendency  to  congestion  in  the  head,  the 
best  anti-intermittent  tonics,  as  quinine,  should  be 
employed.  When  there  is  much  headache  or  delirium, 
a  mustard  plaster  applied  to  the  ankles  and  nape 
of  the  neck,  will  be  serviceable. 

Rennet,  a  liquid  preparation  for  coagulating  milk. 
See  page  246. 

Renting.  The  renting  of  a  farm  is  very  fully  dis- 
cussed on  page  430 ;  the  directions  of  renting  or 
leasing  is  in  article  Lease,  and  the  manner  of  keeping 
books  where  a  farm  is  rented  on  the  shares  is  shown 
on  page  129. 

Reservoir  (rez-er-voir),  a  place  where  anything  is 
kept  in  store;  especially,  a  place  where  water  is  col- 
lected and  kept  for  use  when  wanted,  as  to  supply  a 
fountain,  a  canal,  or  a  city,  by  means  of  aqueducts, 
or  to  drive  a  mill-wheel,  and  the  like;  a  tank  for 
holding  hot  water  on  a  stove  or  furnace ;  a  cistern  •  a 
mill-pond;  a  basin.     See  Stove. 

Residence.  The  erection  of  a  residence,  the 
building  of  a  house  which  one  expects  to  call  home, 
is  certainly  a  matter  of  vital  imjxfttance.  Especially  is 
this  true  to  the  fanner,  who  spends  a  much  larger 
share  of  his  time  at  home  than  do  men  in  villages 
and  cities,  who  are  following  other  vocations.  All  of 
the  conveniences,  comforts  and  attractions  possible 
should  be  provided  for  his  family.  There  is  no  other 
place  where  the  expenditure  of  money  and  labor  will 
be  so  greatly  appreciated  and  enjoyed  as  in  the  home. 
The  lives  of  the  farmer  and  his  family  are  whiled 
away  in  their  rural  homes,  and  therefore  every  exer- 
tion should  be  made  to  please  and  accommodate 
every  member  of  the  household.  With  the  proper 
care  and  due  amount  of  attention,  and  perhaps  with 
the  expenditure  of  a  little  extra  money,  all  the  neces- 
sary conveniences  and  comforts  may  be  provided, 
even  for  a  small  cottage. 

A  farmer  should  not  begin  the  erection  of  even 
the  sniallest  building  without  having  ])reviously  pre- 
pared or  adopted  a  well  digested  plan.  He  should 
not  be  satisfied  with  merely  a  general  idea  of  the  size 
and  style  of  the  building  he  wishes  to  erect.  The 
style  and  plan  of  the  exterior  should  be  fully  matured 
and  every  detail  of  internal  arrangement  should  be 
determined  before  the  ground  is  broken.  The  size 
and  location  of  the  various  rooms,  halls,  closets, 
pantry,  etc.,  and  the  exact  place  of  doors,  windows, 
stairway  and  chimneys  should  all  be  settled  u|X)n  be- 
fore commencing,  or  serious  delay  and  much  extra 
expense  will  be  occasioned. 

Location.     After  having  determined  to  build,  one 


RESIDENCE. 


1085 


of  the  first  things,  and  a  most  hnportant  thing,  to 
determine,  is  the  location.  We  have  discussed  the 
location  of  farms  in  the  article  upon  that  subject,  but 
there  are  several  items  to  consider  in  locating  a  resi- 
dence on  any  particular  spot  upon  the  farm.  First 
among  these  is  that  of  healthfulness.  Very  often  the 
most  attractive  location,  with  reference- to  the  sur- 
rounding landscape,  is  not  the  most  desirable  for  the 
health  of  the  family.  This  feature  should  not  be  over- 
looked by  any  means.  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
site  should  be  the  most  beautiful  on  the  farm.  If 
the  luxury  of  a  clear  running  stream,  or  a  sheet  of 
water  in  repose,  present  itself,  it  should  be  enjoyed  if 
possible.  The  vicinity  of  stagnant  swamps  and 
marshes,  the  borders  of  sluggish  streams,  and  situa- 
tions where  the  soil  is  too  retentive  of  moisture  and 
cannot  be  easily  drained,  should  be  avoided.  Elevat- 
ed places  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  marshes  or 
swamps  are  liable  to  be  quite  as  much  affected  by 
the  malaria  as  the  low  grounds  themselves. 

The  site  of  the  dwelling  should  be  dry  and  slightly 
declining,  if  [wssible,  on  every  side.  The  north  side 
of  a  high  hill  or  ridge,  where  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
are  excluded  during  a  greater  portion  of  the  time,  is 
entirely  unfit  for  a  location  of  a  residence.  In  a 
northern  climate,  a  southern  or  a  southeastern  expos- 
ure with  sheltering  hills  on  the  north  is  generally  pre- 
ferred. The  house  should  be  situated  so  as  to  present 
an  agreeable  appearance  from  the  road  by  which  it 
is  approached  or  from  the  main  points  from  which  it 
is  viewed.  It  should  be  so  located  that  all  the  out- 
buildings may  be  easy  of  access.  A  grove  or  belt  of 
well  grown  forest  trees  or  evergreens  to  serve  as  a 
shelter,  adds  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  location. 
What  the  surroundings  or  landscape  should  be  after 
the  residence  is  built,  is  very  fully  shown  in  the  ar- 
ticle on  Landscape  Gardening,  and  that  of  planting 
trees  for  protection,  in  Forestry. 

A  good  supply  of  water  is  essential,  and  should  be 
one  of  the  first  things  inquired  about  in  choosing  a 
six)t  to  build  upon.  The  supply  should  not  only  be 
abundant,  but  the  water  should  be  of  the  best  quality. 

Style  of  the  Plan.  The  site  selected,  and 
the  character  of  the  scenery  surrounding  it,  have  very 
much  to  do  with  the  general  style  of  the  residence. 
It  should  harmonize  with  the  surroundings  ae  much 
as  it  should  be  symmetrical  in  itself  A  plan  may  be 
admirable  in  itself,  yet  unsuited  to  a  particular  spot. 
The  amount  desired  to  be  expended  in  the  erection 
of  the  house  of  course  is  the  ruling  point  in  deciding 
the  style,  for  a  large  house  must  necessarily  be  differ- 
ent in  general  architectural  outline  from  a  small  one. 
After  having  selected  the  location  and  decided  on  the 
amount  of  money  desired  to  be  invested,  the  plan 
should  be  decided  u[X)n  and  well  studied.  Do  not 
be  too  hasty  in  accepting  any  plan.  Look  it  over 
carefully.  Remember  this  is  to  be  your  home.  See 
tliat  every  room,  door,  window,  etc.,  is  in  the  most 
convenient  and  suitable  jjlace. 

There  is  no  national  style  of  rural  architecture  in  this 
country,  nor  is  there  any  style   properly  adapted  to 


every  section.  Every  locality  and  every  farmer  may 
have  a  stylo  particularly  adapted  to  its  or  his  wants  and 
tastes  without  infringing  on  any  established  rules  of 
architecture.  The  materials  to  be  used  in  construc- 
tion will  necessarily  have  an  influence  in  selecting 
the  style.  A  given  style  may  perhaps  be  executed  in 
either  stone,  brick,  or  wood,  but  will  not  be  equally 
adapted  to  each.  Whatever  size  or  style  may  be 
decided  upon,  proper  attention  should  be  given  to 
neatness,  symmetry  and  architectural  taste  in  the  con-  • 
struction  of  the  residence.  Costly  ornament  is  not 
recommended,  but  rather  a  tasteful  simplicity. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  speak  of  the  great  advan- 
tages which  a  dwelling  with  beautiful  surroundings 
possesses  over  one  that  is  unattractive  or  positively 
repulsive.  But  it  may  be  well  to  remark  that  an 
agreeable  home  must  have  three  essential  requisites, 
and  these  are  a  neat,  well-arranged  and  pleasing  in- 
terior :  a  symmetrical,  architectural  and  home-like 
expression  of  the  house  outside  (not  necessarily  ornate 
or  elaborate,  but  rather  the  reverse);  and  handsomely 
planted  and  well  kept  grounds  around  it.  Men  often 
put  too  much  money  in  ambitious  buildings  and  cost- 
ly structures,  when  a  twentieth  part  of  the  difference 
between  these  and  more  modest  dwellings,  would 
secure  infinitely  more  beauty  in  the  grounds.  You 
can  see  in  almost  any  neighborhood  a  striking  con- 
trast between  homes.  Here  you  may  see  a  large, 
showy  and  expensive  dwelling  with  an  unplanted  and 

bleak  exterior,  and 
with  nothing  to 
make  it  really  at- 
tractive; and  an- 
other house,  costing 
much  less, converted 
into  a  rural  paradise, 
by  blooming  shrub- 
bery, brilliant  flow- 
er-beds , a  green 
velvet  of  grass,  and  ornamental  trees  nearer  the 
boundary.  It  was  once  not  very  unusual  to  see  the 
contrast  between  the  cheaper  class  of  cottages— the 
one  marked  with  neglect,  with  dilapidated  walls- 
hats  and  rags  thrust  into  broken  windows,  obsolete 
barrels,  broken  boxes,  heaps  of  rubbish,  and  slop 
puddles  about  the  premises,  as  shown  by  Fig.  i  ; 
and  the  other  a  gem  of  neatness — a  white-walled, 
vine-embowered 
home,  with  its  glad 
surroundings  as  aptly 
illustrated  by  Fig.  2. 
We  need  not  ask 
which  would  have  the 
best  educating  influ- 
ence on  the  young  :  .■ 
members  of  the  fam- 
ilies   who    occupied 

them,  and  whether  it  is  ]X)ssible  to  make  a  better  in- 
vestment of  time  and  labor  than  in  the  few  miimtes 
expended  daily  morning  and  evening  in  brushing  up 
and  improving  such  a  home. 


Fig. 


"^^S«S 


I 


io86 


RESIDENCE. 


Materials.  The  material  most  universally  used 
in  this  country  for  the  construction  of  farm  buildings 
is  wood.  This  is  the  result  of  its  abundance  and 
cheapness,  and  its  suitableness  for  the  kind  and  style 
of  buildings  generally  desired.  Where  permanence, 
however,  is  desired,  and  the  style  of  architecture  will 
admit,  stone  or  brick  is  the  better  material.  Stone  is 
more  durable  than  wood,  requires  no  paint,  its  color 
is  a  natural  and  agreeable  one,  be  it  what  it  may, 
although  some  shades  are  more  agreeable  than  others, 
and  some  more  durable  than  others.  As  the  farmer 
will  generally  be  controlled  in  his  selection  by  the 
abundance  and  cheapness  of  the  various  materials  in 
his  locality,  we  cannot  urge  upon  him  the  adoption  of 
either  in  preference  to  the  others;  but  never  use  any 
false  materials.  Never  try  to  imitate  stone  or  brick 
with  stucco  or  plaster.  It  never  pays.  When  brick 
is  used  see  that  they  are  well  burnt  and  of  uniform 
color,  especially  those  placed  on  the  outside.  The 
walls  of  such  dwellings  should  be  hollow,  thus  pre- 
venting dampness,  affording  better  ventilation  and  a 
saving  of  materials.  When  not  hollow,  however, 
they,  as  well  as  stone  walls,  should  be  "furred  off." 
This  is  a  method  of  leaving  a  space  of  from  one  to 
two  inches  between  the  walls  and  plastering,  by 
means  of  perpendicular  strips  nailed  to  pieces  of  wood 
laid  in  the  walls,  and  upon  which  strips  the  lathing  is 
nailed. 

Foundation.  To  secure  the  stability  of  a  house 
the  foundation  must  be  laid  in  a  sound  and  substan- 
tial manner.  This  jxjint  is  too  often  neglected  and  the 
result  of  settling  are  cracks  in  the  walls  and  plaster- 
ing, unevenness  of  the  floor,etc., — defects  generally  in- 
curable except  at  great  expense.  No  general  rule  for 
the  depth  of  foundation  can  apply  to  every  case. 
This  must  be  regulated  by  local  circumstances, — only 
caution  should  be  always  used  and  sound,  hard  earth 
reached  upon  which  to  begin  the  foundation.  Should 
there  be  soft  places  arches  should  be  turned  over 
them.  The  thickness  of  the  foundation  walls,  which 
should  always  be  of  stone  or  well  burned  brick,  must 
be  regulated  according  to  the  height  and  size  of  the 
building  and  the  material  used,  but  always  be  sure 
to  have  them  sufficiently  heavy.  The  lowest  part  of 
the  wall  or  footing  should  be  considerably  thicker 
than  the  wall  above. 

Cellar.  This  is  certainly  an  important  depart- 
ment of  the  farm  residence,  yet  often  they  are  so 
poorly  constructed  as  to  be  wholly  unfit  for  the  pur- 
poses intended,  and  frequently  are  the  means  of 
breeding  foul  air,  which  finds  its  way  throughout  the 
house.  See  pages  849-850,  under  sub-head  of  Air. 
A  cellar  should  be  cool  in  summer,  free  from  frost  in 
winter  and  dry  at  all  times.  It  should  be  well  drained 
and  thoroughly  ventilated.  Unless  these  ix>ints  are 
observed  the  cellar  will  be  a  detriment  instead  of 
the  useful  and  valuable  feature  of  the  farm  house  it 
is  intended  to  be.  The  cellar  wall,  if  of  brick,  should 
be  hollow,  which  will  make  it  dry  and  keep  the  frost 
from  going  through  it;  and  if  of  stone  it  should  be  at 
least  18  inches  thick,  well  laid  in  good  mortar.      It 


should  rise  two  or  three  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  be  provided  with  double  windows  and  outside 
door,  with  stairway  convenient  and  well  protected. 

To  render  a  house  rat  and  mouse  proof,  first  lay 
bricks  tightly  in  over  the  sills  between  the  base-board 
and  siding;  secondly,  ixiison  the  lower  edge  and  seems 
of  the  base-board  with  corrosive  sublimate  or  arsenic 
just  before  it  is  nailed  in,  so  that  a  mouse  or  rat  will 
not  undertake  to  gnaw  through  without  getting 
poisoned;  thirdly,  have  all  the  furniture  in  the  house 
out  far  enough  from  the  wall,  so  that  when  a  rat  or 
mouse  takes  refuge  behind  them  he  can  be  easily  at- 
tacked with  a  stick  or  a  cat. 

Ventilation.  Perhaps  there  is  no  subject  of  such 
vital  importance  so  much  neglected  as  ventilation. 
Poor  ventilation  is  the  cause  of  many  headaches  and 
ills.  The  farmer  and  his  family,  however,  have 
many  advantages  over  those  residing  in  cities,  in  that 
the  surrounding  atmosphere  is  generally  sweet  and 
pure  and  their  calling  takes  them  much  into  the  open 
air.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  go  into  all  the  details 
of  this  subject,  it  being  admitted  by  all  that  pure  air 
is  essential  to  health.  We  will  therefore  only  give 
the  most  simple  means  for  securing  the  proper  amount 
of  such  air.  Ventilation  includes  the  removal  of 
foul  air  and  the  introduction  of  pure  air,  and  this 
process  must  be  carried  on  without  producing  injuri- 
ous currents,  for  a  blast  of  cold  air  direct  upon  a 
person  is  far  more  detrimental  to  him  than  foul  air. 

Ventilation  is  not  always  easily,  cheaply  and  satis- 
factorily secured.  Much  has  been  written  upon  this 
subject  and  yet  there  is  a  variety  of  opinion  as  to  the 
most  effective  methods  of  securing  a  proper  amount 
of  pure  air  in  each  room  of  a  residence.  Where  there 
is  an  open  fire-place  in  a  room  no  other  means  for 
ventilation  is  required,  as  this  forms  one  of  the  very 
best  of  ventilators.  But  these  are  not  in  every  room, 
nor  even  in  every  house.  To  secure  perfect  ventila- 
tion every  room  in  the  house,  even  closets,  and  es- 
pecially sleeping  rooms,  should  be  so  arranged  that 
a  current  of  out-door  air  may  pass  through  them. 
During  much  of  the  year  windows  that  may  be  easily 
lowered  from  the  top,  together  with  the  opening  and 
closing  of  outside  doors,  afford  ample  ventilation  for  a 
residence  ;  but  this  does  not  answer  in  cold  weather. 

Where,  buildings  are  heated  with  hot-air  furnaces 
ventilation  may  be  effected  by  means  of  large  air-pipes 
with  suitable  ducts  for  the  discharge  of  the  air  of  the 
room.  If  sufficient  water  is  evaporated  to  prevent 
dryness  they  afford  good  means  for  both  heating  and 
ventilating  a  house.  Many  advocate,  as  a  simi)le 
means  of  ventilation,  the  arrangement  of  an  opening 
near  the  ceiling  for  the  escape  of  the  foul  air,  while 
others  contend  it  is  better  to  be  placed  near  the  floor, 
the  latter  claiming  that  the  air,  being  colder  near  the 
floor  and  warmer  toward  the  ceiling,  the  colder  is  sent 
out  and  the  warmer  retained.  They  further  claim 
that  no  material  difference  exists  in  the  purity  near 
the  floor  and  near  the  ceiling,  as  they  soon  become  in- 
timately intermixed.  They  further  advocate  that  if 
the  escape  is  made  near  the  ceiling,  as  is  sometimes 


RESIDENCE. 


1087 


done,  the  hot  air  rushes  to  the  top  and  passes  out 
without  heating  the  rest  of  the  room,  which  remains 
cold,  as  well  as  impure,  at  the  bottom, — which,  as  Dr. 
Kcdzie  remarks, "is  like  the  housewife  throwing  away 
the  cream  that  rises  to  the  top,  while  carefully  pre- 
serving the  skim-milk  that  remains  at  the  bottom." 
The  occupants  of  the  room,  therefore,  while  they  may 
have  the  head  warm  will  inevitably  suffer  from  cold 
feet. 

Air  may  be  admitted  through  a  perforated  zinc 
plate,  or  fine  wire  gauze  inserted  in  a  window  instead 
of  a  pain  of  glass.  But  a  perfect  system  of  ventila- 
tion, effective  at  all  seasons  and  operating  in  all  the 
apartments  of  the  house,  requires  a  series  ef  ventilat- 
ing flues,  provided  with  necessary  valves,  and  all 
leading  into  a  larger  flue  or  shaft  in  which  a  current 
is  constantly  kept  up,  both  winter  and  summer. 
This  may  be  done  through  the  medium  of  the  kitchen 
fire,  which  may  be  applied  in  various  ways  according 
to  the  circumstances  and  the  ingenuity  of  the  builder. 

Chimney-.  This  is  certainly  an  important  item  in 
house  building,  and  though  it  would  seem  simple  and 
easy  to  construct  a  good  chimney,  yet  many  of  them 
are  so  badly  made  as  to  be  a  continual  source  of 
annoyance  and  even  danger.  In  building  chimneys, 
the  joints  between  bricks  should  be  well  filled  with 
mortar,  and  they  should  be  smoothly  plastered  up  on 
the  inside.  They  may  be  carried  to  one  side  or  the 
other  without  damage  if  it  is  done  evenly  and  the 
inside  well  rounded.  No  timber  should  rest  on  the 
chimney  or  extend  into  it.  The  opening  at  the  top 
should  be  contracted  so  as  to  break  the  force  of  any 
downward  currents  of  air  which  may  be  thrown  into 
it.  In  windy  or  exposed  situations  the  top  should  be 
contracted  to  one-third  less  than  the  area  of  the  flue. 

Much  taste  should  be  shown  in  the  construction  of 
the  chimney  top,  for  nothing  adds  more  to  the  beauty 
of  the  exterior  of  a  house  than  the  style  of  its  chim- 
ney tops.  They  should  be  of  proper  height  and  pro- 
portion so  as  to  look  tasteful  as  well  as  draw  properly. 

The  shape  of  a  chimney  as  well  as  its  size  has 
much  to  do  with  its  efficiency  to  draw.  A  chimney 
with  flue  four  by  eight  will  take  five  brick  to  the 
layer.  This  will  not  answer  for  more  than  one  stove. 
A  chimney  with  flue  eight  inches  square  will  only 
require  six  bricks  to  the  layer  or  30  to  the  foot,  and 
will  accommodate  three  stoves.  The  same  number 
of  bricks  to  the  layer  will  also  build  a  flue  four  by  12 
inches,  if  made  20  inches  wide  and  12  deep  instead 
of  square.  In  this,  however,  the  capacity  is  not  so 
trreat,  as  may  easily  be  seen,  although  the  quantity  of 
brick  used  is  the  same.  In  the  square  chimney 
there  are  64  square  inches  in  the  flue  while  in  the 
other  there  are  but  48.  Not  only  this  but  the  square 
flue  will  never  fill  up  so  easily  and  will  always  draw 
better. 

Color.  The  color  used  in  painting  a  residence 
may  add  much  to  its  beauty,  or,  on  the  other  hand, 
detract  from  it.  Light,  cheerful  but  unobtrusive  col- 
ors, harmonizing  with   the    prevailing   hues   of    the 


country,  are  most  suitable.  The  various  shades  of 
fawn,  drab,  gray  and  brown  are  very  tasteful,  and  if 
the  cornices,  door  and  window  frames,  etc.,  are  nicely 
trimmed  with  a  darker  or  lighter  shade,  much  will  be 
added  to  its  beauty.  All  the  jxasitive  colors,  such  as 
red,  yellow,  blue,  green,  black  and  white  shoul^  never 
be  used.  It  is  poor  taste  to  use  white,  although  it  is 
very  frequently  done.  For  small  cottages  deeply 
embowered  in  evergreens  white  may  be  used,  as  the 
foliage  greatly  relieves  the  harshness  of  this  color. 

A  very  large  house  should  have  a  somewhat  som- 
ber hue ;  one  of  moderate  size,  a  light  and  pleasant 
shade ;  and  a  small  cottage  a  still  lighter  tint.  A 
residence  exposed  to  view  should  have  a  darker  hue 
than  one  hidden  by  dense  foliage.  Tf  the  main  walls 
be  a  dark  color  the  trimming  should  be  light,  but  if 
the  prevailing  color  of  the  structure  be  light  the  trim- 
mings should  be  of  a  darker  shade. 

Interior  Arrangements.  Much  of  the  comfort 
of  a  house  depends  upon  the  judicious  arrangement 
of  the  several  apartments,  and  this  should  receive 
the  especial  attention  of  the  one  who  expects  to  build. 
The  convenience  of  the  ladies  of  the  household  should 
be  consulted  on  this  point.  Do  not  sacrifice  the  con- 
venience of  the  entire  house  to  promote  the  comfort 
of  a  single  apartment,  but  try  to  so  arrange  that  the 
convenience  of  all  will  be  observed.  In  presenting 
the  plans  of  many  styles  and  sizes  of  houses  in  this 
article,  we  have  ever  borne  in  mind  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  the  entire  family.  The  saving  of  labor  is 
an  item  well  to  be  considered  and  one  that  should 
receive  the  careful  attention  of  every  person  who 
wishes  to  construct  a  house.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
in  the  designs  presented  in  this  connection  this  feature 
and  that  of  providing  the  most  room  in  each  residence 
have  been  studiously  kept  in  view. 

It  may  be  that  the  designs  we  present  will  not  ex- 
actly suit  the  taste  and  wants  of  all,  as  scarcely 
two  families  will  require  the  same  accommodations; 
however,  but  little  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
modifying  or  changing  any  of  these  to  suit  the  fancy 
of  anyone. 

The  modes  and  styles  of  finishing  the  inside  are  so 
varied  and  withal  so  changeable  that  it  is  quite  im- 
possible to  lay  down  any  rules  for  this.  Let  it  be 
well  and  neatly  done,  and  the  wood-work  painted  a 
suitable  color,  agreeable  neutral  tints,  perhaps,  being 
the  most  desirable.  The  ceilings  should  be  lightest, 
the  side  walls  a  little  darker  and  the  wood-work  a 
darker  shade  still,  and  the  carpet  darkest  of  all.  The 
halls  and  staircases  sould  be  of  a  cool,  sober  tone  of 
color  and  simple  in  decoration. 

DESIGNS   OF    RESIDENCES. 

In  presenting  the  following  designs  for  rural  resi- 
dences, much  care  has  been  exercised  in  their  prepa- 
ration to  make  every  arrangement,  as  above  indicated, 
convenient  and  pleasing.  They  may  be  modified  in 
any  way  to  suit  the  wants  and  tastes  of  any  person. 
Any  competent  carpenter  or  builder  can  construct  a 
house  according   to   the   designs   and   specifications 


io88 


RESIDENCE. 


given.     Of  course,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  give  the 
exact  cost  of  the  construction  for  every  locaHty,  as 
that  will  be  controlled  largely  by  local  circumstances 
and  the  time.     The  estimates,  however,  are  given, 
that  a  general  idea  of  their  cost  may  be  had.     In 
every  case  liberal   allow- 
ances are   made  both  in 
price  of  labor  and  cost  of 
material,  so  that  but  rarely 
will  the  cost  exceed   the 
estimate  given. 

A  Modern  Farm 
Residence.  The  princi- 
pal features  of .  a  farm 
house  are  comfort  and 
convenience,  but  archi- 
tectural beauty  and  sym- 
metry should  not  be  ig- 
nored. The  farmer  should 
have  as  handsome  and 
tasty  a  residence  as  the 
village  lawyer  or  doctor, 
and  in  its  general  features  Fig.  -^.—a  Modern 

it  need  not  differ  widely  from  that  of  either.  It  is 
mainly  its  adjuncts,  its  barns,  stables,  piggery,  poul- 
try house  and  other  out-buildings,  that  give  the  resi- 
dence  of   the  agriculturist  its  peculiar   appearance. 

In  the  design  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  3  we 
have  attempted  to 
furnish  thefarmerwith 
the  plan  of  a  tasty  resi- 
dence. The  exterior  is 
planned  principally  for 
architectural  beauty, 
having  an  observatory, 
liigher  gables  than  are 
really  necessary  for  any 
I  thing  but  appearance, 

but  which  gives  a  high 
"■      I  and  well  lighted  garret, 
rrhe  roof  is  of  tin,  the 
I  cornices  wide,  and  the 
house  set    three    feet 
above  the  ground.     A 
arge  tank  is  provided 
in  the    garret,    from 
which  is  carried  water, 
hot  and  cold,  wherever 
wanted  in  the  house, 
for  all  purjxjses  except" 
drinking  and  cooking. 
For  these    purposes   a 
cistern  should  be  built 
under  the   room  used 
for  fuel. 
F.G.  ^.-Main^  Floor.  ^^j^  building  may  be 

built  of  wood  or  brick,  as  the  relative  cheapness  of  the 
material  in  different  locatfons,  or  the   taste   of  the 
farmer,  may  select. 
The  house  is  wanned  by  a  furnace  of  full  capacity 


Farm  Residence. 


to  give  pure  air  from  outside  the  house,  heating  and 
sending  it  wherever  wanted  on  both  floors.  Ventila- 
tion is  secured  by  having  flues  in  the  walls,  extending 
from  the  base  boards  to  the  top  of  tlie  house,  and  in 
the  family  living  room   a  grate  is  provided. 

Drainage  of  the  house 
and  cellar  is  secured  by 
riles  that  go  around  the 
outside  of  the  cellar  walls, 
some  inches  below  their 
foundations.  Under  the 
cellar  bottom,  drains  of  2- 
inch  tile  concentrate  any 
water  that  might  rise,  and 
by  proper  descent  cany  it 
all  far  away  from  the 
house. 

There  are  two  cess-[X)ols 
— one  for  the  drainage  of 
the  kitchen  refuse,  the 
other  for  the  water-closets. 
The  cellar  is  eight  feet  be- 
tween joists.  Its  floor  is 
covered  by  cement ;  its  ceilingis  matched  boards,  nailed 
on  the  joists;  and  several  inches  of  mortar  on  this  ceil-- 
ing,  between  the  joists,  not  only  deaden  the  floor  of  the 
rooms  above,  but  cut  off  any  ix)ssible  exhalations  from 
the  cellar.  Division  walls  of  bricks  divide  the  cellar 
into  convenient  rooms,  and  windows  hung  on  hinges 
light  and  ventilate  it. 

The  side  entrance  is 
under  a  veranda,  and  is 
used  for  a  waiting  and 
business  room,  at  the 
same  time  furnishing 
conveniences  for  wash- 
ing, for  umbrellas,  over- 
coats, over-shoes,  etc. 
The  adjoining  closets, 
for  robes,  brooms,  etc., 
are  readily  accessible 
from  this  entrance. 
These  closets,  taken 
from  the  space  other- 
wise allotted  to  the  pan- 
try, without  abridging 
the  space  for  pantry 
shelves,  actually  im- 
prove them  by  bringing 
them  nearer  the  center, 
and  making  them  there- 
fore more  convenient 
for  use. 

There  are  no  winding 
stairs,  but  when  corners 
are  to  be  turned,  they 
are    turned   on    square  T^<^.  i-Second  Floor, 

platforms.  The  main  flight,  standing  in  a  recess  be- 
tween the  front  room  and  the  dining-room,  rises 
about  eight  feet,  which,  at  8  inches  to  the  step, 
would   make   about  twelve  steps;     then  a   platfonn 


RESIDENCE. 


1089 


about  eight  feet  long  by  three  and  a  half  feet  wide 
makes  the  half  turn  to  the  remainder  of  the  flight. 
Over  this  platform  is  an  oriel  window  that  lights 
the  stair,  as  well  as  the  back  end  of  the  lower  hall 
and  the  upper  hall,  and  gives  facilities  for  admitting 
air  and  sunshine.  Under  this  main  flight  are  stairs 
that  lead  to  the  cellar,  and  under  the  stair  platform 
is  the  store-room  opening  into  the  dining-room. 

The  following  is  the  arrangement  of  the  main  floor 
(Fig.  4):P  represents  the  parlor,  H  the  hall,  S  the 
sitting-room,  V  vestibule,  and  M  a  large  panel  mirror. 
D  indicates  the  dining-room,  B  bed-room,  K  kitchen, 
L  laundry,  P  pantry,  E  entry  from  side,  W  wardrobe, 
C  closets,  L  (just  to  the  rear  of  bed-room)  lavatory, 
S  T  store-room  and  S  shed. 

On  the  second  floor  B  indicates  bed-rooms,  of 
which  there  are  four  large,  well-lighted  ones,  D  dry- 
ing-room, S  servants'  rooms,  and  C  closets. 

Any  competent  mechanic  can  make  out  a  bill  of 
specifications  from  these  illustrations. 

By  Fig.  6  we  give  the  prespective' of  a  fine  two- 
story  frame  dwelling;  one  that  will  please  the  eye  of 
almost  any  one.  Not  only  has  beauty  of  exterior  re- 
ceived attention,  but  the  house  is  commended  for  its 
convenience  of  interior  arrangements. 

In  the  ground  plan  shown  by  Fig.  7,  P  represents 
parlor  14  x  14  ft.;  S,  to  the  rear  of  this  room,  shows  a 
sitting-room  or  back  parlor  10x14,  S,  to  the  right,  a 
sitting-room  13x15,  H  hall 
6x15,  D  dining-room  10  x  18, 
K  kitchen  gx  18. 

In  second  story  (Fig.  8)  C, 
at  front,  indicates  bed-room 
14  X  14,  C,  to  the  right,  a  bed- 
room 13x15  and  C  in  the  rear 
one  ro  X  14.  B  shows  bath- 
room 10x14  and  G  girl's 
room  9  X  15. 

Specifications.  The  bay- 
windows  are  2  feet  6  inches 
by  6  feet.  The  windows  in 
first  story  are  single,  3  feet  6 
inches  by  7  feet;  the  second  story  vvindows  are 
double,  2  feet  6  inches  by  6 
feet  each ;  attic  windows  2  feet 
6  inches  by  3  feet  6  inches. 
Front  door  of  two  panels,  with 
moulding  around  each,  4x8 
feet,  with  plate  glass ;  closet 
doors  2  feet  10  inches  by  6 
feet;  all  other  doors  3  feet  2 
inches  by  7  feet,  with  com- 
mon mortise  locks.  Founda- 
tion walls  12  inches  wide. 
Piers  8x8  inches.  First  story 
12  feet  high;  second  story  11 
feet;  attic  7  feet.  All  chim- 
neys of  two  6  inch  flues.  Interior  finish  of  pine,  with 
moulding  to   base,  door  and      '    ' 

69 


window,  glass  of  single  strength;  all  other  glass  to  be 
double  strength  American. 


.  7.— Ground  Flan  of 
Fig-  6. 


Fig.  Z.— Second  Story  of 
Fig.  6 


window  jamb.    Attic 


Via.  t.— Perspective  View  of  n  Handsome  Dwelling. 

Amount  of  Material. 
42  joists  10  feet  long,  2x10  inches. 
84  joists  1 1  feet  long,  2x10  inches. 
36  joists  15  feet  long,  2x10  inches. 
48  joists  14  feet  long,  2x10  inches. 
354  studs  12  feet  long,  2x6  inches. 
600  feet  of  plates,  girts   and  braces,  2x6  inches, 

convenient  lengths. 
164  feet  sills  6x6  inches,  convenient  length. 
Estimate  of  Cost.  The  following  estimate  of  cost 
of  material  and  labor  will  vary  much  according  to 
location  and  condition  of  the  rimes,  but  the  farmer 
can  form  a  good  idea  of  the  cost  of  a  residence  by 
these  figures.  He  can  easily  find  out  the  average 
value  of  material  in  his  locality  and  then  add  or  de- 
duct, as  required,  from  the  estimate : 

E.xcavation,  160  yards  at  20  cents $  30  00 

Brick  work,  23,800  at  $8 190  40 

Joists '. .  .        1 14  00 

Floonng,  3,200  feet 160  00 

Rafters 69  00 

Studding  and  framing 228  00 

Weather  boarding,  4,500  feet 2 15  00 

Shingles,  23,000,  at  $5 1 15  00 

Sheathing,  6,600  feet 165  00 

Gutters  and  cornices,  180  feet  at  38  cts.         68  40 
Doors,  including  hardware,  22  at  $10..        220  00 

Windows,  complete,  33  at  $8 297  00 

Bases,  600  feet  at  6  cents 36  00 

Porches,  stairs,  etc 160  00 

Painting  and  glazing 156  00 

Plumbing  and  gas 98  00 

Galvanized  iron  and  tin  work 89  00 

Iron  crestings 15  00 

Lathing  &  plastering,  1,314  yds  at  20  c.        262  80 

Grates  and  mantels 140  00 

Sundries 50  00 

Total. $2,878  60 

In  brick,  with  stone  foundation...  $3,670  00 


logo 


RESIDENCE. 


Gothic  Farm  RESiDENbE.  A  substantial  farm-house 
of  the  Gothic  style  is  represented  by  Fig.  9.  It  is 
built  of  stone.  The  cellar  is  constructed  only  under 
the  main  building, 
as  shown  in  the  cel- 
lar plan.  However, 
if  the  demand  for 
room  of  this  kind  re- 
quires it,  the  cellar 
may  be  constructed 
under  the  entire 
building. 

As  a  preventive 
of  dampness  the  first 
courses  of  stone 
above  ground  should 
be  laid  in  cement. 
Between  the  stone- 
work and  the  plaster- 
ing is  an  air  space, 
produced  by  furring 
out  with  two-by-four 
studding,  to  which 
the  laths  are  nailed. 
This  space  prevents 
dampness  and  should 
always  be  done  in 
houses  built  of  stone, 
and  also  those  con- 
structed of   brick   when   the  walls  are   made    solid. 

In  the  general  arrangement  of  rooms,  closets,  etc., 
it  will  be  observed  that  convenience  has  been  a  ruling 


P'ln.  q, — C'ttliii  Farm  Residtnce. 


Via.  10. — Ctllar  Plan  ^or  Fig.  9. 

feature.  The  house  is  large  and  admits  of  ample  ac- 
commodations for  a  large  family.  The  main  part  is 
42  feet  wide  by  33  in  depth,  while  the  rear  portion  is 


18  X  29.  The  rooms  are  commodious,  the  stairways 
and  halls  large  and  the  stories  high.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the   first-floor  plan  might  be  altered  to  suit 

the  tastes  and  de- 
mands of  any  one 
who  desires  a  large 
dwelling.  For  in- 
stance, folding  doors 
could  be  put  between 
the  parlor  a  nd  libra- 
ry, thus  making  two 
elegant  parlors.  A 
large  dining-room 
could  be  provided 
where  the  bed-room 
and  pantry  are. 
Other  modifications 
and  changes  maybe 
made  in  all  stories  as 
one  may  desire. 

The  size  and  names 
of  all  ro6ms  are  in- 
dicated on  each  floor 
plan  ;  it  is  therefore 
unnecessary  to  refer 
to  them  by  any  spe- 
cial remarks.  The 
interior  finish  or 
trimming  should  be 
plainly  and  neatly  executed.  Elaborate  moldings, 
carvings  and  panelings  are  not  required  to  make  a 
tasty,  comfortable  home.     The  style  of  finish  should 


ix.-^First~Floor  Plan/or  Fig.  g. 


be  in  keeping  with  the  character  of  the  house   and 
position  of  the  owner. 

Residence  Erected  in  Parts.    It  often  happens 


RESIDENCE. 


1091 


that  a  man  who  may  reasonably  expect  to  be  able,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years,  to  build  a  larger  house,  is 
obliged  to  commence  with  a  very  limited  amount  of 


Fig.  12. — Second-Floor  Plan  /or  Fig.  9. 

means.     Fig.  13  is  suggested  and  designed  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  such  a  case.    At  first,  the  kitchen 
(designated  by    K  on   the    ground   plan),   with   the 
veranda  (V),  in  front  was  built.     At  the  end  of  one  or 
two  years    he 
added  the  jxir- 
tion  represent- 
ed   by   W,   P 
and    B.      He 
prospers    and 
wishes  to  en- 
large,    builds 
what  is  shown 
as    the    main 
part     of    the 
house  in    the 
perspective. 
Thiswillmake 
a  very  conven- 
ient and  com- 
fortable house, 
and    by   no 
means  devoid 
of      architect- 3 
ural    beauty 
and  symmetry. 

Below  we  give  an  explanation  of  the  ground  plan, 
specifications,  estimate  of  the  amount  of  material,  etc. 

L,  in  the  plan,  represents  the  living-room,  12  x  13 
feet;  K,  kitchen,  12x14  feet;  D,  dining-room,  9}^ 
X  1 2  feet;  B  B  B,  bed-rooms,  9x8  feet  and  8x8  feet ; 
P,  pantry,  8x8  feet ;  SP,  summer  pantry ;  W,  wood- 


shed ;    V  V,  veranda.     The  summer  pantry  can  be 
used  in  winter  as  a  place  to  keep  meat;  and  being 


Fig. 


Fig.  14. — Grouttd  Flan  /or  Fig.  13. 

away  from  the  kitchen  fire  it  will  keep  it  a  long  time. 
Spccificatiotis.     Use  good  single-strength  glass  for 
all  windows;  size,  2.6  X4  feet,  12  panes  to  the  sash. 
Front  door  to  be  of  3  raised  panels,  with  moldings; 
inside  doors  to  have  3  raised  panels,  without  moldings ; 
all  doors  to  be  2  feet  10  inches  wide  by  7  feet  high, 
except  pantry  door,  which  is  2  feet  6  inches;  all  doors 
to   be    supplied  with   good,  plain  locks,  with    plain 
knobs ;  outside  doors  to  have  bolts.     Flues  to  be  6 
inches.  First  story,  1 1  feet  6  inches  high  ;  attic,  9  feet. 
To  erect  a  house  in  this  way  advantageously,  the 
whole  building  must  be  planned  at  the  commence- 
ment.    For  if  this  is  not  done,  it  will  be  found  quite 
impossible  to  have  everything  in  its  construction  work 
harmoniously.     It  should  be  known  beforehand  where 
each  door,  window,  room,  closet,  etc.,  of  the  expected 
addition     be- 
longs,    that 
those   in    the 
portion  under 
course  of  con- 
struction may 
b  e     properly 
arranged.      It 
IS  the  same  in 
this  respect  in 
building    this 
kindofahouse 
as  with  every 
other    kind. 
No  one  should 
be  so  foolish  as 
to  attempt  to 
build    a   resi- 
dence without 
having    p  r  e  - 
viously  settled 

Perspective  0/ a  Housi  with  Succtiiive  AdditioH.  uiion    a    ulan 

and  then  thoroughly  studied  it  in  every  detail.  If 
this  is  not  done  invariably,  the  result  will  be  delay, 
extra  expense  and  dissatisfaction.  Every  feature 
of  the  plan  should  be  carefully  weighed  and  thought- 
fully considered,  so  that  every  arrangement  may  be 
the  most  convenient  and  satisfactory. 


1092 


RESIDENCE. 


Quantity  of  Material. 
402  feet  of  joists,  8  feet  long,  2x6  inches. 
117  feet  of  joists,  12  feet  long,  2x6  inches. 
85  feet  of  joists,  95^  feet  long,  2x6  inches. 
4  posts,  lox  10  inches. 
100  feet  of  joists,  6  feet  long,  2x6  inches. 
625  feet  of  studding,  12  feet  long,  2  X4  inches. 
125  feet  of  studding,  9  feet  long,  2x4  inches. 
100  feet  of  studding,  81^  feet  long,  2x4  inches. 
160  feet  of  girders  and  plates,  4x6  inches, 
800  feet  of  sheathing. 
1,500  square  feet  of  shingles. 

Estimate  of  Cost. 

Excavation,  56  cubic  yards,  at  20c $ir   20 

Bricks,  13,180,  at  $10  per  1,000 r3i   80 

Joists  for  floors,  1,020  feet,  2x8  inches, 

at  $18  per  1,000  feet » 18  36 

Ceiling,  900  feet  of  joists,  2x6  inches,  at 

$18  per  1,000  feet 16  20 

Studding,  3,000  feet,  $18  per  1,000  feet. .  54  00 
Studding  for  roof,  1,300  feet,  at  $18  per 

1,000  feet 23  40 

Sheathing  and  weather-boarding,  1,200  ft.  48  00 
Plastering,  426  sq.  yds.,  at  20  c.  per  yard.  85  20 
Pine  flooring,  1,400  ft.  at  $3  per  roo  ft.. .  42  00 
Sheathing  for  roof,  1,507  feet,  at  $18  per 

1,000  feet 28   12 

Shingles,  15,000,  at  $5  per  r,ooo 75   00 

Veranda 60  00 

Plain   frame  doors,  complete  with  hard- 
ware, 13,  at  $ro 13000 

Windows,  complete,  12  panes  to  sash,  16, 

at  $8 1 28  00 

Flight  of  stairs  to  attic 30  00 

Painting  and  glazing 1 60  00 

Roof-rafters,  r,5oo  feet 2250 

Sundries 85  00 

Total,  including  labor,  etc $1,148  78 

The  above  estimate  is  based  upon  first-class 
material  and  workmanship.  It  is  much  higher  than 
both  can  often  be  furnished  for.  The  proper  reduc- 
-tion  or  addition  may  easily  be  made. 


Fig.  16. — Ground 
Plan/or  Fig.  15. 


KiG.  17. — Sfcofd 
Story /or  Fi^.  15. 


Fio.  i^.— Front  Elevation  0/  Fram,;  Cottage. 

^  Small  Cottage.     Design  represented  by  Fig.    15 
is   a   small  cheap  building,  yet  neatness,  symmetry 


and  architectural  taste  have  been  observed  in  planning 
it.  In  such  small  structures,  no  attempt  should  be 
made  for  ornament  or  sliow  alone.  A  manifest  utility 
should  be  displayed  in  everything.  The  beauty  of 
fitness  should  be  constantly  obvious  and  a  tasteful 
simplicity  ever  exhibited. 

This  house  is  built  of  frame,  story  and  a  half  high, 
four  rooms  on  lower  floor,  and  two  above.  The  house 
may  be  cheapened  one-third  by  leaving  off"  the  shed 
kitchen  and  using  the  dining-room  for  a  kitchen. 
There   is  a  neat  balconied  porch   in    front — a  very 

pretty  design  for 
the  money  it 
costs.  One  pecu- 
liarity of  a  house 
like  this  rests  in 
the  fact  that  no 
matter  from  what 
direction  you  ob- 
serve it  there  is  a 
pleasing  harmony 
in  its  appearance,  which  is  not  true  of  all  designs.  One 
looks  pretty  and  pleasing  in  front,  but  ugly  in  the 
rear,  side  or  end.  Being  upon  the  square  plan  it  con- 
tains no  waste  space.  Open  fire-places  may  be  pro- 
vided in  parlor  and  sitting-room,  or  either  if  desired. 
In  the  ground  plan,  A  represents  the  parlor,  12  x 
16  feet;  B,  sitting-room,  11  x  16;  C,  hall,  6  feet  wide; 
D,  dining-room,  12  x  12;  E,  kitchen,  8x  j-j%,  and  F, 
pantry.  The  second  story  or  attic  is  divided  into  two 
large  bed-rooms,  each  12  x  17  feet,  represented  by  A 
and  B.  C  indicates  the  lobby  at  the  head  of  the 
stairway. 

Specifications.  Pantry  windows,  2x4  feet ;  first- 
story  windows,  3  feet  by  6  feet  6  inches ;  second  story 
windows,  2  feet  10  inches  by  5  feet.  Double  front 
door,  2x8  feet  each,  with  bronze  lock;  4  raised  panels, 
with  molding;  pantry  and  closet  doors,  2  feet  10 
inches  by  6  feet;  all  other  doors,  3  feet  2  inches  by 
7  feet,  with  4  panels,  without  molding,  and  common 
lava  or  porcelain  knob  locks.  Foundation  walls,  r2 
inches.  First  story,  r2  feet  high;  second  story,  10 
feet.  Interior  finish,  of  pine,  with  one  molding  to 
door  jambs,  base  boards  and  windows.  Glass  to 
pantry  windows,  of  single  strength ;  all  other  glass  of 
double  strength,  American.  Chimneys  to  be  of  two 
8-inch  flues. 

£i//  of  Quantify. 

24  joists  16  feet  10  inches  long,  2x10  inches. 

9  joists  12  feet  8  inches  long,2  x  8  inches. 

r3  joists  8  feet  10  inches  long,  2x8  inches. 

24  joists  16  feet  10  inches  long,  2  x  10  inches. 

9  joists  1 2  feet  8  inches  long,  2x8  inches. 

r3  joists  8  feet  ro  inches  long,  2x8  inches. 

205  studs  12  feet  long,  2x4  inches. 

no  feet  of  plates,  4x6  inches,  convenient  lengths. 

45  rafters  17  feet  long,  2x4  inches. 

no  feet  of  sills,  4x6  inches,  convenient  lengths. 

112  feet  of  girts,  4x6  inches. 

19  rafters  13  feet  long,  2x4  inches. 


RESIDENCE. 


1093 


Estimate  of  Cost. 

Excavation,  18  yards  at  20  cents $3  60 

Brick  work,  10,600,  at  $8 84  80 

Joists ...  75  00 

Flooring,  2,200  feet 99  00 

Rafters 27  50 

Studding  and  framing 96  00 

Sheathing,  1,100  feet 25  30 

Weather-boarding,  2,100  feet 94  5° 

Shingling  and  shingles,  11,000 55  °° 

Gutters  and  cornices,  280  feet  at  20c. . .  56  00 

Doors,  including  hardware,  10  at  $8..  . .  80  00 

Windows,  complete,  14  at  $7.50 105  00 

Bases,  298  feet  at  16  cents 17  88 

Porches,  stairs  and  steps 48  00 

Painting  and  glazing 100  00 

Lathing  and  plastering,  670  yds.  at  i8c..  120  60 

Sundries 30  00 

Total,  labor,  etc,  included $1,118  18 

A  Large  Country  Residence.  This  building, 
represented  by  Fig.  18,  differs  greatly  in  many  respects 
from  the  usual  country  dwelling.  No  special  refer- 
ence to  any  conventional  rules  of  architecture  are 
complied  with,  but  there  are  many  commendable 
features  about  it.  It  is  quite  large  and  presents  a 
very  pleasing  appearance  from  any  jxjint  of  view. 
The  outer  walls  of  the  first  story  are  built  of  rough 
stone,  and  for  the  windows  brick  trimmings  are  used, 
which  very  pleasantly  relieves  the  stone  work.  The 
second  story  is  constructed  of  wood,  and  is  surmount- 
ed by  the  somewhat  abruptly  receding  slated  roof. 
The  chimneys  are  a  combination  of  brick  and  stone. 

The  L  contains  a  large  kitchen  with  three  sleeping 
rooms  above  for  servants.  Should  the  building  be 
erected  on  sloping  ground,  a  large  basement  story 
might  be  easily  provided.  The  body  of  the  house  is 
thoroughly  protected.  The  first  floor  is  provided 
with  a  spacious  parlor,  sitting-room,  library,  dining- 


be   noticed  in   the   plan.     The   third   floor   may  be 
divided  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  family.    Many 


Fig- 18. — A   Large  Country  Re^iil'^nce. 

room,  kitchen,  besides  pantry,  milk-room,  cloak-room, 
etc.  The  second  floor  (Fig.  19)  contains  six  chahi- 
bers,  with  accompanying  dressing  and  bath  rooms. 
In  many  of  the  rooms  are  alcoves  for  the  beds,  as  will 


Fig.  19* — Seconti~Floor  Flan  of  Fig^  IS. 

very  pleasant  rooms  may  be  provided  in  this  story- 
This  is  a  large  house  and  may  not  please  the  tastes 
of  many  in  an  architectural  point,  but  may  afford  some 
excellent  practical  suggestions.  The  plan  might  be 
changed  to  suit  many  who  desire  a  large  house. 
Rustic  Cottage.     A  very  simple,  yet  tasty  cot- 


FiG,  20. — Rustic  Cottage. 

tage  is  represented  by  Fig.  20.  It  is  intended  for  a 
family  of  small  means 
and  is  therefore  designed 
economically,  but  will 
nevertheless  be  attract- 
ive. It  is  built  of  wood, 
filled  in  with  soft  brick 
on  edge,  and  covered  in 
the  vertical  and  batten- 
ed manner,  with  rough 
boards  and  heavy  bat- 
tens, care  being  taken 
in  nailing  on  the  boards  that  the  splinters  of  the  wood 


'I /iter tor  A  rrani^ement. 


I094 


RESIDENCE. 


..^ci^g^it^ 


made  by  the  saw  in  sawing  the  log  point  downward 
instead  of  upward,  to  more  effectually  shed  the  water. 
The  roof  is  covered  with  shingles,  and  the  projections 
of  the  gables,  which  are  quite  heavy,  are  relieved  by 
ornamental   verge   boards  sawn  from    heavy  plank. 
The  windows  all 
have   bold   trim- 
mings, and  those      ^.-  '" 
on  lower  story  are     p^ 
protected    by     |L^ 

broad  hoods,  and     p^  ^™v 

glazed  with   dia-     h  "J^. 

mond  -  s  h  a  p  e  d     iti  ** 

glass.  The  veran- 
da, or  front  stoop, 
is  made  with  ce- 
dar posts  and 
trimmings,  but 
has  a  planR  floor 
and  tight  roof. 
The  chimneys 
represented  are 
terra-cotta  chim- 
ney tops  of  large 
size,  resting  upon 
a  blue-stone  base 
cut  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

The     interior 
arrangement  is  as 

follows  :  The  hall)  '''"•  ^■^-Blerathn  o/  a 

No.  I,  measures  eight  feet  by  eleven,  and  contains 
stairs  to  the  chamber  and  cellar.  The  principal 
stairs  are  three  feet  wide,  and  the  cellar  flight  is  two 
feet  eight  inches,  inclosed  by  a  partition  with  a  door 
at  the  top.     No.  2  is  the  living  room,  14  feet  square, 

provided  with  an 
open  fire-place  for 
burning  wood, 
and  also  having 
on  one  of  its  sides 
a  recess  or  bay, 
with  side  lights 
only,  the  back  be- 
ing made  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a 
book-case  or  cup- 
board. No.  3  is 
the  kitchen,  12  by 
T4,  well  lighted 
by  two  large  win- 
dows, and  having 
a  large  closet 
opening  out  of 
the  side   beyond 

Fig.  23.— /Vaa  of  Basement/or  Fig.  22.        the        fire-place. 

No.  4  is  a  pantry,  measuring  five  by  eight,  and  open- 
ing out  u}X)n  the  back  stoop.  This  pantry  may  have 
a  sink  in  it,  and  may  be  fitted  up  with  shelves  and 
cupboards.  Additional  room  may  be  got  by  putting 
the  kitchen  in  the  basement,  and    using   the  upper 


^ 


room  as  a  living  or  dining  room,  and  the  front   room 
as  a  parlor.      This   would  give   an   opportunity  for 
finishing  the  parlor  in  a  little  more   expensive   man- 
ner, and  on  that  account  may  be  more  desirable. 
The  second  floor  contains  two  good-sized  chambers 

and  four  large 
closets.  There 
is  no  attic  to  the 
house,  but  a  space 
of  about  five  feet 
in  height  is  left 
above  the  cham- 
ber and  below  the 
peak  of  the  roof, 
which  serves  a 
good  purpose  as 
a  ventilator. 

The  posts  are 
14  feet  high,  f>nd 
the  lower  story  is 
finished  nine  feet 
high  in  the  clear. 
The  finis/i  of  the 
interior  is  all  of 
pine,  and  put  up 
in  a  simple  man- 
ner. The  walls 
are  all  plastered, 
and  finished  with 
a  rough  white- 
sand  finish,  which 
may  afterward  be  tinted  in  any  desirable  shade.  The 
outside  should  be  painted  two  or  three  tints. 

House  WITH  Basement.  By  Fig.  22  we  present 
one  of  the  neatest  and  most  desirable  plans  for  a 
rural  residence  yet  designed.  It  is  adapted  for  a 
hillside  or  rolling 
section,  and  if 
the  surrounding 
landscape  be 
picturesque  will 
afford  one  of  the 
most  attractive 
dwellings  to  be 
met  with  any- 
where. The  gen- 
eral conformation 
of  this  house  to 
the  declivity  of 
the  grounds,  to- 
gether with  its 
rustic  details  of 
finish,giveitvery 
much  the  appear-  ^''"  ''-"""  '^  ^'"'"'  ■'""■^^'"'  ^'^-  '"" 
ance  of  a  Swiss  house.  Fig.  22  illustrates  the  front 
elevation  facing  the  main  road. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  grounds  at  the  right  are  one 
story  higher  than  those  on  the  left.  The  principal 
M^alk  or  drives  are  along  the  higher  grounds  at  the 
right,  contiguous  to  the  veranda,  from  which  the 
main  entrance  is  conveniently  reached. 


Residence  luith  Basemen' , 


RESIDENCE. 


1095 


The  walled  or  basement  story  appears  full  height 
above  ground,  giving  increased  prominence  to  this  part 
of  the  building.  The  height  of  the  ceiling  in  finished 
parts  of  basement  is  8^  feet;  cellars,  7  feet.  This 
story  (Fig.  23),  contains  a  dining-room,  kitchen,  hall, 
pantry,  cellar  and  closet.  The  two  principal  rooms 
have  doors  leading  directly  to  the  porch,  and  to  the 
hall,  which  contains  a  stair-way  leading  to  the  floor 
above.  The  kitchen  and  dining-rooms  are  well  lighted, 
and  have  open  fire-places.  The  cellar  is  cemented 
on  the  bottom  ;  all  other  rooms,  in  this  plan,  have 
wooden  flooring. 

Fig.  25  shows  the  main-floor  plan.  The  height  of 
this  story  is  ten  feet.  The  divisions  include  a  hall, 
parlor,  sitting-room,  library  and  bath-room.  The  sit- 
ting-room and  library  also  have  a  closet  each.  The 
main  hall  has  double  entrance  doors  and  connects 
by  doors  with  each  of  the  four  apartments.  Fig. 
24  represents  the  second  story.  Height  9  feet. 
There  is  a  hall,  two  chambers,  three  bed-rooms, 
and  three  closets  on  this  floor. 

Specifications.  The  foundations  should  be  of  bro- 
ken stone,  laid  in  mortar,  18  inches  thick,  extending 
in  the  earth  below  the  reach  of  frost,  and  neatly 
pointed  where  exposed  to  sight.  The  beams  for  the 
basement  floor  should  be  of  3-by-8-inch  timber,  with 
a  4-by-8-inch  girder   supporting   their  centers,   and 

leaving  a  clear  space 
of  from  6  to  20  inch- 
es below  them  for 
the  passage  and 
circulation  o  f  air 
under  the  porch. 
The  cellar  should 
have  a  concrete 
bottom,  with  two 
steps  of  masonry 
upward  from  the 
hall.  The  upper 
frame  should  be  of 
square,  sawed  tim- 
ber, thoroughly 
framed  and  secured; 
the  horizontal  sid- 
ing of  6-inch  clap- 
FiG.  25.-«a«  of  Main  Floor  o/  Fig.  =2.  boards  ;  the  Vertical 

of  9^-inch  tongued  and  grooved  ceiling  boards,  belt- 
ed ;  all  on  sheathing  felt.  The  roofs  should  be  of 
slate,  with  tin  valleys,  gutters,  and  leaders.  Windows 
should  have  four  lights,  with  ij^-inch  sash,  hung  to 
weights.  Doors  should  be  made  of  pine,  paneled  and 
molded.  Stairs,  pine,  with  black  walnut,  newel  and 
rail,  and  balusters.  Closets  shelved  and  hooped  in 
the  usual  manner.  All  wood  work  usually  painted 
should  have  two  coats  of  paint.  The  appended  es- 
timate will  furnish  additional  information. 

There  are  many  advantages  in  a  house  of  this  ar- 
rangement. The  kitchen  and  dining-room  are  pro- 
tected in  winter  from  the  cold  and  in  summer  from 
excessive  heat  by  their  location  in  the  basement.  In 
most  sections  of  the  country  this  protection  is  much 


needed  during  a  jMrtion  of  both  seasons  of  the  year, 
and  in  no  other  way  is  it  so  easily  obtained  as  in  the 
basement  portion  of  this  kind  of  a  house.  There  are 
also  other  advantages  by  these  to  be  obtained  in  this 
class  of  houses.  The  odors  arising  from  cooking  may 
be  more  easily  prevented  from  pervading  other  por- 
tions of  the  house,  communication  with  the  outside 
and  with  the  provision  store-house  or  cellar  is  more 
convenient,  a  larger  amount  of  room  may  be  given  to 
the  kitchen,  dining-room  and  pantry  in  a  house  of 
any  given  size,  than  in  the  ordinary  two-story  house, 
and  the  convenience  of  the  housewife  may  be  furthered. 

Estimated  Quantity  and  Cost  of  Material 
and  Cost  of  Labor. 
5,000  feet  timber,  at  $20  per  M 100  00 

2  sills  4  X  8  in.  32  ft.  long. 

2  sills  4  X  8  in.  20  ft.  long.. 

1  sill  4x8  in.  24  ft.  long. 

2  sills  4x8  in.  16  ft.  long. 
I  sill  4x8  in.  6ft.  long. 

9  posts  4x7  in.  20  ft.  long. 
I  post  4x7  in.  16  ft.  long. 

1  ridge  3  X  8  in.  68  ft.  long. 

2  ties  4x6  in.  32  ft.  long. 
2  ties  4  X  6  in.  20  ft.  long.' 
6  ties  4x6  in.  16  ft.  long. 

2  plates  4x6  in.  32  ft.  long. 
2  plates  4  X  6  in.  20  ft.  long. 
75  beams  3x8  in.  16  ft.  long. 
56  rafters  3  X4  in.  13  ft.  long. 
I  veranda  3X  8  in.  60  ft.  long. 
142  yards  excavation,  at  20c.  per  yard. . .   $  28  40 
1,800  feet  stone  work  (complete)  at  6c. 

per  foot io8  00 

4,000  brick  in  chimneys  (complete)  at 

$12  per  M 48  00 

759  yards  plastering  (complete)  at  20c. 

per  yard r5 1  80 

24  joists,  at  ISC.    each 3  60 

360  wall   strips,  at  loc 36  00 

130  horizontal  siding  (6-inch),  at  15c. .. .  1950 
150  vertical  siding  (9-inch),  at  27c..  ....        40  50 

150  battens,  at  4c 6  00 

Cornice  materials 30  00 

164  hemlock  boards,   at  15c 24  60 

16^   square  slate,  at  $8 13200 

330  tin  gutters,   valleys,  and  leaders, 

at  8c 26  40 

480  flooring  (4^  inches),  at  12c.  each..  57  60 
5  basement  windows  (complete),  at  $5.. .  25  00 
3  cellar  windows  (complete),  at  $2  each.  6  00 
27  plain  windows  (complete),  at  $6  each.  162  00 
2  stairs  (complete) 35  °° 

25  doors  (complete),  at  $7  each 175  00 

Pantry  and  closets,  finished,  complete.  . .        15  00 

Carting 25  00 

Painting,  complete 100  00 

Carpenters'  labor,  not  included  above ....  200  00 
Incidentals 44  60 


Total  cost  of  the  building,  completed. .  $  1,600  00 


1096 


RESIDENCE. 


Model  Farm  House.  This  design  (Fig.  26)  is 
presented  as  a  model  farm  house,  suitable  for  a  farm- 
er in  easy  cir- 
cumstances 
and  with  the 
taste  and  cul- 
ture  which 
should  attend 
such  station  in 
life.  The  kitch- 
en,which  ashas 
been  said  "  is 
the  heart  of  the 
farm-house," 
is  large,  well 
lighted,  well 
ventilated,  pro- 
vi  d  ed  with 
large  pantry, 
and  convenient 
of  access.  Do- 
mestic   help    is  f 't^-  ^('■-Perspective  of 

not  abundant   in    the  farmer's  family.      Too   much 

labor  at  best 
devolves  upon 
the  mistress. 
The  plan  also 
provides  for  a 
conveniently 
situated  din- 
i  n  g  room. 
Then  there  is 
a  large  sitting- 
room,  library 
and  bed-room. 
The  upper 
hall  is  three 
and  a  half  feet 
wide  and 
makes  a  fine 
appearance 
with  its  round- 
ed closets 
and  generous 
length.  It  is 
proposed  to 
supply  the 
principal 
chambers,  the 
bath-room  and 
the  kitchen 
reservoir  with 
cold  water 
from  the  sec- 
ond-story tank, 
and  the  sink 
and  the  bath- 
room from  the 
Fig.  ^i.-First-Fioor  Plan.  reservoir.       A 

bell-puU  could  be  carried    into    the   men's   hall   to 


awaken  them  in  the  morning,  if  so  desired ;    also   to 
the  girl's  room.     All  inside  finish  should  be  of  hard 

wood,  oiled 
and  varnished. 
T  h  e  different 
oaks,  black 
walnut,  cherry, 
and  locust 
make  excellent 
finish.  Black 
walnut  and 
cherry  should 
be  used  spar- 
ingly, as  bead 
work,  or  for 
contrast,  as  the 
first  is  too  dark 
and  somber, 
and  the  last 
lacking  in 
grain.     The 

a  Model  Farm  Haute.  ^  casingS    should 

be  heavy— at  least  eight  inches  wide. 

The  cost  of 
this  dwelling 
will  range  be- 
tween $  3,000 
and  $  4,000  ac- 
cording to  lo- 
cality and  the 
man  who  builds 
it. 

In  the  first- 
floor  plan  (Fig. 
27)?  represents 
the  parlor, 
which  is  1 8 X 
18  feet;  S  R, 
sitting  room,  15 
x2o;  L,  library, 
I2X  12;  B, bed- 
room, 12  X  13; 
D  R,  d  i  n  i  n  g- 
room  12  X  15  ; 
B,  bath-room,  5 
X  7  ;  C,  closets, 
5x7;  K,  kitch- 
en, 15x16;  P, 
pantry,  6  x  6  ;  S, 
store-room,  1  o 
x  II ;  W,  wood- 
room,  10  X  16 ; 
V,  veranda  and 
H,  hall,  7x18. 
In  the  second- 
floor  plan  (Fig. 
28)  B,  one  rep- 
re  s  e  n  t  s  bed- 
room        15X18;  Vl^.  ^i.-Seeond-Fhor  Plan. 

B  two,  B  three,  B  four  and  Bfive  bed-rooms  12x13 


B 

B 

8 

9 

Ji 

■■ 

B 

6 

7 

c 

B 

B 
6 

'\ 

c 

1 

J 

B 

B 

» 

3 

B 

1 

^: 

C 

c 

P  R 

RESIDENCE. 


1097 


feet  in  size;  B  six  and  B  seven,  bed-rooms  8  x  15  ;  B 
eight  and  B  nine,  bed-rooms  8x14;  C,  closets;  T, 
tank,  P  R,  children's  play-room. 

Specifications.  All  windows  to  be  2  feet  6  inches 
by  5  feet,  2  panes  to  the  sash,  except  rear  windows  to 
the  kitchen,  which  are  2 
feet  6  inches  by  3  feet, 
4  panes  to  the  sash,  glass 
of  single  strength ;  all 
other  glass  to  be  of  dou- 
ble strength.  The  front 
door  is  of  oak,  with  three 
panels,  walnut  molding, 
8  feet  high,  3  feet  wide; 
all  interior  doors  to  be  of 
pine,  7  feet  6  inches  by 
2  feet  10  inches,  with  3 
raised  panels,  except 
closet  doors,  which  are 
2x7  feet,  good  Berlin 
bronze-face  locks  and 
mineral  knobs  to  all  in- 
terior doors.  Closets  to 
be  provided  with  20 
bronzed  coat-hooks ; 
good  Berlin  bronze 
catches  to  closets  and 
pantries.  Outside  rear 
doors  to  be  provided 
with  plain  locks  with  bolts. 


Fig.    29. — Rural  Cottage. 


There  are  also  one  good 
tinned  bath-tub,  one  good  china-bowl  water-closet, one 
wrought-iron  tank  3  feet  deep,  5  feet  wide.  The 
first  story  is  12  feet  high;  second,  11  feet  6  inches. 
Good  pine  shutters  are  used,  i  foot  3  inches  wide, 
hung  with  cast-iron  hinges,  with  hold-backs  and 
catches.  Foundation  walls  3  feet  deep,  2  feet  above 
ground,  and  4  good  stone  ]X)Sts  6  inches  square,  3 
feet  6  inches  high. 

Bill  of  Quantity.  2,564  square  feet  of  joists  13 
feet  long,  2x6  inches;  720 
square  feet  joists  8  feet  long, 
2x6  inches;  376  square  feet 
joists  1 1  feet  long,  2x6  inches  ; 
400  feet  of  joists  7  feet  long,  2 
I  X  4  inches ;  12  posts  4x4 
inces,  11  feet  long;  2,807 
square  feet  of  studs,  12  feet 
long ;  44  bunches  of  pine 
I  shingles  ;  44  shutters,  i  foot  3 
inches  by  5  feet. 

Rural   Cottage.     A  nice 
Q       a  design   for  a  country   cottage 

Fig.  i,a.— Cellar  Plan.       is    shown  by  Fig.  29.       It  is  20 

feet  square  and  20  feet  high.  Square  outlines  in  build- 
ings are  the  most  economical  in  furnishing  space.  They 
not  only  have  this  advantage  but  are  more  easily  warm- 
ed, especially  if  the  chimney  is  near  the  center,  and 
need  less  repair.  Though  in  every  way  complete  and 
thoroughly  fitted  for  a  small  family,  it  may  be  en- 
larged easily  by  additions  at  the  side  or  rear,  or  a  ix)r- 


tion  of  the  cellar  may  be  finished  as  a  kitchen.  Fig. 
29  represents  the  front  elevation,  which  has  consider- 
able variety  of  finish,  and,  though  not  expensive, 
adds  much  to  its  beauty.  The  sides  are  quite  plain, 
but  the   projections  are  in  harmony  with  the  front. 

The  roof  may  have  two 
belts  of  diamond-iX)inted 
shingles,  arranged  e(iual 
distances  apart,  which 
will  add  much  to  the 
appearance.  The  rear 
should  be  finished  in 
harmony  with  the  front. 
A  neat  but  plain  orna- 
ment, or  projection,  may 
be  extended  from  over 
the  door.  Tastefully 
painted  this  will  be  a 
pleasant  little  cottage 
and  can  be  erected  for 
about  $600. 

The  cellar,  which  is 
six  and  one  half  feet  in 
height,  is  shown  by  Fig. 
30.  It  extends  two  feet 
above  the  ground.  It 
is  provided  with  two 
windows,  and  an  outside 
area  way.  An  opening 
is  made  in  the  chimney  to  admit  of  a  stove-pipe. 
The  cellar  might  be  divided  along  the  line  of  the 
girder,  if  desired,  and  a  kitchen  made  of  one  part 
and  a  cellar  of  the  other.  If  this  is  desired  the 
walls  should  extend  one  foot  higher  above  ground, 
and  one  foot  less  in  depth. 

The  height  of  the  ceiling  in  the  first  story  (Fig.  31) 
is  nine  feet.  The  front  entrance  is  from  the  porch 
directly  to  the  living  room.  If  in  an  exjMsed  situa- 
tion, "  storm  doors "  may  be 
hung  in  the  frame  of  the  outside 
doors  to  open  outward ;  or  the 
[wrch  may  be  inclosed  with 
portable  panels  of  narrow  ceil- 
ing with  a  door  at  the  entrance, 
which  may  be  set  up  or  re- 
moved, as  required.  The  rear 
entrance  is  through  two  doors 
and  a  lobby.  If  a  rear  window 
is  wanted,  the  upper  portions 
of  these  doors  may  have  glass 
sash.  The  living  room  is  com- 
modious, has  an  open  fire-place,  F'g.  y.— First  story. 
two  windows,  and  inside  doors  leading  to  the  adjoin- 
ing rooms,  and  to  the  stairway  to  the  second  story. 
The  sitting-room  is  small,  but,  if  neatly  finished,  will 
serve  as  the  parlor  of  a  small  family. 

It  has  one  window  opening  to  the  front.  Another 
window  may  easily  be  added  opposite  the  chimney, 
though  it  would  diminish  the  wall  space  for  furniture, 
etc.     The  bed-room  is  also  small,  but  will  admit  the 


1098 


RESIN— RHEUM  A  TISM. 


necessary  furniture,  and  a  proper  adjustment  of  the 
window  sashes  will  insure  the  required  ventilation. 
The  space  under  the  stairs  is  used  as  a  closet,  unless 
needed  for  stairs  to  a  basement  kitchen. 

The  height  of  the  second  story  is  three  and  one- 
half  feet  at  the  plates  and  follows  the  rafters  to  the 
height  of  eight  feet.     This  may  be  divided  as  required. 

Estimates  of  Amount  of  Material  and  Cost. 

45  yards  excavation,  at  25  c.  per  yard $11  25 

780  feet  stone  work,  at  8  cents  per  foot. ...   62  40 

1,500  brick  in  chimneys  at  $12  per  M 18  00 

260  yards  plastering  at  20  cents  per  yard. .  52  00 
1,600  feet  timber,  at  $15  per  M 24  00 

4  sills  4x7  inches  20  feet  long. 

4  posts  4x7  inches  13  feet  long. 

1  girt  4x6  inches  20  feet  long. 

r8  beams  3x7  inches  20  feet  long. 
4  ties  4x6  inches  20  feet  long. 

2  plates  4x6  inches  20  feet  long. 
I  beam  3x7  inches  28  feet  long. 
22  rafters  3x4  inches  16  feet  long. 

20  joists,  at  15  cents  each $  3  00 

200  wall  strips,  at  1 2   cents 24  00 

100  siding,  at  28  cents 28  00 

Cornice  materials 12  00 

130  shingling  lath,  at  6  cents  each 7   80 

22  bunches  shingles,  at  $1.25  each 27   50 

85  flooring,  at  28  cents   each 23  80 

8  plain  windows,  at  $6  each 48  00 

2  cellar  windows,  at  $2  each 4  00 

8  doors,  at  $6  each 48  00 

2  stairs 15  00 

2  stoops 18  00 

Closet  finish  and  shelving 12  00 

Nails 9  00 

Carting 8  00 

Carpenters'  labor,  not  included  above 75  00 

Painting 50  00 

Incidentals 19  25 

Total  cost  of  the  building,  completed.  .  .$600  00 

Besin  (rez'n),or  Rosin  (roz'n),  a  solid,  inflammable 
substance,  of  vegetable  origin,  insoluble  in  water  but 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  the  essential  oils.  It  exudes 
from  tree's  in  combination  with  essential  oils,  and  in 
a  liquid  or  semi-liquid  state.  In  burning  it  yields  a 
great  amount  of  smoke,  from  which  lampblack  is  ob- 
tained. Pine  resin  is  most  common  in  this  country. 
The  gum  oozing  from  fresh  wounds  in  pine  trees  con- 
sists of  resin  and  turpentine.  The  uses  of  resin  are 
too  numerous  for  mention  here.  Gum  resins  are  of  a 
consistence  between  gum  and  resin,  as  asafcetida, 
gamboge,  myrrh,  etc. 

Resin  Ointment.  Gently  melt  together  8  or  10 
ounces  of  resin,  4  ounces  of  yellow  wax  and  i^A, 
pounds  of  lard  or  simple  ointment  (lard  and  wax), 
strain  while  hot  through  a  flannel  and  stir  constantly 
until  cool.  Valuable  for  blistered  surfaces,  indolent 
ulcers,  burns,  scalds  and  chilblains. 


Resin  Ointment,  Compound:  more  stimulating 
than  the  above.  Melt  together  12  ounces  each  of 
resin,  suet  and  yellow  wax,  6  ounces  turpentine  and 
7  ounces  of  linseed  oil.  Keep  it  from  the  air,  to  pre- 
vent its  becoming  tough.  This  is  known  as  "Desh- 
ler's  Salve." 

To  Remove  Resin  Spots  from  Silk,  rub  with  al- 
cohol, after  soaking  the  spot  a  few  minutes  with  this 
liquor. 

Resin  Soap  :  see  Soap. 

Betch,  to  make  an  effort  to  vomit ;  to  strain  as  in 
vomiting.  Generally  caused  by  nausea.  If  sips  of 
pure  hot  water  do  not  immediately  stop  it,  flavor  the 
water  with  ginger,  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  coffee,  tea  or 
other  substance  that  is  most  palatable. 

Retina  (ret'i-na),  the  nervous  expansion  in  the 
posterior  part  of  the  eye-ball  which  receives  the  im- 
pressions of  light.  These  impressions  are  communi- 
cated by  the  optic  nerve  to  the  "sensorium"  in  the 
brain.  This  organ  is  subject  to  several  affections, 
which  cannot  be  treated  by  "  domestic  medicine,"  but 
strict  care  of  the  general  health  will  do  good  in  all 
cases  and  never  any  harm. 

Retriever.  A  land  retriever  is  a  cross  between  a 
setter  and  cocker  or  springer  spaniel ;  a  water  re- 
triever is  a  cross  between  a  setter  and  Newfoundland 
dog ;  a  dog  especially  trained  or  qualified  to  bring 
game  to  hand.     See  pages  333-4. 

Rheumatism.  This  is  an  inflammatory  affection 
of  the  fibrous  tissues,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  the 
articulations,  particularly  the  large  ones,  as  the  knees, 
ankles,  hips,  shoulders  and  elbows.  The  inflamma- 
tory symptoms  exhibit  various  degrees  in  their 
violence  and  duration,  and  hence  the  disease  has 
been  divided  into  two  varieties,  the  acute  and  the 
chronic. 

Symptoms.  Acute  rheumatism  comes  on  with  severe 
pain,  which  in  a  day  or  two  is  followed  with  swelling 
of  the  joints.  There  is  usually  considerable  stiff'ness, 
or  want  of  mobility.  In  the  chronic  variety  the  skin 
is  never  discolored,  but  in  the  acute  it  is  generally  a 
little  red.  The  pain  is  very  apt  to  shift  from  one 
joint  to  another,  and  sometimes  it  runs  along  the 
course  of  the  muscles  connected  with  the  affected 
joints. 

The  disease  may  arise  at  any  time  of  the  year  when 
there  are  frequent  vicissitudes  of  the  weather  from 
heat  to  cold,  but  the  spring  and  autumn  are  the 
seasons  in  which  it  is  most  common.  Young  persons 
are  more  subject  to  the  acute  variety,  while  in  older 
people  the  reverse  obtains. 

Rheumatism  is  occasioned  by  cold,  and  is  brought 
on  most  generally  by  wearing  wet  or  damp  clothes, 
working  in  cold  and  wet  places,  etc. 

Treatment.  In  the  first  place,  clear  the  stomach 
and  bowels  by  aperients  and  emetics.  If  the  skin  is 
hot  and  dry,  sponge  the  body  all  over  with  warm 
water  and  carbonate  of  soda,  or  common  soda.  If 
the  skin  is  not  very  hot  and  dry,  give   a  vajxjr  bath. 


RHUBARB— RICE. 


1099 


Dry  well,  and  apply  a  stimulant  liniment.  Tincture 
of  aconite  given  as  follows  will  often  prove  a  specific 
in  chronic  cases :  Put  from  8  to  1 2  drops  in  a  glass 
of  water.  A  teaspoonful  taken  from  four  to  six  times 
a  day.  When  rheumatism  becomes  chronic,  the 
general  health,  particularly  the  diet  in  connection  with 
(he  digestive  powers,  must  be  attended  to  with  great 
care.  The  attacks  often  arise  from  pure  debility,  and 
tvill  then  be  best  cured  by  tonics  and  good  food. 

A  diaphoretic  powder  is  very  useful  in  this  disease ; 
also  an  aperient  of  senna,  manna  and  cream  of  tartar 
in  solution. 

The  following  is  said  to  be  a  good  remedy  for 
rheumatism:  Kerosene  oil  3  ounces,  skunk's  oil  i 
ounce;  mix,  and  shake  when  applied.  Put  it  on 
quite  freely,  and  heat  it  in  by  the  stove,  or  by  means 
of  a  hot  shovel.  Another  remedy  for  acute  rheuma- 
tism is  a  dose  every  hour  of  1  to  10  drops  of  the 
tincture  of  macrotys. 

Rhubarb  or  Pie- Plant.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  best  of  all  productions  of  the  garden  that 
are  put  into  pies.  The  part  used  is  the  stalk  of  the 
leaves,  which,  peeled  and  cut  into  small  pieces,  are 
put  into  pies  and  stewed  for  sauce.  It  is  very  gener- 
ally cultivated  throughout  the  United  States. 

In  cultivating  sow  the  seed  in  drills  18  inches 
apart  and  cover  one  inch  deep;  when  the  plants  are 
up  thin  them  to  one  foot  apart;  when  one  year  old 
prepare  the  ground  for  the  final  bed  by  trenching  two 
feet  deep,  mixing  a  liberal  quantity  of  manure  with 
the  soil;  set  plants  five  feet  apart  each  way;  do  not 
cut  until  the  second  year,  and  give  a  dressing  of 
manure  every  fall.  When  it  is  desired  to  increase 
the  bed,  the  roots  may  be  taken  up  in  the  spring  and 
divided.  The  seed  will  noc  always  give  plants  like 
the  parent.  To  encourage  leaf  growth  cut  out  the 
seed  stalk  when  it  first  appears.  The  Giant  Seedless 
never  produces  a  seed  stalk  except  from  a  diseased 
plant.  Forcing  the  pie-plant  can  be  practiced  by 
putting  an  old  barrel  over  it,  open  at  both  ends,  but 
with  a  loose  head  to  cover  the  upper  end,  as  the 
occasion  may  require;  pile  fresh  stable  matiuie 
around  it,  from  a  foot  thick  at  the  bottom  to  six  inches 
at  the  top;  put  the  cover  on  only  in  freezing  weatner; 
if  successful  the  plants  will  soon  fill  the  barrel  with 
its  huge  stems  and  leaves.  The  barrel  must  be  re- 
moved as  soon  as  you  judge  that  a  fair  amount  of  leaf 
has  been  taken  from  the  plant,  and  the  operation, 
whi|h  is  really  a  severe  taxing  process,  should  not  be 
repeated  upon  the  same  plant  two  years  in  succession. 

The  stem  should  not  be  cut  from  the  plant,  but 
deftly  slipped  off  by  a  twisting,  sidewise  pull. 

The  leading  varieties  are  Linnaeus,  Myatt's  Victoria, 
Mammoth  and  New  Emperor.- 

Rhubarb  Curculio  {Lixus  conclavus,  S).  This 
beetle  has,  of  late  years,  taken  to  the  rhubarb,  and  it 
may  become  troublesome.  It  is  often  covered  with  a 
yellow  material  like  pollen  when  it  first  makes  its  ap- 
pearance about  the  first  of  June,  but  its  color  is 
grayish  black.     It  is  thought  this  beetle  originally. 


and  does  yet,  where  the  rhubarb  is  not  at  hand,  breed 
in  burdock.  It  is  easily  taken  by  hand,  which  is  the 
only  remedy  now  known. 

Medicinal  Qualities  of  Rhubarb.  Rhubarb  is 
one  of  our  most  valuable  medicines ;  in  it  we  find  a 
singular  combination  of  two  properties,  which  in  their 
effects  are  of  an  opposite  character,  the  cathartic  and 
the  astringent.  But  when  the  medicine  is  taken, 
these  properties  do  not  exhibit  their  several  effects  at 
the  same  time;  the  cathartic  power  is  always  ex- 
hausted before  the  other  takes  a  permanent  effect. 
This  circumstance  is  what  so  eminently  adapts  this 
medicine  to  the  treatment  of  dysentery,  cholera  in- 
fantum and  cholera  morbus.  Rhubarb  is  likewise 
very  good  in  the  diarrhoea  that  often  attends  dyspep- 
sia, and  the  last  stages  of  consumption.  It  is  very 
mild  in  its  operation  as  a  cathartic,  and  is  not  apt  to 
produce  watery  discharges,  but  rather  such  as  are  of 
a  fgecal  character. 

Rhubarb  is  recommenaed  by  authors  in  cases  of 
habitual  constipation  attending  dyspepsia ;  but  as 
will  readily  appear  to  any  thinking  individual,  it 
certainly  is  illy  adapted  to  such  cases,  in  view  of  its 
astringent  qualities,  which  always  leave  the  bowels  in 
a  confined  condition. 

Rhubarb  is  a  tonic  and  purgative  in  dogs  and 
other  carnivorous  animals,  but  in  horses  and  cattle  it 
has  scarcely  any  effect  whatever,  further  than  im- 
proving the  appetite.  The  dose  of  the  spiced  rhubarb 
is  from  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls,  repeating  it  two  to 
three  times  a  day. 

Rice  is  a  native  of  warm  climates  and  differs  in 
the  mode  of  its  cultivation  from  any  other  grain  that 
is  grown.  Those  six)ts  where  various  animal  and 
vegetable  substances  are  washed  down  by  rivers,  are 
most  favorable  to  its  growth.  The  marshy  parts  of 
Hindostan  and  Carolina  are  among  the  chief  portions 
of  the  globe  where  rice  is  brought  to  perfection.  But 
the  American  rice  is  generally  considered  as  being 
much  better  than  that  which  is  grown  in  the  East 
Indies. 

The  rice  fields  of  Carolina  lie  adjacent  to  the 
larger  rivers  which  flow  toward  the  sea,  and  down 
whose  rapid  currents  the  floods  of  each  spring  bring  a 
fresh  dejxjsit  of  soil.  They  are  enclosed  in  some 
places  by  neat  embankments,  through  openings  in 
which  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  at  such  times  as  it 
is  needed.  The  rice-seed  is  sown  in  a  rich  plot  of 
ground,  and  allowed  to  attain  the  height  of  a  few 
inches,  when  the  plants  are  removed  into  the  fields 
where  they  are  to  grow,  the  ground  having  been 
previously  prepared  by  being  overflowed  with  water 
until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated.  These  plantations 
require  to  be  kept  constantly  moist,  and  as  they 
usually  lie  below  the  level  of  the  river,  by  opening 
the  sluices  in  the  embankments  they  are  re.idily 
watered ;  this  operation  is  repeated  several  times 
during  its  growth. 

A  field  of  young  rice  is  a  beautiful  and  interesting 
sight,  but   the  great   amount  of  decayed  vegetation 


I  too 


RIDDLE— ROADS. 


which  the  soil  contains  renders  the  atmosphere  very 
unhealthy  and  few  persons  besides  the  negroes  em- 
ployed in  cultivation  can  remain  in  the  neighborhood 
with  safety. 

Baked  Rice.  Boil  ^  cup  of  rice  in  i  pint  of  water 
30  minutes,  and  then  add  i  quart  of  new  milk  and  boil 
30  minutes  longer;  then  beat  together  i  cup  of  sugar,  3 
eggs,  2  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  and  a  little  lemon  or  nut- 
meg ;  stir  this  into  the  rice  and  turn  the  mixture  into 
a  buttered  pudding-dish  and  bake  30  minutes.  To 
be  eaten  without  sauce. 

To  Boil  Rice.  First  wash  the  nee  by  rubbing  be- 
tween the  hands  in  three  changes  of  water ;  to  each 
cupful  of  nee  add  2  of  water,  with  salt  to  season;  boil 
slowly  in  a  covered  vessel,  never  stirring  nor  adding 
water;  when  the  water  is  all  boiled  away  the  rice  is 
done ;  take  the  cover  from  the  vessel  and  allow  the 
steam  to  escape  for  a  moment,  then  shake  the  dish 
and  turn  out  the  rice.  In  serving  at  the  table  the 
curry  should  be  put  over  the  rice  as  you  would  gravy 
over  potatoes,  not  mixed  in  before  going  to  the  table, 
as  some  do. 

Frosted  Rice.  Boil  i  cup  of  rice  in  milk  till 
very  tender;  salt  or  season  it;  beat  the  yolks  of  3 
eggs  with  the  rice  in  a  deep  dish ;  beat  3  whites  to  a 
stiff  froth  with  a  little  sugar  and  a  little  lemon;  spread 
over  the  rice  and  brown  in  the  oven.  Put  it  on  ice 
and  serve  cold.  This  may  be  made  of  tapioca  and 
corn  starch,  is  cheap,  wholesome  and  delicious  and 
may  be  afforded  often. 

Rice  Snowballs.  Six  ounces  of  rice,  i  quart  of 
milk,  flavoring  of  essence  of  almonds;  sugar  to  taste; 
1  pint  of  custard.  Boil  the  rice  in  the  milk  with  sugar 
and  a  flavoring  essence  of  almonds  until  the  former  is 
tender,  adding,  if  necessary,  a  little  more  milk  should 
it  dry  away  too  much ;  when  the  rice  is  quite  soft,  put 
it  into  teacups  or  small  round  jars  and  let  it  remain 
until  cold.  Then  turn  the  rice  out  on  a  deep  glass 
dish,  pour  over  a  custard,  and  on  the  top  of  each  ball 
place  a  small  piece  of  bright-colored  jelly.  Lemon 
peel  or  vanilla  may  be  boiled  with  the  rice  instead  of 
the  essence  of  almonds,  but  the  flavoring  of  the  cus- 
tard must  correspond  with  that  of  the  rice. 

See  Pudding. 

Riddle,  a  sieve'  with  coarse  meshes,  usually  of 
wire,  for  separating  coarser  materials  from  finer,  as 
chaff  from  grain,  cinders  from  ashes,  gravel  from 
sand,  etc.  The  sieves  of  fanning-mills  are  often 
called  riddles. 

Rinderpest  (rin'der-pest),  the  German  name  of  the 
European  cattle-plague,  a  disease  not  yet  introduced 
into  this  country.  It  seems  to  have  been  imported 
into  Europe  in  ancient  times,  from  Central  Asia.  Its 
character  is  that  of  violent  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  and  is  generally  fatal. 

Ring-Bone,  a  bony  excrescence  around  the  pas- 
tern joint  on  the  horse's  foot.     See  page  802. 

Ring-Worm,  a  disease  consisring  of  red  rings, 
formed   by  small  pimples  or  blotches,  containing  a 


watery,  corrosive  fluid.  It  is  attended  with  itching 
and  when  scratched  produces  a  discharge  of  a  fluid, 
which  by  touching  other  places,  spreads  the  eruption. 

Treat.ment.  To  I  part  of  sulphuric  acid  add  16 
to  20  parts  water;  use  a  brush  or  feather  and  apply  it 
to  the  parts  night  and  morning.  A  few  dressings  will 
generally  cure.  If  the  solution  is  too  strong,  dilute  it 
with  more  water;  and  if  the  irritation  is  excessive, 
rub  on  a  little  oil  or  other  softening  application,  but 
always  avoid  soap. 

Another  remedy  for  ring-worm  is  to  wash  the  part 
with  soft-soap  every  morning  and  apply  the  following 
lotion  at  night:  i  dram  sub-carbonate  of  soda  dis- 
solved in  Y-i  pint  of  vinegar. 

Rip-Saw,  a  hand-saw  with  the  teeth  projecting 
forward,  for  cutting  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  as  a 
kind  of  substitute  for  splitting  the  timber. 

Rive,  to  split  with  a  frow  (pronounced /Vi?),  which 
is  a  heavy  knife,  with  a  handle  at  right-angle  to  the 
blade,  for  splitting  staves  and  clapboards.  The  frow 
is  driven  into  one  end  of  the  "  bolt"  (large  stick)  of 
timber  with  a  heavy  mallet  and  is  waved  up  and 
down  and  toward  the  end  of  the  bolt  until  the  board 
comes  off.  To  guide  the  splitting  properly,  the  bolt  is 
alternately  turned  first  one  side  up  and  then  the 
other,  as  indicated  by  the  progress  of  the  splitting, 
which  must  be  constantly  watched.  A  heavy  fork 
from  a  tree  is  fixed  a  few  inches  above  the  ground,  in 
which  to  turn  the  bolt  and  press  upon  the  frow.  This 
operation  is  much  practiced  in  pioneer  times  in  a 
timber  country. 

Roaches :  see  Cockroaches. 

Roads.  Roads  and  roadmaking  are  certainly  im- 
portant items  to  the  farmer,  for  almost  all  the  pro- 
ducts of  his  farm  must  be  transported  over  them,  and 
the  cost  and  comfort  of  transportation  depends  very 
largely  on  their  quality  and  their  condition.  The 
roads  through  a  farming  district  must  therefore  have 
no  little  influence  upon  the  value  of  the  land  in  such 
locality.  Every  farmer  well  knows  that  good  roads 
means  big  loads,  to  and  from  markets,  in  quicker  time 
and  with  a  vast  deal  more  pleasure,  and  less  wear 
and  tear  on  vehicle  and  team,  than  rough  and  poor 
ones.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  question  is 
one  deserving  the  attention  of  the  farmers  in  all  sec- 
tions. In  most  sections  of  this  country  comparatively 
little  outlay  has  been  made  in  constructing  roads,  but 
as  the  country  grows  older  and  richer  roads  wiiJ  be 
made  better  and  more  durable.  In  Europe,  for  in- 
stance, where  the  nations  have  had  time,  experience 
and  wealth,  they  have  roads  of  very  superior  character. 

In  making  roads  there  is  one  thing  to  secure,  and 
that  is  a  hard,  smooth •  surface,  impervious  to  water. 
This  may  be  obtained,  practically,  by  the  use  of  vari- 
ous materials  and  in  various  ways,  but  in  general 
country  roads  are  made  of  the  soil.  We  will  first 
consider  the  process  of  making  roads  of  this  material. 

Earth  Roads.  The  roads  of  a  country  must  ob- 
viously be,  as  a  rule,  made  of  material  found  in  the 


ROADS. 


IIOI 


vicinity,  and  that  will  combine  in  the  greatest  degree, 
cheapness,  durability  and  smoothness  of  surface. 
In  many  sections,  however,  there  is  no  other  material 
accessible  than  the  common  earth,  and  this  must  be 
worked  in  such  a  manner  as  to  provide  a  good  high- 
way for  both  heavy  and  light  vehicles.  In  construct- 
ing an  earth  road  the  following  rules  or  suggestions 
will  be  of  practical  value: 

The  road  should  be  about  40  feet  wide  from  out- 


FiG.  I. —  Tke  Proper  Form  of  a  Road  Surface* 

side  to  outside  of  the  ditches,  and  the  bed,  or  the 
portion  between  the  inside  of  the  ditches  should  be 
25  feet  wide.  If  the  road  is  40  feet  in  width  the 
ditches  should  be  seven  and  one-half  feet  wide. 
They  should  be  of  gradual  slope  from  the  edge  of  the 
road-bed  to  the  outside,  and  at  the  latter  point  should 
be  one  foot  deep.  Where  the  surface  is  uneven,  the 
ditches  should  be  deeper  through  the  higher  six)ts, 
for  they  must  have  a  uniform  grade  so  as  to  run  off 
the  water 

In  making  a  dirt  road  of  the  width  indicated  above, 
first  stake  off  the  road-bed   25   feet  wide,  in  such    a 
manner  as  to  be  a  guide  in  plowing.     Then  plow  the 
sod  on  either  side  seven  and  one-half  feet  wide,   or 
the  width  of  the  ditches.     Scrape  all  the  turf  or  sod 
upon  the  center  of  the  road-bed,  striking  the  furrows 
endwise  with  the  scraper,  and  having  the  team   pass 
around  in  a  circle.  When  all  the  sod  has  been  scraped 
to  the  center,  plow  again  and  remove  the  earth  to  the 
road-bed,  rounding  up  the  center,  and  making   the 
surface    uniform.     After   this   has   been    done    plow 
three  or  four  furrows  uix)n  the  outside  of  the  ditches, 
scrape  in  the  dirt  leaving  the  surface  highest  in   the 
center   and  curving  gradually  to  the  outside  of  the 
ditches  as  represented  by  Fig.   i. 
The  ditches  by  this    are  lowered 
one  fool  on  each  side,  the  road- 
bed raised  six  inches   by  the   dirt 
from  the  ditches;  hence  the  drain- 
age is  18  inches  in  half  the  width 
of  the  road  or  in  20  feet  from  the 
center  of  the    road   to  the  out- 
side.    This  should  make  a  good,  solid   road-way,  as 
the  mellow  soil  soon  packs  and   becomes  hard  upon 
the  original  hard  earth,  and  the  loose  earth,  being 
scraped  from  the  ditch,  leaves  that  free  to  carry  off 
the  water.     The  road-way  is  represented  by  that  por- 
tion above  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.   i. 

The  general  tendency  is  to  make  the  road-bed  too 
narrow  in  first  making  a  road,  and  each  time  it  is  re- 
paired to  encroach  upon  it.  The  ditches  are  usually 
deepened  abruptly  close  to  the  road,  thus  forcing 
travel  in  one  place.     This  soon  makes  the  road  nar- 


row, flat  and  rough  or  miry,  as  represented  in  Fig  2. 
In  repairing  an  earth  road  plow  upon  the  outside 
of  the  ditch,  always  throwing  the  furrows  toward  the 
road.  Then  begin  to  scrape  from  the  outside  of  the 
new  plowing,  and  you  will  doubtless  have  sufficient 
earth  to  broaden  and  round  up  the  road.  This  will 
form  an  oval  road-bed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i,  so  that 
travel  may  be  effected  clear  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ditches.  The  principal  feature  to  be  ever  borne  in 
mind  is  to  have  such  ditches 
as  will  carry  off  the  water.  Any 
road  will  become  dry  that  has 
good  ditches,  and  Clothing  short 
of  that  will  make  a  dry  road. 

Another  method  of  draining 
is  by  tiling.  This  has  been 
proven  a  very  effective  way  of 
draining  a  road,  and  that  is  theimportantitem.  Roads 
may  be  constructed  as  above  described,  and  a  line  of 
tile  placed  close  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  embankment 
at  a  depth  of  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet.  To  do 
the  work  thoroughly,  a  line  should  be  laid  on  each 
side  of  the  embankment.  These  lines  should  be  laid 
very  accurately  and  upon. a  true  grade.  If  it  is  jx)s- 
sible  the  drain  should  have  a  grade  of  at  least  2  to  4 
inches  to  100  feet.  The  most  important  thing  to  look 
after  is  the  rapid  removal  of  the  water.  This  neces- 
sitates the  most  accurate  work  in  laying  the  drain, 
and  also  larger  tiles  than  would  be  sufficient  to  drain 
the  same  area  of  land  for  farming  purposes.  If  there 
are  small  sags  communicating  with  the  road  ditches, 
branch  lines  should  extend  to  them  so  that  they  may 
not  overflow  and  discharge  large  quantities  of  water 
in  the  road  ditches.  Should  there  be  a  hollow  along 
the  line  of  tile,  a  catch-basin  will  facilitate  the  remov- 
al of  the  water.  This  is  a  pit,  two  feet  square,  dug 
as  deep  as  the  tiles  are  laid.  After  the  tiles  are  laid, 
the  pit  is  filled  with  gravel  or  small  stones.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  basin  is  to  take  the  water  which  gathers 
so  quickly  in  such  places,  and  give  it  a  rapid  ingress 
to  the  tile. 


_./r": 


^-•^-"^W^K^-iN^^^WVO^ 


FiCJ.  ^.-^Improper  Way  of  Drainin^^  and  Ditching   Roads. 

Placing  three  or  four  inches  of  coarse  sand  ten  or 
fifteen  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  road,  in  the 
original  grading,  will  make  an  efficient  drain. 

A  road-way  20  feet  wide  will  afford  ample  room  for 
two  teams  to  pass,  even  when  loaded  with  unusually 
bulky  articles,  as,  for  instance,  hay  ;  but  should  the 
side  ditches  be  made  as  abruptly  as  is  often  done,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  there  will  be  danger  of  tipping  over. 
They  should  have  a  gradual  slope,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
4,  where  a  team  may  travel  on  any  part  of  it  without 
danger.     The  principal  implements  required  in  mak- 


II02 


ROARING— ROBIN. 


ing  a  road  as  described  above  are  a  plow  and  a  road- 
scraper.  Perhaps  the  best  of  the  latter  kind  are 
made  by  the  Chicago  Scraper  &  Ditcher  Co.,  Chica- 
go, Illinois. 

(iRAVEL  Roads.  In  localities  where  sharp  gravel 
is  obtainable,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  a  covering  of 
from  10  to  15  inches  upon  a  perfectly  graded  and 
well  drained  road  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  econom- 
ical ;    at  the  same  time  it  is  easier   to  keep  in  repair 


Fig.  3. — Improper  Way  0/  Ditching, 

for  county  roads,  for  the  reason  that  it  costs  merely 
the  digging  and  hauling.  Washed  and  rounded 
gravel  should  never  be  used,  for  it  will  never  cement 
together  to  form  an  even  surface.  It  may,  indeed,  in 
time  become  so  incorporated  with  the  soil  as  to  in- 
crease the  solidity  of  the  road-way,  but  it  can  never 
become  a  really  efficient  medium  over  which  loaded 
vehicles  can  pass  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  great  cost  of  hauling  material  of  any  kind  to 
form  the  superstructure  of  a  road,  renders  it  impera- 
tive that  the  most  careful  calculation  be  made  as  to 
the  amount  of  traffic  thereon.  If,  for  instance,  the 
heavy  travel  be  nearly  all  one  way,  as  in  country 
places,  ten  feet  of  ballasted  portion  will  be  amjjle ; 
14  feet  will  easily  allow  for  turning  out,  and  for  the 
passage  of  loaded  teams;  i8  to  20  feet  will  allow 
teams  to  go  in  contrary  directions  continuously  ;  and 
24  to  32  feet  will  admit  of  the  road  being  thronged  in 
both  directions,  and  yet  leave  sufficient  room  for 
turning  out  and  the  passing  and  repassing  of  light 
vehicles,  swiftly  driven. 

Plank  Roads.     These  are  suited  only  for  a  heav- 
ily timbered  country ;  at  the  best  they 
are  but  temixirary  affairs,   and  are    ^^*N 
the  worst  roads  possible  if  not  kept  ^ 

in  the  best  of  repair.  As  our  country 
grows  older  they  must  of  necessity 
be  replaced  by  roads  of  more  pyer- 
raanent  character. 

Broken-Stone  Road.  The  best  ^ 
road  we  can  command  is  the  broken- 
stone  or  macadamized  road.  The 
method  of  making,  in  its  earlier  stages,  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  gravel  road,  viz.:  by  preparing 
a  well  drained  and  neatly  graded  road  bed  slightly 
convex  at  the  center;  to  this  apply  the  road  metal 
(which,  in  this  case,  consists  of  angular  fragments  of 
stone,  not  over  i  J^  inches  on  any  side),  in  layers  of  a 
few  inclies  in  thickness,  allowing  each  layer  to  harden 
under  the  traffic  before  the  next  is  applied.  The 
thickness  of  the  broken  stone  should  vary  with  the 
amount  of  traffic  from  8  to  16  inches.     Once  made. 


the  broken-stone  road  is  the  cheapest  of  all  roads.  It 
is  a  road  over  which  a  single  horse  can  easily  draw 
nearly  I. "o  tons  against  eight-ninths  of  one  ton  on  a 
gravel  road. 

Culverts.  One  of  the  most  important  essentials 
in  road-making  is  sluice-ways  or  culverts,  at  proper 
intervals,  so  that  the  water  may  readily  be  conveyed 
from  one  side  of  the  road  to  the  other,  as  the  confor- 
mation of  the  surface  may  demand,  to  keep  up  the 
continuity  of  the  drainage  ;  for,  if  water 
be  permitted  to  stand  in  the  ditches  at 
all,  the  road-way  must  remain  moist 
and  consequently  soft. 

One  of  the  greatest  nuisances  is  the 
rough,  uncouth  wooden  culvert.  When 
these  ditches  receive  the  accumulated 
waters  of  fields,  as  when  the  road-way 
crosses  natural  water  courses,  substan- 
tial culverts  or  bridges  must  be  provid- 
ed ;  but  when  the  accumulation  is  simply  the  drain- 
age of  the  road,  with,  perhaps,  some  addition  from  the 
adjacent  land,  a  simple  line  of  tile  sunk  to  the  level 
of  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  extending  across  and 
under  the  road,  is  all  that  is  necessary.  These,  be- 
sides offering  no  obstruction  to  travel,  are  far  cheaper 
than  even  the  simplest  culverts  formed  of  wood. 

These  should  always  be  of  vitrified  tile  and  may 
be  ordered  in  any  city.  They  are  made  of  any  size, 
from  six  inches  to  two  feet  or  even  larger  in  caliber. 
If  one  is  not  enough,  lay  two  or  more  alongside  each 
other,  and  forever  do  away  with  the  severe  shocks 
that  torture  horses,  drivers  and  passengers,  whenever 
the  wheels  of  a  vehicle  strike  those  plank  water  ways. 

Hoaring  of  horse  :    see  page  725, 

Bobin,  a  familiar  bird  of  the  thrush  family,  the 
Turdus  migratorius,  so  called  because  he  migrates 
to  the  South  to  pass  the  winter.  A  few,  however,  re- 
main North  during  the  winter,  in  thick  swamps  and 
on  the  sunny  sides  of  woods.  They  appear  in  the 
Northern  States  in  very  early  spring,  "  singing  their 


Fig.  4. — Prnptr  Shape  o/  Ditches. 

sweetest."  From  an  economical  ix)int  of  view,  it  is 
still  an  unsettled  question  whether  they  do  more 
harm  than  good ;  but  from  the  "  esthetical "  stand- 
point, it  is  evident  that  their  song  is  far  preferable  to 
the  everlasting  "  chip-chip  "  of  the  English  sparrow, 
which  will  eventually  drive  out  our  native  song-birds. 
The  robin  subsists  upon  worms  and  Lirvse  and  ujxjn 
cherries  and  some  other  small  fruits  in  their  season. 
This  is  not  the  "  robin  red-breast,"  of  the  Old  World, 
which  belongs  to  another  genus  of' this  family. 


ROCHELLE  SALT— ROOT  CROPS. 


1 103 


Rochelle  Salt  (ro-shel'),  the  tartrate  of  potassa 
and  soda.  This  is  a  colorless,  transparent,  slightly 
efflorescent  and  crystalline  substance,  with  a  saline 
and  slightly  bitter  taste.  It  is  a  mild  and  cooling 
purgative,  well  suited  to  delicate  and  irritable 
stomachs  and  is  among  the  least  unpalatable  of  the 
neutral  salts.  It  is  not  incompatible  with  tartar 
emetic,  and  may  be  given  in  connection  with  it  when 
the  double  effect  is  desired.  It  is  an  ingredient  of 
Seidlitz  jx)wders.  The  dose  for  a  purge  is  from  ^  to 
I  ounce.  Given  in  small  and  repeated  doses,  it  does 
not  purge,  but  is  absorbed  and  renders  the  urine 
alkaline. 

Roller,  an  implement  for  compressing,  smoothing, 
pulverizing,  or  otherwise  finishing  off  cultivated  land, 
whether  in  grass  or  in  tillage,  in  preparation  for  sow- 
ing or  subsequent  to  sowing.  Rollers  vary  greatly  in 
form  and  the  material  of  which  they  are  constructed, 
but  those  in  general  use  are  made  of  wood.  Iron 
rollers  are,  however,  commonly  used  in  some  sections. 
It  has  been  fonnd  that  very  frequently  instead  of 
crushing  the  clods  of  hard  earth  a  roller  simply  presses 
them  into  the  loose  soil.  For  use  on  clay  land,  which 
has  become  hard  and  baked,  a  heavy  iron  roller  sup- 
plied with  a  large  number  of  teeth  upon  its  outer 
surface  will  be  found  the  best.  For  lighter  work  as  a 
clod  crusher  a  log  drawn  over  the  ground  without 
rolling  will  answer  every  purpose.  Such  an  imple- 
ment can  be  made  for  either  one  or  two  horses.  If 
for  the  former  a  pair  of  shafts  will  be  required,  while 
for  the  latter  a  pole  similar  to  that  of  the  wagon. 
However,  besides  the  work  of  smoothing  the  surface, 
a  roller  is  a  good  implement  for  covering  grass  seed. 

BoUs,  light  fancy  bread  in  the  form  of  rolls. 

Coffee  Rolls.  Take  six  cups  or  three  pints  of 
flour,  half  a  cup  of  white  sugar,  a  piece  of  butter  the 
size  of  an  egg,  half  a  cup  of  yeast,  two  eggs,  and  a 
little  nutmeg.  Mix  with  warm  milk,  and  let  it  rise 
over  night ;  if  well  risen  in  the  morning,  knead  and 
set  in  a  cool  place  until  afternoon,  then  shape  into 
long  rolls  and  let  them  rise  an  hour  and  a  half.  Bake 
in  a  moderate  oven.  When  done,  glaze  them  with  a 
little  milk  in  which  some  brown  sugar  has  been  dis- 
solved, and  set  them  back  in  the  oven  for  a  few 
minutes.     These  are  for  tea. 

Parker-House  Rolls.  Sift  two  quarts  of  flour, 
make  a  hole  in  the  center.  Take  one  pint  of  warm 
milk,  half  a  cup  of  melted  butter  in  the  milk,  let  it 
cool,  then  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  a  gill  of 
yeast  and  a  little  salt;  jxiur  this  into  the  hole  made  in 
the  flour;  let  it  stand  till  morning,  then  thoroughly 
mix  it,  not  adding  any  more  flour;  let  it  rise  again 
until  noon,  then  knead  it  stiff  enough  to  roll  out ;  cut 
it  in  rounds  and  give  them  a  roll  with  the  rolling-pin 
to  make  them  oval;  lap  them  over,  having  put  a 
crumb  of  butter  under  each  before  lapping.  Let 
thmn  rise  in  the  pan  before  going  into  the  oven. 

Breakfast  Rolls:  see  page  134- 

Rolly-poly(,Rolly-po-ly),  a  kind  of  pudding  made 


of  sheets  of  paste  spread  with  sweetmeats,  etc.,  roll- 
ed up.  Make  a  biscuit  dough  with  a  quart  of  flour, 
2  large  teaspoonfuls  of  condensed  baking  powder,  sifted 
into  the  flour,  2  tablesfMonfuls  of  chopped  suet,  and 
sweet  milk  enough  to  make  into  a  dough.  Roll  into 
an  oblong  sheet  a  little  more  than  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  spread  thickly  with  fruit,  as  berries  or 
chopped  apples,  sliced  peaches,  etc.,  or  jam  preserves, 
etc.  In  putting  this  in,  leave  an  inch  at  the  edges 
uncovered;  roll  it  up  tight,  lap  the  edges  over  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  fruit,  and  sew  it  up  in  a 
bag,  having  first  dipped  the  bag  in  hot  water  and 
dredged  it  with  flour.  Boil  the  pudding  i  J^  hours, 
and  when  done  cut  it  crosswise  in  slices  }^  inch 
thick  and  serve  with  wine  or  fruit  sauce. 

Root,  the  part  of  a  plant  which  strikes  downward 
or  inward  into  the  soil.  It  directs  its  course  down- 
ward or  inward  with  a  tendency  apparently  as 
invariable  and  stubborn  as  the  force  of  gravitation ; 
it  does  not  carry  branches  or  leaves  or  scales  in  the 
manner  of  a  stem ;  it  never  becomes  green  in  its 
tissue  by  exjwsure  to  the  action  of  air  and  light ;  and 
it  comprises  all  the  points  of  the  plant's  basal  attach- 
ment, and  also  all  the  bibulous  organs  of  the  plant's 
functions  of  nourishment. 

Root  Crops,  crops  of  roots  raised  to  feed  to  stock. 
The  raising  of  such  crops  is  of  growing  imixsrtance  in 
this  country.  In  Europe  the  practice  has  enabled 
the  people  to  raise  25  per  cent,  more  cattle,  and  to 
raise  them  better.  Of  beets  nothing  is  exiwrted  but 
the  sugar,  while  the  remaining  pulp  is  a  most  valuable 
food  for  cattle.  In  this  country  beets,  carrots,  tur- 
nips and  pumpkins  afford  a  healthful  variety  to  break 
the  dull  monotony  of  corn,  oats  and  hay.  Indeed, 
the  feeding  of  these  juicy  articles  are  absolutely 
essential  to  the  greatest  degree  of  perfection  and  of 
health  in  farm  animals.  Feeding  ujxjn  these  prevents 
constipation  and  excessive  drinking  of  water,  while  it 
is  a  general  "  corrective  "  of  all  the  digestive  processes. 
Of  course,  pound  for  pound,  there  is  theoretically 
more  nutritive  matter  in  grain  than  in  roots;  but  the 
point  is,  there  is  more  available  (digestible  and  assim- 
ilable) matter  in  a  varying  mixture  of  the  two  classes 
of  articles  than  in  either  alone,  while  the  juices  of  the 
roots,  pumpkins,  etc.,  are  physiologically  purer  and 
more  welcome  to  the  animal  economy  than  any  other 
water  that  can  be  obtained.  ' 

In  the  West  the  usual  drouth  of  late  summer  and 
early  fall  stand  in  the  way  of  the  successful  raising  of 
turnips,  but  carrots  and  beets  can  be  raised  with 
profit.  Dairymen  and  stock-breeders,  especially, 
would  be  justified  in  raising  these  on  a  large  scale. 
The  mode  of  raising  these  vegetables  is  given  in  their 
places  in  this  volume.  For  field  culture,  of  course, 
everything  is  planted  in  rows  or  drills  2j4  to  3  feet 
apart,  to  allow  for  horse  cultivation,  and  such  large  and 
coarse  varieties  of  the  vegetables  as  will  yield  the  most 
per  acre.  These  varieties  are  also  indicated  in  the  re- 
spective articles  in  this  work.  If  you  have  a  good  piece 
of  land,  passably  clearfrom  weeds,  upon  whichyouwish 


II04 


SOOT  CROPS— ROSE. 


to  raise  roots,  sow  plenty  of  carrots,  provided  you  can 
get  good  reliable  seed.  This  is  quite  difficult,  but,  if 
possible,  try  to  raise  your  own  seeds  of  various  kinds. 
Should  you  fail  in  your  carrots,  you  can  sow  to  ruta- 
bagas or  Russian  turnips;  and  in  case  these  happen 
to  fail  wholly  or  in  part,  you  can  still  fall  back  on  the 
flat  turnij).  Next  in  value  comes  the  beet.  See 
pages  95-6. 

Preparation  of  Land.  In  the  month  of  May,  or 
earlier,  plow  your  land  (any  good  land  will  do,  a  stiff 
sod  excepted),  a  good  depth,  at  the  same  time  apply- 
ing a  good  coat  of  fine  stable  or  compost  manure. 
Harrow  and  roll  it  well.  The  roUing  will  insure  it 
against  drouth,  which  frequently  happens  about  the 
seeding  time  of  the  varieties,  which  for  ruta-bagas  or 
Russian  turnips  should  be  from  the  loth  to  the  25th 
of  June;  for  carrots  or  beets,  same  time  in  May, 
or  from  the  25  th  of  May  to  the  loth  of  June  will  do, 
other  conditions  being  favorable ;  and  for  flat  turnips, 
the  last  half  of  July.  Having  thus  prepared  your 
land,  some  little  time  before  sowing,  some  of  it  at 
least  you  will  need  to  see  to  on  account  of  the  weeds, 
and  if  necessary  harrow  to  keep  them  down.  Just 
before  seeding  time,  whether  it  be  carrots,  beets  or 
turnips,  put  your  land  in  drills  or  ridges,  about  two 
feet  apart, — not  to  exceed  that  distance, — on  the  top 
of  which  sow  your  seed,  being  sure  to  put  in  plenty  of 
it,  as  it  is  much  easier  to  thin  out  than  to  trans- 
plant or  fill  with  later  varieties. 

Use  a  large  plow,  first  measuring  off  from  one  side 
of  the  piece  at  a  given  distance,  say  three  rods.  Then 
strike  a  straight  furrow  through  the  piece  and  back, 
making  one  ridge ;  then  set  your  clevis  over  so  as  to 
make  the  ridges  the  desired  distance  apart  by  cutting 
and  covering,  and  so  on  until  you  have  finished  the 
field,  giving  the  ridges  one  day  to  settle  before  sow- 
ing, if  the  weather  is  likely  to  be  fair. 

After  Cultivation.  As  soon  as  your  plants 
reach  a  suitable  size,  which  will  be  in  three  or  four 
weeks,  use  an  old-fashioned  five-toothed  cultivator, 
taking  out  the;  two  center  teeth  and  bringing  in  the 
sides  toward  the  center  as  much  as  you  can,  which 
makes  a  cultivator  just  the  right  width.  After  going 
twice  in  a  row  with  this,  there  will  be  a  strip  six  to 
eight  inches  wide  where  the  plants  are,  which  has  to 
be  worked  with  a  hoe.  Do  not  think  it  will  hurt  your 
plants,  ruta-bagas  and  turnips  in  particular,  to  handle 
them  a  little  roughly,  cutting  away  with  the  hoe. 
Carrots  need  more  care,  and  it  frequently  becomes 
necessary  to  use  the  hand  in  order  not  to  disturb  the 
plants;  and  it  is  a  slow  job  at  that,  especially  if  neg- 
lected for  a  few  days.  If  the  first  weeding  is  well 
done,  the  after  culture  can  nearly  all  be  done  vnth  the 
cultivator.  Beets  require  about  the  same  process  in 
cultivation  as  ruta-bagas  and  Russian  turnips.  The 
flat  turnip  is  of  so  much  less  value  for  feeding  that 
we  do  not  recommend  raising  them,  except  where 
there  may  be  blanks  in  your  other  root  crops,  or 
where  you  may  have  been  prevented  from  getting 
your  ground  ready  in  season  for  other  varieties. 


You  may  reasonably  expect  from  500  to  800  bush- 
els to  the  acre. 

Carrots  and  beets  are  preferable  as  food  for  milch 
cows,  as  they  do  not  give  the  milk  that  unpleasant 
taste  sometimes  noticed  when  feeding  turnips  or 
ruta-bagas.  This,  however,  can  be  nearly  or  quite 
all  avoided  by  feeding  cows  in  the  morning  immedi- 
ately after  milking;  or,  in  case  there  should  be  a  little 
of  it  still  remaining,  put  one  teacupful  of  hot  water 
to  a  pail  of  milk  before  straining. 

Harvesting.  Beets  and  carrots  should  be  gath- 
ered before  very  heavy  frosts.  A  little  freezing  may 
cause  the  top  to  become  hollow  and  soft.  A  potato  fork 
is  very  valuable  for  loosening  the  ground,  after  which 
the  root  is  readily  pulled  out  with  the  hand  and  the 
top  broken  off  before  laying  it  down.  They  will  keep 
better  and  be  nicer  at  time  of  feeding  if  allowed  to 
dry  a  little  before  pitting.  The  beet  or  carrot  will 
withstand  a  very  dry  season  even  in  light  soil,  but  the 
yield  will  vary,  of  course,  according  to  the  surround- 
ings. With  rows  30  inches  apart  and  the  beets  18 
inches  in  the  row,  there  would  be  about  1 1,500  plants 
to  the  acre.  These  will  weigh  nearly  all  the  way 
from  2  pounds  to  perhaps  15  or  20  each.  If  the 
average  weight  was  5  pounds  you  would  have  about 
57,500  pounds,  or  958  bushels  per  acre.  The  cost  of 
production  per  acre  may  be  figured  as  follows : 

Once  plowing ^2  00 

Harrowing  and  cultivating 3  00 

Seed 2  50 

Drilling i  00 

Eight  days'  tending 12  00 

Pulhng  and  pitting 12  00 

Manure 12  50 

Total $45  00 

Allowing  only  450  bushels  per  acre  the  cost  is  but 
ro  cents  per  bushel.  A  yield  of  750  bushels  would 
reduce  the  cost  to  6  cents  per  bushel. 


Fig.  I.— Tea  Rose.  ' 

Bose,  the  flower  which  stands  at  the  head  of  the 


RO  T—RO  TA  TION. 


iios 


floral  kingdom.  The  species  are  numerous  and  the 
number  of  varieties  overwhehning ;  and  new  varieties 
are  originated  by  florists  ahnost  every  year.  The 
leading  species  of  cultivated  roses  are  Cherokee, 
Bracted,  Evergreen,  Musk,  Many-flowered,  Banksia, 


Fig.  ^.—Hybrid  Perpetual  Rose. 

Tea,  Perjjetual  or  Bengal,  Bourbon,  Bengal  Pompon, 
Noisette,  Provence  (French  or  Red),  Hundred-leaved 
(or  Cabbage),  Damask,  White,  Cinnamon,  Burnet  (or 
Scotch),  Yellow  Eglantine,  Yellow,  Dog,  Sweet-Brier, 
etc.  The  leading  wild  species  in  this  country  are  the 
Prairie  (or  Climbing),  Swamp,  Dwarf  Wild  and  Early 
Wild.  Most  roses  are  hardy  and  easy  of  cultivation ; 
some  are  "half-hardy,"  and  a  few  tender.  The  rosa- 
ceous order  of  plants  comprises  nearly  all  our  fruits,  as, 
apple,  pear,  peach,  cherry,  plum,  blackberry,  rasp- 
berry, strawberry,  nectarine,  apricot,  quince,  almond,  etc. 

Hot,  a  disease  of  the  liver  and  adjacent  viscera  of 
sheep.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  destructive 
of  sheep  maladies,  and  is  supposed  to  destroy  more 
sheep  than  all  other  diseases  together.    See  Sheep. 

Rotation.  Rotation  of  crops  is  one  of  the  best 
established  principles  of  modern  agricultural  science, 
and  probably,  also,  the  most  imjiortant.  Every  one 
sees  that  any  given  class  of  plants  will  exhaust,  the 
soil  of  certain  elements;  and  upon  this  fact  alone 
you  can  easily  construct  a  system  of  constant  renewal. 
(See  Manure  and  Fertilizer.)  As  exceptions  to  the 
principles  of  constant  rotation,  onions,  and  two  or  three 
forage  plants  in  rich  bottom  lands  that  are  sometimes 
inundated,  do  better  to  remain  in  the  same  ground 
for  many  years. 

In  a  well-planned  system  of  farming,  the  subject  of 
crop  rotations  should  be  carefully  considered  as  one 
7t.   . 


of  the  essential  elements  of  success  in  its  highest  and 
best  sense.  It  seems  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion 
that  the  alternation  of  crops,  in  systematic  order,  is  a 
modern  invention  that  was  gradually  developed  as  a 
direct  result  of  the  applications  of  science  to  the  art 
of  agriculture.  The  early  writers  on  agriculture, 
even  from  the  times  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  have, 
however,  quite  uniformly  urged  the  advantages  of  a 
succession  of  crops  from  the  teachings  of  experience. 
They  were  satisfied  that  a  variety  of  crops  grown  in 
succession,  all  other  conditions  being  equal,  would 
give  a  greater  aggregate  yield  than  could  otherwise  be 
obtained.  The  reasons  for  the  success  of  the  system 
could  not,  it  is  true,  be  given,  but  practical  men  were 
fully  agreed  in  urging  its  importance,  and  many  sys- 
tems of  rotation,  more  or  less  perfect,  were  planned, 
some  of  which  became  the  prevailing  rule  of  farm 
practice  in  particular  localities.  That  these  practical 
rules  of  alternating  crops  of  different  habits  and  mod-es 
of  growth  are  based  on  correct  but  not  fully  explained 
principles,  has  been  shown  by  direct  experiment. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  explain  the 
well-established  influence  of  one  crop  upon  the  growth 
of  another ;  but  as  the  laws  of  plant  growth  became 
better  known,  and  greater  exactness  in  the  means  of 
investigation  were  discovered,  they  were  found  in- 
sufficient to  account  for  all  the  observed  facts,  and 
even  at  the  present  time  a  complete  and  satisfactory 
theory  of  rotation  is  wanting.  When  it  was  observed 
that  the  yield  of  a  grain  crop  was  diminished  when 
grown  continuously  on  the  same  land  for  a  number  of 
years,  and  that  a  marked  increase  of  the  crop  was 
obtained  after  some  other  crop  had  been  grown,  the 
idea  that  the  soil  was  "  tired"  so  far  as  that  particular 
crop  was  concerned,  and  needed  "  resting,"  became 
the  accepted  explanation. 

In  1566  Camillo  Tarello  presented  to  the  Senate  of 
Venice  a  plan  of  an  improved  system  of  agriculture, 
in  which  he  urged  the  importance  of  better  cuUivation 
of  the  soil;  an  increase  of  cattle  food  for  a  better 
supply  of  manure,  and  the  "  resting"  of  the  soil  for 
grain  crops  by  alternating  them  with  the  grasses  and 
clover.  The  next  theory  worthy  of  particular  notice 
was  presented  by  De  Candolle,  who  assumed  that 
plants  threw  off  excretions  from  their  roots  that  jxii- 
soned  the  soil  for  the  same  species  of  plant,  but 
served  as  nutritive  material  for  other  plants.  This 
excretory  theory,  although  for  the  time  a  popular 
one,  was  finally  disproved,  and  Liebig's  mineral 
theory,  as  it  was  called,  was  quite  generally  accepted 
as  giving  the  best  explanation  of  the  known  facts  of 
crop  rotations.  According  to  this  theory,  plants  de- 
rived their  mineral,  or  ash  constituents,  from  the  soil, 
and  obtained  from  the  atmosphere  their  supply  of 
carbon  and  nitrogen.  As  crops  differed  in  their  ash 
constituents,  it  was  assumed  that  their  demands  uixjn 
the  soil  would  differ,  and  that  this  largely  explained 
the  advantages  of  rotations.  The  assumed  source  of 
nitrogen  was,  however,  a  more  important  factor  and 
crops  wfere  classified  as  exhausting  when  their  min- 
eral  constituents   predominated,  and   as   restorative 


iio6 


RO  UND-  UP—R  U MI  HANTS. 


when  they  contained  a  larger  proportion  of  nitrogen, 
which  they  were  sup}X)sed  to  draw  from  the  atmos- 
phere by  means  of  their  broader  leaves  which  char- 
acterized them.  The  cereals,  including  our  wheat, 
oats  and  barley,  were  thus  placed  in  the  group  of 
exhausting  crops ;  while  clover  and  other  leguminous 
plants  were  placed  in  the  restorative  group. 

As  a  full  crop  of  clover  removes  from  an  acre  of 
soil  more  of  the  mineral  or  ash  constituents  than  a 
full  crop  of  wheat  or  oats,  it  is  difficult  to  understand 
why ,  in  accordance  with  this  theory,  the  wheat  and  oats 
should  be  classed  as  exhausting  crops,  and  the  clover 
and  its  allies  as  restorative  crops,  if  their  mineral 
constituents  are  alone  considered.  Moreover,  in  re- 
gard to  the  source  of  the  nitrogen  of  what  are  called 
restorative  crops,  like  clover  and  beans,  there  seems 
to  be  evidence  that  a  smaller  proportion  is  drawn 
from  the  atmosphere  than  was  formerly  supposed, 
and  that  the  soil  furnishes  the  most  important  supply. 
An  excellent  system  of  rotation  is  plainly  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustration.  The  order  of  succes- 
sion in  the  crops  of  this  system  is  as  follows : 

I.  Inverted  clover  and  timothy  sod  for  corn.     2. 
Barley.     3.  Wheat.     4.  Meadow.     5.  Pasture,  to  be 

continued    one    or 
more    years,   or 
changed  formeadow. 
This  is  well  known 
as  the  most  common 
rotation  in  many  of 
the  Northern  States, 
and  the  only  pecul- 
iarities here  pointed 
out  are  in  the  details. 
I.  Th  E  Corn. 
When    corn    follows 
meadow  excellent 
crops    are    obtained 
b  y     applying     the 
manure  on  the  grass 
the  autumn  previous- 
ly, or  even  soon  after 


Rotation  0/  Crops, 


the  cutting  of  the  previous  crop  of  hay. 

2.  Barley.  It  is  important  that  the  crop  be  sowed 
early  in  spring,  and  for  this  reason  is  adapted  only  to 
dry  or  well  drained  fields.  On  water-soaked  land  it 
would  prove  a  failure.  If  the  corn  has  been  properly 
cultivated  and  kept  clean,  weeds  will  not  have  gain- 
ed much  hold ;  and  if  previously  weedy,  the  good 
cultivation  will  have  tended  to  eradicate  them.  The 
earliest  variety  of  barley  should  be  sown,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  harvested  early,  to  admit  several  weeks 
of  summer-fallowing  before  sowing  the  wheat. 

3.  Wheat.  This  being  an  important  crop,  proper 
care  should  be  given  to  the  preparation  of  the  soil. 
The  good  treatment  of  previous  years  for  other  crops 
will  extend  to  this  also.  The  effects  of  the  rotting 
sod  for  the  corn,  and  the  manure  it  received,  will  not 
yet  have  passed  away.  If  the  barley  has  been  cut 
early,  at  least  six  weeks  of  summer-fallowing  may 
precede  the  sowing  of  the  wheat,  at  a  time  of  year 


when  it  will  accomplish  much  towards  clearing  out 
foul  mattej,  as  well  as  pulverizing  the  soil  into  the 
best  condition  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  If  the 
land  is  not  strong  enough,  a  light  dressing  of  manure 
just  before  sowing  will  be  of  much  benefit. 

4  and  5.  Clover  and  Grass.  Clover  and  timothy 
seed  are  sown  early  in  spring  on  the  wheat,  or  the 
timothy  may  be  sown  the  preceding  autumn.  As 
soon  as  the  wheat  is  cut,  the  young  clover  should 
have  a  dressing  of  gypsum,  and  again  another  the 
following  spring.  The  grass  should  be  meadow  the 
first  year,  as  it  has  not  become  strong  enough  for  the 
tread  of  domestic  animals.  If  continued  another 
year  or  more  as  meadow,  it  should  have  a  light  top- 
dressing  of  manure  applied  in  autumn,  as  the  removal 
of  the  hay  tends  to  reduce  the  land.  If  continued 
several  years  for  meadow,  a  year  of  pasturage  should 
be  occasionally  interposed,  the  grass  never  being 
grazed  short,  especially  on  the  approach  of  winter. 

The  essential  elements  of  the  preceding  rotation 
may  be  retained,  with  a  considerable  modification  of 
the  details.  A  portion  of  the  field  devoted  to  corn 
may  be  occupied  with  potatoes,  in  which  case,  if  the 
sod  is  strong,  it  may  be  plowed  for  this  crop  the  pre- 
vious autumn,  and  re-plowed  in  spring.  Turnips, 
carrots,  etc.,  may  occupy  the  same  field,  care  being 
taken  to  have  the  land  properly  prepared  at  the  same 
time.  Instead  of  barley  the  second  year,  may  be 
peas,  spring  wheat,  or  oats,  in  which  latter  case  it 
may  be  necessary  to  give  an  additional  dressing  of 
manure  preceding  the  wheat.  After  the  field  is  seed- 
ed to  grass,  it  may  be  kept  as  meadow  and  pasture 
two,  three,  or  more  years,  according  to  circumstances, 
and  the  number  of  fields  occupied  by  the  rotation. 

Round-Up,  a  term  used  by  herdsmen  for  gather- 
ing together  the  vast  herds  of  cattle  on  the  plains  of 
the  West.     See  Herding. 

Roup,  a  most  common  and  a  very  fatal  disease  of 
]X3ultry.     See  page  539. 

Howel  (rou'el),  in  farriery,  a  roll  of  hair  or  silk,, 
passed  through  the  flesh  of  a  horse,  to  keep  open  a 
suppurating  wound.  The  term  has  also  been  applied 
to  the  little  flat  ring  or  wheel  of  plate  or  iron  on 
horses'  bits. 

Rowen :  see  Aftermath. 

Rubble-stone,  small  stones  used  for  coarse 
masonry.  The  wall  made  of  such  stone  is  called  a 
"rubble  wall." 

Rumen,  or  Paunch,  the  first  of  the  four  stomachs 
of  a  ruminating  animal. 

Ruminants  (ru'mi-nants),  the  family  or  order  of 
animals  which  have  four  stomachs  and  which  masti- 
cate their  food  after  it  has  been  once  swallowed  and 
taken  into  the  rumen.  It  is  the  most  disrinctly  de- 
fined of  all  the  families  of  mammals,  and  is  also  the 
most  useful  to  man.  Its  genera  are  the  ox,  the 
sheep,  the  goat,  the  antelope  (including  the  gazelle, 
chamois,  oryx  and  gnu),  the  giraffe,  the  stag,  the  musk. 


H UMINA  TION— RUTTING  SEASON. 


1 107- 


I 


the  llatna  and  the  camel.  All  the  ruminants  have  a 
callous  pad  instead  of  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  and 
are  cloven-footed,  have  four  stomachs,  a  very  long 
intestinal  canal,  and  their  mammse  between  the 
thighs.  The  flesh  of  ruminants  furnishes  all  the 
principal  kinds  of  meat  used  by  man;  their  milk, 
especially  that  of  the  cow,  supplies  all  the  produce  of 
the  dairy ;  their  fat  affords  all  the  varieties  of  tallow, 
and  their  hides,  their  horns  and  their  other  parts  all 
possess  great  economical  value.  Some  of  the  living 
animals,  also,  particularly  camels,  are  very  valuable 
beasts  of  burden. 

Rumination,  the  re-mastication  of  food  after  it 
has  entered  the  rumen  (paunch)  of  the  animal. 
Liquid  or  attenuated  food  passes  at  once  into  the 
third  and  fourth  stomachs  and  is  not  re-masticated ; 
but  all  other  food,  particularly  such  as  consists  of 
comparatively  dry  and  solid  vegetable  matter,  de- 
scends into  the  rumen,  is  there  slowly  macerated, 
passes  little  by  little  into  the  second  stomach  and  is 
there  separated  by  compression  into  a  liquid  and 
solid  iX)rtion,  the  liquid  to  pass  on  to  the  third  and 
fourth  stomachs,  and  the  solids  to  be  returned  in 
pellets  up  the  gullet  for  such  re-mastication  as  shall 
reduce  it  to  a  pulp  and  fit  it  to  pass  direct,  by  re- 
deglutition,  into  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs.  The 
re-mastication  is  effected  while  the  animal  lies  at 
ease,  and  constitutes  what  is  popularly  called  "chew- 
ing the  cud,"  and  takes  place  only  upon  matter  which 
nothing  short  of  tedious  labor  can  reduce  to  perfect 
pulpiness  or  liquidity,  and  the  regorging  which  attends 
it  differs  widely  from  the  belching  or  vomiting  of  non- 
ruminant  animals,  and  is  as  regularly  conducted  by 
a  specially  constituted  organism  as  deglutition,  or  ab- 
sorption, or  secretion,  or  any  other  ordinary  act  or 
function  of  the  animal  system. 

One  important  practical  lesson  suggested  by  the 
nature  of  rumination,  is  the  proper  feeding  of  cows,  in 
order  to  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk.  If 
they  are  fed  on  very  dry  food,  such  as  hay,  the  greater 
portion  of  fluids  in  the  blood  will  be  spent  in  the  proc- 
ess of  rumination  and  digestion,  and  the  milk  will  be 
scanty;  but  if  tliey  are  fed  on  aliment  which  abounds 
in  liquid  they  will  ruminate  much  less,  a  less  quantity 
of  saliva  will  be  wanted  for  chewing  the  cud,  and  a 
larger  proportion  will  go  to  the  production  of  milk, 
though  this  will  be  thinner  and  not  so  rich  in  cream 
as  the  milk  produced  from  drier  food. 

Another  important  practical  lesson  has  reference  to 
the  giving  of  medicines.  We  may  to  a  very  great  ex- 
tent send  medicine  into  what  stomach  we  please. 
We  may  give  it  in  a  ball,  and  it  will  fall  into  the 
paunch,  and  thence  go  the  round  of  all  the  stomachs; 
or  it  may  be  exhibited  in  a  fluid  form  and  gently 
poured  down,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  pass  at  once 
into  the  third  and  fourth  stomachs.  That  which  is 
meant  to  have  a  speedy  action  on  the  constitution  or 
the  disease,  should  be  given  in  fluid  form.  That, 
also,  which  is  particularly  disagreeable  should  be  thus 
given,  otherwise  it  will  enter  the  paunch  and  be  re- 
turned again  in  the  process  of  rumination,  and  disgust 


the  animal,  and  perhaps  cause  rumination  to  cease  at 
once. 

Runt,  a  name  applied  to  a  dwarf  animal;  also 
the  name  of  a  variety  of  common  pigeon. 

Rupture,  the  protrusion  of  some  part  of  the  intes- 
tines from  their  proper  cavity.     See  Hernia. 

Rural,  pertaining  or  belonging  to  the  country,  as 
distinguished  from  a  city  or  town. 

Rush,  the  name  of  many  species  of  coarse,  grass- 
like or  reed-like  herbs.  Some  species  are  used  in 
bottoming  chairs  and  plaiting  mats,  and  the  pith  of 
some  species  has  been  used  as  lamp-wicks  in  some 
countries.  The  "  scouring  rush"  is  common  through- 
out the  United  States.  It  has  a  round,  fluted  and 
gritty  stem,  without  branches  or  leaves,  and  is  very 
good  to  use  in  lieu  of  a  scrubbing-brush. 

Rusk,  a  kind  of  light,  soft  cake  or  sweetened  bis- 
cuit; also,  a  kind  of  light,  hard  cake  or  bread  ;  also, 
old,  dry  bread  rasped  up  or  pulverized,  to  be  eaten 
with  meat  or  sauce.  A  good  way  to  "  economize  "  old 
bread  of  any  kind  is  to  heat  it  in  an  oven  until  dry, 
and  grate  or  pound  it  up  into  a  powder.  It  is  then 
very  palatable,  eaten  in  any  way  that  bread  is. 

Rust,  the  reddish  or  brownish  yellow  coating  on 
iron  exposed  to  moist  air;  it  is  mainly  the  oxide  of  the 
metal.  Secondarily,  any  metallic  oxide;  anything 
that  resembles  rust  of  iron,  as  parasitic  or  fungous 
growth  on  vegetables  or  trees,  or  even  on  any  organic 
substance.  As  all  rust  is  deleterious  to  the  health,  it 
behooves  us  to  avoid  it  in  every  possible  way,  not 
only  in  rejecring  rusty  grain  from  our  breadstuffs,  but 
also  in  keeping  all  the  victuals  from  contact  with 
oxidizable  metals.  The  greatest  damage  we  suffer 
from  rust  is  caused  by  eating  or  drinking  those  things 
which  have  stood  or  been  cooked  in  iron  vessels;  but 
verdigris,  the  oxide  of  copper  in  brass  utensils,  is  the 
most  poisonous  of  all. 

To  prevent  rust  in  farming  utensils,  see  page  864. 
To  remove  rust  from  linen,  moisten  the  portion  of 
linen  stained  in  clear,  soft  water,  then  lay  on  a  few 
crystals  of  oxalic  acid,  and  occasionally  add  a  few 
drops  more  of  water  till  the  stain  is  gone;  then  rinse 
thoroughly  in  cold,  soft  water. 

Rustic,  pertaining  to  the  country.  Rustic  work  is 
that  which  is  made  of  rough  limbs  of  trees  fancifully 
arranged,  as  in  seats,  bowers,  summer  houses,  etc. 
Rustic  masonry  is  that  which  leaves  the  surfaces  of 
the  stones  rough.  Rustic  work  in  nearly  all  its 
phases  is  common  in  city  parks,  and  ought  oftener  to 
grace  the  landscapes  of  farmers. 

Rut,  a  furrow  or  track  worn  in  the  road  by  the 
wheels  of  vehicles ;  the  copulation  of  animals,  especial- 
ly of  deer. 

Ruta-Baga,  Swedish  turnip;  called  also  Russian 
turnip  and  French  turnip. 

Rutting  Season,  the  period  when  animals  pair  or 
mate. 


iio8 


RYE. 


Eye,  a  genus  of  cereal  grasses  of  the  wheat  tribe. 

Great  obscurity  hangs  over  the  early  history  of  rye. 
Certain  interesting  ancient  notices  of  cereal  grasses 
are  thought  by  some  commentators  to  refer  to  rye  and 
by  others  not;  some  plants  which  the  botanists  of  a 
former  age  regarded  as  species  of  rye,  are  now  assign- 
ed to  the  genera  Triticiim  and  Agropyrum ;  and  two 
or  three  varieties,  perhaps  species,  which  continue  to 
be  called  rye,  either  hold  a  doubtful  place  between 
rye  and  wheat,  or  are  not  sufficiently  known  to  be 
spoken  of  with  certainty.  Yet  a  few  old  facts  respect- 
ing rye  are  well  authenticated,  and  at  the  same  time 
possess  considerable  interest. 

Rye  has  been  variously  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
Crete,  of  the  Crimea  and  of  the  Levant  or  of  Egypt ; 
but  it  possesses  the  constitution  of  a  plant  inured  to 
the  coldest  regions,  and  grows  most  abundantly  be- 
yond the  Yakutsk  on  the  surface  of  a  frozen  subsoil, 
and  seems,  on  the  evidence  both  of  its  own  nature 
and  of  some  of  the  earliest  records  of  it,  to  have  been 
introduced  to  all  other  countries  where  it  is  found 
from  some  northerly  part  of  Asiatic  Tartary.  The 
grain  mentioned  by  Moses  and  Isaiah,  which  the 
authorized  English  translation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
calls  rye,  and  by  Herodotus,  which  some  old  scholiasts 
regard  as  rye,  appears  to  have  been  the  species  of 
wheat  formerly  called  Z,ea  spclta,  and  now  called  Triti- 
cumspel/a,  and  popularly  spelt.  R.ye  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  known  to  Aristotle  or  Dioscorides,  and  is 
not  mentioned  by  Cato,  Virgil,  Columella,  or  Varro, 
and  may  therefore  be  inferred  to  have  held  no  place 
among  the  ancient  agricultural  crops  of  Greece  or 
Italy.  Pliny,  however,  describes  it  as  cultivated  by 
the  Taurini  in  the  part  of  Cisalpine  Gaul  which  con- 
stitutes Piedmont,  and  says  that  they  call  it  Asia,  a 
circumstance  which  ix)ssibly  may  point  to  their 
ancestors  having  brought  it  with  them  remotely  from 
Asiatic  Tartary,  and  immediately  from  the  valley  of 
the  Danube. 

Rye  was  known  and  cultivated  in  Great  Britain  at 
a  very  early  period  and  is  still  extensively  cultivated 
as  a  bread  grain  throughout  Poland,  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, much  of  Germany,  other  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  our  own  country. 

This  grain,  among  its  bread-making  properties,  has 
a  peculiar,  rich  aroma,  which  particularly  distinguishes 
it  from  all  other  cereals.  It  is  hardier  than  wheat, 
and  is  often  a  good  substitute  for  it  on  those  soils 
which  will  not  grow  the  latter  grain  with  certainty 
and  profit. 

A  rich,  sandy  loam  is  the  best  for  rye,  though  it 
will  grow  freely  on  light  sands  and  gravels  which  are 
too  iX)or  for  the  other  grains.  Loamy  soils  too  rich 
for  wheat  will  frequently  raise  an  excellent  crop  of 
rye^  as  in  such  a  situation  it  is  not  so  apt  to  lodge. 
Strong  clay  or  calcareous  land  is  not  well  suited  to 
this  grain. 

In  i)reparing  the  ground  for  sowing  rye,  principles 


similar  to  those  in  the  cultivation  of  wheat  should  be 
observed.  It  may  be  advantageously  sown  u|X)n  a 
rich,  old  turf,  or  clover  lay,  or  after  corn  or  roots 
where  the  land  has  been  well  manured  and  thorough- 
ly cleaned  of  weeds.  There  is  not  an  equal  necessity 
for  using  a  brine  steep  for  rye  as  for  wheat,  yet,  if 
allowed  to  remain  a  few  hours  in  a  weak  solution  of 
saltpeter  or  some  of  the  other  salts,  it  promotes 
speedy  germination  and  subsequent  growth. 

There  is  but  one  species  of  rye,  but  to  this  cultiva- 
tion has  given  two  varieties,  the  spring  and  the 
winter.  Like  wheat,  they  are  easily  transformed  the 
one  into  the  other  by  sowing  the  winter  continually 
later  through  successive  generations  to  change  into 
spring  grain,  and  the  opixjsite  for  its  re-conversion 
into  winter  grain.  The  last  should  be  sown  from  the 
20th  of  August  to  the  20th  of  September,  the  earliest 
requiring  less  seed,  as  it  has  a  longer  time  to  tiller 
and  fill  up  the  ground.  Five  pecks  is  the  usual 
quantity  sown,  but  it  varies  from  one  to  two  bushels, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  the  soil,  the  richest  land 
demanding  the  most.  It  is  a  practice  among  many 
farmers  to  sow  rye  among  their  standing  corn  on 
light  lands,  hoeing  or  cultivating  it,  and  leaving  the 
ground  as  level  as  possible.  On  such  lands  this  is 
attended  with  several  advantages,  as  it  gives  the 
grain  an  early  start,  and  a  moist,  sheltered  jxDsition 
at  a  time  when  drouth  and  hot  sun  would  check  or 
prevent  vegetation.  As  soon  as  the  corn  is  sufficient- 
ly matured,  it  should  be  cut  up  by  the  roots  and 
placed  into  compact  shocks,  or  removed  to  one  side 
of  the  field,  when  the  rye  should  be  thoroughly  rolled. 
When  sown  on  a  fresh-plowed  field,  it  should  be 
harrowed  in  before  rolling.  Great  success  has  at- 
tended the  turning  in  of  green  crops  and  following 
the  fresh  plowing  with  instant  sowing  of  the  seed. 
This  brings  it  forward  at  once.  No  after  cultivation 
is  needed  except  harrowing  in  spring,  and  again  roll- 
ing if  the  land  is  light,  both  of  which  are  beneficial 
If  the  rye  is  luxuriant,  it  may  be  fed  both  in  the  fall 
and  in  the  spring.  Early  cutting,  as  with  wheat,  pro- 
duces more  weight,  larger  measure  and  whiter  flour. 
What  is  intended  for  seed,  however,  must  be  allowed 
to  fully  ripen  on  the  ground. 

For  soiling,  rye  is  sometimes  sown  by  those  who 
wish  late  forage  in  autumn  or  early  in  spring.  For 
this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  to 
four  bushels  per  acre.  If  on  a  fertile  soil  and  not  too 
closely  pastured,  it  will  bear  a  good  crop.  In  some 
cases,  when  too  rank,  early  feeding  will  strengthen 
the  stalk  and  increase  the  grain. 

As  to  diseases,  rye  is  subject  to  fewer  calamities 
than  wheat.  Sometimes  it  is  affected  by  ergot,  or 
cockspur.  (See  Ergot.)  It  is  most  frequent  in  those 
seasons  which  are  at  once  hot  and  wet.  It  is  poison- 
ous to  both  man  and  beast.  This  excrescence  some- 
times grows  upon  other  species  of  plants.  Rye  is 
also  subject  to  rust,  like  that  ujwn  wheat,  and  in  this 
case  the  grain  should  be  harvested  immediately. 


s 


ACCHABINE  (^sak' a-rin),  containing  sugar; 
as,  the  saccharine  juices  of  a  fruit. 

Sachel,  or  Satchel,  a  small  sack,  general- 
ly ornamentally  finished  and  furnished  with  a 
handle,  lock  and  key,  to  be  used  in  traveling. 
It  is  usually  made  of  some  textile  fabric,  while 
a  valise  is  made  of  leather.  Very  cheap  articles 
of  this  kind  are  now  made  from  pasteboard,  in  imita- 
tion of  leather.  The  prices  range  from  50  cents  to 
$15  or  more,  strictly  in  proportion  to  their  substantial 
character.  In  this  line  of  goods  one  pays  for  what  he 
gets  and  gets  what  he  pays  for.  An  ingenious  lock, 
latch  and  key  are  of  no  use  except  to  keep  the  chil- 
dren of  the  family  from  breaking  into  them,  as,  in 
traveling,  thieves  never  stop  to  unlock  a  sachel,  but 
seize  the  whole  article  and  run.     See  Traveling. 

Sack,  a  large  canvass  bag  for  holding  grain,  small 
seed  or  other  farm  products.  A  number  of  sacks, 
proportioned  to  the  quantity  of  produce  likely  to  be 
sent  to  market,  should  be  kept  ready  for  use  and  in  a 
sound  and  clean  condition,  on  every  farm.  All  should 
be  marked  with  the  initials  or  name  of  the  owner. 
They  should  be  kept  in  some  dry,  airy  place. 

Saddle,  the  artificial  seat  of  a  rider  upon  the  back 
of  a  horr^e.  It  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  com- 
bine comfort  to  the  rider  with  ease  to  the  horse.  It 
ought  to  press  only  on  the  back,  and  on  neither  the 
spine  nor  the  withers;  it  must  make  everywhere  an 
uniform  pressure,  and  must  neither  tilt  forward  upon 
the  points  or  jut  backward  upon  the  seat,  and  when 
fully  adjusted  and  fastened  on  the  animal,  it  should 
have  as  large  a  free  space  beneath  the  pommel  as 
will  permit  the  introduction  of  the  hand.  If  these 
matters,  and  some  others  which  are  well  known  to  all 
duly  qualified  saddlers,  are  not  fully  attended  to  in 
the  construction  of  any  saddle,  not  only  discomfort 
to  the  rider,  but  much  suffering  and  serious  injury  to 
the  horse  may  be  the  consequence. 

Saddle-baoked,  applied  to  a  horse  when  low  in 
the  back  with  an  elevated  head  and  neck. 

Saddle  Gall :  see  Gall. 

Sadiron:  see  Flat-iron. 

Safe,  a  box,  case  or  apparatus  for  preserving 
money,  valuable  papers  and  costly  articles  from  theft 
and  from  fire.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  refrigera- 
tors and  certain  kinds  of  cupboard,  which  preserve 
victuals  "safe  "  from  heat,  flies  and  vermin. 


SaflFron,  the  name  of  several  species  of  plants. 

1.  Crocus  Sativus.  This  is  simply  called  "saf- 
fron," and  is  the  one  most  in  repute  as  a  "  domestic 
remedy."  It  is  a  member  of  the  iris  family  and 
raised  around  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  formerly 
much  used  as  a  stimulant  and  anti-spasmodic,  but 
now  only  in  eruptive  fevers,  to  a  limited  extent,  to 
aid  the  eruption.     It  is  very  seldom  prescribed. 

Saffron  is  of  a  pleasant,  aromatic,  bitter  taste,  and 
is  both  stimulant  and  narcotic.  It  exhilarates  the 
spirits  and  strengthens  the  stomach.  Makes  a  valu- 
able tea  for  children  afflicted  with  the  measles, 
chicken-pox,  and  all  eruptive  diseases. 

2.  Meadow  Saffron.  Colchicum  auhunnak. 
This  is  of  the  lily  order  and  grows  wild  in  Europe, 
but  is  not  even  cultivated  in  this  country.  Medically 
it  is  said  to  be  a  sedative  and  anodyne,  but  is  used, 
to  a  very  limited  extent,  in  a  great  variety  of  diseases, 
— both  the  bulb  and  the  seeds. 

3.  False  or  Bastard  Saffron,  or  Safflower.  Car- 
thamus  tiiictoritis.  Flowers  yellow,  often  used  for 
true  saffron,  and  in  coloring  yellow.  Cultivated  to 
some  extent  in  country  gardens.  It  is  an  annual  of 
the  composite  family. 

Sage,  an  aromatic  herb  of  the  mint  family,  popular 
in  medical  practice  and  as  a  flavoring  of  many  articles 
of  food.  There  are  several  sorts,  as  the  red,  the 
green,  the  small-leaved  and  the  broad-leaved  bal- 
samic. The  latter  is  esteemed  for  medical  uses,  and 
is  used  in  teas  for  colds,  and  as  a  cooling  and  sweet- 
ening drink  in  fevers.  Sage  is  originally  a  native  of 
Southern  Europe,  but  has  long  been  cultivated  in  our 
gardens.  Its  cultivation  is  simple.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  in  a  gentle  hot-bed  early  in  the  spring,  and 
transplanted  when  large  enough  in  rows  20  inches 
apart  by  12  inches  in  the  row.  Keep  clean  from 
weeds  and  cut  when  in  bloom.  The  plants  must  be 
covered  during  winter,  for  they  will  not  stand  freez- 
ing and  thawing.  If  this  is  done  the  bed  will  con- 
tinue to  produce  several  years,  but  they  should  be 
renewed  every  three  years. 

Sago,  a  species  of  nutritious  fecula  or  starch,  ex- 
tracted from  the  pith  of  a  species  of  East  India  palm- 
tree,  called  the  sago  palm. 

Sainfoin  (san'foin),  a  leguminous  plant  cultivated 
fi  >r  fodder. 

Salad,  a  preparation  of  uncooked  herbs  of  which 
lettuce  is  the  most  generally  used,  dressed  with  salt, 
vinegar,  oil  or  spices ;  and  also   a  dish  com[X)sed  of 


109 


IIIO 


SAL  AMMONIAC— SALSIFY. 


some  kinds  of  meat,  especially  of  chicken  or  lobster, 
chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  uncooked  herbs  season- 
ed with  mustard  and  other  condiments.  A  salad 
properly  prepared  should  be  one  of  the  most  attractive 
dishes  upon  the  table.  A  variety  of  vegetables  may 
be  used  according  to  taste,  but  the  fewer  the  better. 
Those  mostly  used  are  lettuce,  endive,  radishes, 
onions,  mustard,  celery,  water-cress,  mint,  parsley, 
dandelion,  sorrel  and  tomatoes. 

Chicken  Salad.  Boil  a  chicken  that  weighs  about 
a  pound  and  a  half.  As  soon  as  it  is  done  tender, 
cut  it  up  in  small  strips,  and  make  the  following 
sauce,  and  turn  over  it:  Boil  4  eggs  three  minutes  ; 
take  them  out  of  the  shells,  mash  and  mix  with  them 
a  couple  of  tablespoon fuls  of  olive  oil,  or  melted 
butter;  two-thirds  of  a  tumbler  of  vinegar;  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  mustard ;  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  little 
pepper.  In  making  chicken  salad,  the  dressing 
should  not  be  put  on  until  just  before  the  salad  is 
sent  to  the  table. 

Salad  of  Vegetables.  A  very  nice  salad  may 
be  made  by  mixing  a  variety  of  cold  boiled  vegetables 
together.  Asparagus,  cauliflower,  string  beans,  beets, 
carrots,  turnips  and  peas  may  be  used.  These  vege- 
tables of  different  colors  look  well,  but  one  can  use 
whatever  is  most  convenient.  Supposing  that  the 
salad  is  to  be  made  of  carrots,  turnips  and  peas, 
boil  a  pint  of  peas  in  salted  water  until  tender,  then 
lay  them  in  cold  water.  Pare  a  carrot  and  a  white 
turnip  and  cut  them  into  uniform  pieces ;  boil  them 
in  separate  waters  and  lay  in  cold  water  until  need- 
ed. Just  before  serving,  arrange  the  vegetable  neatly 
on  a  small  platter,  contrasting  the  colors  well,  and 
pour  over  them  a  French  salad  dressing  made  as 
follows: 

Mix  a  salt-spoonful  of  white  pepper  with  two  of 
salt  and  a  teaspoonful  of  scraped  onion.  Add  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  salad  oil,  and  when  well  mixed,  stir 
in  a  tablespoonful  of  vinegar.  Pour  the  dressing 
over  the  salad  just  before  serving. 

String  beans,  alone,  make  a  nice  salad,  and  cauli- 
flower with  a  mayonnaise  sauce  is  excellent.  Cold 
baked  navy  beans  are  improved  by  a  similar  dressing; 
and  cold  boiled  [XJtatoes  with  beets,  onions  and  this 
sauce,  is  a  dish  that  seldom  goes  begging.  Cold 
boiled  potatoes  with  Lima  beans  and  beets,  are  good 
in  a  salad  with  French  dressing.  The  proportion  of 
oil  and  vinegar  can  of  course  be  varied  to  suit  in- 
dividual taste. 

Lettuce  Salad.  Into  half  a  cup  of  scalding 
vinegar  stir  i  beaten  egg,  yi  a  teaspoonful  ofmustard, 
and  a  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a  walnut;  a  litde 
sugar  if  desirable.  It  can  be  turned  on  the  lettuce 
hot  or  cold,  just  as  one  prefers.  The  same  is  fine  for 
cabbage. 

Another:  Two  tablespoonfuls  of  thick  cream,  one 
tablespoonful  of  sugar,  and  vinegar  to  taste.  This  is 
very  much  liked  by  those  who  do  not  like  much 
seasoning. 

Lobster  Salad.  Pick  out  the  meat  from  a  hen 
lobster;   lay  aside  the  coral  and  chop  the  rest.     It 


can  be  mixed  with  lettuce  or  celery  chopped  but  it 
must  not  be  allowed  to  stand  a  moment  after  it  is 
mixed.  The  better  way  is  to  have  the  lettuce  in  a 
separate  dish  and  pass  it  with  the  lobster. 

Salmon  Salad.  One  and  a  half  pounds  cold 
boiled  or  baked  salmon ;  2  heads  white  lettuce  (or 
celery) ;  3  hard-boiled  eggs ;  two  tablespoonfuls  salad 
oil;  one  teaspoonful  salt,  and  same  of  Cayenne;  i 
teaspoonful  white  sugar;  i  teasjxionful  Worcester- 
shire or  anchovy  sauce ;  i  teasDoonful  made  mustard; 
I  teacupful  vinegar. 

Sal  Ammomac,  chloride  of  ammonium,  a  salt  of  a 
sharp,  acrid  taste,  much  used  in  the  mechanical  arts 
and  in  pharmacy.  Called  also  hydro-chlorate  or 
muriate  of  ammonia.  It  acts  primarily  as  a  stimu- 
lant, purging  in  large  doses,  but  rather  constipating  in 
small  ones.  The  dose  is  from  5  to  30  grains,  repeat- 
ed every  two  or  three  hours,  given  in  sweetened  water 
or  mucilage. 

Saleratus,  a  bi-carbonate  of  potash,  much  used  in 
cookery.  It  is  not  always  pure,  generally  containing 
more  carbonic  acid  than  pearl-ash.  It  is  used  to 
raise  dough  into  a  sponge  by  the  evolution  of  gas  it 
occasions  with  the  sour  milk  put  in  with  it,  and  is 
also  often  used  to  aid  in  softening  hard  or  tough  vege- 
tables and  meats  while  they  are  boiling.  It  is  also 
useful  in  scalds  and  burns,  in  some  medicines  to  cor- 
rect acidity  in  the  stomach  or  urine  and  in  many 
little  recipes  of  household  economy. 

Saliva.  The  saliva  issues  from  distinct  sets  or 
glands  existing  in  different  parts  of  the  mouth,  and 
the  quantity  of  it  secreted  daily  is  very  considerable, 
although  it  varies  according  to  circumstances.  This 
secretion  is  more  copious  in  children  and  aged  persons 
than  it  is  in  adults,  more  copious  in  cold  than  warm 
climates,  and  in  the  day  than  the  night.  The  smell 
or  sight  of  agreeable  food  makes  it  flow  into  the 
mouth,  and  the  same  result  arises  from  the  practice 
of  smoking  tobacco,  or  from  the  presence  of  sour  or 
bitter  substances  in  the  mouth.  The  quantity  of 
saliva  is  sometimes  largely  increased  or  considerably 
diminished  by  disease.  Its  office  is  that  of  keeping 
the  mouth  moist,  and  preparing  the  food  for  digestion. 
Under  the  influence  of  rage  and  some  other  violent 
passions  it  assumes  a  frothy  appearance,  and  in  many 
animals  becomes  poisonous. 

Salivation,  act  of  salivating,  excessive  flow  or 
secretion  of  saliva,  as  produced  by  mercury,  etc. 

Sallenders,  same  as  Mallenders,  a  supposed  dis- 
ease of  the  horse:  see  page  790. 

Salmon  (sam'on),  a  celebrated  fish  which  belongs 
to  the  trout  genus;  see  article  Fish. 

Salsify,  or  Vegetable  Oyster,  a  well-known 
culinary  herb.  Its  small  parsnip-like  roots  are  used 
to  give  an  oyster  flavor  to  soups,  and  the  tops  are 
sometimes  used  for  greens.  Sow  in  early  spring  on 
light,  rich  soil,  in  drills  14  inches  apart,  and  thin  the 
plants  to  three  inches  in  the  row.     The  roots  will  be 


SAL-SODA— SALT. 


ready  for  use  in  October,  and  can  remain  over  winter 
in  tire  ground  without  injury.  The  three  leading 
varieties  are,  New  Blue-Flowered  French,  Scorzonera 
or  Black  and  Scolymus  Hispanicus.  The  second 
mentioned  is  too  bitter  for  use  as  an  article  of  diet 
without  soaking. 

To  Cook  Salsify.  Scrape  the  root  and  put  into 
cold  water  immediately;  cut  into  thin  slices;  boil 
tender;  make  a  nice  white  sauce  or  drawn  butter  and 
pour  over;  or  boil  to  a  mash,  mix  with  butter,  salt,  a 
little  milk  and  pepper,  add  flour  enough  and  mix  as 
codfish  cakes,  and  fry  in  the  same  manner. 

Sal-Soda,  an  impure  bi-carbonate  of  soda,  used 
principally  in  the  laundry  as  a  substitute  for  soap, 
and  in  making  Seidlitz  jxjwders.  Medicinally,  its 
principal  virtue  consists  in  dissolving  stone  or  calcu- 
lous deixjsits,  the  dose  for  an  adult  being  lo  grains  to 
a  dram,  taken  in  carbonic-acid  water. 

Salt  ( Chloride  of  Sodium ).  This  substance, 
chemically,  is  a  compound  of  chlorine  and  sodium  of 
the  following  proiwrtion :  Chlorine,  60.4  per  cent,  and 
sodium,  39.6  per  cent.  Water  can  dissolve  only  a 
certain  quantity.  Boiling  water  dissolves  more  salt 
than  cold,  but  when  the  hot  solution  cools,  all  the 
salt  falls  down  in  a  solid  state  above  what  the  cold 
water  can  hold  in  solution.  Salt  is  the  only  mineral 
substance  universally  regarded  as  an  article  of  food 
by  man  and  the  higher  order  of  the  animal  kingdom. 
The  uses  of  salt  as  a  condiment  for  both  man  and 
beast  and  as  a  means  of  preserving  substances  are  so 
well-known  that  we  need  make  no  further  remarks 
uix)n  the  subject. 

Bay  or  solar  salt  is  that  which  is  obtained  by 
evaporation  in  the  sunlight.  Rock  salt  is  dug  from 
mines  in  rock-like  masses.  Table  salt  is  pure  and 
ground  fine,  so  that  it  will  dissolve  rapidly.  Stoved 
salt,  packing  salt,  etc.,  are  common  salt  of  different 
degrees  of  fineness. 

Salt  is  a  very  important  article  as  a  fertilizer,  its 
action  being  favorable  in  all  soils  in  the  interior.  Its 
molecules  being  smaller  than  even  those  of  water, 
they  insinuate  themselves  into  nearly  all  substances, 
aiding  in  their  disintegration  and  thus  rendering  them 
available  as  plant  nutnment.  Salt,  sown  abundantly 
on  the  soil  of  a  garden  or  field,  is  also  a  great  protec- 
tion against  insects,  and  various  diseases  of  plants ; 
and  in  no  case  is  it  known  to  do  harm. 

In  chemistry  the  term  salt  denotes  a  combination 
of  an  acid  with  another  substance,  forming  an  ele- 
ment which  is  very  different  in  its  properties  from 
either  the  acid  or  the  other  substance.  The  salifiable 
substance  is  called  the  base.  Thus,  nitric  acid  com- 
bines with  potash,  forming  the  nitrate  of  potash.  The 
word  "of  "is  misleading,  as  it  intimates  that  the  sub- 
stance denoted  by  the  first  word  is  an  extract  of  the 
other.  Hence  modern  chemistry  furnishes  a  new 
nomenclature  and  nitrate  of  potash  is  now  called 
"  ix>tassiuni  nitrate."  The  following  table  further 
illustrates.  The  kind  of  acid  denoted  in  the  first 
column  unites  with  the  base  of  the   second  column 


and  forms   the  salt  denoted    by   the  various   names 
following : 


< 
W 

o 

W 
lA 
ID 
H 
< 

U 

w 
% 
o 
z 

< 
u 

l-H 

w 
o 


w    •. 

<  ic 
■^  c 


•S.   o 

<  « 

►J  " 
o^ 


< 


O    1)    u 
rt  ^  2 

a     a     i3  >-  "o 


ciur 
rum 

h  t^^^ 

"rt              flu 

US      Bi^ 

en        XI 
0         •- 

Lime  (or 

Potassiu 

Sodium 

Magnesi 

Iron  (or 

Quinine 

Copper 

Lime    P 

Sodium 

Lime    C 

Sodium 

Potassiu 

s£ 


Ji     .£  u 
!j^^^O'U-!=  0-5V  « 


in 


J5 


O  - 

0.3 


3 


o  ■ 
u 

C 
O  ; 

>-• 
U 


u    °-g 

i-    r-   J- 

Hza 


S 

3 

■J-J 

>> 

rn 

U    0 

0^ 

X 

«  i3 

c 

rt    tH    « 

0  § 

of  Pari 
ted  Po 
r's  Salt 
Salt 
as 

fTart 

;  Nite 
of  Pol 

0;ti 

tn 

0     ■-     0) 

Plaster 
Vitriols 
Glaube 
Epsom 
Copper 

.S  u     ■ 

3    3 

Cm 

■u3 

14 

-a 

Cream 

Salpete 
Muriat 

w 
en 

'rjn 

.a  s 

j2 

< 

cq 

Lime 
Potas 
Soda 
Magr 
Iron 

3    ^  S  T3 

0) 

rt 

CCJ  J 

0 

J 

cH 

^ 

o 

•n 

3 

a. 
"3 


o 

•c 

O 

.a 


3 
O  3 

U 


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•^      I 

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'^•^►^ 

HZ  E 


By  the  above  table  it  is  seen  that  acids  denoted  by 
words  ending  in  ie  combine  with  bases  to  form  salts 
denoted  by  terms  ending  in  ate.  Feebler  acids  are 
indicated  by  words  ending  with  ous,  and  their  com- 
binations are  denoted  by  corresponding  terms  ending 
in  ite  ;  as,  nitrous  acid  combines  with  soda,  forming 
nitrite  of  soda,  or  sodium  nitrite.  So  sulphurous  and 
phosphorous  acids  form  sulphites  and  phosphites.  In 
these  there  is  less  oxygen  than  in  the  ic  acids  and  ate 
salts.  When  no  oxygen  is  present,  the  fact  is  indicated 
by   ending  the  first  terms  with  ide ;  as,  chloride  of 


SALTPE  TER—SA  UCES. 


sodium  (common  salt),  iodide  of  potash,  phosphide, 
sulphide,  carbide,  etc. 

Saltpeter:  see  Niter. 

Salt  Kheum  or  Tetter,  a  disease  of  the  skin,  con- 
sisting of  rough,  red  patches  and  covered  with  a  thin, 
dry  scale.  The  skin  is  red  and  hard  and  apt  to  crack 
and  become  chapped.  It  is  attended  with  a  sensation 
of  heat,  smarting  and  itching.  Keep  the  skin  well 
washed  with  warm  water,  and  soften  it  as  much 
as  possible  with  soft  poultices ;  then  wet  with 
tincture  of  iodine  and  let  it  dry  ;  after  which  apply  a 
little  citrine  ointment.  When  the  eruption  is  on  an 
exposed  part,  a  wash  composed  of  i  dram  corrosive 
sublimate,  2  scruples  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc), 

3  drams  sal-ammoniac,  2  drams  salt  and  3  ounces 
sugar  of  lead  mixed  with  i  pint  soft  water  may  be 
used  alternately  with  the  tincture  of  iodine.  The  diet 
should  be  light  and  nourishing.  See  Magnetic  Oint- 
ment, page  996. 

Salve  or  Cerate,  a  thick  kind  of  ointment  composed 
of  wax,  oil  and  other  medicinal  substances.  (See 
Ointment.)  Below  we  give  recipes  for  making  some 
valuable  salves. 

Simple  Cerate.     Melt  together  8  ounces  lard  and 

4  ounces   white  wax,  stirring   constantly  until    cold. 
Salve    for  all  Wounds.     Take    x  pound   hog's 

lard,  3  ounces  white  lead,  3  ounces  red  lead,  3  ounces 
bees'- wax,  2  ounces  black  resin  and  4  ounces  common 
turpentine  ;  all  these  ingredients  must  be  put  together 
in  a  pan  and  boil  yl  of  an  hour;  the  turpentine  to  be 
put  in  just  before  it  is  done  enough,  and  give  it  a 
gentle  boil  afterwards.  This  is  an  excellent  cure  for 
burns,  sores  or  ulcers,  as  it  first  draws,  then  heals 
afterwards ;  it  is  excellent  for  all  wounds. 

Lard  Ointment.  Melt  2  pounds  pure  lard,  add  3 
fluid  ounces  rose-water,  and  beat  them  well  together 
while  hot.  When  cold,  separate  the  congealed  fat 
from  the  water.     This  is  a  simple  lard  ointment. 

Balm-of-Gilead  Salve.  Mutton  tallow,  J^  pound ; 
balm-of-Gilead  buds,  2  ounces ;  white  pine  gum,  r 
ounce;  red  precipitate,  ^  ounce;  hard  soap,  J^  ounce; 
white  sugar,  r  tablespoon.  Stew  the  buds  in  the 
tallow  until  the  strength  is  obtained,  and  press 
out  or  strain;  scrape  the  soap  and  add  it  with  the 
other  articles  to  the  tallow,  using  sufficient  unsalted 
butter  or  sweet  oil  to  bring  it  to  a  proper  consistence 
to  spread  easily  uix)n  cloth.  When  nearly  cold  stir 
in  the  red  precipitate,  mixing  thoroughly. 

Samp,  Indian  corn  broken  coarse  and  boiled,  to  be 
eaten  with  milk  or  butter. 

Sand,  fine  particles  of  stone,  principally  of  flinty 
stone,  from  which  glass  may  be  made.  For  correct- 
ing tenacious  clayey  soils,  that  from  a  sand-bank  is 
best,  as  it  is  mostly  free  from  coarse  gravel.  That 
which  is  deposited  in  the  bed  of  creeks  has  con- 
siderable plant  nutriment  in  it,  but  on  account  of  the 
coarse  gravel,  boulders  and  other  stones  in  it,  it  is  ob- 
jectionable. All  the  solid  or  mineral  constituents  of 
the  soil  were  once  in  the  form  of  sand ;  and  the  finer 


the  grains  the  farther  the  water  will  carry  them. 
Hence,  the  further  we  go  from  the  mountains  the  fin- 
er and  more  tenacious  we  find  the  soil  and  all  alluvial 
deposits ;  and  each  grade  of  soil  is  characterized  by  a 
distinct  flora,  or  class  of  plants.     See  Soil. 

Sand  Crack,  a  disease  of   the  foot  of  the  horse: 

see  page  804. 

Sassafras,  a  well  known  tree,  generally  a  shrub,  of 
the  Laurel  family,  yielding  a  very  fragrant  bark,  which 
is  a  stimulant,  chiefly  used  in  hot  teas  for  rheumatism, 
eruptions,  scurvy,  etc.  The  bark  of  the  root,  obtained 
in  early  spring,  is  a  popular  material  for  a  table  bev- 
erage called  "sassafras  tea."  The  pith  of  the  tree 
yields  a  mucilage  much  used  as  a  soothing  application 
to  inflamed  eyes  and  in  drinks  for  dysentery,  catarrh 
and  kidney  diseases.  In  those  sections  where  the 
tree  does  not  grow  the  bark  can  be  found  at  the  drug 
stores,  cheap  enough  for  anybody. 

This  is  also  a  favorite  remedy  witii  many  farmers 
for  their  horses,  and  is  given  to  them  in  the  spring  of 
the  year  to  strengthen  and  improve  the  appetite. 
Sassafras  may  be  given  to  horses,  either  in  the  form 
of  a  powder  or  as  a  decoction  or  tea  and  mixed  with 
the  food. 

Satin,  a  glossy  silk  twill  of  a  peculiar  description, 
the  soft  and  lustrous  face  of  which  is  given  by  keep- 
ing a  large  proportion,  frequently  even  as  many  as 
seven  out  of  every  eight  threads  of  the  warp,  visible. 
In  the  manufacture  of  other  silken  stuffs,  each  half  of 
the  warp  is  raised  alternately ;  but,  in  weaving  satin, 
the  workman  only  raises  the  fifth  or  the  eighth  part  of 
the  warp,  which,  presenting  an  even,  close  and  smooth 
surface,  is  capable  of  reflecting  the  rays  of  light  very 
entire,  and  the  fabric  thus  acquires  that  luster  and 
brilliancy  for  which  it  is  so  much  distinguished. 

Sauces.  Apple  Sauce.  Take  ripe,  tart  apples, 
pare,  quarter  and  core;  have  the  stew-kettle  ready 
with  boiling  water;  put  the  apples  in  and  cook  as 
quickly  as  possible,  stirring  once  or  twice  to  see  that 
the  apple  cooks  all  to  pieces;  sweeten  to  taste  when 
half  cold. 

Another.  Take  one-third  sweet  apples  and  put 
with  them  any  good  sour  ones,  some  variety  which 
will  not  cook  to  pieces  easily  preferred ;  add  water, 
sugar  and  a  little  sirup,  cover  closely  and  cook  not  too 
fast  for  seven  or  eight  hours,  supplying  a  little  water 
from  time  to  time  that  there  may  be  no  danger  of 
burning,  but  do  not  stir  them. 

Arrowroot  Sauce  for  Plum  Pudding.  Rub 
very  smoothly  a  dessertspoonful  of  arrowroot  in  a  little 
water  or  in  a  glass  of  white  wine,  squeeze  in  the  juice 
of  half  a  lemon,  add  the  pounded  sugar,  and  pour 
gradually  in  half  a  pint  of  water.  Stir  it  very  quickly 
over  a  clear  fire  until  it  boils.  Serve  it  with  plum 
pudding.  This  sauce  may  be  flavored  with  anything 
you  prefer. 

Cranberry  Sauce.     Take  i  quart  of  cranberries, 
I  pint  of  sugar  and  i  pint  of  water;  boil  slowly,  and 


SAUER  KRAUT— SAUSAGE. 


1113 


when  the  berries  are  soft  beat  well  and  strain  through 
a  colander. 

Good  Common  Sauce.  One  coffee-cupful  of  brown 
sugar;  2  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  and  i  tablespoonful 
of  flour;  beat  well  together;  then  add  i  cupful  of 
boiling  water  and  simmer  for  a  few  minutes.  Flavor 
with  nutmeg  or  lemon,  or  a  little  cider. 

Dried-Apple  Sauce.  Take  good,  sour,  common 
dried  apples  and  prepare  for  cooking ;  soak  all  night 
in  plenty  of  water,  then  put  in  an  earthen  jar  with  a 
cover ;  add  some  ainber  cane  sirup  and  boil  until  a 
dark  red  color ;  keep  plenty  of  water  on  them. 

HoLLANDAiSE  Sauce.  Stir  I  even  tablespoonful  of 
flour  into  i  ounce  of  melted  butter;  cook  well  to- 
gether and  add  i  teacupful  of  boiling  water.  Stir  this 
into  the  yolks  of  4  beaten  eggs  and  return  all  to  the  fire 
for  a  minute;  add  a  little  more  butter  cut  into  bits 
and  season  to  taste  with  salt,  pepper  and  lemon  juice. 

Lemon  Sauce.  Beat  together  i^  pound  of  butter 
and  y^  ix)und  of  sugar;  grate  the  rind  and  press  out 
the  juice  of  2  lemons;  beat  all  together  and  boil  a 
short  time. 

Mint  Sauce  for  Roast  Lamb.  Two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  chopped  green  mint;  i  tablespoonful  of 
ixjunded  sugar;  and  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  vinegar. 
Pick  and  wash  the  green  mint  very  clean,  chop  it  fine, 
mix  the  sugar  and  vinegar  in  a  sauce  tureen,  put  in 
the  mint,  and  let  it  stand. 

Parsley  Sauce.  Wash  the  parsley  thoroughly, 
boil  it  for  six  or  seven  minutes  till  tender,  then  press 
the  water  well  out  of  it ;  chop  it  very  fine  ;  make  half 
or  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  melted  butter  as  required  (the 
less  butter  the  less  parsley,  of  course),  mix  it  gradu- 
ally with  the  hot  melted  butter. 

Tomato  Sauce.  Remove  the  skin  and  seeds 
from  about  a  dozen  tomatoes,  slice  them  and  put 
them  in  a  stew  pan,  with  pepper  and  salt  to  taste, 
and  three  pounded  crackers.     Stew  slowly  one  hour. 

White  Sauce.  Stir  an  even  tablesix)onful  of  flour 
into  an  ounce  of  melted  butter.  When  well  cooked, 
add  a  pint  of  rich  milk,  stirring  constantly  until  smooth 
and  thick.     Season  with  salt  and  white  pepper. 

Sauer  Kraut  (sour'krout)  is  a  name  of  a  preparation 
of  cabbage  chopped  fine  with  salt.  To  make  this  fam- 
ous German  dish,  take  as  many  hard,  firm  cabbages  as 
you  wish  to  preserve,  tear  off  the  loose  leaves,  cut 
them  into  quarters,  cut  out  the  hearts  or  stalks,  and 
chop  them  up  small.  To  every  one  hundred  pounds 
of  cabbage  add  three  pounds  of  salt,  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  caraway-seed,  and  two  ounces  of  juniper- 
berries,  mixing  these  well  together.  Procure  sweet, 
clean  iron-hooped  casks,  lay  the  chopped  cabbage 
three  inches  deep,  then  as  each  layer  is  put  in  sprinkle 
it  with  the  mixture  of  salt,  etc.  The  cabbage  must 
be  pounded  down  as  it  is  put  in  the  barrel  with  a 
heavy  wooden  mallet.  After  each  cask  is  filled  it 
must  be  covered  with  some  cabbage  leaves  or  a  linen 
cloth  and  the  wooden  cask-head,  and  pressed  down 
with  heavy  weights.     After  the  cabbage  has  been  al- 


lowed to  ferment  for  a  month,  jx)ur  off  the  cold  water 
which  will  be  formed  in  this  process,  and  to  lake  its 
place  pour  in  warm  water  containing  black  pepper 
and  common  salt.  As  soon  as  a  sour  smell  is  per- 
ceived, the  cask  must  be  placed  in  a  cool  situation 
and  there  kept. 

There  are  various  modes  of  cooking  it,  while  some  pre- 
fer it  raw,  eating  it  as  a  salad.  It  is  frequently  boiled, 
three  hours  or  more,  with  salt  pork  cut  into  small 
pieces.  Perhaps  the  nicest  style  is  to  fry  it  in  pork 
fat  or  with  the  gravy  from  the  roast  pork.  For  frj'ing, 
it  should  be  boiled  two  hours  to  make  it  tender.  It 
is  a  wholesome,  hearty  food,  and  is  particularly  ap- 
preciated by  men  requiring  a  substantial  diet,  while 
It  is  also  relished  by  many  of  more  fastidious  taste. 

Sausage.  To  make  family  sausage,  the  trimmings 
and  other  lean  and  fat  portions  of  pork  are  used,  tak- 
ing care  there  is  about  twice  as  much  lean  as  fat; 
some  consider  it  an  improvement  to  add  about  one 
sixth  of  the  weight  of  lean  beef.  As  to  seasoning 
that  is  a  matter  of  taste.  The  majority  of  people  use 
salt,  pepper  and  sage  only ;  some  use  only  salt  and 
pepper,  while  others  in  addition  to  the  above  put 
in  thyme,  mace,  cloves  and  other  spices. 

Before  putting  the  meat  in  the  cutter  see  that  it  is 
entirely  freed  from  all  bones,  lest  your  cutter  be 
broken.     It  should  be  cut   in  small    pieces  or  strips 


Fig.  I. — Sausage'Cutttr. 

and  cut  to  suit.  To  every  50  pounds  of  meat  thus 
cut,  use  two  teacupfuls  of  sage,  two  teacupfuls  of  salt 
and  one  half  of  pepper.  Use  warm  water  to  moisten 
the  meat,  and  mix  it  all  together  and  put  in  a  cloth 
sack ;  hang  it  up  to  freeze  ar.d  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Fig.  I  represents  a  sausage  cutter  made  by  the  En- 
terprise Manuf'g  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  blades 
are  triangular  and  give  the  meat  three  cuts  with  each, 
revolution  of  the  crank,  cutting  through  it  cleanly  and 


III4 


SAFOJiV—SAJV. 


clearly,  not  pulling  or  tearing  it   apart,   into   strings. 
When  it  is  desired  to  pack  the  sausage  in  the   in- 
testines of  the  hog,  the  intestines  should  be  carefully 
prepared   as   follows:     Empty    them,  cut   them   in 


bCREW    MOVEMENT 


Fig.  3. — Sausage  Stuffer* 

lengths,  and  lay  for  two  days  in  salt  water.  Turn 
them  inside  out  and  lay  in  soak  one  day  longer. 
Scrape  them,  rinse  well  in  soda  and  water,  wipe  and 
blow  into  one  end,  having  tied  up  the  other  with  a  bit 
of  twine.  If  they  are  whole  and  clear,  then  stuff  with 
the  meat.  To  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  ma- 
chine. The  one  represented  by  Fig.  2  is  made  by  the 
same  company  as  the  cutter  (Fig.  i).  It  is  an  econ- 
omical machine,  for  the  reason  that  it  can  also  be  used 
for  a  fruit,  lard  or  jelly  press. 

For  stuffing  sausages,  the  tin  strainer  and  bottom 
plate  are  to  be  removed.  They  can  be  easily  ex- 
changed by  screwing  them  on  or  off. 


bacon,  and  a  pound  and  a  half  of  beef  suet ;  put  the 
lean  meat  into  a  stew-pan  of  hot  water,  and  set  it 
over  the  fire  for  half  an  hour;  then  cut  it  small,  each 
sort  by  itself;  shred  the  suet,  and  bacon  or  ham,  each 


Fiu.  I. — Salving  Machine. 

by  itself.  Season  with  pepper,  thyme  chopped  fine 
and  ground  mace ;  fill  ox  skins  with  it,  tie  them  in 
lengths,  and  put  them  in  a  beef  brine  for  ten  days; 
then  smoke  them  the  same  as  ham  or  tongue.  Rub 
ground  ginger  or  pepper  over  the  outside  after  they 
are  smoked,  and  keep  them  in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

Savory,  or  Summer  Savory,  an  annual  aromatic 
sweet  herb,  sometimes  cultivated,  but  running  wild  in 
the  West,  which  is  used  in  flavoring  meats. 

Saw.     On  every  farm  are  needed  at  least  one  hand- 
saw, one  rifvsaw,  one  scroll-saw,  one  cross-cut  saw, 
and   one   wood-saw   (Fig.    2); 
and  sometimes  there  are  need- 
ed, in  addition,  a  meat  saw.  and 
sometimes  a  horse-power  saw. 
We  need  say  nothing  particu- 
larly   on    the   care    of    these 
implements,  as  nothing  is  nec- 
essary but  a  little  perservance 
or  promptness  to  execute  the 
common-sense     principles 
which    everybody  is  supjwsed 
Vxc.  ^.-wood Saw  and     to  have.     In  fihng  a  saw,  the 
Saw  Buck.  cut  should  be  made  even,  from 

the  ]X)int  of  the  tooth  to  the  base  as  originally  done 


Fig.  3. — Phanix  Cross-cut  Saw  (with  detached  horse-power). 

To  Make  Bologna  Sausages.     Take  three  pounds   I  in  the  manufactory,  and  by  holding  the  file  at  the 
of  lean  beef,  the  same  of  lean  pork,  two  pounds  of  fat  I  same  slant  or  angle  as  will  preserve  the  original 


SCAB— SCALES. 


"IS 


form  of  the  tooth.  To  file  only  the  points  of  the 
teeth,  in  haste  and  for  a  temporary  purpose,  costs 
more  than  it  is  worth  in  the  outcome.  See  File, 
page  451.  Lack  of  promptness  in  taking  good  care 
of  saws  makes  more  trouble  than  anything  else  in 
proportion  to  the  extent  of  use  of  the  instrument. 


KiG.  /^.— upright  Siiw  fo^  MVU 

Fig.  I  illustrates  a  machine  by  which  one  man 
alone  may  run  a  cross-cut  saw  for  sawing  logs.  Sev- 
eral inventions  have  been  patented  for  this  purjxise, 
but  this  seems  to  be  the  simplest  and  most  substantial. 

Horse-power  cross-cut  saws  are  also  in  the  market. 
The  cheapest  and  best  form  of  these  for  general  use 
in  the  country,  so  far  as  our  knowledge  extends,  is 
made  by  the  United  States  Manufacturing  Co.,  of 
Chicago,  and  shown  by  Fig.  3.  They  also  make  the 
one  rejiresenteb  by  Fig.   i. 

Fig.  4  is  a  cut  of  a  substantial  power  saw,  made  by 
Chandler  &  Taylor,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.  The  car- 
riage runs  wholly  on  one  side  of  the  saw,  thus  afford- 
ing a  simpler  structure  of  the  whole  apparatus  than 
the  ordinary  gate  saw  requires.  Being  a  "  muley  " 
(gateless)  saw,  the  very  best  of  material  is  used,  so 
that  it  is  perfectly  reliable  for  all  sorts  of  heavy  work. 

Scab,  an  incrustation  over  a  sore ;  a  loathsome  and 
troublesome  disease  in  sheep,  analogous  to  itch  in  man 
and  mange  in  horse.  See  Horse  article,  page  7 90, and 
also  Scab  in  article  on  Sheep. 

Scaldhead.  This  is  a  very  contagious,  pustular 
disease,  chiefly  affecting  the  scalp,  but  it  may  also 
appear  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  disease  may 
be  known  from  all  other  eruptive  affections,  by  the 
honeycomb  appearance  of  the  pustules.  Tljese  are 
small,  perfectly  rounded,  and  imbedded  in  the  epider- 


mis, and  contain  a  yellowish  or  straw-colored  matter, 
which  soon  co  icretes,  representing  a  depression  in 
the  center.  The  disease  is  n.ore  common  among 
children  than  adults. 

Treatment.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  in  attempt- 
ing a  cure  in  this  obstinate  disease,  is  to  remove  the 
hair,  and  the  crust  formed  upon  the  skin.  A 
pair  of  scissors  or  a  razor  will  serve  to  remove 
the  hair,  and  then  the  crust  should  be  m  jist- 
ened  by  an  alkaline  solution,  made  by  dissolv- 
ing two  drachms  of  the  carbonate  of  potash,  or 
three  of  the  carbonate  of  soda,  in  a  pint  of  water. 
Washing  the  parts  with  strong  soapsuds  will 
much  facilitate  the  removal  of  the  crust.  As 
>oon  as  the  hair  and  crust  are  removed,  the  parts 
should  be  well  washed  with  suds  made  of  soft 
or  rain  water,  and  common  soft  soap,  and  then 
after  drying  by  means  of  a  soft  linen  cloth,  a 
solution  of  the  extract  of  bayberry,  or  of  equal 
parts  of  this  and  the  extract  of  dock-root  should 
be  applied ;  and  then  apply  a  paste  made  by 
dissolving  some  gum  elastic  in  stramonium 
ointment,  over  which  some  oiled  silk  may  be 
placed  to  protect  the  parts  still  more  from  the 
atmosphere.  The  latter  application  should  be 
renewed  every  morning  and  evening,  and  the 
parts  well  washed  with  strong  soapsuds,  and 
after  drying,  saturated  with  the  astringent  solu- 
tion as  before. 

It  will  be  observed,  however,  that  scaldhead 
is  exceedingly  difficult  to  manage,  and  that  the 
-  ~  same  treatment  will  not  always  prove  success- 
ful. Thus  the  astringent  and  oily  applications 
may  be  superseded  by  other  similar  or  different  ap- 
plications. But  all  the  other  parts  of  the  treatment 
are  proper  in  every  case.  See  Tar  Ointment, 
page  995. 

Scalds.     See  Burns  and  Scalds. 

Scales.     Scales  are  a  most  convenient  and  even 
necessary  article  to  the  farmer.    The  produce  shipped 


Warehouse  Scale. 


from  the  farm  or  sold  to  the  village  merchant  should 
always  be  weighed  at  home,  previous  to  shipment  or 


iii6 


SCALES—SCARLET  FEVER. 


sale.  When  stock  is  weighed  at  home,  before  being 
placed  on  the  stock  dealers'  scales,  the  farmer  can 
easily  determine  whether  he  is  cheated  or  not.  The 
value  of  a  scale  must  depend  on  the  benefit  to  be 
derived  from  it,  and  its  purchase  value,  on  the  qual- 
ity of  the  material  used  and  the  skill  employed  in  its 
manufacture. 

We  give  some   illustrations   of  different  kinds  of 

scales,  made  by  Jones 
of  Binghamton,  N.  Y., 
which  are  adapted  to 
various  farm  uses. 

The  platform  scale, 
Fig.  2,  IS  strong,  well 
made,  having  wheels 
attached  for  conven- 
ience and  adapted  to 
the  use  of  a  majority  of 
our  farmers. 

The  warehouse  scale, 
Fig.  I,  is  larger  than 
the  "  platform  scale " 
and  made  stationary  in 
the  floor  of  the  ware- 
house or  bam.  Its  con- 
venience and  weighing 
capacity  make  it  a  de- 
sirable scale  for  those 
Fig.  t.-Piat/orm  Scale.  having  extensive  deal- 

ings in  produce.  It  is  strong,  well  built,  and  will 
supply  the  wants  of  large  farmers. 

Fig.  3  represents  a  lever  scale  for  the  weighing  of 
stock.  It  has  a  platform  14  feet  long  by  8  feet  wide 
and  combines  the  strength  of  the  truss  lever  with  the 
simplicity  of  the  crown  lever.     Its   capacity   is   five 


Kiu.  3. —  Truss  Crown  Lever  Scale. 

tons.  In  Fig.  4  we  give  an  illustration  containing  a 
description  of  a  five-ton  scale. 

The  lumber  rec}uired  to  put  up  a  five-ton  scale  is 
as  follows : 

Three  sticks  1 6  feet  long,  6x7  inches. 

Two  sticks  12  feet  long,  6x7  inches. 

Two  sticks  14  feet  long,  8x8  inches. 

One  stick,  14  ft.  long  forbearing  plank,  3x8 inches. 

Two  sticks  14  feet  long,  to  run  lengthwise  through 
the  center  of  scale,  to  spike  platform  plank  to 
stiffen  the  platform,  3x8  inches. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  2-inch  plank. 

One  stick  14  feet  long,  3x7  inches. 

Fifty  feet  planed  and  matched  i-inch  stuff. 

Figs.  4,  s  and  6  represent  a  wagon  scale.     The 


platform  is  14  feet  long  by  7  feet  wide,  and  where  a 
stock  pen  is  not  to  be  permanently  placed  this  width 


Fig.  4.~At  the  Farm  Yard. 

is  most  convenient.     In  Fig.  8  we  give  the  component 
parts  of  the  wagon  scale.     Its  capacity  is  five  tons. 

These  scales  are  simple  in  construction,  durable 
and  strong.  All  the  wearings  and  bearings  are  of  the 
best  tool  steel,  combining  toughness,  hardness  and 
permanency  of  edges. 

Scarfskin,  the  outermost  lamina  of  the  skin  ;  the 
cuticle ;  the  epidermis. 

Scarlatina  in  horse :  see  page  804. 


Fig.  i.—At  the  Tannery  or  Mill. 

Scarlet  Fever  (Scarlatina).  This  disease,  like 
most  others,  is  susceptible  of  variations  in  its  violence, 
and  hence  by  the  profession  is  divided  into  three 
forms.  They  are  all,  however,  essentially  the  same, 
only  varying  in  the  degree  of  severity.  The  disease 
breaks  out  on  the  body  in  s}X)ts  or  blotches,  which  are 
ealled  eruptive  and  are  scarlet  or  red  in  color.  These 
appear  generally  between  the  second  and  sixth  days, 
accompanied  with  fever  and  sore  throat,  and  usually 


Fig.  6 — At  the  Coal  Yard. 

terminating  between   the   seventh   and    tenth    day. 
These  eruptions  first  appear  about  the  neck  and  face, 


SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


tti7 


in  the  form  of  red  spots,  which  in  24  hours  or  less 
cover  the  entire  body.  As  the  fever  increases  some- 
times there  is  vomiting,  generally  accompanied  with 
thirst,  headache  and  restlessness.  The  eruption  is  at 
its  height  on  the  fourth  day  and  begins  to  decline  the 


I^IG.  7. —  Timberyor  a  Five-Ton    li  .i:.":  .Vt . 

following  day.  After  the  eighth  day  the  disease  be- 
gins to  disappear,  when  the  skin  peels  off  in  scales. 
In  more  severe  cases  the  fever  is  very  high  and  slight 
delirium  with  very  sore  throat  is  experienced.  The 
pulse  becomes  very  rapid,  in  children  often  reaching 
140  to  150  per  minute  and  in  adults  120  to  130. 
Sore  throat  always  attends  this  disease. 

Scarlet  fever  greatly  resembles  measles  and  great 
difficulty  is  sometimes  occasioned  in  distinguishing  it 
from  measles.  The  eruptions  in  it  come  out  earlier 
than  in  measles.  The  eruptions  generally  appear 
within  48  hours  of  the  existence  of  fever  in  the  former 
while  in  measles  the  rash  rarely  appears  before  the 
third  day,  and  most  commonly  not  until 
the  fourth  day.  The  color  of  the  eruptions 
in  measles  are  much  darker,  and  less  dif- 
fused, than  in  scarlatina.  The  eyes  are 
inflamed,  tears  flow  profusely,  there  is  more 
or  less  sneezing  and  cough  in  measles,  while 
in  scarlatina  these  symptoms  do  not  ap- 
pear. 

Scarlatina  is  regarded  as  dependent  for  its 
cause  on  a  specific  contagion.  It  termi- 
nates variously.  A  variety  of  other  diseases 
may  follow.  Dropsies  are  by  far  the  most 
general.  Abscesses  of  the  tonsils,  head  and 
ears,  enlargement  of  the  parotid  glands, 
loss  of  sight,  deafness,  loss  of  hair,  asthma 
and  many  other  diseases  have  been  known 
to  follow. 

Treatment.  There  have  been  various 
modes  of  treating  this  dreaded  disease,  some 
of  which  are  quite  simple  and  have  often  proven  ef- 
fective. We  present  the  following:  Put  15  drops  of 
the  tincture  of  aconite  root  and  15  drops  of  fluid  ex- 
tract of  belladonna  in  a  glass  of  water  and  take  a 
teaspoonful    every  hour  until  recovery.     In  addition 


rub  the  body  thoroughly  with  salt  grease,  the  rind  of 
fat,  uncooked  bacon  being  excellent.  Keep  this  up 
during  the  course  of  the  disease.  This  will  afford 
marked  relief  from  fever. 

Another  remedy  is  to  take  sulphate  of  zinc,  i  grain; 
foxglove  (digitalis),  i  grain ;  }4 
teaspoonful  of  sugar ;  mix  with 
two  tablespoonfuls  water;  when 
thoroughly  mixed  add  four 
ounces  of  water;  take  a  tea- 
spoonful every  hour.  Itis  claimed 
that  this  cures  in  every  instance. 
A  gargle  for  the  throat  of  the 
following  solution  will  prove 
beneficial:  chlorateof  potash  and 
muriate  of  ammonia  each  ^ 
dram,  water  3  ounces  and  glycer- 
ine I  ounce.  Mix  and  gargle. 
If  the  throat  should  swell  ex- 
ternally bathe  with  equal  parts 
of  tincture  of  arnica  and  linseed 
oil.  In  all  cases  the  throat  should 
be  thoroughly  greased  with  salt 
grease  and  wrapped  with  a  piece 
of  flannel.  The  room  in  which  the  patient  rests  should 
always  be  well  ventilated  and  kept  at  an  even 
temperature. 

School-house.  We  have  very  fully  treated  of  the 
prop)er  management  of  schools  and  the  proper  treat- 
ment of  children  at  schools,  and  the  rights  and  duties 
of  teachers,  etc.,  in  the  article  on  Education,  and 
therefore  will  confine  our  remarks  in  this  article 
simply  to  the  school  building  and  its  surroundings. 

During  the  past  few  years  many  rapid  strides  have 
been  made  toward  improving  the  school  buildings 
throughout  the  country,  and  yet  there  is,  in  many 
sections,   a  deplorable  lack   of  the   display   of  this 


^ 


a      IBL. 


tla 


Kl<;.  8. —  ComfiontHt    Parts  p/ a  Wagon   Seal*. 


public-spirited  enterprise.  In  many  districts,  dotted 
over  with  magnificent  farm  mansions,  with  the  ac- 
companying spacious  ai.d  well-planned  out-buildings, 
may  be  found  little  dingy,  dirty  school-houses,  with- 
out the  slightest  pretense  to  the  comfort,  convenience 


iii8 


SCHOOL-HOUSE. 


or  pleasure  of  teachers  or  scholars, — indeed,  such 
buildings  as  the  well-to-do  farmers  in  the  district 
would  refuse  to  keep  their  stock  in.  This  contrast 
may  be  seen  in  many  sections  of  our  country,  and  it 
illustrates  the  folly  of  man  most  strikingly.  Children 
are  often  actually  driven  from  school  by  the  repulsive 
appearance  of  the  school-house  and  its  surroundings. 
Remember  that  the  early  impressions  of  the  mind  are 
lasting  and  tend  very  strongly  to  direct  the  future 
life  of  the  child.  Perhaps  one  of  the  most  potent  in- 
fluences for  good  that  might  be  easily  attained  in 
every  district  is  the  cultivation  of  taste  for  landscape 
scenery.  This  attraction  and  influence,  thrown 
around  the  country  school,  would  not  only  tend  to 
draw  the  young  from  the  degrading  habits  of  loung- 
ing in  villages,  but  would  brighten  the  mind, 
stimulate  the  intellect,  encourage  study,  and  the 
better  fit  the  young  for  the  active  duties  of  mature 
life.  They  would  also  enhance  the  attractions  of 
rural  life  and  of  home  influences.  The  more  neatly 
a  school-house  is  made  and  finished  the  less  inclined 
will  reckless  boys  be  to  mar  it  in  any  way.  Rough 
furniture  they  delight  to  whittle  up  and  deface;  nice 
furniture  they  do  not  touch. 

While  there  has  been  much  improvement  in'  the 
class  of  school  buildings  of  late,  yet  Uttle  attention  is 
paid  to  ornamenting  the  grounds.  This  may  be  done 
at  a  small  expense  and  will  add  much  to  the  cheer- 
fulness of  the  building.  Plenty  of  room  should  be 
devoted  to  the  school-house,  that  the  children  may 
not  be  compelled  to  use  the  road  for  a  play-ground, 
or  infringe  upon  the  places  devoted  to  shrubbery, 
etc.  The  following  order  might  be  adopted:  A 
handsome  lawn  should  be  provided  in  front,  which 
should  be  planted  with  the  smaller  ornamental  trees, 
and  with  some  of  the  larger  shrubs. 

A  place  should  be  left  for  the  play-ground  in  the 
rear,  which  should  be  planted  with  fewer  trees.  Both 
should  be  kept  smootlily  shaven  with  a  lawn  mower. 
The  paths  to  the  closets  should  be  sheltered  by  small 
evergreen  trees,  both  for  seclusion  and  for  protection 
in  winter.  The  closets  especially  should  be  kept 
clean,  tidy  and  free  from  all  bad  odor.  The  latter 
may  be  prevented  by  the  daily  use  of  coal  ashes, 
road  dust,  lime,  copperas,  or  other  materials. 

The  general  principles  of  landscape  gardening,  as 
detailed  in  this  work  under  that  head,  may  be  in  great 
part  applied  to  the  school  grounds.  The  principles 
of  ventilation  and  heating,  of  sewerage  and  of  con- 
structing and  managing  the  privies,  are  the  same  for 
the  school  premises   as  elsewhere. 

As  to  the  choice  of  a  location,  the  remarks  upon 
this  same  point  in  the  article  on  Church  are  equally 
applicable  to  school-houses.  The  building  should  be 
tastefully  and  conveniently  designed,  substantially 
built,  well-furnished  and  painted  with  a  pleasant 
color.  Care  should  be  taken  that  proper  ventilation 
be  provided.  Much  suffering  is  caused  by  children 
being  required  to  sit  for  hours  in  an  illy  ventilated 
room.  In  such  rooms  it  is  well-known  that  they  can- 
not perform  their  duties  so  well,  and  the  effect  upon 


some  of  the  more  delicate  becomes  serious.     Never 

pass  this  subject 
by  as  unimportant 
if  you  have  any 
part  to  perform  in 
building  a  school- 
house  ;  and  if  no 
active  part  de- 
volves upon  you 
it  is  your  duty  as 
a  tax-payer  and 
citizen  of  the  dis- 
trict to  see  that  it 
be  properly  ob- 
served. For  fur- 
ther observations, 
see  Ventilation, 
on  page   1086. 

The  floor  plan 
of  the  design  of  a 
school-house  pre- 
sented in  this  con- 
nection has  been 
Floor  Plan  of  Schovi-house.  Carefully    drawn. 

A  town  hall  may  be  provided  above,  or  this  portion 
may  be  devoted  to  another  school  if  required.  If 
neither  is  desired,  the  stairway  may  be  removed  ard 
the  wardrobes  enlarged  a  little.  Ample  light  is  pro- 
vided, and  if  thoroughly  ventilated  this  will  be  found 
a  most  excellent  plan. 

Globes,  tellurians  and  other  Instruments  for  illus- 
tration in  astronomy,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
etc.,  should  not  be  furnished  without  a  good  case  in 
which  to  keep  them,  and,  we  might  add,  a  competent 
teacher  to  handle  them  and  to  be  responsible  for 
their  safe  keeping.  One  of  the  commonest  evils  in 
connection  with  country  schools,  is  the  purchase  of  a 
few  instruments  of  this  kind,  some  wall  niaps  and 
perhaps  a  large  dictionary,  and  the  placing  of  them  in 
a  school-room  without  a  good  case  with  lock  and  key. 
Thus  they  are  soon  rendered  useless  by  reckless 
children,  and  the  patrons  become  so  disgusted  with 
such  squandering  of  their  means  that  almost  another 
generation  arrives  before  the  people  can  be  persuaded 
to  provide  such  furniture  again.  These  instruments 
are  the  best  means,  not  only  for  teaching  clearly 
many  of  the  common  phenomena  of  nature,  but  also 
for  awakening  the  true  scientific  spirit  characteristic 
of  this  exacting  age. 

In  regard  to  school-room  furniture — the  desks,  seats, 
hat  and  shawl  racks,stoves,furnaces,cupboards,  library, 
museum  and  natural  philosophy  cases,  blackboards, 
slating,  crayons,  erasers,  etc. — manufacturers  have  all 
such  things  made  in  all  styles,  with  their  agents 
everywhere  to  introduce  them;  and  probably  no  per- 
son in  the  land  would  consult  a  book  with  reference 
to  them.  The  principal  dealers  are  well  known  by 
name  to  all  readers  of  educational  journals.  Their 
specialty  has  been  a  large  business  for  many  years, 
and  competition  has  brought  their  work  up  to  the 


SCR  A  TCHES—SCnOPULA. 


tii() 


Screen  Door. 

the  fr;.-e  movements  of  the  sa 


ghest  degree  of  perfection  which  it  is  possible  for 

human  power  in  its 
present  stage  to  in- 
vent. At  the  same 
time,  let  every  one  re- 
member that  if  he  pays 
but  little  for  an  article 
he  is  almost  certain  to 
get  a  "cheap"  one,  and 
he  must  not  complain 
of  the  manufacturers  if 
it  soon  gives  out. 

Screen.  During  the 
summer  season  the 
doors  and  windows  of 
every  residence  should 
be  provided  with 
screens.  Those  made  of 
wire  asillustratedin  the 
accompanying  engrav- 
ingare  the  most  durable 
and  effective  in  prevent- 
ing flies  and  mosquitoes 
from  entering  the 
house.  They  may  also 
be  arranged  upon  the 
windows  so  that  they 
will  not  interfere  vnth 
;h. 

Scratches,  troublesome  ulcerations  about  the  heel 
of  horses,  occasioned  by  ill  treatment,  negligence  and 
filth:  see  page  775. 

Screw-Driver,  a  necessary  and  indispensable  tool 
to  every  farmer.  We  give  an  illustration  of  one  with 
lever  attachment,  made  by  L.  E.  Rhodes,  Hartford, 
Conn. 

It  is  really  a  screw-driver  handle,  with  fixed  steel 
socket,  to  receive  the  shanks  of  the  screw-driver 
blades  or  of  socket  wrenches  as  desired.  On  the 
socket  is  a  sleeve  that  turns  freely  and  covers  a 
ratchet,  or  rather  a  square-toothed  pinion,  secured 
rigidly  to  the  steel  socket.  There  is  pivoted  to  the 
sleeve  a  steel  lever,  which,  when  not  in  use,  shuts 
into  a  recess  in  the  wooden  handle.  When  used  thus 
as  an  ordinary  screw-driver,  it  merely  drives  the  screw 
until  the  resistance  becomes  too  great,  when  the  lever, 
in  connection  with  the  ratchet,  is  brought  into  action. 
A  very  slight  movement  of  the  lever  serves  to  disen- 
gage it  from  one  tooth  and  engage  with  the  next,  or 
with  any  other,  the  gradations  depending  on  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  in  the  ratchet,  i  shows  the  screw-driver 
as  in  use;  2  shows  lever  shut  up  in  the  handle;  j, 
the  pinion ;  4,  the  sleeve  covering  the  ratchet. 

Scrofula  or  King's-Evil,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
is  a  constitutional  disease,  which,  however,  chiefly 
affects  the  glandular  system,  especially  the  conglobate 
glands.  The  disease  is  most  common  among  chil- 
dren, and  rarely  makes  its  appearance  for  the  first 
time  after  the  body  has  attained  its  full  growth.     It  is 


supposed  that  the  disease   is   principally  hereditary. 

The  symptoms  which  are  usually  considered  to  in- 
dicate the  presence  of  scrofula  are  the  following: 
Slight  inflammation  and  swelling  of  the  wings  or  outer 
cartilages  of  the  nose ;  swelling  of  the  glands  of  the 
neck,  which  increase  gradually,  and  at  length  become 
hard,  painful  and  of  an  irregular  shape.  The  color 
of  the  skin  over  the  glands  is  scarcely  changed,  but 
the  protuberance  or  swelling  is  sometimes  so  great  as 
to  constitute  considerable  deformity.  After  having 
remained  in  this  situation  for  an  uncertain  period,  the 
tumors  may  disappear.  Such,  at  least,  is  usually  the 
case  in  the  grown  subject,  and  it  is  the  more  favorable 
termination;  but  in  young  children  they  more  fre- 
quently proceed  to  suppuration.  The  irregular  wound 
resulting  from  the  spontaneous  opening  of  the  abscess 
heals  with  difficulty. 

Treatment.  Bathing  in  and  drinking  salt  water 
is  good  treatment,  the  latter  to  keep  the  bowels  free. 
Iodine  is  an  excellent  remedy,     (iive  20  to  30  drops 


Screw-Driver  with  Lever  Attachment, 

of  the  tincture  two  or  three  times  a  day  in  a  half  a 
glass  of  sarsaparilla,  or  a  decoction  of  marsh-mallow 


II20 


SCYTHE— SEEDS. 


root.  Rub  the  swelling  or  hard  kernels  on  the  neck 
with  opodeldoc  or  iodine,  or  an  ointment  made  of 
stramonium  and  iodine  ointment.  If  in  spite  of  this 
the  tumor  should  proceed  to  suppuration  apply  a 
poultice,  when  it  will  soon  open  or  must  be  opened 
with  the  lance.  When  opened,  the  tumor  must  be 
well  washed  and  covered  with  the  following  ointment: 
Iodine,  y^  dram;  iodide  of  potassium,  2  drams;  lard, 
2  ounces.  A  solution  of  chloride  of  soda  or  lime 
should  be  occasionally  used,  especially  if  the  sore  is 
very  foul.  If  the  sore  is  very  difficult  to  heal  sprinkle 
a  powder  of  equal  parts  of  capsicum  and  mandrake 
on  it.     The  tincture  of  myrrh  will  answer. 

Caution.  Nothing  is  more  important  in  the  treat- 
ment of  scrofula  than  proper  attention  to  the  diet  and 
general  habits  of  the  individual.  Fat  meats,  gravies, 
rich  pies,  etc.,  should  never  be  eaten  by  a  patient  of 
scrofulous  habits.  Pork  is  particularly  injurious, 
being  well  calculated  to  favor  the  scrofulous  diathesis. 
Indeed,  it  is  supposed  by  many  that  the  disease,  in 
the  majority  of  instances,  is  brought  on  by  the  usfi  of 
swine  flesh,  either  directly  or  indirectly  through  the 
parent.  It  is  even  true  that  the  name  of  the  disease 
comes  from  scrofa,  a  Latin  name  of  the  hog;  but 
this  is  in  consequence  of  the  disease  having  so  near  a 
resemblance  to  the  common  throat  disease  of  that 
animal. 

Vegetables  constitute  the  best  food  for  patients  of 
scrofulous  habits.  Free  exercise  in  the  open  air  is 
also  very  important.  Alcoholic  drinks  must  be  strictly 
avoided. 

For  scrofula  in  the  horse,  see  page  804. 

Scythe,  an  instrument  for  mowing  grass,  grain, 
etc.,  composed  of  a  long,  curving  blade  with  a  sharp 
edge,  made  fast  to  a  long,  crooked  handle  called  the 
snath.  In  whetting  a  scythe  such  motion  is  given  to 
the  stone  as  will  turn  the  invisible  teeth  on  the  edge 
toward  the  point,  that  part  of  the  blade  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  snath  being  called  the  "heel."  Sec- 
ondarily, the  object  of  whetting  is  to  cut  off  all  the 
gummy  matter  which  has  collected  near  the  edge 
and  obstructs  the  free  movement  of  the  scythe. 
Further  details  in  the  use  of  this  implement  can  be 
better  obtained  by  example  and  practice.  Before  the 
introduction  of  the  reaper  the  cradle  scythe  was  in 
general  use  for  cutting  the  cereals,  but  is  now  but 
little  required. 

Section  of  Land:  see  Township. 

Sedative,  allaying  irritability;  also,  a  medicine 
having  such  a  property. 

Sedlita  (sed'litz),  or  Seidlitz  (side'lits)  Powders. 
The  common  Seidlitz  powders  do  not  resemble  the 
famous  mineral  water  from  Seidlitz,  Bohemia.  A 
closer  imitation  would  be  made  by  using  effloresced 
sulphate  of  magnesia  instead  of  the  potassio-tartrate 
of  soda.  To  make  an  exact  imitation  is  this:  Take 
effloresced  sulphate  of  magnesia,  2  ounces;  bi-car- 
bonate  of  soda,  J^  ounce;  dry  bi-sulphate  of  soda,  J^ 
ounce.  Mix  and  keep  in  a  close  bottle.  The  com- 
mciQ  recipe  is  this:  Bi-carbonate  of  soda,  i  ounce; 


Rochelle  salt,  3  ounces,  both  inline  powder;  mix  and 
divide  into  12  equal  parts.  Divide  420  grains  tar- 
taric acid  also  into  12  equal  parts.  Put  up  these 
parts  separately  in  papers,  distinguished  by  the  color 
of  the  paper.  To  use  them,  throw  one  paper  of  each 
into  a  glass  of  water,  and  drink  it  immediately  while 
foaming.  To  be  particular  with  it,  dissolve  the 
smaller  powder  in  an  ounce  or  more  of  water,  the 
larger  in  two  or  three  times  the  quantity,  then  mix  the 
two  solutions  gradually.  The  acid  is  slightly  in  ex- 
cess, giving  the  drink  an  acidulous  taste.  The  medic- 
inal action  is  that  of  an  aperient  and  refrigerant. 
Particularly  valuable  in  febrile  cases  where  the 
stomach  is  irritable.  Two  pairs  of  these  papers  may 
be  given  at  a  dose,  or  the  single  dose  may  be  repeated 
every  three  or  four  hours  until  the  effect  is  produced. 

Seedling,  a  plant  raised  from  the  seed,  as  distin- 
guished from  one  propagated  by  layers,  grafting,  etc. 
Seedlings  always  tend  to  revert  to  the  original  wild 
state.  Varieties  are  always  originated  by  planring 
seed,  but  some  plants,  especially  vegetables,  as  pota- 
toes, have  to  be  propagated  by  buds  a  few  years  to 
attain  the  greatest  size  and  certain  other  good  qualities. 

Seeds.  On  pages  560-1  we  give  directions  for 
raisir>g,  collecting  and  preserving  garden  seeds,  and 
the  seed  of  other  crops  is  treated  in  the  respective  ar- 
ticles. It  therefore  only  remains  here  for  us  to  add 
suggestions  with  reference  to  seeds  in  general. 

How  TO  Select  Good  Seed.  Seed  corn  should  be 
plump,  bright,  of  good  length,  and  taken  from  the 
central  portion  of  the  ear.  Seed  wheat  should  not 
only  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  weed  seeds,  but  the 
small  grains  should  also  be  riddled  out  in  the  fanning- 
mill.  Look  for  chess  seed  (see  page  232).  Place 
your  oats  in  a  heap  at  the  leeward  end  of  a  threshing 
floor,  on  a  day  when  a  gentle  breeze  is  blowing 
through  the  barn.  With  a  common  wooden  flour 
scoop,  throw  the  oats  against  the  wind,  toward  the 
other  end  of  the  floor.  A  few  minutes'  experience 
will  enable  one  to  throw  them  so  that  they  will  fall  in 
a  semi-circle  at  a  nearly  uniform  distance  from  where 
he  stands.  The  grains  which  fall  farthest  are  the 
heaviest  and  therefore  best  for  seed.  Collect  them 
up  every  few  minutes  in  the  progress  of  the  work  Of 
barley  that  is  best  which  is  free  from  blackness  at  the 
tail,  and  is  of  a  pale  but  lively  yellow.  If  the  rind  be 
a  little  shriveled,  so  much  the  better,  as  it  indicates 
thinness  of  the  skin.  Of  potatoes,  select  large,  sound, 
well  ripened  specimens.  In  cutting  them  up  for 
planring,  leave  one  eye  to  each  piece,  and  as  near  the 
middle  of  the  piece  as  practicable.  The  less  potatoes 
are  exposed  to  the  air  the  sounder  they  will  keep. 
•  To  Test  the  Vitality  of  the  Larger  Seeds, 
place  them  on  a  hot  pan  or  griddle,  and  the  more 
perfect  ones  will  pop  or  crack  open  with  more  or  less 
noise.  The  best  test,  however, — especially  for  finding 
the  proportion  of  good  seeds  in  the  lot, — is  to  germi- 
nate a  number  of  them  in  a  favorable  place. 

Adulteration,  Seeds  imported  are  apt  to  be  adul- 
terated, as  well  as  devitalized,  and  the  greater  distance 


SELTZER   WATER—SHAVING  HORSE. 


II2I 


they  have  come  the  worse  they  are.  A  recent  inves- 
tigation showed  that  grass  seed  from  Germany  was 
only  62  per  cent,  pure,  while  that  raised  in  this  coun- 
try was  79  per  cent,  pure;  and  of  the  former  only  42 
seeds  in  100  were  capable  of  germinating,  while  of 
the  latter  50  percent,  were  vital.  Of  clover  seed,  93 
per  cent,  of  American  and  94  of  German  was  genuine, 
while  69  American  and  79  German  were  vital, — an 
exception  to  the  rule.  Of  garden  seeds,  100  percent. 
of  American  and  99  of  German  were  genuine,  while 
98  per  cent  of  the  former  and  only  86  of  the  latter 
were  good.  Of  grain,  99  per  cent,  of  American  and 
96  per  cent,  of  German  was  pure,  while  61  per  cent, 
of  the  American  and  66  per  cent,  of  the  German  were 
good. 

Miscellaneous'  Items.  Considering  the  care  re- 
quired to  grow  and  secure  good  stock,  the  difficulties 
and  dangers  of  intermixture,  the  many  varieties  want- 
ed, the  labor  of  cleaning  and  drying,  the  small  quan- 
tity of  seed  required  for  a  private  garden  costs  many 
times  the  price  demanded  by  the  best  growers ;  and 
even  after  all  this  trouble,  impurities  and  defects  will 
constantly  appear  in  the  amateur's  seed.  But  if  any 
one  find  it  expedient  to  grow  a  part  or  all  of  his  seeds, 
he  can  greatly  simplify  it  by  growing  of  any  one  va- 
riety enough  to  last  him  as  many  years  as  that  kind 
will  keep  well,  thus  avoiding  some  of  the  dangers  of 
intermixture,  by  growing  no  two  varieties  the  same 
year. 

Seeds,  when  well  kept,  will  retain  germinating  pow- 
ers as  follows  :  cucumber,  melons  and  beets,  seven  to 
eight  years;  tomatoes  and  squash,  six  to  seven  years; 
lettuce,  radish,  cabbage  and  turnips,  four  to  six  years ; 
carrots,  peas  and  spinach,  two  to  four  years;  onions 
and  parsnips,  one  year.  Old  seeds,  if  they  have  not 
lost  the  germinating  power,  are  usually  better  than 
fresh,  as  they  give  less  of  stalk  and  foliage  and  more 
of  available  growth. 

Seeds  are  best  preserved,  by  placing  them  in  rather 
small,  stout  paper  bags,  marked  with  name  and  date, 
and  stored  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  where  they  will  not  be 
liable  to  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

Seltzer  Water  and  "Seltzer  Aperient "  are  very 
largely  advertised.  They  are  substantially  the  same 
as  "  soda  water,"  which  is  more  strictly  carbonic-acid 
water,  the  effect  of  which  is  diaphoretic,  diuretic  and 
anti-emetic.  It  is  generally  a  pleasant  drink  to  febrile 
patients.  The  adulterated  or  counterfeited  syrups  of 
the  ordinary  soda  fountains  are,  however,  somewhat 
deleterious. 

Selvage,  or  Selvedge,  the  edge  of  cloth,  woven  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  raveling,  and  often 
closed  by  complicating  the  threads  ;  list. 

Seton  (se  tn),  a  f)iece  of  tape  or  lamp  cotton 
passed  through  and  beneath  the  skin,  with  the  two 
ends  hanging  out,  to  aid  the  discharge  of  pus. 

Settee  (set-ee'),  a  long  seat  with  a  back ;  a  kind 
of  arm  chair  for  several  persons  to  sit  in  at  once. 

Better,  one  who  sets ;  a  dog  who  beats  the  field 
71 


and  points  out  the  bird  for  the  sportsman ;  see  article 
Dog,  page  332. 

Shade-Tree:  see  articles  Forestry  and  Landscape 
Gardening. 

Shaft,  the  timber,  rod  or  beam  on  which  wheels  or 
pulleys  are  fixed ;  also,  a  perpendicular  opening  to  a 
mine  or  tunnel. 

Shallots,  a  species  of  onion,  not  extensively  culti- 
vated at  the  present  day.  The  divided  roots  are  set 
out  in  September  in  rows  a  foot  apart,  allowing  six 
inches  between  them.  It  is  entirely  hardy,  and  fit 
for  use  in  the  spring. 

Shave.  In  shaving  never  fail  to  wash  your  beard 
with  soap  and  cold  water,  and  to  rub  it  dry,  just 
before  you  apply  the  lather,  of  which  the  more  you 
use,  and  the  thicker  it  is,  the  easier  you  will  shave. 
Warm  water  makes  a  tender  face  but  makes  the  beard 
cut  easier.  In  cold  weather,  place  your  razor  (closed 
of  course)  in  your  pocket,  or  under  your  arm,  or  put 
it  in  warm  water  to  warm  it.  Always  wipe  your  razor 
clean,  and  strop  it  before  putting  it  away;  and  put 
your  shaving  brush  away  with  the  lather  on  it.  The 
razor  (being  only  a  very  fine  saw)  should  be  moved 
in  a  sloping  or  sawing  direction,  and  held  nearly  flat 
to  your  face,  care  being  taken  to  draw  the  skin  as 
tight  as  possible  with  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  present 
an  even  surface,  and  to  throw  out  the  beard. 

To  Strop  a  Razor.  The  practice  of  pressing  on 
the  edge  of  a  razor  in  stropping  soon  rounds  it;  the 
pressure  should  be  directed  to  the  back,  which  should 
never  be  raised  from  the  strop.  If  you  shave  from 
heel  to  [xiint  of  razor,  strop  it  from  point  to  heel ;  but 
if  you  begin  with  the  point,  in  shaving,  then  strop  it 
from  heel  to  point. 

To  Sharpen  a  Razor.  The  simplest  method  of 
sharpening  a  razor  is  to  put  it  for  half  an  hour  in  wa- 
ter to  which  has  been  added  one-twentieth  of  its 
weight  of  muriatic  or  sulphuric  acid,  and  after  a  few 
hours  set  it  on  a  hone.  The  acid  acts  as  a  whetstone, 
by  corroding  the  whole  surface  uniformly,  so  that 
nothing  further  than  a  smooth  polish  is  necessary. 

To  Hone  a  Razor.  The  surface  of  the  hone  must 
be  perfectly  level.  The  razor  should  be  held  flat  on 
the  hone,  and  the  back  never  raised,  or  it  will  induce 
a  round  or  thick  edge.  Draw  the  razor  from  heel  to 
pioint,  alternating  the  sides  at  each  stroke,  and  the 
action  always  against  the  edge.  When  the  edge  is 
wiry  and  thin  enough  to  turn,  strop  it  on  a  coarse 
strop,  drawing  the  edge  occasionally  over  the  thumb 
nail,  until  the  edge  is  smooth,  then  finish  on  a  fine 
strop,  and  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Shaving-Horse,  an  apparatus,  worked  by  the  foot, 
for  holding  in  a  staunch  position  a  piece  of  timber 
while  it  undergoes  the  process  of  shaving  with  a 
"  drawing-knife. '  To  make  one,  first  make  a  high, 
narrow  bench  about  eight  feet  long,  mortise  a  slot  in 
the  middle  of  it,  and  over  this  erect  an  inclined  piece 
of  timber,  correspondingly  mortised,  so  that  through 


II22 


SHED—SHEEP. 


these  slots  a  kind  of  wooden  vise  may  extend.  The 
latter  is  simply  a  thin  shaft  of  wood,  with  a  kind  of 
notched  head,  so  arranged  as  to  catch  and  hold  piec- 
es of  timber  upon  the  inclined  piece  just  referred  to, 
and  is  worked  by  pressing  the  foot  against  the  lower 
end,  upon  a  catch  or  shoe  fastened  there  for  the  pur- 
pose. Two  or  three  holes  are  bored  through  the 
shank  of  the  vise  a  few  inches  below  the  head,  for 
pins  to  run  through,  in  the  inclined  timber,  whereon 
the  vise  swings  as  on  a  pivot, — the  different  holes  for 
timbers  of  different  thickness.  This  is  a  cheap  but 
great  convenience,which  every  farmer  should  have. 

Shed,  a  temporary  shelter,  generally  without  siding 
and  with  the  roof  all  in  one  slope ;  also  a  lean-to,  or 
an  enclosed  shelter  attached  to  a  larger  building,  and 
with  a  shed  roof. 

Sheep,  a  well-known  and  important  genus  of 
ruminating  animals.  It  comprises  several  wild  species 
and  a  vast  number  of  domesticated  varieties  or  breeds. 
It  is  most  extensively  diffused  over  the  world,  and 
exists  and  feeds  and  prospers  under  a  vast  diversity 
of  conditions.  The  interest  of  it  in  all  its  forms,  to  a 
zoologist,  is  very  great ;  and  the  importance  of  it,  in 
its  chief  domesticated  breeds,  to  farmers  and  entire 
nations,  has  always  been  high,  and  rapidly  increases 
with  the  progress  of  civilization,  of  agricultural  im- 
provement and  of  manufacturing  enterprise.  No 
animal  varies  more  than  the  sheep,  and  none  so 
speedily  adapts  itself  to  climate.  It  would  almost 
appear  that  nature  had  bestowed  upon  it  a  constitu- 
tion so  pliant  as  to  enable  it  to  accommodate  itself  to 
any  point  in  a  wide  range  of  temperature,  for  it  has 
accompanied  man  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe,  be- 
coming impressed  at  every  change  with  some 
peculiarity,  alterable  only  by  a  change  of  situation, 
and  varying,  we  might  almost  affirm,  with  the  weather^ 
for  where  the  temperature  is  equable,  there  does  the 
animal  preserve  an  atmospheric  stamp,  and  defy  all 
efforts  to  alter  the  breed;  while  under  a  fluctuating 
sky,  we  can  model  it  at  will.  No  other  animal  is 
worthy  of  so  much  attention  as  the  sheep,  it  being 
alike  valuable  to  the  farmer  and  to  the  nation;  to  the 
farmer  because  it  is  raised  with  ease  and  in  situations 
where  other  animals  could  not  exist,  and  in  general 
makes  a  better  return  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
food  consumed  than  any  other  animal;  to  the  nation, 
as  supplying  a  staple  article  of  food  and  giving  em- 
ployment to  thousands  of  artisans  by  the  conversion 
of  wool  into  fabrics.  In  fact  the  production  and 
general  management  of  sheep  claims  to  be  treated  as 
the  foundation  of  good  and  profitable  farming. 

The  crying  need  of  American  agriculture  to-day  is 
a  more  general  incorporation  of  the  sheep  into  the 
farming  economy.  More  prolific  than  horses  or  cattle, 
as  well  as  more  tractable,  subsisting  on  scantier  herb- 
age, and  requiring  less  supervision,  it  claims  the 
additional  advantage  of  "paying  for  its  raising  "in 
annual  instalments  of  marketable  fleece  pending  its 
growth  to  maturity.  It  is  more  readily  transferred 
from  one  enclosure  to  another,  and  is  easily  restrained 


by  fences  which  would  prove  no  barrier  against  the 
encroachments  of  other  farm  stock.  Its  light  tread 
and  love  of  repose  warrant  its  access  to  fields  and 
pastures  where  the  tramping  of  cattle  and  the  tearing 
of  hogs  would  not  be  tolerated.  It  wastes  less  food 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  consumed,  and  will 
hunt  out  and  utilize  much  that  would  otherwise  be 
lost  to  the  farmer.  Yielding  a  return  in  both  fleece 
and  flesh,  it  furnishes  its  owner  the  double  advantage 
of  catching  a  good  market  for  his  product,  requiring 
less  water,  and  disposed  to  work  for  its  food,  it  is 
without  a  peer  when  summer's  drouth  taxes  the  farm- 
er's resources  for  enabling  his  live  stock  to  maintain 
an  average  of  thrift  and  flesh. 

All  that  can  be  said  in  behalf  of  feeding  Uve  stock 
on  the  farm,  as  distinguished  from  the  soil-impover- 
ishing policy  of  placing  the  raw  grain  and  grass  on 
the  market,  will  be  found  to  apply  with  double 
emphasis  to  the  farm  that  carries  as  part  of  its  outfit 
one  or  more  sheep  per  acre.  No  animal  returns  more 
fertility  to  the  soil  in  proportion  to  the  amount  exact- 
ed for  its  support,  while  none  equals  it  in  the  even- 
ness with  which  the  droppings  are  distributed. 

General  Views  of  the  Sheep  Genus.  The 
generic  characters  of  the  sheep  may  be  briefly  stated 
as  follows :  The  horns  are  directed  backward,  down- 
ward and  forward,  in  a  somewhat  spiral  form;  the 
chaffron  is  naturally  convex ;  a  sinus  occurs  at  the 
internal  base  of  the  toes  in  both  the  fore  and  hind 
feet;  two  smaller  toes  or  rudimentary  hoofs  occur 
behind  the  larger  anterior  pair;  the  tail  is  always 
short  in  the  wild  races,  but  varies  in  length  in  the 
domesticated  breeds;  the  teeth  amount  in  all  to  32, 
and  comprise  eight  incisors  in  the  lower  jaw,  no  in- 
cisors in  the  upper  jaw  and  six  molars  in  each  side  of 
both  jaws.  But  in  its  domesticated  state,  and  very 
especially  in  its  wild  one,  sheep  are  distinguished 
from  goats  and  other  species  most  nearly  allied  to 
them,  far  more  by  mental  tempers  and  dispositions 
than  by  physical  characteristics. 

Wild  races  of  sheep  inhabit  the  elevated  regions  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  America,  and  comprises 
chiefly  the  several  species  and  varieties  of  musmon 
and  argali.  They  oiff'er  greatly  from  one  another, 
and  still  more  from  the  domesticated  breeds,  in  habits 
and  in  specific  characteristics;  and  in  some  instances 
they  blend  away  into  near  resemblance  to  wild  goats 
on  the  one  hand  or  to  domestic  sheep  on  the  other; 
yet,  in  general,  they  exhibit  very  boldly  the  true  char- 
acteristics of  their  genus,  and  may  be  regarded  as,  in 
many  mixed  methods,  and  often  in  their  respective 
localities,  the  common  or  aggregate  source  of  the 
multitudinous  and  very  diversified  domestic  breeds. 
Fig.  I  represents  a  fine  specimen  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep.  • 

The  domestic  breeds  are  prodigiously  diversified, 
not  only  in  modifications  of  the  natural  character- 
istics which  they  possess  in  common  with  the  wild 
races,  but  in  the  characters  of  shape  and  structure, 
and  wool  and  carcass  and  habits  which  belong 
peculiarly  to   themselves.      Some  of  the   rudest   of 


SHEEP. 


1123 


them  may  easily  enough  be  traced  up  to  ancestral 
connection  with  some  one  of  the  wild  races;  but  the 
vast  majority  exhibit  strong  and  intricate  marks  of  a 
mixed  descent;  and  some  are,  with  good  reason,  sup- 
posed to  show  broad  traces  of  a  more  or  less  free 
hybridizing  with  goats;  and  many  or  even  most  of 
the  finer  ones  have  resulted,  either  from  a  series  of 
crossings  between  previously  well  modified  breeds,  or 
from  the  prolonged,  steady  and  combined  influence 
of  peculiar  climate,  peculiar  food  and  peculiar  treat- 
ment. 

The  longer,  too,  any  species  has  been  reduced  to 
domestication,  and  the  more  complete  its  subservience 
to  the  human  race,  the  greater  and  more  remarkable 
will  be  the  alterations  which  it  will  undergo.  We 
need  not  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  very  ancient  de- 
pendence of  the  sheep  on  man  as  its  lord  and  master 
should  have  caused  many  signal  variatipns  from  the 
characteroftheoriginaltype,orthat  repeated  changes  of 
food  and  climate  and  the  continuous  action  of  an  alter- 
ed and  artificial  mode  of  management  should  have  pro- 
duced a  multitude  of  new  or  anomalous  features.  We 
accordmgly  find  that  in  most  of^ur  subdued  varieties 
the  lengthened  limbs  and  comparatively  slender, 
though  strong,  active  and  graceful  forms  of  the 
original  races  have  disappeared,  and  been  replaced 
by  heavy  proportions  and  a  consequently  indolent 
disiX)sition,  and  that  the  coarse,  dry,  brittle  coating  of 
hair  has  been  succeeded  by  that  woolly  substance  of 
which  human  industry  and  ingenuity  now  form  such 
abundant  and  manifold  materials  for  the  various  uses 
of  domestic  economy,  and  the  personal  comforts  of 
our  race.  The  prodigious  development  of  the  wool, 
and  almost  entire  disappearance  of  the  hair,  would 
indeed  of  themselves  have  sufficed  to  effect  a  com- 
plete alteration  in  the  general  aspect  and  physiog- 
nomy of  the  species ;  and  this  remarkable  change  has 
been  produced  in  part  by  physical  causes,  and  in 
part  by  the  agency  of  man,  aiding  or  counteracting  as 
he  best  could  the  observed  tendences  of  nature, 
who  has  contrived  to  subordinate  a  general  law  of 
climate  to  his  own  individual  advantage. 

The  changes  produced  by  domestication  upon  the 
dispositions  and  habits  of  the  sheep  are  much  greater 
than  even  those  upon  his  physical  properties,  and 
render  him  eminently  suitable  to  the  uses  of  man, 
and  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  enclosed  pastures 
and  artificial  feeding.  When  once  completely  sub- 
jugated, he  never  again  appears  to  acquire  the 
faculties  which  fit  him  for  a  life  of  liberty.  Give  him 
afterwards  what  freedom  we  may,  he  remains  more 
or  less  dependent  ujxjn  us,  aid  would  fall  a 
prey  to  wolves  and  the  swifter  wild  beasts,  were  he  not 
under  human  protection.  Yet  he  is  not  the  stupid 
and  insensible  creature  which  some  represent  him  to 
be.  When  entirely  subdued,  indeed,  his  natural  in- 
stincts are  blunted,  and  he  loses  the  providence  and 
sense  of  danger  which  are  natural  to  him  ;  but  when 
left  in  a  state  of  comparative  liberty,  he  shows  that, 
though  comparatively  feeble,  he  is  not  without  the 
power  of  guarding  himself  from  danger. 


The  ewe  bears  that  affection  to  her  offspring  which 
Nature  has  imprinted,  as  it  were,  on  the  heart  of 
every  animal.  Should  mishap  befall  her  young  one, 
she  mourns  over  it,  and  will  not  be  comforted;  should 
it  wander  from  her  side,  her  anxious  bleatings  are 
everywhere  heard,  and  the  little  creature  rewards  her 
cares  with  surprising  fondness.  Who  that  has  seen 
shearing  of  the  flock,  has  not  marked  the  startled 
aspect  of  the  lamb  when  the  mother  first  runs  toward 
it  divested  of  her  covering,  and  how  quickly  it  is  re- 
assured, and  how  sensibly  it  expresses  its  joy,  when 
it  hears  the  well-known  voice  and  receives  the  wonted 
caresses  ? 

The  sheep  appears  insensible  and  stupid,  because 
it  is  rarely  attached  to  us  by  acts  of  familiarity  and 
kindness.  But  let  the  orphan  lamb  be  brought  up  at 
the  shepherd's  cot,  and  fed  from  his  hand,  and  we 
shall  find  it  to  be  nearly  as  familiar  as  the  dog,  fond 
of  being  caressed  and  unwilling  to  leave  its  protector 
to  join  its  fellows  of  the  flock.  In  countries  where 
the  shepherd  guides  his  flock,  and  does  not  herd  it 
by  dogs  in  the  manner  practiced  in  other  places,  the 
docility  which  the  animals  acquire  is  wonderfully 
great.  Where  the  shepherd  leads  they  follow ;  they 
observe  his  motions  and  hear  his  voice,  and  when  he 
uses  a  pipe  or  horn,  they  listen  to  the  well-known 
sound  and  obey  the  signal.  In  the  Alps  in  Switzer- 
land, and  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Italy,  in  Greece 
and  elsewhere,  we  are  yet  charmed  with  this  remnant 
of  pastoral  simplicity  and  innocence.  The  shepherd 
boy  knows  all  his  little  favorites,  he  remembers  their 
names,  and,  when  called,  they  leave  the  flock  and 
come  to  him.  When  the  numbers  are  great,  he 
selects  a  few,  teaches  them  their  simple  lesson,  and 
they  become  the  guides  of  the  rest  to  their  allotted 
pastures  and  learn  to  collect  the  wanderers.  The 
music  of  the  mountain  shepherd  we  find  to  be  no 
poetic  fiction.  In  the  mountains  we  yet  hear  the 
soft  and  artless  tones  of  his  pipe.  In  the  morning 
he  leads  forth  his  little  flock,  and  plays  as  he  marches 
at  its  head,  and  at  sunset  returns  in  like  manner  to 
the  fold,  where  he  pens  them,  that  they  may  be  kept 
from  the  wolves. 

Sheep  were  domesticated  as  early  as  the  life-time  of 
the  first  man  :  and  they  make  a  somewhat  conspicu- 
ous figure  in  the  earliest  records  of  the  old  nations. 
"Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep"  and  all  the  chief  patri- 
archs, whose  characters  are  sketched  in  the  inspired 
record  were  possessors  and  tenders  of  flocks.  The 
Sacred  Scriptures  make  historical  mention  of  sheep 
from  the  earliest  times,  through  all  the  patriarchal 
ages,  down  to  the  epoch  of  the  kings,  and  they  often 
describe  flocks  of  them  with  a  richness  of  coloring 
and  a  minuteness  «f  detail  which  identify  the  pastoral 
usages  of  remote  periods  with  the  practices  of  the 
wandering  shepherds  of  the  East  at  the  present  day. 
Scarcely  anything  seems  to  have  changed  in  the  hab- 
its of  men  in  tliose  countries  of  pastoral  tribes.  Where 
Abraham  pitched  his  tent,  with  his  sheep  and  oxen 
and  asses  and  camels,  where  he  sat  at  the  door  of  his 
tent,  where  the  stones  were  rolled  from  the  wells  from 


SHEEP. 


1I2S 


which  his  maidens  drew  water,  there  the  Arab  or  the 
wandering  Turcoman  encamps,  and  all  the  scene  is 
like  a  vivid  panorama  of  the  past.  In  the  case  of 
the  present  people  of  the  Desert,  their  tents,  their 
journeying,  their  household  cares,  their  flocks,  their 
camels,  their  wells,  all  inform  us  with  what  a  match- 
less fidelity  the  Sacred  History  has  been  told. 

The  sheep  figures  also  in  the  earliest  records  of  the 
nations  of  Southern  Asia,  on  the  oldest  existing  mon- 
uments of  Western  Asia,  on  the  sculptured  remains  of 
ancient  Egypt,  and  in  the  symbols  and  memoranda 
of  the  earliest  arts  and  sciences  of  the  whole  civilized 
world.  It  was  probably  introduced  into  Southern  and 
Eastern  Europe,  in  some  of  its  best  and  most  improv- 
ed Asiatic  varieties,  at  the  very  dawn  of  European 
civilization,  and  brought  to  our  shores  with  the  first 
pilgrims;  it  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  is  prominently  and  honorably  mentioned 
by  their  historians  and  poets.  It  was  introduced  into 
Italy  after  the  foundation  of  Rome.  It  probably  was 
introduced  into  Spain  at  an  early  period  from  Africa ; 
and  it  seems  to  have  become  diffused  throughout 
all  Western  and  Central  and  Northeastern  Europe  at 
the  period  of  the  Roman  conquest.  In  recent  times, 
it  has  commanded  rapidly  increasing  attention ;  and 
at  the  present  day,  in  the  most  highly  improved  agri- 
cultural countries  of  the  world,  it  is  more  multitu- 
dinous, and  ]X)ssesses  a  wider  connection  with  interests 
of  farming  than  at  any  former  period. 

VARIOUS    BREEDS   OF    SHEEP. 

The  established  characteristics  of  the  several  breeds 
of  sheep  are  so  varied  and  so  clearly  defined  that 
there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  selecting  such  as 
will  be  peculiarly  fitted,  by  habits  of  feeding  and  of 
growth,  for  the  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  forage  and 
markets  under  which  the  flock  is  to  be  placed.  The 
breeds  most  known  in  the  United  States  are  the 
Merino,  the  Cotswold  and  the  native  or  scrub  of  no 
defined  breeding;  but  several  other  good  breeds  have 
their  representatives  in  America;  and  there  are  sheep 
which  have  for  almost  three  hundred  years  been  kept 
under  favorable  circumstances  in  Virginia,  although 
they  can  scarcely  be  described  as  a  distinct  breed  be- 
cause several  crosses  have  been  made  upon  them. 
That  a  judicious  selection  of  breeding  sheep  may  be 
made  those  who  intend  starting  a  flock  should  con- 
sider the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  several  breeds 
and  the  circumstances  under  which  he  will  be  obliged 
to  place  them  Mutton  sheep  are  well  treated  in  ar- 
ticle on  Mutton:  see  also  Mutton  and  Lamb  on  pages 
964  and  965.  Briefly  described,  the  established 
breeds  are  : 

Beacon-Down.  Originated  in  the  United  States, 
by  William  Crozier,  near  Northport,  Long  Island;  by 
crossing  South-Down  ewes  with  a  Cotswold  ram,  then 
interbreeding.  Fleece  closer,  finer  and  shorter  than 
that  of  the  Cotswold  ;  weighs  irto  13  lbs.  Mutton 
excellent;  weight  140  to  160  at  12  months;  ewes  pro- 
lific, lambs  strong,  healthy  and  mature  early.  Suit- 
able for  light  pastures  under  hot  suns. 


Black-Faced  Scotch.  This  is  the  oldest  breed 
in  Scotland,  its  origin  being  lost  in  tradition.  Fleece 
coarse,  weight  about  3  pounds ;  body  square,  compact, 
with  broad  saddle  and  good  quarters;  weighs  about 
15  pounds.  Face  black,  muzzle  thick,  horns  heavy 
and  curved  spirally.  They  are  perhaps  the  hardiest 
sheep  known,  the  lambs  enduring  extreme  cold  and 
hunger.  The  ewes  are  excellent  mothers.  They  im- 
prove readily  under  judicious  management  and  are 
admirably  adapted  to  the  conditions  to  be  met  in 
mountainous  regions.  The  mutton  is  of  very  fine 
flavor. 

Caraman.  The  Caraman,  or  fat-tailed  sheep,  na- 
tive of  some  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States,  by  importations  from 
Karamania,  in  Asia  Minor.  By  some  they  are  con- 
sidered as  a  separate  group.  It  is  a  white,  short  and 
soft-wool  sheep  of  several  varieties  and  sizes,  its  dis- 
tinguishing feature  being  a  tail  which  is  little  more 
than  a  lump  of  fat  weighing  from  15  to  iooix)unds.  It 
is  not  certain  that  they  will  ever  be  numerous  enough 
in  America  to  be  more  than  a  curiosity. 

Cheviot.  By  crossing  the  Lincoln  and  a  breed  of 
common  sheep  found  in  the  hilly  part  of  the  lowlands 
of  Scotland  the  Cheviot  was  produced.  Fleece,  about 
5  pounds,  medium,  white,  coarse;  head  and  legs  gen- 
erally white,  but  sometimes  speckled  or  dun  ;  face 
massive  and  strong;  hornless;  carcass  medium  size, 
long  body,  fore -quarters  light,  hind-quarters  and  saddle 
heavy  and  full;  dress  80  jwunds  at  3  years;  a  good 
wool  and  mutton  sheep.  AVool  used  for  tweed  and 
cheviot  cloths.  They  are  quiet,  docile  and  excellent 
mothers ;   lambs  hardy. 

Cotswold.  This  breed  originated  as  a  cross  be- 
tween a  Leicester  and  descendants  of  sheep  brought 
from  Spain  to  England  in  the  12th  century.  Fleece, 
about  8  pounds,  white,  coarse,  long  ;  head  fine,  tapers 
from  nose  to  ears,  hornless ;  a  thick  forelock  of  wool 
comes  down  to  between  the  eyes;  ears  long;  body 
large,  long,  broadens  from  shoulder  to  rump ;  legs 
rather  long,  clean,  carcass  dresses  100  to  340 
pounds.  Is  a  mutton  and  wool  sheep.  Wool  reach- 
es 9  inches  in  length;  used  for  woolens.  Some- 
times brown  or  grey  appear  on  the  face  and  fore-legs. 

We  present  several  specimens  illustrating  this 
breed.  The  ram  shown  by  Fig.  2  is  owned  by  T.  L. 
Miller,  Beecher,  111.,  and  the  sheep.  Fig.  3,  owned  by 
S.  E.  Prather,  Springfield,  Illinois. 

DoRSETS.  A  breed  long  known  in  the  south  of 
England.  Breeds  early  and  often  drops  twins;  may 
be  bred  twice  a  year.  Both  rams  and  ewes  have 
horns.  Fleece  close,  soft,  heavy,  yields  about  six 
ix)unds  of  combing  wool.  Faces  white,  broad  and 
long,  with  a  tuft  of  wool  on  the  forehead,  and  black 
nose  and  lips.  Body  heavy,  dresses  loo  pounds  at 
two  years;  shoulders  low  and  broad,  back  straight, 
loins  broad  and  deep,  brisket  full,  legs  long  and  fine- 
boned. 

Hampshire  Down.  This  breed  is  from  a  cross 
between  a  pure  South-Down  and  a  white-faced  horned 


II26 


SHEEP. 


sheep  of  Hampshire,  England.  Originated  about 
1809-10.  Fleece  whitish,  medium,  coarse  and  re- 
sembling that  of  South- Downs,  but  longer  and  coarser; 
six  to  seven  ix)unds.  Body  good  size,  yearlings 
weigh  80  to  100  uounds.  A  mutton  sheep  with  juicy 
lean  meat. 

Kentucky.  Originated  about  1840  in  Frankfort, 
Ky.,  first,  from  crossing  common  ewes  and  a  Merino 
ram,  the  young  ewes  were  topped  by  a  Leicester  ram, 
the  issue  from  this  cross  was  topped  by  a  South-Down 
ram,  this  was  followed  by  a  ram  one-quarter  South- 
Down  and  three-quarters  Cotswold,  this  twice  in  suc- 
cession by  Cotswold  rams,  this  by  an  Oxford-Down 
ram,  and  this  by  a  mixed  Cotswold,  Oxford- Down 
and  Leicester  ram,  followed  by  careful  in-breeding. 
Not  much  mentioned  since  the  close  of  the  war  of 
1861-65.  Fleece  white,  coarse,  long,  midway  between 
that  of  the  Cotswold  and  the  Leicester.  Body  and 
fleece  heavy,  a  mutton  and  wool  sheep. 

Leicester.  Originated  by  a  Mr.  Bakewell,  in 
England,  over  a  century  ago,  from  the  common  sheep 
of  Leicestershire,  by  a  mode  of  breeding  not  revealed. 
Fleece  seven  or  eight  jx)unds,  coarse,  white,  long; 
body  large,  angular,  square  build;  hind-quarters 
tapering  toward  the  tail,  tegs  long,  clean;  head  long, 
slender,  clean ;  eyes  and  facial  bones  about  the  eyes 
prominent.  Yearlings  dress  100  pounds,  two-year- 
olds  150  iwunds. 

Lincoln.  A  cross  between  a  Leicester  and  a 
breed  common  in  the  rich,  low  flats  of  Lincolnshire 
produced,  less  than  a  century  ago,  the  Lincoln  breed. 
Fleece  white,  coarse,  long;  used  for  worsteds;  yields 
10  to  14  pounds  of  wool  nine  inches  or  more  in 
length.  Dresses  120  to  160  at  two  years  old;  is  a 
mutton  sheep. 

Merino.  Produced  in  the  first  century  by  cross- 
ing the  best  native  breeds  of  Spain  with  the  Tarantine 
sheep  from  Southern  Italy.  Brought  to  the  United 
States  in  1800.  They  have  since  been  greatly  im- 
proved by  careful  breeding.  Fleece  white,  fine, 
greasy,  two  to  three  inches  long;  shears  12  to  30 
pounds;  skin  lies  in  folds  or  wrinkles.  Body  of 
medium  size,  short,  thick  and  round ;  quarters  fair, 
legs  short,  heavy  and  covered  with  wool.  Head 
covered  to  the  eyes  with  wool ;  horns  of  rams  curled 
and  wrinkled.  Is  a  wool  sheep,  thrives  in  large  flocks 
and  is  hardy  and  docile.  Is  much  used  for  crossing 
with  the  coarse-wooled  Mexican  sheep. 

We  present  fine  specimens  of  the  Merino  breed, 
raised  and  owned  by  Geo.  W.  Hunt,  Greenwood,  111. 

Mexican.  Classed  as  a  native  American  sheep; 
originated  probably  in  importations  of  common  sheep 
of  Spain  by  the  early  Spanish  explorers.  Fleece 
coarse,  generally  white,  about  two  pounds  in  weight 
and  of  little  value.  Body  thin,  scraggy;  weighs 
about  40  ixjunds.  Crossed  with  Merinoes  they  form 
the  basis  of  many  flocks  on  the  plains  of  Texas,  New 
Mexico  and  other  Western  States  and  Territories. 

Oxford-Downs.  Originated  in  Oxfordshire,  Eng- 
land, about  1830,  from  crossing  a  Cotswold  ram  with 


a  Hampshire-Down  ewe,  followed  by  careful  inbreed- 
ing. Fleece  rather  coarse,  white,  thick  and  slightly 
curly,  five  to  seven  inches  in  length,  weighing  eight 
to  nine  pounds;  rams  have,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, been  made  to  shear  20  pounds.  Carcass  at 
14  months  weighs  80  to  90  jxjunds,  usually,  but  by 
good  feeding  have  been  brouglit  to  weigh  very  nearly 
300  pounds  at  22  months.  Body  round,  legs  short 
and  dark ;  face  dark  with  tuft  on  forehead.  Stand 
pasturing  on  damp  soils  better  than  most  breeds. 

By  Fig.  7  we  very  beautifully  illustrate  this  breed 
by  a  trio  of  yearling  lambs  bred  by  Cooper,  Maddox 
&  Co.,  of  Reading,  Pa. 

RoMNEY  Marsh.  This  breed  has  been  known  for 
centuries  in  the  marshes  of  Southeastern  England; 
is  very  hardy.  Fleece  rather  coarse  and  long,  sound, 
bright  and  glossy;  weighs  7  to  10  pounds.  Carcass 
long,  sides  flat,  loin  broad,  thigh  full  and  broad,  fore- 
quarter  neither  heavy  nor  full,  dresses  from  70  to  120 
pounds.     A  good  breed  for  wet  country. 

Shropshire-Downs.  Product  of  South-Downs  and 
a  hardy,  short-wooled  stock ;  many  flocks  have  a 
trace  of  Cotswold,  South-Down  and  Leicester  blood. 
Fleece  white,  thick;  shear  six  to  eight  jwunds.  body 
large,  full  and  round;  quarters  good, breast  broad  and 
deep;  straight  back;  the  mutton  shows  large  propor- 
tion of  lean  of  choice  quality.  Head  fine,  face  dun 
or  speckled,  as  are  the  legs  also;  hornless;  ears  neat. 
Very  hardy,  thrive  well  on  moderate  keep,  fatten 
readily  and  yield  80  to  125  jwunds  of  meat  of  very 
desirable  quality. 

South-Downs.  Product  of  long  and  careful  in- 
breeding of  native  sheep  of  the  hill  country  of  the 
south  of  England.  Fleece  coarse,  white  and  short; 
shears  about  six  pounds;  used  for  flannels  and  soft 
goods.  Body  medium  in  size,  hind-quarters  full  and 
square,  fore-quarters  full,  breast  broad,  legs  short  and 
clean,  dark  brown  and  free  from  wool.  Head  horn- 
less, face  brown.  Yearlings  dress  70  to  80  pounds. 
Is  a  mutton  sheep. 

Welsh  Mountain.  A  very  hardy,  small  sheep 
found  in  the  remote  pastures  and  barren  moors  of 
Wales.  Fleece  weighs  about  two  jxjunds.  The  body 
is  small,  the  hind-quarters  weigh  about  four  pounds 
each,  but  sell  for  tw  o  or  three  times  as  much  as  those 
of  other  breeds.  The  rams  have  horns,  ewes  seldom 
so;  faces  white,  speckled  or  rusty  brown  ;  the  head 
is  small,  shoulders  low,  chest  narrow,  sides  flat,  rump 
high  and  the  girth  small.  A  good  breed  for  wild 
pastures  of  mountain  districts. 

breeding,  care  and  management. 

The  general  principles  of  breeding  as  set  forth  in 
the  article  on  Breeding,  page  101,  are  equally  applicable 
to  sheep  as  to  other  stock.  In  selecting  sheep  for 
breeding  purposes,  the  peculiar  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  food  and  markets  having  been  duly  consider- 
ed, the  most  important  thing  then  to  do  is  to  choose 
a  suitable  ram.  As  one  ram  will  impress  his  qualities, 
good  or  bad,  on  the  offspring  of  from  20  to  50  ewes 
each  season,  and  if  strong  from  50  to  75,  it  is  plain 


SHEEP: 


1127 


that  his  influence  upon  the  outcome  of  any  venture 
in  sheep  farming  is  very  great.  (See  article  Breed- 
ing.) It  may  safely  be  said  that  he  who  puts  his 
ewes  to  a  grade  ram,  when  he  can  get  a  thorough- 
bred of  good  family,  even  if  a  seemingly  high  price 
be  demanded  for  the  latter,  is  losing  time,  care  and 
food ;  for  the  grade  is  much  less  likely  to  transmit  to 
his  offspring  desirable  qualities  than  is  a  thorough- 
bred, even  though  the  latter  may  be  in  outward 
appearances  less  desirable  than  the  grade.  But  when 
a  thoroughbred  ram  can  not  be  got  a  good  grade  will 
make  a  great  improvement  upon  the  common  native 
or  scrub  stock.  By  selecting  the  best  native  or  com- 
mon ewes  obtainable,  and  insisting  firmly  upon  great 
excellence  in  the  ram,  the  breeder  will  have  made  a 
beginning  which  will  give  him,  the  first  lambing 
season,  lambs  showing  marked  improvement.  A  clear 
pedigree,  showing  a  long  line  of  ancestors  of  high 
value  as  breeders,  is  presumptive  evidence  of  ix)\ver 
to  transmit  those  good  qualities.  It  is  better  to  buy 
only  of  established  and  reputable  breeders  and  to  in- 
sist uixjn  satisfactory  pedigrees.  Grades  sometimes 
have  excellent  form  and  appearance  which  might 
deceive  even  good  judges,  yet  do  not  have  that  pre- 
ixjtency  which  makes  the  thoroughbred  so  valuable. 

Unless  a  ram  be  full  grown  and  vigorous,  not  more 
thj.n  30  ewes  should  be  put  to  him  in  one  season, 
and  the  number  should  not  exceed  50,  even  when 
the  ram  is  exceptionally  strong.  He  should  be  fed 
liberally  on  good  and  sustaining  food  just  before  and 
during  the  breeding  season.  Some  skillful  breeders 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  adding  to  the  other  food  a 
teacupful  of  wheat  per  day  during  this  season. 
Flock  masters  smear  the  breasts  of  rams  each  day 
with  a  mixture  of  ochre  and  raw  linseed  oil ;  this 
marks  every  ewe  served.  On  the  approach  of  and 
during  the  rutting  season  rams  should  be  condemned 
to  solitary  confinement,  that  they  may  not  exhaust 
themselves  and  annoy  the  flock  by  constant  effort 
with  the  ewes  and  by  fighting.  Keep  each  an  en- 
closure by  himself  out  of  sight  of  the  ewes,  and  turn 
in  to  him  at  nightfall  or  in  the  morning  the  ewes  in 
heat,  until  all  shall  have  been  served. 

The  ewe  may  be  bred  to  the  ram  at  the  age  of  18 
months,  at  which  age  the  ram  will  also  be  fit  for  ser- 
vice. The  average  period  of  gestation  does  not  vary 
much  from  152  days.     See  tables  on  page    144  and 

569- 

Ewes.  The  best  mothers  among  the  ewes  should 
be  year  by  year  selected,  and  may  be  profitably  kept 
until  10  to  15  years  old,  while  the  less  valuable  ones 
may  be  sold.  This  selection  can  be  easily  made  by 
marking  each  breeding  animal  with  a  metallic  tag, 
and  keeping  a  record  in  a  form  similar  to  the  following: 


No.  of  Ewe.     Ram  No.    i  Served.      Due  to  Lamb.  |  Lambed      Remarks. 


I      1881. 


Jan.  7, '82.      I  Jan.  lo,  I      Twins. 
I       1882.     I 


The  period  of  pregnancy  in  the  ewe  is  rso  to  153 
days.  Fully  five  months  before  the  date  when  the 
lambs  shouM  come,  the  ewes  should  be  separated 


from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  Where  the  ewes  cannot 
be  closely  watched  one  or  more  wethers  may  be  per- 
mitted to  run  with  them;  as  each  ewe  comes  in  heat 
a  wether  will  keep  near  her.  In  the  evening  those 
in  heat  should  be  turned  into  the  yard  where  the 
ram  by  which  they  are  to  be  served  should  be  kept. 
Here  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain  until  morning, 
or  they  may  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  served.  Should 
any  fail  to  breed  give  of  Epsom  salt  two  ounces,  and 
reduce  their  feed  until  they  come  in  heat. 

During  pregnancy  it  is  essential  that  ewes  should 
be  as  free  as  possible  from  disturbing  causes,  espe- 
cially from  annoyance  by  dogs.  A  regular  amount 
of  exercise  each  day,  with  a  variety  or  judicious  change 
of  food,  is  deemed  necessary  to  the  maintenance  pi  a. 
healthy,  active  condition,  especially  for  a  short  lime 
before  lambing.  It  is  thought  that  goiter  or  swelled 
neck  in  lambs  is  caused  by  a  plethora  in  the  dam, 
the  result  of  inactivity  and  over-feeding.  If  ewes  can 
at  this  time  be  taught  the  habit  of  eating  salt  from  the 
hands,  and  in  other  ways  be  made  familiar  with  han- 
dling by  the  shepherd  their  lambs  will  be  more  docile 
'and  quiet.  After  service  ewes  should  be  fed  enough 
grain  to  keep  them  in  thrifty  condition  but  not  too  fat; 
half  a  pint  each  per  day  of  oats,  bran  and  corn  while 
they  are  on  pasture,  to  be  increased  to  a  pint  per  day 
as  winterapproaches,  has  been  found  very  satisfactory. 
Avoid  giving  food  which  is  likely  to  move  the  bowels 
actively  either  way  when  lambing  time  draws  near. 

When  it  can  be  done  a  pen  4  by  5  feet,  which  can  be 
darkened,  should  be  given  to  each  ewe  when  the  time 
for  dropping  her  lamb  is  at  hand.  Perfect  quiet  is 
thus  secured,  and  there  will  be  little  or  no  trouble  from 
ewes  disowning  their  young.  At  this  time  a  drink  of 
thin  oat-meal  gruel  well  salted  will  do  the  ewe  good. 

Young  ewes  sometimes  have  much  difficulty  in  giv- 
ing birth  to  their  young;  help  should  in  such  cases  be 
given  as  gently  and  carefully  as  possible.  Naturally 
the  head  of  the  lamb,  with  both  fore-feet  beside  it, 
should  appear.  Should  there  be  difficulty  about  pass- 
ing the  head,  gentle  pulling  in  Hne  with  the  vagina, 
and  simultaneously  with  the  efforts  of  the  ewe,  will 
usually  be  enough  to  give  relief.  If  both  hind  feet 
and  the  rump  appear  there  need  not  be  much  diffi- 
culty; but,  as  a  rule,  when  there  is  an  unnatural  pre- 
sentation the  lamb  should  be  pushed  back  into  the 
womb  with  the  hand,  which  should  first  be  well  cov- 
ered with  linseed  oil  after  the  finger-nails  have  been 
cut  close.  The  head  of  the  lamb  can  then  be  brought 
gently  into  position  with  the  fingers,  after  which  there 
should  be  little  difficulty.  Should  a  ewe  lose  her  lamb 
she  may  be  led  to  adopt  another  by  rubbing  the  skin 
of  the  dead  lamb  over  that  of  the  living  one.  Some- 
times the  teats  are  closed  so  that  the  new-born  lamb 
can  get  no  milk.  They  should  be  squeezed  with  the 
wetted  fingers  until  milk  flows. 

With  the  coming  of  weaning  time  the  supply  of 
food,  especially  for  ewes  giving  a  heavy  flow  of  milk, 
should  be  gradually  reduced,  as  the  lamb  draws  less 
and  sUll  less  upon  its  mother  for  nourishment.  Any 
hardness  or  heat  in  the  udder  at  this  time  should  be 


SHEEP. 


1129 


the  signal  for  giving  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  two  ounces 
dissolved  in  water,  with  a  teaspoonful  of  ground 
ginger  stirred  in,  followed  by  twenty  grains  of  salt- 
peter, morning  and  evening,  for  the  next  two  days. 

Feeding  Ewes  and  Lambs.  If  your  ewes  with 
lambs  are  strong  and  healthy  and  have  some  range, 
you  find  corn  good  feed.  Feed  lightly  at  first  when  it 
is  fed  alone.  When  feeding  corn  you  will  find  corn 
fodder  an  excellent  addition,  as  there  is  no  better  food 
producing  a  good  flow  of  milk  than  corn  grown  for 
fodder  and  properly  cured.  If  fed  on  this,  the  lambs 
will  come  strong  and  healthy.  After  a  few  feeds  of 
corn  there  will  be  no  danger  of  the  sheep  eating  more 
than  they  need.  If  you  have  no  rye  pasture  or  corn 
fodder  begin  feeding  about  two  weeks  before  the  ewes 
begin  to  drop  their  lambs,  a  very  wet,  but  not  a  thin, 
slop,  proix)rtioned  as  follows  :  One-half  bran,  one- 
fourth  oats  and  one-fourth  corn,  mixed,  put  to  soak 
twelve  or  twenty-four  hours  before  it  is  fed.  You  will 
find  that  this  feed,  in  addition  to  clover  or  timothy 
hay,  will  promote  the  final  development  of  the  lamb, 
strengthen  the  ewe,  increase  the  secretion  of  milk, 
etc.  If  you  wish  to  fatten  any  sheep  in  the  flock,  sei> 
arate  them  from  the  others  and  feed  more  liberally 
with  corn. 

Teeth  as  an  Index  to  Age.  In  reference  to 
telling  the  age  of  sheep  by  the  teeth  we  quote  from 
Prof.  Stewart  on  dental  changes  that  are  usually  de- 
pended upon  for  determining  age. 

"The  two  central  or  front  teeth  appear  before  or 
soon  after  birth,  and  in  about  three  weeks  after  birth, 
the  whole  of  the  twenty  temporary  teeth  appear.  The 
first  change  in  the  teeth  occurs  at  the  age  of  three 
months,  when  the  lamb  cuts  a  permanent  molar  tooth. 
The  next  change  also  occurs  at  the  back  of  mouth, 
when,  at  nine  months  old,  another,  the  second  per- 
manent molar  tooth,  appears.  At  one  year  old  the 
lamb  has  but  eight  permanent  teeth,  or  two  at  the 
back  of  each  side  of  each  jaw.  The  age  of  fourteen 
months  is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  two  perman- 
ent incisor  teeth  at  the  center  of  the  front  of  the  jaw. 

"In  judging  of  the  age  of  a  sheep,  the  condition  of 
the  molars  may  be  studied  with  advantage.  If  a  sheep 
is  certified  to  be  not  exceeding  one  year  old,  and  the 
fifth  molar  (the  second  permanent  one,  and  the  last 
one  on  each  jaw)  is  found  to  be  sharp  on  the  edges  and 
but  slightly  worn,  the  age  may  be  reardee  as  properly 
stated,  even  though  the  central  pair  of  front  teeth 
.  have  already  appeared.  But  if  these  teeth  are  well 
up,  and  the  last  molar  is  worn  and  smooth,  and  there 
is  a  space  between  this  tooth  and  the  angle  of  the  jaw, 
the  sheep  is  certainly  over  a  year  old. 

"The  sixth  molar  tooth  is  in  its  place  at  the  age  of 
eighteen  months,  and  this  is  the  only  test  of  this  age 
of  the  sheep.  The  second  pair  of  front  teeth,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  first  pair,  appear  at  twenty-one  months 
of  age,  and  at  two  years  are  fully  grown  and  stand  well 
up  from  the  gum  and  level  with  the  first  pair.  After 
the  sixth  molar  is  cut,  the  three  foi-ward  and  tempor- 
ary molars  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  which 
are  full  grown  at  the  age  of  twenty-seven  months.   At 


two  years  and  a  half  the  third  pair  of  front  teeth  have 
become  fully  grown,  although,  in  some  forward  sheep 
of  the  quickly-maturing  breeds,  these  teeth  may  ap- 
pear at  two  years  of  age:  generally  they  indicate  an 
age  of  two  years  and  a  half  At  the  age  of  three  years 
in  the  Cotswolds  and  other  forward  breeds  the  fourth 
and  last  pair  of  front  teeth  appear;  but  in  other  breeds 
they  are  not  present  until  three  and  a  quarter,  or  three 
and  a  half  years  :  the  sheep  is  then  known  as  full- 
mouthed.  The  following  table  of  the  periods  of  den- 
tition will  be  found  useful  in  determining  the  age  of  a 
sheep: 

"At  one  month,  eight  temporary  front  teeth  and 
three  temporary  molars  on  each  side  of  each  jaw. 

"At  three  months,  a  permanent  molar  is  added  to 
these  three. 

"At  nine  months,  the  second  permanent  molar  ap- 
pears. 

"At  fourteen  months,  two  permanent  incisors  ap- 
pear. 

"At  eighteen  months,  the  third  permanent  molar 
appears. 

"At  twenty-one  months,  there  are  four  permanent 
incisors. 

"At  twenty-seven  months,  the  temporary  molars  are 
changed,  and  the  permanent  ones  appear. 

"At  thirty  months,  there  are  six  permanent  incisors. 

"At  thirty-six  to  forty-two  months,  there  are  eight 
permanent  incisors. 

"It  has  been  decided  in  an  English  court  of  law, 
that  a  lamb  becomes  a  sheep  when  the  first  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  have  appeared.  When  the  mouth 
is  full-toothed,  the  sheep  is  considered  as  mature,  or 
full-grown;  when  the  teeth  begin  to  show  signs  of 
wear,  the  sheep  is  'aged.'" 

There  are  other  evidences  of  age  to  which  attention 
may  be  given — such  as  the  loss  of  wool  on  the  head, 
legs,  and  parts  of  the  body;  loss  of  vigor;  lack  of 
plumpness ;  an  aged  look  of  the  skin ;  and  suscepti- 
bility to  changes  of  weather.  Some  idea  of  a  Merino 
ram  s  age  may  be  had  from  the  appearance  of  the 
horns,  which  become  not  only  larger,  but  more  cor- 
rugated as  age  advances.  Sheep  that  have  been  well 
kept  will  be  found  to  "carry  age"  better  than  those 
subjected  to  privation.  With  ewes,  the  number  and 
frequency  of  lambs  borne  has  an  important  bearing 
upon  the  appearance  as  age  advances,  as  every  draft 
upon  the  constitutional  vigor  tends  to  enhance  the 
appearance  of  age. 

Sheep  Barns  and  Shelters.  Shelters  are  cer- 
tainly indispensable,  in  all  northern  climates,  to  profit- 
able sheep  raising.  An  animal  eats  much  less  when 
thus  protected,  is  more  thrifty  and  less  liable  to  dis- 
ease. See  Feeding  of  Animals.  Some  sort  of  pro- 
tection should  be  provided  for  sheep  by  those  who 
would  attempt  to  raise  them  successfully.  Sheds  or 
barns  may  be  variously  constructed  to  suit  the  condi- 
tion and  circumstance  of  the  farmer.  Whatever  kind 
of  a  tight  bam  is  built  thorough  ventilation  must  be 
provided.  We  present  some  plans  for  sheds  ai}^ 
shelters  in  this  connection. 


1I30 


SHEEP. 


Sheep  Sheds  and  Racks.  Sheep  that  are  not 
being  prepared  for  market  do  not  thrive  well  during 
winter,  unless  they  have  exercise  and  a  well  ventilat- 
ed shed.  Such  a  building  may  be  of  any  height,  but 
the  floor  need  not  be  more  than  six  feet  from  the 
ground,  which  gives  a  large  amount  of  storage  room 


Fig.  4- — Sked^  Pen  and  Rack  /or  Sheep, 

for  hay.  The  floor  should  be  of  matched  boards,  or 
the  cracks  should  be  otherwise  closed  up  to  prevent 
hay  seed  or  chaff"  from  dropping  upon  the  wool.  The 
front  of  the  shed  is  boarded  to  within  a  few  feet  of 
the  ground,  leaving  that  space  open,  that  the  sheep 
may  go  in  or  out  when  they  please.  The  feeding 
rack  is  placed  around  three  sides  of  the  shed,  and 
slopes  forward  so  that  the  sheep  can  consume 
the  last  mouthful  of  hay  contained  in  it.  It  is 
made  so  high  that  the  sheep  cannot  reach  over 
the  front  of  it  and  pull  the  hay  out  over  each 
other's  wool.  Three  and  one-half  feet  is  the 
right  height  forlarge  sheep.  The  slats  are  placed 
three  inches  apart,  which  prevents  the  sheep 
from  pushing  their  heads  through,  and  wear- 
ing the  wool  from  their  necks.  Everything  about 
a  sheep  pen  should  be  smooth,  leaving  no 
rough  splinters  to  catch  and  tear  the  wool.  The 
pen  and  yard  should  be  kept  well  littered. 
This  shed,  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  arranged  espe- 
cially to  keep  the  wool  clean  and  free  from  hay 
seed,  clover  heads  and  dust,  and  that  the  sheep 
may  be  out-doors  or  in-doors  as  they  wish,  and 
according  to  the  weather. 

Shed  for  Soiling  Sheep.  When  it  is  desir- 
able to  keep  sheep  in  yards  near  the  barn,  for 
the  purpose  of  soiling,  a  structure  can  be  made 
as  follows:  A  green  paddock  of  about  an  acre 
is  divided  by  fences  into  four  parts,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  A  partly  open  shed  with 
feed  racks  all  around  it  is  placed  in  the  center. 
For  fifty  sheep  a  building  twenty  feet  square  is 
amply  large.  A  door  from  each  quarter  of  the  pad- 
dock opens  into  this  shed.  As  one  quarter  is  used, 
the  doors  opening  to  the  other  are  closed. 
^  Figure  4  gives  the  elevation  of  the  shed,  with  a 
ratge  double  doorway  closed  by  half-doors,  and  open 


at  the  top.  There  are  also  large  open  windows,  so 
that  the  shed  is  airy.  There  is  no  provision  for  water 
in  the  yards,  and  this  is  the  best  plan,  as  the  yards  are 
kept  dry,  and  it  necessitates  at  least  so  much  exercise 
as  will  be  derived  from  driving  the  sheep  to  water 
twice  a  day.  The  change  of  yards  is  needed  to  keep 
them  dry  and  free  from  mud  in  wet  weather.  ' 
The  crops  that  may  be  usefully  fed  in  such  a 
yard  are  rye,  clover,  grass,  rape,  mustard,  peas 
and  oats,  barley  and  tares,  turnips,  or  any  others 
that  are  used  when  sheep  are  fenced  by  hurdles. 

Sheep  Shelter  on  the  Plains.  The  cli- 
mate of  the  Western  plains  is  arid  and  exhilarat- 
ing, the  soil  dry  and  jxjrous,  the  herbage  short, 
sweet,  and  nutritious.  Aromatic  plants,  which 
are  healthful  for  sheep,  abound,  and  the  main 
obstacle  which  has  hitherto  presented  itself, 
to  interfere  with  the  complete  success  of  those 
who  have  experimented  in  sheep-raising,  has 
been  the  sudden  snow-storms  which  have  over- 
whelmed the  flocks.  Ordinary  buildings  are 
frequently  out  of  the  question,  both  from  want 
of  material  and  the  funds  wherewith  to  erect 
them.  The  flocks  may  be  sheltered  from  the  tempest 
by  means  of  walls  which  are  semi-circular  in  shape, 
and  consist  of  stones  roughly  laid  up,  or  of  sods  cut 
from  the  plains  and  piled  five  feet  high.  The  outside 
of  the  curve  is  always  placed  towards  the  north  or 
northwest,  the  direction  from  which  the  prevailing 
storms  blow.     Where  the  flocks  are  small,  a  few  walls 


Fig.  5. — Shed /or  Soiling  Sheep, 

are  sufficient,  scattered  about  in  convenient  and  ac- 
cessible places,  generally  where  the  configuration  of 
the  ground  gives  additional  shelter,  as,  for  instance, 
on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill,  or  where  a  grove  helps 
to  break  the  force  of  the  storm. 

Figure  5  shows  a  more  elaborate  one,  suitable  for 


SHEEP. 


"31 


larger  flocks,  and  also  designed  as  a  protection  against 
storms  from  whatever  direction  they  may  come.    This 


Fig.  e.—CoKctntr/c  Shtif  Shelter. 

shelter  consists  of  two  half-circles,  with  entrances 
flanked  and  protected  by  other  walls,  so  that  the  flock 
is  harbored  on  all  quarters.  Very  often  an  inner  cir- 
cle is  built,  which  again  adds  to  the  protection  and 
increases  the  amount  of  shelter. 

Care  ok  Lambs.  Many  a  dollar  that  would  other- 
wise come  to  the  flock-owner  is  lost  through  his  failure 
to  appreciate  the  fact  that'maximum  profit  is  secured 
through  the  quality  and  condition  of  his  sheep,  rather 
than  through  their  numbers.  Quality  and  condition 
are  the  indispensable  requisites  to  real  success.  The 
first  of  these  is  secured  through  breeding,  the  second 
through  subsequent  attention.  "  Blood  will  tell,"  but 
its  record  will  never  be  satisfactory  unless  the  breed- 
er's art  is  supplemented  by  the  feeder's  liberality. 
The  well-bred  lamb  must  be  a  well-fed  lamb,  or  the 
breeder's  ideal  will  never  be  attained. 

Keep  the  lambs  thriving.  During  the  hot  and  dry 
summer  days,  extra  attention  w-ll  be  necessary  to  in- 
sure this,  but  compensation  therefor  .will  surely  come. 
Where  the  young  and  tender  animal  is  required  to 
withstand  privation  and  hardship,  diminished  size  and 
impaired  vigor  will  follow,  to  the  embarrassment  of 
every  subsequent  effort  at  maximum  results.  Mis- 
takes in  early  management  may  be  avoided ;  they 
cannot  be  wholly  corrected  in  the  life  of  tlie  animal. 
Scanty  pasturage  must  be  pieced  out  from  other 
sources;  and  artificial  food  should  be  supplied  before 
the  advancing  season  robs  the  pasture  of  its  highest 
nourishment. 

Experienced  shepherds  are  sometimes  asked  for 
devices  by  which  sucking  lambs  can  be  fed  a  ration 
of  grain,  bran,  or  meal,  aside  from  what  is  given  their 
dams.  Devices  of  this  character — such  as  a  small 
pen  inside  the  usual  resting  place,  with  openings 
through  which  the  lambs  can  pass,  but  not  large 
enough  to  admit  the  grown  animals — will  readily 
suggest  themselves  under  such  circumstances  as  war- 
rant this  peculiar  treatment.  The  strongest  apology 
for  such  an  arrangement  is  found  in  the  exemption 


from  crowding,  which  allows  the  smaller  animals  to 
get  their  proper  allowance.  The  fact  is  the  mothers 
can  profitably  be  allowed  as  liberal  treatment  as  their 
offspring.  The  effect  of  a  little  attention  to  the 
dam,  while  on  pasture,  will  be  quite  as  apparent  in 
her  lamb  as  upon  herself;  and  without  this  regard 
to  her  condition,  much  of  effort  for  lamb  thrift  will 
be  vain. 

All  that  has  been  heretofore  said  in  behalf  of  com- 
fortable surroundings  for  a  flock,  receives  emphasis  in 
its  application  to  the  lambs.  The  idea  that  privation 
and  harsh  treatment  toughen  the  young  animals,  is  a 
delusion.  A  perfect  physique  and  a  vigorous  consti- 
tution are  not  to  be  secured  by  exposure  to  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  and  by  subjection  to  hunger  and 
thirst.  The  perfectly  developed  and  healthy  sheep 
can  withstand  these  to  almost  incredible  extremes; 
but  its  capabilities  in  such  direction  do  not  result 
therefrom.  -Sweltering  beneath  a  summer  sun,  or 
shivering  before  a  wintry  blast,  develops  neither 
health  nor  strength.  Forced  subsistence  on  scanty 
pasturage  may  test  constitutional  hardiness,  but  does 
not  create  or  foster  such  a  characteristic. 

Many  owners  fall  into  the  error  of  giving  the  lamb 
flock  the  same  treatment  as  is  bestowed  upon  those 
animals  of  more  advanced  age,  overlooking  the  fact 
that  what  requires  development  in  the  one  instance 
needs  but  to  be  maintained  in  the  other.  As  the 
sturdy  tree,  now  withstanding  exposure  at  the  road- 
side, could  once  have  been  crushed  by  a  fawn's  foot- 
print, so  is  there  to  be  found  in  the  young  sheep's  life 
a  time  when  harm  will  result  from  incidents  Vhich 
would  in  nowise  affect  the  matured  animal — a  fact 
which  finds  unpleasant  emphasis  in  the  experience  of 
the  most  careful  shepherd. 

What  with  docking,  and  marking,  and  weanino,  and 
the  other  rough  treatment  inseparable  from  Limbhood, 
the  little  ones  of  the  flock  have  a  rough  enough  time,  be 
the  supervision  of  their  owners  ever  so  thoughtful 
arid  thorough.  When  these  trials  are  reduced  to  the 
minimum,  and  all  the  avenues  to  thrift  and  comfort 
within  command  are  opened  wide  before  them,  then 
it  is,  and  only  then,  that  the  reasonable  estimates  of 
the  owner  may  be  realized,  and,  under  exceptional 
conditions,  sometimes  exceeded. 

Docking.  In  docking  lambs  the  animal  should 
be  held  between  the  knees  of  the  operator,  its  rump 
against  a  smooth  block  of  hard  wood.  A  sharp  chisel 
is  held  between  the  first  finger  and  the  thumb  of  the 
left  hand  and  the  skin  of  the  tail  is  drawn  well  for- 
ward. A  smart  blow  upon  the  handle  of  the  chisel 
completes  the  operation  instantly.  A  little  tar,  or  a 
touch  of  carbolic  acid  and  pure  lard  will  serve  to  keep 
the  flies  away  until  the  wound  heals.  Lambs  should 
be  docked  when  about  a  week  old. 

Castration.  When  lambs  are  a  week  old  they 
may  be  easily  and  quickly  castrated  by  a  single  de- 
cided clip  with  a  i)air  of  shears,  the  whole  scrotum 
and  testicles  being  taken.  When  the  lamb  is  some 
months  old  there  is  need  of  more  care  and  skill-. 
Some  operators  sit  on  a  bench  with  one  of  the  lamb's 


/ 


&HEEP. 


"33 


hind  legs  held  down  by  each  thigh ;  an  assistant 
holds  the  head  and  fore-legs.  Pressing  the  testicles 
tightly  against  the  lower  end  of  the  bag  an  incision  is 
made  with  a  keen  knife  through  the  tight,  smooth 
skin  beneath  each  testicle.  These  slip  from  the 
openings,  the  cords  are  scraped  off,  not  cut,  and  the 
work  is  done.  A  little  tow  or  wool  is  sometimes  left 
in  the  opening  in  the  scrotum  of  older  rams,  to  allow 
the  passage  of  any  pus  which  might  otherwise  collect 
and  cause  blood-poisoning.  A  dressing  of  tar  or 
carbolic  acid  mixed  with  pure  lard  will  serve  to  keep 
away  flies. 

Crooks.  Although  unknown  on  most  American 
farms  the  shepherd's  crook  is  an  implement  very  use- 
ful in  catching  sheep.  Any  wagon-maker  can  readily 
furnish  one.  The  crook  is  quietly  passed  in  front  of 
and  above  the  hock,  and  the  leg  is  then  seized  by  the 
hand.  Never  catch  a  sheep  by  its  wool,  it  is  cruel; 
the  blood  settles  under  the  skin  where  the  wool  was 
pulled,  and  the  wool  itself  is  weakened  there. 

Dipping.  Where  but  few  sheep  are  to  be  dipped 
a  large  tub  will  serve   to  hold  the  dip  during  the 


Fig.  8. — Method  of  Dipping  Sheep, 

operation,  and  some  have  used  a  large,  tight  barrel,  set 
at  an  inclination  in  a  hollow  prepared  for  it  in  the 
ground,  much  as  in  the  old  way  for  scalding  hogs. 
When  large  flocks  are  to  be  treated  tanks  are  so 
made  that  the  sheep  may  be  driven  from  one  end  to 
the  other  through  the  decoction,  after  which  they 
stand  ujxDn  an  inclined  flane  which  conducts  back  to 
the  tank  the  lifiuid  which  drips  from  the  fleeces. 
Such  an  arrangement  is  used  on  the  farm  of  G.  H. 
Wads  worth,  in  Pawnee  county,  Kansas,  and  which  is 
thus  fully  described : 

The  boiler  for  the  dip  is  i8  inches  deep,  30  inches 
wide  and  8  feet  long,  with  plank  sides  and  galvanized 
iron  bottom,  in  a  clay  and  partly  excavated  furnace  ; 
the  smoke-stack  is  lo-inch  stove-pipe.  Total  cost,  $7. 
The  dipping  vat  is  of  two-inch  pine  planks,  is  16 
inches  wide,  5  feet  deep  and  12  feet  long  at  the  top. 
The  end  farthest  from  the  dripping  platform  is  per- 
pendicular, but  the  end  nearest  the  platform  slopes 
from  the  upper  edge  inward,  for  6  feet,  or  to  the  mid- 


dle of  the  vat,  forming  at  once  the  end  and  the 
bottom  of  one-half  of  it.  On  this  slope  are  nailed 
cross-slats  to  give  the  sheep  a  foot-hold  in  walking 
out.  It  leads  to  the  dripping-platform,  an  ascending 
inclined  plane  16  feet  long  by  10  feet  wide,  divided 
by  a  fence  supjwrting  a  gate  at  the  lower  end,  and  at 
the  upper  end  a  gate  for  each  division.  The  floor 
is  made  of  matched  stuff'  with  half-inch  strips  cover- 
ing the  joints.  Crosswise  over  these  are  nailed  strips 
an  inch  thick,  to  give  the  sheep  a  foot-hold.  The 
half-inch  strips  make  the  floor  water-tight,  make  a 
clear  way  under  the  cross-slats  for  the  drip,  and 
guide  it  back  to  the  vat.  When  one  division  of  the 
platform  is  filled  with  diying  sheep  the  cut-gate  is 
swung,  so  as  to  shut  them  in  and  open  the  lower  end 
of  the  other  division.  When  this  is  nearly  filled  the 
upper  gate  of  the  first  division  is  opened  and  the 
sheep  are  driven  out,  making  room  for  a  fresh  lot 
from  the  vat  while  those  in  the  other  division  are 
dripping.  Pens  of  portable  fence  are  made  so  that 
the  one  nearest  the  vat  will  hold  only  about  100 
sheep.  Next  to  and  connected  by  a  gate  with  that 
is  a  pen  which  will  hold  1,000.  The  dip 
used  here  is  made  of  tobacco  50  pounds, 
sulphur  2  pounds  and  arsenic  i  pound  for 
each  100  sheep;  cost  $2.30.  The  liquor 
is  prepared  the  day  before  the  dipping, 
and  after  boiling  is  run  into  a  reservoir. 
Wjien  wanted  tlie  liquor  is  heated  again 
in  the  boiler  and  fed  gradually  into  the 
dipping-vat,  as  needed.  This  apparatus 
cost  ^23.150,  and  with  it  four  men  can  dip 
3,000  sheep  per  day. 

To  insure  a  cure  a  second,  and  even  a 
third  dipping  may  be  necessary,  as  after 
the  first  and  even  after  the  second  opera- 
tion, young  parasites  may  be  hatched  from 
eggs  deix)sited  before  the  first  dipping.  It 
is  im\»rtant  that  all  be  destroyed,  and,  if 
the  flock  can  not  be  removed  from  the  pas- 
tures and  buildings  in  which  they  were  kept,  that  every- 
thing they  may  have  touched  shall  be  disinfected  as 
thoroughly  as  jx)ssible,  for  the  presence  of  even  one 
living  female  upon  a  post,  a  rack,  or  any  other  object 
with  which  the  sheep  come  in  direct  contact,  may  be 
enough  to  cover  the  whole  flock  with  the  pests  again. 
Each  animal  should  stay  not  less  than  three  minutes 
iri  the  dip,  during  which  time  the  liquor  should  be 
thoroughly  worked  into  every  part  of  the  skin,  and 
the  scabs  broken  by  squeezing  the  skin  into  wrinkles 
or  folds.  Thoroughly  saturate  every  part  of  the  neck 
and  head,  occasionally  submerging  the  whole.  No 
harm  will  come  from  the  entrance  into  the  nostrils,  or 
into  the  throat,  of  the  tobacco  dip.  There  may  be 
sneezing  and  shaking  of  the  head  to  free  the  nostrils 
and  ears,  but  this  may  serve  to  dislodge  any  grubs 
there  may  be  in  the  sinuses. 

By  Fig.  8  is  illustrated  a  most  convenient  appa- 
ratis  for  dipping.  The  cut  shows  plainly  the  methods 
of  its  working. 


it34 


SHEEP. 


Scab  should  be  cured  as  early  in  the  spring  as 
possible,  as,  if  the  winter  is  stormy,  the  sheep  which 
were  treated  late  in  the  season  run  great  risk  of  be- 
coming poverty-stricken  and  worthless  before  spring. 

Fattening.  The  value  of  a  mixed  and  varied 
diet  in  fattening  sheep  is  more  highly  appreciated  in 
England,  on  the  Continent  and  in  the  Eastern  States 
than  it  is  in  the  Western  States,  where  corn  (maize) 
is  the  grain  most  used  for  this  purpose,  as  carefully 
conducted  experiments  have  shown  that  upon  a  diet 
of  clover  hay,  mangels  and  linseed  meal,  sheep  gain- 
ed one-third  of  one  pound  per  day.  Of  ruta-bagas 
150  pounds  were  required  to  make  a  pound  of  flesh. 
Experience  has  shown  that  a  pound  of  Indian  corn 
daily,  with  good  clover  hay,  may  be  reasonably  ex- 
pected to  add  one-half  a  pound  daily  to  the  weight 
of  sheep  of  good  fattening  quality.  Changing  from 
green  to  dry  food  should  be  done  gradually  that  no 
time  may  be  lost  through  any  derangement  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Sheep  are  at  all  times,  and  particu- 
larly when  fattening  for  market,  to  be  kept  as  quiet 
and  free  from  disturbance  as  possible. 

Feed-Racks.  Racks  for  feeding  sheep  should  be 
so  made  that  seed,  bits  of  hay  and  other  substances 
will  not  fall  therefrom  upon  the  head  and  neck,  there 
to  find  lodgment  in  the  wool  and  cause  discomfort, 
and  to  lessen  the  value  of  the  sheep  by  giving  it  a 
dirty  appearance. 

Where  there  are  floors  over  a  slieep-fold  or  enclo- 
sure, they  should  be  made  so  tight  as  to  prevent 
chaff,  seed,  etc.,  falling  upon  the  animals.  For  feed- 
ing roots  or  grain  a  feed-box  may  be  readily  made  by 
nailing  together  the  edges  of  two  boards  as  in  the 
ordinary  way  for  making  a  trough  for  pigs;  across' 
this  should  be  nailed  bars  at  short  intervals,  to  keep 
the  animals  from  crowding  each  other. 

Fences.  Portable  fences  are  found  very  useful  in 
sheep-farming,  and  many  simple  and  inexpensive 
ones  have  been  used.  See  Fig.  18,  page  454.  To 
protect  traveling  flocks  from  dogs,  wolves  and  other 
marauders  in  a  new  country  a  corral  or  enclosure 
made  of  light  canvas  or  duck,  held  up  by  iron  rods 
sharpened  at  one  end  and  with  an  eye  turned  in  the 
other  end,  has  been  found  cheap,  easily  managed  and 
effective. 

Guards.  Dogs  have  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
been  a  most  formidable  obstacle  to  success  in  sheep- 
growing.  Where  the  fences  surrounding  the  flock  is 
so  built  that  dogs  cannot  crawl  through,  a  strand  or 
two  of  barbed  wire  placed  above  the  top,  will  be  found 
an  effective  guard.  The  sheep-fold  may  be  protected 
against  raids  by  wolves  and  dogs  by  placing  two 
strands  of  barbed  wire  above. 

DISEASES   OF   SHEEP. 

In  America  sheep  suffer  from  fewer  diseases  than 
they  do  in  the  Old  World,  some  of  the  more  virulent 
being  scarcely  known  here,  except  by  report.  This 
may  be  in  part  due  to  the  climate,  the  great  variety 
of  food  and  to  other  conditions  which  greatly  favor 


sheep-farming  in  America,  but  is  probably  more  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  for  many  generations  on  the  lands 
of  the  Old  World,  under  unsanitary  conditions,  the 
germs  of  disease  have  been  multiplying  and  spread- 
ing, infecting  herds,  flocks,  soil  and  other  objects  with 
which  they  come  in  contact.  How  long  the  domestic 
animals  of  America  will  enjoy  this  comparative  free- 
dom from  disease  none  can  say,  but  imixjrtations  of 
breeding  stock  from  Europe,  and  especially  from  Eng- 
land, threaten  American  flocks  and  herds  with  con- 
stant danger.  The  most  rigid  quarantine,  together 
with  the  use  of  all  the  best  preventive  measures  known, 
would  give  no  more  protection  than  the  general  wel- 
fare of  the  country  should  demand. 

Prevention  is  certainly  better  than  any  cure,  and  as 
domestic  animals  properly  cared  for  give  to  the  farmer 
a  very  satisfactory  return  for  his  investment  of  capital, 
thorough  study  of  and  continued  efforts  to  secure, the 
conditions  necessary  to  their  thrift  and  comfort  will 
bring  a  rich  reward.  In  the  following  pages  the  causes, 
symptoms,  remedies  usually  adopted  and  the  preven- 
tion of  diseases  have  been  given  as  concisely  as  is 
consistent  with  a  plain  understanding  of  the  subjects. 

Abortion.  Rough  treatment  by  dogs,  hooking  by 
cattle,  or  hasty,  careless  driving  over  bars,  fences 
partly  let  down,  over-feeding  with  roots  in  cold  weath- 
er, and  sudden  changes  in  diet  resulting  in  moving 
the  bowels  strongly,  may  cause  ewes  to  abort.  Stew- 
art saysof  abortion,  in  his  excellent  Shepherd's  Manual: 
"It  has  been  known  to  occur  in  consequence  of,  or 
after,  the  heavy  dressing  of  turnip  or  mangel  land  with 
superphosphate,  the  crop  having  been  fed  to  the  ewes; 
but  this  is  probably  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
succulence  of  the  roots  so  grown,  rather  than  of  the 
direct  action  of  the  phosphate.  The  distension  of  the 
stomach  with  cold,  watery  food  so  greatly  reduces  the 
temperature  of  the  abdominal  viscera  as  to  destroy  the 
life  of  the  foetus,  which  is  prematurely  expelled." 

Treatment  should  be  chiefly  preventive.  Follow 
abortion  with  Epsom  salts  ^  ounce,  laudanum  i 
drachm,  powdered  camphor  J^  drachm.  Give  in 
some  liquid  food.  The  second  day  give  of  laudanum 
I  drachm,  powdered  camphor  J^  drachm,  if  needed. 
Dogs  should  be  guarded  against,  cattle  and  breeding 
ewes  should  not  be  permitted  to  run  together,  heed- 
less driving  should  be  prevented,  and  all  disturbing 
causes  avoided. 

Apoplexy.  Staggers  or  apoplexy  may  be 
caused  by  too  high  feeding,  by  indigestion  or  other 
disturbance  of  the  digestive  organs,  or  by  poor  feeding. 
The  symptoms  are  a  blood-shot  appearance  of  the 
eyes  and  membranes;  eyes  wide  open  and  staring. 
The  sheep  suddenly  staggers  blindly  about,  stops  and 
stands  swaying  unsteadily. 

Treatment.  Give  5  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  in 
one  pint  of  water. 

Black-leg.  Known  also  as  quarter-ail,  black 
spauld,  anthrax  fever,  blood-striking  and  braxy ;  ap- 
pears more  frequently  in  the  Western  States  than  else- 
where ;  in  the  West  it  is  also  called  murrain.     It  is 


1 136 


SHEEP. 


caused  by  gorging  in  spring  and  autumn  upon  luxu- 
riant grasses  produced  by  hot  suns  and  too  much  moist- 
ure. It  most  frequently  attacks  those  animals  pastured 
on  rich,  flat  river-bottom  lands. 

Symptoms  are  redness  of  the  eyes,  dark  urine,  con- 
stipation with  bloody  dung  when  discharged,  lameness, 
and  swelling  on  sides  and  quarters ;  the  mouth  and 
tongue  are  inflamed  and  blistered,  the  skin  makes  a 
cracking  sound  when  the  hand  is  pressed  upon  the 
swollen  parts  of  the  quarters  and  sides.  The  animals 
soon  fall  and  quickly  die. 

Treatment  must  be  prompt.  Give  of  sulphate  of 
soda  2  ounces,  flour  of  sulphur  i  ounce,  powdered 
myrrh  i  scruple.  Six  hours  after  the  above  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  spirits  Of  nitrous  ether  in  a  pint  of  water 
may  be  given.  Law  had  good  results,  where  cattle 
were  affected,  from  the  use  of  nitro-muriatic  acid  60 
drops,  bi-chromate  of  potassa  3  grains, and  chlorate  of 
potassa  2  drachms,  given  twice  daily  by  the  mouth,  and 
2  or  3  drachms  of  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of 
quinia,  iodide  of  potassium  and  bisulphite  of  soda  in- 
jected at  equal  intervals  beneath  the  skin.  He  also 
recommends  the  use  of  stimulants  (alcohol,  ether, 
valerian,  angelica,  etc.,)  in  advanced  stages. 

Prevention  consists  in  keeping  stock  from  undrained 
moist  soil  when  heat  favors  luxuriant  growth  of 
vegetation  and  malarial  emanations;  prevent  access 
to  stagnant  water,  shelter  the  stock  at  night  in 
sheds  or  barns,  and  in  day  by  trees  or  otherwise, 
when  the  days  are  warm  and  nights  cold ;  keep 
in  thrifty  condition,  without  over-feeding;  give  a  little 
nitro-muriatic,  sulphuric,  carbolic  or  salicylic  acid 
daily  in  water  or  food;  separate  diseased  from  healthy 
animals;  burn  all  carcasses,  dung,  litter  and  secretions 
of  diseased  animals,  and  disinfect  yards,  sheds  and 
barns  occupied  by  them,  and  clothing  of  attendants; 
keep  dogs   and  other  animals  from  carrying  infection. 

Bleeding.  In  bleeding  from  the  neck  cut  a  small 
slit  lengthwise  of  the  jugular  vein,  having  first  cut  the 
wool  from  a  spot  large  enough  for  the  purpose  over  the 
vein;  press  the  finger  on  the  vein  firmly  and  make  the 
opening  with  a  keen  knife  or  a  lancet.  Draw  from  2 
ounces  to  half  a  pint  of  blood,  as  the  case  may  require, 
and  close  the  opening  by  a  few  stitches  of  soft  linen 
or  uncolored  silk  thread.  If  but  little  blood  is  to  be 
let,  open  the  facial  vein  beneath  the  eye,  or  one  in  the 
ear,  or  inside  the  fore-arm. 

Bronchitis.  An  extension  of  catarrh  or  sore  throat 
to  the  large  air  passages  in  the  lungs.  Symptoms  are 
a  cough  at  first  hard  but  afterward  becoming  soft  and 
rattling  as  a  discharge  from  the  nose  is  established. 
The  mouth  dry  and  fevered,  membrane  of  the  nose 
red,  and  breathing  quickened.  In  severe  cases  there 
is  dullness,  loss  of  appetite,  quick  breathing,  with  dry, 
hard  and  painful  cough. 

.Treatment  should  consist  of  good  nursing,  with 
nourishing  gruels  of  oat-meal,  linseed  tea,  in  which 
half  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger  has  been  stirred. 
When  there  is  fever  give  powdered  gentian  i  drachm, 
saltpeter  i  drachm,  linseed  oil  i  ounce.  If  the  mu- 
cous membranes  show  a  yelloV  tinge  give  injections  of 


warm  water  to  move  the  bowels,  instead  of  laxatives. 
Niter  or  sweet  spirits  of  niter,  belladonna,  lobelia  or 
aconite;  and  expectorants,  such  as  oxymel  of  squill, 
liquor  ammoniae  acetatis,  guaiacum,  ipecacuanha,  or 
antimony  is  recommended  by  high  veterinary  author-, 
ities. 

Prevention  consists  in  careful  attention  to  general 
sanitary  measures,  especially  such  as  will  prevent 
sheep  taking  colds.  Exposure  to  cold,  wet  storms,  to 
chilling  draughts,  and  to  sudden  removals  from  heated 
barns  or  stables  to  cold  outer  air  should  be  guarded 
against. 

Canker  of  the  Foot.  Caused  by  folding  sheep 
where  the  dung  is  collected  in  a  fermenting  mass,  and 
by  neglecting  cases  of  simple  foot  rot.  It  is  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  a  growth  of  spongy 
sprouts  instead  of  the  natural  hoof;  discharges  an  of- 
fensive, white,  curd-like  matter. 

The  remedy  consists  in  cutting  away  all  separated 
hoof  at  each  dressing;  wash  the  diseased  parts  with  a 
solutionof  chloride  of  zinc  i  drachm, in  a  pint  of  water, 
and  apply  tow  or  lint  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  three 
parts  of  water  to  one  part  of  nitric  acid.  Or,  a  dress- 
ing of  carbolic  acid  may  be  applied. 

Catarrh.  The  changeable  weather  of  fall,  winter 
and  spring,  exposure  to  cold  outer  air  after  confine- 
ment in  too  warm  stables  or  barns,  lead  to  the 
appearance  of  nasal  catarrh,  or  inflammation  of  the  lin- 
ing membrane  of  the  nostrils,  sinuses,  throat  and  wind- 
pipe. This  not  infrequently  extends  to  the  air  pas- 
sages of  the  lungs,  producing  bronchitis. 

The  symptoms  are  redness  accompanied  wdth 
watering  of  the  eyes,  the  membrane  of  the  nose  is  red, 
dry  at  the  first  but  afterward  discharges  a  thin,  clear 
fluid,  which  changes  to  a  yellowish,  purulent  mucus. 

Remedies  are  good  feeding  and  nursing,  -light  feed- 
ing with  bran  mashes,  oat-meal  gruel,  in  mild  cases 
without  medicines.  In  more  serious  cases  give  Glau- 
ber salts,  to  be  followed  by  niter,  or  by  acetate  of  po- 
tassa. As  a  tonic  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  or  gentian 
may  be  given.  Law  recommends,  in  cases  of  chronic 
discharge  from  the  nose,  an  injection  of  weak  solution 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  %  drachm,  glycerine  i  ounce, 
warm  water  i  quart.  This  may  be  administered  by 
the  aid  of  a  syphon,  one  arm  of  which  is  1 6  inches 
long,  and  the  other  35^  inches  long,  ^  inch  in  dia- 
meter at  the  point  and  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  from 
the  larger  part.  Pass  the  short  arm  through  a  wide 
piece  of  cork  or  of  sole  leather,  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  fluid  from  the  nose ;  wrapping  tow  around  the 
nozzle  between  its  end  and  the  leather  effectually 
stops  the  return  of  the  liquid.  Bring  the  face  of  the 
sheep  into  a  vertical  position  and  pour  the  liquid  into 
the  long  end  of  the  syphon  until  it  rises  in  that  nasal 
chamber  and  flows  from  the  other.  One  or  two  such 
injections  are  enough  to  cure.  Prevention  is  indicated 
sufficiently  by  a  description  of  causes. 

When  the  sheep  are  costive  the  following  may  be 
substituted  for  the  remedies  described  above :  Steep 
in  a  quart  of  water,  rhubarb  i  ounce,  ginger  2  ounces, 
gentian  2  ounces,  strain  and  add  corrosive  sublimate  8 


SHEEP. 


1 137 


grains.  Give  two  tablespoonfuls  of  this  twice  daily. 
Choking.  Sheep  sometimes  choke  upon  pieces  of 
turnip  or  other  food,  although  not  very  often.  The 
head  should  be  held  well  up  and  an  effort  made  to  work 
the  obstruction  downward  by  gently  pinching  the  walls 
of  the  gullet  together  above  the  lump.  Soii»e  pour 
melted  lard,  or  linseed  oil  down  the  throat  to  aid  the 
operation.  Should  these  means  fail,  a  long,  smooth 
and  flexible  rod,  having  fastened  on  its  end  a  soft  ball 
of  linen  strips  or  a  piece  of  soft,  tough  sjxinge  satura- 
ted with  oil  or  lard,  may  be  pushed  gently  down  the 
throat  until  the  obstacle  is  reached,  when  a  few 
light  strokes  against  the  end  of  the  rod  will  usu- 
ally be  found  effective.  If  this  will  not  remove  the 
obstruction  and  the  animal  is  valuable  enough  to  war- 
rant it,  an  opening  may  be  made  through  the  wall  of 
the  gullet  and  the  offending  substance  removed.  A 
stitch  with  a  curved  needle  and  a  thread  of  coarse 
uncolored  silk  will  close  the  wound. 

Colic.  Spasmodic  colic  or  cramp  is  always  accom- 
panied by  indigestion,  and  generally  by  constipation. 
The  animal  falls,  struggles  or  lies  with  eyes  fixed  and 
staring. 

Treatment.  The  remedies  are  tincture  of  rhubarb 
I  drachm,  carbonate  of  soda  i  drachm,  warm  water 
sweetened  2  ounces.  Give  slowly  with  a  six>on,  and 
follow  by  linseed  oil  Y^  ounce,  after  the  spasms  cease. 
Or  give  linseed  oil  with  belladonna  y^  ounce,  to  relieve 
pain.  Copious  injections  of  warm  water  will  be  found 
very  useful. 

Constipation  in  Lambs.  Lambs  fed  artificially 
upon  milk  from  cows  or  from  ewes  are  subject  to  con- 
stipation. The  lamb  becomes  dull  and  stupid,  its 
belly  swollen,  urine  scanty  or  entirely  stopped,  and 
soon  dies  if  not  relieved  by  treatment. 

Treatment.  Injections  of  warm  milk  or  water  in 
which  a  little  molasses  has  been  stirred  has  been  rec- 
ommended. .K  strong  syringe  is  used.  The  lamb  is 
held  up  by  the  hind  legs,  its  fore-feet  just  touching 
the  ground  during  the  operation  and  for  a  few  minutes 
after.  The  injection  should  be  repeated  if  hardened 
dung  is  not  voided  with  or  soon  after  the  'discharge  of 
the  fluid.  A  tonic  may  be  given  once  a  day,  comix)s- 
ed  of  common  salt  i  drachm,  golden  sulphur  of  anti- 
mony, y^  drachm. 

DiARRH<iiA.  Colds  arising  from  exjxjsure  to  sudden 
changes  in  the  temperature,  from  cold  drinks  or  other 
causes,  an  unhealthy  condition  of  the  milk  of  the  ewe, 
or  indigestion  in  the  lamb,  frequently  cause  diarrhoea 
of  a  severe  nature. 

Symptoms.  Clok  thus  describes  the  ailment:  The 
disease  appears  without  warning;  the  lamb  becomes 
languid  and  sad,  keeps  away  from  the  other  lambs, 
stands  with  back  bent,  or  lies  down  frequently.  The 
excrement,  which  is  repeatedly  discharged,  is  thin, 
whitish  or  greenish,  afterward  watery  or  mixed  with 
mucus,  and  finally  bloody.  The  animal  ceases  to 
suck  and  eat,  but  is  very  thirsty.  It  bleats  frequently, 
evinces  signs  of  pain  if  pressure  is  applied  to  the  belly, 
and  makes  efforts  to  discharge  excrement.  The  lamb 
72 


rapidly  loses  flesh,  its  belly  sinks  in,  and  death  ensues 
between  the  second  and  fifth  days,  and  sometimes  even 
on  the  first  day. 

Treatment.  Prompt  change  to  the  best  sanitary 
conditions,  a  general  change  of  food  for  both  ewes  and 
lambs,  and  the  best  of  care.  An  excellent  food  for  the 
lambs  may  be  made  by  beating  the  white  of  an  egg 
with  six  times  its  bulk  of  water  and  giving,  lukewarm, 
as  much  as  the  animal  will  take.  A  few  drops  of 
laudanum  may  be  profitably  added  to  the  above. 

A  tablesixxjnful  night  and  morning  of  the  following 
mi.xture  should  be  given:  Opium  i  drachm,  ground 
ginger  J^  ounce,  prepared  chalk  z  ounces,  calamus  or 
peppermint  tea  i  pint.  In  severe  cases  one  ounce 
jxiwdered  catechu  should  be  added  to  the  above. 
Where  the  excretions  are  tinged  with  blood  two  or 
three  drops  of  Fowler's  solution  of  arsenic  in  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  water  should  be  given,  three  or  four  times 
per  day,  to  young  lambs.  Sometimes  five  or  six  doses, 
of  two  or  three  grains  each,  of  quinine  are  given,  per 
day. 

"White  scour"  is  a  diarrhoea- in  lambs  which  is  so 
called  because  the  excrement  is  white  and  watery.  It 
is  acrid  and  irritating.  There  is  with  this  form  of  dis- 
ease great  losi^  of  appetite,  colic  and  weakness.  This 
comes  from  an  unhealthy  characterof  the  milk  of  the 
dam,  from  the  weakness  or  from  the  overloading  of  the 
lamb's  stomach.  High  feeding  of  the  ewes  is  likely 
to  cause  this  disease.  Putting  the  lamb  on  short  al- 
lowance, or  feeding  with  cow's  milk  diluted  with  water, 
will  usually  serve  to  cheek  it.  Give  four  times  a  day 
a  dose  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  5^  ounce,  calcined  mag- 
nesia '-^  ounce,  divided  into  eight  powders. 

To  restore  vigor  in  cases  of  great  weakness  the  fol- 
lowing will  be  found  most  valuable:  Eggs  2,  whisky 
2  ounces,  essence  of  ginger  i  drachm ;  beat  up  with  a 
pint  of  gruel  made  of  oatmeal  and  milk;  give  a  few 
sjx>onfuls  every  three  hours. 

Dropsy.  Dropsy  of  the  abdomen  is  caused  by 
keeping  sheep  upon  watery,  rank,  succulent  forage, 
by  which  the  blood  is  imjxjverished,  and  is  a  gather- 
ing of  a  watery  fluid  in  the  abdomen. 

Symptoms  are  a  distension  of  the  belly,  full  and 
tight  where  there  is  much  liquid,  or  flabby  and  pen- 
dulous, with  hollow  flanks  where  the  fluid  is  less 
abundant.  Urine  is  scanty,  appetite  lost,  digestion 
fwor,  breathing  excited ;  sometimes  swellings  appear 
along  the  lower  part  of  the  body  and  on  the  limbs 
and  chest. 

Treatment.  Remove  to  pasture  having  finer  and 
more  nutritious  forage,  or  to  dry  food.  Give  of  nitrate  • 
of  potash  I  drachm,  sulphate  of  soda  i  ounce,  ginger 
I  drachm.  When  the  animal  is  in  very  poor  con- 
dition subsritute  for  sulphate  of  soda  2  ounces  of  lin- 
seed oil. 

Dysentery.  Exhalations  from  marshes  or  from 
lands  which  have  been  flooded,  musty  or  rotten  food, 
over-heating  in  hot  weather,  drinking  stagnant  water, 
or  contagion  are  among  the  chief  causes  of  dysentery 
or  bloody  flux.     Other  causes  are  sudden   changes 


1138 


SHEEP. 


from  poor  to  rich  pastures  or  the  reverse,  very  hot 
and  wet  weather,  and  especially  neglected  cases  of 
diarrhoea. 

Symptoms  are  the  frequent  passage  of  offensive 
dung  mixed  with  blood  and  mucus;  the  animal  strains 
with  great  pain  during  the  voiding.  There  is  much 
thirst  but  little  desire  for  food ;  the  mouth  is  fevered, 
the  extremities  become  cold,  the  muzzle  dry  and 
cracked,  the  eyes  sunken,  the  wool  becomes  harsh, 
and,  when  the  disease  has  run  for  some  days,  it  may 
be  easily  pulled  off  in  handfuls.  The  sheep  may  die 
in  a  few  days,  or  it  may  linger  for  weeks. 

Remedies  consist  of  first  removing  the  active  causes, 
and  in  giving  olive  oil  3  ounces,  or  Glauber  salts  5 
ounces,  with  a  sedative  of  Dover's  jxawder  2  scruples, 
or  laudanum  2  to  3  drachms;  or,  give  linseed  oil  2 
ounces,  powdered  opium  2  grains,  in  oatmeal  gruel  or 
linseed  tea.  Follow  this  for  several  days  with 
powdered  opium  2  grains,  and  ginger  i  drachm,  or 
with  laudanum  2  drachms.  Keep  the  patients  as 
cool  and  quiet  as  possible. 

Preventives  are  keeping  sheep  from  poor  food, 
avoiding  sudden  and  extreme  changes  of  water  or 
pasture,  overheating  and  impure  water,  and  pasturing 
where  sheep  suffering  from  dysentery,  have  recently 
grazed. 

Epilepsy.  Young  or  very  poor  sheep  are  subject 
to  attacks  of  epilepsy,  when  permitted  to  fill  them- 
selves in  the  morning  with  herbage  covered  with 
snow  or  frost.  There  is  congestion  of  the  brain,  re- 
sulting from  the  chilling  of  the  rumen,  and  the  animal 
is  convulsed.     Prevention  is  the  cure. 

Fluke,  Liver  Rot.  England  has  lost  millions 
of  sheep  in  a  very  few  years,  and  Australia  and  South 
America  have  also  lost  very  heavily  from  the  ravages 
of  the  liver-rotor  fluke;  but  it  has  not  been  shown 
that  sheep  in  North  America  have  suffered  much 
from  this  cause,  although  some  writers  declare  that 
thousands  of  sheep  are  lost  annually  from  fluke  in 
the  United  States  without  their  owners  suspecting  the 
cause.  The  high  and  arid  plains  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  east  of  the  Pacific  slope  do  not  present  con- 
ditions favorable  to  its  spreading. 

Fluke,  or  liver-rot,  is  caused  by  the  presence  in 
sheep  of  the  flat,  leaf-like  parasite  Fasciola  hepatica, 
which  attains  a  length  of  from  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  to  one  inch.  Found  in  the  gall  ducts  of  all 
domestic  animals  and  of  mankind;  in  most  of  these 
they  do  little  injury.  Deposited  in  the  gall  ducts  the 
eggs  can  not  liatch  there,  but  passing  out  are  washed 
by  rains,  or  are  otherwise  carried  to  pools  of  fresh 
water,  in  which  the  egg  hatches  and  the  embryo 
floats  until  lodgment  is  found  in  some  mollusk,  in 
which  many  new  embryos  are  developed.  Law  says: 
"  These  embryos  may  form  new  brood  capsules  and 
thus  increase  their  number  materially,  or,  if  swallowed 
by  a  mammal  with  its  food  and  water,  develops  into 
mature  flukes,  inhabiting  the  bile  ducts  and  reproduc- 
ing themselves  only  by  eggs.  These  intermediate 
generations  are  necessary  and  can  only  take  place  in 
fresh  water  and  in  fresh-water  moUusks." 


Symptoms.  The  eye  becomes  jaundiced,  the  belly 
swells,  there  is  weakness  and  tenderness  of  the  loins, 
a  weak  circulation  and  general  stupor.  By  rubbing 
the  skin  over  the  loins  to  and  fro  between  the  finger 
and  thumb  a  flabby,  soft  feeling  will  be  perceived,  as 
if  thers  was  water  underneath. 

Remedies.  Remove  from  the  infected  lands  to 
pastures  perfectly  dry;  give  liberal  supply  of  salt, 
which  is  fatal  to  young  flukes;  give  abundant  and 
rich  food.  An  English  remedy  said  to  be  effective  is: 
Yellow  rosin  i  }^  drachms,  oil  of  turpentine  i  ounce, 
calomel  10  grains,  tincture  of  iodine  30  drops;  one- 
third  the  above  to  be  given  in  gruel  each  morning 
for  three  days.  Another  remedy  is:  sulphate  of 
magnesia  }^  jwund,  oil  of  turpentine  3  drachms. 
Mix  and  give  one-third  the  above  quantity  once  in 
two  days.  Yet  another  is  :  Saltpeter  i  J4  ounces, 
powdered  ginger  i  ounce,  carbonate  of  iron  J4  ounce, 
salt  I  pound,  and  boiling  water  3  quarts,  to  be  mixed, 
and  when  nearly  cool  9  ounces  spirits  of  turpentine 
are  to  be  added.  The  infected  sheep  are  each  to  re- 
ceive a  wine-glassful,  after  having  been  kept  twelve 
hoursoff  food  and  water,  on  the  morning  of  each  fourth 
day  for  two  weeks. 

Foot-Rot.  Much  trouble  and  loss  was  formerly 
caused  by  contagious  foot-rot  in  that  part  of  the 
United  States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi,  but  the 
general  diffusion  of  a  knowledge  of  it  and  the  treat- 
ment necessary  to  its  prevention  and  cure,  aided  by 
changes  made  by  clearing  away  forests  and  the  drain- 
age of  lands,  has  reduced  these  losses  materially. 
There  is  still,  however,  reason  for  exercising  constant 
care  to  prevent  the  spread  of  this  troublesome  con- 
tagion, which  may  appear  on  high  and  dry  lands  as 
well  as  elsewhere.  It  can  never  be  completely 
eradicated  from  a  flock  without  great  skill,  labor  and 
watchfulness,  combined  with  the  use  of  proper 
remedies.  Constant  wetness  of  the  soil  makes  the 
flocks  more  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  contagion. 

Symptoms.  The  symptoms  of  contagious  foot-rot 
have  been  concisely  and  clearly  described  by  Dr. 
Randall  in  the  following  words: 

The  first  symptom  is  the  disappearance  of  the 
naturally  smooth,  dry,  pale  condition  of  the  skin  at 
the  top  of  the  cleft  over  the  heels.  It  becomes  some- 
what red,  warm  and  moist,  and  slightly  rough  or 
chafed.  Next  the  moisture  increases  to  a  discharge, 
and  an  ulcer  is  formed  which  extends  down  to  the 
upper  portion  of  the  inner  wall  of  the  hoof.  These 
walls  are  then  attacked,  become  disorganized  and  the 
disease  penetrates  between  the  fleshy  sole  and  the 
bottom  of  the  hoof.  The  hoof  is  thickened  at  the 
heel  by  an  unnatural  deposition  of  horn.  The  crack 
between  it  and  the  fleshy  sole  jxjurs  out  an  offensive 
and  purulent  matter.  Soon  all  parts  of  the  foot  are 
penetrated  by  the  burrowing  ulceration,  the  horny 
sole  is  disorganized,  and  the  fleshy  sole  becornes  a 
black  and  swollen  mass  of  corruption,  shapeless, 
six>ngy,  and  often  filled  with  maggots.  The  fore-feet 
are  usually  first  attacked;  lameness  is  early  noticed 
and  soon  becomes  complete ;  the  appetite  is  lost  and 


SHEEP. 


"39 


the  animal  dies  from  exhaustion.  The  offensive 
odor  of  the  true  foot-rot  is  characteristic,  and  once 
made  familiar  will  serve  as  a  certain  guide  in  recog- 
nizing the  disease.  The  disease  may  present  itself 
in  a  malignant  and  rapid  form  or  in  a  mild  one.  The 
first  attack  on  a  flock  is  generally  of  the  severe  char- 
acter. When  it  is  kept  under  the  first  year,  its 
appearance  the  next  summer  will  be  mild,  and  the 
third  season  still  milder. 

Rernedies.  Every  affected  part  must  be  laid  bare 
by  carefully  paring  the  horn  away  to  the  quick  with  a 
thin,  sharp  knife,  stanching  the  blood  which  may 
flow.  Tow,  saturated  with  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron, 
solution  of  blue-stone,  butter  of  antimony,  or  of  nitrate 
of  silver,  should  be  applied,  and  the  wound  bound 
up  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  foreign  substances. 

Many  sheep  owners,  after  ex[X)sing  by  the  judicious 
use  of  the  knife  every  part  which  is  in  even  the 
slightest  degree  affected,  compel  the  animal  to  stand 
from  ten  to  twenty  minutes  in  a  saturated  solution  of 
blue  vitriol,  kept  as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear  by  the 
addition  of  boiling  solution  from  time  to  time,  or  by 
dipping  hot  irons  into  the  tub  or  tank  containing  the 
liquid.  Upon  coming  from  the  solution  it  is  well  to 
cover  the  hoofs  with  chloride  of  lime,  and  fill  with 
tow  the  cleft  in  the  foot.  The  ends  of  the  tow  should 
be  twisted  into  a  cord  which  should  be  fastened 
around  the  fetlock,  thus  making  a  good  bandage. 
The  sheep  should  not  be  permitted  to  stand  in  a 
damp  yard,  nor  to  go  into  pasture  wet  by  dew  or  by 
rain.     Butter  of  antimony  is  a  good  application. 

Whatever  remedy  may  be  used  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  work  be  done  thoroughly,  and 
that  the  flock  should  be  carefully  inspected  each  day 
for  some  time,  as  if  even  a  minute  portion  of  a  dis- 
eased part  escape  the  action  of  the  remedy  it  will 
serve  to  again  contaminate  the  whole  flock.  ' 

FooT-AND-MouTH  DISEASE.  Aphthous  fever  or 
foot-and-mouth  disease  was  introduced  into  North 
and  South  America  by  importations  of  stock  in  1870. 
It  is  a  contagious  fever  attacking  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
rabbits,  and  hares.  Fortunately,  it  has  as  yet  spread 
but  very  little  in  North  America,  but  the  germs  are 
very  sure  to  be  transmitted  by  clothing,  by  animals, 
manure,  litter,  fodder,  or  by  any  one  of  the  hundreds 
of  articles  which  may  be  carried  from  the  presence  of 
infected  animals. 

Symptoms.  Law  says :  The  poison  may  remain 
latent  in  the  system  for  one  or  two  days,  or  in  excep- 
tional cases  perhaps  as  many  as  six.  Then  there  is 
roughness  of  the  coat,  or  shivering,  increased  temper- 
ature, dry  muzzle,  hot,  red  mouth,  teats  and  inter- 
digital  spaces,  lameness,  inclination  to  lie,  and  shrink- 
ing from  the  hand  in  milking.  The  second  or  third 
day,  blisters  arise,  on  any  part  of  the  whole  interior 
of  the  mouth,  one-half  to  one  inch  in  breadth,  or  on 
the  teats  and  between  the  digits  about  one-half  inch 
across.  Saliva  drivels  from  the  mouth,  collecting  in 
froth  around  the  lips,  and  a  loud  smacking  is  made 
with  the  lips  and  tongue.  Swine  champ  their  jaws. 
Sheep  and   swine  suffer  more  especially  in  the  feet, 


often  losing  the  hoofs  or  even  the  digital  bones,  a  con- 
tingency not  unknown  in  neglected  cattle. 

Treatmettt.  The  same  authority  advises  as  reme- 
dies Epsom  salts  2  oz.,  as  an  astringent  wash  for  the 
mouth,  borax  and  tincture  myrrh  i  oz.  each,  water  i 
qt.;  or  carbolic  acid  i  dr.,  honey  2  oz.,  vinegar  i  pt., 
water  i  pt. ;  as  a  lotion  for  the  teats  carbolic  acid  y^ 
dr.,  glycerine  10  oz.;  and  as  a  dressing  for  the  feet, 
oil  of  vitriol  i  oz.,  water  4  oz.,  to  be  applied  with  a 
feather  after  cleaning  the  space  between  the  hoofs  by 
drawing  a  cloth  through  it.  After  dressing  tie  up  with 
a  tarred  bandage.  All  loosened  horn  sliould  be  re- 
moved in  dressing  the  feet,  and  a  poultice  applied  if 
there  is  much  inflammation. 

In  England  great  good  has  followed  the  free  use  of 
salicylic  acid,  of  which  i  part  is  soluble  in  600  parts 
of  cold  spring  water,  i  part  in  100  boiling  water,  only 
one  in  three  hundred  remainingon  cooling,  unless  the 
boiling  has  been  continued  15  or  20  minutes.  Care- 
fully heated  in  glycerine  i  part  in  50  will  dissolve, 
and  I  part  to  i  o  of  alcohol.  As  the  liberal  use  of 
salicylic  acid  has  no  bad  effects  it  may  safely  be  used. 

Preventives  should  be  thoroughly  used  and  most 
stringently  insisted  upon.  Everyplace  and  thing  with 
which  the  affected  animal  has  come  in  contact  should 
be  thoroughly  disinfected  and,  except  the  necessary 
attendants,  should  be  rigidly  excluded;  ix)ultry  and 
birds  should  not  be  forgotten.  Fifteen  days  should 
pass  after  full  recovery  before  this  rigid  quarantine 
should  be  removed,  and  then  the  diseased  animal 
should  be  washed  with  a  wash  of  carbolic  or  of  sali- 
cylic acid. 

Gad-fi.v  Grubs.  In  July  and  August  the  sheep 
gad-fly  {oestrus  ovis)  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  nostrils 
of  sheep.  In  their  efforts  to  prevent  this  the  sheep 
crowd  together,  their  noses  close  to  the  ground,  shak- 
ing their  heads  frequently,  and  stamping  vigorously. 
At  such  times  the  gad-fly,  which  resembles  in  appear- 
ance, but  is  smaller  than,  the  ox  gad-fly,  will  be  seen 
hovering  near  the  animals.  The  maggot,  which  soon 
comes  from  the  egg,  follows  the  sinuses  of  the  nose, 
in  which  it  remains  through  winter,  greatly  irritating 
the  animal,  and  becoming  a  thick  grub  about  an  inch 
long.  On  the  approach  of  warm  weather  in  thespring, 
this  grub  descends  to  the  ground,  in  which  it  bur- 
rows, and  from  which  it  in  time  emerges  in  the  form 
of  a  fly,  ready  to  perpetuate  its  kind.  Some  hold  the 
opinion  that  these  grubs  do  no  serious  harm,  but 
many  others  believe  that  discomfort  and  even  death  is 
caused  by  their  presence.  It  is  certain  that  the  irrita- 
tion resulting  can  scarcely  tend  to  make  the  sheep 
more  thrifty,  and  therefore  any  measure  which  will 
prevent  or  remove  the  annoyance  will  be  worthy  of 
trial  by  owners  of  sheep.  See  Sheep  Gad-fly,  in  article 
Gad-fly. 

Remedies.  Strong  snuff  may  be  driven  up  the 
nostrils,  or  tobacco  smoke  may  be  blown  from  an  or- 
dinary pipe,  the  stem  being  placed  in  the  nostril  and 
the  bowl  covered  by  a  cloth.  This  will  cause  violent 
sneezing,  which  may  dislodge  the  worms,  though  they 
are  not  easily  dislodged.     A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 


SHEEP. 


1141 


turpentine  and  sweet  oil  well  mixed  and  a  teaspoon- 
ful  poured  into  each  nostril  will  be  effective,  care 
being  taken  to  prevent  the  mixture  entering thelungs. 
A  decoction  of  tobacco,  injected  into  the  nostrils  by  a 
syringe,  has  been  found  effective;  this  should  be  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  lungs. 

Frevetitive.  Smearing  the  nose  daily  with  tar,  with 
which  a  few  drops  of  crude  carbolic  acid  have  been 
mixed,  has  been  found  an  excellent  preventive.  This 
smearing  may  be  easily  done  by  boring  holes  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter  and  an  inch  deep  in  a  thick 
plank,  or  in  a  log,  to  which  the  sheep  have  easy 
access.  In  these  holes  salt  is  placed,  and  tar  is  thick- 
ly spread  around  them.  In  their  efforts  to  get  the 
salt  the  sheep  will  cover  their  noses  effectually  with 
the  mixture.  Should  any  fail  to  do  so,  they  can  be 
smeared  with  but  little  labor. 

Garget.  Chief  among  the  causes  which  produce 
inflammation  of  the  udder  or  milk  glands  (garget), 
are,  leaving  the  milk  too  long  in  the  bag;  exposure  to 
cold  rains,  chilling  currents  of  air  or  to  cooling  quickly 
after  undue  exercise ;  lying  upon  cold,  wet  ground,  or 
sharp,  hard  substances,  and  blows  from  the  horns  of 
cattle. 

Symptoms  are  a  feverish  feeling,  with  fullness  in  the 
bag,  which  is  often  caked  or  hard  ;  or  there  may  be  a 
hard  mass  in  the  middle  of  the  bag.  In  severe  cases 
there  is  shivering,  considerable  heat,  quickened 
breathing,  strong,  cjuick  pulse,  costiveness  and  stop- 
page of  urine,  lameness  on  the  affected  side  and 
sometimes  a  clotted  mass  streaked  with  blood.  They 
sometimes  cost  the  ewe  her  life,  but  more  frequently 
result  in  the  loss  of  her  bag,  and  her  usefulness  as  a 
breeder. 

Remedies  recommended  are  Epsom  salts  2  ounces, 
nitrate  of  potash  2  drachms,  ginger  i  drachm,  to  be 
given  in  water  and  repeated  each  day.  Wash  the 
udder  thoroughly  with  warm  water,  and  inject  into  the 
teats  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  which  should  be 
milked  out.  In  mild  cases  rub  the  bag  vigorously 
with  weak  iodine  ointment,  or  camphorated  spirits. 
Milk  three  times  a  day,  rubbing  well  each  time. 

Hoove  or  Bloat.  Colic  or  hoven  in  sheep  results 
from  the  causes  which  produce  the  same  ailment  in 
cattle.  The  walls  of  the  third  stomach,  or  rumen, 
have  sometimes  been  ruptured  by  the  confined  gas, 
resulting  from  over-feeding  ujxjn  luxuriant  pasture,  or 
from  eating  ergot  in  fodder,  or  musty  or  blighted  grain. 

Symptoms.  (}reat  swelling  of  the  abdomen,  op- 
pressed breathing,  and  ofttimes  a  turning  of  the  head 
toward  the  sides  as  if  to  jxjint  out  the  seat  of  the 
trouble. 

Remedy.  If  swollen  greatly  make  an  opening  with 
a  p)en-knife  blade  or  with  a  trocar,  through  the  skin 
and  the  underlying  muscles,  midway  between  the  thigh 
and  the  ribs  and  about  three  inches  from  the  back- 
bone, to  give  an  outlet  to  the  gas  confined  in  the  ru- 
men. A  quill  is  sometimes  thrust  into  the  opening 
to  furnish  free  egress  to  the  gas.  After  an  attack  of 
hoove  an  ounce  or  two  of  Epsom  salts  are  generally 
given. 


Hydatids.  Water  brain  in  lambs  is  caused  by  an 
undeveloped  form  of  the  tapeworm  of  the  dog  (  Tania 
camurus)  which,  in  its  cystic  form  (Caimrus  cerebra- 
/is),  in  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  of  sheep  and  cattle, 
causes  nervous  diseases  of  varying  character.  Voided 
by  dogs  the  eggs  or  the  larvas  are  taken  in  with  their 
food  by  sheep,  and  find  their  way  to  the  brain.  The 
pressure  of  the  hydatid  ujxsn  the  brain  causes  symp- 
toms known  as  blind-staggers,  sturdy,  turn-sick,  and 
by  other  names.  Fortunately  the  disease  has  not  yet 
become  general  in  America,  although  sheep  in  Texas 
are  afflicted  with  what  is  there  called  lombrez, — a 
Spanish  word  meaning  "  worm, " — the  symptoms  in- 
dicating the  presence  of  hydatids. 

Remedies.  When  the  softening  of  a  sjx)!  in  the 
skull  denotes  that  the  hydatid  is  lodged  underneath, 
the  skin  should  be  laid  back,  and  a  small  opening 
made  through  the  bone.  The  cyst  may  then  be 
opened  and  the  fluid  within  suffered  to  run  out, 
or  it  may  be  withdrawn  by  a  small  syringe.  The 
membranous  sac  of  the  parasite  should  then  be 
carefully  pulled  out,  and  the  wound  dressed  with  lard, 
with  which  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  have  been 
mixed.  It  is  objected  that  this  treatment  is  liable  to 
be  followed  by  death  caused  by  inflammation  of  the 
brain,  resulting  from  exjxjsure  to  the  air,  and  it  is 
recommended  that,  instead  of  opening  the  cyst  to  the 
,air,  there  should  be  injected  into  it,  liy  the  aid  of  a 
strong  hypodermic  syringe,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  a 
mixture  of  iodine  i  grain,  iodide  of  ix)tash  5  grains, 
water  i  ounce. 

Tellor  says:  "The  location  of  the  hydatid  in  the 
brain  is  indicated  by  the  motion  or  turning  of  the 
sheep.  If  it  is  in  the  left  lobe  or  half  of  the  brain  the 
animal  turns  to  the  right ;  if  in  the  right  lobe,  his 
turning  is  to  the  left ;  if  in  the  back  part  of  the  brain, 
the  cerebellum, the  movements  are  performed  without 
control,  the  head  is  elevated,  the  limbs  moved  with 
difficulty,  and  he  starts  and  falls  repeatedly ;  finally, 
if  the  hydatid  is  in  the  middle  of  the  brain  in  front, 
the  sheep  goes  forward  in  a  straight  line,  holds  its  nose 
in  the  air,  steps  very  high,  and  some  lose  the  sight  of 
one  or  both  eyes." 

Authorities  agree  that  these  cysts  in  the  brains  of 
sheep  and  cattle  come  mainly  from  one  source, — the 
droppings  of  dogs, — and  that  after  passing  into  the 
brain  they  must  then  remain  until  again  eaten  by  a 
dog,  when  the  tapeworm  results.  As  a  preventive  all 
strange  dogs  trespassing  upon  sheep  pastures  might 
be  killed,  and  to  the  dogs  belonging  with  the  sheep  a 
vermifuge  should  be  given  occasionally.  Salicylic 
acid  in  doses  of  3  to  5  grains  followed  by  oil  has  been 
given  with  success  for  the  removal  of  tapeworm.  To 
avoid  risk  all  sheep's  heads  should  be  thoroughly 
cooked  before  placing  where  dogs  can  get  them. 

The  growth  of  the  hydatid  is  rather  rapid,  and  in 
three  weeks'  time  from  the  first  appearance  of  the 
symptoms,  if  the  skull  be  pressed  firmly  with  the 
thumb  where  the  above  rules  point  out  the  lodging  of 
the  hydatid,  a  noticeable  degree  of  softening  will  be 
found,  as  if  the  skull  were  wanting  in  that  particular 


I  142 


SHEEP. 


spot.  In  fact  the  bone  has  become  thin,  and  been 
absorbed  by  the  suckers  of  the  small  tapeworms  above 
described.  In  size  the  hydatids  range  from  that  of  a 
pea  up  to  that  of  a  hen's  egg. 

Inkla.m.mation  OF  THE  Bladder.  Eating  too  heart- 
ily of  corn  meal,  second  growth  of  clover  containing 
poisonous  plants,  or  drinking  hard  water,  frequently 
causes  inflammationof  the  bladder;  the  urine  is  re- 
tained, blood-iwisoning  may  follow  with  high  fever. 
Males  and  fattening  slock  are  especially  subject  to 
such  troubles. 

Symptoms  are  a  strong  odor  of  urine  given  off  by  the 
secretions  of  the  skin,  and  feverish  condition,  uneasi- 
ness, costiveness,  stamping  with  the  hind  feet,  strain- 
ing to  void  urine,  and  moaning,  frequent  looking  at 
the  flanks,  and  a  stiff  and  straddling  gait. 

Remedies,  (live  light,  soft,  w;Uery  food  with  lin- 
seed or  slippery-elm  tea,  olive  or  linseed  oil,  pure 
soft  water  to  drink,  and  inject  into  the  bladder  gum 
Arabic  i  drachm,  opium  i  drachm,  warm  water  i  pint. 
Finally  follow  with  small  doses  of  copaiva,  or  cubebs, 
or  buchu.  Salicylic  in  doses  of  3  to  4  grains  at  inter- 
vals of  five  or  six  hours  has  been  found  of  value. 

Inflam.mation  of  the  Bowels.  Not  common  in 
America,  but  sometimes  follows  feeding  on  dry,  poor 
pasture,  with  bad  water  in  hot  weather. 

Symptoms  are  weakness  and  staggering,  watering 
and  redness  of  the  eyes,  loss  of  appetite,  high  fever, 
swollen  flanks,  hard  breathing  and  pained,  puckered 
expression  of  the  face,  passage  of  dung  stopped. 

Treatment  consists  in  giving  linseed  oil,  castor  oil 
or  Epsom  salts,  followed  twice  daily  by  sulphate  of 
soda.  Food  should  be  much  like  that  recommended 
for  inflammation  of  the  bladder. 

Inflammation  of  the  Brain.  Phrenitis,or  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain,  results  where  they  are  long  con- 
tinued, from  the  causes  which  lead  to  ajx)plexy. 
The  diseased  animals  dash  about  in  a  frenzy,  blind 
to  all  danger.  Lambs  jump  about  as  in  play,  until 
convulsions  end  their  agony.  The  remedy  is  free 
bleeding  from  the  n%ck,  and  prompt  purging  with 
salts.  The  treatment  must  be  instant,  or  death  will 
ensue. 

Inflammation  of  the  Liver.  Is  an  advanced 
stage  or  the  result  of  neglect  of  congestion  of  the 
liver,  caused  by  high  feeding  and  want  of  exercise. 
There  is  fever,  with  hot,  dry  nose  and  mouth,  breath 
offensive,  eyes  dull,  extremities  cold,  pulse  uneven, 
urine  scant,  hot  and  yellow;  dung  black,  hard  and 
coated  with  greenish-yellow  mucus. 

Purgatives  and  injections  are  required.  Give  Glau- 
ber salts  6  ounces,  or  calomel  5  grains,  powdered  opium 
I  grain,  sulphate  of  potash  2  drams.  May  be  given 
twice  daily  in  an  infusion  of  linseed  or  gum  Arabic,  or 
in  molasses,  mixed  thoroughly  and  placed  on  the 
tongue.  Injections  of  warm  water  and  Castile  soap 
are  useful.  Diet  of  corn-meal  gruel,  bran  mashes, 
puljied  roots  and  green  food  should  be  given,  but 
rather  sparingly. 

Influenza.    The  causes  which  produce  influenza 


are  not  clearly  known,  but  at  times  it  affects  animals 
over  wide  areas.  There  is  inflammation  of  the  nasal 
and  bronchial  passages,  a  discharge  at  the  nose, 
coughs,  red  and  weeping  eyes,  and  impaction  and 
sometimes  hoove  or  bloat.  Stewart  recommends  as 
treatment  mixed  salt  i  pound  and  sulphur  4  ounces, 
good  nursing  and  hearty,  strengthening  food.  When 
the  attack  is  more  serious  give  Epsom  salts  ^ 
ounce,  ground  ginger  i  drachm,  in  water  ]^  pint,  or 
mixed  with  molasses  and  honey.  To  those  suffering 
most  should  be  given  tincture  of  aconite  10  drops, 
solution  acetate  of  ammonia  i  ounce.  This  should 
be  given  once  in  five  or  six  hours,  lessening  the 
aconite  at  each  dose  until  five  drops  only  are  given. 
The  eyes  may  be  bathed  with  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  zinc  I  grain,  laudanum  20  drops,  water  i  ounce. 
Feed  well  with  mashes  and  shelter  carefully  after 
recovery  and,  of  course,  during  treatment. 

Intestinal  Worms.  Examinationof  a  dead  sheep 
win  sometimes  reveal  the  presence  of  intestinal  worms. 
It  may  be  assumed  that  when  they  appear  in  one 
others  in  the  flock  are  afflicted.  Plenty  of  salt  will 
act  as  a  preventive  and  should  be  where  sheep  can 
have  free  access  to  it  at  all  times.  The  remedies 
most  used  are :  Powdered  gentian  5^  pound,  sul- 
phate of  iron  }^  pound,  sulphate  of  magnesia  i  pound, 
common  salt  2  pounds;  mix  and  give  with  ground 
feed.  The  above  quantity  is  enough  for  Soto  100 
sheep.  Or,  give  a  pint  per  week  of  sulphate  of  iron 
5  ounces,  quick  lime  i  pound,  mixed  with  five  gallons 
of  water.  As  a  drench  for  round  or  thread-worms 
use  oil  of  turpentine  \^  ounce,  linseed  oil  2  ounces. 
For  tape-worm  jx)wdered  areca  nut  ^  to  i  drachm, 
oil  of  male  fern  10  to  20  drops.  For  any  of  the 
worms  inhabiting  the  intestines  3  grains  of  salicylic 
acid  in  four  doses,  followed  by  a  purgative,  may  be 
given  two  or  three  times  in  a  day. 

Inversion  of  the  Womb.  Sometimes  after  ex- 
hausting labor  the  womb,  turned  inside  out,  hangs 
from  the  ewe  like  a  red  bladder.  Wash  this  very 
thoroughly  with  warm  water  and  very  gently  return  it 
to  its  natural  position.  The  hand  must  be  well  cov- 
ered with  sweet  oil  or  with  pure,  fresh  lard,  the  nails 
close  cut,  the  ewe  meantime  held  so  that  her  hind- 
quarters are  considerably  raised.  A  stitch  should  then 
be  taken  with  linen  or  coarse  silk  thread  so  as  to 
make  a  loop  across  the  vagina  to  prevent  the  uterus 
coming  out  again.  Give  20  to  30  drops  of  tincture  of 
opium  in  some  wami  gruel,  and  leave  the  ewe  in  per- 
fect quiet  on  a  soft  bed  with  her  hind-quarters  higher 
than  her  head,  for  some  days.  Instead  of  stitches 
two  ropes,  each  more  than  twice  the  length  of  the 
animal,  are  doubled  and  twisted  together  in  the  bights 
so  as  to  fonn  an  ojjening  a  little  larger  than  that  of 
the  vulva.  This  is  so  placed  as  to  supiwrl  the  orifice; 
the  upper  ends  are  carried  over  the  rump,  crossed  two 
or  three  times  along  the  back  and  finally  tied  to  a 
collar  or  band  placed  around  the  neck ;  the  lower 
ends  pass  between  the  thighs,  and  forward  along  the 
sides,  and  are  attached  to  the  collar.      This  truss 


SHEEP. 


1143 


may  be  made  quite  tight,  and  with  every  straining 
will  tighten. 

Lockjaw.  Sometimes  injury  to  the  spermatic  cord 
in  the  operation  of  castration,  or  even  exjxjsure  to  wet 
and  cold  causes  lockjaw,  in  which  the  jaws  are  firmly 
closed,  the  limbs  stiff,  the  neck  twisted  and  the  head 
turned  to  one  side.  A  warm  bath  is  recommended, 
and  warmth  and  quiet  are  necessary.  Give  Epsom 
salts  2  ounces ;  follow  two  hours  after  with  2  drams 
laudanum.  Two  or  three  times  a  day  give  warm 
gruel  with  5^  ounce  ginger. 

LoMiiREZ.  For  years  shepherds  in  Texas  have 
suffered  serious  losses  from  a  mysterious  disease 
known  by  the  Mexican  name  lombrez,  signifying  "  a 
worm."  The  causes  of  the  disease  and  the  treatment 
necessary  for  curing  are  just  now  the  subject  of  ani- 
mated debate  among  stockmen  of  that  State.  Some, 
in  answer  to  questions  addressed  to  them  upon  the 
subject,  say  that  the  disease  results  from  pasturing 
upon  long  rank  grasses,  from  drinking  filthy  water, 
from  too  close  herding,  and  from  confining  to  damp 
bedding  grounds.  Others  declare  that  "the  worm  is 
a  water  worm,"  which  the  sheep  takes  into  its  system 
by  drinking  jmpure  water.  These  theories  are  vigor- 
ously assailed  by  others  who  justly  urge  that  lombrez 
would  be  easily  prevented  by  avoiding  the  causes 
were  they  known  to  be  those  mentioned. 

It  is  said  that  the  young  sheep  in  several  counties 
in  Middle  and  Southern  Texas,  in  Bee,  Live  Oak,  and 
in  other  counties  east,  west,  and  north  of  those 
named,  have  been  destroyed  by  this  disease  during 
the  last  six  years.  The  worms  which  are  by  some 
supixjsed  to  cause  the  death  of  these  sheep,  are  found 
in  the  fourth  stomach  ;  but  it  is  asserted  that  the  same 
worms  are  found  in  sheep  of  all  ages  and  cociditions 
in  Texas.  .-Vn  e.Ktensive  sheep  herder  of  Texas  gives 
it  as  his  belief,  founded  upon  many  examinations  of 
sheep  in  his  own  flocks  and  those  of  others,  that 
chronic  constipation  causes  the  death  of  the  animals 
supposed  to  die  of  lombrez.  He  asserts  that  the  suf- 
ferers have  all  the  symptoms  of  this  ailment,  are 
exf)osed  to  every  predisposing  cause  of  chronic  con- 
stipation, and  the  dissecting  knife  discloses  the  fact 
that  the  grass  in  their  little  stomachs  is  almost  desti- 
tute of  any  moisture.      See  Hydatids. 

Louse.  The  red  sheep-louse  {Trichodectes  ovis) 
has  a  red  head,  pale  yellow  body  with  dark  bands. 
Seeks  the  tender  skin  inside  of  the  thighs  and  on  the 
neck  of  sheep  with  fleeces  free  from  yolk.  Carbolic 
acid  and  lard  or  salicylic  acid  and  glycerine  mixed 
and  rubbed  on  the  parts  will  free  the  sheep  from  this 
pest. 

Lung  Worms.  Hurried  breathing  and  a  dry 
cough,  diarrhoea,  loss  of  appetite  and  flesh,  examina- 
tion of  the  mucus  and  the  evacuations,  may  show  in- 
dications of  Strongulus  filaria,  worms  which  are 
usually  found  in  the  windpipe,  bronchial  tubes 
and  bowels  of  sheep  affected,  and  sometimes  in  their 
lungs. 

Remedies.    Salicylic  acid  will  probably  be  found  a 


safe  and  efficient  remedy,  in  doses  of  3  grains  each, 
administered  twice  each  day  for  three  days.  A  rem- 
edy composed  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  6  ounces, 
nitrate  of  potash  4  ounces,  put  into  3  pints  of  boihng 
water,  and  with  which  when  milk-warm  oil  of  turpen- 
tine 4  ounces,  and  bole  armeniac  J^  ounce  have  been 
well  mixed,  in  doses  of  two  or  three  tablesjxwnfuls 
every  other  day,  is  recommended.  Or  give  each  lamb 
a  wineglassful  of  the  following:  common  salt  3 
pounds,  powdered  ginger  Y^  pound,  nitrate  of  potash 
Yi  ix)und ;  dissolve  in  3  gallons  warm  water,  and 
when  nearly  cold  add  oil  turpentine  24  ounces. 

A  tonic  and  vermifuge  mixture  of  2  ounces  each  of 
oil  of  turpentine,  powdered  gentian  and  laudanum, 
dissolved  in  a  quart  of  linseed  tea  or  of  lime  water, 
has  been  given  with  good  effect.  One-tenth  of  the 
above  quantity  is  enough  for  a  dose. 

Prof.  Townshend  advises  giving,  once  a  day  for  a 
week  or  two,  a  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine  Y^ 
ounce,  whisky  \  pint,  mixed. 

Maggots.  Flies  will  in  hot  weather  often  deposit 
their  eggs  in  wounds  or  in  the  dung  adhering  to  the 
thighs  of  sheep  which  are  not  kept  clean  ;  maggots 
are  hatched  and  cause  considerable  uneasiness. 

Remedy.  Shear  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  ftom 
under  the  tail ;  remove  all  maggots  and  wash  the 
wounds  with  diluted  crude  carbolic  acid,  or  apply  a 
dressing  of  lard  with  which  a  few  drops  of  carbolic 
acid  have  been  thoroughly  mixed,  or  pour  on  spirits 
of  turpentine. 

Ophthalmia.  Often  results  from  irritation  of  the 
eye  by  chaff  or  other  foreign  substances,  from  wounds, 
blows  or  other  injuries,  or  from  colds.  There  is  wa- 
tering of  the  eyes  with  redness ;  pus  discharges  from 
the  corner  of  the  organ.  Bathe  the  eye  with  a  wash 
of  4  grains  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  i  ounce  water;  shut 
the  animal  from  the  light  for  a  few  days.  If  there  is 
much  pain  and  inflammation  give  r  ounce  Epsom  salts 
dissolved  in  water,  and  add  20  drops  laudanum  to 
the  eye-wash  above  described. 

Pale  Disease.  Known  also  as  hoose,  husk,  or 
verminous  bronchitis,  is  caused  by  thread-worms  in 
the  air  passages  in  sheep,  goats  and  camels.  There 
is  a  husky,  dry,  loud  cough,  and  from  the  nose  a  froth 
in  which  are  worms  or  their  eggs.  Ixjss  of  appetite 
and  of  flesh,  diarrhoea,  great  thirst  and  a  disposition 
to  eat  earth  are  among  the  symptoms. 

Treatment  should  consist  of  a  sound  and  nutritious 
food,  with  which  should  be  mixed  equal  parts  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  gentian  and  ginger,  2  ounces  daily  for 
nine  or  ten  lambs  three  months  old.  To  destroy  in- 
testinal worms  give  a  teaspoonful  of  table  salt  and  one 
of  oil  of  turpentine  well  mixed  with  milk  and  admin- 
istered every  second  morning,  on  an  empty  stomach. 
Or  give  salicylic  acid  r  to  2  grains.  For  removal  of 
lung  worms  fumigate  by  confining  in  a  tight  room  and 
burning  flour  of  sulphur,  a  pinch  at  a  time,  stopping 
when  the  animals  begin  coughing  violently;  repeat 
daily  for  a  week  or  ten  days  and  then  weekly  for  sev- 
eral weeks.    As   preventives,  remove  at  once  from 


^ 


1 144 


SHEEP. 


association  with  affected  animals,  and  from  pastures 
on  which  such  have  grazed.  Plenty  dry  food  and 
a  free  supply  of  salt  are  needed. 

Palsy.  Entire  or  partial  loss  of  action  of  the  nerv- 
ous system  sometimes  appears  in  lambs  or  sheep 
which  have  been  chilled  by  long  exposure  to  cold 
storms,  in  neglected  newly  dropped  winter  lambs,  and 
in  ewes  after  abortion  or  long  continued  and  severe 
labor  in  lambing.  Feeding  heavily  on  watery  roots 
has  caused  palsy,  as  has  also  the  chilling  influence  of 
currents  of  cold  air.  As  a  remedy  first  remove  the 
causes  and  give  twice  daily  spirits  of  nitrous  ether  2 
drams,  iX)wdered  gentian  i  dram,  jwwdered  ginger  i 
dram.  If  this  fails  the  following  may  be  tried:  tinct- 
ure of  nux  vomica  4  drops,  or  strychnine  1^  grain,  in  a 
quart  of  linseed  gruel ;  later  repeat  the  dose  slightly 
increased.  Mustard  or  ammonia  and  sweet  oil  may 
be  rubbed  on  the  brisket  and  along  the  backbone; 
the  animal  should  be  kept  warm,  and  be  carefully 
nursed. 

Parturient  Fever.  High-bred  and  imported  ewes 
sometimes  suffer  from  parturient  fever,  usually  a  few 
days  before  lambing ;  narive  sheep  rarely  suffer.  The 
chief  symptoms  are  a  dull,  drooping,  listless  attitude, 
loss  of  appetite,  eyes  nearly  closed  and  nervous  twitch- 
ing of  the  hind  legs;  a  dark  liquid  escapes  from  the 
vagina.  Should  the  dead  lamb  be  dropped  at  this 
stage  the  dam  will,  if  well  cared  for,  probably  recover 
in  a  few  days.  If  the  lamb  does  not  come  away  the 
fever  increases  greatly  and  the  ewe  seldom  recovers 
from  the  attack. 

Parturient  Apoplexv.  Very  highly  fed  ewes 
sometimes  suffer  from  parturient  apoplexy,  or  after- 
pains,  usually  the  second  or  third  day  after  lambing. 
It  is  caused  by  plethora,  or  a  feverish  condition  of  the 
system,  and  is  indicated  by  redness  or  swelling  of  the 
vagina,  which  becomes  purple  and  then  black;  the 
scanty  discharge  of  highly  colored, offensive  urine  and 
costiveness;  and  by  panting,  straining  and  heaving  of 
the  flanks.  Give  promptly  camphor  ''^  dram,  lauda- 
num 60  drops,  mixed  with  molasses  and  placed  on 
the  tongue.  When  the  pains  are  very  severe,  increase 
the  dose  one-half. 

This  disease  is  easily  prevented  by  gradually  reduc- 
ing the  condition  of  the  ewe,  beginning  some  weeks 
before  she  is  due  to  lamb,  and  by  giving  for  some 
days,  daily  doses  of  saltpeter,  followed  in  four  hours 
by  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia  i  ounce,  and  repeat 
twice  at  intervals  of  two  hours.  Inject  into  the  vagina 
a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  i  dram,  in  warm  water 
I  pint,  if  there  is  an  offensive  discharge.  Bleeding 
from  the  jugular  vein,  before  the  pulse  has  lost  its 
fullness  and  hardness — never  after — will  relieve. 
Apply  ice-water  or  bags  of  pounded  ice,  or  a  solution 
of  an  ounce  each  of  niter  and  sal  ammoniac  in  a 
quart  of  water,  to  the  head.  Law  advises  giving  Ej)- 
som  salts  2  ounces,  carbonate  of  ammonia  ''^  dram, 
nux  vomica  5  grains,  with  friction  to  the  limbs.  Re- 
peat the  nux  vomica  and  carbonate  of  ammonia  every 
four  hours. 


Plethora.  Animals  which  have  been  rapidly  fat- 
tened with  rich  albuminous  food  not  infrequently  suf- 
fer from  plethora,  or  engorgement  of  the  system  with 
blood.  In  extremely  hot  weather  or  aftersevere  exer- 
cise death  sometimes  results.  The  treatment  is  bleed- 
ing and  a  reduction  of  the  condition  by  purgatives  and 
giving  light  rations  of  food. 

Pleurisy.  Any  sudden  and  thorough  chilling  is 
likely  to  cause  pleurisy,  or  inflammation  of  the  mem- 
brane coveting  ths  lungs  and  lining  the  cavity  of  the 
chest.  Law  says  of  this  disease  :  This  is  common  in 
all  domestic  animals,  and  particularly  in  cold,  exposed 
localiUes,  which  suffer  at  the  same  time  from  rheum- 
atism. Symptoms  are  shivering,  followed  by  heat  of 
the  skin  and  even  of  the  limbs,  and  parrial  sweats  of 
the  surface,uneasy  movements,  pawing  and  sometimes 
looking  at  the  flanks,  lying  down  and  rising.  If  one 
side  of  the  chest  only  is  involved  that  fore  limb  is 
often  advanced  in  front  of  the  other.  Pulse  rapid  and 
hard,  breathing  hurried,  with  inspiration  short  and 
suddenly  checked;  expiration  slow  and  prolonged. 
On  the  abdomen  a  prominent  ridge  reaches  from  the 
lower  ends  of  the  last  ribs  to  the  outer  angle  of  the 
hip-bone.  There  is  a  short,  dry,  painful  cough,  no 
discharge  from  the  nose,  and  no  redness.  Give  Glau- 
ber salts  6  ounces,  follow  with  niter  2  drachms,  and 
digitalis  10  grains.  Where  there  is  marked  weakness 
give  stimulants,  as  sweet  spirits  of  niter  3  drachms. 
Nursing  as  in  bronchiris  should  be  given,  and  in  the 
early  stages  treat  as  for  congestion  of  the  lungs. 

Pneumonia.  Inflammation  of  the  lungs,  or  pneu- 
monia, is  caused  by  chilling,  over-exertion  and  conges- 
tion or  by  parasites. 

Symptoms  are  a  dry  cough,  shivering,  later  a  full 
pulse,  quick,  heavy  breathing,  redness  of  membranes  of 
the  eyes,  nose  and  mouth  ;  with  the  fever  there  is  cos- 
tiveness, scanty  urine,  and,  as  time  passes,  a  yellow 
or  a  white  discharge  from  the  nose.  Law  says :  Aus- 
cultation detects  a  very  fine  crackling  (crepitation) 
over  the  affected  part  of  the  lung,  or  there  may  be  an 
area  of  no  sound  encircled  by  a  line  of  crepitation 
and  beyond  that  by  the  normal  murmur,  slightly  in- 
creased. Or  over  the  dull  spot  the  blowing  sounds 
from  the  larger  tubes  or  the  beating  of  the  heart  may 
be  detected.  Percussion  causes  flinching  or  even 
groaning  when  the  affected  part  is  reached;  the  space 
where  sound  was  wanting  in  auscultation  sounds  dull 
and  solid  and  the  remainder  of  the  chest  retains  its 
healthy  resonance.  There  is  no  tenderness  on  merely 
pinching  the  spaces  between  the  ribs. 

Treatment  advised  by  the  above  authority  consists 
of  giving  pure,  dry  air  in  a  place  exposed  to  the  sun ; 
injections  of  warm  water,  and  drinks  of  warm  gruel ; 
neutral  salts  (niter,  acetate  of  jx)tassa,  bi-carlxsnate  of 
soda)  should  be  given  with  sedarives,  as  belladonna, 
henbane,  tincture  of  aconite,  digitalis  or  white  helle- 
bore; if  there  is  much  prostration,  sweet  spirits  of 
niter  or  liquor  of  acetate  of  ammonia  three  or  four 
times  daily. 

Pox.     Sheep-pox  seldom  if  ever  troubles  American 


1 146 


SHEEP. 


flocks,  but  has  caused  much  loss  in  other  lands.  It 
is  an  eruptive  contagious  fever,  variola  ovina,  resem- 
bling in  general  features  the  small-pox  in  man.  In 
its  virulent  form  the  sheep  refuses  food,  and  avoids 
moving,  the  wool  pulls  out  easily,  irregular  cracks  ap- 
pear in  the  skin,  the  head  is  swollen  and  a  stinking 
discharge  fills  the  nose,  the  eyes  become  closed,  some- 
times inflamed  and  run  from  their  sockets.  Treatment 
consists  of  inoculation  with  virus  from  an  affected 
sheep,  which  should  be  placed  in  an  excoriation  of  the 
tender  skin  of  the  inside  of  the  ear. 

Red  Water.  Exposure  to  wet  and  cold  storms, 
confinement  to  cold,  wet  ground,  and  chilling,  some- 
times cause  red  water  (luematurid),  a  disease  marked 
by  a  red,  a  pink  or  a  dark  color  of  the  urine. 

Symptoms  are  dullness,  continued  scouring  or  diar- 
rhoea, sometimes  with  passages  of  bloody  matter;  pink, 
red  or  dark  urine;  difficult  breathing,  and,  later,  palsy 
of  the  hind-quarters.  In  ewes  the  flow  of  milk  is 
stopped. 

Remedies.  Careful  nursing,  protection  from  all 
chilling  causes,  and  nourishing  food.  Hot  mustard 
water  should  be  very  freely  applied  to  the  loins  and  belly 
which  should  be  wrapped  with  heavy  blankets  to  re- 
tain the  heat.  Give  oil  of  turpentine  V2  ounce,  linseed 
oil  1 5^  ounces. 

Rheumatism  in  Lambs.  Injudicious  management 
of  ewes  during  gestation,  feeding  unsound  or  improper 
food,tends  to  vitiate  the  blood  of  the  lamb,  and  thus 
produce  acute  rheumatism,  or  "  palsy,"  as  it  is  fre- 
quently called.  Experience  has  shown  that  if  the  ewe 
be  fed  largely  on  clover  hay,  potatoes,  grain  and 
drinks  of  groats  during  the  last  months  of  pregnancy 
the  lambs  are  likely  to  suffer  from  paralysis  soon  after 
birth.  Moldy  food,  rotten  carrots,  jwtatoes,  and 
stagnant,  putrid  water  are  potent  causes  of  this  dis- 
ease, as  also  exposure  to  wet,  chilling  weather  and  a 
diseased  condition  of  the  ewe  which  may  be  suckUng 
the  lamb. 

Renudies.  A  nourishing  diet  of  sound  food  for  the 
ewe  and  good  shelter  for  both  ewe  and  lamb.  The 
latter  should  have  a  wine-glassful  of  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesia 2  ounces,  powdered  caraway  or  ground  ginger 
ij{  ounce,  mixed  with  half  a  pint  of  thin  gruel  and 
given  warm. 

The  following  is  recommended  as  a  certain  remedy 
for  mild  cases :  sulphuretted  antimony,  powdered,  5 
parts,  fresh  butter,  i  part,  mixed.  Give  a  piece  of 
the  size  of  a  hazelnut  three  times  a  day.  A  liniment 
of  oil  and  laudanum  or  a  soap  liniment,  with  hot  fo- 
mentation, may  be  used  locally  to  relieve  the  pain. 

Scab.  Scab  is  caused  by  a  minute  insect  {scabies 
enn's),  which,  finding  lodgment  upon  the  wool,  seeks  its 
way  to  the  skin  and  burrows  under  the  cuticle.  Here 
the  female  deposits  her  eggs,  and  in  a  short  time 
myriads  of  young  are  hatched,  in  their  turn  to  burrow 
in  the  skin,  breed,  and  extend  the  destructive  work. 
Pustules  appear  from  which  yellow  pus  exudes,  and  a 
yellow  scab  is  formed  which  adheres  firmly  to  the 
wool.  The  intolerable  itching  caused  by  the  burrow- 
ing insects  leads   the  sheep  to  rub   itself  vigorously 


against  posts,,  fences,  trees  or  other  objects,  and  to 
scratch  itself  with  teeth  and  hoofs.  The  wool,  torn 
from  its  place  and  infested  with  the  parasites,  drops 
to  the  ground  or  clings  to  the  things  against  which  the 

animal  has  rubbed,  thus 
spreading  the  germs  of  dis- 
ease. A  single  female  in- 
sect may  quickly  colonize 
a  large  flock  ;  and  as  the 
parasites  are  so  tenacious 
of  life  that,  it  is  said,  they 
have  lived  in  pastures  un- 
occupied by  sheep  for 
three  years,  the  necessity 
for  the  enforcement  of  the 
stringent  measures  for  pre- 
venting the  spreading  of 
scab  is  apparent.  Figures 
show  the  upper  and  under 
_  side  of  the    female   mite. 

Fig  n.—UndtrSidt  Ptmait Mitt,  greatly  magnified. 

Symptoms.  To  relieve  the  irritation  the  sheep  rubs 
itself  against  any  fixed  objects,  scratches  with  hoofs, 
horns  and  teeth  those  parts  it  can  reach,  and  the 
wool  falls  out  in  places,  leaving  the  skin  bare  in  spots, 
sometimes  uncovering  a  large  part  of  the  body.  Made 
restless  by  its  suffering,  the  sheep  is  unable  to  eat 
enough  to  keep  it  in  thrifty  condition,  and  finally  dies 
of  exhaustion.  Nothing  but 
the  extermination  of  every  fe- 
male insect  in  the  flock  can 
permanently  relieve  the  ani- 
mals from  their  suffering  and 
restore  them  to  comfort  and 
health. 

Renudies.  While  remedies 
are  many  and  most  of  them 
are  effective,  that  most  used 
in  the  Western  States  and  in 
Australia  is  composed  of  to- 
bacco leaves  i  pound,  sulphur 
I  pound,  water  5  gallons.  The 
tobacco  is  boiled  in  the  water 
and  the  sulphur  added  after- 
ward. Stems  from  tobacco 
leaves  may  be  got  from  tobac- 
conists for  a  small  price,  and  are  preferred  by  many 
for  that  reason.  They  have  less  strength  than  have 
the  leaves. 

Crude  carbolic  acid  has  been  used  in  dips  with  good 
effect;  a  liquor  composed  of  one  part  of  acid  to  one 
hundred  parts  of  water  has  killed  the  parasites  in  two 
minutes;  one  part  of  acid  in  fifty  parts  of  water  has 
killed  them  in  from  forty  to  ninety  seconds.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  acid  from  the  eyes,  and 
not  to  allow  the  dark,  tarry  carbolic  acid  to  rest  upon 
the  surface  of  the  dip  in  the  form  of  a  skum,  as  the 
first  sheepimmersed  in  the  tank  may  be  injured  by  the 
contact  of  the  powferful  acid  with  their  skins. 

A  dip  which  is  received  with  much  favor  in  Eng- 
land is  composed  of  arsenic  3  pounds,  pearl-ash  3 


Fig.  \z.— Upper  Side  0/  Fl- 
fnale  Mite, 


SHEEP  B  ERR  Y— SHEPHERD. 


"47 


pounds,  sulphur  3  pounds,  soft  soap  3  pounds,  mixed 
with  one  hundred  gallons  of  cold  water.  The  sheep 
is  kept  in  one  minute  in  this  dip,  the  head  being  care- 
fully kept  from  entering  the  mixture.  When  the  fleece 
has  dried,  after  dipping,  the  head  must  be  thoroughly 
rubbed  between  the  ears,  on  the  forehead  and  the  face 
under  the  jaws  and  along  the  neck  with  an  ointment 
prepared  as  follows:  mercurial  ointment  i  pound,  lard 
6  pounds,  rosin  i  pound,  oil  of  turpentine  J^  pint; 
heat  the  lard  and  mercurial  ointment  gently  and  stir 
together;  when  cold  add  the  rosin,  previously  dissolved 
in  the  turpentine,  and  mix  all  together  thoroughly. 

The  use  of  the  above  is  not  approved  in  the  United 
States  because  of  its  poisonous  nature.  The  most 
highly  recommended  if  not  the  most  generally  used 
dip  is  composed  of  tobacco  6  pounds,  oil  of  tar  3  pints, 
soda-ash  20  pounds,  soft  soap  4  pounds,  water  50 
gallons.     Boil   the    tobacco  and   dissolve    the   other 


with  success.  Sheep  dipped  regularly  are  seldom 
troubled  by  this  parasite.  Soon  after  shearing  ewes 
their  lambs  should  be  dipped,  if  ticks  have  been  on 
the  ewes,  as  the  insects  will  leave  the  latter  to  find 
more  shelter  in  the  wool  of  the  lamb. 

Sheepberry,  a  species  of  black  haw,  which  is  a 
sweet,  edible  fruit.  It  prevails  mostly  in  the  Northern 
States,  where  it  is  generally  called  "black  haw;"  but 
the  true  black  haw  has  more  obtuse-pointed  leaves 
and  flourishes  more  toward  the  South.  These  species 
belong  to  the  same  order  with  arrow-wood,  snowball, 
elder,  snowberry  and  the  honeysuckles. 

Sheep  Dipping,  the  process  of  immersing  sheep 
in  a  prepared  solution  to  free  them  from  vermin  and 
as  a  means  of  curing  the  scab.     See  page  1 133. 

Sheep  Shearing.  This  is  the  yearly  removal  of  the 
fleece  of  sheep  with  a  pair  of  shears.     The  operation 


Fig.     n. — A   Sevtrt  Cast  9/  Scab, 


agents  in  boiling  water;  add  water  enough  to  make 
50  gallons  of  all.  This  will  be  enough  for  fifty  sheep. 
The  dip  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  75 
degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Tapeworm.  Sometimes  sheep  are  infested  with 
tapeworm  ^Tcenia  expansa),  or  folded  tapeworm 
(Tcenia plicata).  The  symptoms  usually  are  voracity, 
alternating  with  refusal  of  food,  loss  of  flesh,  a  dis- 
position to  eat  earth,  ashes,  etc.,  evidence  of  interna! 
pain,  and  the  voiding  of  soft  dung  mixed  with  mucus 
which  adheres  to  the  after  parts.  Linseed  oil  2 
ounces  and  spirits  of  turpentine  J^  to  i  ounce  is 
advised  as  a  remedy  to  be  given  twice  a  week  for  two 
weeks;  or  give  of  the  powdered  root  of  male  fern  3 
ounces;  repeat  in  one  week.  Give  linseed -oil  2 
ounces  six  hours  after  giving  male  fern. 

Ticks.  The  red  sheep  louse  {Trickodectes  ovis)  has 
a  pale  yellow  tody,  on  which  are  dark  bands.  It 
frequents  the  tender  skin  inside  the  thighs  and  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck.  Carbolic  acid  and  lard  should 
be  rubbed  into  the  skin  on  the  parts  infested. 
Kerosene  oil  rubbed  into  the  wool  has  been  tried 


should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  old  fleece  is  suf- 
ficiently raised  from  the  skin  by  the  growth  of  the 
young  wool.  The  best  time,  in  most  cases,  when  the 
weather  prove*  fine,  is  generally  the  early  part  of 
June;  for  when  the  operation  is  postponed  until  the 
latter  part  of  that  month,  or  especially  till  July,  the 
carcass  of  any  of  the  sheep  which  may  be  destined  to 
the  shambles  before  the  close  of  the  simimer,  is 
seriously  impaired,  and  the  bodies  of  all  the  rest  have 
not  a  sufficient  defense  against  the  mischievous  and 
even  destrucrive  attacks  of  flies  in  the  hottest  time  of 
the  year.  Eight  days  or  so  before  the  shearing,  the 
sheep  should  be  washed,  and  from  that  time  until 
tfhe  day  of  shearing  they  must  be  kept  in  a  clean 
grass  field  where  they  can  not  soil  their  wool  under 
banks  of  earth.     See  Fleece  and  Wool. 

Shepherd,  a  person  who  has  the  care  and  manage- 
ment of  a  flock  of  sheep.  A  shepherd  in  Eastern 
countries  and  in  patriarchal  times  is  a  character  of 
intense  interest,  and  forms  the  subject  of  many  of  the 
most  glorious  and  sublime  allusions  in  the  best  of 
books.     See  Sheep.     » 


1148 


SHETLAND  PONIES— SHORT-HAND. 


Shetland  Ponies:  see  page  699 

Shingles,  To  Measure.  White-pine  sawed,  shaved 
and  star  shingles  average  16  inches  long  and  4  inches 
wide.  A  square  of  100  feet  will  require  1,000  laid 
4^  inches  to  the  weather,  allowing  for  waste.  Cedar 
shingles  are  30  inches  long  by  7  inches  wide,  and  of 
these  248,  laid  8  inches  to  the  weather,  will  be  re- 
quired to  the  square;  9  inches  to  the  weather,  220 
will  be  required. 

"Shingles,"  an  eruptive  disease  which  spreads 
around  the  body  in  the  form  of  a  girdle.  It  is  a  kind 
of  tetter.  Often  fever  accompanies  and  considerable 
acute  pain.  It  continues  for  a  week  or  two.  Patient 
should  keep  his  bed,  apply  lime-water  and  oil  exter- 
nally and  take  anodynes  internally.  When  there  is 
fever,  eat  but  little. 

Shirt.  It  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  matter  to 
have  always  a  well-fitting  shirt.  One  is  therefore 
justified  in  taking  special  pains  to  secure  a  good  ad- 
justment, especially  of  the  neck-band,  the  wrist-bands 
and  of  the  length  of  the  sleeves.  A  very  little  over- 
sight in  these  respects  often  causes  an  infinite 
amount  of  annoyance  to  the  wearer.  More  especial 
pains  are  required  in  these  days  of  factory-made 
linen  and  paper  collars  and  neck-ties,  in  order  to 
have  these  set  neatly  and  permanently. 

The  custom  of  field-hands  and  other  laborers  wear- 
ing colored  shirts  is  not  healthful.  Their  drawing 
the  heat  of  the  sun  in  hot  weather,  their  "hiding  the 
dirt  "  so  as  to  enable  the  laborer  to  w^ar  them  longer, 
and  the  dye-stuff  in  them,  constitute  three  important 
objections  to  their  use. 

Enamel  for  Shirt  Bosoms.  Melt  together  with  a 
gentle  heat  i  ounce  of  white  wax  and  2  ounces  of 
spermaceti;  prepare  in  the  usual  way  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  starch  for  a  dozen  bosoms,  and  put  into 
it  a  piece  of  this  enamel  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
and  in  this  proportion  for  a  larger  number.  See 
Starch. 

Shock,  a  small  stack  of  grain,  as  it  is  put  up  in  the 
field  immediately  after  cutting,  in  order  to  protect  it 
temporarily  against  the  rain  until  it  can  be  hauled  to 
the  mow,  or  built  in  larger  and  more  permanent 
stacks.     Often  called  "stook"  in  the  older  States. 

Shock  Dog,  or  Shock,  a  dog  having  long,  shaggy 
hair. 

Shoes:  see  Boots. 

Shoeing  Horse:  see  page  733. 

Shoot,  or  Shute,  in  farming,  a  passage  way  down 
which  grain,  hay  or  straw  is  slid;  also,  the  passage 
way  through  which  live  stock  is  driven  on  or  off  cars 
or  weighing  scales. 

Short,  in  cookery,  crisp,  brittle;  in  commerce,  en- 
gaging to  deliver  what  is  not  ]X)ssessed,  as  "short 
contracts."  The  "shorts"  are  those  who  have  not 
the  stocks  they  contract  to  deliver.  The  term  "shorts" 
also  denotes  the  coarser  part  of  flour,  namely  that 
which  is  sifted  out  next  to  the  bfan. 


Short-Cake:  see  page  17 3* 

Short-Hand,  Phonography  and  Stenography. 
These  are  practically  three  names  for  the  same  thing. 
As  almost  every  farmer's  boy  has  a  desire  at  some 
period  of  his  youth  to  learn  the  art  of  short-hand,  so 
that  he  can  write  down  a  discourse  as  fast  as  it  is 
delivered,  and  many  of  them  actually  commence  the 
study  of  the  art,  we  feel  compelled  here  to  state  the 
facts  concerning  the  nature  of  the  business,  and  in 
such  a  way  as  to  answer  the  questions  which  are 
almost  universally  asked  about  this  matter. 

Nearly  all  the  short-hand  in  the  world  is  "  phonetic," 
and  in  the  English  language  it  is  all  based  uixjn  Pit- 
man's system,  called  "  phonography."  "  Stenography" 
is  a  general  name  for  all  systems  of  short- hand 
writing,  whether  phonetic  or  not.  By  ^  phonetic  "  is 
meant  the  principle  of  having  a  distinct  character  for 
every  sound,  and  but  one  sound  for  each  character. 
For  short-hand  writing  these  characters  are  of  course 
as  simple  as  possible,  consisdngof  simple  dashes  and 
dots,  in  various  positions,  light  and  heavy.  The  37 
elementary  sounds  in  our  language  are  accordingly 
represented  by  a  dash  or  a  dot.  These  simple  marks 
constitute  the  alphabet  of  short-hand;  and  by  rules  of 
abbreviation  afterward  learned,  the  words  formed  by 
the  joining  of  these  characters  are  still  further  abbre- 
viated until  a  practical  hand  can  write  them  as  fast 
as  words  are  usually  Sfxaken.  The  so-called  "systems" 
of  short-hand  are  only  different  modifications  of  Pit- 
man's phonography,  so  that  one  who  is  versed  in  any 
one  "  system  "  can,  with  a  few  minutes'  study  of  the 
peculiarities,  read  any  of  the  others.  The  four  most 
prevalent  "systems"  in  this  country  are  Pitman's, 
Graham's,  Munson's  and  Lindsley's.  Scores  of 
others  have  been  offered  to  the  public,  many  of  them 
indeed  as  good  as  the  above  mentioned,  if  not  better, 
but  for  want  of  means  their  authors  have  not  been 
able  to  push  them  into  notoriety. 

While  every  short-hand  alphabet  and  the  first 
principles  of  writing  are  so  simple,  philosophical, 
symmetrical  and  even  beautiful  as  to  tempt  many  to 
commence  their  study,  not  more  than  one  in  a  thou- 
sand has  the  perseverance  to  master  all  the  intricacies 
of  the  art  so  as  to  become  a  successful  verbatim  re- 
porter. A  smart  boy  or  man  can  commit  to  memory 
all  the  principles  in  a  few  days,  but  at  the  end  of 
this  time  he  will  write  very  slowly  and  imperfectly. 
On  an  average  it  takes  about  two  years'  practice,  de- 
voting two  or  three  hours  a  day  to  the  exercise,  to 
become  able  to  take  down  a  speech  as  fast  as  it  is 
uttered.  It  is  like  learning  to  play  on  a  violin  or  a 
piano:  the  principles  are  few,  but  the  practice  is 
much.  Theoretically,  one  might  memorize  all  the 
principles  of  piano  playing  in  a  few  minutes,  but  he 
would  have  to  practice  for  years  before  he  could  suc- 
cessfully entertain  the  public  with  his  performances. 
So  it  is  with  short-hand.  Now  and  then  is  seen  an 
advertisement  in  a  newspaper  of  some  "system  of 
short-hand  that  one  can  learn  in  half  a  dozen  lessons, 
and  be  able  with  it  to  report  a  speech  in  three 
months," — if  you  will  "  only  forward  the  small  sum  of 


SHOR  T-HORN—SICKLE. 


"49 


25  cents!"  or  other  words  to  this  effect.    These  are 
all  catch-penny  humbugs. 

We  therefore  do  not  advise  any  one  to  commence 
the  study  of  this  art  with  the  hope  of  making  himself 
a  verbatim  reporter,  unless  he  has  a  special  aptitude 
for  phonetic  writing  as  well  as  a  determination  to 
follow  the  business  for  a  livelihood.  If  one  has  a 
fancy  for  playing  with  this  fascinating  art,  of  course 
no  harm  can  come  from  it.  There  is  a  degree  of 
mental  discipUne  in  its  study.  It  gives  clear  views 
of  and  good  practice  in  phonics  and  pronunciation. 

The  course  of  study  should  be  divided  into  15  or 
20  lessons,  and  the  lessons  should  be  taken  at  least 
a  week  apart,  with  many  hours'  practice  between. 
The  student  should  not  look  ahead  of  his  lessons  to  see 
what  is  coming  or  pick  up  fragments  of  principles,  as 
such  practice  tends  to  confuse  and  retard  him.  This 
is  the  most  common  reason  why  a  student  with  a 
book  and  without  ateacher  fails  to  succeed.  Also,  with 
a  book  only,  the  task  is  apt  to  grow  monotonous  and 
be  gradually  dropped — apparently  from  the  want  of 
time.  The  more  familiar  one  becomes  with  the 
ground  he  has  gone  over  before  taking  new  ground, 
the  better.  At  first  there  is  great  enthusiasm — gen- 
erally too  great.  The  student  is  dwelling  upon  it  in 
his  mind  all  day  and  nearly  all  night;  he  can  hardly 
sleep  on  account  of  it.  The  regular  course  will  take 
the  learner  to  what  is  called  the  "  correswnding  "  or 
"  easy  rejMrting  "  style ;  after  that  the  advances  and 
improvements  he  will  make  cannot  well  be  divided 
into  lessons,  as  he  has  to  catch  them  up  one  at  a  time 
in  the  progress  of  his  practice.  For  this  purixjse, 
books  are  only  aids,  not  complete  guides. 

The  average  rate  of  delivery  of  a  public  extempor- 
aneous discourse  is  about  no  to  1 15  words  a  minute, 
commencing  deliberately  with  70  to  80  per  minute, 
and  increasing  with  the  growing  warmth  of  the  effort 
to  125  to  140.  If  the  discourse  is  read  from  manu- 
script, the  reader  keeps  up  a  uniform  rate  from  be- 
ginning to  end,  about  one-half  faster  than  he  would 
speakextemporaneously.  In  reading,  a  person  pronoun- 
ces more  words  to  the  minute  than  he  appears,  as  his 
enunciation  is  so  constant.  On  this  account  many 
wrong  estimates  are  made  of  the  comparative  rate  of 
different  public  speakers.  One  snaps  out  his  words 
quickly,  with  frequent  short  pauses,  which  are  not 
noticed  by  the  hearers,  and  pronounces,  say  only  100 
words  to  the  minute,  while  another  speaker,  who 
seems  slow  and  deliberate,  yet  by  a  steady  stream  he 
utters  140  words  to  the  minute.  In  this  regard  ap- 
pearances are  very  deceiving. 

Now,  a  learner  of  short-hand,  everything  being 
favorable,  will  at  the  end  of  two  years  write  about 
100  words  a  minute,  so  that  he  can  read  them  at  any 
future  time ;  at  the  end  of  three  years  he  can  write 
125,  after  another  year  135  or  140,  and  so  on  in  di- 
minishing ratio,  until  he  reaches  the  rate  of  160  or 
170  per  minute,  the  rate  of  tolerably  rapid  speakers, 
but  not  of  the  most  rapid.  Ordinary  conversations 
cannot  well  be  reported  word  for  word,  on  account  of 
rapid  enunciation,  interruption,  fragmentary  sentences 


and  both  talking  at  once.  Many  short-hand  report- 
ers give  the  figures  much  larger  than  we  have  given 
above,  boasting  that  they  have  written  200,  250  or 
300  to  the  minute,  or  that  they  held  a  watch  while 
they  saw  some  one  else  do  it.  But  short  races,  on  se- 
lected sentences,  resulting  in  illegible  writing,  etc., 
yield  no  profitable  instruction  to  the  public. 

Short-horn,  a  most  popular  breed  of  cattle.  See 
page  205 . 

Shoulder.  A  horse  is  said  to  "  shoulder  "  when 
he  attempts  to  crush  the  leg  of  the  rider  against  a 
wall  or  fence. 

Shovel,  a  hand  implement  of  the  spade  kind,  used 
for  collecting  arid  lifting.  It  differs  from  a  true  spade 
in  having  a  broader  and  thinner  blade,  and  in  not 
being  used  for  cutting  and  digging.  Several  varieties 
of  it  are  used  on  the  farm,  for  widely  different  pur- 
poses, and  differing  from  one  another  in  the  size, 
form,  and  material  of  the  blade,  and  sometimes  has 
a  blade  of  wood,  edged  with  iron. 

Shrew  {Sorex),  a  genus  of  small  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, somewhat  allied  to  the  moles.  They  live  in 
holes  which  they  dig  in  the  earth,  and  seldom  leave 
them  until  the  evening,  and  they  feed  on  insects  and 
worms.  They  are  covered  with  hair,  and  have  on  each 
flank  a  small  band  of  stiff,  thickly  set  spines,  and  dis- 
charge from  that  part  of  the  body,  during  the  rutting 
season,  an  odorous  humor.  The  shrew  mouse,  or  com- 
mon shrew,  is  gray  above,  and  ash-colored  below,  and 
has  white  teeth,  exposed  ears  and  square  tail.  It  is 
found  in  fields,  meadows  and  similar  situations.  It 
has  been  accused,  but  falsely,  of  producing  a  disease 
in  horses  by  its  bite.  Cats  kill  it,  but  will  not  eat  it. 
Some  varieties  of  the  shrew  are  the  smallest  quadru- 
peds known.  They  are  about  two  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  about  one  and  a  half  inchs  long.  They 
are  found  all  over  the  world,  and  over  20  species  be- 
long to  North  America. 

Shrub,  a  woody  plant  inclining  to  send  up  a 
number  of  stems,  which  do  not  grow  to  the  height  of 
trees.  "  Shrubbery  "  denotes  a  number  or  collection 
of  shrubs,  referred  to  in  a  general  or  indefinite  man- 
ner. 

Shying  of  Horse:  see  page  711. 

Sickle,  a  curved  blade  or  knife,  set  in  a  handle, 
and  used  for  cutting  grain  and  grass.  A  number  of 
stalks  are  grasped  by  the  left  hand,  while  the  right 
hand  cuts  them  off  with  a  sickle,  by  first  thrustingthe 
instrument  around  the  bunch  of  stalks  and  then 
bringing  it  toward  one's  self.  This  method  of  reap- 
ing was  almost  the  universal  mode  up  to  the  close  of 
the  last  century — a  very  tedious  process  as  compared^ 
even  \vith  the  cradle.  Sickles  are  sometimes  used  at 
the  present  day,  in  trimming  small  lawns  about  the 
door  yard. 

The  term  "  sickle,"  as  well  as  that  of  "knife,"  since 
the  invention  of  reaping  machines,  is  also  used  to  de- 
note the  compound  saw-toothed  cutting  blade  of  such 
machine. 


1 150 


SICKNESS— SILK. 


Many  devices  for   sharpening  and  grinding  sickles 
have  been  invented,  but  the  one  represented  by  the 


Sickle  Grindgr. 

accompanying  engraving  illustrates  one  of  the  best. 
It  is  known  as  the  "  Improved  Boss  "  sickle-grinder. 

Sickness :  s  ee  Doctoring,  Medicine,  and  the  var- 
ious diseases. 

Side-board,  a  piece  of  furniture  or  cabinet  work 
with  compartments,  or  a  series  of  shelves  placed  on 
one  side  in  a  dming-room,  to  hold  dishes.  Very 
costly  and  ornamental  side-boards  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  homes  of  the  wealthy. 

Sight,  vision :  see  Eye.  Also,  a  small  point  of 
metal  or  aperture  on  a  gun  or  a  surveyor's  compass,  to 
guide  the  eye. 

Silent  Partner,  one  who  invests  his  capital  in  a 
business  house,  but  whose  name  does  not  appear  in 
the  firm.  His  liability  is  limited  to  the  extent  of  his 
share  of  the  capital,  except  in  cases  where  he  fails  to 
make  the  proper  publication  of  his  connection  with  the 
concern. 

Silk,  according  to  the  ancients,  was  first  brought 
from  Serica,  or  Serinda  (China),  whence  the  silk- 
worm was  introduced  into  other  countries,  but  not 
until  the  reign  of  Justinian,  when  two  Persian  monks 
succeeded  in  secretly  conveying  a  number  of  eggs  to 
^Constantinople  in  a  hollow  cane.  From  these 
eggs  Europe  and  America  have  been  supplied  with 
their  race  of  worms.  The  time  of  the  origin  of  the 
silk  manufacture  is  uncertain,  but  the  Chinese  ascribe 
the  invention  to  the  empress  Si-ling-shi,  wife  ofHoang- 
ti,  about  2,700  years  before  the  Christian  era.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  the  raw  material  had  been  exixirted 
from  China  long  before  the  insect  which  produced  it 


and  had  given  employment  to  extensive  manufacto- 
ries in  Persia,  Tyre,  etc.  Considerable  interest  has 
been  paid  to  the  culture  of  the  silk- worm  in  the  Unit- 
ed States,  but  the  only  two  States  where  the  industry 
is  profitably  carried  on  at  present  is  in  Kansas  and 
California. 

To  Remove  Resin  Spots  from  Silk.  Stains  by 
wax,  resin,  turpentine,  pitch  and  substances  of  a  resin- 
ous nature,  may  be  removed  by  pure  alcohol.  Applied 
to  stains  with  a  clean  sponge  it  will  remove  the  spots, 
because  alcohol  dissolves  the  resin.  The  silk  stains 
should  be  moistened  with  the  alcohol  first,  and  allow- 
ed to  remain  soaked  for  a  few  minutes.  Fresh  alco- 
hol is  then  applied  with  the  sponge,  and  with  a  slight 
rubbing  motion.  It  is  then  wiped  as  dry  as  possible 
and  afterward  allowed  to  dry  perfectly  in  the  open  air. 

To  Remove  Grease  from  Silk  or  Velvet.  Rub 
the  spots  on  the  silk  lightly  and  rapidly  with  a  clean 
soft  cotton  rag  dipped  in  chloroform,  and  the  grease 
will  immediately  disappear  without  injuring  the  color 
of  the  silk.  Repeat  the  operation  if  necessary.  Be 
careful  to  rub  the  article  rapidly  and  lightly,  then  fin- 
ish with  a  clean,dry  cloth.  If  these  precautions  are 
not  taken,  a  slight  stain  is  apt  to  be  the  result.  Very 
highly  rectified  benzine,  such  as  is  prepared  by  the 
first-class  druggists,  will  also  immediately  remove 
grease  from  the  most  delicate  colored  silks. 

Fluid  for  Removing  Grease  Stains  from  Silk, 
etc.  A  fluid  for  removing  greasy  stains  from  silk, 
etc,  may  be  prepared  by  mix'ng  2  ounces  rectified 
spirits  of  turpentine,  J^  ounce  absolute  alcohol,  and 
J^  ounce  sulphuric  ether. 

To  Restore  the  Color  of  an  Acid  Stain  on 
Violet  Silk.  Acid  dropped  on  violet-colored  silk 
destroys  the  color ;  to  restore  it,  brush  the  discolored 
silk  with  tincture  iodine ;  then,  after  a  few  seconds, 
saturate  the- spot  well  with  a  solution  of  hyposulphite 
of  soda,  and  dry  gradually ;  the  color  will  be  perfectly 
restored. 

To  Extract  Stains  from  White  Cotton  Goods 
AND  Colored  Silks.  Salts  of  ammonia,  mixed  with 
lime,  will  take  out  the  stains  of  wine  from  silk.  Spir- 
its of  turpentine,  alcohol  and  clear  ammonia,  are  all 
good  to  remove  stains  on  colored  silks.  Sjxjts  of 
common  or  durable  ink  can  be  removed  by  saturating 
them  with  lemon-juice,. and  rubbing  on  salt,  then  put- 
ting them  where  the  sun  will  shine  on  them  hot  for 
several  hours.  As  fast  as  it  dries,  put  on  more  lem- 
on-juice and  salt.  When  lemon-juice  cannot  be  ob- 
tained, citric  acid  is  a  good  substitute.  Iron-mold 
may  be  removed  in  the  same  way.  Mildew  and 
most  other  stains  can  be  removed  by  nibbing  on  soft 
soap  and  salt,  and  placing  it  where  the  sun  will  shine 
on  it  hot.  ^ 

To  Clean  Silk  Cord.  White  silk  cord  and  tassels 
can  be  cleaned  if  not  stained,  in  dry  corn  meal.  Rub 
the  meal  over  them  with  your  hands,  and  renew  with 
clean  corn  meal  till  they  are  thoroughly  cleansed. 

To  Wash  Silk,  see  page  909. 


SILO—SK/N. 


"S» 


Silo,  a  repository  for  preserving  green  fodder  in  its 
juicy  state,  to  be  fed  out  during  the  following  winter 
and  spring.     See  Ensilage. 

Silver,  a  metal  which  appears  to  have  been  known 
almost  as  early  as  gold,  and,  without  doubt,  for  the 
same  reason,  because  it  occurs  very  frequently  in  a 
state  of  purity  in  the  earth,  and  requires  but  an  ordin- 
ary heat  for  its  fusion.  Mention  is  made  of  silver  in 
the  book  of  Job,  which  is  considered  the  oldest  of  the 
books  contained  in  the  Old  Testament.  Pure  silver 
is  of  a  fine  white  color,  with  a  shade  of  yellow,  with- 
out either  taste  or  smell,  and,  in  brilliancy,  is  inferior 
to  none  of  the  metallic  bodies,  if  we  except  polished 
steel.  It  is  softer  than  copper  but  harder  than  gold. 
When  melted,  its  specific  gravity  is  10.47  i  when 
hammered,  10.51.  It  is  next  in  malleabihty  to  gold, 
having  been  beaten  out  into  leaves  only  i-ioo,oooth 
of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Its  ductility  is  no  less  re- 
markable. It  may  be  drawn  out  into  a  wire  much 
finer  than  a  human  hair, — so  fine,  indeed,  that  a  sin- 
gle grain  of  silver  may  be  extended  about  400  feet  in 
length.  Its  tenacity  is  such  that  a  wire  of  silver 
0.078  of  an  inch  in  diameter  is  capable  of  support- 
ing a  weight  of  187.13  pounds  avordupois  without 
breaking. 

The  processes  for  silvering  are  too  complicated  for 
home  work.  We  give  here  the  best  directions  for 
cleaning  silver,  etc. 

To  Test  Silver  and  Gold.  Slightly  wet  the 
metal  and  rub  gently  with  lunar  caustic.  If  the  metal 
be  genuine  the  six)t  will  scarcely  change  color ;  other- 
wise it  will  become  quite  black. 

To  Protect  Silver-Ware  from  Tarnishing. 
Coat  it  with  collodion.  First  warm  the  silver,  and 
then  with  a  brush  carefully  put  on  the  collodion  dilut- 
ed in  alcohol.  Such  a  coating  will  effectually  guard 
silver  from  tarnishing  by  the  sulphurous  atmosphere 
which  is  so  certain  to  be  present  when  coal  is  burned. 

To  Preserve  the  Polish  on  Silver.  Wash  it 
twice  a  week  (if  in  daily  use)  with  soft  soap  and  hot 
water,  and  polish  with  Canton  flannel. 

To  Clean  Silver.  With  a  nail-brush  or  tooth- 
brush wash  it  in  a  mixture  of  2  teaspoonfuls  of  am- 
monia with  a  quart  of  hot  soapsuds.  Or  boil  i  ounce 
finely  powdered  and  calcined  hartshorn  in  i  quart 
of  water,  and  while  on  the  fire  put  in  the  articles,  as 
many  as  the  vessels  will  hold ;  in  a  few  minutes  take 
them  out  and  dry  them  over  a  fire.  When  the  work 
is  done,  if  you  saturate  some  clean  woolen  rags  in  this 
solution  and  dry  them,  you  will  have  something  ex- 
cellent for  polishing  the  silver,  as  well  as  for  cleaning 
brass  door-knobs.  A  good  cleaning  powder  is  made 
as  follows :  Mix  1^  pound  jeweler's  rouge  with  ^ 
pound  prepared  chalk;  or,  i^  pound  levigated  putty 
powder,  yi  pound  burnt  hartshorn,  i  pound  prepared 
chalk  and  i  ounce  rose-pink. 

To  Remove  Ink  Stains  from  Silver.     Rub  them 
with  a  paste  made  with  chloride  of  lime  and  water. 
To  Clean  Silver  and  Other  Coins.    Bath  them 


2  or  3  seconds,  not  more,  in  a  weak  solution  of  cyan- 
ide of  potassium,  a  deadly  poison  to  be  obtained  at 
any  drug  store ;  then  immediately  wash  them  with  a 
very  fine  brush  in  soap-suds ;  rinse  in  clean  cold  water 
and  dry  in  box-wood  saw-dust,  to  be  had  at  jewelers'. 

German  Silver,  which  consists  of  %  copper  and 
]^  each  of  zinc  and  nickel,  is  cleaned  and  polished 
as  genuine  silver. 

Silver  Nitrate,  or  Lunar  Caustic.  See  page 
949- 

Single-Tree,  a  single  whiffle-tree,  or  the  cross  bar 
to  which  the  traces  are  attached. 

Sinus  (si'nus),  a  cavity  in  a  bone  or  other  part, 
wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  entrance ;  also,  a 
venous  canal  into  which  several  vessels  empty  them- 
selves. 

Sirloin,  the  loin  of  beef,  or  a  piece  of  beef  covering 
both  kidneys.  King  James  I.,  who  loved  good  eating, 
being  invited  to  dinner  by  one  of  his  noblemen,  and 
seeing  a  large  loin  of  beef  at  his  table,  drew  out  his 
sword  and  in  a  frolick  knighted  it  Sir-loin,  since 
which  time  it  has  ever  been  thus  known.  For  cut  of 
sirloin  see  article  Meat,  page  963. 

Sirup  (sirup),  or  Syrup,  the  sweet  juice  of  vegeta- 
bles or  fruits,  or  sugar  boiled  with  vegetable  infusions; 
also,  sweetened  liquid  of  any  kind.  To  make  cane 
sirup  see  pages  18 1-3,  and  maple  sirup,  see  article 
Sugar. 

Sit-fast  or  Warbles :  see  page  805. 

Sitz-Bath,  a  tub  for  bathing  in  sitting  posture;  al- 
so, the  act  of  bathing  the  portion  of  the  body  thus 
immersed.  This  is  one  of  the  most  imjwrtant  and 
general  of  all  hydropathic  processes,  as  it  is  beneficial 
in  almost  all  diseases.  Its  action,  according  as  to 
whether  it  is  hot,  warm,  tepid,  cool  or  cold,  short  or 
prolonged,  etc.,  is  to  relieve  congestion,  relieve  pain, 
invigorate  (act  as  a  tonic),  regulate  the  bowels  and 
urinary  processes,  etc.,  etc.  The  duration  of  the 
sitz-bath  (or  "hip-bath,"  or  "  sitting-bath,"  as  it  is  often 
called)  is  generally  short, — from  five  to  fifteen  min- 
utes, and  the  temperature  is  regulated  by  the  nature 
of  the  case  and  the  sensations  of  the  patient.  Prob- 
ably it  ought  never  to  be  administered  by  any  one 
not  educated  at  a  "  hygienic  institute,"  else  a  chance 
will  be  risked  of  doing  more  harm  by  it  than  good,  as 
indeed  with  all  hydropathic  processes.  Some  persons, 
however,  have  a  sufficient  degree  of  natural  medical 
instinct,  without  special  education,  to  work  into  these 
appliances  without  taking  leaps  in  the  dark. 

Skin,  the  natural  covering  of  the  body  of  animals. 
It  defines  the  form  of  the  body,  protects  it  from  in- 
jury, modifies  the  action  of  the  surrounding  elements, 
indicates  sensation  from  without  to  the  interior  parts, 
and  comprises  an  inconceivable  minute  and  complex 
texture  of  organisms  for  the  offices  of  touch,  of  exuda- 
tion, of  absorption,  and  of  many  of  the  parts  or  con- 
comitants or  dependences  of  the  highest  functions  of 
animal  life.  Volumes  might  be  written  to  describe 
the  wonders  of  the  skin. 


IIS2 


SKUNK— SLA  UGHTERING. 


Skunk,  an  Atneiican  quadruped  of  the  weasel 
family,  most  noted  for  the  excessively  repulsive  odor- 
ous fluid  which  it  discharges  upon  an  enemy  attack- 
ing it.  By  sight  it  is  most  readily  distinguished  at  a 
little  distance  by  the  white  stripe  along  its  back.  It 
is  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  but  its  legs  are  short,  as 
those  of  weasels  generally  are,  and  it  waddles  along 
somewhat  like  a  fat  pig.  It  commits  extensive  dep- 
redations upon  the  poultry  yard,  killing  the  birds, 
sucking  the  blood,  and  devouring  both  eggs  and  young 
fowl.  Skunks  may  be  caught  with  the  steel-trap  and  the 
fall.  Some  dogs  are  good  at  giving  the  alarm  when 
finding  them,  when  a  person  can  approach  with  a  gun 
and  kill  them.  One  can  go  up  and  kill  them  with  a 
club  or  pole,  but  will  be  almost  sure  to  be  sprayed 
with  the  fetid  liquid.  Garments  thus  damaged  can 
be  buried  in  the  earth  a  week  or  two,  and  in  that  way 
may  be  thoroughly  deodorized ;  or,  above  ground,  in 
much  less  time,  by  frequently  renewing  the  applica- 
tion of  clay,  or  by  a  frequent  sprinkling  of  dilute  car- 
bolic acid  for  a  week.  A  half-bushel  of  unslaked 
lime  scattered  about  in  a  cellar  will,  in  a  few  days, 
drive  away  (or  absorb,  rather)  all  the  odor  which  a 
skunk  may  have  left  in  it.  The  skins  of  these  ani- 
mals bear  a  good  price  in  the  market.  The  pole-cat 
of  Europe  is  of  the  same  "  family,"  but  of  a  different 
genus. 

Skunk  Cabbage,  a  coarse,  fetid  plant,  abundant 
in  many  cold,  swampy  places  throughout  the  North, 
and  formerly  in  some  repute  as  an  antispasmodic,  in 
doses  of  lo  to  20  grains  of  the  pulverized  root.  By 
age  the  dried  root  loses  its  virtue.  One  may  distin- 
guish it  in  early  spring  by  the  mass  of  pulp,  about 
the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  and  covered  with  small 
and  indistinct  flowers,  appearing  above  the  mud  be- 
fore the  leaves  unfold,  and  later  in  the  season  by  the 
plant's  having  larger  leaves  than  any  other,  as  large 
as  cabbage  or  rhubarb  leaves.  The  whole  plant  is 
characterized  by  the  same  peculiar  skunk-like  odor 
that  abounds  in  the  root. 

Slab,  the  outside  plank  of  a  log  of  timber  when 
sawn  into  boards;  also  a  flat,  thin  piece  of  marble,  or 
of  other  compact  stone. 

Slate,  a  dark-colored  stone,  easily  split  into  thin 
plates,  used  for  covering  houses,  making  tablets  for 
writing  upon,  etc.  Many  of  our  most  substantial  farm 
houses  are  covered  with  slate,  and  it  is  found  to  be  a 
good  and  durable  roof. 

Slaughtering  and  Dressing.  It  is  not  expected 
that  farmers  can  carry  out  the  same  details  in  this 
work  as  are  practiced  at  the  large  slaughter-houses 
in  cities,  where  they  have  steam  machinery.  We  give 
here  only  such  hints  as  are  practicable  in  the  country. 

All  animals  should  be  killed  when  they  are  in  the 
coolest  state,  or  when  respiration  is  the  least  active. 
The  flesh  will  then  keep  much  longer  fresh,  and  be 
more  beautiful,  sweet,  and  healthful.  But  when  killed 
in  a  heated  condition,  or  immediately  after  a  hard 
drive,  the  flesh  will  take  longer  to  cool  through,  s|X)il 
sooner,  and  the  flesh  and  fat  will  have  a  feverish,  dark 


look,  caused  by  its  being  full  of  blood,  and  of  course 
it  will  not  be  so  invitmg  to  the  eye  or  so  digestible  as 
when  better  killed. 

Beeves.  To  kill  the  animal,  shoot  him  with  a  rifle, 
sending  the  ball  into  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  a 
little  above  a  line  with  the  eyes ;  or,  in  the  absence 
of  the  rifle,  strike  him  at  the  sjxit  with  a  powerful 
blow  of  an  ax  or  sledge-hammer;  or  with  a  strong, 
sharp-pointed  instrument,  reach  the  same  jwint  in 
the  brain  by  striking  in  just  behind  a  line  connecting 
the  bases  of  the  horns.  This  last  process  is  known 
among  butchers  as  "  pithing,"  because  by  it  you  cut 
the  pith,  or  marrow,  of  the  animal,  and  thus  cause  in- 
stant death.  First  blindfold  the  beef,  so  he  will  not 
dodge  the  blow. 

As  soon  as  the  beef  falls,  cut  his  throat  with  a  sharp, 
long-bladed  butcher-knife,  making  the  gash  square 
across,  and  deep  enough  to  reach  the  spinal  column. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  thorough  bleeding. 

When  the  bleeding  ceases,  cut  the  skin  from  the 
throat  along  the  center  of  the  brisket  and  belly,  into 
a  line  between  the  center  of  the  thighs  to  the  tail. 
Divide  the  skin  of  the  legs  in  the  same  manner  on  the 
inside,  the  cuts  running  down  into  the  former  cut. 
Cut  off  the  fore-legs  at  the  knees,  and  the  hind  feet 
about  three  inches  below  the  hock-joints.  Remove 
the  skin  from  the  upper  side  of  the  animal  to  the 
back-bone ;  turn  him  over  and  skin  the  other  side. 
The  entrails  may  be  partly  removed  while  lying,  or 
the  carcass  may  be  first  strung  up  by  the  hind  legs 
(page  963).  Some  butchers  swing  the  animal  before 
skinning,  first  removing  the  skin  from  the  hind  legs, 
and  finishing  on  the  hooks. 

A  good  way  to  swing  the  carcass  is  to  fix  up  a  hori- 
zontal pole  eight  or  nine  feet  high,  then  place  a  heavy 
gambrel  under  the  large  tendons  above  the  hock-joints, 
similar  to  those  used  for  hogs,  and  applied  in  the 
same  manner.  The  gambrel  is  placed  over  the 
hooks,  or  may  be  attached  to  the  cross-nail  by  strong 
cords.  The  rack  is  then  raised  by  drawing  forward 
the  hind  legs  or  uprights,  until  the  carcass  swings 
from  the  ground.  The  entrails  may  then  be  removed. 
It  will  be  found  to  be  easier  to  skin  the  animal  in  this 
position  than  when  lying  on  the  ground.  The  brisket 
and  belly  should  be  opened  in  the  center  to  remove 
the  entrails.  The  carcass  is  then  washed,  after  cool- 
ing divided  into  halves,  by  splitting  the  back-bone, 
and  kept  hanging  from  12  to  24  hours,  that  all  ani- 
mal heat  may  entirely  escape.  Then  the  sides  may 
be  cut  into  quarters,  by  cutting  square  across,  about 
midway  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs.  Finally,  if 
for  curing,  cut  the  quarters  in  the  usual  manner,  as 
indicated  on  page  963. 

For  cutting  meats,  every  farmer  should  have  a  fine- 
toothed  saw,  as  all  bones  should  be  sawed,  and  not 
splintered  by  an  ax  or  cleaver. 

Beef  is  the  staple  animal  food  of  this  country,  and 
it  is  used  in  various  states — fresh,  salted,  smoked, 
dried,  etc.  When  intended  to  be  eaten  fresh,  the  ribs 
will  keep  the  best,  and  with  care  will  keep  five  or  six 
days  in  summer,  and  ten  days  in  winter,  even  without 


SLEEP— SMALL-POX. 


"^i-^^ 


freezing.  The  middle  of  the  loin  is  the  next  best,  and 
the  rump  the  next.  The  round  will  not  keeplongun- 
less  it  is  salted.  The  brisket  is  the  worst,  and  will 
not  keep  more  than  three  days  in  summer. 

Hogs.  Shoot  the  hog  or  stun  him  with  an  ax  or 
large  hammer.  Turn  hmi  square  on  the  back  and 
stick  him,  care  being  taken  that  the  knife  does  not 
penetrate  either  shoulder.  As  soon  as  bleeding  ceases, 
dip  in  the  scalding  vat.  Most  farmers  use  a  large 
barrel  or  hogshead  for  scalding.  These,  however,  are 
very  inconvenient,  and  anyone  who  has  ever  used  a 
vat  prepared  for  the  purpose,  would  never  use  a  bar- 
rel again. ,  The  vat  or  trough  can  readily  be  made  of 
two-inch  plank  by  any  farmer.  A  trough  six  feet  long, 
thirty  inches  wide,  and  two  feet  deep,  is  a  convenient 
size.  One  end  should  be  sloping  so  that  the  carcass 
of  the  hog  may  be  easily  thrust  in  and  pulled  out  of 
the  water.  A  wide  platform  on  a  level  with  the  top 
of  the  trough  should  be  constructed  at  the  sloping  end 
of  the  trough.  The  trough  should  be  nearly  filled 
with  boiling  water,  and  the  hog  immersed  in  it,  being 
turned  over  several  times.  When  the  hair  "  slips," 
or  is  readily  removed  from  the  ankles,  draw  the  car- 
cass out  on  the  platform,  and  scrape.  This  is  done 
with  blunt  knives,  hoes  or  sticks.  The  hind-legs  are 
then  split  at  the  hock  joint  and  a  gambrel  inserted 
under  the  main  cords,  with  which  to  hang  the  hog. 
In  removing  the  entrails  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
cut  into  any  of  them.  The  rack,  or  frame,  alx)ve  de- 
scribed may  be  used  as  well  in  hanging  hogs.  The 
carcass  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  left  hanging 
until  perfectly  cool.  After  the  hog  is  slaughtered  and 
dressed  it  should  hang  in  a  dry  place,  where  the  air 
can  circulate  freely,  for  twenty-four  hours  before  cut- 
ting, so  that  all  animal  heat  may  escape  and  the  meat 
become  firm. 

Sheep.  These  are  slaughtered  and  dressed  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  for  beeves.  Additional  care 
is  required  to  avoid  touching  the  cut  flesh  with  the 
hands  after  they  have  been  in  contact  with  the  wool 
or  outside  surface  of  the  skin,  as  that  would  taint  the 
meat  with  a  rank  odor. 

Poultry.     See  page  1065. 

Sleep :  see  page  833. 

Sleigh  (sla),  a  vehicle  on  sliding  "  runners,"instead 
of  wheels.  A  small,  one-horse  sleigh,  for  carrying  two 
persons,  and  corresponding  to  a  buggy,  is  called  a 
"cutter;"  if  rudely  made,  a  "pung."  A  large  sleigh, 
of  one  pair  of  runners,  and  employed  as  a  wagon,  is  a 
"  sleigh*"  or  "  sled  ;  "  if  of  two  pairs  of  short  runners, 
corresponding  to  the  four  wheels  of  a  wagon,  it  is  a 
pair  of  "  bob-sleds."  The  latter,  although  more  costly, 
is  more  substantial  and  convenient,  as  it  can  be 
turned  about  in  deep  snow  or  in  rough  places  with 
comparative  ease  and  without  wrenching  the  tongue 
or  fretting  the  team.  For  logging,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
have  the  "bobs"  connected  by  chains,  and  the  tongue 
attached  by  two  clevises  so  as  to  form  a  universal 
joint.  By  this  arrangement  the  bobs  can  go  "  bobbing  " 
up  and  down  more  freely  according  to  the  unevenness 
78 


of  the  road,  and  thus  not  be  overstrained  when  a  heavy 
log  is  upon  them. 

Slough  (pronounced  by  Webster  slou,  but  popular- 
ly in  the  West  called  sloo),  a  deep  miry  place;  a 
hole  full  of  mud.  Pronounced  sluff,  it  is  the  skin, 
particularly  the  cast  skin  of  a  serpent ;  the  part  that 
separates  from  a  foul  sore. 

Slink :  the  young  of  a  beast  born  before  its  time. 

Small-pox  (imriold).  Small-jxix,  like  the  measles, 
is  an  eruptive  fever,  propagated  by  contagious  matter, 
running  a  definite  course,  and  as  a  general  rule, — to 
which,  indeed,  the  exceptions  are  extremely  rare, — af- 
fecting persons  but  once  in  the  course  of  life.  Its 
origin  is  lost  in  antiquity,  and  the  common  opinion  is, 
that  in  these  days  it  never  arises  except  by  contagion. 

Symptoms.  In  from  seven  to  twenty  days  after  the 
exposure,  the  patient  experiences  a  sense  of  languor, 
weariness,  aching  pains  in  the  back  and  lower  extrem- 
ities, slight  creeping  chills,  with  flushes  of  heat,  and 
pain  in  the  forehead,  when  more  or  less  nausea  and 
vomiting,  thirst,  tenderness  of  the  stomach,  and  sore- 
ness of  the  fauces  rapidly  supervene.  The  eruption 
now  makes  its  appearance,  first  on  the  face,  neck,  and 
breast,  then,  on  the  following  day,  it  is  seen  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  body.  On  the  first  and  second 
days  of  the  eruption,  being  about  the  fourth  or  fifth  of 
the  fever,  the  inflamed  points  are  papular,  small,  glob- 
ular, red,  painful,  separate  and  distinct  from  each 
other,  the  interstices  being  of  the  natural  color  and 
appearance.  On  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  days,  they 
become  vesicular,  containing  a  little  yellowish  fluid, 
and  the  interstices  become  red. 

About  the  eighthday,  the  eruption  is  perfectly  pustu- 
lar. On  the  ninth  and  tenth,  the  pustules  become  or- 
bicular, and  are  filled;  finally,  on  the  eleventh,twelfth, 
and  thirteenth,  the  pustules  break  or  burst,  and  scabs 
are  formed. 

The  diagnosis  of  small-pox,  after  the  eruption  ap- 
pears, is  not  difficult;  and  before  this,  it  matters  not, 
as  the  treatment  does  not  vary  from  that  of  the  same 
symptoms  in  other  affections. 

When  the  fever  is  mild,  and  tne  strength  of  the  pa- 
tient keeps  up,  and  if,  moreover,  the  color  of  the  erup- 
tion keeps  of  a  bright  red,  there  is  not  much  danger. 
But  if  the  fever  runs  very  high,  and  there  is  much  de- 
lirium, the  danger  is  considerable.  When  there  is  a 
disposition  of  a  typhus  character,  and  the  pustules 
turn  dark  or  black,  and  the  strength  fails  suddenly,  the 
case  is  almost  certain  to  terminate  in  death. 

Prevention.  Vaccination  seems  to  be  an  effectual 
prophylactic  against  the  small-pox,  provided  that  the 
vaccine  matter  be  genuine,  and  produces  its  constitu- 
tional impression  on  the  subject.     See  Vaccination. 

Varioloid — Modified  Small-pox.  This  disease 
has  many  of  the  symptoms  common  to  the  genuine 
small-pox,  but  they  are  invariably  more  mild.  Vario- 
loid usually  occurs  but  once  during  life. 

The  following  particulars  may  be  regarded  as 
among  its  most  prominent  characteristics : 

I.  The  eruption  appears  in  clusters,  occurring  usu- 
ally from  the  second  to  the  fifth  day. 


JIS4 


SJifAJi  T-  WEED— SNEEZE. 


2.  Unlike  the  genuine  small-pox,  the  eruption  sel- 
dom or  never  enters  into  complete  suppuration. 

3.  Excepting  in  very  violent  cases,  the  eruption  is 
seldom  attended  with  much  fever,  and  the  desiccation 
or  scabbing  invariably  occurs  much  earlier  than  in 
real  small-pox,  and  instead  of  inclining  to  leave  pits 
or  depressions,  the  scabs  leave  rather  an  elevated  disk 
or  tubercle  of  a  red  appearance. 

Treatment.  When  the  fever  runs  high  and  the  skin 
is  dry  and  husky  (a  condition  unfavorable  to  the  nat- 
ural development  of  the  eruption),  the  body  should  be 
sponged  with  cold  water,  while  the  other  usual  means 
applied  in  fevers  are  instituted.  Lobelia,  thorough- 
wort,  saffron,  Seneca  snakeroot,  and  black  cohosh,  are 
all  valuable  here.  Should  it  be  needed,  the  lobelia 
may  be  pushed  to  the  extent  of  emesis.  It  is  always 
comfortable  in  fevers  to  have  the  air  rather  cool  and 
the  skin  moist,  and  this  seems  especially  favorable  in 
small-pox.  The  patient's  room  should  not  only  be 
kept  cool,  but  well  ventilated,  and  his  surface  should 
be  daily  sponged  with  tepid  or  cool  alkaline  washes, 
or  lime-water.  The  skin  should  be  kept  relaxed,  and 
the  determining  powers  to  the  surface. 

In  confluent  small-pox,  when  the  patient  inclines  to 
a  typhus  condition,  stimulants  and  tonics  must  be 
freely  used,  such  as  capsicum,  ginger,  compound  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh,  brandy,  wine,  columbo,  gentian  and 
poplar  bark. 

About  the  time  that  the  pustules  are  filling,  the  cir- 
culation should  be  well  sustained  with  light,  nourish- 
ing food  and  stimulating  medicine,  thus  to  prevent  the 
pitting  or  pock-mark;  and  with  a  view  to  this,  the  pa- 
tient should  be  well  guarded  against  picking  and 
scratching  the  pustules,  which  all  have  a  disposition 
to  do,  owing  to  the  intolerable  itching  that  attends  the 
drying  up  of  the  pustules.  If  the  face  be  oiled,  or 
covered  with  oiled  silk  so  as  to  shield  it  from  the  air, 
it  will  serve  to  prevent  the  pitting. 

The  black  cohosh  has  of  late  proved  itself  of  great 
utility  in  small-pox,  and  should  be  constantly  used 
throughout  the  treatment.  Indeed,  it  is  thought  by 
some  that  this  article  is  a  complete  preventive  of  the 
disease. 

Another  good  remedy  is  the  following:  Sulphate  of 
zinc  I  grain,  foxglove  (digitalis),  i  grain,  %  tea- 
spoonful  of  sugar ;  mix  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
water;  when  thoroughly  mixed  add  4  ounces  of  water; 
take  a  teaspoonful  every  hour. 

Smart-weed,  or  Water  Pepper,  is  a  very  common 
weed,  the  leaves  of  which  have  an  acrid  or  peppery 
taste.  It  is  a  stimulant,  diaphoretic,  diuretic,  em- 
menagogue  and  antiseptic.  In  cold  infusion,  it  is  very 
valuable   in   dropsy,  gravel  and  urinary  diseases. 

Smoke  is  considered  a  disinfectant,  but  its  fXDwer 
to  disinfect  is  very  weak,  its  main  virtue  consisting 
simply  in  overpowering  a  weaker  odor  which  is  sup)- 
posed  to  be  morbific.  The  germs  of  disease  cannot 
be  killed  by  smoke,  unless  it  is  poisonous  enough  to 
kill  any  large  animal.  In  preserving  meats,  it  simply 
keeps  away  vermin  until  they  can  be  cured.  See 
Bacon  and  Ham. 


Smoke-House,  a  small  house  where  meats  are 
smoked.  Its  plan  and  purpose  are  so  simple  that  no 
special  directions  concerning  it  are  necessary. 

Smoking :  see  Tobacco. 

Smut,  a  parasitic  fungus  growing  upon  grain.  On 
corn  it  generally  grows  into  a  mass  of  considerable 
size, — enough  to  fill  a  pint  cup  or  more.  It  propa- 
gates itself  by  spores  (minute  granules  answering  to 
seeds  or  cions),  and  these  have  great  vitality,  retain- 
ing their  germinating  power  for  several  years.  The 
species  of  smut  in  wheat  called  "  bunt  "  fills  the  grain, 
while  the  latter  retains  its  normal  size  and  projwr- 
tions.  On  pressing  the  grain,  it  bursts  easily,  exhibit- 
ing within  a  dark  smutty  mass  instead  of  the  natural 
farina.  "Rusts"  and  "brands"  are. also  parasitic 
fungi. 

All  these  growths  are  of  course  unfit  to  go  into 
food,  either  for  man  or  beast.  Some  of  them  are 
poisonous,  especially  ergot.  Corn  smut  has  been 
systematically  experimented  with,  and  found  to  be 
not  very  poisonous,  but  sufficiently  acrid  to  keep  up 
a  constant  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal  as  long 
as  it  is  eaten. 

To  prevent  smut  in  wheat,  soak  the  seed  in  brine 
and  then  dust  it  with  unslacked  lime.  The  same 
process  niight  prove  beneficial  with  corn.  Sowing 
the  land  with  salt  is  also  recommended.  Vigorous 
growth  is  the  best  general  preventive  of  all  fungoid 
and  parasitic  diseases. 

Snafi9.e,  a  bridle  consisting  of  a  slender  bit-mouth 
vnthout  branches. 

Snake.  For  remedies  for  snake-bites,  see  Bites, 
page  loi.  Most  snakes  are  non-poisonous,  and  their 
bites  (which  indeed  they  seldom  inflict)  are  as  harm- 
less as  that  of  a  toad.  All  water  snakes  in  the  North, 
for  example,  never  bite  any  one,  and  if  they  did  they 
would  do  no  more  harm  than  a  deep  brier  scratch 
would  do.  In  the  extreme  northern  portion  of  the 
United  States  the  rattlesnakes  are  the  only  venomous 
species ;  further  South  are  the  copperhead,  water 
moccasin,  viper,  etc. 

Snakeroot.  A  dozen  or  more  wild  medicinal 
plants  in  this  country  have  been  called  "  snakeroot." 
We  have  Seneca,  Black,  White,  Button,  Virginia, 
Canada,  Heart,  etc.,  snakeroots;  and  like  nearly  all 
other  weeds,  if  you  take  small  doses  the  effect  is 
"  alterative  "  and  "tonic,"  little  larger  doses,  "  diapho- 
retic "  and  "diuretic,"  a  little  larger  still,  "pureative" 
and  "laxative,"  and  largest  of  all  "emetic'  It  is 
pretty  evident  now  that  "milk  sickness  "in  cattle  is 
due  to  their  eating  "  white  snakeroot,"  or  Eupatorium 
ageratoides. 

Sneeze,  to  expel  the  air  suddenly  from  the  lungs, 
by  an  involuntary,  explosive  impulse,  to  carry  off 
some  foreign  substance  from  the  nose.  Most  of  the 
air  thus  emitted,  however,  is  of  necessity  passed  out 
through  the  mouth.  To  prevent  sneezing,  as  soon  as 
you  perceive  the  sensation  coming,  commence  emit- 
ting the  breath  through  the  nose  gently  and  steadily ; 


SNIPE— SOAP. 


"5S 


or,  with  the  tips  of  your  fingers  press  slightly  against 
the  region  of  the  gums  of  the  upper  teeth  in  front,  im- 
mediately below  the  partition  of  the  nose ;  or  rub  the 
nose  briskly. 

Snipe,  the  name  of  several  spqcies  of  game  birds, 
of  widely  different  genera.  The  principal  inland 
species  is  called  Wilson's,  American,  Jack,  etc.;  but 
the  waodcock  also  is  a  true  snipe.  Several  species 
flourish  along  sea  beaches.  For  an  illustration  of 
snipe-shooting,  see  cut  facing  page  626. 

Snore,  to  breathe  with  a  rough,  heavy  noise  in 
sleep.  It  is  generally  caused  by  the  person's  sleep- 
ing on  his  back,  with  his  mouth  open,  permitting  the 
uvula,  or  soft  palate,  to  fall  down  against  the  trachea 
and  obstructing  the  respiration.  Some  persons,  over- 
burdened with  fatty  deix>sits,  will  snore  in  all  recum- 
bent ixjsitions,  even  with  the  mouth  closed,  when 
they  are  asleep.  If  an  individual  desires  to  sleep  on 
his  back  and  at  the  same  time  avoid  snoring,  he  must 
have  a  bandage  extending  over  the  head  and  under- 
neath the.  lower  jaw,  to  prevent  the  latter  from  falling 
down. 

Snuff,  the  charred  jxjrtion  of  a  lamp  or  candle- 
wick;  pulverized  tobacco  or  other  substance,  to  be 
taken  into  the  nose.  The  scents  generally  used  in 
the  latter  are  tonka  beans,  and  their  oil  or  essence ; 
ambergris,  musk,  civet,  and  their  essences.  "Ce- 
phalic "  snuff  consists  of  dried  asarabacca  leaves,  3 
parts;  marjoram,  i  part;  lavender  flowers,  i  part; 
these   are  rubbed  together. 

Soap,  a  compound  resulting  from  the  combination 
of  an  oil  or  a  fat  with  an  alkali  or  an  alkaline  earth. 
It  was  invented  by  the  Gauls  at  a  period  prior  to 
historical  record,  and  has  long  been  a  common  article 
of  manufacture,  in  many  ways,  of  many  varieties  and 
in  many  lands. 

Hard  soap  owes  its  distinctive  character  to  soda; 
soft  soap,  to  potash;  white  soap,  to  comparatively 
pure  tallow ;  yellow  or  brown  soap,  to  a  mixture  of 
tallow  and  resin,  and  mottled  soap,  to  the  depression 
of  lye  throughout  it  in  the  last  stage  of  its  manufact- 
ure, or  to  the  admixture  of  sulphate  of  iron,  oxide  of 
manganese  and  other  coloring  substances.  The  de- 
sirable properties  and  the  detergent  uses  of  all  com- 
mon soaps  are  so  universally  known  as  not  to  require 
any  remark. 

The  principles  of  soap  as  a  detergent  substance  are 
so  fully  laid  down  in  the  article  Laundry  that  we 
need  make  no  further  observations  upon  that  point 
in  this  connection. 

The  old-fashioned,  pioneer  method  of  making  soap 
at  home  consisted  in  the  simple  process  of  draining 
water  through  wood  ashes,  boiling  it  down  until  it  is 
strong  enough  to  "bear  up  an  egg,"  putting  in  all  the 
old  animal  grease  that  could  be  found  about  the 
premises, — old,  rancid,  maggoty,  with  rinds,  bones, 
etc.,  and  then  boiling  this  mess  until  it  was  "soap;" 
but,  like  everything  else,  as  society  advances,  methods 
multiply  and  are  refined,  as  human  wants  multiply. 

In  the  preparation  of  lye,  water  which  is  perfectly 


clear  and  free  from  organic  matters,  and  even  free 
from  that  which  makes  it  hard,  should  be  used.  Hard 
water  for  lye  will  make  good  soap,  but  it  is  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  alkali  which  has  to  be  neutralized.  At 
the  present  day  the  alkalies  can  be  purchased  very 
cheaply  at  groceries,  and  much  soap  is  made  from 
commercial  potash  and  soda.  Instead  of  the  hen's 
egg,  the  good  soap-maker,  in  order  to  prepare  his  lye 
for  the  different  kinds  of  soap,  will  use  a  simple  and 
cheap  hydrometer,  that  of  Baume  being  in  common 
»se. 

Animal  fats  and  oils  are  used  for  the  cruder  soaps, 
and  vegetable  oils  for  toilet  and  fancy  soap.  There 
are  several  methods  of  making  almost  any  kind  of 
soap,  but  we  will  endeavor  to  give  the  simplest  and 
most  practical. 

Be  careful  to  use  soda  and  potash  in  which  there 
are  no  foreign  salts,  as  such  inferior  kinds  prevent  a 
good  union  with  the  fats,  and  good  suds  is  not  obtain- 
ed. But  when  the  soap  has  been  separated  from  the 
lye  by  a  salt,  lyes  containing  salt  may  be  used.  The 
lye  must  be  caustic,  in  all  operations,  else  it  will  not 
decom[X)se  the  fat,  for  transforming  100  pounds  of 
fat  into  soap  about  14  pounds  of  caustic  soda  are 
necessary  ;  but  generally  more  is  employed,  because 
the  soda  used  in  this  country  is  never  a  pure  hydrate. 
Some  add  in  the  beginning  the  whole  amount  of  lye, 
and  others  add  it  gradually  in  small  quantities.  The 
last  mode  is  preferable,  for  water  retards  saponifica- 
tion, as  the  resulting  soap,  being  insoluble  in  the 
strong  lye,  forms  a  smeary  mass,  that  surrounds  the 
decomposed  fat  and  impedes  the  action  of  the  lye  upon 
the  fat.  But  when  one-fourth  of  the  lye  is  added  in 
the  beginning,  it  soon  forms  an  emulsion  with  the  fat, 
which  in  heating  gradually  becomes  clearer,  produc- 
ing a  transparent  soap  solution,  with  intermingled  fat 
drops.  From  time  to  time  in  order  to  test  it,  a  drop 
of  the  paste  should  be  put  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
when,  if  there  still  be  free  alkali  in  it,  a  burning  sens- 
ation will  be  produced,  in  which  case  the  boiling  must 
be  continued  until  a  sweetish  taste  is  experienced. 
More  lye  can  then  be  added  under  constant  stirring, 
until  the  entire  quanrity  is  consumed.  At  this  stage 
the  contents  of  the  kettle  are  transformed  into  a 
homogeneous,  clear  liquid  in  which  we  can  discover 
neither  lye  nor  fat.  If  this  liquid  be  perfectly  clear, 
it  shows  that  the  right  proportion  of  fat  and  lye  has 
been  applied.  Should  saponification  progress  too 
slowly,  a  weak  lye  of  one  to  two  degrees  Beaume  may 
be  added,  and  even  soap  scraps  will  facilitate  the 
process.  By  heating  with  an  open  fire  that  portion 
of  the  paste  which  thickens  first  will  sometimes  be- 
come attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  and  burn- 
ed. This  burning  is  indicated  by  a  black  smoke 
passing  off  here  and  there  with  a  vapor.  In  such  a 
case  the  fire  should  forthwith  be  reduced  and  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  strongest  lye  be  added  to 
prevent  further  mischief.  By  these  means  a  slight 
separation  of  the  soap  from  the  lye  is  occasioned,  and 
the  contact  between  the  former  and  the  metallic  sur- 
face destroyed.      In  all  cases,  however,  the  operation 


iiS6 


SOAP. 


will  be  complete  when,  having  taken  out  the  stirring 
rod,  the  paste  no  longer  drops  from  it  but  slides  down 
in  long  threads.  This  appearance  is  called  "spin- 
ning "  of  the  soap. 

The  next  operation  is  called  "  cutting  up  the  pan," 
which  is  done  by  stirring  into  the  mass  soda  lye  con- 
taining salt,  or  a  solution  of  salt  or  dry  salt.  Soap 
does  not  dissolve  in  brine  or  strong  caustic  lye.  Of 
all  soaps  the  cocoanut-oil  soap  is  the  most  remark- 
able, for,  being  dissolved  by  a  brine  solution,  it  is  pe- 
culiarly serviceable  for  washing  in  salt  water ;  hence 
its  name,  "  Marine  Soap."  This  soap  becomes  so 
hard  that,  when  separated  from  the  glycerine,  it  can- 
not be  cut  with  a  knife,  and  consequently  the  salting 
operation  should  not  be  performed,  but  the  soap  boil- 
ed in  strong  lye  with  one  water. 

The  following  is  a  method  by  which  the  salting 
operation  is  performed :  one  person  gradually  adds 
the  brine  or  dry  salt  while  another  agitates  the  paste 
with  a  stirring  rod  from  below  upward.  This  is  done 
under  gentle  boiling.  Be  careful  to  add  the  salt  in 
right  proporrion,  namely,  about  one-sixth  at  the  time; 
After  half  of  it  has  been  dropped  in,  the  soap  should 
be  allowed  to  boil  for  about  ten  minutes  before  any 
more  is  put  in.  According  to  concentration  12  to  16 
pounds  of  salt  are  necessary  for  100  pounds  of  fat,  in 
order  to  separate  the  formed  soap  from  the  surplus  of 
water.  The  separation  is  perfect  when  the  water  runs 
off  from  the  curdy  mass,  when  a  sample  is  taken  up 
with  the  paddle  while  hot  it  is  not  sticky,  and  when  it 
will  harden  into  scales  by  rubbing  some  of  it  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand  with  the  thumb  nail.  The  process 
is  done  when  the  surface  spUts  up  into  several  patch- 
es separated  from  each  other  by  deep  furrows,  in 
which  the  appearance  is  that  of  dry  slabs,  instead  of 
froth.  These  slabs  are  arranged  by  the  escaping  va- 
por one  above  another.  The  fire  should  be  extin- 
guished when  the  soap,  which  was  always  covered 
with  froth  and  bubbles,  suddenly  sinks,  and  the  froth 
breaks  up  into  roundish  massive  grains,  distinctly 
separated  from  each  other,  and  from  the  saline  solu- 
tion. The  salting  being  completed,  the  mass  should 
remain  quiet  for  several  hours,  and  then  the  under 
lye  drawn  off  by  a  faucet. 

The  object  of  "  clear  boiling  "  is  to  obtain  hardness, 
consistency  and  complete  neutrality  of  the  soap.  Be- 
gin to  boil  the  paste  gently  with  tolerably  strong  lyes. 
Should  the  soap,  during  the  intervals,  become  too 
liquid,  which  may  happen  if  the  lye  has  been  too  weak, 
add  some  handfuls  of  salt,  or  the  soap  boiled  with  a 
weak  lye  containing  salt.  If,  after  each  addition  of 
lye  there  should  be,  in  taking  up  a  portion  with  the 
paddle,  some  difficulty  in  running  off  the  lye,  water 
must  be  added,  that  a  quicker  union  of  the  lye  and 
the  fat  may  take  place.  The  process  is  ended  when 
large,  regular  and  dry  scales  appear  on  the  surface, 
and  when  these  give  elastic,  brilliant,  white  scales, 
and  are  easily  pulverized  by  rubbing  in  hands.  The 
soap  should  then  be  covered,  left  for  some  time,  and 
eventually  removed  in  the  ladles.  The  spent  lye 
does  not  have  to  be  of  an  alkaline  test 


Marbling  results  from  the  sulphurets  of  iron  and 
sodium  in  the  soda,  but  as  some  kinds  of  soda  have 
not  a  sufficiency  of  these  compound's,  marbling  can  be 
induced  by  adding  copperas,  previously  dissolved,— 
in  quantity  about  four  ounces  of  dry  copperas  to  100 
pounds  of  fat.  Mottled  soap  as  thus  prepared  is  the 
"  Castile  soap "  of  commerce.  The  streaks  in  the 
course  of  time  assume  a  brownish  color.  To  be  suc- 
cessful with  this  process,  be  careful  to  run  the  soap 
into  the  frames  as  soon  as  it  shows  signs  of  being  in 
that  condition  where  the  operator  has  been  successful 
in  his  own  experience :    the  process  is  a  difficult  one. 

Hard  soap  is  made  by  the  use  of  soda,  and  soft  by 
the  use  of  potash,  and  "grained"  soaps  are  those 
from  which  the  under-lye  has  been  drained,  as  before 
described,  and  "  filled  "  soaps  are  those  in  which  the 
whole  contents  of  the  vessel  are  kept  together  and 
sold  as  soap.  Cocoanut-oil  soap,  an  exception  to  the 
rule,  is  soluble  in  brine,  and  it  is  employed  in  the 
making  of  filled  soaps ;  weak  lyes  produce  light  soap, 
and  strong  lyes  heavy  soap, — that  of  25  to  30°  B. 
heavier  than  water.  Sometimes  a  small  addition  of 
soda  sulphate  is  made  to  prevent  too  great  solubility 
of  the  soap,  but  it  interferes  with  the  practical  use  of 
the  same  if  too  great  quantity  is  introduced ;  the  soap 
ought  not  to  contain  more  than  one  per  cent,  of  it.  For 
hardening,  one-third  to  one-fourth  of  the  fat  is  fre- 
quently substituted  by  rosin. 

For  making  hard  soap,  about  one  pwund  of  soda  is 
employed  for  eight  pounds  of  fat,  on  an  average.  To 
make  no  mistake  in  the  proportions,  the  strength  of 
the  soda  and  the  character  of  the  fat  must  be  exactly 
ascertained. 

Rosin,  when  incorporated  with  a  soap  to  a  certain 
amount,  will  make  it  more  soluble  and  detersive. 
The  lighter  the  rosin,  the  more  it  is  valued;  15  per 
cent,  of  rosin  with  85  per  cent,  of  tallow  is  probably 
the  best  limit ;  beyond  that  the  soap  is  depreciated  in 
color,  firmness  and  qualty.  Even  for  the  cheapest 
grade  the  quality  of  rosin  should  not  exceed  33  per 
cent.  Rosin  is  saponified  with  alkali;  for  every  ten 
pounds  of  rosin  about  three  quarts  of  lye  of  300  B.  are 
needed.  Stir  and  beat  thoroughly  for  half  an  hour, 
pass  through  a  sieve  and  then  fill  into  frames,  where 
it  should  be  well  stirred  and  crutched.  Some  palm 
oil,  when  saponified  with  tallow,  will  very  much  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  the  soap. 

To  make  rosm  soap,  to  eight  gallons  of  lye,  while 
boiling,  throw  rosin  in  every  five  or  six  minutes,  each 
time  one  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  until  130  pounds 
have  been  added.  The  rosin  must  be  previously  well 
pulverized  and  one  should  stir  while  another  throws 
in,  to  prevent  its  rising  to  the  top.  In  this  operation 
it  is  not  necessary  to  keep  the  contents  actually  boil- 
ing, but  near  the  boiling  point.  Constant  stirring  is 
required,  to  keep  the  rosin  from  collecting  into  lumps. 
Saponification  will  be  finished  in  two  hours. 

To  make  cocoanut-oil  soap,  use  lye  25  to  30  strong, 
which  will  saponify  an  equal  weight  of  cocoanut  oil. 
Heat  the  oil  and  lye  together  for  one  or  two  hours, 
continually  srirring  it,  when  the  mass  will  commence 


SOAP— SOD. 


"57 


thickening;  moderate  the  heat  and  continue  the  stir- 
ring; after  awhile  the  mass  becomes  a  white  scmi-sohd, 
when  it  should  be  immediately  filled  into  the  frame. 
Palm  oil  is  rarely  used  as  a  soap  stock,  but  gener- 
ally with  a  mixture  of  rosin,  when  it  yields  a  yellow 
soap.  For  white  soap  they  are  employed  in  the 
bleached  state. 

Transparent  Soaps  are  prepared  by  dissolving 
well  dried  soaps  in  alcohol.  Take  good  suet  soap, 
cut  it  into  very  thin  ribbons,  dry  it  on  strong  paper, 
pulverize  it  in  a  marble  mortar,  pass  it  through  a  fine 
sieve  and  then  dissolve  the  powder  in  strong  boiling 
alcohol.  While  the  soap  is  liquid,  put  in  the  colors 
and  tlie  perfumes.  Three  and  a  half  gallons  alcohol 
about  85-iooths  as  heavy  as  water  are  required  for  50 
pounds  of  soap. 

To  color  soap  red,  use  vermilion  or  chrome  red ; 
violet,  a  fuchsine  dissolved  in  glycerine;  brown  and 
red  brown,  use  caramel  and  various  kinds  of  umber; 
for  green,  take  chrome  green  ;  for  blue,  smalts  or  ultra- 
marine; for  yellow,  take  palm  butter;  for  rose,  the 
tincture  of  carthamine  or  archil;  for  yellow  and  orange 
a  tincture  of  annotto  or  saffron ;  for  blue  and  violet, 
a  tincture  of  litmus,  or  of  alkanet  root,  or  Prussian 
blue,ora  very  little  pure  indigo  in  impalpable  powder; 
for  black,  common  lampblack. 

To  Perkume  a  so3.p  the  process  is  very  simple, 
though  much  mechanical  work  is  recjuired,  as  the  soap 
has  to  be  taken  hard  and  drj',  cut  into  thin  shavings 
by  machinery,  perfumed  in  air-tight  cylinders  kept  m 
motion. 

Windsor  Soap  is  made  of  one  part  of  olive  oil  to 
eight  or  nine  of  ox  suet  or  tallow,  with  a  lye  of  caustic 
soda.  The  fatty  basis  of  French  Windsor  soap  is  usu- 
ually  hog's  lard,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  palm  oil. 
Brown  Soap  is  so  made  with  umberor  brown  ochre. 
Honey  Soap  is  made  of  one  part  each  of  olive  oil 
and  palm  oil  soaps  to  three  parts  of  white  curd  soap, 
scented  with  essential  oils,  as  that  of  rose  geranium  or 
of  ginger  grass,  supported  or  not  with  a  little  oil  ber- 
gamot  or  verbena. 

Musk  and  Ambergris  Soaps  are  scented  with  the 
essence  or  oil  of  musk,  supported  with  a  little  of  the 
oil  of  bergamot,  cinnamon  and  cloves. 

Glycerinated  Soap  has  about  one-fifth  of  its 
weight  glycerine  and  scented  variously. 

Almond  Soap  is  white  curd  soap  with  one-ninth  to 
one-seventh  of  olive  oil  soap,  scented  with  oil  of  al- 
monds, I  ounce,  to  45^  or  5  pounds  of  soap. 

Violet  Soap  is  strongly  scented  with  essence  of 
orris  root  and  colored  or  not  with  tincture  of  litmus 
or  a  httle  levigated  smaltz,  ultra-marine  or  indigo. 

Bouquet  Soap  is  made  of  the  finest  white  curd  soap, 
\tVt.  pounds,  olive  oil  soap  25^  pounds,  oil  of  berga- 
mot one  ounce,  i  Y^  drams  each  of  oil  of  cassia,  oil  of 
cloves,  oil  of  sassafras  and  oil  of  thyme,  i  dram  of 
neroli  and  two  ounces  levigated  brown  ochre.  There 
are  other  formulas. 
Rose  Soap  is  perfumed  with  the  finest  otto  of  roses, 


with  the  essentials  in  the  usual   proportions.     There 
are  several  formulas. 

Cinnamon,  lavender,  orange  flower  and  other  soaps 
are  also  made. 

Shaving  Paste  may  be  made  of  white  soft  soap 
4  ounces,  finest  honey  soap  2  ounces,  olive  oil  i  ounce, 
sodium  carbonate  i  dram  and  one  or  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  water. 

A  good  shaving  essence  or  fluid  may  be  also  of  one- 
fourth  of  a  ixjund  of  white  hard  soap  in  shavings,  one 
pint  of  rectified  spirits  and  one  gill  of  water.  There 
are  several  other  recipes. 

Hard  Soap.  It  is  a  simple  matter  to  make  hard 
soap,  which  is  not  only  agreeable  to  use,  but  which 
has  the  greatest  merit  of  cleanliness.  To  seven  pounds 
of  tallow  use  three  pounds  of  rosin,  two  pounds  of 
potash,  and  six  gallons  of  water;  boil  for  three  hours, 
or,  better  still,  for  five  hours ;  turn  from  the  kettle  into 
a  wash-tub;  let  it  stand  all  night.  In  the  morning 
cut  into  bars,  and  lay  them  on  a  table  or  board  in  the 
sun  to  harden  for  two  or  three  days.  This  quantity 
will  last  a  family  of  four  persons  a  year  if  used  for  or- 
dinary household  purposes. 

Another.  6  jxiunds  of  unslacked  lime,  6  jwunds 
sal-soda,  5  gallons  soft  water;  when  dissolved  and 
settled,  pour  off,  and  add  6  pounds  of  fat,  and  boil 
until  thick,  and  pour  into  a  tub  that  water  has  stood 
in;  when  cold  cut,  and  put  where  it  can  dry.  It  is  a 
first-class  soap. 

To  Make  Hard  Soap  with  Concentrated  Lye 
or  Potash.  Take  two  wooden  buckets  of  hard  water 
to  one  box;  when  this  comes  to  a  boil  add  five  jxjunds 
of  grease  of  any  kind  (the  cleaner  the  grease  the 
whiter  the  soap  will  be),  boil  slowly  until  it  gets  thick, 
which  it  will  take  about  a  half  day ;  allow  it  to  cool 
over  night ;  cut  in  square  pieces  to  dry.  When  per- 
fectly dry  take  each  piece  and  wrap  it  in  a  piece  of 
newspaper;  do  so  with  all  you  have  made,  then  pack 
it  in  a  box  with  a  tight  cover,  set  in  a  dry  place,  and 
keep  it  well  covered. 

Erasive  Soap.  Take  two  pounds  of  Castile  soap 
and  half  a  pound  of  carbonate  of  potash  dissolved  in 
half  a  pint  of  water.  Cut  the  soap  in  thin  slices  and 
boil  it  with  the  potash  until  it  is  thick  enough  to  mold 
into  cakes.  Then  add  half  an  ounce  of  alcohol  and 
the  same  of  camphor  and  ammonia.  Stir  till  it  begins 
to  cool.  When  cold  cut  in  cakes  and  dry  in  the  sun. 
This  is  excellent  to  wash  tinware  and  pantry  shelves 
and  to  clean  grease  spots  out  of  carpets  and  clothing. 
Adulteration.  Perfumed  toilet  soap  is  generally 
adulterated  with  ground  glass,  soluble  glass,  silex, 
pipe  clay,  rotten  stone,  borax,  plaster  of  Paris,  tin  crys- 
tal, magnesia,  pumice-stone  and  oatmeal  and  colored 
with  such  jwisonous  substances  as  vermilion,  Venerian 
red  and  carmine,  ultra-marine  green  and  blue,  pot  pig- 
ment green,  copperas,  Spanish  brown,  yellow  and  scar- 
let anilines  and  burnt  umber. 

Sod,  in  plowing,  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of 
the  unplowed  "land,"or  the"  furrow  slice."  Theword 
also  means  a  turf  of  grass. 


I 


II58 


SODA— SOIL. 


Soda,  a  mineral  alkali :  called  mineral  because  it  was 
■  originally  dug  out  of  the  ground  in  Africa  and  other 
countries.  It  is  largely  prepared  from  sea-weed.  In 
the  mineral  kingdom  it  is  abundant  as  a  silicate  and  in 
the  form  chloride  of  sodium,  or  salt.  Kelp,  barilla,  and 
soda  ash  all  owe  their  value  to  the  carbonate  of  soda. 
The  uses  of  soda  for  laundry  purposes  are  given  on 
page  927.  Soda  in  its  various  salts  is  also  a  useful 
article  in  culinary  art,  in  medicine  and  as  a  constituent 
of  the  soil. 

Soda  bears  the  same  relation  to  its  metallic  base, 
sodium,  as  potassa  does  to  potassium,  but  its  basic 
and  alkaline  action  is  rather  less  powerful  than  that  of 
potassa.  Pure  soda  is  obtained  from  a  carbonate  of 
soda.  Glauber's  salt  is  sulphate  of  soda.  Carbonate 
of  soda  is  prepared  by  lixiviating  the  ashes  of  sea- 
weed, or  from  sulphate  of  soda.  The  relation  of  soda 
to  the  acids  and  the  nomenclature  of  its  salts  are  set 
forth  in  a  chart  form  on  page  1094. 

"  Soda  water"  is  not  just  what  its  name  indicates, 
there  being  no  soda  in  it.  It  is  carbonic-acid  water. 
Its  manufacture  is  impossible  without  a  reservoir  two 
or  three  times  as  strong  as  a  steam  boiler.  The  car- 
bonic acid  is  made  by  mixing  sulphuric  acid  with 
marble  dust,  and  the  sirups  are  only  flavoring.  These 
sirups,  by  the  way,  are  generally  drug  imitations  of 
the  fruit  juices. 

Soil,  the  covering  or  the  uppermost  stratum  of  the 
earth's  crust.  It  is  understood  by  general  observers 
as  simply  the  ground,  without  any  reference  to  either 
its  depth  or  constitution  or  uses;  by  geologists, as  the 
superficial  alluvial  or  diluvial  deposit  of  the  earth, 
to  whatever  depth  it  possesses  homogeneity  of  char- 
acter; by  botanists,  as  the  portion  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face which  supports  vegetation,  in  all  its  classes  and 
kinds,  whether  natural  or  with  the  aid  of  culture,  and 
by  farmers  and  gardeners  as  the  jwrtion  of  the  earth's 
surface  which  is  stirred  by  the  plow  or  the  spade,  or 
otherwise  subjected  to  tillage.  The  soil,  in  the  farmer's 
sense,  is  sometimes  of  the  same  depth  as  the  mold, 
•sometimes  not  so  deep,  and  sometimes  deeper. 

Classification  of  Soils.  A  good  classification  of 
soils,  together  with  a  simple,  fixed,  comprehensive, 
and  well  defined  nomenclature,  is  essential  for  en- 
abling farmers  to  form  comparative  estimates  of  the 
different  soils  of  their  own  farm  or  district,  to  trace 
the  resemblances  between  these  and  the  soils  of  other 
districts ;  to  decide  how  far  any  peculiar  treatment  of 
one  soil  may  be  profitably  imitated  ujxin  another,  to 
determine  the  kind  and  amount  of  mineral  admixture 
which  any  soil  may  require  for  its  proper  textural 
amelioration,  and  especially  to  reap  fair  or  full  bene- 
fit, or  even  to  obtain  clear  ideas  or  intelligible  hints, 
from  the  multitudes  of  reports  of  valuable  experiments 
on  manures,  methods  of  reclamation,  improvements 
in  culture,  and  other  similar  subjects,  which  abound 
in  the  agricultural  periodicals  of  the  day,  and  founded 
entirely  on  the  relative  proportions  of  the  four  chief 
constituents  of  all  soils,  clay,  sand,  lime  and  humus. 
In  this  we  may  begin  with  those  soils  which  contain 
little  or  no  calcareous  or  limy  matter,  at   the  outside 


not  so  much  as  five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  mass. 
These,  supposing  them  to  possesss  50  per  cent,  of 
clay,  are  placed  under  the  head  of  argillaceous  soils, 
.and  are  distinguished  into  two  orders,  the  first  wholly 
destitute  of  lime,  the  second  containing  less  than  5 
per  cent,  of  that  earth.  Each  of  these  orders  is  then 
sub-divided  into  three  species,  distinguished  as  rich, 
poor,  and  intermediate,  according  to  the  proportion  of 
humus  or  vegetable  mold  present  in  them.  If  the 
amount  of  this  ingredient  be  not  more  than  one-half 
per  cent,  the  soils  are  called  jX)or,  as  the  fertility  of  a 
soil  is  in  all  cases  influenced  by  the  proportion  of  this 
ingredient.  If  it  varies  from  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent,  it  is 
called  intermediate;  if  from  1.5  to  5  per  cent,  it  is 
distinguished  as  rich. 

The  second  class  of  soils  comprehends  those  which 
contain  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  clay,  and  is  de- 
nominated loamy.  These  likewise  are  divided  into 
two  orders,  the  one  with,  the  other  without,  lime;  and 
again  into  three  species,  according  to  the  proportion 
of  vegetable  mold  present  in  them. 

The  third  class  embraces  those  soils  which  contain 
not  more  than  30  nor  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  clay. 
They  are  called  sandy  loams,  and  are  subdivided  into 
orders  and  species,  on  the  same  principle  as  before. 

In  the  next,  or  fourth  class,  under  the  denomination 
of  loamy  lands,  are  ranged  those  soils  which  contain 
from  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  clay,  the  remainder,  with 
the  exception  of  the  small  percentage  of  limestone  and 
humus  they  may  contain,  consisting  of  sand. 

The  fifth  class,  designated  as  sandy,  includes  all 
those  soils  in  which  the  proportion  of  clay  does  not 
exceed  10  percent.;  and  here  again  the  same  sub- 
divisions are  adopted.  Hitherto,  the  amount  of  cal- 
careous matter  present  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  5 
per  cent ;  but  in  the  next  class,  that  of  marly  soils, 
the  above  ingredient  ranges  in  a  proportion  varying 
from  5  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

Marly  soils  are  to  be  distinguished  into  five  orders, 
of  which  the  first  is  called  argillaceous, contains  about 
50  per  cent  of  clay;  the  second,  loamy,  from  30  to 
50;  the  third,  sandy  loam,  from  20  to  30;  the  fourth, 
loamy  sand,  from  10  to  20;  and  the  fifth  is  distin- 
guished by  the  larger  proportion  of  humus,  which  ex- 
ceeds in  quantity  5  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  and  is 
therefore  denominated  humous  marl,  which  last  is 
divided  into  three  species,  viz.:  argillaceous,  which 
contains  about  50  per  cent,  of  clay;  loamy,  whichcon- 
tains  from  30  to  50  per  cent.,  and  sandy,  jxissessing 
20  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  same  ingredient. 

We  next  arrive  at  that  class  of  soils  which  contains 
more  than  20  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  which 
is  therefore  distinguished  as  calcareous  or  marly  soil. 
These  are  subdivided  according  to  the  projwrtion  of 
clay  they  may  contain ;  when  this  earth  exists  in  the 
proportion  of  more  than  50  per  cent,  they  are  to  be 
cabled  argillaceous;  when  it  is  from  30  to  50,  loamy; 
when  from  20  to  30,  they  are  said  to  belong  to  the 
sandy  loams  of  the  calcareous  or  marl  class ;  when 
from  10  to  20  to  the  loamy  sands;  and  when  either 
destitute    of  clay  altogether,  or  containing  at  most 


SOIL. 


"59 


only  lo  per  cent,  of  it,  they  are  called  sandy.  Lastly, 
a  calcareous  soil, which  contains  more  than  5  percent, 
of  vegetable  mold,  belongs  to  the  sixth  order,  that 
of  humous  calcareous  soils,  of  which  there  are  three 
species,  namely :  the  argillaceous,  the  loamy,  and  the 
sandy,  characterized  as  before,  by  the  larger  or  small- 
er proiX)rtion  of  clay  present  in  them. 

The  last  class,  that  of  humous  soils,  is  distinguished 
in  the  first  place  in  three  orders.  The  first  consists  in 
soluble,  mild  humus,  that  is  of  that  description  of  veg- 
etable mold  which  is  in  a  fit  condition  to  nourish  the 
plants  which  grow  in  it ;  the  second  of  acid  humus, 
namely,  containing  a  free  acid,  which  by  its  presence, 
is  highly  destructive  to  most  kinds  of  vegetation ;  a 
third  order  consists  of  fibrous  vegetable  matter,  such 
as  peat,  which  though  not  acid  is  yet  in  a'  condition 
little  fitted  for  imparting  nourishment  to  plants. 

These  orders  are  again  sub-divided  into  argilla- 
ceous, loamy  and  sandy,  according  to  the  proportion  of 
clay  present  in  them;  and  lastly,  distinguished  in 
two  species,  the  one  containing,  the  other  destitute  of, 
calcareous  matter. 

To  ascertain  the  proiwrtion  of  sand  and  water  in 
any  given  soil,  it  is  only  necessary  to  spread  a  weigh- 
ed quantity  of  the  soil  in  a  thin  layer  upon  writing 
paper,  and  dry  it  for  an  hour  or  two  in  an  oven  or 
upon  a  hot  plate,  the  heat  of  which  is  not  sufficient 
to  discolor  the  paper.  The  loss  of  weight  gives  the 
quantity  of  water  which  the  soil  contained.  While 
this  is  drying,  a  second  weighed  portion  maybe  boil- 
ed or  otherwise  thoroughly  mixed  with  water,  and  the 
whole  then  poured  into  a  vessel,  in  which  the  heavy 
sandy  parts  are  allowed  to  subside  until  the  fine  clay 
is  beginning  to  settle  also.  This  point  must  be  care- 
fully watched,  the  liquid  then  jwured  off,  the  sand 
collected,  dried  as  before  upon  paper,  and  again 
weighed.  This  will  show  the  quantity  of  sand  in  the 
known  weight  of  moist  soil,  which  by  the  previous  ex- 
periment has  been  found  to  contain  a  certain  quantity 
of  water.  For  example,  if  20  ounces,  dried  in  the 
oven,  loses  5  ounces  of  water,  and  another  quantity  of 
20  ounces,  treated  in  the  bottle,  leaves  6  ounces  of 
sand,  then  the  20  ounces  of  moigt  are  equal  to  15  of 
dry,  and  this  15  of  dry  soil  contains  6  of  sand,  or  40 
per  cent.  It  would  therefore  properly  be  called  a 
"loam,"  or  a  "loamy  soil."  To  determine  the  pro- 
portion of  lime,  when  it  exceeds  5  per  cent.,  to  a  half 
an  ounce  of  the  dry  soil  diffused  through  a  pint  of 
cold  water,  add  a  wine-glassful  of  hydrochloric  acid; 
stir  it  occasionally  during  the  day,  and  let  it  stand 
over  night  to  settle  ;  pour  off  the  clear  liquor  in  the 
morning  and  fill  up  the  vessel  with  water,  to  wash 
away  the  excess  of  acid;  when  the  water  is  again 
clear,  pour  it  off,  dry  the  soil  and  weigh  it ;  the  loss 
will  amount,  generally,  to  alx)ut  r  per  cent,  more  than 
the  quantity  of  lime  present.  If  the  loss  exceeds  5 
per  cent,  of  the  dry  soil,  it  may  be  classed  among  the 
marls;  if  more  than  20,  among  the  limy  soils.  To 
determine  the  proportion  of  vegetable  matter,  dry  the 
soil  well  in  an  oven  and  weigh  it ;  then  heat  it  to  dull 
redness  until  the  combustible  matter  is  burned  away ; 


weigh  it  again,  and  the  difference  in  the  two  weights 
will  be  the  quantity  of  organic  matter. 

Pure  sand  will  hold  24  per  cent,  of  its  own 
weight  of  water,  calcareous  sand  28  per  cent.,  loamy 
soil  38,  clay  loam  47  and  peat  80. 

Clay  soils  are  usually  denominated  "cold  and  wet," 
and  above  all  others  they  need  under-draining.  Such 
soils  are  greatly  improved  by  coarse  vegetable  manures, 
as  straw,  corn-stalks,  chips,  etc.,  which  tend  to  a  sepa- 
ration of  the  particles.  The  addition  of  sand  is  of  course 
beneficial,  but  this  is  too  expensive  for  large  fields. 
Lime  and  gypsum  are  also  valuable  additions  to  clay 
soils.  The  plowing  of  clay  lands  for  spring  crops 
should  be  done  in  autumn  if  practicable,  so  that  the 
frosts  of  winter  may  more  thoroughly  pulverize  the 
soil.  Plowing  in  the  spring  should  be  done  when  the 
ground  is  neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  This  is  very 
important,  as  plowing  when  too  wet  causes  the  soil  to 
dry  into  very  hard  clods,  and  when  too  dry  the  ground 
is  baked  and  the  work  of  cultivation  is  too  difficult. 
The  action  of  the  atmosphere  will  pulverize  these 
masses  of  earth  after  a  time,  but  not  sufficiently  early 
or  thorough  for  the  crops  of  the  season.  Clay  land 
is  best  adapted  to  most  of  the  grains  and  to  the  red 
and  white  clovers.  They  are  characterized  as  strong 
and  lasting  soils.  Sandy  soils  are  so  greatly  improved 
by  the  addition  of  clay  that  it  is  really  remunerative 
to  add  a  few  loads  to  each  acre,  which  should  be 
done  in  autumn;  harrow  it  in  thoroughly  in  the  spring. 
It  is  really  better  than  the  same  quantity  of  the  best 
manure.  Heavy  rollers,  to  make  the  sand  more  com- 
pact, are  an  advantage.  Lime,  gypsum,  clay  marls, 
peat,  vegetable  manures  and  ashes,  leached  or  un- 
leached,  are  also  good  for  sandy  land.  Sandy  soils 
can  never  be  profitably  cultivated  till  they  have  ac- 
quired sufficient  compactness  and  fertility  to  sustam 
a  good  growth  of  grass  or  clover;  and  when  once 
brought  to  this  condition  they  are  among  the  most 
valuable. 

Gravelly  soils  are  somewhat  like  the  sandy,  but 
they  are  much  less  desirable,  being  appropriately 
termed  "hungry."  They  are  peculiarly  "  leachy," 
permitting  the  rapid  escape  of  manures,  both  by 
evaporation  and  drainage.  They  are  better  for  the 
pasturage  of  sheep  than  for  any  other  purpose. 

A  loamy  soil  is  of  course  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the 
best,  for  general  farming.  It  requires  no  special 
treatment  except  when  the  clay  or  the  sand  in  it  is 
too  predominant.  Marly  and  calcareous  soils  are 
greatly  increased  in  their  fertility  by  the  addition  of 
putrescent  and  vegetable  manures.  They  are  partic- 
ularly durable.  Loamy  and  sandy  soils  characterize 
"bottom"  lands,  and  they  are  the  best  for  crops  in  all 
respects  except  that  they  are  more  exposed  to  un- 
timely frosts  than  are  high  situations  in  the  same 
vicinity.  When  exposed  to  overflowing  it  is  safer  to 
keep  such  land  in  grass.  Peaty  soils  in  their  natural 
state  are  totally  unfit  for  profitable  fanning,  but  when 
the  peat  is  left  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  it  absorbs 
nutritious  gases,  crumbles  and  becomes  a  good  ad- 
dition to  poor  soils.     It  is  especially  good  for  muck 


ii6o 


SOILING— SOLDERING. 


heaps.  Peat  abounds  in  nearly  all  the  Northern 
swamps  which  are  undergoing  so  extensive  drainage 
nowadays,  and  becoming  the  chief  places  of  rich 
farming.  When  a  swamp  has  been  properly  drained, 
the  hummocks,  if  any,  must  be  cut  up  with  the  mat- 
tock or  spade,  thrown  into  heaps  and  burned,  and  the 
ashes  scattered  over  the  surface.  This  affords  the 
best  top-dressing  it  can  receive.  Sand  or  fine  gravel, 
with  a  thorough  dressing  of  barnyard  manure  and 
slacked  lime  should  then  be  added.  On  some  of 
these  lands,  according  as  they  approach  ordinary 
soils  in  their  character,  good  crops  of  oats,  corn,  roots, 
etc.,  may  be  raised,  but  they  are  better  suited  to 
grasses  and  clover.  Subsequent  dressings  of  sand, 
lime,  manure  and  wood  ashes,  or,  better  still,  all  com- 
bined, may  be  afterwards  required  when  the  crops  are 
deficient  or  the  grasses  degenerate. 

Soils  should  also  be  sufficiently  deep  and  friable, 
and  of  the  right  color.  A  black  soil  absorbs  a  great 
deal  of  heat  during  sunny  days,  and  at  nightfall  the 
dew  is  rapidly  formed,  which  is  easily  carried  down 
through  a  loose  or  friable  soil  to  the  roots  of  the 
plants.  A  porous  soil  also  more  readily  drains  itself 
of  superfluous  water,  and  absorbs  nutritious  gases 
from  the  atmosphere.  These  are  carried  down  both 
by  the  air  and  the  circulating  vapor  or  moisture,  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  rootlets,  which  take  up  the  elements 
as  food. 

But  the  best  soil  in  the  world  may  be  materially 
diminished  in  value  by  an  impervious  sub-soil. 
Tenacious  clay,  or  a  "  hard-pan  "  immediately  under- 
neath will  hold  water  until  it  stagnates  or  sours,  and 
thus  entirely  ruin  a  piece  of  ground,  which  otherwise 
would  be  of  the  very  best  quality  for  cropping.  A 
real  hard-pan  can  not  be  so  altered  as  to  redeem  thf 
tract  under  which  it  lies ;  but  clays  less  hard  can  be 
drained  and  broken  up  by  a  sub-soil  plow.  This  not 
only  affords  an  outlet  for  the  superfluous  water,  but 
opens  up  to  the  access  of  the  crops  a  great  quantity 
of  good  mineral  plant  food,  and  moisture  from  below 
during  drouths.  The  value  of  the  farm  may  thus  be 
protracted  several  times  in  as  many  years.  But  in  a 
few  cases  the  sub-soil  is  too  open  on  account  of  tlie 
superabundance  of  sand  or  gravel  in  its  comjxasition. 
There  is  scarcely  any  remedy  for  this,  except  to 
deepen,  or  heighten  rather,  the  soil  above  by  the  ad- 
dition of  manures.  It  is  generally  best  to  pasture 
such  lands. 

Books  and  periodicals  give  many  tables  of  the 
analysis  of  soils  and  manures,  with  the  chemical 
principles  of  successfully  treating  them  together;  but 
if  one  adopts  the  general  principle  to  enrich  his 
ground  with  a  compost  of  all  sorts  of  manures  and 
fertilizers,  he  will  do  better  than  to  undertake  to  carry 
out  a  great  number  of  detailed  rules. 

Renovation.  The  means  of  renewing  soils  are: 
I.  Manure;  2.  fertilizers;  3.  rotation;  4.  raising 
clover;  5.  summer-fallowing;  6.  pasturing.  These 
topics  are  thoroughly  treated  in  this  work ;  but  all 
intelligent  farmers  understand  their  nature  and  their 
necessity. 


Rotation  of  plants  seems  to  be  a  law  of  nature. 
Where  plants  are  removed  from  the  soil  and  the  land 
left  to  nature,  she  supplies  their  place  with  plants  of 
a  different  kind.  Even  manures  and  fertilizers  should 
be  rotated.  (See  Rotation).  Summer-fallowing  con- 
sists of  letting  the  land  rest  from  cropping,  but  it  is 
followed  in  several  different  ways, — permitting  it  to 
run  to  weeds  and  grass,  pastured  or  not  pastured,  and 
plowed  in  the  fall,  plowing  it  clean  all  summer,  plow- 
ing under  a  crop  of  weeds  or  clover  once  or  twice 
during  the  season,  etc.  By  all  the  above  means  to- 
gether, moderately  poor  land  can  be  fully  renewed  in 
two  or  three  years,  so  that  it  can  bear  heavy  crops 
for  many  years,  especially  if  rotation  be  followed. 
But  agricultural  science  at  the  present  day  has  attain- 
ed such  a  jxjint  that  no  farmer  can  be  excused  for 
letting  his  land  run  down  at  all,  so  as  to  need  any 
renovation. 

Soiling,  a  mode  of  feeding  horses  and  cattle,  in 
the  stable  or  yard,  with  grass  or  other  green  food, 
brought  to  them,  as  cut  in  the  fields. 

Soldering.  Soldering  is  the  art  of  uniting  the 
surfaces  of  metals  by  partial  fusion,  and  the  insertion 
of  an  alloy  between  the  edges,  which  is  called  solder, 
it  being  more  fusible  than  the  metals  which  it  unites. 
Solders  are  distinguished  as  hard  and  soft,  according 
to  their  difficulty  of  fusion.  Hard  solders  usually 
melt  only  at  a  red  heat,  but  soft  solders  fuse  at  lower 
temperatures.  In  order  to  join  metals,  it  is  obvious 
that  a  solder  must  be  used  that  melts  at  a  lower 
temperature  than  the  metals  to  be  joined,  but  it  may 
also  be  necessary  that  it  approach  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble to  them  in  point  of  hardness;  and  occasionally,  as 
is  especially  the  case  with  jewelry,  similarity  of  color 
is  an  object.  The  heat  requisite  for  soldering  small 
articles,  such  as  jewelry,  etc.,  is  usually  obtained  by 
employing  a  common  blowpipe,  as  by  its  use  a  sud- 
den heat  may  be  concentrated  on  a  small  point. 
Where  a  larger  surface  has  to  be  heated,  the  flame  of 
a  spirit  lamp  is  used.  In  working  tin  plates,  the  sol- 
der is  applied  and  fused  by  a  heated  copper  tool 
called  a  soldering-iron.  The  surfaces  of  parts  to  be 
joined  by  soldering  must  be  perfectly  clean ;  and  in 
order  to  ensure  this,  as  well  as  tc  counteract  the  ox- 
idization which  most  metals  undergo  when  heated,  a 
flux  is  used,  which  neutralizes  or  removes  these  other- 
wise serious  impediments,  securing  a  firm  joint.  For 
common  purposes  powdered  resin  is  used  as  a  flux. 

To  Make  Soldering  Fluid  for  Soft  Solder. 
Into  muriatic  acid  put  small  pieces  of  zinc  until  all 
bubbling  ceases ;  some  add  i  ounce  sal-ammoniac  to 
each  pound  of  the  liquid. 

Hard  Soldering  or  Brazing.  The  alloy  used  in 
hard  soldering  is  generally  made  of  ecjual  jiarts  of 
copper  and  zinc ;  much  of  the  zinc,  however,  is  lost 
in  the  process,  so  that  the  real  proportion  is  not  equal 
parts.  The  alloy  is  heated  over  a  charcoal  fire,  and 
broken  to  granulations  in  an  iron  mortar.  A  different 
proportion  is  used  fof  soldering  copper  and  iron,  viz. : 
3  zinc  to  I  copper.    The  commercial  name  is  "  spel- 


SOLE— SOUP. 


ii6r 


ter  solder."  The  flux  employed  for  spelter  solder  is 
borax,  which  can  either  be  used  separately  or  mixed, 
by  rubbing  to  a  cream,  or  mixed  with  the  solder  in  a 
very  little  water. 

To  Make  Solder.  The  mixture  of  the  metals  is 
performed  by  melting  then;  together  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  alloys,  with  the  aid  of  a  flux.  The 
metals  employed  should  be  pure,  especially  silver,  as 
silver  coin  makes  the  solder  too  hard. 

Solder  for  Tin.  Take  4  parts  pewter,  i  part  tin, 
and  I  part  bismuth.  Use  powdered  resin  when 
soldering. 

Fine  Soft  Solder.  Take  2  parts  tin  and  i  part 
lead.  Used  for  soldering  tin  plates,  and  tinning  cop- 
per.    Add  resin  as  a  flux  when  melting. 

Gold  Solder.  Melt  in  charcoal  fire  24  grains  gold 
coin,  9  grains  silver,  6  grains  copper,  3  grains  brass. 

Silver  Solder.  Melt  as  above  2  parts  silver,  i^ 
parts  brass. 

Sole,  of  a  plow,  the  horizontal  bar  at  the  foot,  to 
keep  it  running  level  and  steady. 

Solvent,  able  to  pay  all  indebtedness ;  also,  a  fluid 
employed  to  dissolve  a  substance. 

Somnambulism  (som-nam'bu-lism),  sleep-walk- 
ing ;  a  state  of  sleep  in  which  some  of  the  powers  are 
partially  awake,  but  the  consciousness  of  the  subject 
is  entirely  suspended.  During  this  singular  abnormal 
condition  of  the  nervous  system  persons  have  been 
known  to  do  a  deal  of  work  unaware  to  themselves, 
such  as  changing  the  articles  of  furniture  in  a  room, 
feeding  the  live  stock,  milking  cows,  butchering  hogs, 
etc.  The  treatment  consists  in  carrying  out  every 
measure  calculated  to  promote  sound  sleep. 

Soothing  Sirup.  The  following  sirup  contains  no 
opiates  and  will  be  found  as  effective  as  Mrs.  Wins- 
low's  Sirup:  Take  3  drams  of  compound  tincture  of 
lavender,  i  dram  tincture  of  lobelia  and  ij^  ounces  of 
simple  sirup,  mix  and  give  ^  to  i  teaspoonful,  accor- 
ding to  the  age  of  the  child. 

Sores.  For  old  sores  of  almost  all  kinds,  the  oint- 
ments given  on  page  995  and  the  salve  on  page  1 11 1 
will  be  found  excellent  remedies. 

Sore  Throat,  To  Cure.  Dissolve  one  dram  chlor- 
ide potash  in  half  a  pint  of  water,  and  gargle  the 
throat  therewith.  A  few  applications  will  allay 
inflammation.  Simple  "  sore  throat,"  such  as  is  oc- 
casioned by  colds,  are  best  relieved  by  cold  wet  com- 
presses to  the  part,  especially  during  the  night. 

Sorghum,  Sorgho,  or  Sorgo:  see  Cane,  Sugar 
and  Sirup. 

Sorrel,  the  name  of  several  species  of  acid  ])lants, 
as  the  Common  (of  England),  Field  or  Sheep  (com- 
mon in  sandy  soils  in  this  country),  French,  Roman 
or  Garden  (of  Europe),  Mountain  or  Welsh  (rare  in 
the  United  States)  and  Wood.  The  latter,  of  which 
there  are  two  kinds,  have  clover-like  leaves,  and  is 
sometimes   erroneously  called   "  sheep  sorrel "  in  the 


West.  The  term  "  sour  sorrel "  is  very  indefinite. 
All  these  sorrels  abound  in  oxalic  acid  and  have  a 
similar  taste,  although  the  two  Wood  sorrels  belong  to 
an  entirely  different  order  from  the  others.  The  leaves 
of  these  have  been  used  as  "  greens,"  and  the  roots  of 
all  except  the  Wood  species  have  the  nature  of  rhu- 
barb, in  medicine  ;  indeed,  rhubarb  is  a  sorrel.  Sour 
or  yellow  dock  also  belongs  to  the  latter  class. 

The  term  "  sorrel,"  as  a  color  of  horses,  denotes  a 
yellowish  or  reddish  brown. 

Soundness,  freedom  from  injury  or  defect,  or,  in 
case  of  a  horse,  the  absence  of  everything  which  im- 
pairs now,  or  may  probably  impair  hereatter,  his  use- 
fulness. The  constitutents  of  soundness  in  horses 
are  well  defined,  both  in  the  phraseology  of  common 
life  and  in  that  of  law ;  and  they  afford  occasion  for  a 
perfect  wilderness  of  disputes  in  the  horse  market  and 
render  it  quite  unsafe  for  an  inexperienced  person  to 
purchase  a  horse  without  the  aid  of  a  professional 
man  or  without  a  full  written  warranty  of  soundness 
from  the  seller.  See  page  730,  under  head  of  Guar- 
anty. 

Soup.  Soups  may  be  described  as  decoctions,  more 
or  less  strong,  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances, 
generally  of  meat  with  vegetables,  and  seasoned  with 
salt,  spices,  etc.  They  may  be  made  in  an  infinity 
of  ways;  there  being  no  end  to  the  combination  of 
meat,  fish,  vegetables,  spices,  etc.,  with  water,  that 
may  be  made.  Meat  soups  have  a  basis  formed  by 
boiling  together  meat  and  water;  the  soluble  parts  of 
the  former  uniting  with  the  water;  this,  simmered 
down  to  a  certain  strength,  is  termed  "stock."  When 
this  is  obtained  it  is  ready  to  be  employed  as  the  basis 
of  any  meat-soup,  and  the  soup  receives  its  name  ac- 
cording to  the  vegetables  employed,  or  of  the  ingre- 
dients used  in  seasoning  it.  The  proportion  of  meat 
to  water  for  stock,  from  which  the  richest  soups  are 
made,  is  two  pounds  of  meat  to  a  quart  of  water;  for 
more  ordinary  soups,  one  pound  to  a  quart. 

Brown  soup  stock  is  made  of  beef-shins  and  a  piece 
of  coarse  beef ;  white  stock  is  made  of  veal  shins  and 
an  old  fowl  of  your  choice.  One  shin  of  veal  will 
make  three  quarts  of  good  veal  stock,  and  one  hind 
shin  of  beef  will  make  five  quarts  of  good  beef  stock. 
The  veal  and  beef  together  make  the  best  soup.  To 
make  good  soup  stock  rub  salt  into  the  skins ;  put  them 
into  an  iron  jjot,  in  twice  as  much  cold  water  as  you 
expect  to  have  soup.  It  must  be  set  on  top  of  the 
range,  and  gradually  heated  up ;  do  not  forget  to 
skim  it  before  it  comes  to  a  boil.  Let  it  simmer 
slowly  all  day.  If  it  boils  away  too  much,  add  more 
water.  All  kinds  of  bones  of  roast  or  boiled  meat  or 
poultry,  and  the  liquor  beef,  mutton  or  fowl  are  boiled 
in,  make  good  soup  stock.  They  should  be  boiled 
all  day  to  extract  the  substance  from  the  bones  as 
well  as  the  meat,  then  strained  into  a  stone  jar  or 
earthen  pots  to  stand  until  the  fat  cools,  then  take 
that  off.  If  this  process  is  observed,  you  can  always 
have  a  good  stock  to  begin  with ;  you  can  flavor  it  as 
you  please. 

Hard  or  fast  boiling  should  be  carefully  avoided  in 


I 


Il62 


SOUP. 


making  soups.  It  hardens  and  contracts  the  fibers  of 
the  meat,  so  that  it  cannot  yield  its  juices  to  the  water. 
Gentle  boiling  or  stewing,  however,  has  a  contrary  ef- 
fect. The  water  gradually  warming  the  meat,  has  a 
tendency  to  relax  its  fibers,  and  while  penetrating  into 
the  meat,  extracts  from  it  and  carries  away  with  it  the 
finest  of  its  flavors,  and  if  the  pot  be  closely  covered 
it  does  not  escape  with  the  steam.  To  extract  the 
full  strength  from  the  meat,  long  and  slow  boiling  is 
necessary;  but  care  must  be  taken  that  the  pot  is 
never  off  the  boil.  All  soups  are  better  for  being 
made  the  day  before  they  are  to  be  used,  and  they 
should  then  be  strained  into  earthen  pans.  When 
soup  has  jellied  in  the  pan,  it  should  not  be  removed 
into  another,  as  breaking  it  will  occasion  its  becoming 
sour  sooner  than  it  would  otherwise  do.  When  in 
danger  of  not  keeping,  it  should  be  boiled  up.  Veg- 
etables should  never  be  put  into  soup  stock ;  it  is 
much  better  to  boil  the  vegetables  in  just  water  enough 
to  extract  the  flavor,  than  to  boil  them  in  the  stock; 
for  if  you  put  the  vegetables  to  boil  in  the  soup,  by  the 
time  the  flavor  is  extracted  from  the  soup  it  will  be 
reduced  one-half.  The  fat  can  be  removed  after  it  is 
cool.  Nothing  looks  more  disagreeable  at  the  table 
than  greasy  soup. 

Barley  Soup.  Take  six  pounds  of  the  thick  flank 
of  beef,  and  cover  it  with  six  quarts  of  water,  and  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  barley ;  boil  it  gently  for  an 
hour,  skimming  it  frequently.  Then  add  three  heads 
of  celery,  two  carrots,  two  turnips  cut  into  pieces,  one 
onion,  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs,  and  a  little  parsley; 
boil  all  together  till  you  find  the  broth  very  good.  Sea- 
son it  with  salt.  Then  take  out  the  beef,  the  onion, 
and  sweet  herbs ;  pour  the  brotli  into  the  tureen,  and 
put  the  beef  into  a  dish  garnished  with  carrots  and 
turnips. 

Bean  Soup.  Take  a  large  knuckle  of  veal,  add  to 
it  four  quarts  of  water  and  one  quart  of  black  beans 
that  have  been  soaked  in  water  over  night,  and  let 
them  boil  with  the  veal  four  or  five  hours ;  also,  a 
small  bit  of  onion  and  a  dozen  whole  cloves,  some  salt 
and  pepper;  cut  three  hard-boiled  eggs  and  two 
lemons  into  slices  and  put  into  the  bottom  of  your 
tureen,  and  strain  the  soup,  boiling  hot,  upon  them. 
If  the  water  boils  away,  you  must  keep  adding  to  it, 
as  this  recipe  ought  to  make  a  gallon  of  soup.  It 
should  be  of  the  consistency  of  pea  soup.  If  you 
have  no  veal,  the  bones  of  salt  pork  make  a  good  sub- 
stitute, but  not  equal  to  the  knuckle. 

Chicken  Soup.  Boil  a  pair  of  chickens  with  great 
care,  skimming  constantly,  and  keeping  them  covered 
with  water.  When  tender,  take  out  the  chicken  and 
remove  every  bone  from  the  meat ;  put  a  large  lump 
of  butter  into  a  frying-pan,  and  dredge  the  chicken 
meat  well  with  flour,  lay  in  the  hot  pan,  fry  a  nice 
brown,  and  keep  it  hot  and  dry.  Take  a  pint  of  the 
chicken  water,  and  stir  in  two  large  spoonfuls  of  curry 
powder,  two  of  butter,  and  one  of  flour,  one  teaspoon- 
•  ful  of  salt  and  a  little  Cayenne;  stir  until  smooth,  then 
mix  it  with  the  broth  in  the  pot ;  when  well  mixed, 


simmer  five  minutes,  then  add  the  browned  chicken. 
Serve  with  rice. 

Green-Pea  Soup.  Take  two  quarts  of  green  peas, 
one  small  onion,  and  a  sprig  of  parsley  cut  fine ;  add 
two  quarts  of  hot  water,  and  boil  slowly  for  half  an 
hour,  then  add  a  pint  of  small  new  potatoes  which 
have  been  peeled  and  laid  in  cold  water  an  hour ;  put 
in  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  and  a  little  salt ;  boil  till  the 
potatoes  are  done  ;  now  add  a  teacupful  of  cream  or 
a  pint  of  milk,  boil  a  minute  or  two,  and  then  serve 
with  small  slices  of  toasted  bread  or  gems  cut  in 
halves. 

Pea  Soup.  Soak  a  quart  of  split  peas  in  soft  water 
for  twelve  or  fourteen  hours,  and  remove  t-hosc  which 
float  on  the  top.  Then  simmer  in  two  quarts  of  water 
until  tender ;  put  them  in  a  stew-pan ;  add  two  quarts 
of  beef  stock,  about  a  couple  of  pounds  of  shin  of 
beef,  any  odd  meat  bones,  chopped  up,  and  a  slice  of 
fat  ham ;  a  head  of  celery,  six  onions,  three  each  of 
carrots  and  turnips — all  peeled  and  sliced — and  sea- 
soning to  taste.  Simmer  the  whole  for  two  to  three 
hours,  stirring  and  skimming  from  time  to  time ;  pa-ss 
all  through  a  fine  hair  sieve,  give  it  one  boil,  and  serve 
with  toasted  bread. 

Potato  Soup.  Eight  potatoes,  two  turnips,  four 
large  onions,  boiled  together  (in  beef,  mutton  or  poul- 
try water)  to  a  jam  and  strained  through  a  colander; 
then  add  butter  rubbed  in  flour  (a  little),  with  cream 
or  sweet  milk,  pepper,  and  salt ;  chopped  parsley  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tureen ;  let  the  soup  boil  well,  then 
pour  over  the  parsley. 

Tomato  Soup.  Take  twelve  large  tomatoes,  peel 
and  chop  them ;  boil  them  an  hour,  then  stir  in  a 
half  teaspoonful  of  soda ;  when  the  foaming  ceases 
add  two  soft  crackers,  rolled  very  fine ;  add  a  quart 
of  milk,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  boil  fifteen 
minutes.  Salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  If  too  thick  add 
a  little  boiling  water  or  milk. 

Vegetable  Soup.  Take  a  third  as  much  water  as 
you  want  soup ;  cut  up  some  onions,  carrots  and  tur- 
nips, a  little  celery,  some  salt  and  a  little  mace.  Put 
this  all  into  a  sauce-pan ;  boil  it  one  hour,  add  the 
two-thirds  of  soup  stock.  Boil  this  altogether  an  hour 
and  a  half.  If  it  is  not  seasoned  to  your  taste,  add 
whatever  is  required. 

Macaroni  Soup.  The  macaroni  must  be  boiled 
in  water  for  ten  minutes,  strained  and  put  into  boil- 
ing stock,  in  the  proportion  of  half  a  pound  to  the 
gallon ;  simmer  slowly  for  half  an  hour,  and  serve  very 
hot,  with  grated  cheese  on  a  separate  dish. 

Mock-Turtle  Soup.  Take  atout  ten  pounds  of 
shin  of  beef,  cut  it  into  small  pieces,  and  fry  the  lean 
parts  a  light  brown ;  put  the  rest  of  the  beef  (/.  e.,  the 
fat  part)  into  a  stew-pan  with  boiling  water,  and  stew 
it  for  eight  hours,  with  a  bunch  of  sweet  herbs  and 
two  onions;  when  cold  takeoff  the  fat.  Then  get  half 
a  calfs  head  with  the  skin  on,  half  boil  it,  and  cut  it 
into  small  square  pieces  and  put  them,  with  the  lean 
beef  and  the  soup,  into  the  same  pot,  and  let  them 
stew  altogether  till  quite  tender.     Thicken  it  with  a 


SPADE— SPARRO IV. 


1163 


very  little  flour;  add  a  little  ix)unded  mace  and  cloves, 
and  a  grate  of  nutmeg,  two  spoonfuls  of  mushroom 
catsup,  and  pepper  and  salt  to  taste.  A  wine  glass 
of  sherry  or  white  wine  improves  it.  It  should  be 
served  with  egg  balls  and  lemon. 

Ox-tail  Soup.  Take  two  tails,  divide  them  at  the 
joints,  and  soak  them  in  warm  water.  Put  them  in 
a  soup  pot  with  two  quarts  of  cold  water.  Skim  it 
carefully.  When  the  meat  is  boiled  to  shreds,  take 
out  the  bones,  and  add  a  chopped  onion  and  carrot. 
Use  spices  and  sweet  herbs,  or  not,  as  you  prefer. 
Boil  it  three  or  four  hours. 

Oyster  Soup.  To  each  dozen  or  dish  of  oysters 
put  }4  pint  of  water;  milk,  i  gill;  butter,  ^  ounce; 
powdered  crackers  to  thicken.  Bring  the  oysters  and 
water  to  a  boil,  then  add  the  other  ingredients  pre- 
viously mixed  together,  and  boil  from  three  to  five 
minutes  only.  Each  one  will  choose  to  add  salt,  pep- 
per, etc.,  to  his  own  taste.  Keep  about  the  above 
proportions  if  you  should  have  to  cook  for  an  oyster 
supper,  for  parties,  etc. 

Another.  Boil  the  liquor  with  chopped  celery  and 
a  little  butter.  When  it  boils  up,  add  half  as  much 
milk  as  there  is  liquor.  Have  the  oysters  ready  in  a 
dish  uix)n  a  slice  of  toasted  bread,  and  when  the  liq- 
uor boils  up  again,  pour  it  over  them. 

Spade,  a  hand  implement  used  for  digging.  It 
comprises  a  number  of  varieties,  yet  even  inclusive  of 
these  is  everywhere  so  well  known  as  to  require  no 
description. 

Spaniel,  a  family  or  breed  of  hunting  dogs.  See 
page  333- 

Spanish  Fly  (Cantharides),  an  insect  ground 
into  powder,  and  mixed  with  lard  or  oil,  making 
what  is  familiarly  known  as  a  blister.  The  powder 
is  of  a  grayish-brown  color,  interspersed  with  shin- 
ing green  particles,  which  are  the  fragments  of  the 
feet,  head  and  wing  cases.  The  Spanish  fly  is,  be- 
sides its  blistering  qualities,  a  very  valuable  internal 
medicine,  a  powerful  tonic  and  alterative.  In  veter- 
inary practice  it  has  been  used  with  success  in  the  cure 
of  glanders  in  the  horse.  In  the  same  diseases  where 
they  were  free  from  the  tubercles  they  have  been 
cured  with  Spanish  fly,  gentian,  copper,  and  the  sul- 
phate of  soda. 

Dose.  Spanish  fly  is  given  to  the  horse  in  five- 
grain  doses  once  a  day  only,  and  mixed  in  cut  or  soft 
feed.  Horses  are  more  easily  affected  by  the  Span- 
ish fly  than  mares.  Blisters  of  Spanish  fly  are  made 
as  follows :  Powdered  Spanish  fly,  i  dram ;  hog's 
lard,  6  drams ;  mix  and  apply  by  the  hand,  rubbing 
into  the  part  to  be  blistered ;  wash  off  the  part  next 
day,  oil  or  lard  it  for  a  week,  and  the  swelling  will 
leave  when  the  inflammation  has  gone  out  of  the 
part.  An  excellent  application  for  the  removal  of  a 
splint,  or  soft  tumors  about  the  legs  of  horses  is  made 
as  follows :  Tincture  of  Spanish  fly,  i  ounce;  oil  of 
croton,  20  drops;  well  rubbed  into  the  part.  It  acts 
like  magic,  that  is,  if  the  tumor  can  be  removed  by 
any  means. 


Antidote  for  Poisoning  by  Spanish  Fly.  The 
effects  of  poisoning  by  Spanish  fly  are  acrid  taste,  burn- 
ing heat  in  the  throat,  stomach,  and  belly,  bloody 
vomitings,  colic,  purging,  retention  of  urine,  convul- 
sions, death.' 

Treattnent.  Give  large  draughts  of  olive  oil,  thin 
gruel,  milk,  starch  enemas,  linseed  tea,  laudanum,  and 
camphorated  water.  The  poisonous  effects  are  to  be 
counteracted  by  emetics,  cathartics,  bleeding  and 
opiates  by  the  stomach  and  rectum.  Animal  char- 
coal is  claimed  to  be  an  antidote.  Some  eminent 
physicians  recommend  the  officinal  solution  of  potassa, 
given  in  30-drop  doses,  as  an  effectual  remedy  in 
strangury  from  blisters. 

Spanish  Fowl,  a  breed  of  domestic  fowl :  see  page 
529- 

Spanish  Needle,  a  troublesome  weed,  most  com- 
mon south  of  latitude  40"  North.  The  almost  omni- 
present "beggar-ticks  "  of  the  North  are  congeners  of 
the  true  Spanish  needle  and  are  scarcely  distinguish- 
able from  it.  For  an  illustrated  account  of  Spanish 
needle  lice,  see  pages  858-9. 

Sparrow,  the  name  of  several  species  of  perching 
birds,  well-known  by  their  almost  ceaseless  chip-chip. 

European  House  Sparrow.  This  is  by  far  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  whole  sparrow  family,  and  is 
probably  the  one  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament — 
"  not  even  a  sparrow  shall  fall  to  the  ground  without 
your  Heavenly  Father's  notice.''  It  is  sometimes 
called  simply  European  sparrow,  and  is  also  well 
known  by  the  appellation  "English  sparrow."  It  was 
introduced  into  this  country  from  England  many 
years  ago,  apparently  for  the  purjxise  of  adding  to 
our  list  of  insect  destroyers ;  but  so  far  it  seems  to 
confine  itself  to  cities,  where  it  subsists  exclusively 
upon  street  garbage.  So  far  as  these  sparrows  range, 
they  drive  out  all  our  native  song-birds,  and  from 
their  prolific.  ix)wer  it  is  feared  they  will  spread  all 
over  the  country,  substituting  their  useless  omnipres- 
ence for  all  the  beautiful  songsters  that  have  educated 
our  childhood's  ears  to  the  sweetest  sentiment  which 
nature  affords.  Moreover,  if  they  take  but  few  or  no 
insects,  after  they  have  driven  out  all  the  birds  that 
do  take  them,  we  shall  sorely  repent  of  having  ever 
encouraged  their  introduction  into  this  country.  That 
they  are  worthless  is  settled  by  the  fact  that  carefully 
calculating  England  has  for  more  than  a  generation 
paid  a  premium  for  their  death. 

Chipping  Sparrow.  This  is  a  very  common  little 
bird  throughout  North  America,  not  sojourning  in 
cities.  It  does  not  drive  away  other  birds,  being 
native  on  this  continent.  Its  song  consists  of  six  or 
seven  notes,  rapidly  uttered.  Its  beak  and  forehead 
are  black,  crown  continuous  chestnut,  black  and  white 
striping  about  the  forehead  and  eyes;  the  sides  of  the 
head  and  neck  and  the  rump  are  ashy,  while  the 
upper  part  of  the  back  is  covered  with  black  and 
brown  streaks.  Its  four  or  five  eggs  are  greenish 
blue,  marked  with  dark  brown  spots,  laid  in  slender 


II64 


SFA  VIN— SPEED. 


nests,  which  are  built  of  grass  and  hair,  on  apple- 
trees  or  low  bushes. 

Field  Sparrow.  This  is  found  almost  throughout 
North  America.  It  has  a  red  beak,  crown  and  back 
a  dusky  red  streaked  with  blackish,  builds  its  nest 
on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  small  bush  or  on 
branches  near  the  ground,  where  it  lays  four  to  six 
eggs,  of  a  grayish  rusty  color. 

Other  sparrows,  of  less  note,  are  Townsend's,  Brew- 
er's, Fox-colored,  Slate-colored,  Swamp,  Song  (four 
species),  Black-chinned,  Tree,  Black-throated,  White- 
throated,  Golden-crowned,  White-crowned,  Yellow- 
winged,  Lark,  Spotted,  Beaked,  Nootka  and  Savannah, 
besides  a  large  number  of  finches,  buntings,  snow- 
birds, etc.,  all  of  which  belong  to  the  sparrow  family. 

Spavin,  a  variety  of  disease  affecting  the  hock 
joint  of  the  horse:  see  pages  728,  805-6. 

Spaying,  the  destroying  of  the  ovaries  of  heifers, 
bitches,  young  sows  and  other  female  animals,  in 
order  to  prevent  conception  and  promote  fattening. 
It  is  usually  done  by  making  an  incision  into  the 
mid-flank  on  the  left  side,  with  a  lancet  or  sharp 
knife,  cutting  off  the  ovary  and  stitching  up  the 
wound.  The  part  should  be  so  dressed  as  to  exclude 
the  air;  and  the  animal  should  be  kept  warm  and 
quiet  for  two  or  three  days  after  the  operation.  The 
spaying  of  heifers  is  practiced  far  less  now  than  for- 
merly, not  on  account  of  any  failure  of  its  object,  but 
because  the  great  improvement  in  the  breeds  of  cattle 
has  correspondingly  enhanced  the  value  of  breeding 
cows.     See  page  304. 

Spearmint,  a  very  popular,  spirituous-aromatic 
herb,  found  in  some  gardens.  Its  properties  aie 
about  the  same  as  those  of  peppermint,  being  a  stim- 
ulant, sedative,  carminative,  etc.  For  medicinal  pur- 
poses the  volatile  oil  is  preferred.  Fresh  sprigs  of 
spearmint  are  used  to  make  the  celebrated  "  mint 
julep." 

Species,  a  class  of  plants  or  animals  resembling 
each  other  in  essential  characteristics,  and  capable  of 
indefinitely  continued  fertile  reproduction  through  the 
sexes.  In  these  days  of  advanced  science,  however, 
myriads  of  the  lower  forms  of  life  are  found  to  have 
no  sex,  and  the  lines  between  vegetable  and  animal 
life  become  completely  obliterated.  Among  inanimate 
objects  the  word  denotes  a  group  of  most  nearly  allied 
specimens.  A  genus  is  a  more  ideal  classific  term, 
comprising  one  or  more  species.  Classification  con- 
tinues upward  or  more  general  through  family,  order, 
class,  branch  and  kingdom ;  and  all  these  terms  are 
also  prefixed  by  the  modifier  sub. 

Speed.  The  steady  increase  in  speed,  both  trot- 
ting, pacing  and  running,  since  "Boston  Blue"  ac- 
complished his  (then)  wonderful  feat  of  trotting  a 
mile  in  three  minutes  at  Boston,  Mass.,  in  181 8,  is  a 
significant  commentary  on  the  excellence  of  the  pres- 
ent method  of  breeding  and  training  the  horse.  Speed 
has  increased  so  rapidly  since  that  date  that  it  would 
require  a  volume  to  enumerate  all  horses  that  have 


made  a  record  better  than  "  Boston  Blue  "  made.  In 
fact,  many  of  our  common  road  horses  can  trot  a  mile 
as  quickly  as  was  done  by  this  pioneer  trotter.  In 
the  following  list  we  give  the  name  of  every  horse 
which  has  a  record  as  a  trotter  of  2:30  or  better,  with 
the  year  in  which  the  performance  was  made  and  the 
number  of  heats  each  animal  has  trotted  in  2:30  and 
better,  up  to  the  season  of  1882.  Wagon  records  of 
2:35  or  better  are  treated  as  equivalent  to  harness 
records  of  2:30  or  better.  We  also  give  the  names 
and  best  record  of  those  horses  who  have  trotted  over 
one  mile  and  up  to  100  miles.  This  driving  at  long 
distances  at  speed  is  a  practice  that  is  greatly  depre- 
cated by  humane  admirers  of  this  noble  animal  and 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned  by  all.  We  are  glad 
to  note  that  of  late  no  special  attempts  have  been 
made  to  surpass  the  records  of  several  years  ago,  and 
it -is  hoped  that  there  will  never  be  any  further 
need  of  recording  a  longer  list  of  this  long-distance 
speed.  Four  horses  have  trotted  20  miles  within  an 
hour,  and  several  others  have  tried  it  and  failed. 
Black  Joke,  the  horse  that  trotted  50  miles  in  three 
hours  and  fifty-seven  minutes,  was  severely  injured 
by  it.  Conquerer,  which  trotted  100  miles  in  less 
than  nine  hours,  died  the  same  day. 

In  the  following  tabular  statement  of  the  record  of 
all  horses  that  have  trotted  one  mile  in  2  :  30  or  bet- 
ter, the  date  given  is  the  year  in  which  their  best 
time  was  made,  and  the  figures  to  the  right  of  the  year 
indicate  the  number  of  times  the  animal  has  trotted 
heats  within  2 :  30. 


Vr.     No.  of 
Times. 

2:101^ 

Maud  S  1 88 1     35 

2:111^ 
St.  Julien  1880     60 

Rarus  1878   rSs 

2: 14 
Goldsmith  Maid  1874  332 
Trinket  1881     56 

2:  14?^ 
Hopeful  1878  137 

2:15 
Lula  187s     56 

2:15^4: 
Smuggler  1876     44 

2:15^ 
Hattie  Woodward  '80     24 

2:i6}j( 
Lucille  Golddust    '78     37 

2:16^ 

American  Girl   1874     150 
Darby  (Jno.  Mur- 
phy, Jr.)  1879     92 


Vr.    No.  of 
Times. 

2:163/ 

Charley  Ford       1880  100 

Occident              1872  27 

2:17 

Gloster                  1874  39 

2:175^ 

Dexter                 1867  87 

Piedmont              1881  41 

So-so                    1881  II 

2:  175^ 

Edwin  Thome     i88i  32 

Santa  Claus          1881  36 

2:  1734 

Hannis                 1880  76 

2:  18 

Dick  Swiveller     1879  41 

Edwin  Forrest     1878  30 

Great  Eastern     1878  30 

Josephus              188 r  19 

Judge  Fullerton  1875  104 

Kate  Sprague      188 1  21 

Nettie                   187 1  51 

Proteine               1879  52 

Red  Cloud           1874  46 

Robert  McGregor  '81  36 


SPEED. 


'65 


Year.     No.  of 

Year.     No.  of 

Year.     No.  of 

Year.     No.  of 

T 

imes. 

1 

lines. 

limes 

Times. 

2:1814: 

2:  20 

2:211^ 

2:  22j^ 

Lady  Maud         1875 

33 

Little  Fred  (Iowa 

)'77 

54 

Harabletonian 

Capitola 

;8i    3 

Lady  Thome       1869 

106 

Mambrino  Gift 

1874 

17 

Marnbrino 

'78        16 

Chestnut  Hill 

79  19 

Lucy                     1872 

62 

May  Queen 

1875 

25 

Independence 

'81       6 

Convoy 

'80  10 

Midnight              1878 

38 

Nancy  Hackett 

1878 

7 

Jersey  Boy 

'80     52 

C.  W.  Woolley 

'78       8 

Monroe  Chief      1880 

61 

Orange  Gill 

'80 

20 

Kansas  Chief 

'76     57 

Deception 

'77     26 

2:  18^ 

Prospero 

77 

19 

Kentucky  Wilkes 

'80     12 

Dick  Moore 

'80     25 

Col.  Lewis            1878 
'Slow  Go                1877 

21 
23 

2-014 
Amy 

,'79 

28 

Mambrino 
Pilot  R 

'79     16 
'81      19 

Elsie  Good 
Gibralter 

'79  37 
'81       8 

Fanny  Robinson 

79 

7 

7  •  2  T  1/ 

Honest  Harry 

'77     5° 

2  :  i83X 
J.  B.  Thomas       1881 

1 1 

Henry 

Lucy 

'r 
'80 

I 
39 

^  .  i  i.  /'2 

Abbottsford 

•78     19 

Jenny 
Joker 

■72  18 
'75     41 

Nutwood               1879 

36 

Martha  Wash- 

Black Cloud 

80     23 

Little  Sioux 

'81       7 

Patchen  (Orwell 

ington 

'77 

12 

Jay  Gould 

'72     20 

Mattie 

'78     II 

Boy)                  1880 
2:10 

16 

Mazomanie 
Sheridan 

'78 
'80 

50 
18 

Music 
Woodford  Mam- 

'75    23 

>     n 

Nancy 
Romero 

'81  16 
'81     17 

Albermarle           1878 
Alexander             1881 

23 
24 

Silverton 
William  H 

'81 
'81 

43 
60 

brino 
Steve  Maxwell 

78     20 
'80     43 

Scotland 
Sweetheart 

'77  27 
'81        6 

Alley                    1879 

46 

2:  205^ 

2:213^^ 

Tanner  Boy 

'77      28 

Bonesetter            1879 

88 

Voltaire 

'79 

52 

Charley  Champlir 

'81      19 

2 :  22%: 

Cozette                  1876 
Edward  _              1878 
Graves   '              r878 
Kitty  Bates           1880 

66 
20 

2:  20"^ 

Chance 

,79 

3 

Molsey 
Rosalind 

Vs    10 

72        6 

Flora  Belle 
Pal  ma 
Young  Bruno 

'72  19 
'80  4 
74     19 

20 
12 

Glendale 
Gov.  Sprague 

•80 
•76 

13 

15 

Rose  of  Wash- 
ington 

'79      19 

Wedgewood         1880 

56 

Lida  Bassett 

.1^ 

18 

2 :  22 

2:23 

2:  191^ 
Bodine                  1875 
Comee                   1877 

66 

7  I 

Noontide 
Richard 
J.  P.  Morris 
Irene 
Sam  Purdy 

80 

'81 
'80 

•76 

23 
26 

II 

Bateman 

Bella 

Blackbird 

'81     42 

,'75      31 
64      5 

Alcantara 
Blue  Mare 
Bonner 

'80     II 

'77  18 
75     16 

Croxie                   1878 
George  Palmer    1869 

16 
12 

24 
30 

Brigadier 
Calmar 

81      47 
'81     39 

Bonner  Boy 
Buzz  Medium 

79  9 
81     10 

0          ^                                          -' 

Keene  Jim            1880 
Pa.rn.na         '            t8So 

1 1 

2  :  2o3^ 

Chickamauga 

■78     36 

Clifton  Boy 

'78     42 

27 

Huntress 

76 

61 

Commonwealth 

Commodore 

79     16 

2:   195^ 

Lysander  Boy 

77 

2 

(Dred) 

'76     29 

Ethel 

'78     20 

Mountain  Boy 

•68 

29 

Dame  Trot 

'78     15 

Eureka 

'81       6 

Driver                   1880 

129 

2  :2i 

Emma  B 

'79     46 

Fred  Hooper 

Moose                  1880 

38 

Banquo 

77 

12 

George  Wilkes 

'68     56 

(J.  Ellis) 

74     33 

Thomas  L.  Young  '75 

27 

Castle  Boy 

74 

19 

Helene 

|8i     23 

Hector 

'80       I 

Troubadour          1881 

20 

Castleton 

■79 

II 

Joe  Brown 

'76     40 

Hugh  McLaughlin  '8 1        i 

Will  Cody             1880 

42 

Clementine 

>s 

31 

Little  Gipsy 

'77     56 

Idol 

2:i93/i 

Doty 

'78 

21 

Mambrino  Dudle> 

■81       8 

Jim  Irving 

75       8 

Adelaide               1878 

67 

Gazelle 

'72 

20 

Molly  Morris 

'75     3T 

John  R 

81      12 

Camors                 1874 

35 

Gen.  Garfield 

'75 

12 

Mystic 

75        8 

Kate  McCall 

'81      10 

Clingstone            1881 

I 

Gen.  Grant 

•76 

15 

Oakland  Maid 

76     16 

Katie  Middleton 

'79      12 

Daisydale             1880 

r8 

Indianapolis 

78 

12 

Von  Amim 

'79     II 

Kilbourn  Jim 

'72      12 

Dick  Wright         r88o 

40 

King  Phillip 

'77 

9 

Wolford  Z. 

•78     29 

Lady  Banker 

'75       3 

Fanny  Wither- 

May  Bird 

'77 

69 

2:225/ 

Lady  Mac 

77     16 

spoon                i88r 

9 

Powers 

•78 

40 

/4- 

Big  John 
Dictator 
Grafton 
Hannah  D 
Jennie  Holton 
Lady  Rolfe  " 
Sensation 
Thorndale 
Woodford  Chief 

'81       6 

Lady  Palmer 

'79       9 

Flora  Temple      1859 

99 

Scott's  Thomas 

78 

22 

Lew  Scott 

•79     82 

John  S.  Clarke     1881 

24 

Susie 

•76 

44 

79  25 

,75     II 
•76     32 

'77       I 

80  4 

'75     45 
76      10 

'77      1° 

Lady  Turpin 

'75     14 

2 :  20 
Annie  VV.              1881 
Belle  Brasfield     1879 
Capt.  Emmons     1880 

25 
37 
42 

Lady  Pritchard 

Lucille 

Richards 

Pliil  Thompson 

■78 
•78 

'81 

9 
26 

3 

Minnie  R 
Oceana  Chief 
Pickard 
Proctor 

'81     IS 

'79  9 
'81  10 
■76       2 

Elaine                   1880 

1 1 

White  Stockings 

'77 

20 

Robert  Lee 

'81     10 

Etta  Jones            1879 
Fleety  Golddust  1884 

16 
12 

Wild  Flower 

2:211^ 

'81 

I 

Scott's  Chief 
Thomas  Jefferson 

'79  2 
'75     39 

Frank                    1877 

15 

Dan  Smith 

'80 

23 

2:221^ 

Unknown 

',75       8 

Humboldt            1881 

17 

Harabletonian 

Badger  Girl 

•76     26 

Trampoline 

78     36 

John  H                1878 

76 

Bashaw 

'80 

20 

Blackwood,  Jr. 

'76      16 

Victor 

'81       9 

ii66 


SPEED. 


Year.     No.  ol 
Times. 


«:23 
Volney  '79     12 

Wildair  '78     12 

2:231^ 


Argonaut 

'80 

27 

Belle  Echo 

'81 

9 

Blackwood  Prince  '81 

9 

Dan  Voorhees 

■76 

19 

Fearnaught 

•68 

4 

Fred  Casey 

'80 

13 

Frank  Reeves 

•76 

14 

Gen.  Butler 

'62 

46 

Lady  Snell 

'75 

14 

Nerea 

75 

9 

Phil 

•78 

3 

Post  Boy 

;79 

18 

St.  James 

73 

42 

Sciola 

'79 

37 

Tolu  Maid  (Net- 

tie C.) 

'80 

IX 

Trio 

•76 

8 

Unalala 

•81 

23 

W.  H.  Allen 

'72 

25 

Wizz 

York  State 

'75 

5 

2:231^ 

Annie  Collins 

76 

40 

Belle  H 

'79 

9 

Blanche 

'75 

40 

Fashion 

'8x 

2 

Geo.  M.  Patchen 

'60 

34 

Gloster,  Jr 

•79 

8 

Goldfinder 

'8 1 

14 

Grey  Cloud 

'80 

3 

Iron  Age 

•80 

19 

Jewett 

;79 

4 

Jim 

'81 

6 

Knox  Boy 

•80 

5 

Lady  Vorhees 

— 

6 

Lizzie  2d 

'80 

I 

Marion 

■76 

9 

Mary  Russell 

'78 

14 

Nancy 

Rhode  Island 

'68 

14 

Rosa  Wilkes 

Shepherd  Boy 

'77 

4 

St.  James 

Tariff 

'81 

7 

2 :  233^ 

Abe  Edgerton 

'78 

13 

Billy  Barr 

70 

16 

Billy  Ray 

76 

4 

Damon 

77 

9 

Frank  J.  (Milton 

Day) 

'75 

6 

Harry  Clay 

,77 

2 

Major  Lord 

•79 

II 

Year. 


No.  of 
Times. 


2:  24 

Breeze 

Brother  Jonathan 

Champion,  Jr. 

Dan  Bryant 

Defiance 

Dr.  Lewis  (Lean- 

der) 
Del  Sur 
Empress 
Frank  Wood 
Geo.  B.  Daniels 
G.  T.  Pilot 
Glide 

Grey  Salem 
Harry  Gilbert 
Hotspur 
James  Howell 
Jessie  Hayes 
John  W.  Conley 

(Beppo) 
John  Morgan 
Joseph  A. 
Kirkwood 
Lady  Star(Capi- 

tola) 
Lucy  Fleming 
Magdallah 
May  Howard 
Mambrino  Kate 
Middlesex 
Neome 

Nettie  Burlew 
Nil  Desperandum 
Orient 
Potol  G.  T. 
Sadie  Bell 
Sooner 

Tommy  Gates 
Tommy  Dodd 
Wild  Lily 

2:24^^ 
Abdallah  Boy 
Amy  B. 
Belle  Oakley 
Big  John 
Calamus 
Carrie 

Crown  Point 
Dick  Taylor 
Draco  Prince 
Flora  F. 
Forest  Patchen 
Jimmy  Stewart 
John  Hall 
Lady  Foxie 
Leontine 
Lucy  Fleming 


'76  6 

'73  30 

'77  4 

'77  6 

'78  37 

'81  4 

■81  II 

'74  9 

'74  21 

'79  7 

'79  15 

'79  1° 

79  46 

•74  8 

'79  9 

'73  7 

'64  6 

'72  16 

'69  6 

'76  40 

'79  10 

'79  15 

'76  39 

'78  10 

>9 
78 
•76 

'78 

75 
78 
'78 
78 

'79  22 
3 


•80 

'77 


'81 
•76 
'81 


4 
6 

7 
16 
12 
12 
12 

9 


19 


II 

II 
30 


'80     10 
'76     13 


Year 


No.  of 
Times. 


77  5 

'71  16 

'8r  9 

'81  16 

'81  4 

'80  21 

'80  46 

'80  4 


2:2454^ 
Major  Allen  (Lo- 
cust) '71       7 
Monarch  Rule       '77     24 
Observer                 '75     25 
Vanity  Fair            '75       9 

2:24^^ 
Big  Soap  '80     13 

Black  Frank  '78     11 

Bonita  '81       i 

Brown  Dick  '75       5 

California  Damsel  '63       5 
Carbolic  '80       4 

Corisande  '78       6 

Crown  Point  '80     11 

Dispatch  '79       7 

Fred  Douglas        '79     12 
George  '80       2 

George  '74       4 

Hylas  '76       6 

Kate  Hall  '79       3 

Loafer  '78     12 

Laura  Williams      '77       4 
Magenta  '77       9 

Monarch,  Jr  '7621 

Myron  Perry  '7 1     24 

Pilot  Temple  '7 1     44 

Planter  '76     15 

Prince  Hartford      '63     11 
Randall  '74       9 

Sea  Foam  '75     21 

Sleepy  John 

Stonewall  '80       8 

Wilbur  F.  '80     12 

Windsor 

2 :  243^ 
Albert 
Bashaw,  Jr. 
Blondine 
Chicago 
Col.  Dawes 
Dan  Donaldson 
Ella  Wright 
Elwood  Medium 
Florence 
Galatea 
Grey  Chief 
Lady  Mills 
Silas  Rich 


.^mulus 
AUie  West 
Anodyne 
Aulinda 
Barney  Kelly 
Bill  Thunder 
Cairo 
Chas.  Henson 


:2s 


'75 

3 

'68 

28 

79 

3 

'68 

41 

'78 

2 

'81 

10 

>4 

— 

'81 

7 

'81 

27 

'81 

6 

'80 

II 

•78 

5 

'68 

14 

,'9 

21 

>5 

3 

77 

II 

'81 

8 

,'77 

38 

76 

5 

78 

15 

79 

3 

No.  of 

Times. 


■78 

"59 


5 

15 

6 


4 

3 

I 

2 

I 

10 

7 

I 

6 

10 


2:25 

Charley  B.  '79 

Charley  Mac  '77 

Chicago  Maid  '78 
Commodore  Van- 

derbilt  '66       5 

Crown  Prince  '73     31 

Dave  C.  '812 

Echora  '81       8 

Ella  Earl  '79     34 

Elsie  Groff  '81     15 

Everett  Ray  '74     14 

Frank  Munson  '79     33 

George  H.  79       9 

Gold  Note  '80       9 
Golden  Girl 

Hiram  Woodruff  '77       9 

Joe  Ripley  '77     51 

John  W.  Hall  '75 

John  Hall  '78 

John  Taylor  '76 

Jubilee  Lambert  '75 

Lady  Lockwood  '65 

Lady  Martin  '81 

Little  Mary  '76 

Lady  Moore  '8i 
Lady  Thome,  2d  '81 

Maggie  C.  '81 

Modoc  '78     15 
Mohawk,  Jr. 

(Clark's)  '72       8 

Ned  Wallace      .  '76     18 

Nelly  Irwin  '74    50 

Pat  Hunt  '77      12 

Queechy  Maid  '78       i 

Reliance  '79       2 

Result  '78     14 

Ripon  Boy  'tt,     12 
Robert  B.  Thomas 
Rolla  Golddust 
Tom  Hendricks 
Tom  Keeler 
Tommy  Gates 
Valley  Chief 
Vanity  Fair 
Vulcan 

2:255^ 
Adelede  Clark 
Amber 
Barney 
Brown  Dick 
Clover  (Bright- 
wood)  '81  28 
Eva  '75  8 
Faugh-a-Ball- 

augh  77       9 

George  K.  '81       3 

George  Treat  '76       2 

Golden  Girl  '80     13 


78 

79 
'78 
'73 

'79    IS 

'79  4 
'81  I 
'77     60 

'80      16 


77      23 


•77       8 
80     18 

2 
12 


SPEED. 

1 167 

Year      N 

D.    of 

Year.   N 

0.  of 

Year.    N 

0.  of 

Year.    No.  of 

T 

mcs. 

T 

mcs. 

T 

mes- 

Times. 

_    2:2554: 

2:253^ 

2:  26 

2:265^ 

Joe  (Triumph) 

•71 

5 

Katie  Jackson 

'77 

3 

T.  A 

77 

5 

McCurdy's  Ham- 

Johnny  Gordon 

'80 

4 

Lady  Brownell 

'81 

2 

Tacky  (Polly) 

'67 

10 

bletonian 

'79       10 

Lewinski 

77 

33 

Steinway 

'79 

I 

Tattler 

'68 

I 

Mila  C  (Mila 

Lumps 

'80 

9 

White  Cloud 

'76 

5 

Tom  Britton 

'77 

7 

Caldwell) 

73       8 

McLeod 

'81 

3 

2 :  26 

Warrior 

'79 

8 

Modesty 

'78       4 

Onward 

'81 

3 

Ada  Paul 

•78 
'80 

;9 
■78 

7 

3 
2 
8 

W.  K.  Thorn 

'68 

12 

Morrisey 

'72       II 

Red  Line 

Rienzi 

Rosa  Wilkes 

Star 

Stella  Blake 

'79 

'80 
'81 

'79 
81 

I 
6 
6 
II 
2 

Alfred  (Little  Al- 
fred) 
Alice  West 
Amboy 

AT                  i        T 

Young  Sentinel 
2:2654: 

Aldine 

Bay  Whalebone 

'77 
'81 

13 

6 
4 

Myrtle 

Nellie  Walton 
North  Star  Mam- 
brino 
Orange  Blossom 
Parole 
Phil  Sheridan 

'80          3 

75       6 

'72  10 
'75       2 

Susie  Parker 

'75 

7 

Almont,  Jr. 
Belle  of  Portland 

81 
'61 

4 
3 

Billy  Hoskins 
Black  Mack 

70 
'71 

I 
I 

'80       6 

2:25^^ 

Belle  Strickland 

;° 

12 

Capt.  Herod 

'80 

4 

(Wis) 
Phil  Sheridan 

'81       6 

Aha 

'80 

II 

Big  Fellow 

>o4 

7 

Coaster 

•76 

3 

'74       5 

73  3 
78      5 

74  9 
78  7 
77  6 
,77  2 
72  2 
'81  4 
'80  3 
•77  8 
'74  12 
'73       2 

Andy  Mershon 
Annette 

\l 

4 
5 

Billey 
Billey  Platter 

80 

>o5 

7 
3 

Dakota  Maid 
Deucalion 

•78 
'82 

10 
4 

Prince  Allen 
Rose  Medium 

Ashley 
Barkis 

•81 
'81 

8 
6 

Blanch  Amory 
Capt.  Jack 

80 

f 

77 

2 
17 

Dora 
Duroc 

'80 
'80 

II 
II 

Royal  George 
Russian  Spy 
Small  Hopes 
Startle 

Bradley,  J.  J. 

'71 

13 

Clara  G. 

71 

3 

Frank  F 

'81 

8 

Byron 

'71 

14 

Columbus  Harable- 

Frank  Palmer 

'75 

7 

Chas.  E.  Lowe 

'71 

7 

tonian 

■80 

3 

Green  Charley 

'79 

3 

Star  of  the  West 

Chieftain 

'80 

16 

Cooley 

'66 

10 

Hazor  (Atwood) 

•76 

22 

Tommy  Norwood 
Uncle  Dave 

Derby  (Dutchman) '7  2 

5 

Confidence 

77 

9 

Kitty  D 

74 

10 

Dream 

78 

7 

Dick  Jamison 

^\ 

5 

Lady  Blanchard 

|72 

4 

Vivandiene 

Early  Rose 
Effie  Deans 

'81 
•76 

6 
I 

Enigma  • 
Eva 

76 
'81 

3 

I 

Lady  Emma 
Lady  Monroe 

'64 

:79 

16 
3 

Wellesley  Boy 
Westfield 

Embassador 

'81 

I 

Executor 

'81 

7 

Lady  Suffolk 

44 

8 

2 :  26ji 

Ethan  Allen 

'60 

1 1 

Fearnaught,  Jr. 

•80 

4 

Lucrece 

'81 

3 

Ethel  Medium 

•81 

9 

Foxfe  V. 

•78 

32 

Lydia  Thompson 

'72 

13 

Belle  of  Lexing- 

Gray Mack 

'69 

9 

Frank  Ferguson 

'77 

8 

Magnolia 

'74 

10 

ton 

;8i    3 

Hill,  H.  C. 

74 

3 

Geo.  H.  Mitchell 

)l 

I 

Mary  Davis 

» 

74 

7 

Charley  Green 

'72  12 

John  Grant 

;8o 

3 

Granville 

•76 

15 

Phyllis 

'81 

9 

Corbin  Bashaw 

'81       8 

Kate  Campbell 

'74 

87 

Harry 

'79 

7 

Queen  of  the  Wesi 

-'71 

2 

Enchantress 

'81       6 

Lady  Groesback 

'78 

5 

Harry  Conklin 

79 

5 

Royal  John 

'71 

12 

George  H 

'80       3 

Lady  Sherman 

'81 

5 

Harry  W.  Genet 

'71 

13 

Susie 

•81 

4 

Gilbreth  Knox 

'69       2 

Led  a 

'79 

9 

Hattie  Arnold 

'80 

3 

Sweet  Brier 

77 

12 

Gus 

'80       8 

Lyman 

'80 

10 

Highland  Mary 

'80 

4 

Timothy 

'80 

9 

Herod 

Y      5 

Mambrino  Belle 

'80 

8 

Hogarth 

'77 

3 

2 :  261^ 

Little  Fred 

'69       4 

Membrino  Genl. 

'78 

II 

Jacksonville  Boy 

,77 

6 

Lou  Whipple 

'77       8 

Mountain  Quail 

,'78 

30 

Joe  Bunker 

'80 

4 

Alexander  Button 

'81 

3 

Parkis 

'74      7 

Myrtle 

79 

10 

Jewess 

'77 

II 

Arthur 

'81 

8 

Rachel 

'71     12 

Nonesuch 

'71 

15 

Kitty  Cook 

•76 

4 

Ben  Flagler 

'72 

II 

Red  Cross 

'79       6 

Onaway 

'81 

18 

Lady  Daggett 

'78 

9 

Billy  Boy 

'81 

4 

Taylor 

'80       7 

Rockingham 

■62 

5 

May  Queen 

•67 

5 

Cyclone 

•81 

4 

Sam.  Bruno 

'75 

4 

Mill  Boy 

'81 

10 

Duke 

>5 

3 

Sir  Walter 

'80 

3 

Mohawk  Jr  (Halls 

>;7 

2 

Gen.  Howard 

76 

6 

Spotted  Colt 

'65 

1 1 

Nelia 

'78 

15 

Gen.  Tweed 

76 

8 

SueCirundy 

'81 

15 

Parrott 

79 

4 

George  Judd 

76 

2 

Wagner  Bashaw 

'81 

22 

Peace 

'78 

8 

Grand  Duchess 

72 

6 

2:253^ 

Phil  Dougherty 

'79 

17 

Frank  Kernan 

■77 

2 

Prospect  Maid 

'80 

4 

Honest  Dutchman 

'72 

6 

Gamers 

'80 

4 

Richmond 

'78 

6 

Joe  Green 

•73 

3 

Col.  Russell 

'70 

7 

Russell 

■76 

3 

License 

•70 

13 

Ella  Madden 

•76 

14 

Sadie  Howe 

79 

7 

Lily 

•78 

2 

Fred  Crocker 

'80 

2 

Schuyler 

77 

13 

Maggies 

■76 

7 

Harry  Harley 

'71 

9 

Sleepy  Bill 

•76 

2 

Mambrino  Boy 

•76 

3 

Honesty 

'81 

I 

St.  Charles 

1 

77 

4 

Mamie  M 

'81 

8 

Jerome 

'80 

8 

Surprise 

1 

70 

12 

Matthew  Smith 

'71 

3 

ii68 


SPEED. 


Mile  heats  in  2:  27  to  2:40  were  deserving  of  men- 
tion many  years  ago,  but  such  has  been  the  progress 
of  special  breeding  that  they  have  now  dropped  out 
of  notice. 

We  close  this  record  by  the  best  time  made  with 
miscellaneous  distances,  which  are  indeed  of  equal 
value  with  mile-heats  in  trotting,  especially  from  a 
utilitarian  point  of  view. 

TWO   MILES — TROTTING. 

1831 — Top  Gallant,  Philadelphia,  to  saddle,  5:  19?^. 
1840 — Edwin  Forrest,  Philadelphia,  May  6,  to  saddle 

5:05. 
1847 — Lady  Suffolk,  Long  Island,  to  saddle,  5 :  03. 
1852 — Lacony,  Long  Island,  to  saddle,  5  :  02. 
1853 — Lady  Franklin,  Long  Island,  wagon,  5:11. 
1859 — Flora  Temple,  Eclipse  Course,  L.  I.,  Aug.  16, 

in  harness,  4:50}^. 
i860 — Geo.  M.  Patchen,  Union  Course,  L.  I.,  June  14, 

4:53^- 
1865 — Dexter,  Long  Island,  to  wagon;  4:561^. 
1867 — Dexter,  Fashion  Course,  L.  I.,  in  harness,  June 

14,4:51. 
1870 — Dreadnaught,  Fleetwood  Park,  N.  Y.,  June  29, 

in  harness,  4:59}^ 
1872 — Tennessee,  June  11,  in  harness,  5:00. 
1880 — Steve  Maxwell,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  4:48^^. 

THREE  MILES — TROTTING. 

1827 — Screwdriver,  Philadelphia,  to  saddle,  8  :o2. 
1832 — Columbus,  Long  Island,  to  saddle,  8 :  00. 
1839 — Dutchman,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  to  saddle,  7  :  32  J^. 
1841 — Lady  Suffolk,  Philadelphia,  to  saddle,  7  :  405^. 
1853 — Pet,  Long  Island,  to  wagon,  8:  01. 
1864 — Stonewall  Jackson,  Long  Island,  in  harness, 

1872 — Huntress,  Brooklyn,  in  harness  7:21^. 

FOUR    MILES TROTTING. 

1836 — Dutchman,Long  Island,  under  saddle,  10:51. 
1869 — Longfellow,  to  wagon,  10:  34  J^. 

FIVE  MILES TROTTING. 

1863 — Lady  Mac,  to  wagon,  13:43^. 

1874 — Lady  Mac,  in  harness,  San  Francisco  13:00, 

TEN  MILES TROTTING. 

1844 — Fanny  Jenks,  in  harness,  29  :  59. 

1853 — Prince,  Union  Course,  L.  I.,  Nov.  11,  in  har- 
ness, 28:  o8J^. 

1858 — Julia  Aldrich,  San  Francisco,  in  harness, 
29:04}^. 

i860 — Capt.  McGowan,  Cincinnati,  in  harness. 
28:11^. 

1868 — John  Stewart,  Boston,  to  wagon,  28:02^. 

1878 — Controller,  San  Francisco,  in  harness,  27  :  235^. 

TWELVE   MILES — TROTTING. 

1830 — Top  Gallant,  Philadelphia,  38:00. 

FIFTEEN  MILES — TROTTING. 

1874 — Girder,  San  Francisco,  47 :  20. 


TWENTY   MILES — TROTTING. 

1848 — Trustee,   Union    Course,   L.    I.,   in    harness, 

59:35^^- 
1855 — Lady   Fulton,  Centerville,   L.  I.,  in   harness, 

S9-S5-  .      ^  .    , 

1 855 — ^Trustee,  Union  Course,  in  harness,  5  9 :  35  J^ . 
1865 — Captain  McGowan,  Boston, in  harness, 58  :  25. 
1868 — John  Stewart,  Fashion  Course,  L.  I.,  in  harness, 

58:30. 
1868 — John  Stewart,  Boston,  to  wagon,  59:  23. 

FIFTY    MILES TROTTING. 

1835 — Black  Joke,  Providence,  R.  L,  in  harness,  3h, 

1846 — Anel,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  harness,  3h,  55  :4o^. 
1855— Spangle,  to  wagon,  3h,  59:  04. 

ONE  HUNDRED  MILES TROTTING. 

1845 — Fanny    Jenks,    Albany,   N.   Y.,   May   5,    gh, 

38 :  34. 
1846 — Fanny  Murray,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  May  15,  9h, 

41  :  26. 
1850 — Kate,  Centerville.  L.  I.,  June  7,  gh,  4 .  :  y^. 
1853 — Conqueror,   Centerville,    L.  I.,  Nov.    12,    8h, 

55:53- 

ONE   MILE — PACING. 

1855 — Pochahontas,  Long  Island,  2  :  175^. 

1868— Billy  Boice,  Buffalo,  2  :  14^, 

1879 — Sleepy  Tom,  Rochester,  2: 13^^. 

1879 — Sleepy  Tom,  Chicago,  2:  121^. 

1 87 1 — Little  Brown  Jug,  Hartford,  Conn.,  2: 115^. 

TWO  MILES PACING. 

1850— James  K.  Polk,  Philadelphia,  4:57^^- 
1853 — Hero.  Long  Island,  4 :  56  J^. 

THREE  MILE  PACING. 

1843 — Oneida  Chief,  7  :  44. 
1847 — James  K.  Polk,  7:44- 

FASTEST   RUNNING    RECORD. 

1/2,  mile — Olitipa,  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  r874,  0:475^. 

54  mile — First  Chance,  Philadelphia,  1876,  i :  15. 

i/i  mile — Bonnie  Wood,  Saratoga,  1878,  i  -.o^z/^. 
I       rnile — Ten  Broeck,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1877,  1:39^. 
\%  miles — Bob  Wooley,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1875,  i  :  54. 
1 1^  miles — Charley   Gorham,  Lexington,  Ky.    1877, 

2:08  J^. 
ii^  miles — Mollie  McCarthy,   San  Francisco,    1879 

2:08^. 
ij4  miles — Tom    Bowling,    Lexington,    Ky.,    1874, 

15^  miles— Ten  Broeck,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1875,  2:49 1^. 
i^  miles — Courier,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1877,  3.055^. 
i^  miles — One  Dime,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1879,  3:  051^^. 

1  ?^  miles — Irish  King,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1879,  3  :  05 14^. 

2  miles — Ten  Broeck,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1877,  3:27}^. 
2yi  miles — Aristides,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1876,  s'-AS^- 
2l{  miles — Preakness  and  Springbok,  Saratoga,  1875, 

2%  miles — Aristides,  Lexington.  Ky.,  1877,4:  2754- 


SPEED. 


1 169 


3 
4 


miles — Ten  Broeck,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1876, 5'26^. 
miles — Ten  Broeck,  Louisville,  Ky.,  1876,  7 :  14?^. 


DOUBLE  TEAM  TROTTING. 


The  first  gentleman's  team  race  took  place  Jan.  7, 
1836.  It  was  for  a  stake  of  $100  each,  winner  to  re- 
ceive the  entire  stakes;  two  miles  and  repeat,  onCen- 
treville  Course,  Long  Island.  It  was  won  by  Mr.  G. 
T.  Wilson's  team,  Jerry  and  Blackbird,  in  straight 
heats,  beating  Dutchman  and  mate,  Yankee  Doodle 
and  mate,  and  three  other  teams.     Time,  6:27,  6:30. 

The  next  remarkable  team  race  was  made  by  the 
famous  Lady  Suffolk  and  Rifle  in  1842,  over  the 
Hunting  Park  Course,  Philadelphia,  when  they  dis- 
tanced Hardwood  and  Apology  the  first  heat,  two 
miles  in  5:19.  This  feat  stood  long  on  the  books  as 
the  best  of  its  kind.  Hiram  Woodruff,  in  comment- 
ing uix)n  it,  states  that  notwithstanding  Mr.  Bonner's 
team  twenty  years  afterwards  surpassed  this  perform- 
ance, its  excellence  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  as  the 
team  had  had  no  practice  together.  From  the  year 
1842  until  1856,  driving  in  double  harness  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  much  in  vogue.  There  was  a 
match  between  Lantern  and  Whalebone  vs.  Stella  and 
Alice  Grey,  June  5,  1855,  at  the  Union  course.  Long 
Island,  which  was  easily  won  by  Lantern  and  mate; 
time,  2:461^,  2:421^. 

Nov.  3,  1856,  Lantern  and  Don  beat  black  mare 
Belle  of  Saratoga,  and  black  gelding  John  Irving,  over 
the  Union  Course,  Long  Island,  a  match  race  $2,000 
time  2:433^,  2:41!/^,  2:421^. 

Nothing  worthy  of  note  occurred  with  teams  from 
1856  until  the  fall  of  1859,  when  Hiram  Woodruff 
and  Capt.  Rynders  took  the  Widow  Machree  and 
Frank  "Temple  to  Boston,  and  were  beaten  by  Ad 
Carpenter's  Telemachus  and  Nellie  Holcomb.  The 
first  two' heats  were  won  by  Hiram's  team,  and  it  is 
said  Dick  Doree  bet  $100  to  $5  nine  times  in  succes- 
sion on  the  Widow  and  mate,  who  lost  the  next  three 
heats  in  2:42,  2:44%,  2:44.  William  Whelan's  team 
was  distanced  in  the  third  heat. 

The  notable  team  race  of  the  following  year  was  at 
Louisville,  Ky.,  where  Miller's  Damsel  and  John 
Watts  defeated  Bolly  Lewis  and  Ike  Cook  in  straight 
heats— time,  5:30^,  5:19}^. 

Another  race  of  this  year  is  entitled  to  be  mentioned 
as  it  appears  to  be  the  first  one  in  which  2:40  was 
beaten  in  a  r^ce  of  mile  heats.  Horace  Jones'  team 
Putnam  and  mate,  beat  Jim  and  mate. 

The  year  1862  marks  an  epoch  in  team  trotting. 
Mr.  Robort  Bonner  drove  his  world-renowned  pair. 
Lady  Palmer  and  Flatbush  Maid,  to  a  road  wagon, 
in  public,  over  the  Fashion  Course,  L.  I.,  one  mile,  in 
2:26,  May  loth,  and  on  the  13th  of  the  same  month, 
under  similar  conditions,  they  were  driven  by  him  two 
miles  in  5:011^,  the  second  quarter  of  the  second  mile 
in  thirty-three  seconds.  On  both  occasions  they  were 
taken  out  of  his  private  stable  untrained  and  unpre- 
pared for  such  trials.  The  mile  event  remained  un- 
beaten by  any  gentleman  driver  until  Mr.  Vanderbilt 
drove  Small  Hopes  and  Lady  Mac  in  2:23,  and  the 

74 


two-mile  performance  stands  the  best  of  its  class  until 
the  present  day. 

Dan  Mace  subsequently  put  Ethan  Allen  and  Hon- 
est Allen  together  and  they  beat  Simon  Bound's  To- 
ronto Chief  and  mate  on  Fashion  Course,  L.  I.,  at  the 
annual  fair,  in  2:33 — last  half  in  1:15.  It  is  also  a 
duly  accredited  performance  by  many  gentlemen  who 
were  present,  that  Ethan  Allen  and  Honest  Allen 
were  driven  by  Dan  Mace,  at  private  trial,  as  a  team, 
in  2:25  and  repeated  in  2:23. 

The  next  event  in  the  annals  of  team-trotting  was 
on  June  11,  1867,  when  Mr.  Joseph  Harker's  team, 
Bruno  and  Brunette,  driven  by  John  Lovett,  trotted  to 
road-wagon  over  the  Fashion  track  in  2:255^.  This 
very  creditable  mile  belongs  to  the  category  of  private 
trials. 

The  year  1865  developed  some  very  good  team 
races.  A  black  mare  called  Jessie  Wales  was  found 
to  be  a  very  clever  performer  to  the  pole.  She  got  in- 
to the  hands  of  B.  S.  Wright,  and  as  he  was  always 
quite  a  match-maker,  he  kept  the  boys  busy  finding 
teams  to  beat  her  and  mate.  These  team  races  were 
continued  with  unflagging  zeal  and  varying  success, 
until  the  year  1871,  when  it  was  ascertained  that 
George  Wilkes  and  Honest  Allen  had  all  other  teams 
at  their  mercy.  Herewith  is  appended  a  summarj'  of 
the  best  records  of  each  year  during  this  period  : 


Date. 

Place. 

Time. 

Team. 

1867,  Sept.  20. 

Boston,  Mass — 

2:32 

Jessie  Wales  &  Ben   Franklin. 
Medock  and  Nabocklish. 

1868,  July  31.. 

Huffalo,N.  Y.... 

2:32^ 

1869,  June  16. 

Boston,  Mass.. . . 

2:33 

Honest  Allen  &  Myron  Perry. 

i86q.  June  i6. 

Boston,  Mass 

2:32 

Rubber  Ben  and  Lady  Walton. 

i86g,  Sept.  30. 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

2:^1^ 

India  Rubber  Ben  and  mate. 

i86g,  Sept.  30. 

Boston,  Mass 

2:29^ 

Jessie  Wales  &  Honest  Allen. 
Blk.  Harry  &  Belle  Strickland. 

1869,  Oct.  5... 

Cranston,  R.I... 

2:30 

1870,  May  31.. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

2:29 

Kirkwood  and  Idol. 

1870,  June  9.. 

Boston,  Mass 

2:32^ 

K-irkwood  and  License. 

1870,  July  21.. 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

2:30 

Kirkwood  and  Honest  Allen. 

1870,  June  22.. 

Cranston,  R.  I.. . 

2:27^ 

Jessie  Wales  and  Darkness. 
Kirkwood  and  License. 

1870,  June  22.. 

Cranston,  R,  I.. . 

2:28^^ 

1871,  July  4-.- 

Boston,  Mass. . . 

2:28 

Geo.  Wilkes  &  Honest  Allen. 

Subsequent  to  this  nothing  of  note  ocurred  till  1877, 
when  Mr.  W.  H.  Vanderbilt  drove  Small  Hopes  and 
Lady  Mac  a  mile  to  road- wagon  on  Fleetwood  Park 
track  in  2:23. 

In  1877  the  technical  record  was  also  beaten  by 
Gen.  Cobb  and  Lulu  McCord  trotting  a  third  heat  at 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  in  2:26^. 

For  three  years  no  team  succeeded  in  beating  this 
record,  until  June  10,  1880,  W.  H.  Doble  drove  Nigger 
Baby  and  MoUie  two  heats  to  beat  2:27,  at  Belmont 
Park,  Philadelphia,  and  gained  a  record  for  them  of 
2:26^,  2:25^^. 

For  four  years,  although  often  attempted  by  both 
professional  and  amateur  reinsmen,  no  team  was 
found  able  to  beat  the  2:23  of  Small  Hopes  and  Lady 
Mac,  until  Sept.  23,  i88r.  Mr.  John  Shepard,  of 
Boston,  drove  his  new  team.  Mill  Boy  and  Blondine,  at 
Beacon  Park,  a  mile  to  his  road-wagon  in  2:22,  and, 
being,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  over  one  of  the 
National  Association  tracks,  it  now  stands  the  be^t 
time  on  record.  » 

The  owners  of  New  York  teams  were  anxious  to 


II70 


SPELLING  REFORM— SPINACH. 


maintain  Gotham's  supremacy  and  were  not  content 
to  let  all  the  glory  center  in  the  Hub.  Mr.  Foster 
Dewey's  team,  Boston  and  William  H.,  showed  2:23 
and  2:225^.  Mr.  T.  C.  Eastman  drove  Capt.  Jack  and 
Glendale  in  2:24.  Mr.  Vanderbilt  let  Dan  Mace  com- 
mence driving  William  H.  and  Lysander,  and  they  on 
two  occasions  trotted  in  2:20.  But  Mr.  Frank  Work's 
team,  Swiveller  and  Edward,  capped  the  climax  Sept. 
27:  when  driven  by  Dan  Mace,  they  trotted  at  Fleet- 
wood Park  to  a  top-wagon  in  2:19^^. 

Spelling  Beform.  A  consistent  mode  of  spelling 
in  the  English  language  would  save  the  people  not 
only  several  years  of  the  most  precious  time  of  their 
youth,  but  also  an  infinite  amount  of  vexation  through 
life.  We  may  say  that  the  difficulty  of  learning  any 
system  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  square  of  the 
number  of  its  rules,  including  the  cross-rules  and  ex- 
ceptions which  generally  characterize  "  systems " 
that  have  grown  from  chance,  instead  of  being  in- 
vented by  sensible  thinkers.  Thus,  for  example,  a 
system  of  short-hand  which  has  three  times  as  many 
rules,  cross-rules,  etc.,  as  another  system,  would  be 
three  times  three,  or  nine,  times  more  difficult  to 
learn,  such  is  the  law  of  memory.  Now,  what  is 
called  the  "  spelling  reform  "  simply  proposes  to  dis- 
pense with  the  scores  of  rules  and  thousands  of  ex- 
ceptions which  exist  in  our  orthography;  and  the 
reform  is  actually  inaugurated,  as  it  is  taught  to  some 
extent  in  many  of  our  modem  school-books  and  prac- 
ticed by  hundreds  of  the  newspapers.  Of  course 
there  is  opposition,  as  there  always  is  to  any  good 
thing  that  might  be  proposed ;  but,  fortunately  for 
this  cause,  there  is  almost  perfect  unanimity  among 
the  scholars  of  the  land  in  favor  of  the  immediate 
adoption  of  a  compromise  but  transitional  system  of 
reformed  orthography.  The  following  sentence  gives 
an  example  of  what  can  be  done  without  at  all  inter- 
fering with  legibility  among  even  the  most  plodding 
class  of  readers : 

"  Tho  I  laft  at  ur  tho'ts  az  u  exprest  them  last  nite, 
I  dout  not  u  wer  rite,  az  u  alwayz  hav  bin  in  such 
matrz.  Meny  pepl  in  this  naborhood  wer,  sum 
yearz  ago,  and  ar  stil,  ov  our  opinion." 

The  above  example  is  not  perfectly  phonetic;  but 
after  the  people  became  familiar  with  this  style  they 
could  the  more  easily  glide  into  a  strictly  phonetic 
system,  which  necessitates  the  use  of  three  or  four 
new  characters.  This  is  thought  by  many  to  be  far 
the  greatest  educational  reform  of  the  age. 

Spices.  All  the  substances  classed  as  spices  are 
the  produce  of  tropical  climates  only ;  none  of  our 
native  plants,  and  no  plants  that  come  to  maturity  in 
the  open  air  in  this  climate,  possess  sufficient  aromatic 
flavor  to  be  reckoned  among  the  spices.  The  most 
valuable  of  these  natural  productions  were  originally 
found  in  the  islands  situated  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
called  the  Spice  Islands,  or  Moluccas,  and  were  prob- 
ably conveyed  from  them  in  the  most  distant  ages. 
The  spices  which  the  queen  of  Sheba  presented  to 
Solomon  were  unknown   in   Palestine,  and  probably 


came  from  Ceylon  or  some  of  the  islands  to  the  east. 

The  delicious  aromatics  of  tropical  regions  were 
highly  prized  by  the  ancient  nations;  and,  besides 
spices,  we  read  of  frankincense  and  myrrh,  from  the 
East,  as  ranking  among  their  most  esteemed  luxuries. 
The  wealthy  Romans  indulged  in  these  to  an  extrava- 
gant degree.  As  navigation  and  the  means  of  inter- 
course between  distant  nations  improved,  from  the 
facility  of  transport,  they  found  their  way,  as  articles 
of  traffic,  to  countries  very  remote  from  the  places  of 
their  production. 

The  foreign  spices  in  common  use  in  the  United 
States  are  pepper,  cinnamon,  cloves,  nutmeg,  mace, 
ginger  and  allspice.  Black  pepper  is  the  fruit  of  a 
species  of  climbing  vine,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
(See  Pepper.)  Cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  a  tree, 
a  native  of  Ceylon  and  several  Oriental  countries,  as 
China,  Borneo,  etc.,  but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America.  Cloves  are  the  fruit, 
or  rather  the  calyx  of  the  unexpanded  flowers  of  the 
clove  tree.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  the  Malacca 
Islands.  The  clove  is  described  "as  a  tree  of  noble 
height,  somewhat  like  the  bay,  and  composing  by  the 
beauty  of  their  form,  the  luxuriance  of  their  foliage, 
and  the  spicy  fragrance  with  which  they  perfume  the 
air,  some  of  the  most  delightful  objects  in  the  world." 
The  nutmeg  is  also  a  native  of  the  Spice  Islands. 
The  tree  is  not  unlike  the  pear  tree  and  bears  fruit  all 
the  year  round.  The  exterior  part  of  the  shell  is  a 
pulpy  substance ;  within  this  is  a  thin  shining  black 
shell  surrounded  by  membranous  layers,  which  con- 
stitute another  of  our  spices,  the  mace,  and  within 
this  shell  is  the  nutmeg.  Ginger  is  the  tuber  of  a 
plant  which  is  a  native  of  the  mountain  Gingi,  in  Hin- 
dostan:  whence  the  name.  It  was  carried  from  India 
to  South  America  and  the  West  Indies.  Allspice  is 
the  berry  of  a  handsome  tree  that  grows  to  the  height 
of  20  feet  in  the  last  named  countries.  It  combines 
the  flavor  of  cinnamon,  nutmeg  and  cloves,  and  hence 
known  as  allspice. 

We  wish  to  remark  that  any  and  all  of  the  spices 
that  are  ground  in  factories  and  sold  throughout  the 
country,  both  in  bulk  and  in  small  packages,  are  in- 
variably impure, — at  least  none  have  ever  been 
analyzed  and  found  free  from  adulteration.  There- 
fore the  only  way  to  obtain  the  pure  article  is  to  pur- 
chase the  unground. 

Spider,  an  eight-legged  animal  akin  to  insects  in 
its  general  appearance,  but,  as  science  now  restricts 
the  terms,  is  not  a  true  insect.  Spider  bites  are  poi- 
sonous ;  for  remedy,  see  Bite  of  Rattlesnake,  etc., 
page  loi  The  term  "  spider"  also  denotes  a  skillet  or 
frying-pan. 

Spigot  (spig'ot),  a  pin  or  peg  used  to  stop  a  faucet, 
or  to  stop  a  small  hole  in  a  cask  of  liquor. 

Spinach,  early  greens,  something  like  beet  tops. 
For  summer  use  sow  in  early  spring,  in  drills  eight 
inches  to  one  foot  apart,  covering  the  seed  one  inch 
deep.  A  succession  may  be  obtained  by  sowing  at 
intervals  of  two  weeks.     For  very  early  spring  use, 


SPir— SQUASH. 


1 171 


sow  in  August,  and  protect  during  the  winter  by  cov- 
ering with  straw.  The  varieties  are  the  Round-seeded 
Savoy,  the  New  Zealand,  the  Prickly-seeded,  the 
Round-leaved  and  the  Extra  Large  Round-leaved. 
The  Prickly-seeded  is  the  hardiest  and  best  for  early 
fall  sowing,  and  the  Round-leaved  is  the  best  sum- 
mer variety. 

To  Cook  Spinach.  Wash  and  clean  the  spinach 
thoroughly  from  grit,  then  boil  it  in  salt  and  water; 
press  the  water  entirely  out  of  it  and  chop  it  as  fine 
as  powder.  A  quarter  of  an  hour  before  serving  put 
it  into  a  saucepan  with  a  piece  of  butter  mixed  with  a 
tablespoonful  of  flour  and  half  a  tumblerful  of  boiling 
water,  some  salt,  pepper,  and  nutmeg,  and  let  it  sim- 
mer 15  minutes.  Serve  with  hard-boiled  or  poached 
eggs  on  the  top.     Some  serve  also  with  drawn  butter. 

Spit,  in  horticulture,  a  spadeful  of  earth. 

Spleen,  a  spongy,  honey-comb-like  organ  compris- 
ing numerous  little  ones  and  multitudes  of  minute 
vessels,  and  lying  along  the  left  side  of  the  stomach 
of  some  of  the  higher  order  of  animals.  It  is  one  of 
the  few  organs  whose  precise  function  has  as  yet 
baffled  scientific  research ;  but  has  been  supjx)sed  to 
serve  as  a  reservoir  for  any  excess  of  fluid  which  the 
stomach  receives  and  does  not  immediately  require 
for  any  purpose  of  digestion.  It  is  sometimes  very 
much  enlarged,  and  has  even  been  known  to  be  rup- 
tured ;  but  does  not  appear  to  be  often  or  seriously 
the  seat  of  disease. 

Splenic  Fever,  the  modern  name  of  Texas  fever, 
a  cattle  disease;  see  page  238. 

Splint,  a  small  bony  enlargement  on  the  fore-leg  of 
the  horse;  see  page  806. 

Sport,  a  freak  or  extraordinary  form  of  a  plant  or 
animal  which  lasts  for  only  one  generation  and  does 
not  constitute  a  variety. 

Sprains  and  Bruises.  To  treat  these,  apply 
warm-water  compresses  or  hot  fomentations  of  bitter 
herbs  and  vinegar.  When  the  pain  and  swelling  are 
considerably  reduced  by  these  means,  apply  arnica 
liniment,  or  some  of  those  recommended  on  page  944 
of  this  volume,  or  some  of  the  preparations  prescribed 
for  rheumatism,  page  1099.  Some  prefer  to  use  arnica 
from  the  first,  and  this  is  advisable  when  there  is  no 
inflammation. 

Spray,  of  ornamental  trees,  the  twiggy  or  leafy  ex- 
pansions of  the  outermost  branches.  A  "  spray  drain" 
is  one  made  by  laying  under  the  earth  the  spray  of 
trees,  which  keep  passages  open. 

Spring,  a  natural  fountain.  The  more  perennial 
or  constant  the  flow  of  a  spring,  the  deeper  in  the 
earth  is  the  source ;  but  this  has  nothing  to  do  with 
its  purity.  Springs  from  deep  sources  are  often  too 
mineral  for  ordinary  use,  and  those  which  run  only 
during  wet  seasons  give  nothing  but  surface  water, 
which  also  is  more  or  less  impure,  sometimes  very 
deleterious,  or  even  dangerous. 


Squash.  Squash  vines,  as  well  as  all  other  vines 
of  the  order,  delight  in  a  warm  and  rich  soil.  Prepare 
the  ground  by  thoroughly  pulverizing ;  manure  at  the 
rate  of  ten  to  fifteen  wagon  loads  to  the  acre,  working 
it  just  under  the  surface  with  the  cultivator  or  gang 
plow;  plant  in  hills  nine  to  ten  feet  apart  for  running 
varieties,  and  five  or  six  feet  apart  for  bush  sorts; 
work  some  fine  rich  manure  into  each  hill;  leave  two 
plants  to  the  hill ;  keep  well  covered  with  plaster  or 
air-slacked  lime  in  early  stages  of  growth ;  wire-gauze 
cages  may  be  used  to  keep  off  the  bugs ;  or,  the  com- 
mon striped  squash  bug  may  be  kept  away  by  fre- 
quently throwing  dust  at  them  as  they  appear  on  the 
vines ;  cultivate  frequently  until  the  runners  are  well 
started ;  to  provide  against  bugs,  freezing  etc.,  plant 
two  or  three  times  as  many  as  will  finally  be  wanted. 

Varieties,  Hubbard.  The  standard  winter  squash, 

Boston  Marrow.  A 
standard  fall  squash, 
of  a  rich  orange  color 
and  very  productive. 

American  Turban. 
Decidedly  the  best  of 
all  fall  squashes. 

Butinan.   A  com  par-    ^P^    ^  */ai'^\\^  ^&,.V^ 
atively  new  variety  sim- 
ilar to  the  Hubbard,  of       '^f^SKMIili  ^      t*"  1 W 
a   bright,    grass    green 
color,  intermixed   with 

white;      flesh     is      of     a  Early  white  Bush  Sguash. 

lemon  color  and  very  fine  grained. 

Marblehead.  Light  blue,  with  remarkably  delicious 
flesh. 

Summer  Crook-Necked.  Early;  fine  for  summer 
use. 

White  Early  Bush.     The  earliest  sort. 

Cambridge  Marrow.  Earlier  than  the  Boston  Mar- 
row; the  skin  has  a  remarkable  deep,  orange  color, 
which  renders  it  very  attractive ;  popular  with  market 
men ;  quality  hardly  up  to  Boston  Marrow. 

Cocoanut.  A  half- bush  variety  of  small  size,  but 
remarkably  heavy  and  very  prolific,  fine-grained  and 
very  rich,  having  a  chesnut-like  flavor;  worth  raising 
as  a  parlor  ornament.    . 

Yokohatna.  Has  the  flavor  of  the  crook-necked 
class,  but  is  finer-grained  and  much  superior  in 
quality. 

Mammoth  Yellow.  Has  been  grown  to  weigh  from 
100  to  300  pounds. 

Canada  Crook-Necked.  The  small  well-known  ex- 
cellent kind. 

Large  Winter  Crook-Necked.  The  old  standard 
sort  and  one  of  the  best  of  keepers;  cross-grained. 

Hound  Warted  Marrow.  Medium  size,  flesh 
orange  and  of  good  quality,  skin  bright  red,  covered 
and  netted  with  gray  warts. 

Bush  Scallop.  Of  this  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
yellow  and  the  white;  both  early  and  fine   squashes. 

Other  kinds  are  advertised  by  seedsmen. 

To  Cook  Winter  Squash.     Cut  it  in  pieces,  take 


II72 


STABLE— STAINS. 


out  the  seeds  and  pare  as  thin  as  possible ;  steam  or 
boil  until  soft  and  tender.  Drain  and  press  well,  then 
mash  with  butter,  pepper,  salt  and  a  very  little  sugar. 
Summer  squash  may  be  cooked  the  same  way ;  if  ex- 
tremely tender  they  need  not  be  pared. 

Stable.     See  article  Barn. 

Stack,  a  large  quantity  of  hay,  wood,  straw  or  corn 
piled  up  in  a  circular  or  regular  form.  See  article  Hay, 
page  645. 

Stag.  In  natural  history  the  stag  is  the  male  of 
the  red  deer  or  hind.  It  is  also  sometimes  applied 
incorrectly  to  a  colt  or  filly.  As  we  understand  the 
term,  it  is  only  used  to  denote  a  male  animal  castrated 
after  he  has  attained  near  or  full  maturity.  Fre- 
quently applied  to  animals  of  the  ox  kind,  which  are 
castrated  at  such  an  age  as  to  preclude  their  gaining 
the  full  size  of  an  ox.  In  commercial  parlance,  used 
to  designate  an  outside  irregular  dealer  in  stocks,  not 
a- member  of  the  exchange. 

Staggers,  a  serious  nervous  disease  of  the  horse : 
see  page  806.  Also,  a  similar  disease  of  the  pig,  for 
which  see  Swine. 

Stains.  To  remove  stains  of  various  kinds  and 
from  various  articles  we  append  the  following  practical 
directions.     See  also  Gloves  and  Silk. 

Methods  of  Removing  Various  Stains.  Fruit- 
stains,  wine-stains,  and  those  made  by  colored  vege- 
table juices,  are  often  nearly  indelible,  and  require 
various  treatment.  Thorough  rubbing  with  soap  and 
soft  water;  repeated  dipping  in  sour  buttermilk,  and 
drying  in  the  sun ;  rubbing  on  a  thick  mixture  of  starch 
and  cold  water,  and  exposing  long  to  sun  and  air,  are 
among  the  expedients  resorted  to.  Sulphurous  acid 
is  often  employed  to  bleach  out  colors.  It  may  be 
generated  at  the  moment  of  using,  by  burning  a  small 
piece  of  sulphur  in  the  air,  under  the  wide  end  of  a 
small  paper  funnel,  whose  upper  orifice  is  applied  near 
the  cloth.  Coffee  and  chocolate  stains  require  care- 
ful soaping  and  washing  with  water  at  120'',  followed 
by  sulphuration.  If  discoloration  has  been  produced 
by  acids,  water  of  ammonia  should  be  applied ;  if 
spots  have  been  made  by  alkaline  substances,  moder- 
ately strong  vinegar  may  be  applied ;  if  upon  a  deli- 
cate article,  the  vinegar  should  be  decolorized  by  filter- 
ing through  powdered  charcoal. 

The  Effect  of  Acids  and  Alkalies  upon  Dif- 
ferent Colors.  The  effect  of  acids  upon  blacks, 
purples,  blues  (except  those  produced  by  indigo  or 
Prussian  blue),  and  upon  all  those  shades  of  colors 
which  are  produced  by  means  of  iron,  archil,  and  as- 
tringent substances,  is  to  turn  them  red.  They  ren- 
der yellows  more  pale,  except  those  produced  by  an- 
notto,  which  they  turn  to  an  orange  color. 

Alkalies  turn  scarlets,  and  all  reds  produced  by 
Brazil  or  logwood,  to  a  violet  color;  they  turn  green 
(upon  woolen  cloths)  to  yellow,  and  they  give  a  red- 
dish cast  to  the  yellow  produced  by  annotto.  The 
effect  of  the  perspiration  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
alkalies. 


Spots  occasioned  by  acids  are  removed  by  alkalies, 
and  vice  versa. 

To  Remove  Fruit  Stains.  Spots  caused  by  I'ruit 
are  removed  by  sulphurous  acid,  or  what  is 
still  better,  by  water  acidulated  with  a  little  muria- 
tic or  oxalic  acid,  or  salt  of  lemons ;  but^eare  must  be 
taken  not  to  apply  this  liquid  to  colors  that  it  will  in- 
jure. A  lighted  sulphur  match  held  under  the  stain 
will  produce  sufficient  sulphurous  acid. 

To  Restore  the  Color  to  Garments.  Chlor- 
oform will  restore  the  color  of  garments,  where  the 
same  has  been  destroyed  by  acids. 

When  acid  has  accidentally  or  otherwise  destroyed 
or  changed  the  color  of  the  fabric,  ammonia  should 
be  applied  to  neutralize  the  acid.  A  subsequent  ap- 
plication of  chloroform  restores  the  original  color. 

Sjxjts  produced  by  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid 
can  be  removed  by  the  application  of  concentrated 
ammonia,  while  spots  from  nitric  acid  can  scarcely  be 
obliterated. 

To  Remove  Alkali  Stains  from  Garments.  Spots 
produced  by  alkalies,  such  as  soap-boiler's  lye,  soda, 
ammonia,  etc.,  can  generally  be  made  to  disappear 
completely  by  the  prompt  application  of  dilute  acetic 
acid  and  a  good  deal  of  water. 

To  Remove  Stains  of  Wine,  Fruit,  etc.,  after 
they  have  been  long  in  the  linen,  rub  the  part 
on  each  side  with  yellow  soap;  then  lay  on  a  mixture 
of  starch  in  cold  water  very  thick ;  rub  it  well  in,  and 
expose  the  linen  to  the  sun  and  air  till  the  stain  comes 
out.  If  not  removed  in  three  or  four  days,  rub  that 
off  and  renew  the  process.  When  dry  it  may  be 
sprinkled  with  a  httle  water. 

To  Take  out  all  Stains  Which  are  not  Me- 
tallic. Mix  two  teaspoonfuls  of  water  with  one  of 
spirit  of  salt  (muriatic  acid);  let  the  stain  lie  in  it  for 
one  or  two  minutes ;  then  rinse  the  article  in  cold  water. 
This  will  be  found  particulariy  useful  in  removing 
Stains  from  white  napkins. 

To  Remove  Common  Ink  Stains.  Ink  stains  may 
be  readily  removed  from  white  articles  by  means  of  a 
little  salt  of  lemons,  diluted  muriadc  acid,  oxalic  acid, 
or  tartaric  acid,  and  hot  water ;  or  by  means  of  a  little 
solution  of  chlorine  or  chloride  of  lime.  When  the 
stain  is  caused  by  ink  manufactured  with  logwood,  a 
red  mark  remains,  which  may  be  removed  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  little  chloride  of  lime.  All  strong  acids 
and  alkalies  tend  to  injure  the  fabric ;  therefore,  im- 
mediately the  stains  are  removed,  the  spots  should  be 
well  and  repeatedly  rinsed,  in  cold  water. 

To  Remove  Marking  Ink  from  Linen.  Dip  the 
garment  in  a  solution  of  i  ounce  cyanide  of  potassium 
in  4  ounces  of  water.  After  a  few  hours  the  stain 
will  be  obliterated.  This  is  very  effectual,  but  the 
mixture  is  highly  poisonous,  and  should  be  carefully 
removed. 

Ink  Stains  from  Carpets.  Ink  stains  can  be  re- 
moved from  a  carpet  by  freely  pouring  milk  on  the 
place,  and  leaving  it  to  soak  in  for  a  time ;  then  rub  it 


STALLION. 


1173 


so  as  to  remove  all  ink,  and  scoop  up  remaining  milk 
with  a  siX)on ;  repeat  the  process  with  more  milk  if 
necessary ;  then  wash  it  off  completely  with  clean 
cold  water,  and  wipe  it  dry  with  cloths.  If  this  is 
done  when  the  ink  is  wet  the  milk  takes  all  stains  out 
of  woolen  materials  instantly;  but  when  it  has  dried, 
a  little  time  is  required. 

Stallion.  It  is  not  our  intention  in  this  article  to 
treat  of  the  value  of  certain  kinds  of  sires  in  the  pro- 
duction of  different  grades  of  horses,  nor  of  the  impor- 
tance oi  pure  blood  in  the  stallion,  nor  to  discuss  the 
power  of  the  sire  in  transmitting  his  characteristics  to 
the  offspring,  for  these  subjects  have  been  thoroughly 
treated  in  the  article  Breeding,  and  on  page  697  of 
the  article  on  Horse.  We  only  wish  in  this  connection 
to  discuss  the  fraining,  care  and  management  of  the 
the  stallion  used  as  such,  or  devoted  to  service,  and 
his  potency  at  different  periods  in  life  to  beget  off- 
spring, etc. 

In  reference  to  the  training  of  a  stallion  during  his 
colthood,  the  remarks  made  on  page  700,  under  head 
of  Care  of  the  Colt,  and  those  on  page  702  and  subse- 
quent ones,  under  head  of  Breaking,  are  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  colt  designed  to  be  kept  as  a  stallion. 
Sj^ecial  training  should  begin,  however,  from  the  time 
it  is  intended  to  keep  the  colt  as  such,  or  any  way  as 
early  as  at  the  age  of  one  year.  It  will  require  con- 
siderable time,  a  large  stock  of  patience  and  close 
watching,  to  train  the  animal  properly;  but  if  this  be 
done  ample  reward  will  be  received  for  the  labor,  by 
his  future  usefulness  and  enhanced  value  as  a  sire. 
In  beginning  to  train  him  he  should  be  exercised  in 
a  close  yard,  first  at  the  end  of  the  halter,  and  at 
length  without  bridle  or  halter  rein,  and  made  to  ad- 
vance, to  back,  to  circle,  to  describe  the  figure  8,  to 
rear  and  come  down  at  the  word  of  command,  to 
kneel,  to  sit  on  his  haunches,  to  down,  and,  especially 
to  come  instantly  to  his  keeper  at  the  word  of  com- 
mand. 

His  care  and  keeping  should  be  of  the  best  possible 
and  his  daily  exercise  enough  to  keep  his  mucles  firm, 
certainly  not  less  than  eight  miles  a  day  during  the 
season  of  service.  However  well  trained  the  stallion, 
when  it  comes  to  actual  service,  there  is  always  a  time 
when  he  may  refuse  to  obey.  Then  he  must  be  made 
to  do  so  at  whatever  cost,  and  to  accomplish  the  ob- 
ject, the  whip  may  be  used  to  any  extent  sufficient  to 
conquer  him.  Cut  sharp  and  strong, but  with  temper- 
ate judgment.  Do  not  rain  a  succession  of  blows. 
This  will  only  make  him  fight.  A  few  well-directed 
blows  will  generally  suffice,  if  they  are  sharp  and  cut- 
ting. Do  not  be  afraid  of  drawing  blood.  If  it  can 
be  done  at  the  first  stroke,  so  much  the  better.  Give 
him  time  to  think  before  you  strike  the  second  time. 
Give  him  the  order  you  wish  him  to  execute.  If  there 
is  the  least  hesitation,  strike  again,  and  so  on  until  he 
is  conquered.  If  he  has  been  properly  trained  pre- 
viously, he  will  handle  nearly  as  easy  as  a  gelding.  If 
not,  he  may  become  a  brute,  dangerous  for  any  man 
to  handle.  Above  all,  a  stallion  once  trained,  never 
intrust  him  to  an  incompetent  keeper,  and  never  allow 


a  valuable  one  to  be  ridden  during  the  season  of  hard 
service.  If  he  travels  from  one  station  to  another,  or 
is  otherwise  exercised,  it  should  be  with  a  leading  rein, 
the  rider  being  on  another  horse. 

The  remaining  portion  of  this  article  was  written  by 
Mr.  J.  H.  Sanders,  editor  of  the  Breeders'  Gazette, 
Chicago,  Illinois.  It  appeared  in  that  journal  during 
the  early  part  of  1882,  and  is  so  thorough,  plain,  and 
practical  that  we  present  it  almost  bodily.  It  is  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  finest  and  most  satisfactory  articles 
on  this  subject  yet  published  ;  and  as  Mr.  Sanders  is 
excellent  authority  on  all  matters  pretaining  to  the 
breeding  of  stock  we  can  safely  present  this  as  a 
standard  article. 

Grooming,  Feeding  and  Exercising.  The  most 
frequent  mistake  made  by  inexperienced  persons  in  the 
management  of  a  stallion,  and  even  by  many  who 
ought  to  know  better,  is  the  endeavor  to  have  him  in 
fine  show  condition  by  the  time  the  season  opens. 
To  this  end  various  drugs,  nostrums,  and  roots  are 
recommended  ;  the  horse«s  kept  carefully  housed,  and 
closely  blanketed ;  he  is  loaded  with  fat ;  his  muscles 
become  soft  and  flabby  for  want  of  exercise,  and,  al- 
though he  may  come  out  of  the  show  yard  at  the 
opening  of  the  season,  looking  "  as  sleek  as  a  mole," 
and  apparently  in  the  very  pink  of  condition,  he  is  in 
reality  not  nearly  so  well  fitted  for  service  in  the  stud 
as  he  would  have  been  had  this  fitting-up  process  been 
entirely  dispensed  with. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule,  that  a 
healthy  horse  needs  no  medicine  whatever  to  put  him 
in  condition  for  the  stud.  The  whole  secret  of  suc- 
cessful preparation  lies  in  a  few  words.  Let  him  be 
well  and  regularly  fed  on  healthy,  nutritious  food, 
with  plenty  of  exercise  every  day,  to  keep  his  muscles 
firm  and  hard,  and  let  him  be  well  groomed,  so  that 
his  coat  may  present  a  fine  appearance.  The  skin 
should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean,  by  occasional  wash- 
ing and  frequent  brushing  and  rubbing.  The  mane 
and  tail  should  be  especially  looked  after,  with  ref- 
erence to  cleanliness  of  the  skin.  If  very  dirty,  soap 
may  be  freely  used  in  the  cleansing  process ;  and 
when  this  is  faithfully  attended  to,  there  will  be  but 
little  danger  of  having  a  fine  tail  or  mane  ruined  by 
rubbing. 

The  food  should  mainly  be  good,  sound  oats — 
nothing  is  better ;  but  this  should  be  varied  by  an  oc- 
casional ration  of  corn  or  barley;  for  horses,  like  men, 
are  fond  of  variety  in  their  food,  and  an  occasional 
change  of  diet  is  conducive  to  health.  Wheat  bran  as 
an  invaluable  adjunct  to  the  grain  ration,  can  never 
be  dispensed  with.  It  is  the  cheapest,  safest,  and 
bestof  all  regulators  for  the  bowels, and  it  is  especially 
rich  in  some  of  the  most  important  elements  of  nutri- 
tion. No  specific  direction  as  to  the  quantity  of  food 
can  be  given.  Some  horses  will  require  nearly  twice 
as  much  as  others;  and  the  quantity  that  may  be 
safely  given  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  amount 
of  exercise  in  any  given  case.  Some  horsemen  recom- 
mend feeding  three,  and  others  four,  times  a  day;  but 
in  either  case  no  more  should  ever  be  given  than  will 


II74 


STALLION. 


be  promptly  eaten  up  clean.  If  any  food  should  be 
left  in  the  box,  it  should  be  at  once  removed,  while 
the  quantity  at  the  next  time  of  feeding  should  be  re- 
duced accordingly.  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  safe  to  feed 
as  much  as  the  horse  will  eat  with  apparent  relish ; 
and  then,  with  plenty  of  exercise,  he  will  not  become 
overloaded  with  fat.  The  hay,  as  well  as  the  grain 
feed,  should  be  sound,  and  free  from  mold  and  dust, 
and  the  stall  should  be  kept  clean,  well  lighted,  and 
perfectly  ventilated. 

The  amount  of  exercise  to  be  given  will  vary  some- 
what with  the  condition  and  habit  of  the  horse.  If  he 
is  thin  in  flesh,  and  it  is  thought  best  to  fatten  him 
up,  the  exercise  should  be  lighter  than  it  otherwise 
would  be ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  a  ten- 
dency to  become  too  fat,  this  may  be  corrected  by 
increasing  the  amount  of  exercise  that  is  given.  Draft 
horses  should  rarely  be  led  or  driven  faster  than  a 
walk  in  taking  their  exercise,  and  will  require  much 
less  of  it  than  the  roadster  or  the  running  horse ;  a 
moderate  "jog"  daily  will  benefit  them.  We  are 
clearly  of  the  opinion  that  in  no  one  particular  is  there 
more  faulty  management  on  the  part  of  lazy  grooms 
and  stable  hands  than  in  the  matter  of  exercising 
stallions  while  doing  service  in  the  stud.  They  should 
not  be  walked  nor  jogged  so  long  that  the)r  become 
jaded  or  wearied,  but  should  have  enough  of  it  daily  to 
keep  the  muscles  hard  and  firm,  the  appetite  good, 
and  to  prevent  them  from  laying  on  an  undue  amount 
of  fat.  No  draft  horse,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
should  have  less  exercise  than  three  miles  a  day,  and 
the  roadster  and  running  horse  may  safely  have  five 
miles,  which  in  some  cases  should  be  increased  to 
eight  or  even  ten. 

The  point  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  stable  management 
of  the  stallion  is  to  so  feed,  groom,  and  exercise  as  to 
keep  the  horse  to  the  very  highest  possible  pitch  of 
strength  and  vigor.  The  idea  which  prevails  among 
many  stable  grooms  that  feeding  this  or  that  nostrum 
will  increase  the  ability  of  a  horse  to  get  foals,  is  sheer 
nonsense.  Anything  that  adds  to  the  health,  strength, 
and  vigor  of  the  horse  will  increase  his  virility  or  sex- 
ual power,  simply  because  the  sexual  organs  will  par- 
take of  the  general  tone  of  the  system ;  and,  on  the 
contrary,  whatevertends  to  impair  the  health  and  vigor 
of  the  general  system,  will  have  a  deleterious  effect 
upon  the  sexual  organs.  A  healthy  horse  needs  noth- 
ing but  good  food,  pure  air,  plenty  of  exercise,  with 
•due  attention  to  cleanliness  and  regularity  in  feeding 
and  watering;  and  when  all  these  things  are  attended 
to  properly,  the  drugs  and  nostrums  that  stable  lore 
prescribes  as  "  good  for  the  horse  "  would  better  be 
thrown  to  the  dogs. 

The  Stall.  For  the  use  of  stallions  we  like  a  box 
stall  not  less  than  twelve  by  eighteen  feet,  without 
any  manger  or  rack  whatever  for  the  hay,  and  with  a 
box  snugly  fitted  in  the  corner  for  the  grain.  Many 
prefer  that  the  feed  boxes  should  be  entirely  detached 
from  the  stall,  to  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  horse  is 
done  eating.  The  hay  is  put  on  the  floor,  in  one 
comer  of  the  stall ;  and  thus  there   is  nothing — no 


projections,  boxes,  racks,  mangers,  sharp  angles,  etc. 
— upon  which  a  spirited,  restless  horse  may  injure 
himself.  If,  in  addition  to  these  precautions,  the  sides 
of  the  stall  be  lined  all  around— doors  and  all — with 
stout  boards,  standing  out  at  the  bottom  about  one 
foot  from  the  wall,  and  sloping  upward  and  towards 
the  wall  for  a  height  of  three  and  a  half  feet,  you  will 
have  a  stall  in  which  it  will  be  well  nigh  imix)ssible 
for  a  horse  to  injure  his  mane  oi  tail  by  rubbing.  In 
such  a  box  the  horse  need  not  be  kept  haltered,  and 
the  owner  may  feel  assured  that  the  liability  to  injury 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

How  TO  Control  the  Stallion.  While  the  tem- 
per and  disposition  of  the  stallon  are  largely  matters 
of  inheritance,  yet  much  depends  uix)n  the  breaking 
and  management.  It  is  easier  to  spoil  a  horse  than  it 
is  to  cure  him  of  bad  habits,  after  these  are  once  form- 
ed. If  there  is  any  appearance  of  a  disposition  to  be 
"  headstrong  "  and  unruly,  he  should  never  be  led  out 
except  by  a  bridle  that  will  enable  the  groom  to  exer- 
cise the  most  perfect  control  over  him.  The  one  that 
we  have  found  most  effectual  is  made  by  taking  an 
ordinary  "  snaffle  "  bit,  with  rings  of  moderate  size, 
and  with  the  head-piece  made  in  the  usual  way ;  get 
a  blacksmith  to  attach  a  well-polished,  round,  iron  bar 
to  the  right-hand  ring,  by  means  of  a  small  link  con- 
necting the  bar  and  the  ring;  to  the  other  end  of  the 
bar  attach  the  usual  sliding  rein  used  on  stallion 
bridles.  Put  the  bridle  on  the  horse  in  the  usual 
way,  and  then,  with  the  right  hand  on  the  bar,  and  the 
left  on  the  bridle-ring  next  to  you,  press  the  bar  back 
and  the  ring  forward  until  the  bar  will  pass  through 
the  ring  in  the  left  hand.  This  bar  should  be  made  just 
as  long  as  it  can  be  to  admit  of  its  being  passed  into 
the  other  ring  in  this  manner;  and  the  bit  and  rings 
should  be  so  adapted  to  the  size  of  tlie  mouth  and 
under  jaw  that,  when  a  little  pressure  is  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  rein  attached  to  the  end  of  the  lever 
formed  by  this  iron  bar,  the  rings  of  the  bit  will  be 
brough  within  an  inch  of  touching  each  other.  The 
leverage  given  by  this  appliance,  when  well  fitted, 
will  enable  any  one  to  hold  the  most  unruly  and 
headstrong  horse  in  check.  It  is  not  necessarily  severe 
when  the  horse  behaves  himself;  and  when  he  is  not 
disposed  to  do  this,  he  can  very  suddenly  be  brought 
back  on  his  haunches  by  a  moderate  touch  on  the 
rein.  When  the  bar  is  not  needed,  the  rein  to  which 
it  is  attached  may  be  passed  over  the  head  and  down 
through  the  ring  on  the  other  side,  instead  of  under 
the  jaw.  We  have  described  this  device  fully,  because 
it  is  cheap,  simple  and  effective,  and  yet  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  extensively  used. 

How  to  Prevent  AcciDfiNTS.  It  requires  some 
skill  and  good  deal  of  patience  to  teach  a  stallion  how 
to  behave  himself  properly  when  brought  out  to  serve 
a  mare.  He  should  never  be  allowed  to  go  upon  her 
with  a  rush ;  but  he  should  be  led  up  on  the  near  side 
of  the  mare,  to  within  about  ten  to  fifteen  feet  of  her, 
and  made  to  stand  with  his  head  towards  the  mare, 
about  opposite  her  head ;  and,  when  he  is  ready,  he 


STALLION. 


"75 


should  be  led  towards  her  and  made  to  commence 
the  mount  when  at  her  side,  instead  of  going,  fora  rod 
or  so,  with  his  fore  feet  sawing  the  air,  as  is  often  the 
case.  By  observing  these  directions,  there  will  be  but 
little  danger  of  injury  to  the  stallion  by  a  kick  from  the 
mare  when  he  is  mounting,  especially  if  a  good  man 
is  at  her  head  to  prevent  her  from  wheeling  towards 
the  horse  when  he  approaches.  The  danger  to  the 
horse  is  always  greatest  when  he  is  coming  off,  be- 
cause many  mares  will  kick  then  that  will  stand  per- 
fecdy  still  when  he  is  mounting.  To  obviate  this,  it 
is  always  better  for  the  groom  who  holds  the  horse  to 
seize  the  mare  by  the  bits  with  his  left  hand  at  this 
moment,  and  bring  her  head  around  towards  him  by  a 
sudden  jerk  as  the  horse  is  coming  off. 

But  in  most  cases,  indeed  in  all  cases  where  there 
is  not  an  absolute  certainty  that  the  mare  will  stand 
perfectly  quiet,  the  hobbles  should  be  used,  and  then 
there  can  be  no  danger.  To  make  these,  prepare  two 
straps  of  very  strong  but  soft  harness  leather,  two 
inches  in  width,  and  long  enough  to  buckle  comfort- 
ably around  the  mare's  hind  pasterns.  The  buckle 
must  be  strong  and  well  made,  and  in  each  of  these 
straps  there  should  be  sewed  a  strong,  flattened  ring. 
Next,  prepare  a  collar  piece  of  two-inch  leather,  and 
about  as  large  as  an  ordinary  horse  collar,  so  that  the 
mare's  head  will  readily  pass  through  it ;  to  this  collar 
fasten,  securely,  two  stout  straps,  each  an  inch  and  a 
half  wide,  and  just  long  enough  to  pass  down  between 
the  fore-legs,  and  reach  the  straps  on  the  hind-legs ; 
attach  stout  buckles  near  the  ends  of  these  straps,  but 
far  enough  from  the  ends  to  leave  room  to  adjust  them 
to  different-sized  mares ;  buckle  these  straps  to  the 
hind-legs,  and  buckle  up  short  enough  to  effectually 
prevent  the  mare  from  kicking,  if  she  should  be  dis- 
posed to  do  so.  All  this  can  be  adjusted  in  a  mo- 
ment's time,  and  by  its  use  all  danger  from  kicking  is 
avoided. 

When  Mares  Should  be  Tried.  A  point  upon 
which  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  is,  when  and 
how  often  a  mare  should  be  tried  after  she  has  been 
served  by  a  stallion.  A  mare  will  almost  invariably 
be  "  in  heat "  on  the  ninth  day  after  foaling,  if  she  is 
healthy  and  has  received  no  injury  in  giving  birth  to 
her  foal ;  and  in  most  cases  it  is  best  that  she  should 
receive  the  horse  at  that  time,  if  it  is  desired  that  she 
should  be  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  We  can  re- 
member when  it  was  almost  universal  custom  to  try 
mares  every  week  after  they  had  been  served,  but 
that  is  not  the  present  practice  of  most  experienced 
horsemen.  The  rule  that  now  receives  the  most  gen- 
eral sanction  is,  not  to  try  the  mare  again  after  ser- 
vice before  the  lapse  of  two  weeks.  We  have  taken 
a  great  deal  of  pains  during  the  past  four  years  to 
ascertain  the  views  of  prominent,  intelligent,  and  ex- 
perienced breeders  upon  this  point,  and  we  find  them 
with  very  grtat  unanimity  agreeing  that  after  the  ninth 
day  from  foaling  there  is  no  regular  period  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  heat;  neither  is  the  period  uniform  in 
duration.  Some  mares  will  appear  to  be  in  heat  near- 
ly all  the  time,  while  with  others  it  recurs  but  rarely, 


and  lasts  but  a  very  short  time ;  consequently,  if  the 
mare,  after  service,  goes  out  of  heat  within  a  few  days, 
she  should  be  re-served  when  she  comes  in  again, 
even  if  that  should  be  within  nine  days.  But  should 
the  period  not  pass  off,  she  should  not  be  served  again 
under  eighteen  days.  As  a  rule,  it  is  best  to  try  the 
mare  again  from  two  weeks  to  eighteen  days  after 
service  ;  and  then,  if  she  refuses  the  horse,  she  should 
be  tried  every  week  for  some  four  weeks ;  and,  if  she 
fails  to  come  in  within  that  time,  it  will  be  reasonably 
certain  that  she  is  in  foal.  She  ought  to  be  closely 
watched,  however,  for  some  weeks  afterward,  because 
in  some  cases  mares  will  pass  over  a  period  of  one  or 
two  months,  or  even  longer,  without  any  appearance 
of  heat,  and  yet  not  be  pregnant.  Again,  there  are 
other  mares,  and  they  are  more  numerous  than  one 
would  supjx)se,  that  will  appear  to  be  in  heat  and 
will  freely  receive  the  horse  wlien  they  are  in  foal,  and 
even  almost  up  to  the  time  of  foaling.  Such  mares  are 
always  very  annoying,  both  to  their  owners  and  to  the 
keepers  of  stallions. 

For  convenience  in  trying  mares,  it  is  best  to  erect 
the  barrier  parallel  to  and  about  four  feet  distant  from 
a  solid  fence  or  wall,  so  that  the  mare  will  be  com- 
pelled, when  behind  it,  to  stand  with  her  left  side 
toward  the  horse ;  and  the  barrier  should  be  so  sub- 
stantially built  that  it  cannot  be  kicked  or  pushed 
down.  In  many  cases  the  only  barrier  used  is  a  strong 
pole  fixed  about  three  and  a  half  feet  from  the  ground ; 
but  it  is  much  safer  and  better  to  build  up  the  space 
to  that  height,  close  and  solid,  with  strong  material  of 
some  kind,  so  as  to  lessen  the  danger  from  kicking  or 
striking.  This  may  be  conveniently  done  by  setting 
three  posts  firmly  in  the  ground,  about  five  feet  apart, 
and  nailing  strong  oak  or  other  hardwood  boards  to 
these  posts,  on  both  sides,  from  the  ground  up  to  the 
required  height,  and  then  capping  them  over  with  a 
board  of  the  same  material.  When  trying  the  mare 
keep  the  horse  well  in  hand,  by  the  use  of  the  bit  pre- 
viously described  in  this  article,  if  necessary,  and 
don't  let  him  get  his  nose  further  back  than  to  the 
mare's  flank.  If  the  stallion  is  a  very  valuable  one, 
and  is  expected  to  do  much  service,  it  will  be  best  to 
have  another  horse  of  but  little  value  for  a  teaser,  but 
when  the  service  required  is  but  light  it  will  work  no 
injury  to  the  horse  to  let  him  do  his  own  teasing.  Oc- 
casionally a  horse  will  be  found  to  have  such  an  aver- 
sion to  a  certain  mare  that  he  will  refuse  to  serve  her. 
In  such  a  case  it  is  well  to  bring  into  the  same  en- 
closure another  mare  that  is  in  heat;  and,  when  his 
amorous  desire  is  aroused  by  her  presence  he  can  us- 
ually be  made  to  serve  the  one  that  he  had  formerly 
refused. 

The  Numb  er  of  Mares  to  b  e  Served.  The  num- 
ber of  mares  that  a  stallion  may  safely  be  permitted 
to  serve  during  a  season  has  long  been  a  subject  of 
discussion  among  horse  breeders.  It  is  generally  held 
that  the  two-year-old  stallion  will  be  all  the  better  for 
not  serving  any  mares  at  all,  that  a  three-year-old 
should  be  limited  to  fifteen  or  twenty  services,  and 
that  a  four-year-old   should  not  go  beyond  twenty  of 


II76 


STALLION. 


thirty.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the  use  of  the 
procreative  powers  by  the  unmatured  horse  tends  to 
retard  his  physical  development,  and  as  a  general  rule 
it  may  be  stated  that  there  is  no  horse  but  what  would 
be  the  better  for  absolute  continence  until  he  is  fully 
matured. 

But  while  this  is  unqestionably  based  upon  sound 
physiological  law,  and  is  the  true  theory  of  perfect 
physical  development  in  the  male,  there  are  advan- 
tages attending  the  earlier  use  of  the  stallion,  to  a  mod- 
erate extent,  that  perhaps  more  than  compensate  for 
all  the  damage  that  may  result  from  it.  It  is  very  de- 
sirable, at  the  earliest  possible  stage  in  the  life  of  a 
stallion,  to  ascertain  what  his  qualities  as  a  foal-getter 
are  likely  to  be,  and  with  this  object  mainly  in  view 
we  consider  it  wise  to  let  the  two-year-old  serve  a  few 
choice  mares,— merely  enough  to  show  the  character  of 
his  get.  We  should,  with  the  same  object  in  view,  permit 
him  as  a  three-year-old,  to  serve  a  rather  larger  num- 
ber, which  may  thereafter  be  increased  with  each 
succeeding  year,  until  he  is  fully  matured,  when  if  prop- 
erly taken  care  of  with  reference  to  food  and  exercise, 
one  hundred  mares  may  be  safely  served  during  the 
season.  With  the  young  stallion  that  is  to  serve  but  a 
few  mares,  we  should  perfer  that  these  should  all  be 
served  within  the  space  of  a  few  weeks — say  two  or 
three  a  week  until  his  limit  for  the  season  has  been 
reached — and  then  let  him  be  withdrawn  entirely 
from  the  breeding  stud.  He  will  soon  forget  all 
about  it — will  cease  to  fret  after  mares,  and  will  have 
nothing  to  do  but  to  grow  until  the  next  season.  But 
when  it  comes  to  doing  business  with  the  stallion,  he 
should  rarely  be  permitted  to  serve  more  than  twice 
a  day ;  and  even  this  should  not  be  kept  up  for  any 
great  length  of  time.  One  a  day  during  the  season 
is  better;  but  the  groom  cannot  always  do  as  his 
judgment  dictates  in  this  matter.  If  the  horse  has 
had  a  period  of  comparative  abstinence,  he  may,  if 
convenience  demands  it,  serve  three  times  in  one  day 
for  a  few  days  in  succession ;  but  this  should  not  be 
kept  up  long,  and  a  season  of  comparative  rest  for  re- 
cuperation should  follow  this  extraordinary  demand. 
In  the  great  breeding  studs  of  Germany  under  govern- 
ment direction,  it  was  long  held  that  from  15  to  20 
mares  was  enough  for  a  stallion  during  the  season; 
but  the  number  has  gradually  been  increased  without 
perceptible  detriment,  until  now  the  number  frequent- 
ly exceeds  100.  . 

The  number  of  mares  that  a  horse  serves  during  a 
season  appears  to  have  but  little  effect  upon  the  per- 
centage of  foals  begotten.  We  have  no  statistics 
bearing  upon  this  subject  in  this  country,  but  such  as 
we  have  from  the  books  of  private  keepers  of  stallions 
abundantly  prove  this  position.  The  books  of  stal- 
lion service  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  show  the 
remarkable  result  as  given  in  the  following  table, 
which  gives  the  extraordinary  large  showing  of  1,331 
foals  begotten  by  a  single  horse  out  of  1,930  mares 
served — an  average  of  69  per  cent,  of  foals  to  mares 
served.  His  average  of  mares  served  from  the  time 
he  was  three  years  old  up  to  the  year  of  his  death 


(not  including  1868,  when  he  did  nothing)  was  about 
83  mares  per  year. 


Age. 


Per  cent, 
of  foals. 


No.  of  mares 
covered. 

185 1 2  years 4 

1852 3  years 17 76 

1853 4  years roi 78 

1854 5  years 88 70 

1855    ....     6  years 89 72 

1856 7  years 87 73 

1857 8  years 87 72 

1858 9years 72 75 

1859 10  years 95 70 

i860 II  years 106 68 

1 861 1 2  years 98 69 

1862 13 years 158 70 

1863 14  years 150 61 

1864 15  years 217 67 

1865 16  years 193 67 

1866 17  years 105 71 

1867 iSyears 72 58 

1 868 19  years None   (sick). 

1869 20  years 22 81 

1870 2iyears 22 72 

1871 22  years 30 80, 

1872 23  years 30 80. 

1873 24  years 31 65. 

1874 25  years 32 75, 

1875 26  years 24 8, 


No.  foals 
dropped 


13 
78 
62 
64 
64 
63 

54 

66 

72 

68 

III 

92 

148 

128 

75 
42 

18 
16 
26 

24 
20 

24 
2 


Total 1,930 1,331 

The  statistics  of  horse-breeding  in  Saxony,  from 
1856  to  1862,  inclusive  (seven  years),  also  confirm 
the  position  above  advanced.  The  returns  for  1856 
show  that  the  stallions  that  served  90  to  100  mares 
each,  produced  a  greater  percentage  of  live  foals  than 
those  that  served  any  other  number,  except  those 
that  served  from  30  to  40.  In  1857,  those  that 
served  over  no  mares  each  produced  25  per  cent, 
more  foals  than  those  that  served  a  less  number.  In 
1858,  those  that  served  60  to  70  mares  got  a  larger 
percentage  of  foals  than  any  other,  except  one  that 
served  less  than  10.  In  1859,  the  highest  percentage 
belonged  to  those  that  served  50  to  60  mares.  In 
i860,  the  highest  belonged  to  those  that  served  over 
90  mares;  while  those  bred  to  10  or  less  stood  lowest. 
In  1 86 1,  those  that  served  80  to  90  mares  lead,  while 
those  below  20  show  the  smallest  percentage  of  foals. 
In  1862,  60  to  70  was  the  most  productive,  while 
those  below  10  were  the  lowest  in  the  percentage  of 
foals  produced.  From  this  data,  as  well  as  from  the 
general  results  in  this  country,  so  far  as  we  can  ap- 
proximate them,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  number 
of  mares  served  has  no  influence  on  the  percentage 
of  foals  got,  and  that  a  horse  properly  treated  may 
serve  from  80  to  no  mares  in  a  season  with  as  large 
an  average  percentage  of  foals  as  one  limited  to  less 
than  half  that  number. 

Effect  of  Age  Upon  the  Fertility  of  a  Stal- 
lion. Another  point  upon  which  there  has  been 
much  discussion  is,  the  effect  which  age  has  upon 


STALLION. 


the  fertility  of  a  stallion;  and  here  again  we  are  left 
without  any  official  statistics  of  horse-breeding  in  our 
own  country,  and  will  resort  to  those  of  Saxony.  For 
the  years  above  quoted,  185610  1862,  inclusive,  we 
find  the  returns  disclosing  the  following  state  of  facts: 
In  1856,  the  average  get  of  the  stallions  aged  6,  19, 
12,  14  and  18  respectively,  and  in  the  order  named, 
was  the  highest;  while  those  aged  8,  9,  17,  16,  5  and 
7  were  the  lowest.  In  1857,  those  aged  4,  20,  14,  7 
and  8  got  the  largest  percentage,  in  the  order  named, 
while  those  aged  5,  9,  18,  17,  and  6  were  the  lowest; 
and  those  aged  21,  and  22,  got  more  foals  than  those 
aged  5,  6,  9,  ro,  17,  and  18.  In  1858,  the  highest 
average  was  produced  by  stallions  aged  9,  10,  5,  6,  8, 
14, 16,  20,  and  22  years,  and  the  lowest  by  those  aged 
18,  19,  4,  3,  13  and  7.  In  1859,  the  percentage  was 
neady  uniform  for  3.11  ages.  In  i860,  those  aged  17, 
18  and  19,  led  the  columns;  while  those  aged  4,  12 
and  9  were  last.  In  i86i,the  percentage  was  quite 
uniform.  In  i860,  a  stallion  aged  20  begot  twice  as 
large  a  percentage  as  one  aged  four;  one,  aged  ten, 
stood  the  highest,  while  1 6,  6  and  4  stood  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  list.  The  table  above  given  of  the  get  of 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  also  shows  that  in  his  case 
age  appearently  had  nothing  to  do  with  his  fertility. 
Hence  we  conclude  that,  as  in  the  number  of  mares 
served,  so  in  the  matter  of  age,  the  reproductive  pow- 
ers of  the  stallion  appear  to  be  almost  entirely  a  mat- 
ter of  condition,  and  that  age  has  no  effect  whatever 
upon  the  percentage  of  foals  from  a  given  number  of 
services. 

Effect  of  Age  Upon  the  Quality  of  the  Get 
OF  the  Stallion.  There  has  also  been  much  spec- 
ulation as  to  the  comparative  value  of  the  foals  got 
by  a  given  stallion  at  different  periods  of  life.  The 
statistics  of  European  horse-breeding  throw  but  little 
light  upon  this  subject,  but  our  own  turf  and  trotting 
statistics  furnish  us  with  abundant  evidence  to  prove 
that  here  also  the  age  of  the  sire  has  no  effect. 

To  illustrate  this  jxiint  we  give  the  following  list  of 
celebrated  running  horses,  among  the  most  distin- 
guished, either  as  sires  or  performers,  that  have  ever 
been  produced  in  America,  with  the  age  of  the  sire 
and  dam.  The  age  of  sire  is  given  at  the  time  of 
copulation,  and  that  of  the  dam  at  birth  of  foal.  The 
list  is  taken  at  random,  from  names  that  suggested 
themselves  to  us  on  account  of  their  reputation  either 
as  sires  or  performers,  and  without  reference  to  what 
the  figures  might  show: 


Name  of  Horse. 


Dam 
Age. 


Sire 

A(iE. 

Sir  Archy 27  9 

American  Eclipse 9  12 

Lexington 16  14 

Boston 18  ig 

Fashion 7  10 

Duroc 28  6 

Wagner 17  7 

Grey  Eagle 6  11  or  12 

Tom  Bowling ig  13 

Ten  Broeck 6  10 

Aristides 18  5 

Foxhall 5  7 


Name  of  Horse.  Sire 

Age. 

Olitipa , 18 

Spendthrift 17 

Duke  of  Magenta 24 

Parole 18 

Harry  Bassett 17 

Longfellow 13 

Preakness 16 

McWhirter 6 

Bramble 21 

Fellowcraft 11 

Sensation 23 

Iroquois 24 


Dam 
Age 


And   the  following   with   reference   to   celebrated 
trotters  and  trotting  sires: 


Name  of  Horse.  Sire 

Age. 

Rarus 13 

St.  Julien 14 

Goldsmith    Maid 4 

Alexander   Abdallah 2 

Voiunteer 4 

Hopeful q 

Dexter 8 

Lady  Thome 11 

Lucy 6 

Nutwood 5 

Maud  S g 

Hannis 10 

Mambrino    Gift 6 

Scotland 15 

Trinket 4 

Lula 14 

Clingstone 9 

Daniel  Lambert g 


Dam 

Age. 


8  or  9 


Name  of  Horse.  Sire 

Age. 

Smuggler 8 

Lucille  Golddust 10 

Huntress g 

Voltaire 4 

Prospero 3 

Dame    Trot 4 

Elaine 3 

Walkilt  Chief IS 

Orange  Giii 21 

Abbottsford 8 

Indianapolis 4 

Woodford  Mambrino. ..  .18 

Wedgewood ^ 

Rysdyk's    HambPtn 23 

Mambrino  Chief i8 

Darby 10 

Piedmont 6 

Edwin  Thorne. 7 


1177 


Dam 
Age. 


7 
'J 


8 
16 


Of  the  foregoing,  Prospero,  Dame  Trot  and  Elaine 
have  the  same  sire  and  dam ;  Nutwood  and  Maud 
S.  are  full  brother  and  sister;  Mambrino  Gift  and 
Scotland  are  both  out  of  Waterwitch — the  former  by 
a  six-year-old  trotting  sire  and  the  latter  by  a  15- 
year-old  Thoroughbred.  Woodbine  at  eight  years 
old  produced  Woodford  Mambrino  by  a  horse  of  18, 
and  when  herself  16  she  produced  Wedgewood  by  a 
five-year-old  stallion.  Hambletonian  got  Dexter,  his 
best  son,  at  eight  years  old;  Nettie,  his  next  fastest 
by  the  record,  when  he  was  16;  and  Orange  Girl, 
who  comes  next,  when  he  was  21.  Volunteer  got  St. 
Julien  (2:111^)  at  12  years,  Gloster  (2  :  17)  at  nine, 
and  Huntress  (2  :  20%^)  at  seven. 

Percentage  of  Foals  to  Mares  Served.  Still 
another  question  of  great  interest  to  horse-breeders  is 
this :  What  is  the  actual  average  percentage  of  live 
foals  that  a  given  stallion  will  get  under  average  cir- 
cumstances.? In  other  words:  What  percentage  of 
foals  must  a  stallion  get  to  entide  him  to  be  classed 
as  a  reasonably  sure  foal-getter.'  And  upon  this  there 
is  often  much  loose  assertion  without  any  real  array 
of  facts  to  back  it  up.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  stallion- 
keepers  to  make  the  largest  possible  showing  in  this 
respect,  hence  they  often  talk  at  random,  and  not  un- 
frequently  misstate  facts.  Perhaps  in  most  cases 
actual  falsehoods  are  not  stated,  but  the  parties  do 
not  care  to  know  the  exact  truth,  lest  they  may  be 
compelled  by  self-interest  to  state  an  untruth.  Hence 
they  find  it  convenient  never  to  make  an  exact 
estimate,  and  content  themselves  by  saying,  "Oh,  he 
got  nearly  everything  with  foal."  Now,  from  a  very 
extensive  correspondence  with  reliable  breeders  who 
keep  accurate  accounts  of  results,  as  well  as  from  our 
own  observation,  based  upon  an  experience  of  thirty 
years  with  many  different  horses,  we  are  decidedly  of 
opinion  that  the  average  indicated  in  the  table  of  the 
get  of  Rysdyk's  Hambletonian  is  considerably  above 
the  general  average  of  stallions  in  this  country. 

But  this  question  is  removed  beyond  the  realms  of 
conjecture  by  the  recorded  results  in  the  government 
breeding  studs  of  Germany.  There,  the  highest  pei- 
centage  of  mares  in  foal  was  at  the  great  Trakehnen 
establishment,  in  i860,  when  the  average  was  80.2, 
and  this  is  also  the  highest  average  throughout 
the  entire  series  of  years.  But  the  average  runs  as 
low  as  40  percent.,in  1874,  at  Wickrath,  with  only  33.3 
per  cent,  of  live  foals,  while  several  localities  report 


I 


II78 


STAMENS. 


as  high  as  62.6  of  live  foals.  The  average  re- 
sult obtained  from  this  great  number  of  stallions 
and  mares  for  so  long  a  period,  may  safely  be  accept- 
ed as  establishing  a  general  law  or  rule  that  can  be 
depended  upon  under  like  circumstances. 

Taking  the  entire  career  of  all  the  establishments 
reported  from  1859  down  to  1874,  with  an  average  of 
over  1,000  stallions  and  42,000  mares  per  year,  as 
above  stated,  we  find  the  results  as  follows : 

Average  percentage  of  mares  in  foal 67.7 

Average  percentage  of  live  foals  dropped 53.3 

Average  percentage  of  mares  aborted  or  miscar- 
ried       4.8 

Average  percentage  of  mares  dying  or  not  ac- 
counted for 9.6 

[In  this  connection  the  table  showing  the  number 
of  stallions  and  the  number  of  mares  served  at  each 
of  these  German  establishments,  with  the  average 
percentage  of  mares  in  foal,  and  average  percentage 
of  live  foals,  is  given  in  the  Gazette^ 

If  the  foregoing  statements  may  be  accepted  as  the 
general  rule,  we  may  state  that  the  average  stallion 
will  make  as  much  money  for  his  owner  by  standing 
at  %\o  the  season,  as  he  will  at  $14.75  to  insure  a 
mare  with  foal,  or  $18.75  ^^  insure  a  living  foal;  and 
that  a  horse  that  can  show  53  living  foals  to  100 
mares  served,  is  an  average  foal-getter.  Whether 
these  figures  will  apply  exactly  to  horse  breeding  as 
managed  in  this  country  or  not  is  of  course  not  defin- 
itely known ;  but  they  are  so  nearly  in  accord  with  the 
results  of  our  own  experience  and  observation  that  we 
have  no  hesitation  in  accepting  them  as  substantially 
correct. 

Management  of  the  Stallion  after  the  Sea- 
son Closes.  The  condition  of  the  stallion  for  the 
next  season's  business  will  depend  largely  upon  the 
manner  in  which  he  is  kept  from  the  close  of  the 
present  one  until  the  next  season  commences.  In 
most  cases  the  period  from  the  first  of  October  to  the 
first  of  March  is  one  which  the  stallion  is  not  called 
upon  to  do  duty  in  the  stud,  and  usually  but  little  is 
done  after  July  i.  It  is  a  period  of  rest;  of  recupera- 
tion from  the  drain  upon  the  functions  of  the  sexual 
organs  which  service  in  the  stud  has  required  ;  but  it 
should  not  be  a  season  of  pampered  and  overfed  indo- 
lence, as  is  too  often  the  case.  When  it  is  conven- 
ient to  do  so,  the  very  best  possible  treatment  that  can 
be  resorted  to  during  this  period  is  to  put  the  stallion 
at  light  work.  If  a  draft  horse  that  has  been — as  they 
all  ought  to  be — broken  to  work,  let  him  be  driven 
moderately  alongside  of  a  quiet  mare  or  gelding,  and 
worked  regularly  up  to  the  first  of  February,  and  fed 
enough  grain  to  keep  hira  strong  and  healthy,  but  not 
fat.  Oats  will  be  much  better  food  for  him  than 
com  ;  but  if  it  is  found  that  he  is  becoming  too  thin, 
or  if  the  work  is  relatively  heavy,  com  may  be  used 
part  of  the  time  with  good  results.  If  the  stallion  is  a 
trotter  or  a  roadster,  by  all  means  drive  him  on  the  road. 
If  you  can  use  him  regularly  as  a  business  horse,  so 
much  the  better ;  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  draft  stal- 


lion, feed  him  enough  to  keep  him  strong  and  hearty, 
and  work  him  right  along,  as  though  you  intended 
that  he  should  earn  his  living.  This  we  are  satisfied 
from  experience  is  the  best  treatment  for  stallions  of 
any  breed,  and  will  result  not  only  in  bringing  the 
horses  to  the  beginning  of  the  next  season  in  better 
condition  than  any  other,  but  the  probabilities  are  that 
a  horse  so  treated  will  get  more  and  better  foals  than 
one  that  is  not  worked  during  this  period. 

But  in  very  many  cases,  and  especially  in  large 
breeding  establishments,  and  with  thoroughbred  stal- 
lions, the  course  recommended  above  is  practically 
out  of  the  question.  The  next  best  thing,  then,  if  the 
horse  must  perforce  remain  in  comparative  idleness 
during  the  period  mentioned,  is  to  provide  him  with 
a  large  paddock — the  larger  the  better  always — and 
let  him  have  the  run  of  it  at  all  times  during  pleasant 
weather,  stabling  him  only  at  nights  and  during  storms; 
and,  when  kept  under  these  conditions,  it  will  be  best 
to  dispense  almost  entirely  with  grain  food  of  all  kinds. 
A  run  to  grass  during  the  late  fall,  if  it  can  jxjssibly 
be  provided,  will  be  one  of  the  best  things  that  can  be 
had;  but  this  will  rarely  be  the  case.  The  main  reli- 
ance in  most  cases  must  be  good  hay;  but  when  it 
can  be  had,  we  very  greatly  prefer  corn  fodder,  as  it 
furnishes  a  complete  change  of  diet  from  what  the 
horse  has  been  accustomed  to,  a  change  that  will 
prove  highly  beneficial  to  the  general  health  of  the 
horse.  It  reconstructs  him,  as  it  were,  and  makes  a 
new  horse  of  him,  after  a  few  months  of  such  treat- 
ment ;  and  is  certainly  the  next  best  thing  to  the  nm  at 
grass,  before  recommended.  But  while  he  is  kept  on 
this  food,  due  attention  must  be  paid  to  his  bowels, 
lest  he  should  become  constipated,  a  condition  that 
can  usually  be  prevented,  or  remedied,  should  it  occur, 
by  the  use  of  an  occasional  bran  mash. 

The  necessity  for  this  change  in  diet  from  grain  to 
coarse  and  bulky  food,  like  hay  or  corn  fodder,  is  in- 
creased in  proiX)rtion  to  the  degree  of  confinement  to 
which  the  horse  must  be  subjected.  There  is  nothing 
that  will  so  soon  destroy  the  health  and  vigor  of  the 
horse,  and  especially  of  his  genital  organs,  as  close 
confinement  and  high  feeding ;  and  the  man  who  ex- 
pects to  keep  his  horse  in  show  condition  the  year 
around  will  find  that  he  has  undertaken  a  difficult 
job.  It  will  work  in  some  cases  for  a  year  or  two; 
but,  like  constant  indulgence  in  intoxicating  liquors  in 
man,  it  will,  in  the  end,  sap  the  strongest  constitution. 
A  strong,  vigorous  animal  may  be  able  to  withstand  the 
deleterous  treatment  for  a  few  years  but  it  is  only  a 
question  of  time  with  the  best 

Stamens,  the  male  organs  of  a  flower.  There  are 
generally  a  number  of  them,  growing  in  a  circle  around 
the  pistil  or  ovary  and  just  within  the  corolla,  or  circle 
of  petals.  They  consist  of  cells  of  a  fertilizing  pow- 
der, called  "  pollen,"  which  matures  in  time  to  fructify 
the  pistil  when  the  latter  has  arrived  at  the  proper 
stage.  These  cells,  with  their  contents,  are  called 
"  anthers,"  and  they  are  nearly  always  elevated  upon 
stems,  called  "filaments."  Some  flowers  have  no  sta- 
mens, some  have  no  pistil,  and  some  have  neither.  The 


STARCH— STOCK. 


1179 


number  and  character  of  the  stamens  are  important 
marks  in  the  study  of  botany. 

Starch,  a  proximate  vegetable  principle  contained 
in  most  plants,  and  especially  abundant  in  the  various 
grains,  such  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oat  1,  rice,  maize, 
etc.;  in. other  seeds,  as  peas,  beans,  chestnuts,  etc.; 
and  in  numerous  tuberous  roots,  as  those  of  the  po- 
tato, the  sweet  potato,  etc.  The  common  starch  is 
procured  from  wheat ;  when  pure  is  very  insipid,  or 
without  taste,  and  of  a  brilliant  snow  white.  It  will 
not  dissolve  in  cold  water,  or  when  below  160°,  but 
in  water  between  that  point  and  180°,  it  thickens  into 
a  semi-transf)arent  paste,  which  is  the  state  in  which 
it  is  employed  in  stiffening  linen.  The  method  of 
preparing  it  for  this  purpose  is  described  on  page  907. 

Starch  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  nutritious 
constituents  of  all  the  farinaceous  vegetables  used  as 
food.  Under  the  name  of  corn  starch  a  variety  of 
starch  obtained  from  the  meal  of  corn  is  much  used 
for  nutritive  purposes.  Potato  starch  is  prepared  in 
various  forms,  generally,  however,  to  imitate  more 
costly  substances,  such  as  those  made  from  arrow- 
root and  sago. 

Steam,  the  hot,  elastic  vapor  of  water.  A  notice  of 
its  many  economical  uses,  and  of  the  mighty  achieve- 
ments which  have  been  effected  by  it  in  modern 
times  as  a  motive  power,  and  of  the  vast  accessions 
of  convenience  and  produce,  and  wealth  which  it  now 
brings  to  man  in  traffic  and  manufacture,  would  pos- 
sess surpassing  interest,  but  does  not  belong  to  the 
design  of  our  work. 

Steel  is  an  artificial  combination  of  iron  with  car- 
bon, though  somewhat  different  from  that  which  com- 
poses cast  iron.  When  steel  is  made  red-hot  it  is 
soft,  and  can  be  hammered  and  rasped  into  any 
shape ;  but  if  suddenly  plunged,  in  its  heated  state, 
into  cold  water,  it  instantly  becomes  extremely  hard. 
Files  are  made  in  this  way.  Steel  is  likewise  brittle, 
but  elastic;  is  susceptible  of  a  better  polish  than  iron, 
and  is  then  less  liable  to  rust  than  iron.  To  make  it 
fit  for  edged  or  cutting  instruments,  it  is  "  tempered." 
Great  skill  is  required  in  these  processes,  by  which 
different  kinds  and  grades  of  steel  are  made,  for  var- 
ious purposes.  Thus,  we  have  "cast,"  "  shear,"  "sil- 
ver," "  blistered  "  and  "  Bessemer  "  steel  and  "  wootz." 

Steer,  a  young  bullock  or  ox. 

Stem,  the  part  of  a  plant  which  rises  from  the  root, 
and  sustains  the  foliage,  flowers  and  fruit.  In  some 
plants  it  is  wanting;  in  others  it  is  identical  with  the 
mere  flower  stalk ;  and  in  the  others,  it  bears  only 
part  of  the  foliage,  the  rest  being  radical ;  but  in  all  the 
more  perfect  ones, or  indeed  in  the  great  majority  of  all 
sorts  of  phsenogams,  it  comprises  a  great  mass  of  im- 
portant organism  intermediate  between  the  root  and 
the  inflorescence. 

Stencil,  a  thin  plate  of  metal,  leather,  or  other 
material,  or  card-board,  or  even  paper,  with  letters, 
patterns  or  figure  work  cut  through  them,  for  painting 
the  same  upon  the  flat  surface  to  be  marked.     On  the 


farm  the  principal  use  of  the  stencilisin  the  branding 
of  sacks,  barrels,  boxes,  etc.,  containing  products  for 
shipment. 

Step-ladder,  a  ladder  with  steps  instead  of  rounds, 
or  a  portable  stairs.  They  are  generally  made  self- 
supixjrting  by  a  pair  of  standards  hinged  upon  the 
upper  end  and  extending  to  the  ground. 

Stew,  to  boil  slowly.  The  word,  however,  is  often 
applied  to  certain  articles,  cooked  even  with  rapid 
boiling;  as  "  stewed  oysters,"  "stewed  apples,"  etc. 

Stifle  Joint,  the  lower  joint  of  the  hind  leg  of  a 
horse.  It  comprises  the  tibia,  or  lower  bone  of  the 
thigh,  and  the  pratella  or  knee-pan ;  and  it  is  much 
strengthened  by  some  of  the  tendons  of  the  strongest 
muscles  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh  passing  into 
and  over  it,  and  co-operating  with  its  own  proper 
ligaments  to  give  it  force  and  tension. 

Still:  see  Distilling. 

Stings:  see  Insect  Bites;  and  for  stings  on  horses, 
see  page  808. 

St.  John's-wort,  a  persistent,  half-shrubby  weed, 
which  is  common  in  some  sections  of  the  older  North- 
ern States.  There  are  several  sjjecies,  all  of  which 
have  willow-like  leaves  and  clusters  of  yellow  flowers. 

Stock.  The  live-stock  interests  of  the  agricultural 
industry  of  our  country  has  developed  into  immense 
proportions,  and  is  constantly  enlarging.  The  intro- 
duction of  improved  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine 
has  made  the  business  profitable,  and  our  large  area 
of  cheap  land,  by  enabling  us  to  produce  meats  at 
comparatively  small  cost,  has  made  us  formidable 
competitors  of  European  stock-raisers  in  their  own 
markets.  The  breeding,  raising  and  fattening  of  live 
stock,  especially  in  the  West,  have  been  reduced  to 
scientific  exactness,  and  are  in  the  hands  of  men  who 
are  more  than  ordinarily  intelligent  and  enterprising. 
No  industry  pertaining  to  the  farm  is  at  this  time 
upon  a  more  solid  basis,  or  more  carefully  prosecuted. 
The  speculative  spirit  which  at  one  time  controlled 
the  business,  so  far  as  improved  breeds  were  concerned, 
has  given  way  to  sound  commercial  principles,  and  the 
animal  sells  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  not  for  what 
fashionable,  not  to  say  foolish,  caprice  asks  for  it.  The 
result  is  that  our  fine  imported  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep, 
or  their  descendants,  instead  of  being  confined  to 
those  farms  whose  owners  have  more  money  than 
judgment,  are  very  generally  scattered  over  the  coun- 
try, and  are  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  farmer 
in  the  land.  It  is  not  the  lack  of  money  but  the  want 
of  enterprise  that  in  these  days  shuts  the  gate  of  any 
stock  yard  against  the  entrance  of  the  best  breeds. 
The  markets  of  the  world  are  open  to  and  eager  for 
American  meats,  and  ordinary  wisdom  suggests  to  us 
that  our  interests  lie  in  the  direction  of  furnishing 
what  the  markets  call  for.  Farmers  can  not  sell  scrub 
stock  to  advantage,  even  at  home,  and  it  is  thoroughly 
unmerchantable  in  Europe.  To  compete  with  the  fine 
meats  of  England  we  must  produce  the  very  best  and 


ii8o 


STOCK  FA  RMER—STO  VE. 


produce  it  at  a  less  cost  than  they  can  do  it  there ; 
and  this  farmers  of  this  country  can  do.  English 
stock-raisers  are  jealous  of  the  American  product, 
simply  for  the  reason  that  it  is  as  good  as  theirs  and 
can  be  sold  cheaper.  They  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  our  cattle  kill  as  well  as  theirs,  and  their  only 
hope  of  saving  themselves  from  ruin  is  to  induce  their 
government  to  place  such  restrictions  upon  the  sale  of 
American  meats  as  to  seriously  embarrass  our  shippers. 

There  were  reported  to  be  in  the  United  States  Jan- 
uary I,  1882,  thirty-three  million,  two  hundred  and 
thirty-four  thousand,  five  hundred  cattle,  thirty-eight 
million,  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  thousand  swine, 
and  thirty-four  million,  seven  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand, one  hundred  sheep, — figures  of  such  dimensions 
as  to  create  profound  astonishment,  and  yet  they  are 
small  as  compared  to  what  the  future  will  produce. 
Our  country  is  a  new  country,  and  but  very  partially 
settled.  Millions  of  acres  are  yet  untouched  by  an 
implement,  and  even  unpressed  by  a  human  foot. 
From  ocean  to  ocean  and  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  every  foot  of  farming  land  will  some  time  be 
occupied,  while  in  the  older  sections  of  the  country, 
the  population  will  double,  treble,  and  perhaps  quad- 
ruple. There  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  this  country 
will  yet  contain  a  population  equal  to  the  present  entire 
population  of  the  globe.  The  world  is  pouring  its  intel- 
lect and  its  muscle  into  the  Republic  of  the  West,  and 
it  will  continue  to  do  as  long  as  it  remains  "  the  land 
of  the  free  and  the  home  of  the  brave,"  and  as  long 
as  America  furnishes  better  inducements  for  labor 
than  is  furnished  in  the  crowded,  and  in  some  cases, 
exhausted  communities  of  the  Old  World.  We  have 
most  thoroughly  treated  of  all  the  different  kinds  of 
stock  under  their  respective  heads,  and  under  those 
of  Breeding  and  Feeding  Animals,  to  which  we  refer 
the  reader. 

Stock  rarmer,  a  farmer  whose  business  mainly 
consists  in  rearing  live  stock. 

Stomach,  one  of  the  principal  organs  of  digestion. 
It  is  a  musculo-membranous  reservoir,  continuous 
on  the  one  side  with  the  oesophagus,  and  on  the  other 
with  the  duodenum.  It  owes  its  digestive  powers  to 
an  acid  liquid,  the  gastric  juice,  which  is  secreted  by 
innumerable  folUcles  in  its  internal  coat,  and  the 
action  of  which  ujx)n  the  various  elements  afforded  is 
similar  to  prolonged  boiling  in  water.  Such  is  the 
power  of  this  fluid  that  it  is  capable,  even  out  of  the 
body,  of  converting  food  into  chyme ;  and  if  the  stomach 
be  deprived  of  the  vital  principles  which  enables  it  to 
resist  its  action,  it  will  eat  away  the  stomach  itself. 

atook,  a  small  stack  of  grain  as  first  set  up  in  the 
field,  commonly  called  "shock"  in  the  West  and  South. 
Both  these  words  are  also  used  to  denote  the  action, 
as,  "to  stook,""to  shock." 

Stool,  in  an  agricultural  and  horticultural  sense, 
signifies  the  collection  of  stems  springing  up  from  one 
root  or  seed,  as  wheat,  raspberry,  etc.;  also,  the  root  or 
stem  of  a  tree  or  plant  cut  off  near  the  ground,  from 
which  shoots  spring  up. 


Storm:  see  Weather. 

Stove.  This  form  of  furnace,  as  we  may  term  it, 
has  within  the  last  half  century  come  into  almost 
universal  use  throughout  Christendom ;  and,  as  it  has 
become  almost  a  necessity  in  housekeeping,  we  call 
attention  here  to  the  most  important  practical  points 
concerning  it.  Whether  for  cooking  or  for  heating  a 
room,  most  persons  have  stoves  with  which  they  find 
some  fault,  and  in  which  they  could  make  some  im- 
provements. Probably  the  chief  reason  is,  they  buy 
stoves  which  are  cheap — cheap  because  they  are 
faulty.  Many  stoves  are  purchased  at  "second-hand," 
or  at  least  as  "  second-hand,"  so  classed  on  account 
of  their  defects.  These  stoves  often  appear  as  good 
as  new;  but,  although  some  of  them  are  worth  as 
much  or  more  than  their  purchase  money,  their  owners 
or  the  other  members  of  the  household  often  wish  the 
stoves  had  not  been  bought.  It  is  almost  impossible 
for  one  to  so  inform  himself  in  "  stove  science  "  as  to 
be  able  to  select  infallibly  a  good  stove  by  mere  ocular 
inspection. 

The  Draft.  A  good  draft  is  secured  more  by  a 
proper  fonii  of  the  chimney  than  of  the  stove.  The 
two  essential  principles  for  insuring  a  good  draft  are: 
first,  that  no  part  of  the  flue,  or  smoke  channel,  should 
be  any  smaller  than  any  ix)int  below  it;  and,  secondly, 
that  there  should  be  no  lateral  apertures  to  the  flue. 
Have  the  whole  length  of  the  smoke  channel  as  large 
as  the  throat  at  the  stove,  or  slightly  larger  as  it 
ascends,  and  have  no  leaks  into  it  from  the  external 
air,  and  you  have  a  good  draft.  The  rear  part  of  any 
stove,  as  well  as  the  pipe  and  chimney,  should  be  as 
nearly  air-tight  as  practicable. 

Damper.  No  damper  should  be  so  arranged  or 
worked  as  to  cut  off  the  free  upward  flight  of  the 
smoke  and  heavy  gases.  Carbonic-acid  gas,  for  ex- 
ample, is  much  heavier  than  smoke,  and  a  damper  in 
the  stove-pipe  even  partially  closed  will  press  out  such 
gas  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  room.  Only  three  per 
cent,  of  carbonic-acid  gas  in  the  air  we  breathe  is 
sufficient  to  destroy  life  in  a  few  minutes.  One  can 
disUnguish  it  by  its  heavy  and  oppressive  odor.  No 
damper  should  be  allowed  in  the  stove-pipe  at  all ;  it 
is  not  the  place  for  it,  nor  indeed  anywhere  above  the 
fire.  All  "damping"  should  be  done  by  cutting  off 
the  draft  in  front,  or  by  letting  in  air  above.  By  the 
latter  process  one  must  be  careful  not  to  so  weaken 
the  draft  that  the  deadly  gases  cannot  be  drawn  up. 
Dampers  are  required  for  both  cooking  stoves  and 
heaters,  to  turn  the  current  of  heated  air  through  the 
base  of  the  stove. 

Lining.  The  chief  fault  in  "  brick  lining,"  espe- 
cially in  a  second-hand  stove,  is  its  liability  to  fall  in 
or  tumble  down.  It  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
so  adjust  the  pieces  that  they  will  stand  much  hard 
usage.  Some  stoves,  as  the  self-feeding  base-burners, 
have  not  the  disadvantage  of  wanting  brick  lining. 
When  one  wishes  to  renew  the  lining  of  a  stove,  he 
can  get  the  proper  material  at  the  hardware  stores  and 
apply  it  himself  The  process  is  very  simple,  and 
directions  accompany  each  package. 


STO  VER—STRA  W. 


1181 


Heat-Fender.  Working  much  over  a  heated  cook- 
ing-stove is  both  disagreeable  and  unhealthful.  The 
best  method  of  guarding  against  this  exix)sure  is  to 
have  a  ventilating  shaft  over  the  stove  and  extending 
like  a  chimney  up  through  the  roof  What  is  called 
the  "  Hite  Heat  Fender  "  is  a  large  shaft  which  comes 
down  to  the  floor  all  around  the  stove,  made  neat  and 
ornamental  like  a  piece  of  furniture,  and  with  a  door 
on  one  side,  which  is  opened  only  when  it  is  necessary 
to  attend  to  something  on  the  stove.  Inside  of  this 
shaft-base  pegs  are  put  up  all  around,  containing  all 
the  utensils,  cloths,  etc.,  necessary  to  be  used  about 
the  stove, — -an  arrangement  far  more  convenient  than 
the  ordinary  system. 

To  Mend  Cracked  Stoves.  Mix  equal  parts  of 
wood  ashes  and  salt  into  a  paste  with  water  and  fill 
in  the  cracks;  it  will  soon  get  hard  and  close  the 
crack  with  what  is  known  as  a  rust  joint.  For  cast 
iron  that  is  not  heated,  a  cement  is  made  of  fine 
filings  of  cast  iron  wetted  with  a  solution  of  sal  am- 
moniac and  made  into  a  paste  with  flower  of  sulphur. 

Oil-Cloth  for  Stoves  is  better  than  zinc.  While 
it  is  fully  as  effectual  in  protecting  the  carpet  or  floor 
underneath  against  heat,  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 
bright  and  clean.  Wash  it  with  warm  suds,  then  with 
warm  milk  and  water,  wiping  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Stove  Polish.  To  polish  a  stove,  mix  the  carburet 
or  polish  with  water  to  the  consistence  of  thick  mortar, 
put  it  on  the  stove  when  the  latter  is  cold,  with  a 
woolen  cloth  or  brush,  and  while  it  is  drying  brush  it 
rapidly  with  an  old  broom.  This  is  hard  work,  but  it 
produces  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Peddlers  some- 
times bring  to  the  house  an  apparently  new  sort  of 
polish  which  is  easy  to  apply  and  requires  no  rubbing; 
but  after  he  is  gone  the  polish  seems  to  work  no  better 
than  other  kinds.  There  are  at  least  three  causes  of 
this,  two  of  which  may  be  considered  "  tricks  of  the 
trade,"  namely  :  i.  The  peddler  makes  his  exhibit  by 
applying  his  polish  only  to  those  exposed  parts  of  the 
stove  legs,  hearth,  etc.,  which  have  been  worn  smooth 
and  bright  by  shoes  rested  on  them,  while  on  the 
rougher  portions  the  new  composition  does  not  apply 
any  better  than  other  kinds,  if  so  well.  2.  The  ped- 
dler may  have  his  packages  different  from  one  an- 
other, or  the  tops  only  of  all  of  them  finished  off  with 
good  polish,  or  at  least  with  that  kind  of  substance 
which  is  good  for  effecting  a  sale.  3.  Most  kinds  of 
stove  polish  lose  their  quality  with  age. 

Some  housekeepers  succeed  in  keeping  their  cook- 
stoves  a  shiny  black  all  over  by  rubbing  them  with 
grease  and  never  allowing  them  to  become  hotter  than 
is  necessary  for  good  cookery ;  and  the  best  cooking, 
in  fact,  is  done  by  a  moderate  fire. 

When  a  stove  is  set  away  in  the  spring,  to  remain 
unused  until  fall,  it  should  be  rubbed  all  over  with 
kerosene,  to  keep  it  from  rusting. 

In  Starting  a  Coal  Fire  be  sure  to  clean  all  the 
ashes  out  of  the  grate.  If  you  have  hard  wood  with 
a  little  soft  wood  to  start  it,  you  had  better  use  no 
paper,  for  it  chokes  the  draft.     Light  your  wood  and 


when  it  is  well  going  put  on  the  coal.  Be  sure  your 
coal  is  clean,  and  put  on  only  a  little;  when  that  is 
quite  red  add  more.  But  the  secret  of  keeping  your 
fire  good  all  day  is  not  to  overload  it.  As  soon  as  the 
fire  is  started  in  the  kitchen,  empty  what  water  may 
have  been  left  in  the  kettle  from  the  day  before  and 
fill  with  fresh  water,  place  it  over  the  warmest  part  of 
the  stove  until  it  boils,  and  then  remove  it  further 
back.  Shut  up  the  front  and  back  drafts  so  as  to  get 
the  good  of  it.  Watch  your  fire  from  time  to  time:  it 
will  no  more  take  care  of  itself  than  a  baby  will. 
Before  adding  more  coal  clear  away  the  ashes  from 
the  grate.  In  self-feeding  hall  stoves  be  very  particu- 
lar not  to  have  any  paper  or  chips  of  wood  mixed 
with  the  coal,  for  they  heat  without  burning  and  gen- 
erate carbonic  acid  gas,  which  is  neither  pleasant  nor 
wholesome. 

Oil  and  Gasoline  Stoves.  These  are  great  con- 
veniences where  but  little  cooking  is  required,  espec- 
ially in  hot  weather.  Considerable  care  is  required  to 
prevent  filling  the  room  with  kerosene  vajMr  and  a 
sooty  odor  from  the  oil  (or  kerosene)  stoves.  Good 
fresh  oil  should  be  used,  the  wicks  kept  evenly 
trimmed,  and  the  whole  stove,  inside  and  out,  kept 
clean.  By  this  means,  most  of  the  foul  odor  will  be 
prevented.  Gasoline  stoves  are  much  neater,  but  they 
yield  an  odor, — not,  however,  quite  so  disagreeable 
as  that  from  kerosene.  But  gasoline  is  much  more 
dangerous  to  handle.  All  such  volatile  oils  are  safe 
enough  in  the  hands  of  those  who  fully  understand 
their  nature,  but  the  latter  is  especially  hazardous  to 
the  unskilled,  and  it  is  from  the  use  of  it  that  most  of 
the  dreadful  accidents  occur.     See  Kerosene. 

Stover,  fodder,  and  all  kinds  of  provisions  for  cattle. 

Strainer,  see  page  974. 

Strangles,  an  eruptive  contagious  fever  of  the  horse* 
characterized  by  swelling  in  and  about  the  bones  of 
the  lower  jaw,  and  known  as  distemper.  See  Distem- 
per, page  759. 

Straw,  the  stalk  or  stem  of  certain  species  of  grain, 
pulse,  etc.,  chiefly  of  wheat,  rye,  oats  and  barley. 
The  word  also  means  the  stalks  of  these  and  certain 
other  species  of  grain  after  they  are'cut  and  threshed. 
It  is  in  the  latter  sense  that  we  treat  the  word  in  this 
article. 

The  value  of  straw  to  the  farmer  is  governed  by  a 
variety  of  circumstances.  He  may  realize  consider- 
able from  the  sale  of  it  if  he  be  near  a  city  where  it  is 
used  for  bedding,  packing,  filling  mattresses,  etc. 
Comparatively  few  farmers,  however,  are  thus  located, 
and  therefore  must  dispose  of  the  straw  in  some  other 
way;  but  it  never  should  be  burned.  It  certainly  may 
be  disposed  of  to  a  far  greater  advantage,  even  in  a 
new  country.  Remember  that  the  virgin  soil  will  not 
always  retain  its  strength  and  vigor  under  any  usage, 
and  the  wise  farmer  would  guard  against  its  exhaustion, 
by  constantly  supplying  the  plant  food  consumed  by 
each  crop. 

Where  straw  is  cut  before  it  is  too  ripe  it  is  of  value 
as  food,  especially  for  store  cattle.     In  Germany  it  is 


Il82 


STRAWBERRY. 


valued  at  more  than  half  the  price  of  the  best  hay. 
But  to  secure  the  best  results  in  feeding  straw  some 
material  rich  in  albuminoids  must  be  fed  with  the 
straw,  such  as  oil-cake,  shorts,  middlings  or  clover  hay. 
The  straw  alone  does  not  contain  enough  of  the  albu- 
minoids to  secure  the  complete  digestion  of  the  car- 
bohydrates which  it  contains.  If  the  straw  is  fed  with 
substances  rich  in  albuminoids,  the  manure  will  be  as 
rich  as  that  made  from  hay. 

As  a  fertilizer  straw  has  a  manurial  value  in  itself. 
If  we  compare  moderately  rotted  stable  manure  and 
wheat  straw  in  regard  to  their  contents  of  the  three 
most  valuable  manurial  elements,  nitrogen, potash  and 
phosphoric  acid,  we  find  that,  weight  for  weight,  the 
manure  and  the  straw  have  nearly  the  same  value ; 
the  manure  contains  more  water  and  the  straw  more 
vegetable  matter,  but  in  other  respects  their  value  is 
nearly  equal.  The  straw  is  more  bulky  and  difficult 
to  cover,  but  once  placed  beneath  the  soil  and  decom- 
jxjsed  there  is  a  positive  addition  to  the  available 
plant-food  in  the  soil.  Whether  it  would  pay,  how- 
ever, to  handle  it  for  this  manurial  value  or  not  must 
be  determined  by  the  surrounding  circumstances  and 
conditions.  Wherever  the  soil  is  deficient  in  vegeta- 
ble matter,  the  straw  may  be  of  great  value  when 
plowed  under,  by  the  large  increase  of  vegetable 
mold  formed  by  the  decay  of  the  straw.  In  sandy 
and  gravelly  soils  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  is 
soon  exhausted,  unless  renewed  by  plowing  up  green 
sward  or  turning  under  long  manure,  straw,  corn-stalks, 
etc.  By  the  decay  of  such  materials  under  the  soil 
we  promote  the  decomposition  of  mineral  substances 
in  the  soil,  as  well  as  increase  the  vegetable  mold. 

Strawberry.  The  name  of  this  favorite  fruit  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  an  ancient  custom  of  putting  straw 
beneath  the  fruit  when  it  began  to  ripen,  to  prevent  it 
from  being  polluted  with  the  soil,  and  its  botanical 
name  Fragaria  alludes  to  the  delicious  fragrance  of 

the  fruit.  Strawberry 
plants  are  great  favor- 
ites in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Their  sto- 
loniferous  habit  is  so 
curious,  their  green, 
low-spreading  foliage 
so  beautiful  and  re- 
freshing to  the  eye, 
their  elegant  and 
charmingly  scented 
blossoms  so  grateful 
to  the  smell,  and  their 
handsome  andbrilliant 
fruit,  so  luscious,  that 
they  are  only  to  be 
known  to  be  admired. 
\.-Fornt  Kosc.  gee  page  546. 

Propagation  and  cultivation.  A  warm  sandy 
loam,  or  new  land,  moist  and  exposed  to  the  sun,  but 
well  drained,  is  the  best  situation  for  this  plant.  It 
may  be  either  a  hill  sloping  to  the  south,  or  bottom 
land  near  a  deep  channel  of  running  water.     A  close 


protection  by  a  board  fence  on  the  north  side  hastens 
the  development  and  maturity  of  the  fruit.  A  piece 
of  land  facing  the  north  will  produce  late  crops. 
When  wild  berries  do  better  in  the  shade  it  is  not  so 
much  on  account  of  the  shade  as  of  the  moisture,  mel- 
lowness of  the  soil,  and  retreat  from  the  tread  of  rov- 
ing animals.  Ashes,  lime  and  salt  are  good  fertilizers, 
but  leaf-mold  or  bog  earth  constitutes  the  best  manure. 
Plaster  and  animal  manures  produce  large  plants  and 
strong  runners,  but  little  fruit.  To  produce  the  very 
highest  results  Mr.  Pardee  recommends  sprinkling  the 
ground  two  or  three  times  each  spring  with  a  solution, 
in  six  gallons  water  to  each  bed,  of  a  quarter  of  a 
IX)und  each  of  sulphate  of  soda  and  potash,  and  nitrate 
of  soda,  with  one  and  a  half  ounces  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia. 

Late  in  the  fall  or  very  early  in  the  spring  is  the 
best  time  for  transplanting;  late  summer  and  early 
fall  are  just  as  good  when  the  weather  is  cool  and 
wet.  Watch  the  plants  that  they  do  not  dry  out. 
The  strawberry  must  always  have  moist  ground. 

Select  the  most  vigorous  runners  and  take  the 
earth  up  with  them  if  possible  unbroken.  If  the 
plants  have 
come  from  a 
distance,  as  is 
generally  the 
case,  or  if  by 
other  means  the 
roots  have  been 
freed  from  earth 
dip  them  in  mud 
just  before  set- 
ting them  in  the 
ground.  In 
planting  them 
press  the  mellow 
earth  around 
them,  leaving 
the  plant  the 
same  depth  in 
the  ground  as 
it  originally 
grew.  For  gar- 
den cultivation  they  are  generally  set  eight  to  ten  inches 
apart  in  the  rows  for  small  varieties,  and  twelve  to 
eighteen  inches  for  the  larger  kinds  ;  the  rows  about 
eighteen  inches  apart.  For  field  culture  the  rows,  of 
course,  must  be  about  three  feet  apart,  for  the  purpose 
of  horse  cultivation.  Where  frequent  renewal  is 
practiced,  however,  cultivation  with  a  horse  is  not 
necessary.  Strawberries  need  constant  mulching  from 
the  very  start.  In  setring  out  the  plants,  water  them 
thoroughly  and  cover  the  whole  ground  with  straw, 
tan-bark  shavings,  wild  grass  in  which  there  are  no 
ripened  seeds,  green  rowen  or  other  material  equiva- 
lent, to  the  depth  of  two  to  four  inches  between  the 
rows  and  hills,  and  an  inch  or  two  on  the  hills. 
Corn-stalks,  especially  if  cut  up  with  a  machine,  make 
first-class  mulching.  Saw-dust,  or  other  material 
which  packs  closely,  is  not  good,  as  it  sours  the  ground. 


2. — Skarpiess  Setdling. 


STRAWBERRY. 


1 183 


Young  plants  should  be  freed  from  all  the  old  or  de- 
cayed iX)rtions  before  they  are  set  in  the  ground, 
some  varieties  doing  better  set  in  hills  or  sharp 
ridges,  but  most  doing  bettei:  when  set  in  the  general 
level.  What  is  called  the  "  matted  row  "  is  more  con- 
venient than  the  "  single  hill,"  some  varieties,  however, 
yielding  so  much  more  by  the  latter  plan  as  to  render 
it  remunerative.  Raising  the  new  sets  in  jx)ts  before 
transplanting  is  growing  into  favor,  for,  although 
somewhat  troublesome,  a  full  crop  is  realized  the  first 
year  after  planting. 

In  watering  plants  of  any  species  during  a  dry 
season,  never  follow  the  practice  of  "  little  and  often," 
but  give  them  a  thorough  soaking  about  eveiy  week  or 
ten  days  when  the  sun  is  not  hot  upon  them.  In 
cultivating  with  the  hoe  do  not  break  the  ground 
within  six  or  eight  inches  of  the  plant,  as  that  breaks 
their  most  valuable  roots.  But  if  all  of  the  previous 
conditions  are  attended  to,  very  little  cultivation  will 
be  necessary  further  than  to  keep  down  the  weeds, 
and  when  fruit  is  required,  the  runners  cut  off  A 
band  of  iron  about  ten  inches  in  diameter,  sharpened  on 
one  edge  and  fixed  on  the  end  of  a  stick  is  the  best  in- 
strument for  the  rapid  cutting  of  runners;  but  if  only 
thelight  manures  mentioned  are  used,  therunners  also 
will  be  very  light.  The  best  time  for  forking  or  spad- 
ing between  the  rows  is  immediately  after  the  season 
of  bearing;  but  during  the  season  the  plants  are  set 
the  ground  can  be  carefully  hoed  and  raked  close  to 
the  plant,  as  there  are  no  surface  roots  to  be  injured. 

In  general  strawberry  plants  should  be  renewed 
every  three  or  four  years,  varying  from  three  to  six  or 
eight  years  according  to  the  nature  of  the  variety,  as 
described  below.  It  is  best  also  to  take  new  ground 
for  new  plantations;  old  beds  should  be  planted  to 
corn  or  potatoes  a  year  or  two,  and  supplied  with  lime, 
ashes  and  salt.  The  most  convenient  system  of  con- 
stant renewal  is  that  of  encouraging  the  setting  of  the 
best  runners  as  they  grow  in  the  bed,  and  of  digging 
up  the  old  plants. 

Strawberry  plants  cannot  be  multiplied  from  the 
seed,  as  there  is  nothing  certain  about  it.  Acres 
might  be  sowed  with  the  seed  and  not  a  berry  obtained 
worth  cultivating,  but  in  good  rich  soil  a  plant  will  put 
out  runners  so  that  fifty  good,  thrifty  plants  may  be 
obtained  the  first  season  after  planting,  and  twenty- 
five  hundred  the  second  year. 

It  is  always  remunerative  to  give  winter  protection, 
which  is  done  by  covering  the  bed,  after  the  ground 
is  frozen,  with  two  or  three  inches  of  fine  mulching  or 
five  or  six  inches  of  heavy.  This,  of  course,  should 
be  mostly  removed  in  the  spring,  enough  only  being 
left  on  the  ground  to  keep  it  moist  and  prevent  weeds 
from  growing.  Fresh  straw,  or  any  other  light 
material  which  will  not  pack  close  to  the  ground  is 
best  for  winter  protection. 

"Forcing  "  strawberry  plants  is  sometimes  practiced 
in  the  older  countries,  but  as  no  one  in  this  section  of 
the  world  cares  to  practice  the  art,  we  omit  the  direc- 
tions for  the  process  here. 

Insects  and  Disease.     Fortunately  the  strawberry 


is  not  subject  to  any  disease  except  the  apparent  one 
of  a  microscopic  parasitic  fungus,  by  which  the  fibers 
of  the  roots  are  affected  and  the  plant  becomes  brown 
and  the  berries  are  stunted,  deformed  and  pallid. 
Remedy:  uproot  the  plant  and  burn  it. 

The  greatest  mischief-makers  among  strawberry 
plants  are  the  leaf-roller,  the  crown-borer,  white-grub 
and  the  strawberry  slug.  The  leaf-rollers  are  the  larvae 
of  the  moths  which  stitch  the  leaves  up  into  rolls  by  a 
fine  web  and  also  eat  them.  They  pupate  (go  in- 
to the  chrysalid  state)  in  the  same  leaf  and  appear 
as  a  reddish-brown  moth  in  July.  A  second  brood 
comes  in  September.  The  crown-borers  work  in  the 
crown  of  the  plant,  and  a  brown,  meal-like  saw-dust 
is  the  sign  of  their  presence.  For  the  last  two  men- 
tioned pests  no  reliable  remedy  is  proposed.  The 
white  grub  is  the  larva  of  a  saw-fly.  To  kill  him  the 
earth  may  be  worked  up  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sea- 
son and  hogs,  chickens  or  birds  allowed  access.  A 
thin  layer  of  ashes  on  the  ground  is  also  recommend- 
ed. The  strawberry  slugs  perforate  the  leaves  with 
minute  holes,  and  when  not  feeding  they  are  rolled 
up  underneath  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  a  ring.  There 
are  two  broods  of  them  in  a  season.  Remedy  same 
as  the  last,  or  shake  the  larve  to  the  ground  and  kill 
it.  A  sprinkling  of  powdered  white  "hellebore  over 
the  plants  is  a  sure  remedy. 

Varieties.  For  many  years  the  Wilson's  Albany 
was  the  king  of  strawberries  in  the  West ;  but  it  was 
always  marketed  before  it  was  fully  ripe  and  while  it 
was  quite  sour,  the  question  of  introducing  a  sweeter 
and  better  flavored  variety  for  the  market  was  brought 
up,  and  recentefforts  have  resulted  in  bringing  into 
public  notice  many  new  and  promising  candidates. 
The  leading  berry  for  the  West  now  seems  to  be  the 
Charles  Downing;  but  for  special  purposes  there  are 
many  other  new  varieties  found  to  be  worthy  of  cultiva- 
tion, and  we  now  proceed  to  enumerate  them,  with  a 
brief  descriprion  of  each,  omitting  some  varieties  which 
do  well  in  some  places  in  the  East,  but  not  regarded 
by  horticulturists  as  general  standard  varieties. 

Agriculturist.  Large  but  variable  in  size,  oval 
conical,  dark  crimson,  the  sweetest  of  all  strawberries; 
flesh  dark  red  and  firm,  ripening  about  June  10  in  the 
latitude  of  Iowa,  very  good  as  dessert  but  not  for  ship- 
ping ;  plant  requires  a  loamy  or  light  soil,  and  is 
rather  too  tender  for  the  climate  of  the  Northwest;  not 
self-fertilizing. 

America.  Large,  round  conical,  purple  crimson 
but  lacks  color,  medium  texture,  ripens  the  first  week 
in  June,  productiveness  variable,  very  good  for  dessert, 
rather  poor  for  market;  not  self-fertilizing. 

Bidwell.  Very  large,  long  conical,  necked,  bright 
scarlet,  medium  texture,  ripens  the  second  week  in 
June,  but  not  well  at  the  tips  ;  very  good  for  dessert, 
fair  for  shipping;  self-fertilizing;  a  promising  new  va- 
riety. 

Black  Defiance.  Very  large,  oblong  conical,  perfect 
in  form  and  holds  its  size  well,  firm,  dark  crimson, 
best  as  dessert,  good  for  market,  early,  but  is  a  shy 
bearer;  ripens  the  second  week  in  June;  requires  a 


ii84 


STRA  WBERR  Y. 


loamy  or  heavy  soil ;    this   variety  is  self-fertilizing. 

Boston  Pine.  Large,  round  conical,  dark  crimson, 
medium  texture,  ripens  the  second  week  in  June,  very 
good  as  dessert,  poor  for  market,  self-fertilizer,  and 
one  of  the  best  for  fertilizing  other  varieties. 

Boyden's  No.  jo.     See  Seth  Boyden. 

Burr's  New  Pine.  Medium  size,  round  conical, 
bright  crimson,  ripens  the  second  week  of  June,  soft, 
best  as  dessert,  poor  for  market;  plant  hardy;  not  self- 
fertilizing. 

Captain  Jack.  Uniformly  medium  size,  round  con- 
ical, bright  crimson,  firm,  next  to  the  best  for  dessert 
and  market,  ripening  the  second  week  of  June  and 
holding  on  until  late;  requires  light  or  loamy  soil; 
foliage  splendid;  self-fertilizing. 

Centennial  Favorite.  Very  large,  highest  flavor, 
with  pleasant  aroma;  plant  a  good  grower,  healthy, 
immensely  productive  and  self-fertilizing. 

Champion.  Large,  round  conical,  dark  crimson, 
firm,  very  good  for  dessert  and  market,  ripening  the 
second  week  in  June ;  not  self-fertilizing. 

Charles  Downing;  Uniformly  large,  round  conical 
dark  scarlet,  medium  texture,  delicious  flavor,  good  as 
dessert  and  best  for  market,  but  scarcely  firm  enough 
for  distant  markets ;  ripens  the  second  week  in  June, 
adapted  to  all  kinds  of  soil,  does  better  in  matted 
rows  or  beds  and  is  not  infested  by  the  borer.  Com- 
peared with  the  Wilson's  Albany  it  is  more  productive, 
stands  the  hot  sun  better,  does  not  heave  so  much  by 
freezing  and  is  therefore  easier  to  mulch. 

Cinderella.  Good  grower,  very  productive,  berries 
good  size  and  quality. 

Col.  Cheney.  Large,  round  conical  and  coxcomb  in 
form,  bright  crimson,  medium  texture,  needs  a  little 
more  firmness  for  distant  markets,  ripens  the  second 
week  in  June,  good  dessert  and  best  market;  late; 
best  on  loamy  or  heavy  soil ;  not  self-fertilizing. 

Col/ax.  Small,  uniform  size,  covered  with  a  thick 
purplish  bloom,  sour,  and  of  little  value  on  some 
soils. 

Continental.  Large  but  not  of  uniform  size,  firmest 
texture  of  the  strawberries,  sweet,  late;  could  be 
shipped  a  thousand  miles. 

Cowing  s  Seedling.  Very  large,round,oblongconical, 
bright  crimson,  medium  texture,  first  quality  as  des- 
sert, very  good  for  market,  ripens  in  the  second  week 
of  June,  requires  a  very  light  soil ;  self-fertilizing. 

Crescent  ox  Crescent  Seedling.  Uniformly  large,  coni- 
cal, dark  scarlet,  fair  dessert,  very  good  market,  soft, 
delicate  flavor,  looks  polished  and  waxy;  lasts  longer 
than  any  other  variety;  any  kind  of  rich  moist  soil; 
not  sufficiently  self-fertilizing ;  does  better  in  matted 
beds  and  rows. 

Crystal  City.  Very  early,  medium  size,  fair  in  qual- 
ity but  not  rich  in  flavor,  moderately  firm. 

Cumberland  Triumph.  Very  large,  round,  oblong 
conical,  bright  crimson,  very  good  dessert  and  mar- 
ket, of  medium  texture,  ripens  the  second  week  in 
June ;  self-fertilizing. 

Downer's  Prolific.     Medium  size,  average  shape, 


bright  scarlet,  firm,  early,  very  good  dessert  and  mar- 
ket; vigorous;  self-fertilizing. 

Duchesse.  Large,  round,  oblong  conical,  bright 
crimson,  firm,  very  early,  very  good  dessert  and  mar- 
ket ;  prefers  heavy  or  loamy  soil. 

Duncan.  Large  dark  red,  firm,  earliest  of  all,  very 
good  dessert  and  market ;  self-fertilizing  ;  plant  vigor- 
ous. 

Early  Scarlet,  Large  Early  Scarlet.  Berry  small, 
round  oval,  soft,  ripens  at  the  average  time,  very 
good  dessert  and  fair  market  >  self-fertilizing ;  matted 
bed  or  row;  nearly  superseded  in  Michigan  by.  newer 
and  larger  varieties. 

Edivard's  No.  14.  One  of  the  best  flavored  ber- 
ries raised. 

Endicott's  Seedling.  Originated  by  Geo.  W.  Endi- 
cott.  Villa  Ridge,  111.,  and  is  worthy  of  further  trial. 

Essex,  Durand's  Beauty.  Very  large,  conical, 
brilliant  dark  crimson,  very  good  dessert  and  market ; 
firm,  not  productive ;  self-fertilizing;  produces  scarce- 
ly any  runners ;  requires  hill  culture. 

Forest  Rose.  Very  large,  common  form,  bright 
crimson,  very  good  dessert  and  market,  firm,  early; 
self-fertilizing;  a  very  promising  new  variety;  should 
have  a  heavy,  moist  soil. 

French,  or  French's  Seedling.  Large,  long,  cox- 
comb-form, bright  scarlet ;  soft  but  very  good  for  both 
dessert  and  market,  excellent  flavor,  medium  vigor, 
very  productive;  second  week  of  June;  self-fertilizing. 

Glendale.  Very  large,  long,  bright  scarlet,  firm, 
good  dessert  and  market,  late,  very  promising,  self- 
fertilizing. 

Great  American.  Very  large,  round  conical,  dark 
crimson,  fair  dessert  and  very  good  market,  soft, 
variable,  ripens  about  June  10,  requires  extra  culture 
and  then  commands  extra  prices  in  the  market ;  self- 
fertilizing. 

Green  Prolific.  Large,  oblong,  bright  scarlet,  soft, 
very  good  dessert,  fair  market,  ripens  about  June  10, 
but  holds  on  well,  berries  often  imperfect,  plant 
hardy,  vigorous  and  productive;  not  self-fertilizing; 
surpasses  all  in  maintaining  itself  against  the  weeds; 
a  very  popular  Western  berry;  cultivated  on  the 
matted  row  or  bed  system. 

Hovey's  Seedling.  Very  large,  oblong,  bright  scar- 
let, fair  dessert  and  market,  firm,  late;  generally 
vigorous  and  productive;  not  self-fertilizing;  requires 
cultivation  in  hills ;  an  old  standard  variety,  but  going 
out  of  use. 

Jucunda.  Very  large,  oblong,  bright  scarlet,  firm, 
fair  dessert,  very  good  market,  late;  plant  vigorous; 
more  profitable  when  grown  in  hills  and  in  a  strong, 
stiff  soil ;  at  the  North  it  succeeds  in  sandy  soil ;  in 
most  places  it  is  superseded  by  hardier  and  more 
productive  varieties ;  self-fertilizing. 

Kentucky.  Very  large,  oblong,  bright  scarlet,  firm, 
sweet,  very  good  dessert  and  market,  plant  vigorous, 
prefers  light  soil ;  best  late  berry ;  not  self-fertilizing. 

Lenning's  White.  Large,  oblong,  whitish  red,  juicy, 
soft,  best  dessert,  poor  shipping;  flavor  of  pine-apple 


% 


STRINGHAL  T— STUMP. 


'85 


and  buttery;  seeds  reddish,  not  deep;  ripens  about 
June  12;  unproductive;  self-fertilizing. 

Maj.  McMahan.  Uniformly  large,  dark  crimson, 
firm,  beautiful,  very  good  dessert  and  market;  rather 
late;  stems  short;  self-fertilizing. 

Marvin.  Very  large,  long,  bright  crimson,  firm, 
very  good  dessert,  best  shipping,  late,  self-fertilizing. 

McAvoys  Superior.  An  old  standard  berry  for 
many  years  but  now  superseded. 

Michigan.  Uniformly  large,  pale  crimson,  very 
good  dessert,  too  soft  for  shipping,  rather  late;  plant 
vigorous,  productive,  in  extremely  large  stools  with 
heavy,  dark  green,  healthy  foliage ;  self-fertilizing. 

Miner  or  Miner  s  Prolific.  Large,  crimson,  good, 
rich,  soft,  firm  (as  the  Downing),  plant  vigorous  and 
productive;  self-fertilizing. 

Monarch  of  the  West.  Long,  very  large,  dark 
crimson,  firm,  very  good  dessert,  good  market,  June 
10,  ripening  slowly  at  the  tips,  very  productive;  self- 
fertilizing;  either  a  loam  or  a  heavy  soil. 

Necked  Pine.  Medium  size,  long  neck,  light  scar- 
let, tender,  sprightly,  highly-flavored ;  self-fertilizing. 

Pioneer.  Medium  firmness,  good,  rich,  sweet 
flavor,  large,  holding  out  well  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  season ;  plant  a  medium  grower,  foliage  a  delicate 
light  green. 

President  Lincoln.  Somewhat  irregular  in  shape, 
good,  rich,  sweet  flavor,  stems  long  and  the  fruit  is 
held  well  up  from  the  ground;  vines  medium  growers 
and  bearers ;  most  of  the  fruit  is  of  immense  size. 

President  Wilder.  Large,  oblong,  bright  scarlet, 
firm,  late,  best  dessert,  poor  market;  self-fertilizing; 
heavy  soil. 

Pr Duty's  Seedling.  Cultivated  in  hills;  this  is  a 
promising  variety. 

Russell's  Prolific.  Very  large,  coxcomb-form,  scar- 
let crimson,  soft,  good  dessert,  too  soft  for  remote 
market;  ripens  about  June  12;  not  self-fertilizing; 
now  nearly  abandoned. 

Seneca  Chief.  Very  large,  coxcombed,  dark  crim- 
son, firm,  very  good  dessert  and  market,  late,  very 
productive  and  vigorous ;  self-fertilizing;  strong  soil. 

Sharpless.  Very  large,  oval,  coxcombed,  bright 
red,  firm,  rich  juicy,  very  good  dessert  and  market, 
middle  of  June;  vigorous,  hardy,  productive;  self- 
fertilizing. 

Shirts.  Very  large,  long,  bright  crimson,  very  rich 
in  color,  very  good  dessert,  best  market,  firm ;  self- 
fertilizer. 

Spring  Dale.  Very  large,  dark  scarlet,  medium 
texture,  best  dessert,  poor  market,  not  firm,  of 
superior  flavor,  late,  not  self-fertilizing,  a  promising 
variety  in  the  West. 

Seth  Boyden ;  Boy  den's  No.  jo.  Large,  oblong, 
bright  crimson,  firm,  very  good  dessert  and  market, 
middle  of  June  and  late ;  vigorous,  productive,  self- 
fertilizing,  but  rusts  badly  in  the  West ;  prefers  very 
moist  soil  and  cultivation  in  hills. 

Star  of  the  West.  Large,  sub-acid,  soft,  but  can  be 
shipped  from  100  to  200  miles,  oblong,  dark  crimson, 
productive,  rather  late ;  more  reliable  than  Monarch 


h 


75 


of  the  West;  a  luxuriant  grower;  quality  good;  self^ 
fertilizing. 

Triomphe  de  Gand.  Large,  oblong,  bright  red, 
firm,  average  time  too  late,  best  dessert  and  market; 
rich  and  excellent  flavor ;  self-fertihzing ;  hills  in 
heavy  soil;  an  old  standard  variety,  now  being 
neglected. 

Wilson's  Albany.  The  most  common  berry  of 
former  years ;  should  be  cultivated  in  matted  beds 
and  rows,  in  light  soil,  and  the  fruit  should  not  be 
picked  until  it  is  soft,  if  for  home  use. 

Windsor  Chief.  Large,  bright  crimson,  fair  dessert 
and  market,  firm,  but  not  sufficiently  so  for  distant 
market ;  one  of  the  most  profitable  varieties  for  home 
market;  June  10;  rapid  grower  and  profuse  bearer; 
not  fully  self-fertilizing. 

Wizard  of  the  North.  A  new  and  promising 
variety. 

Stringhalt.  An  afi'ection  of  the  hind  leg  of  the 
horse.     See  page  809. 

Stubble,  the  stalks  of  com  or  grain  left  by  the 
reaper.  As  to  the  best  methods  of  disposing  of  the 
surplus  straw  and  stubble  of  the  farm  is  a  vexed  ques- 
tion with  many  farmers.  Some  burn  it,  and  others 
feed  it,  thereby  obtaining  manure  with  which  to  en- 
rich the  ground.  The  nutrition  extracted  from  the 
soil  by  the  constant  gathering  and  reaping  of  crops 
must  be  replaced,  and  a  question  open  for  debate,  is, 
whether  the  heading  of  wheat,  pats,  rye,  etc.,  thereby 
leaving  a  stubble  in  the  field  consisting  of  the  entire 
stalk,  minus  the  head,  and  the  leaving  of  the  entire 
corn-stalk,  and  plowing  them  under,  is  not  better  than 
gathering  them  and  burning  or  feeding.  After  the 
grain  and  ear  are  gathered,  the  stock  can  be  turned 
upon  the  fields,  and  all  animal  manure,  together  with 
the  manure  afforded  by  the  decay  of  the  remaining 
stubble  or  stalk,  will  be  thoroughly  utilized. 

Stud,  a  small  piece  of  timber  or  joist  inserted  in 
the  sills  and  beams,  between  the  posts,  to  support  the 
beams  or  other  main  timbers  ;  often  called  "studding." 
A  stud  is  also  a  kind  of  nail  with  a  large  head,  in- 
serted in  work  chiefly  for  ornament;  an  ornamental 
knob;  an  ornamental  button  or  catch  for  a  shirt 
bosom,  not  held  in  its  place  by  being  sewed;  in  ma- 
chinery, a  short  rod  fixed  in  and  projecting  from  some- 
thing, sometimes  forming  a  journal ;  a  stud-bolt.  The 
last  mentioned  has  threads  on  both  ends,  to  be  screwed 
into  a  fixed  part  at  one  end  and  receive  a  nut  upon 
the  other;  called  also  "standing  bolt."  For  stud- 
horse, see  Stallion. 

Stump,  the  stool  of  a  felled  tree,  or  the  standing 
part  of  a  fractured  or  fallen  tree ;  or  any  clubbish, 
lumpish,  or  basal  remnant  of  a  fractured,  cylindrical, 
organic  body. 

To  the  farmers  of  wooded  countnes,  the  stump, 
although  an  "  eye-sore,"  should  not  prove  a  formidable 
barrier  to  the  clearing  and  cultivation  of  the  soil. 
The  manner  of  grubbing  the  stump  out  with  the  ax, 
as  practiced  by  the  early  settlers  of  most  new  coun- 


ii86 


ST.   VITUS'  DANCE— SUET. 


tries,  has  been  superseded  by  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries, until  at  the  present  time  it  may  be  made  a 
comparatively  easy  task.  The  stump  puller,  a  modern 
invention,  is  now  used  for  this  purpose.  We  give  an 
illustration  of  one  made  by  E.  Over,  Indianaiwlis,  Ind. 

It  is  simple 
in  construc- 
tion, strong 
and  durable 
.and  has  im- 
mense ]X)wer. 
Twelve  pounds 
at  the  end  of  a 
nine-foot  lever 
will  raise  2,000 
■  pwunds. 

The  tripod 
^h  consistsof  three 
pieces,  4 -inch 
stumfPuU.,.  ^         square  oak,each 

ten  feet  long,  and  the  lever  is  nine  feet  long  and  ta- 
pers towards  the  end.  The  chains  used  are  made  of 
^  and  'i/i  round  iron.  Pins  are  made  of  steel.  To 
raise  a  stump  easily,  the  main  roots  should  be  cut  and 
the  chain  applied  to  one  of  them,  thus  making  a  lever 
out  of  the  root  and  greatly  assisting  in  the  work. 

In  addition  to  the  stump  puller,  there  are  other 
methods  of  extracting  stumps  with  different  chemi- 
cals. One  of  the  most  successful  methods  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

In  the  autumn  bore  a  hole  one  or  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter, according  to  the  girth  of  the  latter,  and  about 
eighteen  inches  deep.  Put  into  it  two  or  three  ounces 
of  saltpeter,  fill  the  hole  with  water  and  plug  it  up 
close.  In  the  ensuing  spring  take  out  the  plug  and 
pour  in  about  a  half  gill  of  kerosene  oil  and  ignite  it. 
The  stump  will  smoulder  away  without  blazing,  to  the 
very  extremity  of  the  roots,  leaving  nothing  but  the 
ashes. 

St.  Vitus'  Dance,  called  chorea  (pronounced  co-re'  a) 
by  the  profession,  consists  of  irregular  and  involun- 
tary motions  of  one  or  more  limbs  and  of  the  face  and 
trunk.  It  is  a  nervous  disease,  generally  brought  on 
before  the  age  of  puberty, — often  by  too  close  confine- 
ment at  school.  When  it  affects  the  muscles  of  the 
face  it  gives  rise  to  quite  a  variety  of  most  strange 
grimaces  and  contortions.  When  any  motion  is  at- 
tempted to  be  made,  various  fibers  of  other  muscles 
act  which  ought  not;  and  thus  an  effect  contrary  to 
that  intended  is  produced.  It  is  not  a  dangerous 
malady,  although  it  may  run  into  epilepsy  and  then 
prove  fatal. 

Treatment.  In  connection  with  a  nervine  tonic 
give  the  following  preparation:  black  cohosh  2  ounces, 
skullcap  I  ounce,  assafetida  %  ounce.  Pulverize  and 
digest  in  a  pint  of  alcohol  for  six  days  and  then  pour 
off  the  tincture  carefully.  Dose.  The  dose  is  a  tea- 
spoonful  every  three  hours.  The  tincture  maybe  ob- 
tained at  the  drug  store,  which  should  be  fresh.  Of 
this,  give  I  to  20  drops.     The  tonic  above  referred  to 


is  either  lady's  slipper,  valerian  or  nux  vomica. 
The  dose  of  the  extract  of  the  two  former  is  from  3  to 
S  grains.  The  tincture  nux  vomica  should  be  taken 
as  follows  for  a  considerable  time :  Put  4  to  6  drops 
in  a  glass  of  water  and  take  a  teaspoonful  every  hour. 
In  the  treatment  of  this  disease  the  bowels  should  be 
kept  open. 

Styptic  (stip'tic),  an  astringent  drug  which  has  a 
tendency  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  from  a  wound  or 
bleeding  sore. 

Sub-soil,  the  earth  immediately  beneath  the  upper, 
or  richest  soil ;  it  is  generally  of  a  lighter  color.  Sub- 
soiling  is  the  process  of  loosening  the  sub-soil  by  a 
plow  without  any  mold-board  to  turn  it.  See  Fig.  14 
of  the  article  on  Plow.  Trench  plowing  (see  Fig.  13 
of  same  article)  is  sometimes  called  sub-soiling,  but 
wrongfully  so.  In  this  the  sub-soil  is  thrown  up  and 
mixed  with  the  surface,  while  the  sub-soil  plow  only 
loosens  it  without  inverting  it. 

The  value  of  land  greatly  depends  upon  the  sub-soil, 
in  fact,  almost  as  much  as  it  does  upon  the  upper  soil. 
If  it  be  wet  and  full  of  stagnant  water  the  land  is  of 
but  little  value,  until  it  is  under-drained ;  if  it  be  hard 
and  rocky,  the  surface  soil  dries  too  quickly,  and  if  it 
be  too  light,  water  and  fluid  manure  may  drain  away. 

Succotash,  green  corn  and  beans  boiled  together, 
sometimes  with  meat.  Shave  the  green  corn  from  the 
cob,  cut  an  equal  quantity  of  beans  into  inch  lengths, 
stew  them  together  half  an  hour,  pour  off  most  of  the 
water  and  put  in  cold  milk;  when  hot,  add  butter, 
rolled  in  flour,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  sim- 
mer five  minutes. 

Succulent  (suk'u-lent),  juicy.  Herbs  are  succu- 
lent plants,  and  very  juicy  or  watery  kinds  are  more 
succulent  than  the  others. 

Suckers,  the  shoots  from  the  roots  of  plants  and 
trees  near  the  stem. 

Sudorific  (su-dor-if'ic),  a  medicine  producing 
sweat.  It  enters  the  circulation,  acts  on  the  subcu- 
taneous vessels,  and  augments  the  energy  of  the  cutic- 
ular  glands  which  secrete  the  sweat.  No  known  sub- 
stance acts  safely  as  a  sudorific  in  the  horse;  but 
either  a  mixture  of  ipecacuanha  and  opium,  or  a  mix- 
ture of  emetic  tartar,  opium,  and  ginger,  beneficially 
increases  his  insensible  perspiration.  See  the  article 
Perspiration. 

Suet.  The  fat  situated  about  the  loins  and  kid- 
neys of  sheep,  oxen  and  some  other  animals.  It  is 
harder  and  less  fusible  than  the  fat  of  other  parts  of 
the  same  animals,  or  than  that  of  the  same  parts  of 
other  animals ;  but  it  differs  from  these  fats,  and  even 
from  the  softest  hog's  lard,  chiefly  in  consistency,  and, 
like  them,  is  comjxjsed  almost  entirely  of  stearine  and 
elaine,  or  ultimately  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen. See  the  articles  Oil  and  Fat.  The  suet  of 
sheep  and  oxen  when  melted  out  of  the  membranes 
which  envelope  it,  forms  tallow,  and  is  largely  used  in 
the    manufacture  of  soap   and  candles ;  and   when 


SUGAR. 


1 187 


fused  it  concretes  at  a  temperature  of  about  100°  Fahr. 

Sugar,  and  a  class  of  substances  nearly  allied  to  it 
by  chemical  combinations,  constitute  the  chief  mass 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  existing  more  or  less  in 
almost  all  vegetables,  but  abundantly  in  ripe  fruits, 
and  in  the  roots  of  the  beet,  carrot,  etc.  It  is  procured 
most  plentifully,  as  is  well  known,  from  the  juice  of 
sugar  cane.  These  allied  substances  above  refer- 
red to  are  chiefl)-  starch,  woody  fiber  and  gum, 
which  in  one  sense  are  different  forms  of  sugar. 
Starch  and  gum  are  convertible  into  sugar,  and  the 
latter  is  convertible  into  alcohol.  They  are  all  com- 
posed of  carbon,  72  parts  by  weig"ht,  hydrogen  8  to  14 
parts  and  oxygen  6410  112.  They  are  often  termed 
the  non-nitrogenous  elements  of  food,  and  said  to 
serve  for  the  generation  of  heat  in  the  animal  body, 
and  not  for  the  formation  of  muscle. 

There  are  several  species  of  sugar,  which  agree  in 
having  a  sweet  taste,  but  which  differ  in  other  re- 
spects. Cane  sugar,  or  common  sugar,  which  is  seen 
in  its  purest  state  when  crystallized  in  white  sugar 
candy,  and  in  refined  sugar,  sugar  from  the  beet  root 
and  the  maple  tree,  is  the  same  as  that  from  the  cane. 
Sugar  from  grapes  contain  less  carbon  than  cane  sugar, 
and  is  not  so  sweet.  It  requires  two  and  one-half  times 
as  much  of  this  sugar  to  sweeten  to  the  same  degree 
as  cane  sugar.  It  cannot  be  made  to  crystallize  dis- 
tinctly, but  solidifies  in  grains.  It  dissolves  less  rapid- 
ly than  cane  sugar  and  gives  a  more  fluid  sirup. 
Sugar  of  malt  agrees  with  this,  and  also  the  sugar 
of  honey,  of  raisins,  figs,  and  many  other  sweet  fruits. 

Sugar  of  Milk  has  the  same  constituents  as  grape 
sugar  and  in  the  same  proportion,  and  passes  into  the 
latter  when  in  contact  with  acid,  and  then  it  ferments. 
It  is  much  usedbyhomoeopathists,  both  domestic  and 
veterinary,  in  the  form  of  powder,  but  oftener  in  the 
form  of  globules  or  small  pellets  for  holding  medi- 
cines in  convenient  shape  for  administration.  Molas- 
ses is  the  best  form  in  which  to  give  sugar  to  animals, 
and  it  is  usefulincasesof  sick  cows,  mixed  in  a  drench. 

Cane  Sugar.  The  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the 
Southern  cane  is  a  complicated  process  we  need  not 
describe  here,  as  it  is  the  business  only  of  skilled 
workmen  in  the  South. 

Maple  Sugar  constitutes  the  pleasantest  and 
probably  the  purest  sweet  which  we  can  obtain  for  the 
table.  _  The  season  for  drawing  and  crystallizing  the 
sap  is  in  early  spring,  when  the  bright  sunny  days  and 
clear  frosty  nights  give  it  a  full  and  rapid  circulation. 
The  larger  trees  should  be  selected,  and  tapjied  by  an 
inch  auger  to  the  depth  of  an  inch  or  more,  but  not 
through  the  alburnum,  the  hole  inclining  downward 
externally,  into  which  should  be  driven  a  wooden 
spout  to  carry  off  the  sap  into  vessels.  The  latter 
should  be  stoneware,  gourds  or  some  such  material 
as  will  not  give  a  foreign  color  or  flavor  to  the  sap  ; 
for  when  perfect  cleanliness  is  observed,  and  no 
oxides  are  allowed  to  enter  the  sap,  the  sugar  will  be 
of  a  light  brown  or  cream  color.  Some  think  it  is  a 
better  way  to  "  box  "  the  trees  by  cutting  with  a  gouge   I 


a  narrow  channel  slanting  upward  three  or  four  inches 
long,  an  inch  or  so  into  the  wood  of  the  tree,  and  in- 
serting a  galvanized  iron  spout  below,  as  in  the  auger 
method,  as  it  will  draw  an  equal  or  greater  amount  of 
sap  and  sooner  heal  over.  When  the  sugar  season  is 
over,  if  holes  are  bored,  they  should  be  closely 
plugged,  and  the  head  cut  off  evenly  with  the  bark, 
which  will  soon  grow  over  the  wound.  If  carefully 
managed,  several  borings  or  small  cuts  may  be  made 
in  a  large  and  thrifty  tree  the  same  season  without 
any  apparent  injury  to  it. 

The  sap  may  be  boiled  in  a  potash  kettle,  set  in  an 
arch  in  such  a  manner  that  the  edge  of  the  kettle  is 
defended  all  around  from  the  fire.  Of  later  years, 
evaporators  of  lighter  metals  have  come  into  use,  some- 
what like  the  sorghum  evaporators,  which  indeed  do 
better  work  and  in  connection  with  large  groves  are 
cheaper  than  kettles.  During  the  process  of  boiling, 
keep  the  surface  well  skimmed.  At  night  leave  fire 
enough  under  the  kettle  to  boil  the  sap  nearly  or  quite 
to  sirup  by  the  next  morning;  then  strain  through  a 
flannel  cloth,  if  sweet  enough;  if  not,  boil  again  until 
it  becomes  sirupy,  and  then  strain  it  into  the  tub  and 
let  it  stand  until  the  next  morning  when  it  should  be 
"  sugared  off  "  It  may  be  clarified  by  the  whites  of 
eggs  well  beaten,  in  the  proportion  of  five  or  six 
eggs,  one  quart  of  new  milk  and  a  spoonful  of  saler- 
atustoioo  pounds  of  sugar,  all  well  mixed  with  the 
sirup  before  it  is  scalding  hot.  Keep  a  moderate 
fire  direct  under  the  caldron  until  the  scum  is  all 
raised  ;  then  skim  it  off  clean,  taking  care  not  to  let  it 
boil  so  as  to  rise  in  the  kettle.  In  sugaring  off,  leave 
it  so  damp  that  it  will  drain  a  little,  and  then  let  it  re- 
main in  the  kettle  until  it  is  well  granulated.  It  may 
then  be  put  into  boxes,  made  smaller  at  the  bottom, 
that  will  hold  50  to  70  pounds,  having  thin  pieces  of 
boards  fitted  in,  two  or  three  inches  above  the  bottom, 
which  is  bored  full  of  small  holes,  to  let  the  molasses 
drain  through ;  this  should  be  kept  drawn  off  by  a  tap 
through  the  bottom.  Upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
sugar  in  the  box,  place  two  or  three  thicknesses  of 
damp  cloth,  and  over  that  a  board  well  fitted  in  so  as 
to  exclude  the  air.  After  it  has  done,  or  nearly  done 
draining,  dissolve  it  and  sugar  it  off  again,  going 
through  the  same  process  in  clarifying  and  draining 
as  before. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  the  sap  remain  in 
tanks  until  fermentation  commences  before  boiling. 
During  the  warmer  days,  therefore,  when  the  sap  flows 
more  freely,  the  work  of  evaporation  must  be  corre- 
spondingly increased. 

Sorghum  Sugar.  In  making  sirup,  the  juice  should 
be  filtered  carefully  through  reeds  or  straw,  and  the 
sirup  reduced  to  about  225°  to  228°  Fahr.  or  until  the 
steam  escapes  in  labored  puffs.  For  sugar,  the  sirup 
should  be  reduced  until  it  looks  "short  and  crispy," 
and  free  from  all  appearance  of  viscidity  or  "ropiness," 
and  being  held  up,  with  spoon  or  ladle,  breaks,  leav- 
ing a  thin  thread,  which  draws  upward  in  the  form  of 
a  cork-screw.  To  secure  crystallization,  pour  the  sir- 
up, after  it  has  been  properly  run  from  the  evajxjra- 


ii88 


SUGAR  OF  LEAD— 'SUMAC. 


tor,  into  sugar  coolers  (boxes  made  of  wood,  24  by  48 
inches,  and  six  in  depth,  will  answer),  placed  in  a 
warm  room,  filling  the  first  to  the  depth  of  one  and  a 
half  inches,  then  the  second  and  third.  Continue 
pouring  into  them  by  turn  until  all  are  filled.  Stirring 
occasionally  is  found  to  favor  a  more  thorough  granu- 
lation. The  temperature  of  the  room  should  be  kept 
regularly  at  90°  day  and  night ;  on  no  account  should 
it  be  allowed  below  75°.  There  is  no  patent  way  of 
making  sugar;  it  is  a  product  of  nature,  which  we  can 
but  assist  at  best.  Good  sirup  reduced  to  a  right 
consistency  will  generally  grain. 

Some  years  ago  a  gentleman  in  Wisconsin  "  had  al- 
most whole  barrels  of  sugar  "  from  Amber  cane  with- 
out his  making  any  effort  to  granulate.  It  was  from 
a  variety  called  at  that  time  "  Black  Empire."  It  ap- 
pears that,  to  produce  the  surest  and  most  satisfactory 
results,  certain  varieties  should  be  selected  and  culti- 
vated in  a  certain  way.  It  is  certain  also  that  some 
localities  and  some  kinds  of  weather  are  more  favor- 
able to  the  sugar-producing  capacities  of  cane. 

Corn  Sugar.  Sugar  can  be  made  from  the  juice 
of  the  stalks  of  common  field  corn,  and  even  at  a  fair 
profit;  but  the  term  "corn  sugar"  has  been  lately  ap- 
plied to  "  glucose,"  which  is  now  so  extensively  manu- 
factured.    See  Glucose. 

Beet  Sugar.  Good  sugar  is  made  from  certain 
varieties  of  beet,  as  Lane's  Imperial,  Vilmorin's  Im- 
proved French  White  and  the  White.  Immense 
quantities  are  made  in  Europe  and  shipped  to  this 
country.  The  beets  can  be  raised  just  as  well  in  this 
country,  and  were  it  not  for  the  late  rush  of  the  glu- 
cose enterprise  beet-sugar  making  would  be  a  large 
interest  herein  a  few  years.  After  the  juice  is  ex- 
pressed, the  residue  constitutes  good  food  for  live  stock. 
Beets  can  be  preserved  in  pits  for  many  months,  so 
that  one  can  take  his  leisure  for  the  manufacture  of 
their  juice  into  sugar. 

Adulteration.  The  adulteration  of  sugar  of  the 
lower  grades  has  been  practiced  in  almost  all  coun- 
tries, and  the  adulterants  used  have  been  numerous  ; 
and  it  is  probably  as  extensive  to-day  as  ever.  Most 
sugars  are  adulterated,  mostly  with  flour  or  glucose. 
But  even  those  brands  that  are  considered  pure,  be- 
cause "  refined,"  are  often  more  deleterious  to  health 
than  glucose,  on  account  of  the  metallic  oxides  and 
salts  which  necessarily  become  diff'used  through  the 
sugar  in  the  various  processes  of  the  refinery. 

Sugar  of  Lead,  acetate  of  lead :  see  page  911. 

Sulky,  a  two-wheeled  carriage  for  a  single  person. 
It  was  originally  constructed  somewhat  different  from 
what  it  is  at  present.  It  was  a  light,  two-wheeled 
carriage,  with  one  seat,  in  the  form  of  a  chariot,  but 
the  seat  so  contracted  that  one  person  only  could 
sit  on  it.  It  received  its  name  from  the  proprietors' 
desire  of  riding  alone.  Sulkies  are  now  only  in 
general  use  on  the  race  course,  the  farmers  in  no 
sections  having  any  practical  use  for  such  vehicles. 

Sulky  plows    and  cultivators  are  those   furnished 


with  a  seat  so  that  the  operator  can  ride.     See  page 
1040. 

Sulphur,  called  also  brimstone,  is  an  extremely 
inflammable  substance,  dug  out  of  the  earth  in  various 
countries,  especially  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  consider- 
ed as  a  volcanic  production.  It  occurs  also  in  com- 
bination, as  a  constituent  of  both  binary  and  ternary 
compounds.  The  sulphides  of  iron,  copper,  lead, 
zinc,  antimony,  arsenic  and  mercury  are  well-known 
minerals.  Sulphur  is  one  of  the  simple  bodies  or 
elements,  and  is  therefore  incapable  of  analysis,  al- 
though, as  above  stated,  it  combines  with  other 
bodies  and  thus  forms  new  compounds.  Sulphur 
forms  an  essential  part  of  animal  tissues,  and  exists 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  those  of  vegetables,  even 
uncombined. 

Sulphur  is  kept  in  the  drug  stores  in  three  forms, 
flowers  of  sulphur,  milk  of  sulphur  and  sulphur  vivum. 
In  veterinary  practice  it  is  chiefly  used  for  skin  dis- 
eases, in  the  form  of  an  ointment.  It  is  believed  by 
many  persons  to  be  a  great  preventive  for  diseases 
and  distempers  in  all  animals,  and  is  one  of  the  in- 
gredients of  an  incongruous  mass  often  recommended 
as  aprevenrive  for  cattle  diseases.  Whatever  may  be  its 
medicinal  virtues,  it  certainly  has  no  prophylactic 
effects  mixed  with  tar,  etc.  The  simple  ointment  of 
sulphur  is  made  as  follows:  One  part  of  the  flowers, 
or  sulphur  vivum,  mixed  with  four  parts  of  the  lard. 
In  winter,  when  lard  is  hard,  oil  should  be  used  in- 
stead, thus  forming  a  liniment  of  sulphur  more  easy 
of  application. 

Dose.  Sulphur,  as  a  laxative  for  horses  and  cattle, 
should  be  given  in  doses  from  one  to  three  ounces, 
and  administered  in  gruel,  in  the  form  of  a  drench. 
For  dogs,  the  dose  is  one  to  two  drams. 

Sumac.  The  common  smooth  sumac  is  consider- 
ably used  by  dyers,  and  by  tanners  of  light  leather. 
It  is,  however,  much  inferior  to  the  Sicilian.  It  is 
not  cultivated  in  this  country.  The  Venetian  sumac 
is  the  fringe  tree  or  burning-bush,  an  ornamental 
tree.  In  England  it  is  called  "young  fustic,"  and  is 
much  used  in  the  arts.  The  sumac  is  an  astringent, 
in  its  physiological  effects,  and  can  be  made  to  take 
the  place  of  galls.  The  harvesting  consists  simply  in 
cutting  off  the  young  branches  with  the  leaves  and 
seed  cones  attached,  in  clear  weather,  drying  them 
thoroughly  without  exposure  to  either  sun  or  dew,  and 
packing  them  in  bales  of  about  160  pounds  for 
market. 

The  season  for  picking  sumac  commences  with  the 
first  of  July  and  ends  the  last  of  September,  or  with 
the  first  frost,  for  this  turns  the  leaf  red,  and  then  it 
is  worthless.  The  stems,  except  the  leaf  stems,  have 
no  strength,  and  should  not  be  gathered.  They  are 
full  of  pith,  and  if  ground  they  only  absorb  the 
strength  of  the  leaf  and  depreciate  the  value  of  the 
article.  Sumac  should  be  gathered  in  this  way,  viz.: 
Break  off  the  parts  of  the  bush  containing  the  leaves, 
but  do  not  gather  the  blossoms  or  berries.  Cure  it 
under  shelter  to  preserve  its  color  and  strength ;  when 


SUMMER  FALLOW—SWAY-BACK. 


1 189 


it  is  dry  put  it  in  bulk,  and  when  dry  and  windy  days 
set  in  spread  it  out  in  beds  as  you  would  wheat  or 
oats,  on  a  clean  plank  floor.  Then  thresh  it  with  a 
flail,  when  the  leaves  and  stems  will  break  up  fine, 
and  rake  out  the  large  stems  and  throw  them  away. 
In  drying,  before  threshing,  it  should  be  frequently 
thrown  over  with  a  pitchfork  to  let  the  air  get  to  every 
part  of  it.  Remember  to  take  out  all  the  sticks, 
stems  and  berries.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  it 
thoroughly  dry  before  packing,  to  avoid  spontaneous 
combustion.  Good  ventilation  should  always  be 
secured  after  it  is  packed. 

Medical  Properties  and  Uses.  The  bark,  leaves 
and  powder  which  cover  the  berries,  possess  valuable 
astringent,  tonic,  detergent  and  diuretic  properties. 
The  decoction  forms  an  excellent  wash  for  ulcers  and 
old  sores;  it  also  forms  a  valuable  gargle  in  mercurial 
sore  mouth,  sore  throat,  etc.,  and  may  be  used  with 
great  advantage  as  an  application  in  tetter  and  many 
cutaneous  diseases.  Taken  internally  it  produces  a 
tonic  effect  ujxsn  the  skin,  and  may  be  employed 
with  advantage  when  that  organ  is  in  a  relaxed  and 
debilitated  condition.  It  may  also  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage in  strangury  and  in  bowel  complaints.  The 
bark  of  the  root  is  esteemed  of  value  as  an  antiseptic ; 
and,  made  into  a  poultice,  is  almost  unequaled  as  a 
remedy  for  old  ulcers. 

Poison  Sumac  :  see  Poison  Ivy  and  Sumac. 

Summer  Fallow,  a  fallow  made  during  summer, 
or  the  warm  months,  to  kill  weeds. 

Summer  Savory :  see  Savory. 

Sunburn,  a  discoloration  or  blistering  of  the  skin 
caused  by  exposure  to  the  sun.  The  usual  means 
for  whitening  the  skin  is  to  keep  it  covered  closely 
for  a  few  days,  or,  more  specifically,  to  bathe  it  in 
sour  buttennilk  (sometimes  mixed  with  corn-meal) 
before  retiring  at  night,  permitting  the  milk  or  dough 
to  remain  on  during  the  night.  Hygienically,  no  per- 
son should  be  ashamed  of  a  skin  merely  made  tawny 
by  the  sun. 

To  Remove  Sunburn.  Take  2  drams  of  borax,  i 
dram  of  alum,  i  dram  of  camphor,  ^  an  ounce  of 
sugar  candy  and  a  [xjund  of  ox  gall.  Mix  and  stir 
well  for  ten  minutes,  and  stir  it  three  or  four  times  a 
day  for  a  fortnight.  When  clear  and  transparent, 
strain  through  blotting  paper  and  bottle  for  use. 

Sun-Dial,  an  instrument  to  show  the  time  of  day 
by  means  of  a  shadow  in  the  sunlight.  A  straight 
rod  fixed  perfectly  erect  can  be  used  for  casting  the 
shadow,  but  the  respective  hour  and  quarter-hour 
points  must  be  ascertained  and  marked  by  a  time- 
piece. To  indicate  the  early  and  late  hours  of  the 
day,  the  plate  upon  which  the  marks  are  made  should 
be  deeply  concave,  and  the  top  of  the  rod  made  the 
guide.  Or,  if  this  rod  be  inclined  to  the  north  so  as 
be  at  right  angles  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  at  noon,  the 
whole  shadow  on  the  concave  plate  can  be  made  a 
perfect  guide  to  local  sun  time  from  sunrise  to  sunset. 
See  Dial. 


Sunflower.  The  common  garden  sunflower  is 
sometimes  cultivated  as  a  field  crop, — the  leaves  for 
stock,  the  seeds  for  poultry  and  the  stalks  for  fire 
kindling.  Planted  in  swamps,  it  is  imagined  by  some 
to  absorb  the  miasma  and  render  the  air  healthier. 
Medicinally,  the  seeds  of  the  sunflower  are  diuretic 
and  expectorant,  used  in  decoction  or  sirup,  either 
alone  or  with  other  agents,  in  ordinary  doses.  The 
large  yellow  flowers  growing  wild  on  tall  weeds  so 
abundantly  in  August  and  September  are  of  several 
species  of  wild  sunflower. 

Sunstroke,  a  sudden  prostration  caused  by  heat 
and  intemperance,  the  symptoms  resembling  those  of 
apoplexy.  Take  the  patient  at  once  to  a  cool  place 
nearest  at  hand,  loosen  the  clothes  about  the  neck 
and  waist,  laying  him  down  with  his  head  a  little 
raised,  and  apply  the  coldest  water  or  pounded  ice  to 
the  head  for  an  hour  or  more,  or  until  relief  is  obtain- 
ed. Apply  mustard  or  turpentine  to  the  feet  and 
legs.  Meanwhile  send  for  the  doctor,  as  you  cannot 
safely  do  more  without  his  advice.  When  a  person 
sinks  down  on  a  hot  day,  the  true  way  to  ascertain 
whether  he  has  sunstroke  is  to  feel  of  his  breast :  if  it 
is  hot  he  has  sunstroke ;  otherwise,  not. 

Suppuration,  collection  and  discharge  of  pus 
("matter")  in  a  diseased  part.     See  Pus. 

Surcingle,  a  belt,  band  or  girth  which  passes  over  a 
saddle,  or  is  fastened  to  it,  to  bind  it  fast  to  a  horse's 
back.  In  horseback  riding  it  is  important  to  have  a 
girth  of  strong  material,  convenient  and  safe  fasten- 
ings, and  to  always  see  that  it  is  properly  adjusted. 

Surfeit,  a  skin  disease  of  the  horse :  see  page  809. 

Swamp,  moist  and  soft  land  akin  in  character  to 
a  marsh  or  bog,  but  differing  from  both  in  producing 
shrubs  and  trees. 

Swan.  This  elegant  and  graceful  bird  has  long 
been  partly  domesticated,  and  is  generally  found  in 
all  the  parks  of  cities.  They  are  of  no  great  practical 
value  to  the  farmer,  but  their  snow-white  color  and 
easy  grace  in  the  water  makes  them  favorites  wherever 
introduced.  They  are  long-lived,  sometimes  even 
attaining  the  age  of  one  hundred  years.  They  lay 
from  seven  to  eight  eggs,  and  the  young  may  be  easily 
raised.  When  incubating  they  are  sometimes  dan- 
gerous to  approach,  since  they  fight  desperately,  and 
are  very  powerful ;  a  blow  from  their  wings  has  been 
known  to  fracture  the  leg  of  a  man. 

To  Clean  Swan's  Down,  immerse  the  fur  in  a  pan 
of  white  flour,  and,  after  shaking  it  around  in  the 
flour,  take  it  out  and  shake  out  the  flour  or  hang  it  in 
the  wind.  Or,  sprinkle  flour  through  it,  or  rub  in  flour; 
then  shake  off";  repeat  until  clean. 
■  Sward,  the  grassy  surface  of  land;  that  part  of 
the  soil  which  is  filled  with  roots  of  grass,  forming  a 
kind  of  mat ;  turf. 

Sway-back,  having  the  back  hollow  or  fallen  in, 
whether  naturally  or  the  result  of  injury  or  weakness: 
said  of  horses  and  other  animals. 


1 190 


5  WF.A  T—S  WEE  T  PO  TA  TO. 


Sweat:  see  Perspiration. 

Swedish  Movements,  the  practice  of  medical 
treatment  which  consists  of  rubbing,  kneading,  spat- 
ting, pinching,  shaking,  rotating,  etc.,  in  various  de- 
grees, and  in  various  ways,  according  to  the  indica- 
tions of  the  case.  Some  physicians  give  scarely  any 
,  other  treatment  in  most  chronic  complaints,  claiming 
that  it  assists  cure,  while  medicines  always  hinder  it. 
A  few,  however,  add  a  little  drug  medication,  or  at 
least  appear  to,  to  their  movement  processes. 

Sweeny,  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder 
of  the  horse.     See  page  810. 

Sweep,  to  brush  over  a  surface  with  a  broom;  also, 
a  pole  pivoted  on  a  high  [xjst  for  drawing  water  from 
a  well.  To  sweep  well  with  a  broom  is  an  art  to  be 
learned  by  practice,  in  conjunction  with  a  natural 
sense  of  mechanical  fitness  or  adjustment.  The  best 
.  way  to  sweep  a  bare  floor  is,  not  to  sprinkle  it,  but  to 
'  wet  the  broom  in  water,  shake  off  the  surplus  water, 
and  sweep  with  it  thus  prepared,  renewing  the  wetting 
every  three  or  four  strokes  of  the  broom  over  the 
floor.  By  this  method  not  only  is  the  dust  more 
effectually  prevented  from  rising,  but  is  far  more  thor- 
oughly cleaned  from  the  floor,  always  leaving  the  latter 
as  neat  as  if  scrubbed  with  a  mop,  but  not  wet,  as  no 
water  should  be  allowed  to  run  off  the  broom  upon 
the  floor.  Sprinkling  a  dusty  floor  always  fastens 
down  more  or  less  of  the  dirt  to  the  floor,  in  spots  and 
streaks.  This  is  a  valuable  hint  to  those  who  have 
the  care  of  churches,  school-houses,  etc. 

To  sweep  a  carpet  with  a  broom,  make  very  short 
motions,  with  a  slight  upward  direction,  as  if  to  pitch 
the  dirt  along  instead  of  dragging  it;  and  do  not  dig 
away  at  every  splinter  or  bit  of  paper  until  you  remove 
it,  but  stoop  down  and  pick  it  out  with  the  fingers. 
Often  a  person  can  go  over  a  carpet  without  a  broom, 
picking  up  the  visible  objects  here  and  there,  the  time 
requiring  but  a  minute  or  two,  and  by  this  means 
alone  make  the  carpet  appear  as  if  well  swept.  This 
method,  indeed,  is  always  to  be  preferred,  unless  there 
is  dust  or  much  fine  stuff  to  be  removed. 

In  sweeping  with  a  broom,  always  take  advantage 
of  the  wind,  or  out-door  current  of  air,  by  opening 
windows  and  doors  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room,  so 
that  as  much  dust  as  [wssible  will  be  carried  out  of 
doors.  Most  women  neglect  this  very  important  pre- 
caution. 

Carpet-sweepers  are  now  to  be  had  at  the  stores. 
In  using  one,  always  bear  down  upon  it  gently.  They 
do  not  wear  out  a  carpet  like  broom-sweeping. 

Sweep  Power,  a  horse-power  operated  by  the 
horses  walking  in  a  circle,  as  opposed  to  the  tread 
power. 

Sweet   Basil,  a  highly  aromatic  sweet  herb,  th& 
flavor  of  which  resembles  that  of  cloves.     It  is  a  low, 
hardy  annual  from  India.     The  two  principal  varieties 
are  the  Larger  and  the  Bush.     It  is  used  chiefly  by 
French  cooks  in  soups  and  a  few  other  dishes. 

Sweet  Bay,  or  Small  Magnolia,  is  a  shrub  or  small 


tree  growing  wild  in  the  Atlantic  States.  In  the  far 
South  it  is  evergreen.  The  flowers  are  globular  in 
form  and  white  and  the  leaves  are  white  beneath. 

Sweet  Bread,  the  pancreas  of  an  animal  used  for 
food.     The  following  are  directions  for  cooking : 

Stewed.  Wash,  remove  all  the  bits  of  skin,  soak 
in  salt  and  water  an  hour,  then  parboil;  when  half 
cooked  take  from  the  fire,  cut  in  small  pieces,  stew  in 
a  Uttle  water  till  tender;  add  a  piece  of  butter,  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a  teasjxwnful  of  flour,  and  boil  up 
once;    serve  on  toast  very  hot. 

Fried.  After  laying  in  salt  and  water,  put  them  in 
cold  water  a  few  minutes,  then  dry  in  a  cloth  thoroughly, 
fry  them  with  little  strips  of  salt  pork ;  or  dip  in  beaten 
egg,  and  roll  in  bread  crumbs,  and  fry  in  hot  lard ;  or 
draw  little  strips  of  salt  pork  through  the  sweetbreads 
with  a  larding-needle,  fry  till  the  pork  is  crisp,  then 
dip  in  beaten  egg  and  roll  in  bread  crumbs  and  fry 
them;  ix>ur  over  a  half  a  cup  of  rich  cream,  stir  in 
one  teaspoonful  of  flour  and  let  it  boil  up  for  a  few 
minutes  and  serve  hot. 

Broiled.  Parboil  after  soaking  in  salt  and  water 
then  rub  well  with  butter  and  broil ;  turn  often,  and 
dip  in  melted  butter  to  prevent  them  from  becoming 
hard  and  dry. 

Sweet  Brier,  a  popular  and  well-known  variety  of 
rose. 

Sweet  Cicely  (sis'e-ly),  a  common  plant  in  the 
woods  of  this  country,  the  roots  of  which  are  sweet- 
aromatic.  Children  sometimes  dig  and  eat  the  root, 
but  sometimes  mistake  some  other  plant  for  it  and 
become  poisoned.  There  are  two  species,  the 
Hairy  and  the  Smoother. 

Sweet  Clover,  or  Melilot,  is  a  well-known  bee  plant. 
See  page  273. 

Sweet  Fennel,  is  cultivated  in  kitchen  gardens 
for  its  sweet-aromatic  foliage  and  for  its  seeds,  which 
afford  a  delightful  flavoring  for  many  culinary  prep- 
arations. The  leaves,  being  of  a  beautiful  form,  are 
much  used  in  garnishing.  In  a  warm  climate  the  leaf- 
stems  can  be  blanched  like  celery,  and  eaten  as  a 
salad. 

Sweet  Gum,  a  large,  beautiful  tree  in  low  grounds, 
more  common  South,  with  fine-grained  wood,  gray  bark, 
fonning  corky  ridges  on  the  branches,  and  smooth  and 
glossy,  star-shaped  leaves,  which  are  fragrant  when 
bruised  and  turn  to  a  deep  crimson  in  autumn.  A 
fragrant,  turpentine-like  juice  or  balsam  exudes  from 
the  trunk  when  wounded. 

Sweet  Marjoram  (mar'jo-ram),  cultivated  in  some 
kitchen  gardens  as  a  flavoring  herb.  The  leaves  are 
dried,  and  pulverized  when  wanted  for  use.  In  many 
of  the  culinary  recipes  in  this  work  this  herb  is 
mentioned.  There  are  several  other  species  of  marjo- 
ram, but  they  are  of  no  consequence,  especially  in  this 
country. 

Sweet  Potato.     This  nutiitious  vegetable  belongs 


SWEET  POTATO. 


1191 


to  the  South  as  much  as  the  Irish  potato  belongs  to 
the  North.  It  is  propagated  universally  from  sets. 
These  are  either  small  potatoes  raised  for  this  pur- 
pose from  summer  cuttings  of  the  vines  in  the  pre- 
vious year,  or  the  cullings  of  the  general  crop  care- 
fully wintered  in  dry  sand,  etc.,  or  the  young  shoots 
of  large  or  small  wintered  tubers,  started  at  the  open- 
ing of  spring  in  a  hot-bed  or  box  to  furnish  sets  for 
the  season.  When  four  or  five  inches  long  the  shoots 
are  ready  for  planting,  and  should  be  carefully  taken 
off  and  set  out  as  they  successively  attain  this  size. 
Rich,  warm,  and  if  possible  sandy  soil  must  be 
chosen,  and  at  the  time  of  corn-planting  the  hills 
should  be  carefully  prepared,  at  four  feet  apart  each 
way,  or  ridges,  raising  them  as  high  as  convenient 
and  mixing  in  plenty  of  rich  compost,  unless  the 
whole  has  been  well  manured.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  ground  be  well  drained,  for  of  all 
vegetables  this  is  the  most  intolerant  of  standing  water. 

About  the  time  of  the  first  corn-hoeing,  and  after 
the  ridges  are  well  made  up,  and  the  top  leveled  off 
with  a  rake,  set  the  plants.  To  those  who  know 
nothing  whatever  about  cultivating  the  sweet  potato, 
we  may  say,  that  the  sets  when  they  ariive  will  be 
tender-looking  shoots,  six  inches  or  more  in  length; 
they  should  have  a  good  cluster  of  fibrous  roots  at 
the  bottom,  and  each  have  several  leaves,  those  at 
the  top  being  young  and  tender  as  in  any  other  grow- 
ing shoot.  As  soon  as  the  sets  or  plants  are  received, 
mix  the  moist  loamy  soil  at  hand  with  water,  to  form 
a  thin  mud,  about  like  cream;  then  put  in  the  roots 
of  each  plant — one  at  a  time,  and  gently  work  it 
about  until  every  fiber  of  the  root  is  covered.  As 
each  plant  is  dipped,  or  "grouted,"  as  it  is  called,  lay 
its  roots  against  that  of  the  preceding,  until  the  roots 
make  a  mass  as  large  as  the  double  fist ;  press  the 
roots  together;  dip  the  whole  mass  in  the  mud  again, 
and  then  with  ordinary  soil  put  upon  the  mass,  as 
long  as  it  will  stick,  make  a  compact  ball  of  earth 
that  completely  covers  the  roots.  In  this  condition, 
the  plants  will  keep  until  the  ground  is  ready  for 
planting.  If  the  tender  tops  of  the  sets  are  bruised 
or  injured,  carefully  pinch  off  whatever  will  not  re- 
cover, but  no  more.  In  planting,  if  the  earth  around 
the  roots  has  so  dried  that  the  plants  cannot  be  sep- 
arated without  breaking  the  fibers,  wet  the  ball  of 
earth  until  they  will  separate  readily.  The  plants  are 
to  be  set  ujxjn  the  top  of  the  ridge,  15  inches  apart. 

If  there  are  several  hands  to  do  the  work,  let  one 
with  a  dibble — a  stick  somewhat  larger  than  a  broom- 
handle,  blunt-pointed — make  the  holes,  about  six 
inches  deep.  It  is  well  to  have  the  dibble  15  inches 
long,  to  serve  as  a  measure  between  the  holes.  An- 
other hand  should  place  the  plants  in  the  holes, 
while  a  third,  with  a  watering-pot  without  the  rose, 
or  a  bucket  of  water  and  a  dipper,  holds  the  plant 
erect  with  one  hand  and  fills  the  hole  with  water 
with  the  other.  If  the  soil  is  light  and  sandy,  the 
water  will  carry  it  to  the  roots,  and  no  other  filling  in 
is  needed ;  but  it  is  well  to  go  over  the  rows  the  same 
day,  and  where  necessary  draw  more  earth  to   the 


T-iia-striped  Tortoist  Btetlt. 
da  bivittata.) 

beetle 


plant.  In  planting,  observe  one  thing:  Always 
make  sure  that  the  first  joint,  that  is,  where  the  lowest 
leaf  joins  the  stem,  is  always  placed  well  below  the 
surface,'  as  this  will  often  insure  the  success  of  a  very 
un])romising  set.  It  is  well  to  keep  a  few  sets  in  re- 
serve, to  replace  any  that  may  die.  If  the  plants 
look  sorry  for  a  few  days  after  planting,  do  not  be 
discouraged;  so  long  as  any  part  of  the  stem  remains 
green,  the  set  is  safe. 

The  sweet  potato  is  not  subject  to  diseases  and  in- 
sects to  any  serious 
extent.  The  adjoin- 
ing cut  figures  the 
stages  of  a  beetle 
which  sometimes  in- 
fests the  vines.  The 
true  size  of  the  insect 
is  indicated  by  hair 
lines  in  the  figure. 

Keeping    Sweet  2,  urva ;  3,  pupa ;  4, 

Potatoes.  Sweet  potatoes,  to  keep  well,  should  be 
selected  ones  that  have  been  raised  in  a  light  soil. 
They  should  be  dug  and  put  away  before  the  ground 
is  saturated  with  water  from  heavy,  cold  autumnal 
storms.  A  heavy  rain  of  short  duration  need  not  be 
regarded  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  concluding  that 
the  potatoes,  in  such  case,  will  not  keep.  A  light 
soil  dries  very  soon  when  the  rain  is  past  and  sun- 
shine succeeds.  Potatoes,  to  keep  well,  should  be 
dug  before  frost  kills  the  vines.  A  light  frost,  how- 
ever, that  merely  kills  or  blackens  the  leaves,  will 
not  prevent  the  potatoes  from  keeping.  It  is  better 
to  pick  up  the  potatoes  as  dug  than  to  have  them  ex- 
posed to  a  mid-day  sun  on  a  warm  day.  One  hour, 
or  just  long  enough  for  the  dirt  to  dry  so  that  it  will 
not  stick  to  the  potatoes,  is  sufficient.  After  care- 
fully selecting  such  as  have  not  been  cut  or  bruised, 
put  them  in  barrels  or  boxes  soon  after  being  dug, 
without  anything  among  them — no  cut  straw,  no 
paper,  no  shavings,  no  dry  leaves,  no  sand,  wet  or 
dry,  except  the  little  that  may  stick  to  them  in  pick- 
ing them  up.  The  barrels  or  boxes  containing  the 
potatoes  may  be  placed  in  any  roohi  in  the  house,  for 
they  will  keep  within  a  few  feet  of  the  fire,  or  in  a 
room  where  there  is  no  fire  if  the  temperature  is  50° 
to  60°  Fahr.  Fire  in  the  room  where  the  pota- 
toes are  placed  is  considered  essential,  even  in  mod- 
erate weather,  so  as  to  dry  up  "  the  sweat,''  as  it  is 
called,  produced  from  the  potatoes  heating,  which 
they  will  undergo  in  afewdays  after  being  stored.  The 
most  critical  time,  however,  is  in  severe  cold  weather, 
especially  when  the  fire  goes  out,  which  is  sometimes 
the  case.  In  the  time  of  such  weather  it  would  be 
well  to  put  some  fabric  around,  under  and  also  over 
the  top  of  the  barrels,  etc.  Sweet  potatoes  should 
never  lae  allowed  to  become  cold  (below  40"  or  45°), 
even  for  an  instant.  In  ordinary  times  it  is  not  at  all 
important  that  the  potatoes  be  covered  with  anything. 

In  keeping  large  quantities,  so  much  care  can  not 
be  taken ;  but  such  undertakings  are  not  expected  ex- 
cept in  warm  latitudes. 


II92 


SWEET-SChNTED  SHRUB— SWINDLE. 


Sweet-scented  Shrub,  or  California  allspice,  grows 
wild  in  the  South,  where  there  are  several  species. 
One  is  cultivated  for  its  fragrant,  strawberry-scented 
blossoms.  One  species,  not  fragrant,  grows  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  has  red  flowers  three  inches  wide. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass,  a  species  of  peren- 
nial grass  abounding  in  the  older  States  and  giving  to 
new-mown  hay  that  delicious  fragrance  which  is  so 
celebrated. 

Sweet  Sultana,  a  composite  yellow  flower  from 
Asia,  cultivated  for  ornament  and  for  its  fragrance. 

Sweet  Verbena,  a  shrub  from  Chili  with  lemon- 
scented  leaves. 

Sweet  William,  or  Bunch  Pink,  is  a  true  pink, 
with  a  flat-topped  cluster  of  variously  colored  flowers, 
and  is  a  hardy  perennial.  Raised  in  some  gardens. 
Wild  Sweet  William  is  a  species  of  phlox,  more  com- 
mon East,  with  purple  flowers — sometimes  white. 
Another  species  of  fragrant-flowered  phlox,  similar  to 
to  the  last,  abounds  in  the  West,  and  is  sometimes 
called  "Sweet  William." 

The  petals  of  all  these  flowers  have  a  delicately 
flavored,  sweetish  taste,  and  are  often  eaten  by  chil- 
dren. 


Swindle  or  Humbug.  The  meaning  of  these 
words  is  so  well  understood  that  they  need  no  defini- 
tion here;  besides,  the  latter  has  been  defined  under 
its  proper  heading.  We  suppose  that  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  among  almost  all  nations,  swindles  and 
humbugs  have  been  known ;  that  one  set  of  men  have 
swindled  and  humbugged  another.  But  in  no  nation 
has  the  art  of  humbugging  been  carried  to  such  per- 
fection and  so  extensively  practiced  as  in  our  own. 
Indeed,  to  such  an  extent  has  this  been  the  case  that 
among  all  nations  the  Americans  are  known  as  the 
greatest  of  swindlers.  In  this  connection  we  wish  to 
make  another  statement,  equally  true,  and  that  is, 
that  no  class  of  people  have  been  so  extensively  and 
outrageously  humbugged  and  swindled  as  the  farmers. 
There  are,  of  course,  reasons  for  this,  which  we  need 
not  discuss  here ;  but  it  is  the  object  of  this  article  to 
"  show  up"  many  of  the  swindles  and  humbugs  prac- 
ticed upon  the  farming  community  by  skillful  but 
unprincipled  men,  in  such  a  way  that  the  farmer  may 
be  able  to  protect  himself.  The  farmers  who  are 
almost  daily  beset  by  sharpers  should  be  posted  in  all 
their  arts  and  modes  of  working  their  swindling 
games,  so  that  he  may  shield  himself  and  family  from 
them.  While,  of  course,  we  cannot  even  speak  of  all 
the  innumerable  humbugs  met  with  on  every  hand, 
yet  we  believe  any  intelligent  farmer  who  will  care- 
fully read  the  following  expose  of  some  of  the  lead- 
ing ones  will  be  able  to  protect  himself  from  all.  In 
the  article  on  Doctoring,  we  very  thoroughly  ventilated 
some  of  the  patent  medicines  and  quack  doctors, 
which  are  the  greatest  of  humbugs.  In  that  of  Hy- 
giene, under  the  head  of  Electricity,  page  856,  we 
expose  the  innumerable  electrical  and  galvanic  hum- 


bugs now  having  such  a  run.  In  the  article  on 
Lightning-Rods  we  speak  of  the  worthless  and  ex- 
pensive rods  sold  through  the  country;  but  in  this 
article  we  "  show  up  "  the  mode  generally  adopted  in 
selling  them. 

We  do  not  wish  to  condemn  or  speak  disparagingly 
of  all  men  or  agents  who  travel  through  the  country; 
for,  like  everything  else  in  business,  there  are  the  good 
and  tUe  bad.  It  therefore  stands  every  farmer  in 
hand  to  qualify  himself  for  distinguishing  one  class 
from  the  other;  for,  while  many  itinerant  salesmen  and 
agents  are  real  swindlers,  others  bring  to  the  farmer's 
home  treasures  which  he  can  obtain  in  no  other  way. 
Everything  should  stand  upon  its  own  merits. 

The  general  plan  of  operations  in  all  the  schemes 
practiced  uix)n  the  farmers  is  the  same;  the  agents, 
however,  resort  to  an  occasional  change  of  tactics  to 
suit  the  emergencies  of  particular  cases.  They  really 
discern  every  peculiarity  of  their  intended  victims, 
and  take  advantage  of  them  so  dextrously  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  ward  them  off.  It  is  the  idea 
of  this  article  to  give  the  farmer  such  insight  into  their 
mode  of  working  as  to  enable  him  to  shield  himself 
from  their  ingenious  tricks.  We  will  first  speak  of 
one  familiar  to  most  farmers. 

LiGHTNiNG-RoD  SWINDLE.  Of  all  the  humbugs 
under  the  sun  none  has  so  completely  swept  the 
board  and  demonstrated  the  gullibility  of  Americans 
as  those  which  may  be  classed  under  this  heading. 
Newspapers  have  written  them  up,  courts  of  justice 
have  exposed  them  in  all  their  trickery,  and  victimized 
farmers  have  cried  aloud  with  mortification  and  anger, 
but  all  in  vain.  Year  after  year  the  lightning-rod 
men  go  swarming  over  the  country,  gathering  in  the 
farmers  like  shocks  of  wheat  that  are  ready  for  the 
thresher,  extracting  from  them  the  kernels  of  value, 
and  leaving  nothing  behind  but  straws  of  lightning- 
rods  and  chaff"  of  villainous  contracts. 

We  have  discussed  the  value  of  lightning-rods  and 
the  proper  modes  of  constructing  them,  in  the  article 
on  Lightning-Rods,  and  for  the  real  merits  of  a  good 
rod  will  refer  the  reader  to  it. 

The  usual  prices  of  lightning-rods  as  sold  by  these 
men  range  from  45  to  75  cents  per  foot,  the  cost  of 
which  is  four  to  nine  cents  per  foot.  The  trimmings 
cost  $3  each  for  points  and  balls,  $6  for  vanes,  $5  for 
arrows  and  the  price  of  each  brace  is  equal  to  four 
feet  of  rod.  There  are  many  different  plans  adopted 
to  sell  these  rods,  but  in  all  is  some  hidden  scheme 
or  "twist"  which  is  not  discernible  until  too  late  to 
avert  trouble. 

It  naturally  requires  a  peculiar  class  of  men  to  place 
the  business  properly  before  the  farmers,  and  the  firms 
choose  canvassers  who  have  plenty  of  nerve,  an  end- 
less amount  of  cheek,  and  are  glib  of  tongue.  These 
fellows  are  good  judges  of  human  nature  and  are  well 
posted  in  current  matters.  The  canvassing  party 
consists,  generally,  of  two  men,  one  of  whom  is  the 
agent  and  the  other  an  assistant,  in  case  of  need. 
They  go  about  in  a  fine  turn-out,  and  make  a  pleas- 
ant impression  on  first  sight.     No  suggestion  of  their 


SWINDLE. 


"93 


business    is    in    their    rig,    equipment   or    manner. 

The  organization,  whe<i  ready  for  business,  consists 
of  five  buggies,  with  a  canvasser  in  each,  and  nearly 
always  a  driver  (fighting  man);  one  wagon  loaded 
with  rods,  and  two  or  three  men  to  follow  a  few  days 
behind  and  put  on  the  rods.  Some  firms  have  their 
"  settler  "  (who  is  usually  the  foreman)  go  with  this 
wagon,  and  they  help  him  to  fight  it  out.  Others 
have  their  settler  follow  a  few  days  after. 

The  Canvasser's  Piece.  When  a  farmer  is  found 
who  has  a  nice  place  and  unrodded  buildings,  the 
agent  stops  and  makes  himself  agreeable.  He  tells 
the  farmer  about  the  latest  news,  speaks  advisedly 
of  crops  and  takes  great  delight  in  fine  stock.  He  is 
glad  to  see  such  improvements  on  the  place,  and  be- 
lieves that  the  farmer  thorougiily  understands  the 
business  of  farming.  After  paving  the  way  by  such 
means,  the  agent  remarks  that  he  used  to  live  in  an 
adjoining  county,  and  owned  a  farm  there  until  the 
spring  before,  when  he  had  a  good  offer  and  sold  out; 
since  that  time,  he  has  been  looking  about  him  for  a 
farm  that  suited  him,  with  the  intention  of  buying. 
This  farmer's  place  is  the  nicest  one  he  has  encoun- 
tered for  many  a  day.  So  he  leads  the  game  on, 
until  he  finally  says  that  he  has  been  out  of  employ- 
ment so  long  that  he  was  persuaded  to  accept  a  flat- 
tering offer  from  a  lightning-rod  firm — the  same  firm 
that  rodded  his  own  house  last  year — and  is  now  en- 
gaged in  working  the  trade  up  in  that  section.  When 
he  went  into  the  business  he  had  no  idea  that  there 
was  such  a  prejudice  against  it  as  he  finds;  and, 
really,  he  has  nothing  to  say  in  extenuation  of  what 
he  hears  about  the  trickery  of  some  agents.  His 
house,  however,  allows  nothing  of  the  sort,  and  he 
projxjses  to  do  business  on  the  square.  He  accepted 
the  place  more  on  account  of  the  freedom  it  gave 
him  to  roam  about  and  see  the  country  previous  to 
locating  permanently.  The  idea  he  had  was  to  make 
the  business  a  respectable  one  by  demonstrating  the 
actual  nood  derived  from  the  rods  as  protectors  of 
properly.  The  farmer  would  admit  that  there  was 
great  danger  from  lightning.  See  the  trees  that  had 
been  shivered  about  tlie  country,  and  look  at  the  in- 
numerable newspaper  accounts  of  fatal  accidents  by 
lightning.  Farm  buildings  are  great  conductors  of 
the  dangerous  fluid,  and  especially  so  are  barns  filled 
with  hay.  All  these  chances  of  injury  could  be  ob- 
viated by  the  judicious  erection  of  rods.  Now,  some 
agents  were  base  enough  to  take  advantage  of  their 
calling  and  place  unnecessary  rods  about  a  house  or 
barn  merely  to  increase  their  bills.  He  didn't  pro- 
pose to  do  anything  of  the  sort.  He  knew  just  how 
many  were  needed  and  just  where  they  should  go, 
and  did  not  pro|X3se  to  make  use  of  any  but  solid 
arguments  to  secure  trade.  It  was  a  fact,  the  smooth- 
tongued agent  asserted,  that  the  best  insurance  com- 
panies would  not  take  risks  on  buildings  that  were 
not  protected  by  rods;  and  moneyed  men  would  not 
make  loans  on  property  unless  the  buildings  wpre 
provided  with  them,  because  the  hazard  of  destruc- 
tion by  lightning  was  so  great  the  mortgages  placed 


upon  such  securities  were  practically  absorbed  in  the 
landed  property  itself.  Then  the  agent  ended  with  a 
peroration  wortliy  of  an  IngersoU,  in  which  he  de- 
picted the  farmer's  family  shivering  with  terror  dur- 
ing a  thunder-shower,  while  all  that  agony  mi.ht  be 
averted  by  a  trifling  investment  in  lightning-rods.  It 
was  every  man's  duty  to  protect  his  family  as  much 
from  the  elements  as  from  the  hand  of  the  midnight 
assassin,  etc. 

All  this  confidential  talk  ends  in  the  agent  being 
called  uixjn  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  probable  cost 
of  rodding  the  farmer's  house.  It  is  usually  decided 
that  from  $20  to  $35  will  do  the  work  exactly  as  it 
should  be  done ;  and  the  agent,  in  a  burst  of  sublime 
generosity  toward  a  fellow  farmer,  remarks  that  if  the 
bill  exceeds  $35  he  will  pay  $5  toward  it  out  of  his 
own  jxicket,  thereby  leaving  the  farmer  to  infer  that 
the  work  cannot  possibly  exceed  $35.  On  the 
strength  of  this  assurance,  the  faimer  signs  the  follow- 
ing contract: 


THE    CONTRACT. 


a;  rt 


Mr. 


-,  please  erect,  at  your  earliest 


convenience,  your  lightning-rods  on  my 
accordmg  to  your  rules,  of  which  said 


I  am  the  owner,  for  which  I  agree  to  pay  you 
67  l/i  cents  per  foot,  and  $3  each  for  [wints,  $6 
each  for  vanes,  $5  each  for  arrows,  $2.50  each 
for  balls  and  %2   each  for  braces,  cash,  when 

completed,  or  note  due  on  the  ist  day  of 

next. 

If  not  paid  according  to  this  contract  payable  at . 

Guarantee  Against  Fire.  They  generally  give  a 
guarantee  that,  if  buildings  are  supplied  according  to 
rules  of  company  and  are  destroyed  by  lightning' 
they  will  pay  $1,000;  but  they  always  get  out  of  this  by 
contending  that,  through  carelessness,  rods  were  al- 
lowed to  get  off"  their  fastenings  or  out  of  repair,  and, 
of  course,  refuse  to  pay  and  contend  that  a  building 
projjerly  rodded  cannot  be  struck  by  lightning. 

Where  the  Trouble  Comes  in.  The  trouble  begins 
in  a  few  days  after  the  papers  are  signed,  or  as  soon 
as  the  agents  get  through  canvassing  in  tliat  part  of 
the  country. 

Two  or  three  men  will  put  in  a  sudden  appearance 
with  a  wagon  loaded  with  lightning-rods,  and  be  so 
overwhelmingly  full  of  business  as  to  be  unable  to 
answer  a  single  question.  They  cannot  even  look 
at  anything  except  the  house  that  has  been  placed  at 
their  mercy.  If  the  farmer  offers  a  word,  he  is  coolly 
snubbed  and  treated  as  though  he  was  :  n  interloper, 
while  the  brazen  fellows  awe  him  into  complete 
docility.  Meanwhile  the  men  jjtoduce  ladders,  tools 
and  rods  and  proceed  to  literally  cover  all  the  build- 
ings on  the  place  with  a  network  of  rods.  To  these 
are  added  points,  balls,  vanes  and  trimmings  wher- 
ever they  can  be  made  to  hang  on. 

The  Way  They  Get  so  Many  Rods  on.  The  rods 
are  run  down  the  side  of  the  buildings  and  deep  into 
the  ground,  while  some  gangs  Jiave  the  boldness  to 


1194 


SWINDLE. 


lay  them  in  trenches  through  the  yard  and  away  out 
into  an  adjoining  lot.  Every  possible  means  is  re- 
sorted to  to  increase  the  number  of  feet  of  rod,  be- 
cause the  contract  stipulates  the  payment  at  so  much 
per  foot.  The  farmer  complacently  looks  on,  when 
he  finds  that  he  cannot  prevent  the  men  doing  as 
they  please,  and  chuckles  to  himself  over  the  thought 
that  he  is  getting  all  that  work  for  !$35.  When  he 
speaks  to  the  men  about  it,  they  curtly  tell  him  that 
they  know  nothing  about  the  price  and  are  simply 
working  under  orders. 

The  "Settler."  When  the  job  is  done  and  the  men 
are  away  from  the  neighborhood,  along  comes  the 
"lightning  man  "  of  the  party.  He  is  called  the  fore- 
man, and  his  duty  is  to  collect  the  bill.  He  has  a 
fighting  man  with  him,  has  a  fine  turn-out,  and  moves 
on  the  farmer  as  though  there  was  no  such  a  thing  as 
escape  from  the  consequences.  He  presents  a  bill 
like  the  following: 

The  Bill.  They  put  on  an  ordinary  building  from 
loo  to  300  feet,  running  two  ground-rods  from  9  to 
15  feet  into  the  ground;  they  put  on  from  two  to  six 
points  and  balls,  vanes,  braces,  etc.,  wherever  they 
can  and  all  they  can.  Then,  of  course,  barns  and 
other  out-buildings  make  a  bill  never  below  $80,  and 
often  as  high  as  $500. 


LIGHTNING-ROD   NOrES. 


Post-office- 


Date- 


-188 


On  the    ist  day  of  - 


—  after  date,  for  value  re- 
ceived, I,  the  undersigned,  residing  in  the  township 

of ,   county   of ,  State  of ,   owning 

the  buildings  on  which  the  lightning-rods  were  erect- 
ed, for  which  this  note  is  given  (said  rods  being  for 

my  individual  benefit),  promise  to  pay  to  or 

bearer  the  sum  of  dollars,  with  use,  payable 

at at . 

If  not  paid  when  due,  payable  at  Indianapolis,  Ind. 


Location  of  residence. 

Street, ;  road, 

office, miles  ;  direction 


distance  from  post- 


Agents  will  re-write  signature  plain  on  line  below. 


No. 


I  certify  that  the  within  note  was  taken  by  me,  and 
that  it  was  signed  in  my  presence  by  the  person  who 
owes  this  debt,  and  that  no  bill  is  unpaid  or  receipt 
given  against  this  note,  or  any  part  thereof. 

Salesman. 

Some  States  make  it  a  criminal  offense  to  take 
notes  for  patent  rights  or  lightning-rods  without 
specifying  in  the  notes  that  they  were  given  for  that 
purpose. 

Hmu  Lightning  Rod  Notes  are  Sold.  Before  the 
business  got  in  such  bad  repute,  notes  brought  75  to 
90  cents  on  the  dollar;  but  now  the  average  is  50  to 
60  cents.  There  are  always  men  in  every  com- 
munity who  almost  eke  out  a  living  by  buying  these 
notes.     When  an  ativance  agent  strikes  a  section  he 


almost  always  goes  to  one  of  these  men  and  makes  a 
bargain  in  advance  for  the  notes  he  may  take.  This 
scalper  (who  is  often  a  banker)  points  out  the  man 
for  him  to  "go  for,"  and  tells  him  just  how  to  ap- 
proach and  how  to  manipulate  him. 

When  the  farmer  looks  at  that  document  he  real- 
izes what  it  is  to  be  struck  by  lightning.  The  victim 
assures  the  collector  that  the  work  and  rod  were  to 
be  but  $35,  and  tells  how  the  agent  promised  he 
would  pay  $5  out  of  his  own  pocket  in  case  the  bill 
exceeded  that  sum.  The  foreman  puts  on  a  swagger 
and  says  that  the  canvasser  is  simply  hired  just  as  he 
himself  is,  and  if  he  is  willing  to  sacrifice  his  com- 
missions through  friendly  feeling  there  is  no  law  to 
prevent  him  doing  so.  He  thereupon  credits  the 
farmer  $5  on  the  bill.  He  then  assumes  a  still  more 
domineering  manner,  and  presents  the  original  con- 
tract, which  binds  the  farmer  to  pay  so  much  per 
foot  fur  rods,  so  much  for  each  ball,  point,  vane  and 
brace.  The  "rules of  the  company  "were  observed, 
and  the  farmer  is  caught  fast.  If  not  paid  according 
to  contract,  at  a  distant  city,  which  is  another  kink 
he  had  not  noticed,  they  make  it  payable  at  their 
headquarters,  wliich  is  away  off  somewhere,  and  com- 
pels the  maker  of  the  contract  to  go  there  to  fight 
them.  There  is  no  use  of  arguing  or  refusing  to  pay, 
since  the  clause  making  the  bill  payable  at  a  distant 
lX)int  in  case  of  refusal  to  settle  at  once  only  threat- 
ens to  add  costs  of  a  suit  in  the  United  States  Court 
to  the  face  of  the  bill.  The  agent  tells  him  that  he 
has  paid  $5  (through  the  original  agent's  guarantee), 
which  is  credited  on  the  bill,  thus  binding  the  whole 
matter,  and  there  is  no  possible  escape.  If  the 
farmer  threatens  personal  chastisement,  the  big  fight- 
ing man  ambles  quickly  to  the  front.  There  is  no 
help  now,  and  a  note  is  accordingly  given  in  settle- 
ment of  the  account.  Rather  than  become  the 
laughing-stock  of  his  neighbors,  the  farmer  closes  the 
matter  out  by  giving  a  note  offered  by  the  foreman, 
on  the  back  of  which  is  a  property  statement.  The 
foreman  usually  coddles  the  farmer  into  making  a 
statement  that  he  is  worth  more  property  than  he 
really  owns,  through  some  misconception  of  what  he 
is  doing,  and  thereby  catches  him  a  second  time,  as 
such  a  false  statement  makes  the  signer  liable  for 
fraud. 

On  every  hand  the  farmer  is  taken  in,  and  becomes 
a  thoroughly  victimized  man.  The  note,  with  inter- 
est, falls  into  the  hands  of  some  money  shark,  and  is 
crowded  to  full  payment 

The  rods  on  his  house  usually  blow  off  or  become 
S)  disarranged  as  to  be  a  source  of  constant  danger, 
and  the  end  of  the  matter  generally  is  that  the  farmer 
tears  them  down  in  disgust,  and  denies  his  family 
promised  luxuries  or  real  necessities  for  months  to 
come,  in  order  to  recuperate  his  weakened  finances. 

The  Cloth  Swindle.  There  have  been  few 
swindles  practiced  upon  farmers  that  have  been  more 
successful  than  that  which  is  known  as  the  cloth 
fraud:  Hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of  those  who 
flatter  themselves  that  they  are  too  worldly  wise  to  be 


SWINDLE. 


"95 


taken  in  by  any  new-fangled  device  for  raking  in  the 
coveted  dollar,  have  it  to  say  that  they  were  most 
completely  fooled  by  the  cheerful  cloth  agent,  and 
that  their  notes,  in  the  hands  of  neighbonng  bankers 
or  private  money-lenders,  are  the  overwhelming  evi- 
dencesof  theirguUibility,  and  neglect  to  keep  pace  with 
current  events.  The  cloth  swindle  is  nothing  new.  It 
has  been  long  practiced  and  yet  new  victims  are 
found. 

We  must  say  at  the  beginning  that  the  cloth  agent 
is  a  fraud,  and  one,  too,  of  the  very  worst  description. 

The  very  first  move  he  makes,  when  he  strikes  a 
section  that  is  to  be  "worked,"  is  to  get  acquainted 
with  some  banker  or  loan  agent  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  from  him  ascertain  who  are  the  responsible  farm- 
ers whose  notes  will  be  negotiable  and  who  will  be 
apt  to  buy  goods  of  him.  He  is  directed  by  the  banker 
to  this  and  that  party,  whose  paper  he  will  take,  giving 
$ioo  forany;§i5o  note  that  may  be  presented  to  him. 
Havingsecuredtheco-operationof  the  banker,  the  cloth 
agent  makes  the  aciiuaintanceof  some  reputable  man 
of  the  neighborhood,  in  whom  the  farmers  have  con- 
fidence, for  the  purpose  of  securing  introductions  to 
the  farming  community.  This  person  is  always  assured 
of  a  certain  percentage  of  the  profits.  In  other  words, 
he  is  paid,  and  well  paid,  by  the  agent  for  performing 
this  piece  of  what  we  may  term  very  dirty  work.  Ntjw 
bear  tliis  fact  in  mind,  reader:  whenever  your  friend 
John  Thompson  drives  up  to  your  house  with  a  cloth 
agent,  and  desires  to  make  you  acquainted  with  him, 
and  assures  you  that  the  agent  has  some  very  good 
wares  to  sell — whenever  he  does  this,  John  Thompson 
has  been  bought  up,  and  is  to  put  into  his  own  pocket 
a  portion  of  the  money  which  the  agent  is  to  swindle 
out  of  you.  When  the  pair  have  made  their  appear- 
ance at  a  farm-house,  and  the  agent,  by  persuasive 
words  and  shrewd  maneuvering,  has  gained  access, 
tlie  family  is  informed  that  he  has  a  large  quantity  of 
dry  goods  which  must  bedisposed  of  at  ruinously  low 
prices.  He  representsthe  well  known  firm  of  so-and-so 
(some  leadingdry-goods  house  of  oneof  the  large  cities). 
That  firm  for  some  reason  has  been  obliged  to  econo- 
mize, and  is  on  the  very  verge  of  bankruptcy;  in  fact, 
it  was  caught  with  an  enormousstockof  goodson  han^, 
and  has  resorted  to  this  popular  plan  of  disposing  of 
them.  There  were  in  the  concern  perhaps  three  hun- 
dred salesmen,  and  these  gentlemen  have  been  sent 
out  with  goods,  and  instructed  to  dispose  of  them  at 
the  very  bottom  prices! 

He  (the  agent)  is  one  of  these  salesmen ;  he  has 
some  goods  he  knows  will  please  the  farmer's  family. 
This  is  the  manner  in  which  he  paves  the  way  to  a 
sale. 

With  this  he  goes  to  his  buggy,  which  is  filled  with 
dry  goods,  and  brings  in  alarge  bundle,  being  assisted, 
of  course,  byihe  farmer's  acquaintance,  Mr.  Thompson, 
whose  mere  acquiescence  in  what  the  agent  has  to 
offer  goes  farther  than  anything  else  in  influencing 
the  head  of  the  household  to  give  the  stranger  a 
favorable  hearing. 

Now  comes  the  nice  part  of  the  agent's  work.  Cali- 


coes are  displayed  and  offered  for  one  half  less  than 
they  can  be  purchased  for  at  any  store.  Ginghams, 
delaines,  muslins,  sheetings,  are  thrown  in  at  the  same 
great  sacrifice.  The  wife  herself  acknowledges  that 
she  cannot  begin  to  purchase  the  goods  for  the  figures 
the  stranger  offers  them  for.  After  the  light  goods 
the  swindler  produces  a  piece  of  broad-cloth.  This 
he  flaunts  in  the  eyes  of  the  farmer,  assures  him  it  is 
the  finest  article  to  be  had  for  the  money,  and  that  his 
house  made  a  special  importation  of  several  thousand 
yards.  On  this  cloth  he  puts  a  certain  figure,  which 
eventually  proves  to  be  about  three  times  its  worth. 
Convinced  that  they  have  secured  the  first  goods  at  a 
sacrifice  (and  they  are  sold  for  less  than  market 
prices),  the  farmer  and  his  folks  are  disposed  to  pur- 
chase of  the  heavier  articles,  of  which  they  know 
little,  and  of  course  are  under  the  impression  that  they 
are  securing  at  the  same  great  discount  on  actual 
cost. 

Having,  during  the  conversation,  informed  the 
farmer  that  he  has  been  instructed  by  the  house  to  sell 
nothing  less  than  a  $150  package  of  goods  to  any  in- 
dividual, he  further  conveys  the  intelligence  that  pay- 
ment need  not  be  made  under  twelve  months.  He 
will  take  the  farmer's  note  and  wait  on  him  a  year. 

So  it  is  that  the  victim  of  the  sale  becomes  far 
more  interested  than  he  has  hitherto  been, and  when, a 
few  moments  later,  the  shrewd  agent  whips  out  a  high- 
colored  shawl,  calculated  to  take  the  female  eye,  the 
fanner  is  at  last  nearly  convinced  that  it  will  be  to  his 
advantage  to  secure  a  lot  of  these  goods.  The  women 
folks  "  second  the  motion,"  and  insist  upon  it  that  the 
goods  shall  not  go  back  with  the  agent.  Seeing  that 
the  farmer  himself  wavers,  and  is  not  wholly  won,  the 
agent  throws  in  another  piece  of  light  cloth,  and  per- 
haps a  package  of  handkerchiefs  or  other  small  arti- 
cles, and  these  are  the  straws  with  which  to  break 
the  bargain  s  back. 

This  is  too  much,  and  the  farmer  consents.  He 
signs  the  note,  receives  the  goods,  and  the  agent  drives 
off  with  the  mutual  friend,  Mr.  Thompson,  and  the 
family  is  left  to  do  what  it  pleases  with  the  dry  goods. 
It  isn't  long  before  the  farmer  discovers  that  the  broad- 
cloth is  shoddy,  the  worst  kind  of  shoddy.  It  is  cloth 
pressed,  not  woven,  and  composed  of  the  refuse  of  a 
woolen-mill,  held  together  by  horse-hairs. 

He  finds  that  the  "  India  "  shawl  which  he  suppos- 
ed was  a  bargain,  is  a  damaged  article,  inferior  in 
quality,  no  India  characteristics  about  it,  and  was 
sold  to  him  for  ten  times  its  value. 

He  finds  that  his  note  is  in  the  hand  of  his  city  or 
village  banker,  or  that  old  Jones,  the  skin-flint,  has  it, 
and  he  must  pay.  He  learns  the  agent  sold  it  to  the 
banker  or  to  Jones  the  very  day  he  sold  the  farmer  the 
goods,  and  if  he  is  sharp  in  inquiry,  he  will  ascertain 
that  the  agent  was  so  anxious  to  get  rid  of  the  note 
that  he  let  it  go  for$ioo. 

He  will  find  that  he  is  no  exception,  but  that  every 
person  in  his  neighborhood  who  has  bought  these 
goods  has  been  dealt  with  in  the  same  manner.  And, 
too,  he  will  find  that  the  firm  is  a  myth.     The  reputa- 


1 196 


SWINDLE. 


ble  house  whose  name  the  swindler  gave  never  resorts 
to  such  ends  in  selling  goods. 

Fruit-Tree  Swindle.  Every  farmer,  almost,  can 
testily  that  one  of  the  most  successful  swmdles  ever 
perpetrated  on  the  rural  districts  is  that  of  selling 
worthless  fruit-trees.  It  is  perfectly  natural  that  the 
owner  of  a  piece  of  land  should  feel  a  commendable 
pride  in  maintaining  a  fine  orchard,  and  it  is  singular 
that  with  experience  in  everything  pertaining  to  farm 
management  some  farmers  get  the  idea  into  their 
heads  that  the  cultivation  of  fruit  is  0  thing  requiring 
a  little  or  no  special  preparation  or  stuciy.  If  a  tree 
is  put  into  the  ground  and  left  there  a  few  years  the 
[ilanter  thinks  it  ought  to  produce  a  thrifty  yield  of 
just  such  fruit  as  the  label  it  bears  indicates.  He  is 
apt  to  find  out  how  mistaken  has  been  his  confidence 
in  the  word  of  some  peripatetic  agent.  There  is  no 
limit  to  the  chance  for  fraud,  and  it  is  increased  by 
the  willingness  of  farmers  to  accept  as  Gospel  truth 
whatever  may  be  told  by  an  unknown  and  unreliable 
tree-vender. 

The  canvasser  puts  in  his  appearance  and  repre- 
sents himself  as  an  agent  of  some  well-advertised 
house.  He  warrants  tlie  stock  he  has  todisDose  of  to 
grow  and  bear  fruit  in  a  very  short  time.  He  knows, 
and  so  expresses  himself,  that  farmers  have  been  fre- 
quently deceived  by  unscrupulous  men  and  that  the 
climate  is  not  ada|)ted  to  the  propagation  of  all  vari- 
etiesof  fruit ;  but  he  proposes, vauntingly,  to  secure  pat- 
ronage by  honest  dealing  and  offering  trees  specially 
adapted  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  peculiarities 
of  the  section  he  may  be  operating  in.  By  these  loud 
and  specious  protestations  he  soon  secures  a  favor- 
able hearing,  and  it  is  not  long  before  he  sells  to  the 
very  man  who  was  outrageously  swindled  by  a  similar 
dodge,  a  bill  from  $25  to  $200  worth  of  scions  or 
trees.  Having  worked  his  territory  exhaustively  and 
secured  every  order  he  ix)ssibly  can,  the  agent  begins 
to  deliver  his  wares,  which  prove  to  be  nothing  but 
•common  cuUings  or  the  cheapest  kind  of  trees  pur- 
chased wherever  he  can  get  them  at  the  lowest  fig- 
ures. Of  course  the  fraud  cannot  be  detected  until 
sufficient  time  has  elapsed  to  develop  the  nature  of 
the  trees,  and  long  before  that  time  arrives  the  agent 
is  in  some  other  business,  or*  the  Lord  only  knows 
"where.  He  can't  be  reached,  and  the  purchaser  of 
the  worthless  trees  must  twirl  his  fingers  and  rest 
content  with  simply  pondering  over  the  general  cuss- 
ed ness  of  mankind.  The  trees  were  paid  for  and 
delivered;  they  are  good  for  nothing,  as  time  proves, 
and  the  victim  is  out  his  money  and  has  no  redress. 
The  pecuniary  loss  is  not  the  most  serious  one.  The 
farmer  has  wasted  several  years  endeavoring  to  cul- 
tivate an  orchard  that  is  simply  worthless. 

Some  of  the  agents  carry  with  them  specimens  of 
the  alleged  product  of  their  favorite  trees.  These 
fruits  are  first  selected  with  great  care  and  then  placed 
in  small  boxes  or  cases  having  magnifying  glass  tops, 
through  which  the  fruit  looks  larger  and  nicer  than  it 
really  is.  Of  course  the  trees  sold  by  means  of  such 
exhibits  are  not  of  the  variety  represented,  and  prove 


a  burden  to  a  man  instead  of  a  blessing  or  a  profit. 

Whether  it  be  the  oily-tongued  fellow  with  florid 
prints  of  impossible  fruits  faithfully  depicted  between 
richly-bound  lids,  or  the  more  humble  chap  who  car- 
ries cheap  pictures  in  a  jxirtfolio,  or  the  scamp  with 
his  jars  of  preserved  specimens — whatever  means  re- 
sorted to  by  the  traveling  fruit  and  ornamental  tree 
peddler,  the  purchaser  is  almost  sure  to  be  swindled. 
They  carefully  steer  clear  of  such  families  as  are  well 
supplied  with  agricultural  and  other  journals  and 
books.  They  find  few  sales  among  members  of  hor- 
ticultural societies. 

Patent  Medicines.  A  mostimportantduty  of  lifeis, 
to  take  care  of  the  health.  This  fact  is  so  well  known 
that  it  would  appear  to  be  a  piece  of  supereroga- 
tion on  our  part  to  dwell  at  any  length  on  the  neces- 
sity of  doing  what  nature  so  distinctly  teaches  us. 
What  we  desire  is  to  impress  uix)n  the  minds  of  our 
readers  the  imixjrtance  of  giving  themselves  proper 
treatment,  should  they  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  fall  vic- 
tims to  this  or  that  disease,  and  not  jeopardize  their 
existence  by  seeking  the  advice  of  quacks  or  partak- 
ing of  the  nostrums  which  flood  the  market  and  are 
"guaranteed"  to  be  specifics  for  every  ill  that  flesh  is 
heir  to.  With  Shakspeare  we  can  heartily  exclaim, 
"Lord,  how  the  world  is  given  to  lying!  "  and  the  bold 
truthof  the  sweeping  assertion  stands  out  in  every- 
thing which  originates  with  these  men  who  turn  a 
"nimble  sixpence''  into  an  "accelerated"  half-dollar, 
and  by  their  wits  gain  a  competence  at  the  expense 
of  the  gullible  and  too  reliant  world. 

We  have  shown  up  these  spurious  medicines  in  the 
article  on  Doctoring. 

Patent  Rights.  The  very  name  of  patent  rights 
is  suggestive  of  pecuniary  losses  to  the  ordinary 
reader,  and  awakens  a  desire  to  know  more  of  the 
inner  workings  of  the  business,  to  the  end  that  the 
insidious  assaults   of  the  venders  may  be  warded  off. 

The  same  cause  which  leads  to  a  thousand  other 
troubles  influences  the  purchaser  of  a  patent  right, 
and  that  is  the  desire  to  make  money  easily  and  rap- 
idly. There  are  plenty  of  men  in  all  walks  of  life 
who  seek  this  golden  secret,  but  the  broadest  field  for 
speculators  is  among  the  farmers.  The  laborious, 
plodding  life  led  by  most  of  them,  aids  to  enliven  the 
pictures  of  wealth  and  ease  so  graphically  drawn  by 
the  wily  salesmen,  and  hundreds  of  farmers  have  in- 
vested their  little  hoard  in  some  privilege  to  manu- 
facture a  gate  or  a  windmill,  or  an  imiilement  that 
proved  a  sorry  load. 

One  reason  why  so  many  patent  rights  fail  utterly 
is  because  it  is  the  farmer's  disposition  to  give  up  the 
moment  he  encounters  difficulty,  and  wring  his  hand 
and  weep.  The  "sell"  he  so  often  loudly  denounces 
may  be  a  valuable  article  in  itself,  worthy  of  manu- 
facture, and  sure  of  sale  if  rightly  put  before  the  pub- 
lic. But  ainanentirelyuntrained  to  mercantile life,and 
above  all  to  the  life  of  a  canvasser,  cannot  sell  a  pat- 
ented machine  to  his  neighbors.  He  has  not  the  gift 
of  tongue  which  captured  himself  when  the  pleasant 


SWINDLE. 


1 197 


agent  sold  him  the  right,  nor  has  he  a  thorough  mas- 
tery of  the  art  of  putting  a  case  to  a  desired  pur- 
chaser. The  agent  assured  him  that  the  article 
would  sell  on  its  own  merits ;  and  so  it  would  if  its 
merits  were  but  made  known.  He  cannot  tell  a 
neighbor,  with  whom  he  has  associated  for  years,  and 
wiio  has  heard  him  stammer  and  sputter  in  prayer- 
meeting  or  some  political  convention,  what  the  ma- 
chine really  is. 

When  the  farmer  contemplates  his  failure,  his  mor- 
bid mind  grows  more  and  more  diseased,  and  he  con- 
cludes that  the  article  is  a  swindle  at  best.  So  he 
places  the  sample  as  far  out  of  sight  as  jxjssible,  in 
the  barn  or  garret,  and  nurses  his  wrath  against 
patent-right  men  by  being  cross  to  his  patient,  hard- 
working wife,  and  by  refusing  the  children  some  little 
pleasure  on  the  ground  of  his  poverty  in  these  hard 
times.  The  business  failed  because  the  wrong  man 
liad  hold  of  it.  In  some  men's  hands  the  investment 
would  have  paid  well;  but  the  farmer  imagined  that 
he  could  do  as  the  agent  did,  and  was  deceived  in 
his  calculations.  The  farmer  was,  probably,  as  in- 
telligent a  man  as  the  canvasser,  but  he  had  not 
studied  for  the  business.  His  own  forte  was  to  raise 
cattle,  and  good  ones,  too,  probably;  and  were  the 
agent  to  venture  in  such  a  speculation  he  would  igno- 
miniously  fail. 

Farmers  are  frequently  approached  by  men  who 
have  a  remarkable  gate  patent,  or  some  new  plan  for 
fencing.  There  is  an  infinite  variety  of  articles  of- 
fered, but  the  principle  is  always  the  same:  the  purpose 
of  the  agents  is  to  make  money  out  of  their  patrons. 
After  a  farmer  has  purchased  his  right  to  sell  or  man- 
ufacture, the  matter  is  never  prosecuted  to  a  profit- 
able issue.  But  the  greatest  danger  lies  in  the  signing 
of  notes,  through  some  misapprehension  of  their  mean- 
ing, or  because  of  promises  of  agents  that  no  advan- 
tage will  ever  be  taken  of  the  act.  Advantage  is 
always  taken  of  every  jxjssibleweakness,  and  that  fact 
may  be  counted  on  with  absolute  certainty. 

Patent  Rights  of  Value  are  Never  for  Sale.  The 
reader  will  bear  in  mind  that  a  patent  with  merits 
will  never  be  for  sale  except  to  the  most  intimate 
friends  of  the  patentee.  He  may  not  be  able  to  man- 
ufacture his  patented  article,  and  takes  in  friends  to 
furnish  the  necessary  funds.  No  man  ever  came 
around  to  you  to  sell  an  article  that  a  manufacturer 
thought  there  was  merit  enough  in  to  manufacture 
and  put  on  the  market.  The  things  for  sale  are 
those  that  look  big;  but  there  is  a  missing  link  some- 
where. 

Fradulent  Notes.  We  present  a  facsimile 
of  a  contract  made  by  swindlers  with  farmers,  for  the 
sale  of  various  kinds  of  agricultural  machinery.  The 
fraud  has  been  perpetrated  on  a  great  number  of 
worthy  people,  who  certainly  ought  to  have  known 
better  than  to  attach  their  name  to  any  document  of 
such  character.  A  man  whom  we  will  call  B.  Johnson 
calls  upon  a  farmer,  named  John  Smith.  Johnson  in- 
troduces himself  as  the  general  agent  of  a  first-class 
seeding  machine.     He  talks  Smith  into   agreeing  to 


act  as  a  sub-agent  for  his  section  of  the  country,  under 
the  impression  that  he  will  reap  a  rich  financial  har- 
vest from  the  sale  of  the  machine.  Johnson  says  he 
only  asks  $10  for  establishing  the  agency,  the  same 
to  be  paid  only  after  he  (Smith)  has  sold  $275  worth 
of  the  seeders.  Smith  feels  that  this  is  a  splendid 
opportunity,  and  he  signs  the  "contract,"  which  is  as 
follows : 


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This  is  apparently  innocent  enough :  a  contract 
simply  to  pay  $10  7£//;c«  machines  to  a  certain  value 
have  been  sold.  Surely  there  is  no  great  risk  in  an  ar- 
rangement of  that  kind. 

Now,  this  contract  is  nothing  less  than  a  note  of 
hand  that  binds  the  maker  to  pay  $275  with  10  per 
cent,  interest  on  the  order  of  B.  Johnson,  one  year  from 
date.  That  is  what  it  is;  and  when  Smith  signed  it 
he  placed  himself  under  obligation  to  pay  that 
amount.  The  contract  is  so  worded  that  when  cut  in 
two  where  dots  are  it  is  divested  of  the  nature  of  a 
contract  and  is  made  a  pure  note  of  hand.  Try  the 
eKperiment.  Place  a  sheet  of  paper  over  the  right- 
hand  end,  where  dots  are,  and  then  see  if  you  could 
consent  to    sign   such    a    contract. 


1 198 


SWINDLE. 


Advertising  Dodges.  Certain  papers  contain  num- 
erous small  advertisements  calling  for  small  sums  of 
money  or  stamps  in  exchange  for  information  that 
will  lead  to  the  rapid  accumulation  of  wealth.  All 
imaginable  devices  are  resorted  to  to  catch  the  eye  of 
the  public.  Every  illustrated  newspaper,  story  paper, 
magazine  and  even  many  religious  papers  contain 
advertisements  of  this  character : 

BIG  PAY. — Send  stamp  for  a  sure-selling  article. 
Agents  wanted.     Address,  etc. 

Of  late  it  has  been  found  that  the  demand  for  a 
stamp  proves  injurious  to  the  advertiser,  and  so  one 
sees  numerous  announcements : 

FREE. — Send  name  and  address  for  our  quick- 
selling  articles.  Fortunes  made  in  the  work« 
Address,  etc. 

When  the  correspondent  replies,  it  is  found  that  the 
house  will  furnish  circulars,  instructions  and  samples 
of  "quick-selling  goods"  for  a  few  dollars.  These 
articles  are  generally  of  the  most  simple  kind,  and  no 
person  would  think  of  traveling  about  the  country  and 
offering  them  for  sale. 

The  fact  is  that  the  average  man  or  woman  cannot 
transform  himself  or  herself  into  a  peddler  and  resort 
to  such  means  of  gaining  a  living.  A  few  of  the  large 
number  sending  for  "samples"  no  doubt  do  make 
money,  but  that  is  no  evidence  that  every  one  can ; 
and  the  upshot  of  the  matter  is  that  the  money  in- 
vested is  thrown  away.  A  dollar  or  two  is  not  missed 
by  each  victim, but  the  aggregate  is  simply  enormous, 
when  the  total  number  of  curious  or  over-anxious  cor- 
respondents is  remembered. 

Another  class  of  advertisements  calls  for  a  trifling 
investment  for  some  little  article  of  household  use, 
like  a  carpet-tacker,  a  dish-washer,  a  knife-sharpener 
or  a  multiform  instrument  in  one.  The  advertiser 
sends  the  article  agreed  upon,  but  when  the  buyer 
receives  it,  he  uses  it  for  a  day  or  two  and  then  throws 
it  aside.  Thousands  of  dollars  are  annually  spent  in 
this  foolish  way.  Sometimes,  however,  the  class  of 
goods  proffered  are  palpable  frauds,  but  the  char- 
acter of  the  newspapers  in  which  the  advertisement 
appears,  makes  the  affair  seem  all  right. 

Ready-Made  Love-Letters.  There's  another  class  of 
advertisers  who  take  advantage  of  susceptible  natures 
in  advertising  their  wares.  They  know  very  well  that 
the  tender  passion  finds  its  victims  in  the  rural  re- 
gions, and  they  know,  too,  that  human  nature  is  the 
same  the  world  over.  There  are  hundreds  of  young 
men  who,  having  fallen  in  love,  foolishly  imagine  that 
their  success  in  winning  their  suit  depends  upon  ad- 
dressing the  object  of  their  affections  in  stilted  phrase, 
and  so  they  cast  about  to  find  some  form  by  wliich  to 
perfect  themselves  in  the  comixjsition  of  letters  to 
their  "adorable."  They  see  an  advertisement  like 
this,  for  instance : 

LOVE. LETTERS.    40  models  free.     Address 
Pub.  Co., 

And  then  they  send  for  the  pamphlet  in  question. 
The  publishing  company  which  promises  to  furnish  ' 


the  book,  or  "samples,"  of  course  forward  the  same, 
and  follow  it  up  with  seductive  inducements  relating 
to  certain  "  guides,"  which  we  will  not  mention  here, 
and  which  they  feel  assured  the  young  man  will  need 
as  soon  as  he  is  married. 

In  the  first  place,  every  young  man  who  is  in  love 
should  bear  in  mind  this  fact:  He  can  express  the 
peculiar  sentiment  of  his  heart  much  better  by  relying 
upon  himself  in  matters  of  this  kind,  no  matter  how 
simple  it  may  be;  and,  furthermore,  few  young  ladies 
have  an  exalted  idea  of  a  young  man  who  will  resort 
to  the  labor  of  some  one  else's  brain  to  speak  his  sen- 
timents. Girls  are  quick  to  detect  an  imjxjsition  of 
this  kind.     Don't  do  it. 

Then,  again,  you  can  get  along  after  marriage  much 
better  by  letting  the  pernicious  literature  of  the  day 
alone  and  relying  for  advice  upon  home  physicians 
and  experienced  friends.  Save  your  money,  and  don't 
squander  it  on  trash  of  this  description. 

Other  Advertising  "  Catches."  Then  we  find  young 
men  advertised  for  to  learn  telegraphy;  others  to 
learn  the  detective  business ;  others  to  act  as  sales- 
men for  a  big-paying  business,  and  so  on.  The  place 
to  learn  telegraphy,  if  one  intends  to  follow  the  busi- 
ness, is  in  a  telegraph  company's  office;  and  they 
never  advertise.  If  you  want  to  be  a  detective,  get 
into  some  reputable  agency ;  they  never  have  to  ad- 
vertise for  men.  If  you  desire  to  learn  commercial 
business,  get  into  a  store  and  learn  the  trade  from  the 
bottom  up;  these  are  the  only  men  who  ever  succeed. 

Above  all,  don't  answer  advertisements  offering 
these  inducements,  for  they  are  but  baits  to  catch  the 
anxious  and  unsophisticated. 

Besides  all  these  there  are  the  false  claims  for  pat- 
ents on  some  little  contrivance,  generally  a  gate,  which 
a  farmer  may  have  constructed  himself.  Many  a 
farmer  has  paid  a  stranger,  who  claimed  to  be  the 
patentee,  $5  or  $10  for  the  use  of  such  a  gate.  The 
only  steps  to  take  when  accused  of  infringing  upon 
any  patent  is  to  "  do  nothing."  Do  not  be  frightened 
into  doing  anything.  Remember  the  case  must  be 
brought  in  the  United  States  Circuit  Court,  and  ninety 
times  out  of  a  hundred  the  man  who  blusters  around 
making  all  kind  of  threats  of  how  much  it  will  cost 
you  etc.,  would  never  think  of  bringing  the  case  to 
trial.  That  is  not  their  object.  Their  aim  is  to  get 
your  money  without  the  aid  of  courts. 

Then  there  are  the  grain  and  provision  speculation, 
the  counterfeit  money  dodge,  lotteries,  cheap  guns, 
patent  recipes,  etc.,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  out  and  out 
humbugs.  Never  think  of  getting  something  for  noth- 
ing in  any  kind  of  trade,  for  you  will  find  when  the 
money  has  been  passed  from  your  hands  the  article 
is  absolutely  worthless, or  comparatively  so.  Be  cau- 
tious, but  not  afraid  of  everybody  who  may  call  upon 
you,  believing  all  men  rogues,  for  in  that  way  }ou  will 
also  be  the  loser.  Post  yourselves  and  then  use 
judgment.  If  an  article  is  of  real  merit  and  you  need 
it,  and  it  is  cheap,  buy  it ;  but  a  swindle  or  humbug  of 
any  nature,  or  anything  that  savors  of  such, — have 
nothing  to  do  with  it. 


SWINE. 


1199 


Innocent  Purchasers.  There  is  a  doctrine  laid 
down  and  enforced  bj'  ilie  courts  under  the  general 
head  of  "innocent  purchasers,"  which  is  not  alto- 
gether satisfactory..  As  has  been  very  pertinently 
observed,  it  is  an  unjust  and  oppressive  discrimina- 
tion in  favor  of  one  class  of  purchasers,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  others  equally  legal. 

Any  lawyer  or  judge  might  be  challenged  to  give 
good  reasons  why  the  innocent  purchaser  of  a  drive 
well,  or  barbed  wire,  is  not  entitled  to  the  equal  im- 
munity or  rights  as  a  banker  who  purchases  a  raised 
note.  The  whole  history  of  court  decisions  appears 
to  be  a  combination  .with  swindlers,  so  that  the 
farmer  is  to  be  eternally  the  victim ;  and  his  labor  is 
forever  to  be  used  to  fatten  the  whole  horde  of 
swindling  cormorants  who  flourish  on  his  simi)licity 
and  artlessness.  Courts  can  always  find  a  precedent 
rendered  away  back  in  feudal  times,  reeking  with 
hoary  error,  and  enriched  in  anriquity  by  the  groans 
and  oppressions  of  the  people.  Green,  the  drive-well 
man,  has  ]jeen,and  is,  robbing  fanners  throughout  the 
country  in  lecovering  damages  for  infringments  of  the 
drive-well  royalty. 

The  lawyer  will  say,  "this  is  all  right.  The  man 
■who  buys  a  piece  of  machinery  ought  to  have  known 
it  was  all  right  before  he  buys."  Yes,  but  the  courts 
protect  the  innocent  swindler  who  buys  the  raised  or 
forged  note  of  the  farmer;  and  if  the  courts  intend  to 
render  justice  or  entitle  themselves  to  the  respect  of 
the  worid,  why  not  protect  the  innocent  purchaser  of 
machinery,  bought  in  the  public  markets,  hundreds 
and  probably  thousands  of  miles  away  from  him  who 
holds  a  patent.?  When,  oh,  when  will  Justice,  with 
her  ever-]X)ised  wings,  protect  all  alike — the  farmer 
in  his  rural  home  as  well  as  the  banker  in   the    city.' 

Swine,  a  well  known  pachydermatous  (thick- 
skinned)  animal,  constituting  the  genus  Sus,  in  the 
Suidce,  or  swine  family.  The  wild  boar,  the  stock 
from  which  all  our  domestic  breeds  have  sprung,  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 

This  animal  is  active  and  jxDwerful,  and  as  he 
grows  older  is  fierce  and  dangerous.  He  is  usually  of 
a  dirty  brown  or  iron-gray  color,  with  occasional  black 
spots  or  streaks.  The  body  is  covered  with  long, 
coarse  hair,  intermixed  with  short,  woolly  down.  The 
hair  becomes  bristles  as  it  approaches  the  shoulders, 
and  forms  a  sort  of  mane,  which  stands  erect  when 
the  animal  is  irrrtated.  The  head  is  large,  bony,  and 
very  strong,  carrying  a  huge  jaw,  armed  with  sharp, 
crooked  tusks,  capable  of  inflicting  fearful  wounds. 
The  eye  full,  neck  thick  and  muscular,  loins  broad  and 
legs  strong,  and  in  height  from  28  to  40  inches. 

The  wild  hogs,  in  a  state  of  nature,  are  usually 
found  in  moist,  sandy  and  well  wooded  situations, 
close  to  streams  of  water.  They  feed  by  choice  uix)n 
plants,  fruits  and  roots,  but  when  pressed  by  hunger 
will  eat  worms,  snakes,  small  game  and  carrion.  Twi- 
light and  night  are  the  only  times  when  they  volunta- 
rily leave  their  coverts,  and  their  acute  sense  of  smell 
enables  them  to  detect  the  presence  of  food,  even 


though  it  be  some  distance  below  the  surface.  Hence, 
they  often  do  considerable  damage  in  open  and  culti- 
vated fields.  For  the  first  year  or  two  the  whole  herd 
follow  the  sow,  and  all  unite  in  common  defense 
against  any  and  all  enemies,  forming  a  regular  line 
of  battle,  the  weaker  occupying  the  rear.  But  when 
of  full  age,  each  animal  wanders  alone,  as  if  conscious 
of  his  strength,  and  neither  seeking  nor  avoiding  dan- 
ger. They  are  supposed  to  live  to  about  30  years  of 
age.  As  they  grow  old  the  tusks  drop  out,  and  their 
hair  turns  quite  gray.  Old  boars  are  rarely  found 
with  the  herd,  but  seem  to  keep  apart  from  the  rest 
and  from  each  other.  The  sow  produces  but  one  lit- 
ter in  the  year,  and  then  but  few  in  number,  and  car- 
ries her  young  about  sixteen  weeks;  and  is  rarely 
seen  in  company  with  the  male  except  in  the  rutting 
season,  She  suckles  her  young  from  four  to  six 
months,  and  continues  to  protect  them  for  some  time 
afterward.  When  attacked,  she  defends  herself  and 
family  with  great  courage  and  fierceness.  Often  sev- 
eral sows  and  their  litters  herd  together,  and  in  such 
herds  they  are  exceedingly  formidable  and  dangerous; 
but  it  is  only  when  disturbed  or  provoked  that  they 
attack  man  or  beast.  Occasionally  in  the  rutting  sea- 
son, when  the  passions  are  inflamed,  the  males  en- 
counter each  other;  then  it  becomes  a  struggle  for 
life,  and  not  unfrequently  both  combatants  die  on  the 
field  of  battle.  When  attacked  or  alarmed  by  dogs, 
the  wild  boar  first  suddenly  retreats,  turning  occasion- 
ally to  menace  them  with  his  tiisks;  but  in  a  short 
rime,  if  closely  pursued,  he  stands  at  bay  and  fights 
desperately  for  life,  rushing  upon  and  tearing  his  tor- 
mentors with  great  strength  and  fury.  From  the 
earliest  ages,  hunting  the  wild  boar  has  been  a  favor- 
ite sport  with  all  classes  and  conditions  of  society,  and 
particularly  with  the  nobility  of  most  European  coun- 
tries. 

The  pace  and  endurance  of  the  wild  boar  are  not 
to  be  learned  by  comparison  with  the  domestic  ones, 
as  the  vigor  and  speed  of  the  former  require  the  hun- 
ters to  be  well  mounted  on  the  fleetest  and  most  pow- 
erful horses,  and  even  then  they  are  often  left  far  be- 
hind in  the  chase. 

All  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  hog  will  breed 
with  the  wild  boar;  the  period  of  gestation  is  the 
same  in  the  wild  and  the  tame  sow ;  their  anatomical 
structure  is  identical;  their  general  form  bears  the 
same  characters ;  and  their  habits,  so  far  as  they  are 
not  changed  by  domestication,  remain  the  same. 
Where  individuals  of  the  pure  wild  race  have  been 
caught  young  and  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  as 
a  domestic  pig,  their  fierceness  has  disappeared,  they 
have  become  more  social  and  less  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  lost  their  activity,  and  lived  more  to  eat.  In 
the  course  of  one  or  two  generations,  even  the  form 
undergoes  certain  modifications;  the  body  becomes 
larger  and  heavier;  the  legs  shorter,  and  less  adapted 
for  exercise;  the  formidable  tusks  of  the  boar,  being 
no  longer  needed  as  weapons  of  defense,  disappear; 
the  shape  of  the  head  and  neck  alters ;  and  in  char- 
acter as  well  as  in  form,  the  animal  adapts  itself  to 


SWINE. 


its  situation.  Nor  does  it  appear  that  a!  return  to  their 
native  wilds  restores  to  them  their  original  appearance ; 
for,  in  whatever  country  pigs  have  escaped  from  the 
control  of  man,  and  bred  in  the  wilderness  and  woods, 
not  a  single  instance  is  on  record  in  which  they  have 
resumed  the  habits  and  form  of  the  wild  boar.  They, 
indeed,  become  fierce,  wild,  gaunt,  and  grisly,  and 
live  \x\pn  roots  and  fruits ;  but  they  are,  notwithstand- 
ing, merely  degenerated  swine,  and  they  still  associate 
together  in  herds,  and  do  not  walk  solitary  and  alone, 
-like  their  grim  ancestors. 

The  first  mention  that  has  been  found  of  the  swine 
family  in  ancient  writings  is  in  the  Bible  (Leviticus, 
nth  chapter,  7th  verse).  In  all  probabilities,  how- 
ever, the  hog  had  a  cotemporaneous  existence  with 
other  animals  at  a  far  earlier  period,  for,  if  pork  had 
not  been  the  prevailing  food  of  that  people,  then 
such  stringent  commandments  and  prohibitions 
would  never  have  been  necessary.  The  hog  was  highly 
esteemed  by  some  of  the  ancients,  and  was  the  ani- 
mal sacrificed  by  the  Greeks  to  Ceres,  the  goddess  of 
the  harve::t.  In  America  swine  were  unknown  until 
their  introduction  afterits  discovery  by  the  Europeans. 
They  were  probably  introduced  into  Hayti  from 
Spain  by  Columbus  in  1493,  ^""^  i"'^  Florida  by  De 
Soto  in  1538,  and  into  Virginia  in  1609.  In  the  latter 
settlement  it  is  said  they  multiplied  so  rapidly  that 
within  18  years  the  people  were  obliged  to  palisade 
Jamestown  to  keep  them  out. 

Since  their  introduction  into  this  country  they  have 
been  an  object  of  Special  attention  and  a  source  of 
great  revenue  and  profit  to  the  Nation.  Many  differ- 
ent breeds  have  been  introduced  from  time  to  time, 
and  from  almost  all  countries,  and  some  of  the  best 
breeds  ever  produced  have  originated  in  our  own 
country.  Different  breeds  are  prized  in  different  sec- 
tions, according  to  the  fancy  of  their  producers,  the 
facility  of  raising  them  and  the  particular  object  of 
the  farmers.  We  give  the  history  of  each  of  the 
breeds  of  any  note,  either  of  the  present  or  of  the 
past,  in  this  country,  together  with  a  description  of 
their  chief  characteristics. 

BREEDS   OF    SWINE. 

Bedford  or  Woburn.  This  breed  was  originated 
by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  on  his  estate  at  Woburn,  and 
was  produced  by  a  cross  of  a  Chinese  boar  and  a 
large  English  hog.  A  pair  was  sent  by  the  duke  to 
General  Washington  as  a  present,  but  they  never 
reached  him.  They  were  dishonestly  sold  by  the 
messenger  in  Maryland,  in  which  State,  as  well  as  in 
Pennsylvania,  they  were  productive  of  much  good  by 
being  disseminated  through  the  country.  When  pure, 
they  are  white,  with  dark  ash-colored  spots.  They 
are  of  large  size,  with  deep  round  bodies,  short  legs 
and  thin  hair,  easily  kept  and  mature  early. 

Berkshire.  Tradition,  and  the  earliest  published 
accounts  of  what  has  long  been  particularly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  "Berkshire"  swine,  repre- 
sent them,  down  to  about  a  century  since,  as  among 
the  largest  breeds  of  England,  weighing  when  full 


grown  700  to  1,000  jx)unds,  or  more.  In  1842  they 
were  represented  in  an  English  encyclopedia  as 
weighing  400  to  800  pounds.  These  were  doubtless 
of  the  improved  breed.  Originally  they  were  repre- 
sented as  being  generally  of  a  buff,  sai.dy,  or  reddish- 
brown  color,  s{X3tted  with  black,  occasionally  tawny 
or  white  spotted  in  the  same  manner.  They  were 
coarse  in  the  bone;  head  rather  large,  with  heavy 
flop  ears;  broad  on  the  back;  deep  in  the  chest;  flat- 
sided  and  long  in  the  body ;  thick  and  heavy  in  both 
shoulders  and  hams;  well  let  down  in  the  twist; 
bristles  and  long  curly  hair,  with  rather  short,  strong 
legs.  Their  meat  was  better*  marbled  than  that  of 
any  other  breed  of  swine  in  Great  Britain — that  is, 
had  a  greater  proportion  of  lean  freely  intermixed 
with  fine  streaks  of  fat,  which  made  it  much  more 
tender  and  juicy  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  They 
were  consequently,  from  time  immemorial,  preferred 
to  all  other  swine  there,  for  choice  hams,  shoulders 
and  bacon.  They  were  slow  feeders,  and  did  not 
ordinarily  mature  till  two  and  a  half  to  three  years  old. 

In  a  subsequent  edition  of  that  encyclopedia  they 
were  represented  as  of  rounder  body  and  somewhat 
finer  in  all  their  jx^ints,  with  ears  like  most  of  those  of 
modern  breeding,  medium  in  size,  and  erect  instead 
of  flopping.  This  ix)rtrait  is  of  a  sandy  or  reddish 
brown  color,  spotted  with  black;  the  feet  and  legs  for 
nearly  their  whole  length  white,  slightly  streaked  on 
the  sides  and  behind  with  reddish  brown. 

It  is  also  traditional  that  the  improved  breed  was 
brought  about  by  a  cross  with  the  black  or  deep 
plum-colored  Siamese  boar;  or  that  even  the  pure 
white  Chinese  boar  assisted  for  the  purpose.  The 
Siamese  sow  is  a  dark  slate,  varying  to  that  of  a  rich 
plum  color;  the  feet  are  all  white;  the  face  is  dished; 
head  fine,  with  short,  erect  ears ;  shoulders  and  hams 
extra  large;  back  broad,  slightly  swaying;  body 
round  and  long.  The  cross  was  made  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  and  the  result  principally 
established  in  Berkshire,  England  :  whence  the  name. 

In  reference  to  their  introduction  into  the  United 
States,  Mr.  A.  B.  Allen,  who  is  considered  high 
authority  on  the  early  history  of  the  breed,  slates  that 
the  earliest  imjxDrtation  of  Berkshires  into  the  United 
States  was  that  by  John  Brentnall,  of  New  Jersey,  in 
the  year  1823. 

The  next  importation  was  made  in  1832,  by  a  Mr. 
Hawes,  an  Englishman,  who  settled  at  Albany,  N.  Y., 
and  afterward  made  further  imixirtations.  It  is 
thought  some  were  brought  to  Canada  in  1838,  and, 
in  1839,  Bagg  &  Wait,  English  farmers,  who  had 
settled  in  Orange  county,  N.  Y.,  began  importing 
largely,  and  followed  it  for  several  years,  selling  their 
stock  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri  and  the  South. 

In  1841,  Mr.  Allen  himself  selected  in  England  40 
head  and  brought  them  to  New  York.  At  this  period, 
and  for  some  years  previous,  a  sort  of  Berkshire  craze 
swept  over  the  country;  every  means  ix)ssible  was 
used  to"lxx)m"the  breed,  and  the  stock  was  sold 
far  and  wide  by  speculators  at  enormous  prices.  They 
were  at  that  time  hogs  of  superior  excellence,  but 


SWINE. 


under  the  neglectful  system  of  stock-raising  then  pre- 
vailing in  the  new  Southwest  they  could  not  do 
otherwise  than  deteriorate.  As  a  consequence  of  this 
their  [xspularity  waned,  prejudice  and  disgust  ensued 
in  lieu  of  extravagant  admiration,  and  to  that  genera- 
tion of  men  in  this  country  the  Berkshires  became 
objects  of  almost  detestation. 

The  farmers  of  England  never  lost  faith  in  their 
value,  and  improvement  was  constantly  going  on. 
About  1865,  enterprising  Americans  were  again  at- 
tracted by  the  good  (jualities  of  the  hogs  their  fathers 
had  aforetime  admired  and  then  hated,  and  began 
making  imjxirtations  of  the  best  that  money  would 
buy.  Each  year  since  has  witnessed  improvement 
in  form  and  quality,  and  the  stock  has  been  diffused 
through  every  State,  Territory  and  the  Canadian  prov- 
inces, where  it  is  esteemed  second  to  none  for  either 
pork  production,' pure,  or  for  crossing  on  and  improv- 
ing the  general  utility  of  the  highly-bred  as  well  as 
the  most  primitive  sorts  of  swine,  wherever  found. 


bones  fine  and  of  an  ivory-like  grain  and  hardness ; 
offal  very  light  in  comparison  with  weight  of  carcass; 
hair  fine,  soft  and  silky,  no  bristles,  even  on  the 
boar;  quick  and  spirited  in  movement;  stylish  in  car- 
riage, and,  in  the  boar  more  especially,  bold  and 
imposing  in  presence. 

The  meat  of  the  improved  Berkshire,  like  that  of 
the  unimproved,  abounds  in  a  much  greater  propor- 
tion of  sweet,  tender,  juicy  lean,  well  marbled  with 
very  fine  streaks  of  fat,  than  other  breeds  of  swine; 
but  the  former  was  far  more  delicate,  as  now,  than 
the  latter  ever  was.  This  renders  the  whole  carcass 
the  most  suitable  of  all  for  smoking.  The  hams  and 
shoulders  are  almost  entirely  lean,  a  thin  rim  of  fat 
covering  only  the  outside. 

The  fine  specimen  of  the  Berkshire  breed  present- 
ed on  this  page  is  a  picture  of  Royal  Prosperity,  a 
fine  boar  owned  by  Alex.  M.  Fulford,  of  Bel-air,  Md. 

BvFiELD.  At  one  time  this  breed  was  held  in  great 
repute  in  the  Eastern  States.     They  did  much  good  in 


The  present  standard  of  good  jKjints  are  :  Snout 
and  head  fine  and  rather  short,  but  larger  in  propor- 
tion to  the  body  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  and 
with  a  bolder  and  more  determined  expression  ;  face 
dished  and  broad  between  the  eyes ;  jowls  full  or 
thinner,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  breeder;  eyes 
bright  and  expressive;  ears  small,  thin  and  upright, 
or  inclining  their  points  a  little  forward;  neck  short, 
rather  full  in  the  throat,  and  harmoniously  swelling 
to  the  shoulders;  chest  broad  and  deep;  back  broad 
and  moderately  arched;  rump  nearly  level  with  it; 
shoulders,  above  all  in  the  boar,  extra  thick,  yet  slop- 
ing smoothly  to  the  body;  hams  broad,  round,  deep, 
and  so  thick  through  from  side  to  side,  particularly  in 
the  sow  and  barrow,  that,  standing  directly  behind, 
except  when  pretty  fat,  the  sides  of  the  body  are 
scarcely  seen  between  them  and  the  shoulders  ;  legs 
fine,  strong,  of  moderate  length,  and  set  rather  wide 
apart ;  feet  small,  with  clear,  tough  hoofs ;  tail  slender 
and  well  set,  with  a  handsome  curl  near  the  rump; 


,y^;4rMt" 


crossing  with  other  breeds.  They  are  white,  com- 
pact and  well  made,  in  size  and  length  moderate  and 
with  backs  broad,  have  fine,  curly  hair,  and  reach  the 
weight  of  from  300  to  350  net.  This  breed  origina- 
ted in  Massachusetts  about  1800.  The  first  that  is 
known  of  it  is  that  a  fine,  white  boar  was  purchased 
at  a  market  stall  by  a  man  living  in  Byfield.  Proving 
an  excellent  breeder  its  progeny  was  widely  scattered 
over  the  New  England  and  Middle  States. 

Chkshires.  This  is  comparatively  a  modern  breed, 
and  but  little  known  throughout  the  United  States. 
In  writing  thehistory  and  description  of  this  breed 
Mr.  F.  D.  Coburn  says:  "I  have  been  unable  to  se- 
cure any  reliable  evidence  of  the  bringing  to  this  coun- 
try of  any  of  the  swineof  that  breed  or  name;  but  there 
is  a  legend  that  between  1850  and  1855,  one  or  more 
of  the  old-time  Cheshires  were  imported  to  the  vicin- 
ity of  Albany,  N.  Y  ,  and  a  sow,  at  least,  taken  to  Jef- 
ferson county  in  that  State,  where  crosses  were  made 
to  some  extent,  not  only  with   the  stock  common  to 


I202 


SWINK. 


the  region,  but  with  valuable  hags  obtained  from 
Canada,  and  also  largely  with  the  Yorkshires.  At  all 
events,  between  i86o  and  1870,  in  Jefferson  and  some 
other  counties,  the  favorite  swine  were  of  a  large, 
white  sort,  known  as  the  Jefferson  County,  or 
Cheshire,  breed,  or  sometimes,  '  Improved  Cheshire,' 
and  less  frequently  'Cheshire  and  Yorkshire;'  and 
again  in  some  instances  as  '  Improved  Yorkshires.' 
Harris,  writing  in  1870,  says:  '  For  a  dozen  years  or 
more  it-.ey  have  been  exhibited  at  the  fairs  of  the 
New  York  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  for  the  last 
six  or  seven  years  have  earned  off  nearly  all  the  prizes 
offered  for  pigs  of  the  large  breed.' 

"  At  that  time  the  leading  breeders  admitted  very 
freely  that  they  were  of  mixed  origin,  but  claimed 
that  they  had  been  kept  pure  sufficiently  long  to 
thoroughly  establish  them  as  a  breed." 

The  Cheshires  are  pure  white,  with  very  thin  skin 
of  pink  color,  with  little  hair ;  are  not  uniform  in  this 
respect,  as  pigs  in  the  same  litter  differ  widely  in  the 
amount  of  hair ;  the  snout  is  often  long,  but  very  slen- 
der and  fine;  the  jowls  are  plump  and  the  ears  erect, 
fine  and  thin  ;  the  shoulders  are  wide  and  the  hams 
full;  their  flesh  is  fine-grained  and  they  are  com- 
mended on  account  of  the  extra  amount  of  mess 
pork  in  proportion  to  the  offal. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Sanders,  who  successfully  bred  Cheshires 
priorto  1875,  speaks  of  them  as  follows  :  "  In  my  opin- 
ion the  Cheshire  is  simply  a  derivative  of  the  York- 
shire, as  are  also  the  Suffolk,  Lancashire  Short-face 
Middle  York,  York-Cumberland  and  all  the  other 
English  breeds  of  white  hogs.  I  bred  the  so-called 
Cheshires  for  six  or  seven  years,  and  took  a  deep  in- 
terest in  noticing  the  variations  and  changes  that 
were  produced  in  that  time  by  selection,  in  breeding 
and  crossing.  Within  the  space  of  seven  years,  with- 
out intoducing  any  blood  but  what  was  supix)sed  to 
be  pure,  I  produced  all  the  different  types  of  the 
Yorkshire  from  the  large  York  down  to  the  Lancashire 
Short-Face.  The  white  color  was  firmly  fixed,  and  I 
never  knew  one  of  my  Cheshire  boars  to  get  a  pig 
that  had  a  black  hair  on  it,  although  they  were  bred  to 
sows  of  all  breeds,  includmg  the  purest  Essex.  An- 
other peculiarity  that  I  watched  with  interest  was 
the  frequent  appearance  of  blue  spots  in  the  skin  of 
the  purest  and  best-bred  specimens.  This  peculiarity 
would  sometimes  disappear  for  one  or  two  generations, 
and  would  again  crop  out  stronger  than  ever. 

"The  type  which  I  finally  succeeded  in  fixing  up- 
on the  Cheshires  as  bred  by  me  was  almost  identical 
in  size,  form  and  quality  with  the  most  approved  mod- 
ern Berkshire.  Indeed,  so  marked  was  this  resem- 
blance in  every  thing  but  color  that  they  were  often 
facetiously  called  '  White  Berkshires."  As  bred  by 
me  I  regarded  them  as  among  the  very  best  of  white 
hogs.  They  were  well  haired,  had  a  very  delicate 
pink  skin,  and  their  meat  was  most  excellent,  tender 
and  juicy." 

For  lireeders  who  desire  white  hogs,  and  to  whom 
the  Suffolksappear  too  small  and  the  Chesters  too  large, 
we  know  of  nothing  better  than  the  best  of  some  of  these 


Cheshires,  as  they  present,  in  some  respects,  a  sort  of 
compromise  or  happy  medium  between  the  two.  The 
strong  admixture  of  Yorkshire  in  their  make-up  would 
be  more  than  likely  to  assert  itself  in  their  progeny, 
either  when  bred  together  or  on  any  other  swine  not 
thoroughly  established  in  character. 

Chester  Whites.  This  breed  originated  in  Ches- 
ter county,  Pennsylvania,  and  was  produced  by  a 
cross  of  the  Bedford  u[X)n  the  common  stock  of  the 
country.  The  first  pair  of  the  former  were  just  im- 
ported in  1 81 8  from  Bedfordshire,  England,  by  Cap- 
tain James  Jeffries. 

The  better  class  of  farmers  in  the  vicinity  of  Mr. 
Jeffries,  desiring  something  better  in  the  way  of  swine 
than  they  were  then  raising,  secured  crosses  of  the  Jef- 
fries stock  on  their  own.  The  former  seems  to  have 
increased  and  multiplied  to  some  extent,  and  the  prog- 
eny continued  to  be  bred  on  and  with  the  original 
stock  of  the  county  until,  in  the  course  of  years,  its 
hogs  had  much  more  than  a  local  reputation  for  both 
size  and  quality,  and  wherever  mentioned  were  spoken 
of  as  the  Chester  county  stock.  They  are  among  the 
most  docile  of  swine,  and  belong  to  the  largest  breeds 
known,  individuals  having  attained  the  enormous 
weight  of  1,300  lbs. 

The  swine  Breeders'  Convention  agreed  upon  the 
following  as  a  description  of  characteristics  of  the 
Chester  Whites : 

"  Head  short,  and  broad  between  the  eyes ;  ears 
thin,  projecting  forward  and  lap  at  the  point;  neck 
short  and  thick;  jowl  large;  body  lengthy  and  deep, 
broaden  the  back;  hams  full  and  deep;  legs  short 
and  well  set  under  for  bearing  the  weight;  coating 
thinnish,  white,  straight,  and  if  a  little  wavy  not  objec- 
tionable; small  tail  and  no  bristles." 

Since  the  foregoing  was  adopted,  the  tendency  has 
steadily  been  towards  reducing,  somewhat,  the  coarse- 
ness of  their  bone,  and  shortening  their  heads  and  ears; 
and  the  improvement  has  been  so  marked  that  fair 
specimens  of  the  breed  are  nearly  models  in  form. 
The  large,  lopped  ears,  coarse  heads,  long,  coarse  tails 
and  hair,  and  coarse,  spongy  bones  are  not,  as  in  time 
past,  characteristics  of  ttie  breed;  and  the  enormous 
weights  to  which  they  were  formerly  fed,  are  now  not 
considered  most  desirable  or  profitable.  If  smaller 
hogs  are  desired,  the  Chester  sows  are  excellent  to  use 
boars  of  some  of  the  smaller  or  more  compact  breeds 
on  ;  and  it  is  claimed  by  those  who  raise  Suffolks,  that 
the  Suffolk  boar  bred  to  Chester  sows  produces  "the 
best  Chester  Whites  possible." 

Chinese.  This  hog  has  been  a  main  source  of  the 
variations  and  improvements  in  the  modern  breeds  of 
British  swine,  and  from  there  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  and  to  these  are  due  the  American 
breeds  that  now  have  a  reputation  unexcelled  by  any 
other.  The  type  of  the  Chinese  hog  occurs  in  Siam, 
and  in  the  regions  immediately  adjacent  to  that  coun- 
try; and  though  generally  called  Chinese  by  English 
and  Americans,  is  more  properly  called  Siamese  by 
the  French.     Its  length  of  body  is  three  and  one-half 


CO 

O 
O 

w 

5 

W 


SWINE. 


I20S 


feet ;  its  length  of  tail  is  nine  and  a  half  inches ;  and 
its  height  at  shoulder  is  20  inches.  Its  eyes  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  slight  tinge  of  flame  color;  its  ears  are 
short,  straight  and  flexible;  its  skin,  except  on  the 
belly,  is  black;  and  its  hair  is  soft  and  somewhat 
silky  on  the  body,  stiff  and  thick  on  the  head  and 
under  jaw,  thin  on  the  other  parts,  and  generally  hard 
and  black. 

The  typical  or  strictly  pure  Chinese  or  Siamese  hog 
is  too  delicate  in  structure  and  lender  in  constitution 
to  be  adapted  to  countries  very  different  in  climate 
fromSiam;  but  sub-varieties  of  it,  and  crosses  from  it, 
are  distributed  throughout  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
some  of  the  islands  of  Polynesia,  many  of  the  eastern 
and  central  partsof  Asia,  and  even  far  distant  parts  of 
Africa;  and  several  or  even  many  of  these  have  been 
introduced  to  Australia,  to  America  and  to  Europe, 
and  liave  very  powerfully  corrected  the  bad  properties 
and  improved  the  good  ones  of  the  aboriginal  hogs  of 
England  and  of  other  domesticated  descendants  of 
the  wild  boar  of  Europe,  from  which  all  our  breeds 
have  come.  The  best  cross  is  between  the  Berkshire 
ana  Chinese. 

The  varieties  of  this  widely  extended  race  with 
which  we  are  chiefly  conversant  in  this  country,  are 
derived  from  China,  being  brought  to  England  as  sea 
stock,  by  vessels  employed  in  the  trade  which  En- 
gland has  so  long  carried  on  with  the  Chinese  Empire. 
They  have  usually  the  dark-colored  characteristics  of 
the  race,  but  they  are  often  also  white,  and  of  a  size 
exceeding  the  medium  ;  for  in  China  there  are  varie- 
ties of  breeds,  just  as  in  other  countries.  Some  of 
them  kept  in  the  temples  attain,  in  consequence  of  age 
and  long  fattening,  to  enormous  magnitude;  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  these  sacred  pigs  are  any  other- 
wise distinguished  from  the  common  breeds. 

The  Chinese  hog  with  which  we  are  chiefly  familiar, 
is  derived  from  the  vicinity  of  Canton.  Those  of  the 
interior  are  little  known  to  us.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  Chinese  feed  more  largely  on  pork  than  on  any 
other  animal  food.  The  hog  is  the  principal  animal, 
except  the  dog,  which  is  cultivated  by  the  Chinese  for 
human  subsistence. 

The  Chinese  pay  great  attention  and  care  to  the 
rearing  and  feeding  of  swine.  Extreme  attention  is 
paid  to  cleanliness  and  regular  feeding. 

Essex.  This  breed  of  swine  is  by  no  means  widely 
disseminated  over  the  United  States,  or  popular  with 
the  masses ;  yet  it  is  a  long  established  breed  and  has 
many  excellent  qualities.  Loudon,  in  describing  the 
old  Essex,  speaks  of  them  as  up-eared,  with  long, 
sharp  heads;  roached  back;  carcasses  flat,  long,  and 
generally  high  upon  the  leg;  bone  not  large;  color 
white  or  black  and  white;  bare  of  hair:  quick  feeders, 
but  great  consumers,  and  of  an  unquiet  dis|)osition. 
Youatt's  work  describes  them  as  a  parti-colored  ani- 
mal,— black,  with  white  shoulders,  nose,  and  legs — in 
fact,  a  sort  of  sheeted  pig;  large,  upright  and  coarse 
in  bone. 

Tlie  first  improvement  is  credited  to  the  late  Lord 
Western,  who,  while  traveling  in  Italy,  took  a  great 


fancy  to  some  Neaix)litan  hogs,  of  which  he  secured 
a  pair  that  were  sent  home  to  his  estates.  These 
were  described  by  him  as  a  breed  of  "very  peculiar 
and  valuable  qualities,  the  flavor  of  the  meat  being 
excellent,  and  the  disposition  to  fatten  on  the  smallest 
(juantity  of  food  unrivaled."  This  pair  were  bred  to- 
gether and  their  oftspring  to  such  an  extent  that  there 
was  danger  of  their  becoming  extinct,  and  then 
crossed  on  the  Essex  with  the  effect  of  obliterat- 
ing the  white  and  producing  a  progeny  with  the 
appearance  and  many  characteristics  of  the  pure 
Neaixslitans. 

Having  attained  what  he  considered  perfection, 
Lord  Western  bred  exclusively  from  his  own  stock, 
which  resulted  in  their  gradually  losing  size,  constitu- 
tion and  fecundity  to  such  an  extent  that  when  he 
died,  in  1844,  his  herd  had  become  "more  ornamental 
than  useful,"  though  the  swine  of  the  surrounding 
country  had  been  much  benefited  from  the  Western 
stock.  "  In  the  meanrime,  the  well-known  Fisher 
Hobbs,  then  a  tenant  on  the  Western  estate,  had 
taken  up,  among  other  farm  live-stock,  the  Essex  pig, 
and  made  use  of  the  privilege  he  enjoyed  of  using 
Ix)rd  Western's  male  animals  to  establish  a  breed  on 
the  strong,  hardy,  black  Essex  sows,  even  if  somewhat 
coarse,  crossed  with  the  Neaix)litan-Essex boars.  On 
the  carefully  selected  produce  of  these,  divided  and 
kept  as  pure,  separate  families,  he  estabhshed  a 
breed  that  he  first  exhibited,  and  which  has  since 
become  famous  aS  the  Improved  Essex." 

In  the  edition  of  Youatt's  book  edited  by  Sidney 
in  i860  (London),  he  says  they  probably  date  their 
national  reputation  from  the  second  show  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  held  at  Cambridge  in  1840,  when 
a  boar  and  sow,  both  bred  by  Mr.  Hobbs,  each  ob- 
tained first  prizes  in  their  respective  classes;  and  that 
"their  defect  is  a  certain  delicacy,  probably  arising 
from  their  Southern  descent,  and  an  excessive  aptitude 
to  fatten,  which,  unless  carefully  counteracted  by  ex- 
ercise and  diet,  often  diminishes  the  fertility  of  the 
sows  and  causes  difficulty  in  rearing  the  young." 

They  are  classed  with  the  small  breeds,  but  are 
about  the  largest  of  that  class,  and  frequently  grow  to 
weights  that  would  entitle  them  to  be  considered 
among  the  larger  breeds,  often  weighing  400  to  600 
lbs.  at  maturity,  though  usually  most  profitable  when 
slaughtered  young  for  fresh  meat,  breekfast-bacon  or 
family  use,  for  which  they  are  highly  esteemed,  their 
meat  being  well-flavored  and  fine-gained,  and  their 
lard  firm  and  white  ;  when  property  dressed  they  are 
but  little  or  no  darker  than  other  hogs,  even  those 
with  white  hair. 

The  standard  agreed  upon  in  the  Swine  Breeders' 
Conveniion  was  as  follows:  Color  black,  face  short 
and  dishing;  ears  small,  soft,  and  stand  erect  while 
young,  but  coming  down  somewhat  as  they  get  age; 
carcass  long,  broad,  straight  and  deep,  ham  heavy 
and  well  let  down;  bone  fine;  carcass,  when  fat,  com- 
posed mostly  of  lard;  hair,  ordinarily  rather  thin; 
fattening  qualities  very  superior.  As  breeders  they  are 
prolific,  and  fair  nurses. 


I2o6 


siviNe. 


They  are  good  grazers  and  have  the  advantage,  over 
some  of  the  more  tender-skinned  white  hogs,  of  being 
able  to  withstand  (at  any  age,  however  young)  the 
hottest  sun  of  July  or  August  without  having  their 
backs  or  skin  in  the  least  affected;  and  they  are  never 
known  to  scald  or  mange.  The  young  pigs  of  the 
Essex  are  usually  more  delicate  than  those  of  the 
coarser  breeds,  and  will  often  appear  quite  inferior  to 
the  latter,  at  the  same  age,  up  to  eight  or  ten  weeks, 
when  they  will  begin  to  shoot  ahead.  This  is  not 
always  the  case,  but  often  is.  This  maybe  attributed 
to  the  mothers  not  being  such  good  milkers  as  some 
other  kinds.  It  seems  to  be  their  nature  to  run  to 
fat  rather  than  milk.  Notwithstanding  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  breed  it  has  not  seemed  to  fill  the  pop- 
ular ideal,  and  there  are  many  life-long  swine-breeders 
who  never  saw  an  Essex,  and  would  not  know  what 


this  and  various  other  names,  as  Red  Berkshires,  Sara- 
toga Reds  and  Jersey  Reds.  The  breed  was  first 
brouglit  to  public  notice  in  England.  By  some  it  is 
claimed  they  were  taken  there  from  Spain.  The 
name  by  which  they  were  distinguished  from  other 
breeds  was  that  of  Red  Berkshire.  Prof  David  Low, 
in  his  work,  "The  Breeds  of  the  Domestic  Animals  of 
the  British  Isles,"  published  in  1842,  describes  their 
color  as  reddish  brown  with  brown  or  black  spots. 
About  the  year  a  850,  Sir  Robert  Peel  brought  them 
before  the  public,  and  by  some  they  were  called  the 
Sir  Robert  Peel  hog. 

This  breed  has  been  bred  in  New  Jersey  for  many 
years :  hence  the  name.  For  quite  a  long  time  they 
have  run  wild  in  the  timber  and  mountainous  coun- 
try of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky. 

In  the  opinion  of  some  the  red  hogs  in  America  are 


Fk,.  -i— Chester  Whites. 


to  call  it  if  they  did.  Probably  one  cause  of  their 
lack  of  jxjpularity  or  failure  to  be  widely  disseminated, 
is  that  they  are  a  smaller,  and  perhaps  more  delicate 
swine  than  the  farmers  in  general  care  to  raise,  ac- 
counted for  somewhat  by  the  fact  that  it  has  not  been 
many  years  since  the  largest  animals  jxjssible  were 
the  ones  most  admired,  most  in  demand,  and  bringing 
the  highest  prices. 

Persons  breeding  common  stock  or  any  swine  that 
are  somewhat  too  slow  in  maturing,  would,  as  a  general 
thing,  be  pleased  with  the  results  of  using  an  Essex 
boar.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  very  intelligent  men 
that,  under  a  certain  age,  the  Essex  will  give  as  great, 
or  a  greater  return  of  ix)rk  for  food  consumed  than 
any  other  hogs  we  have. 

Jersey  Red.  It  is  (juite  uncertain  as  to  when  this 
breed  was  first  imixirted  into  the  United  States.  They 
were,  however,  bred  in  New  York  as  early  as  1823, 
and  there  called  Duroc.     These  are  also  known  by 


inostly  from  a  stock  known  in  England  years  ago  as 
Tamworths,  described  as  hardy  and  prolific,  but  slow 
in  maturing.  One  recent  writer  in  the  West  says:  "It 
is  admitted  by  those  best  informed  that  Jersey  Red^ 
Duroc,  Saratoga  Red,  etc.,  are  but  local  names  for  the 
ancient  Berkshires  of  England,  where  they  were  called 
Tamworths." 

The  National  Swine  Breeders'  Convention,  in  1872, 
reported  that  their  definite  origin  was  unknown,  but 
agreed  upon  the  following  as  the  characteristics  of 
good  Jersey  Reds :  They  should  be  red  in  color,  with 
a  snout  of  moderate  length,  large  lop  ears,  and  small 
head  in  proportion  to  size  and  length  of  body  ;  they 
should  be  long  in  the  body,  standing  high  and  rangy 
on  thin  legs;  bone  coarse;  heavy  tail  and  brush;  hair 
coarse,  including  the  bristles  on  the  back. 

Col.  F.  D.  Curtis,  a  breeder  of  red  hogs,  and  a  gen- 
tleman who  has  devoted  much  time  to  investigating 
their  history,  characteristics,  etc.,  speaks  of  these  red 


SWINE. 


1207 


hogs  as  follows :  "  There  are  three  families  of  red 
hogs  ill  America,  viz.:  Jersey  Ked,  Duroc,  and  Red 
Berkshires.  Since  the  National  Swine  Breeders' Con- 
vention of  1872,  I  have  not  been  able  to  get  any  addi- 
tional information  regarding  the  origin  of  the  Jersey 
Reds.  Some  breeders,  latterly,  make  claims  for  purity 
of  blood,  and  for  special  features  for  the  hogs  of  their 
breeding,  which  do  not  correspond  with  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  red  hogs  of  New  Jersey.  Pre- 
vious to  the  convention  they  were  not  advertised  as  a 
distinct  breed.  They  had  been  crossed  with  Berk- 
shires, Chester  Whites,  and  other  breeds,  which  made 
them  considerably  mixed  in  color,  ranging  from  red 
to  red-and-white  and  sandy,  with  the  variety  in  char- 
acteristics which  such  crosses  would  make.  Here 
and  there  in  the  Stale,  chiefly  in  Burlington  County, 
farmers  in  a  neighborhood  and  individuals  had  kept 
the  hogs  of  their  fathers  as  pure  as  they  could,  and  so 
the  blood  had  descended  from  one  generation  to  an- 
other, with  the  characteristic  of  red  color  more  marked 
than  any  other  except  size. 

"Previous  to  the  convention  I  endeavored  to  find 
out  from  citizens  of  New  Jersey  the  origin  of  their  red 
hogs,  but  was  unable  to  do  so.  Mr.  D.  M.  Brown, 
Windsor,  N.  J.,  said  he  had  known  of  them  as  long  as 
he  could  remember — nearly  50  years — but  he  could 
not  find  any  one  who  could  tell  where  they  came  from. 
David  Pettitt,  Salem,  N.  J.,  wrote  me  that  he  recol- 
lected the  red  hogs  for  30  years,  but  had  never 
heard  of  their  origin. 

"  More  than  20  years  ago  I  saw  in  Virginia  and 
Maryland  hogs  similar  to  those  of  New  Jersey,  and 
they  had  been  for  many  years  a  common  breed  in 
that  section  of  the  country.  I  stated  at  this  time 
that  the  reds  are  probably  descended  from  the  old 
importations  of  Berkshires,  which  has  never  been  dis- 
puted ;  and  also  that  they  are  much  coarser  than  the 
improved  swine  of  this  breed. 

"  Duroc.  This  is  a  fancy  name  given  to  red  hogs 
bred  in  Saratoga  county,  N.  Y.,  for  59  years.  A  Mr. 
Kelsey,  of  Florida,  Montgomery  county,  N.  Y.,  was 
the  owner  of  the  famous  horse  Duroc.  In  the  year 
1823,  Isaac  Frink,  Esq.,  a  leading  farmer  in  the  town 
of  Milton,  Saratoga  county,  N.  Y  ,  went  to  Mr.  Kel- 
sey's  to  see  this  horse,  and  there  saw  a  red  sow  with 
a  litter  of  pigs,  which  Mr.  Kelsey  said  he  had  im- 
ported from  England.  Mr.  Frink  purchased  a  boar 
pig  and  took  it  to  his  home  and  called  it  Duroc,  in 
honor  of  the  horse  he  had  been  to  see.  This  hog 
was  remarkable  for  his  great  length  of  body,  and  was 
extensively  crossed  upon  the  native  hogs  of  Saratoga 
county,  where  the  descendants  are  still  bred.  The 
crosses  of  these  Duroc  hogs  have  been  almost  innu- 
merable, but,  nevertheless,  like  the  kindred  family,  the 
Jersey  Reds,  they  have  wonderfully  maintained  the 
old  Berkshire  characteristics.  About  52  years  ago 
William  Ensign,  who  lived  25  miles  distant  from  Mr. 
Frink,  obtained  a  pair  of  red  hogs  from  Connecticut, 
where,  I  understand,  they  are  still  bred  and  known  as 
Red  Berkshires,  which  pair  of  pigs  were  also  crossed 
upon  the  hogs  of  the  vicinity.    The  offspring  of  these 


red  hogs  extended  to  the  neighboring  counties,  and 
made  for  themselves  a  high  reputation.  There  had 
been  no  fixed  type  for  a  Duroc  other  than  red,  as  difi'er- 
ent  breeders  followed  their  own  taste  and  convenience 
in  crossing.  As  a  result,  some  had  lopped  ears,  an 
original  mark,  and  kept  up  by  crossing  with  Chester 
Whites,  while  perhaps  the  majority  which  have  been 
crossed  with  the  more  modern  Berkshires,  have  smaller 
ears,  more  or  less  erect,  with  rounder  and  more  com- 
pact bodies,  similar  to  the  Black  Berkshires.  These 
hogs  retain  tne  capacity  for  rapid  growth  and  superior 
quality  of  flesh  and  other  excellencies  which  the  orig- 
inal hogs  possessed. 

^'' Red  Berkshire.  A  few  years  ago  several  gentle- 
men engaged  in  breeding  these  hogs  agreed  to  accept 
the  name  of  Red  Berkshire  as  the  exclusive  name  for 
their  hogs,  convinced  this  was  the  blood  from  which 
their  stock  had  descended  and  was  the  true  name. 
They  also  fixed  a  standard  of  characteristics  which 
coincided  with  the  original  form  and  peculiar  features 
of  the  breed,  wiiich  form  and  features  were  possessed 
by  the  best  types  of  their  hogs.  This  standard  is 
now  admitted  to  be  a  proof  of  purity  of  blood,  and 
will  be  the  means  of  establishing  a  uniformity  in  the 
breed  which  will  be  a  guide  not  only  to  the  public, 
but  to  breeders,  and  serve  to  weed  out  cross-bred  hogs 
which  may  have  but  little  similarity  other  than  color. 
I  am  not  aware  that  the  breeders  of  Jersey  Reds 
have  established  any  standard  of  characteristics,  but 
the  sooner  they  do  the  sooner  they  will  get  rid  of  the 
pretensions  of  individuals  that  they  possess  the  only 
pure-bred  stock.  The  following  is  the  standard  al- 
luded to  above  for  Red  Berkshires  : 

"  The  body  should  be  long  and  deep — not  round, 
but  broad  on  the  back  and  holding  the  width  well  out 
to  the  hips  and  hams.  The  head  should  be  small 
compared  with  the  body,  with  the  cheelc  broad  and 
full ;  neck  short  and  thick  ;  face  slightly  curved,  with 
the  nose  rather  longer  than  in  English  breeds;  ears 
lopped  and  rather  large;  medium  in  bone;  legs  me- 
dium in  length,  well  set  under  the  body  and  wide 
apart ;  cut  up  high  in  the  flank;  hams  broad,  full  and 
well  down  to  the  hock;  hair  medium  in  fineness  and 
thickness,  usually  straight,  sometimes  wavy  and  in- 
clining to  bristles  on  the  top  of  the  shoulders;  tail, 
hairy  and  heavy;  color  red,  ranging  from  dark  glossy 
cherry  to  light  yellowish  red,  with  brownish  hairs  and 
occasionally  flecks  of  black  on  the  belly  and  legs. 

"The  darker  shades  of  red  are  most  desirable  In 
disposition  they  are  remarkably  mild  and  gentle,  and 
so  docile  they  are  easily  confined.  They  are  kind 
and  careful  mothers,  and  wonderfully  prolific." 

The  Jersey  Red  of  to-day  has  a  small  head,  thick 
snout,  rather  small,  drooping  ears,  short  neck,  straight 
back  and  underline,  a  thick  full  ham,  body  round, 
deep,  with  full  flanks,  short-legged  and  medium  bone.  • 
Color,  red  to  red  dark.  They  are  of  quick  growth,  get 
large  enough  for  all  purposes,  often  averaging,  liy  the 
car  load,  300  pounds  gross  from  ten  to  eleven  months 
old.  They  are  docile  and  very  prolific,  good  mothers, 
careful  with  their  young.     They  are  a  nice,  compact 


I208 


SWINE. 


hog,  and  popular  with  packers,  and  it  is  claimed  will 
outweigh  any  hog  of  their  size  in  the  world. 

The  Jersey  Red,  as  those  in  the  State  of  New  Jer- 
sey, are  much  larger  than  the  Red  Berkshire,  and  also 
much  coarser  in  structure,  are  rapid  growers,  fre- 
quently dressing  600  jwunds  when  eighteen  to  twenty 
months  old.  They  have  long  bodies,  short  legs,  large 
bone  with  rather  large  drooping  ears,  face  wide,  neck 
short,  large  through  the  heart,  large  hams,  oolor  dark 
to  sandy  red,  and  noted  as  a  bacon  hog.  They  are 
also  very  docile,  prolific,  attentive  mothers,  and  great 
grazers.  In  fact,  this  is  also  a  characteristic  of  the 
Red  Berkshire — there  is  no  better  grazing  hog  in  ex- 
istence. The  great  advantages  of  thesis  swine  are: 
I  St.  Their  susceptibility  of  being  fattened  at  any  age. 
2d.  Their  capacity  for  growing  very  large  if  desirable. 
3d.  They  will  produce  as  much  pork  for  the  same 
amount  of  feed  as  any  other  breed,  if  not  more,  and 
though  not  quite  as  handsome  as  some  others,  yet 
they  are  the  hardiest  breed  known,  the  most  prolific, 
and  best  hog  in  existence  at  the  present  time  for  the 
farmer,  swine-breeder  and  stock-grower. 

Another  great  advantage  of  this  breed  of  swine  is 
to  cross  with  other  breeds.  It  is  well  known  through- 
out the  country  that  the  hog  that  is  generally  kept 
by  farmers  is  bred  in  and  in,  until  their  constitutions 
are  gone,  and  that  the  first  storm  that  comes  makes 
sick  hogs,  and  the  cry  is  "  Hog  cholera!  "  Experience 
has  proven  that  the  Red  Berkshire  or  the  Jersey  Red 
boar,  with  Poland,  Berkshire  or  Chester  White  sows, 
makes  the  healthiest  and  best  fatted  hogs  that  are 
known  to-day,  and  they  are  known  as  soon  as  seen  in 
the  stock-yards,  and  buyers  are  always  anxious  to 
purchase  them. 

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire.  These  two  breeds 
are  very  much  alike,  or  are  probably  one  and  the  same 
breed.  They  originated  in  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire, 
two  adjoining  countie.;,  or  shires,  in  the  North  of 
England,  and  were  produced  by  a  cross  of  tlie  white 
Ciiinese  upon  tlie  stock  of  that  locality.  There  are 
breeds  there  in  Lancashire  that  have  attained  celebrity. 
These  are  the  Short-Faced,  the  Middle  breed  and  the 
Large  Lancashire  White. 

The  Short -Faced  breed  may  be  known  by  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics:  The  shortness  of  the  face 
from  the  eyes  to  the  end  of  the  snout ;  prick  ears ; 
small  bones;  a  good  coat  of  white  hair;  cubic  in 
form  with  broad  back  and  broad  hams,  well  letdown. 
The  skin,  as  well  as  the  hair,  is  white,  altl\ough  an 
occasional  one  may  be  found  with  a  few  dark  blue 
spots  in  the  skin,  but  never  dark  or  black  hairs.  The 
small  breed  hogs  must  have  small  bones ;  a  short 
face;  silky  hair;  fine,  small  upright  ears;  a  compara- 
tively square  form  ;  must  have  good  square  hams,  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  hog;  must  carry  the  meat 
near  the  ground ;  flat  on  the  back ;  straight  and  cubic 
in  form. 

Neapolitan.  "It  is  most  probable,"  says  Sidney, 
"  that  the  Neapolitans  are  the  descendants  of  the  dark 
Eastern  swine  imported  by  early  Italian  voyagers,  and 


cultivated  to  perfection  by  the  favorable  climate  and 
welcome  food."  They  were  first  brought  to  this 
country  by  James  G.  King,  of  Hudson  county.  New 
Jersey,  from  Naples,  Italy,  about  the  year  1840. 
About  1850  Mr.  William  Chamberlain  imjxirted  some 
from  Lorento,  Italy,  to  Dutchess  county,  New  York. 
These,  as  were  their  progeny,  were  of  uniformly  dark 
slate  color.  A  few  others  were  brought  to  this  coun- 
try by  other  gentlemen,  but  they  have  never  been 
widely  distributed  in  the  United  States.  From  being 
natives  of  a  warm  climate,  and  with  a  very  fine  and 
almost  hairless  skin,  it  is  probable  they  are  too  delicate 
for  our  American  climate  and  methods.  Tiiey  are 
classed  with  the  small  breeds  and  their  flesh  described 
as  like  "young,  tender,  fat  chi<  ken." 

The  leading  characteristics  of  the  Neapolitans  are 
described  as  follows  by  M.  C  Weld,  of  New  Jersey,  a 
gentleman  who  has  given  considerable  attention  to 
their  breeding: 

"Head  small;  forehead  bony  and  flat;  face  slightly 
dishing ;  snout  rather  long  and  very  slender;  ears 
small,  thin,  standing  forward  nearly  horizontally,  and 
quite  lively ;  jowls  very  full,  neck  short,  broad  and 
heavy  above;  trunk  long,  cylindrical,  and  well-ribbed 
back;  back  flat,  and  ribs  arching,  even  in  low  flesh; 
belly  horizontal  on  the  lower  line;  hind-quarters  higher 
than  the  fore,  but  not  very  much  so;  legs  very  fine,  the 
bones  and  joints  being  smaller  than  those  of  any 
other  l)reed;  hams  and  shoulders  well  developed  and 
meaty;  tail  fine,  curled,  flat  at  the  extremity,  and 
fringe^  with  hair  on  each  side.  General  color  slaty 
or  bluish  plum  color,  with  a  cast  of  coppery  red. 
Skin,  soft  and  fine,  nearly  free  from  hair,  which,  when 
found  upon  the  sides  of  the  head  and  behind  the 
fore-legs,  is  black  and  soft,  and  rather  long.  Flesh 
firm  and  elastic  to  the  touch. " 

Poland-China.  This  has  been  one  of  the  most 
popular  breeds  of  hogs,  especially  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  of  all  the  imi)ro.ved  breeds  ever  introduced 
into  this  country.  They  are  claimed  by  their  friends 
to  stand  at  the  front  of  all  other  breeds  for  general 
utility. 

Over  the  history  and  characteristics  of  this  breed 
there  has  been  much  controversy.  Individual  breed- 
ers have  claimed  the  credit  of  establishing  thel)reed. 
Mr.  A.  C.  Moore,  of  Fulton  county,  Illinois,  and  Mr. 
D.  M.  Magil,  of  Butler  county,  Ohio,  both  prominent 
breeders  of  Poland-China  swine,  and  others  have 
thoroughly  discussed  the  origin  of  this  breed.  There 
has  also  been  much  anery  discussion  as  to  a  suitable 
and  proper  name  for  it.  One  of  the  chief  ]X)ints  in 
the  controversy  in  the  latter  was  as  to  whether  a  Po- 
land or  "  Polish  "  breed  constituted  a  prominent  early 
cross.  As  no  j)ositive  proof,  liowever,  seems  to  have 
been  produced  of  the  imiMrtation  of  a  single  Poland 
hog  into  the  United  States,  the  name  finally  adopted 
by  the  National  Convention  of  swine-breeders  at  In- 
dianapolis, in  1872,  seems  to  be  a  misnomer. 

The  history  of  the  Poland-Chinas,  as  given  by  Mr. 
Coburn,  is  as  follows  : 


S  WINE. 


1209 


"Early  in  the  present  century  there  existed  in  those 
fertile  resjions  of  Southwestern  Ohio,  watered  by  the 
Big  and  Little  Miami  rivers — notably  Warren  and 
Butler  counties — stocks  or  '  breeds  '  of  coarse,  slowly 
maturing  hogs  that  in  time  grew  to  large  size,  but  were 
difficult  to  make  fat,  and  designated  as  'Russian,' 
'Bedfords  '  and 'By fields.'  Some  of  the  more  saga- 
cious farmers  there  realized  the  desirability  of  a  cross 
that  should  reduce  the  coarseness  and  at  the  same 
time  increase  the  fattening  qualities  of  their  hogs. 
In  1816,  John  Wallace,  one  of  the  trustees  of  the 
Shakers'  society  located  at  Union  Village,  Warren 
county,  visited  Philadelphia  on  business,  and  while 
there  was  shown  some  pigs  called  '  Big  Chinas,'  with 
which  he  was  so  well  pleased  that  he  purchased  a 
boar  and  three  sows,  and  the  same  season  took  them 
with  him  to  Warren  county. 

"  They  were  understood  to  be  either  imported  or 
the  direct  descendants  of  parents  imported  from  China. 
Two  of  the  sows  and  the  boar  were  entirely  white 
and  the  other  sow  was  white  with  some  sandy  spots 
within  which  appeared  smaller  black  spots.  The 
striking  characteristics  of  these  Chinese  hogs  that 
specially  commended  them  to  the  Ohioans,  were  com- 
pact forms,  early  maturity  and  the  remarkable  ease 
with  which  they  were  made  fat.  These  were  so  appre- 
ciated that  the  Chinas  and  their  progeny  were  crossed 
on  the  best  stock  of  that  region  during  the  subsequent 
twenty  years,  the  product  being  what  was  known,  pop- 
ularly, as  the  Warren  County  liogs.  About  this  time 
or  in  1836,  the  Berkshires,  that  had  been  well  known 
in  New  York  for  some  years,  were  introduced  into 
Warren  county  by  Munson  Beech.  Between  1838 
and  1840,  William  Neff,  a  Cincinnati  man,  shipped 
into  the  same  locality,  from  England,  some  hogs 
called  "  Irish  Graziers,"  which  were  white  with  the  ex- 
ception of  an  occasional  sandy  spot  about  the  eyes. 
These  two  breeds  were  bred  and  intermixed  extens- 
ively with  the  descendants  and  crosses  of  the  Big 
Chinas  on  other  breeds,  and  the  stock  thus  produced 
constituted  the  basis  of  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Poland-China.  From  the  most  authenric  accounts 
obtainable  it  appears  there  has  been  no  admixture  of 
other  blood  with  this  breed  since  1840,  and  from  that 
time  to  the  present,  men  with  great  experience,  good 
taste  and  judgment  have  bred  them  with  a  view  to 
correcting  defective  points  and  giving  them  the  very 
highest  quality.  To  the  skill  of  those  men  and  the 
wonderful  success  of  their  undertaking  the  omnipres- 
ent Poland-China  is  a  most  valuable  testimonial." 

Great  improvement  has  been  made  within  a  few 
years  past  in  the  form  and  finish  of  these  hogs,  and 
while  they  were  formerly  mostly  spotted,  they  are  now 
bred  more  nearly  black,  and  in  many  instances  are 
marked  very  similar  to  the  Berkshires.  Though  con- 
sidered by  many  as  a  comparatively  new  breed  their 
characteristics  are  shown  to  be  of  sufficient  fixedness 
to  be  transmitted  with  reasonable  certainty  to  their 
offspring,  even  when  crossed  on  breeds  quite  different. 

The  best  specimens  are  well  haired,  have  good 
length,  short  legs,'broad,  straight  backs,  deep  sides, 


flanked  well  down  on  the  leg,  broad,  square  hams  and 
shoulders,  deep  chests,  short  legs,  short,  full,  high- 
crested  neck,  heavy  joints,  short  heads,  fine  muzzles, 
and  moderately  fine  and  drooping  ears.  They  can  be 
made  to  weigh  as  much  as  any  hogs  we  have,  if  not 
more,  and  are  properly  designated  as  belonging  to  the 
large  breeds. 

SuFFOLKS.  This  is  one  of  the  small,  white  breeds 
of  swine,  and  originated  in  England,  where  pigs 
essentially  the  same  are  called  Yorkshires,  or  Small 
Yorkshires,  and  York-Cumberlands. 

They  have  been  known  in  America  for  40  years  or 
more,  and  were  brought  to  notice  by  importations 
made  into  Massachusetts  by  Isaac  and  Josiah  Stick- 
ney.  Though  known  in  all  the  States  to  some  extent, 
at  one  time  or  another  since,  they  have  never  become 
widely  popular  or  extensively  raised  as  farmer's  hogs, 
doubtless  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  too  small,  not 
wholly  satisfactory  as  breeders  and  nurses,  had  skins 
too  tender  to  withstand  the  exposure  they  encoun- 
tered, and  too  nearly  resembling  some  of  their  remote 
ancestors  described  as  being  "perfect  bladders,  filled 
with  hog's  lard,  and  nearly  of  the  same  size  and 
quality." 

Many  who  attempted  to  raise  Suffolks  found  that 
their  tender,  papery  skins  were  too  delicate  to  remain 
sound  in  the  mud,  wind  and  sun  of  the  prairie  re- 
gions, where  mange  seemed  to  be  their  natural  accom- 
paniment. In  other  words,  the  change  from  the 
royal  rosewood  pens  and  plum-pudding,  at  Windsor 
Castle,  to  our  boundless  seas  of  mud  and  maize,  was 
too  great,  and  other  breeds  of  less  aristocraric  origin 
have  far  surpassed  them  in  the  race  for  popular  favor. 

The  standard  characteristics -and  markings  of  the 
Suffolks,  as  agreed  upon  in  the  Swine  Breeders'  Con- 
vention, is  as  follows :  Headsmall,  very  short,  cheeks 
prominent  and  full;  face  dished;  snout  small  and 
very  short;  jowl  fine;  ears  short,  small,  thin,  upright, 
soft  and  silky ;  neck  very  short  and  thick,  the  head 
appearing  almost  as  if  set  on  front  of  shoulders ;  chest 
wide  and  deep,  elbows  standing  out;  brisket  wide 
but  not  deep ;  shoulders  thick,  rather  upright,  round- 
ing outward  from  top  to  elbow  ;  crops  wide  and  full ; 
ribs  well  arched  out  froni  back ;  good  length  between 
shoulders  and  hams ;  flank  well  filled  out  and  com- 
ing well  down  at  ham;  back  broad,  level  and  straight 
from  crest  to  tail,  not  falling  off  or  down  at  tail ;  hams 
wide  and  full,  well  rounded  out ;  twist  very  wide  and 
full  all  the  way  down;  legs  small  and  very  short, 
standing  wide  apart — in  sows  just  keeping  the  belly 
from  the  ground ;  bone  fine;  feet  small,  hoofs  rather 
spreading;  tail  small,  long  and  tapering;  skin  thin, 
of  a  pinkish  shade,  free  from  color;  hair  fine  and 
silky,  not  too  thick ;  color  of  hair  pale  yellowish  white, 
perfectly  free  from  any  spots  or  other  color;  size  small 
to  medium. 

It  is  highly  probable  the  best  of  the  Suffolks  as  they 
now  exist  are  much  superior,  for  the  general  farmer's 
use,  to  those  of  15  to  20  yeaft  ago, owing  to  increased 
size,  hardiness  and  a  less  delicate  skin,  with  more 
hair.     While,  as  has  been  stated,  they  are  not  general 


/ 


I2IO 


SWINE. 


favorites  with  those  who  produce  the  bulk  of  our  ix)rk, 
they  are  by  no  means  without  their  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirers, who  prefer  them  to  any  others  of  the  jxjrcine 
tribe. 

For  those  who  want  a  few  pigs  of  a  satisfied  dispo- 
sition, that  keep  easily,  like  to  be  petted,  and  are  of 
no  other  color  than  white,  the  Suffolks  will  be  found 
very  desirable.  For  those  who  raise  pork  in  large 
quantities  by  methods  having  but  Uttle  painstaking 
and  attention  to  details  in  them,  some  other  breed  or 
combination  of  breeds  will  be  found  to  answer  a 
better  purix)se,  at  least  until  certain  characteristics  of 
the  Suffolks  are  modified,  as  they  doubtless  will  be. 

Victorias.  These  hogs  greatly  resemble  the 
Yorkshire  in  color,  size  and  style.  The  breed  was 
originated  in  Saratoga  county.  New  York,  by  F.  D. 
Curtis,  about  1852.  This  gentleman  began  breeding 
with  a  view  to  supplying  the  demand  for  a  medium- 
sized  white  hog  that  would  be  well-haired  and 
mature  easily.  They  are  a  combination  of  the  swine 
common  to  that  locality  with  the  "Grazier,"  "By  field," 
and  tlie  Yorkshire  or  Suffolk.  Their  characteristics 
are  a  good  coat  of  fine,  soft  hair;  head  fine  and  close- 
ly set  on  the  shoulders ;  snout  short  and  face  slightly 
dished;  ears  erect,  small  and  thin;  shoulders  bulging 
and  deep;  legs  short  and  fine;  back  broad,  straight 
and  level,  and  the  body  long;  hams  round  and  swell- 
ing, and  high  at  base  of  tail,  with  plaits  or  folds 
between  the  thighs;  tail  fine;  rosettes  common  on 
the  back;  skin  thin,  soft  and  elastic;  the  flesh  fine- 
grained and  firm,  with  thick  side  jxjrk.  They  keep 
easily  and  can  be  made  fit  for  slaughter  at  any  age. 

The  breeder's  description  of  them  is :  "They  are 
white  in  color,  have  short  legs,  broad,  straight  backs 
and  deep  sides ;  a  good  coat  of  hair,  very  fine  bone 
and  quality;  stand  very  firm  on  their  feet,  and  have 
an  excellent  constitution.  They  possess  great  power 
of  transmitting  their  color  and  quality  when  bred  to 
other  breeds,  and  the  large  amount  of  prime  meat  to 
weight  of  carcass  makes  them  favorites  of  shippers 
and  packers." 

Yorkshire,  The  Yorkshires  are  among  the  best 
of  the  pure  bred  swine  of  England,  and  have  stamp- 
ed their  impress  upon  nearly  all  of  the  modern  white 
breeds.  Their  good  qualities  are :  They  are  of  a 
size,  shape  and  flesh  that  are  desirable  for  the  family 
or  the  packer's  use.  They  are  hardy  and  vigorous  in 
constitution,  have  a  good  coat  of  hair,  protecting  the 
skin  so  well  either  in  extreme  cold  or  heat  that  it 
rarely  chills  or  blisters.  They  are  very  prolific  and 
good  mothers;  the  young  do  not  vary  in  color,  and  so 
little  in  shape  that  their  form  when  matured  may  be 
determined  in  advance  by  an  inspection  of  the  sire 
and  dam. 

The  Yorkshire,  Medium  or  Middle-breed,  says  Mr. 
Sydney,  is  a  modern  invention  of  Yorkshire  pig 
breeders,  and  perhaps  the  most  useful  and  jxjpular 
of  the  white  breeds,  as  it  unites,  in  a  striking  degree, 
the  good  qualities  of  the  large  and  small.  It  has 
been  produced  by  a  cross  of  the  Large  and  the  Small 


York  and  Cumberland,  which  is  larger  than  the  Small 
York.  Like  the  large  whites,  they  often  have  a  few 
pale  blue  six)ts  on  the  skin,  the  hair  on  these  spots 
being  white.  All  white  breeds  have  these  spots  more 
or  less,  and  they  often  increase  in  number  as  the 
animal  grows  older. 

The  Middle  Yorkshire  breed  are  about  the  same' 
size  as  the  Berkshire  breed,  but  have  smaller  heads, 
and  are  much  lighter  in  the  bone.  They  are  better 
feeders  than  the  small  whites,  but  not  so  good  as  the 
large  whites;  in  fact,  they  occupy  a  position  in  every 
respect  between  these  two  breeds. 

The  Cumberland,  a  Middle-breed  Yorkshire,  are 
not  distributed  throughout  the  West,  but  when 
thoroughbred  specimens  have  been  introduced  they 
are  held  in  great  esteem,  as  well  for  an  animal  for 
exhibition  pur{X)ses  as  for  family  use.  They  are 
especial  favorites  with  packers  who  buy  their  stock 
on  foot,  for  the  reason  that  they  yield  larger  propor- 
tionate net  weights  than  any  other  hogs  which  grow 
large  enough  for  their  use.  They  are  small  in  bone 
but  large  in  flesh,  of  the  very  best  quality,  evenly  and 
proix)rtionately  distributed  over  the  whole  frame. 

The  Comparative  Value  of  the  Different 
Breeds.  A  coarse  coat  and  pendulous  ears  are  re- 
garded by  most  experienced  judges  of  hogs  as  indica- 
tions of  thick  skin  and  large  size,  and  a  fine  coat  and 
erect  ears  as  indications  of  small  or  moderate  size 
and  of  tendency  to  rapid  growth  and  fattening. 

Good  or  essential  points  viewed  in  the  abstract,  or 
regarded  as  a  standard  for  testing  any  particular 
breed  or  specimen,  are  fineness  of  bone,  thinness  and 
fineness  of  skin,  fullness  of  head  and  cheek,  thickness 
and  moderate  shortness  of  neck,  voluminousness  and 
compactness  of  body,  depth  and  expansion  of  sides, 
breadth  of  breast  and  loin,  fullness  of  quarters, 
moderate  shortness  of  legs,  hardiness  of  constitution 
and  moderate  or  rapid  tendency  to  fatten  at  an  early 
age. 

But  several  of  the  different  breeds  of  swine  are 
essentially  equal  to  another  in  value,  some  for  one 
set  of  circumstances  and  purposes,  and  some  for  an-, 
other;  and  while  a  few  breeds  are  bad  in  any  circum- 
stances, even  the  best  breeds  are  not  good  in  all. 
Hogs,  like  other  kinds  of  farm  stock,  ought  to  be 
selected  with  direct  reference  to  their  special  fitness 
for  the  climate  in  which  they  are  to  be  kept,  for  the 
peculiar  management  which  they  are  to  experience, 
for  the  particular  kinds  of  food  which  they  are  to  re- 
ceive, and  for  the  precise  purposes  to  which  they  are 
ultimately  destined.  One  breed  may  be  best  for  the 
bleak  exposure  of  a  mountain  farm  and  another  for 
the  warm  and  sunny  shelter  of  a  farm  on  a  wooded 
plain;  one  for  the  heat  of  the  South,  and  another 
for  the  cold  of  the  North ;  one  for  roaming  at  will 
through  field  or  forest,  and  another  for  constant  con- 
finement in  the  sty;  one  for  the  harsh  and  stinted 
food  and  another  for  an  abundance  of  rich  food ;  one 
to  supply  pork  and  bacon  for  family  use,  another  to 
supply  pork  for  the  public  market,  and  another  to 
supply  material  for  the  commercial  curer  of  hams 


SWINE. 


and  bacon.  The  respective  merits  and  qualities  of 
the  various  breeds  are  quite  fully  detailed  under  the 
respective  breeds. 

BREEDING,   CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT. 

Breeding  and  Rearing  Swine.  There  is  no  class 
of  farm  stock  in  which  there  is  so  wide  a  range  be- 
tween the  good  and  the  poor,  the  profitable  and  the 
unprofitable,  as  that  of  swine. 

The  boar  and  the  sow  ought  to  be  selected  with 
special  reference  either  to  the  purity  of  the  breed  or 
to  some  special  and  well-designed  purpose  of  cross- 
ing. The  boar  ought  to  be  not  less  than  twelve 
months  old,  and  the  sow  not  less  than  ten  months; 
and  both  may  be  used  for  breeding  from  three  to  five 
years,  and  then  fed  for  the  market.  Young  sows  dif- 
fer widely  from  one  another  in  prolificness  and  in  at- 
tention to  their  pigs;  and  any  which  prove  on  trial 
to  be  comparatively  unprolific  or  to  be  careless  nurses, 
ought  not  to  be  retained  as  breeders.  Many  breeding 
sows  of  more  than  four  years  of  age,  and  almost  all 
of  more  than  five  or  six,  become  more  or  less  careless 
about  their  brood,  and  are  therefore  not  fit  to  be  con- 
tinued as  breeders;  and  they  at  the  same  time  begin 
to  suffer  considerable  deterioration  in  the  qualities  of 
their  flesh,  so  that  they  must  be  fattened  and  killed  to 
prevent  loss  in  their  own  carcass. 

Sows  gestate  during  about  112  days,  or  16  weeks; 
and  may,  therefore,  have  two  litters  in  one  year,  or 
five  litters  in  two  years,  or  ten  litters  in  four  years. 
The  most  convenient  practice,  for  the  sake  of  adapt- 
ing the  constitution  of  the  pigs  to  the  seasons  of  the 
year,  and  in  consequence  insuring  to  them  a  maximum 
of  hardiness  and  health,  is  to  secure  two  litters  in 
each  year,  the  one  in  March  and  the  other  in  Septem- 
ber. When  farrowing  occurs  in  summer,  or  later  in 
the  spring  than  March,  the  pigs  are  too  young  to  be 
fed  off  next  season ;  and  when  it  takes  place  in  win- 
ter, or  later  in  the  autumn  than  August,  they  are  liable 
to  be  injured  or  even  killed  by  the  severe  cold 
which  follows,  or  may  suffer  serious  detriment  before 
spring  from  a  deficiency  of  roots  and  of  green  food. 

A  pregnant  sow  ought  neither  to  be  confined  to  a 
sty  nor  allowed  to  travel  at  will ;  but  may  be  permit- 
ted the  full  range  of  a  yard  or  of  any  similarly  limited 
enclosure  where  she  can  do  no  damage ;  and,  a  con- 
siderable time  before  the  calculated  period  of  her  far- 
rowing, she  ought  to  be  separated  from  the  herd,  and 
kept  constantly  and  cleanly  littered  with  a  small 
quantity  of  short,  dry  straw.  A  few  hours  before  her 
farrowing,  she  may  be  observed  to  carry  straw  in  her 
mouth  to  make  a  bed  with ;  and  she  must  then  be 
allowed  only  such  a  berth  as  is  requisite  for  her  com- 
fort, and  denied  all  such  rough  or  long  straw  as  might 
afterwards,  by  any  accident,  cover  any  of  her  brood. 
She  ought,  when  nursing,  to  be  well  fed;  for  if  she 
then  lose  condition,  her  pig3  will  suffer,  and  she  her- 
self will  occasion  double  cost  to  regain  her  strength 
and  flesh,  and  if  the  litter  be  numerous,  they  ought  to 
be  fed  two  or  three  times  a  day  with  a  slightly  tepid 
mixture  of  cow's  milk,  water  and  wheat  bran,   and 


during  one  or  two  hours  after  each  feed  they  may  be 
kept  separate  from  the  dam. 

Some  sows  bring  forth  10,  12  or  even  15  pigs  at  a 
birth,  but  eight  or  nine  is  the  usual  number;  and  sows 
which  produce  fewer  than  this  should  be  rejected. 
The  sow  should  have  at  least  12  teats;  for  it  is  ob- 
served that  each  pig  selects  a  teat  for  himself  and 
keeps  to  it,  so  that  a  pig  not  having  one  belonging  to 
him  would  suffer.  A  good  sow  should  bring  forth  a 
large  number  of  pigs  of  equal  vigor.  She  should  be 
very  careful  of  them  and  not  crush  them  by  her 
weight.  She  should  not  be  addicted  to  eating  the 
afterbirth,  and  what  may  often  follow,  her  own  young. 
If  a  sow  has  this  habit,  or  if  she  has  difficult  labors, 
or  brings  forth  dead  pigs,  she  should  not  be  kept  for 
breeding  purix)ses.  Sows  will  usually  take  the  boar 
within  three  days  after  farrowing  and  sometimes  get 
in  pig.  But  after  that  period  they  rarely  come  in  heat 
until  three  or  four  days  after  the  pigs  are  weaned. 

The  breeding  sow  should  be,  as  everything  else 
upon  the  farm,  first-rate — broad,  lengthy,  deep,  short- 
snouted,  of  fine  bone,  with  tail  well  set  on,  a  thin  ear, 
and  skin  gathering  in  folds  even  to  the  hock,  and  of  a 
breed  that  will  fatten  on  clover  and  grass  in  summer, 
and  on  mangolds  in  winter,  sliced  and  sprinkled  with 
ground  corn  and  oats.  Various  are  the  breeds  now- 
adays possessing  such  characteristics.  Grudge  not  a 
few  extra  dollars  in  the  purchase  of  an  exemplary  sow 
to  begin  with.  It  is  loss  of  time,  besides  disappoint- 
ment, to  buy  second-rate  stock,  however  excellent 
your  judgment  may  be,  with  the  purpose  of  improv- 
ing it.  Around  the  sty,  in  which  the  breeding  sow  is 
kept  at  the  time  of  farrowing,  there  should  be  run  a 
couple  of  rails,  one  above  the  other,  a  foot  from  the 


Fig.  4. — A  Fender /or  Pig- pen. 

wall,  the  lowest  being  about  three-quarters  of  a  foot 
from  the  ground.  The  great  risk  at  such  time  is  of 
the  little  pigs  being  smothered  by  her  lying  helplessly 
upon  them  in  her  pain;  whereas  if  there  be  a  rail  she 
is  likely  to  bear  against  it,  so  that  the  little  ones,  if 
they  have  the  bad  luck  to  get  underneath,  will  either 


^  WINE. 


work  themselves  out  or  escape  the  great  burdenof  her 
direct  weight.  They  soon  learn  worldly  wisdom 
enough  to  take  refuge  behind,  where  you  should  have 
a  little  soft  straw  or  hay  for  their  especial  use. 

Another  way  to  protect  the  little  ones  is  by  the  safe 
guard  or  fender  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  4.  The  fender 
or  guard  consists  of  a  board  or  scantling  fastened 
upon  that  side  of  the  pen  where  the  bed  is  located. 
It  needs  to  be  high  enough  above  the  floor  for  the  pigs 
to  pass  under  it,  and  at  the  same  time  extend  out  far 
enough  to  prevent  the  sow  from  lying  close  to  the 
wall  of  the  pen.  If  the  pigs  are  between  the  sow 
and  the  wall,  the  fender  permits  them  to  escape.  It  is 
well  to  make  this  fender  when  the  pen  is  built;  being 
permanent,  it  will  be  very  much  stronger  than  a  tem- 
porary one ;  it  will  then  always  be  in  place  and  not  in 
the  way. 

Indigestion.  The  perfection  of  the  litter  within 
the  womb  of  the  brood  sow  is  one  of  the  easiest  things 
accomplished  that  can  be  conceived  of,  because  so  en- 
tirely a  natural,  unimpeded  process.  The  provisions 
of  Nature  are  wonderful  in  the  direction  of  entire 
safety  being  thrown  around  the  litter  while  so  encased. 
Nature  rarely  makes  any  mistakes  in  her  modes,  and 
nothing  short  of  utter  starvation  or  downright  abuse 
will  interfere  with  tjie  growth  of  the  embryo,  or  expel 
it  from  its  prison-house  till  the  allotted  sixteen  weeks 
have  expired.  But  during  this  period,  the  conditions 
are  entirely  natural,  while  after  the  birth  of  the  pig 
they  are  largely  artificial. 

Not  giving  due  weight  to  the  fact  that  the  health  of 
the  sow,  at  time  of  farrowing,  and  before,  very  largely 
determines  the  fact  as  to  whether  the  pigs  will  start 
and  grow,  under  the  new  surroundings  and  conditions, 
without  any  hindrance,  improper  food,  or  too  much 
of  it,  is  often  given.  Indigestion  in  the  sow  at  pig- 
ging time,  from  the  high  feeding,  accompanied  with 
too  close  confinement,  is  quite  likely  to  engender  a 
feverish  state.  The  sow  will  be  irritable,  and  the  first 
danger  that  comes  to  the  litter,  under  this  condition  of 
things,  is,  that  the  pigs  will  be  eaten  by  the  sow.-  The 
sow  that  suffers  from  indigestion  gives  this  to  the 
young  pig  from  the  very  start.  The  pig  having  the 
best  appetite,  and  hanging  to  the  teat  the  longest,  will 
be  likely,  as  with  gourmands  under  every  circumstance, 
to  succumb  first. 

Indigestion  coming  on  in  this  manner  to  the  young 
pig  is  not  infrequent  in  the  case  of  sows  confined  in  a 
close  pen,  debarred  from  access  to  the  ground,  and  to 
green  food.  The  pig,  after  having  drawn  vigorously 
from  the  unhealthy  milk  supply  for  a  few  days,  sud- 
denly loses  its  appetite,  seeking  a  corner  away  from  the 
litter,  has  free,  light-colored  discharges,  breathes  rap- 
idly; and  the  morning  after  these  symptoms  are  ob- 
served, it  is  very  likely  to  be  found  dead.  This 
speedily  fatal  result  is  likely  to  follow  with  greater 
certainty  if  the  weather  is  cold,  or  the  sow  and  litter 
have  a  wet  nest.  There  is  hardly  anything  more 
damaging  than  the  latter,  and  how  any  portion  of  the 
litter  can  survive  its  influence  is  hard  to  conceive. 
It  is  well  known,  in  the  case  of  the  human  family, 


how  susceptible  the  infant  is  to  derangement  of  di- 
gestion, accompanied  by  diarrhoea,  whenever  the 
mother  indulges  in  such  articles  of  food  as,  if  given 
to  a  child  not  suckling,  would,  if  partaken  freely  of, 
produce  internal  disturbance  and  a  loose  condition 
of  the  bowels,  the  discharges  being  thin  and  light- 
colored.  This  result  occurs  in  an  astonishingly  short 
period  after  the  food  is  eaten  in  the  case  of  the  infant, 
showing  how  quickly  absorption  of  any  deleterious 
substance  takes  place,  and  also  how  promptly  the 
mammary  gland  takes  up  the  offending  material, 
giving  it  off  through  the  milk.  This  transfer  occurs 
just  as  speedily  in  the  system  of  the  brood  sow  as  in 
the  system  of  the  human  mother,  and  the  young  high- 
bred pig,  especially  the  Suffolk,  is  exceedingly  impress- 
ible, and  liable  to  disturbances  similar  to  those  that 
affect  the  infant. 

The  prevailing  notion  that  the  hog  has  digestion 
equal  to  any  undertaking  in  the  way  of  converting 
crude  or  offensive  food,  leads  many  to  give,  in  excess- 
ive quantities,  whatever  refuse  happens  to  be  on  ■ 
hand,  whether  spoiled  grain,  putrid  meat,  or  other 
refuse.  The  result  of  such  a  mess,  when  given  to  a 
sow  about  to  pig,  or  having  a  litter  at  her  side,  is  inev- 
itably damaging  to  the  pigs.  The  milk  glands  act  in 
such  a  case  as  an  outlet  for  offending  substances  that 
get  into  the  system  through  the  stomach,  or  that, 
through  any  species  of  disordered  action;  are  engen- 
dered within  the  system.  From  this  it  will  readily  be 
seen  that  the  milk  of  an  animal  not  in  a  perfect  state 
of  health,  must  contain  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
impurities  that  are,  from  hour  to  hour,  given  off. 

The  fact  that  poison  taken  into  the  system  of  the 
young,  either  human  or  brute,  through  the  milk,  acts 
so  promptly,  generally  producing  disorder  of  the 
stomach  and  bowels  within  k  very  few  hours,  is  suf- 
ficient proof  of  the  virulence  of  the  poison,  as  well 
as  of  the  importance  of  guarding  against  such  accu- 
mulations within  the  system  of  the  brood  sow  while 
suckling  her  young.  Dry  corn  gives  a  tendency  10 
feverishness.  Too  much  sour  slops,  if  the  sow  be  de- 
barred from  access  to  the  earth,  ashes,  charcoal  and 
like  substances,  capable  of  neutralizing  the  excess  of 
acid,  will  derange  digestion ;  the  blood  becomes  im- 
pure, and,  as  stated,  these  impurities  escape,in  part,  into 
the  milk.  Now,  when  we  have  instituted  the  necessary 
measures  to  produce  a  choice  stock  of  young  pigs,  it 
is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance  that  we  take  pains 
to  secure  the  property  thus  produced.  To  do  other- 
wise is  like  growing  a  crop  of  grain,  and  then,  by  neg- 
lecting the  necessary  precautions  at  harvest  time, 
losing  the  crop. 

Under  the  sow  at  farrowing  time,  there  should  be 
little  or  no  straw,  as  with  the  best  disjxjsition  she  is 
then  more  apt  to  annihilate  some  of  the  wee  ones  who 
may  be  lost  to  sight,  having  gone  burrowing  on  their 
own  behalf.  The  best  practice,  however,  is  to 
have  her  watched,  and  the  Uttle  ones  taken  from 
her  as  they  appear,  and,  if  the  weather  is  cold, 
kept  near  a  fire  in  a  hamper,  in  wool  for  a  day  or  two, 
being  carried  to  and  fro  for  suckling.     This  entails  a 


SWINE. 


1213 


little  trouble,  but  is  well  repaid,  as  you  may  so  save  a 
whole  litter,  three-fourths  of  which,  if  left  with  her, 
the  chances  are  you  may  find  dead  within  24  hours 
after  birth.  As  soon  as  they  are  pretty  strong  upon 
their  legs,  and  can  expostulate  lustily,  you  may  leave 
them  in  the  fenced  sty  with  mamma  altogether,  hav- 
ing taken  care  first  to  initiate  them  into  the  secret  of 
their  harbor  (the  railing  around  the  wall).  All  this  a 
savage  mother  will  not  allow;  nay,  often  she  will  de- 
vour her  offspring  if  meddled  with  at  all.  As  a  pre- 
ventive against  this  awkward  finale,  a  wash  of  aloes 
and  water,  into  which  the  piglings  are  dipped,  just  newly 
farrowed,  has  been  used. 

A  parent  of  this  sort,  it  will  pay  you  best,  how- 
ever, to  fatten  and  consume  in  turn.  Gentle  sows  are 
sufficiently  attainable  to  permit  the  immediate  sacri- 
fice of  a  savage.  If  the  wee  ones  be  ailing,  a  hot 
bath  for  them,  and  a  dose  of  castor  oil  (say  four 
ounces)  to  the  mother,  of  which  they  will  enjoy  a  re- 
version through  her  milk,  is  a  safe  and  usually  success- 
ful treatment.  That  the  sow  will  require  warm  food, 
gruel,  etc.,  after  her  labor,  and  must  be  carefully 
tended,  and  not  highly  fed  for  some  days,  it  is  almost 
superfluous  to  remark.  Indeed,  unless  the  tyro  have 
servants  about  his  stock  who  of  themselves  will  exer- 
cise such  ordinary  thought,  he  will  have  a  very  moun- 
tain to  surmount.  We  may  notice  only  that  boiled 
food  promotes  especially  the  flow  of  milk,  and  that  for 
those  sows  which  litter  in  autumn,  lettuces  are  the 
most  wholesome  and  juciest  of  food. 

Towards  weaning  time  turn  out  the  sow  occasion- 
ally by  herself,  and  accustom  the  nursery  to  take 
warm  milk  and  slops  on  their  private  account.  This 
will  grease  the  slips  for  their  final  launch  into  life, 
which  should  take  place  as  soon  as  they  have  shivered 
through  the  ninth  week.  Mind  and  do  your  little 
pigs  well.  The  sow  should  be  richly  fed  throughout 
the  nursing,  so  that  when  you  wean  the  litter,  they 
shall  be  pretty  stout  to  start  on  their  own  account. 
Still,  at  the  best,  it  is  a  ticklish  period  when  they  are 
first  put  over  the  nest.  Ruinous  as  cruel  is  the  jxilicy 
of  stinting  an  infant.  It  is  far  better  for  you  to  keep 
half  a  dozen  in  good  trim,  ready  ever  for  pork  or  win- 
ter baconers,  than  half  a  hundred  trotting  everlastingly, 
half-fed.  about  the  yard — scabby,  wizen-looking  and 
pot-bellied — in  anxious  search  for  anything  to  pacify 
the  pangs  of  their  hunger.  Starved  in  infancy,  young 
stock  seems  to  lose  not  only  size,  but  in  a  great  de- 
gree its  aptitude  to  fatten. 

Selection  and  Care  of  Boar.  It  is  not  alto- 
gether correct  to  say  that  success  in  swine-breeding 
depends  entirely  upon  the  proper  selection  of  the 
male,  but  it  very  largely  depends  ujxjn  it. 

In  all  breeding  it  is  the  male  that  impresses  itself 
upon  the  exterior  of  the  offspring.  The  mule  is  often 
cited  as  an  illustration  of  this  fact.  The  mule  is  an 
ass  with  some  modification.  Take  the  best  sows  or 
the  best  mares  in  the  world  and  breed  them  to  inferior 
males  and  the  offspring  will  be  inferior,  while  the  off- 
spring of  inferior  sows  or  mares  can  be  greatly  im- 


proved by  the  use  of  good  males.  Every  one  is  fa- 
miliar with  these  truths. 

On  this  subject  Goodale,  in  his  Principles  of  Breed- 
ing Domestic  Animals,  says : 

"Practically,  (all)  the  knowledge  obtained  dictates 
in  a  most  emphatic  manner  that  every  stock-grower 
use  his  utmost  endeavor  to  obtain  the  services  of  the 
best  sires — that  is,  the  best  for  the  end  and  purposes 
in  view;  that  he  depend  chiefly  on  the  sire  for  out- 
ward form  and  symmetry." 

In  discussing  this  subject,  Mr.  Coburn  says: 
"  The  foremost  breeders  have  come  to  recognize  the 
male  as  half  the  herd;  and  hence  if  he  is  to  exert  as 
much  influence  on  the  character  of  its  offspring  as  is 
exerted  by  all  the  females  in  it,  too  much  care  and 
discrimination  cannot  be  exercised  in  his  selection 
and  management,  not  only  that  he  may  be  the  best, 
but  do  the  best." 

The  breeder  and  farmer  will,  therefore,  see  that  it 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  start  right  by  carefully 
selecting  the  boar.  He  should  be  an  animal  of  fine 
external  form,  thick,  short  neck,  broad  face  and  heavy 
under  jaw.  All  these  indicate  a  strong  vitality,  and 
necessarily  that  must  exist  in  every  meat-producing 
animal.  He  should  also  have  good  width  between 
the  fore  legs,  large  girth  immediately  behind  them, 
long  ribs,  well  spread  out  from  the  back,  broad  loin 
and  well  developed,  have  clean,  elastic  skin,  soft  hair, 
which  should  be  free  from  bristles,  clean  limbs,  small 
joints,  and  if  possible  a  concave  face  and  slightly 
drooping  ears.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that 
these  features  are  indications  of  the  qualities  required 
in  a  good  breeder,  and  they  have  passed  into  rules 
which  breeders  have  long  since  needed. 

Ribs  that  are  long  and  well  sprung  at  right  angles 
from  the  back  give  room  for  a  capacious  stomach; 
the  broad  loin  is  suggestive  of  active  kidneys,  and  a 
clean,  fine,  elastic  skin,  with  soft,  lively  hair,  devoid 
of  bristles,  denotes  a  freedom  from  anything  like 
fever,  and  the  possession  of  a  healthy  liver  that  trans- 
acts its  current  business  with  promptitude.  A  reason- 
ably fine  muzzle  and  limbs  clean,  small  joints,  and 
standing  square  upon  the  feet  denote  solidity,  strength, 
and  firmness  of  framework.  The  dished  or  concave 
face  and  fine  and  somewhat  drooping  ear,  are  unerr- 
ing signs  of  an  easy  keeper  and  a  quiet  and  con- 
tented disposition. 

In  selecting  a  boar,  however,  the  animal  itself 
should  not  be  the  only  thing  looked  at.  It  is  well  to 
look  at  the  whole  herd  from  which  he  is  to  be  selected, 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  if  they  have  good 
forms  and  constiturions  and  even  feeding  qualities. 
If  these  are  shown,  it  is  safe  to  select  a  boar  from  the 
herd,  but  a  breed  of  hogs  in  which  there  are  no  two 
alike  ought  never  to  be  looked  to  for  a  boar.  Nor 
must  the  sows  upon  which  it  is  intended  to  cross  him, 
be  entirely  lost  sight  of.  Their  defects  especially 
need  to  be  studied,  in  order  that  in  the  selection  of 
the  boar,  such  a  one  may  be  selected  as  will  correct 
the  defects  of  the  sows  in  the  offspring.  For  instance, 
if  the  sows  should  be   light   in   the   ham,  the  boar 


I2I4 


SWINE. 


should  be  particularly  strong  there.  If  the  sows 
have  sharp  backs,  breed  only  to  a  boar  with  a  broad 
back,  and  so  on.  Sometimes  the  sow  is  too  coarse  in 
some  particular  part,  and  the  remedy  is  to  select  a 
boar  particularly  fine  in  those  parts.  It  is  usually 
recommended  to  select  a  boar  somewhat  smaller  and 
more  compact  than  the  sows  \x\x>\\  which  he  is  to  be 
crossed. 

It  is  becoming  quite  common  to  see  through  the 
country  many  of  the  best  hogs  of  some  of  the  im- 
proved breeds  that  even  when  quite  young  show 
signs  of  breaking  down  in  the  ankle-joints.  As  they 
grow  older  and  heavier  they  become  worse  in  this  re- 
spect, until  they  are  virtually  cripples.  This  is  the 
result  of  careless  selection  and  continued  corn  diet, 
which  does  not  furnish  the  bone-making  substance. 
Such  boars  should  not  be  used,  even  if  in  every  other 
respect  they  are  excellent. 

As  to  the  breed,  we  have  nothing  to  say  here, 
leaving  the  breeder  or  farmer  to  use  his  own  taste 
and  judgment.  He  ought  to  be  able  to  tell  what  he 
wants  when  the  different  breeds  are  so  easily  seen. 
But  having  chosen  the  breed,  the  boar  should  be 
pure;  for  if  not  pure,  there  will  be  no  certainty  that 
he  will  be  able  to  stamp  his  own  qualities  upon  his 
offspring.  It  may  also  be  wise  in  this  connection  to  say 
a  word  upon  the  treatment  of  the  boar  after  he  is  pro- 
cured. Many  a  farmer  is  disappointed  in  a  boar  for 
which  he  has  paid  a  good  price,  when  the  fault  is 
wholly  his.  Perhaps  he  shuts  the  animal  up  in  a 
close  pen — a  very  usual  custom.  The  boar  has, 
under  such  circumstances,  no  opportunity  for  exer- 
cise, and  it  is  quite  likely  he  is  fed  highly  at  the  same 
time.  Lack  of  activity  is  the  almost  certain  result  of 
such  treatment.  But  even  this  treatment  is  no  worse 
than  turning  the  animal  loose  among  an  unlimited 
number  of  sows  and  among  stock  hogs.  Under  these 
circumstances  he  is  soon  worried  and  worked  almost 
to  death.  There  should  be  a  medium  treatment 
practiced.  Do  not  confine  the  animal  too  closely 
and  do  not  let  him  rove  according  to  his  own  will. 
He  should  have  a  comfortable  pen  with  a  lot  adjoin- 
ing; should  have  good,  nutritious  food,  and  kept  in  a 
condition  of  thrift,  not  too  fat  or  too  poor. 

The  best  way  to  keep  a  lx)ar  from  becoming  unruly 
and  very  troublesome  is  from  the  first  to  keep  him  in 
an  enclosure  that  he  cannot  break  out  of,  and  then 
he  will  not  learn  how.  It  is  much  better  if  his  quar- 
ters are  isolated  from  those  of  other  hogs,  especially 
sows,  except  at  coupling  time,  otherwise  a  good  share 
of  his  days  and  nights  will  be  spent  in  trying  to  get 
among  them,  which  he  will  likely  succeed  in  doing 
just  when  he  ought  not  to.  A  sow  turned  in  with 
him  and  served  once  will  have  as  many,  and  perhaps 
better  pigs  than  if  he  worried  and  chased  her  for  a 
week.  When  his  ])igs  come,  and  begin  to  verge  along 
towards  maturity,  the  owner  can  easily  judge  whether 
his  l)oar  is  what  he  wanted.  If  wholly  satisfactory 
and  there  was  not  a  strong  probability,  amounting 
almost  to  a  certainty,  of  doing  very  much  better,  Mr. 
Cobum  says  he  "  would  recommend  breeding  him  to 


his  own  daughters;  yet,  at  the  same  time,  indiscrim- 
inate in-breeding  is  not  to  be  thought  of;  this  breeding 
together  of  sire  and  daughter  is  recommended  only 
when  the  individuals  are  both  healthy,  and  it  is  de- 
sired to  fix  and  retain  in  the  offspring  certain  points 
of  great  value  prominent  in  the  parents." 

Grade  Boars.  One  of  the  great  and  costly  mis- 
takes made  by  a  large  number  of  farmers  who  dis- 
play good  judgment  and  liberality  in  other  matters, 
is,  in  using  grade  or,  too  often,  scrub  boars,  on  the 
score  of  economy.  The  manner  of  its  occurrence  is 
something  like  this  :  The  farmer  has  some  common 
sows,  or,  perhaps,  obtains  one  that  looks  well,  and  he 
thinks  is  a  little  extra,  though  nothing  much  is  known 
of  her  stock  or  breeding;  she  maybe  with  pig  by 
what  he  has  been  told  was  a  good  boar,  or  he  breeds 
her  to  the  most  passable  one  convenient,  and  in 
course  of  time  she  farrows ;  if  she  has  only  a  small 
number,  or  saves  but  a  few  pigs,  and  is  a  good 
suckler,  there  will  probably  be  a  boar  pig  in  the  litter 
that  makes  a  development  surprising  to  the  owner, 
and  is  really  handsome.  This  pig  is  kept  for  a  boar, 
first,  because  in  appearance  he  is  as  good  as  the 
majority  of  thoroughbreds,  and  much  better  than  the 
other  hog  stock  on  the  place  that  has  not  had  as  good 
an  opixsrtunity  for  development ;  secondly,  the  man 
who  has  thoroughbreds  asks  from  $io  to  $25  apiece 
for  them  ;  and  as  this  home-made  pig  has  not  cost  a 
fourth  of  that,  the  difference  between  his  cost  and 
that  of  the  other  is  so  much  saved;  and  "a  penny 
saved  is  as  good  as  a  penny  earned."  He  is  used  on 
the  sows  of  the  herd;  but  being  a  good  animal  indi- 
vidually, almost  by  accident,  and  not  inheriting  his 
valuable  qualities  from  a  long  line  of  ancestry  equally 
good,  it  is  not  possible  to  transmit  them  to  his  off- 
spring to  any  appreciable  extent,  and  weedy,  un- 
thrifty scrubs  and  dissatisfaction  follow.  After  one, 
two,  or  three  years  of  unavailing  effort  to  make  some- 
thing out  of  them,  in  many  instances  the  same  farmer, 
without  any  apparent  comprehension  of  the  cause  of 
his  disappointment,  will  repeat  the  foolish  experiment 
with  another  pig  of  like  character,  or,  rather,  lack  of 
character;  and  so,  as  the  years  go  by,  the  best  of 
them,  perhaps,  are  frittered  away  practicing  this  sort 
of  economy  that  "saves  at  the  spigot  and  wastes  at 
the  bung-hole."  Every  sane  man  in  any  way  con- 
nected with  the  raising  of  live  stock  should  under- 
stand that  the  greatest  improvement,  and  consequent 
profit,  can  only  come  from  using  sires  of  high  quality, 
descended  from  generations  of  sires  and  dams  like 
them,  followed  by  good  care  and  judicious  weeding 
out  every  year.  The  man  who  keeps  a  half-dozen 
sows  cannot  afford  to  do  without  the  use  of  a  thor- 
oughbred boar;  and  a  pig  of  the  right  sort,  at  a  cost 
of  $25,  is  as  cheap  as  dirt,^ — -enough  more  economical 
and  profitable  as  an  investment,  than  it  would  be  to 
have  the  sows  served  by  a  scrub  or  half-breed,  even 
if  $5  each  was  received  for  the  privilege.  The  wise 
men  who  use  good  boars  in  the  fall  are  the  ones  who 
will  have  good  hogs  to  fatten  and  sell  the  following 
fall  to  prompt  buyers,  at  outside  figures. 


\ 


SWINE. 


1215 


Castration.  This  operation  is  performed  upon 
the  pig  chiefly  with  a  view  to  more  rapid  fattening, 
and  the  result  is  doubtless  attained,  for  at  the  same 
time  that  it  increases  the  quiescent  qualities  of  the 
animal,  it  diminishes  also  his  courage,  spirits  and 
nobler  attributes,  and  even  affects  his  form.  The 
tusks  of  a  castrated  boar  never  grow  like  those  of  the 
natural  animal,  but  always  have  a  dwarfed,  stunted 
appearance.  The  operation,  if  possible,  should  be 
performed  in  the  spring  or  autumn,  as  the  temperature 
is  the  more  uniform,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  animal  is  in  perfect  health.  Those  which  are  fat 
and  plethoric  should  be  prepared  by  bleeding,  cooling 
diet  and  quiet.  Pigs  are  castrated  at  all  ages,  from  a 
fortnight  to  three,  six  and  eight  weeks,  and  even  four 
months  old. 

There  are  various  modes  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion. If  the  pig  is  not  more  than  six  weeks  old,  an 
incision  is  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  scrotum,  the 
testicle  pushed  out,  and  the  cord  cut,  without  any 
precautionary  means  whatever.  When  the  animal  is 
older,  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  hemorrhage,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  will  supervene;  consequently,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  pass  a  ligature  round  the  cord  a 
little  above  the  spot  where  the  division  is  to  take 
place. 

By  another  mode — to  be  practiced  only  on  very 
young  animals — a  portion  of  the  base  of  the  scrotum 
is  cut  off,  the  testicles  forced  out,  and  the  cord  sawn 
through  with  a  somewhat  serrated  but  blunt  instru- 
ment. If  there  is  any  hemorrhage,  it  is  arrested  by 
putting  ashes  in  the  wound.  The  animal  is  then  dis- 
missed and  nothing  further  done  with  him. 

On  animals  two  or  three  years  old,  the  operation  is 
sometimes  performed  in  the  following  manner :  An 
assistant  holds  the  pig,  pressing  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal against  his  chest  and  belly,  keeping  the  head 
elevated,  and  grasping  all  the  four  legs  together;  or, 
which  is  the  preferable  way,  one  assistant  holds  the 
animal  against  his  chest,  while  another  kneels  down 
and  secures  the  four  legs.  The  operator  then  grasps 
the  scrotum  with  his  left  hand,  makes  one  horizontal 
incision  across  its  base,  opening  both  divisions  of  the 
bag  at  the  same  time.  The  testicles  are  then  pressed 
out  with  his  finger  and  thumb,  and  removed  with  a 
blunt  knife,  which  lacerates  the  part  without  bruising 
it  and  rendering  it  painful.  Laceration  is  requi- 
site only  in  order  to  prevent  the  subsequent  hem- 
orrhage which  would  occur  if  the  cord  were  simply 
severed  by  a  sharp  instrument.  The  wound  is  then 
closed  by  pushing  the  edges  gently  together  with  the 
fingers,  and  it  speedily  heals.  Some  break  the  sper- 
matic cord  without  tearing  it ;  they  twist  it,  and  then 
pull  it  gently  and  until  it  finally  gives  way. 

The  most  fatal  consequence  of  castration  is  tetanus, 
or  lockjaw,  induced  by  the  shock  communicated  to 
the  nervous  system  by  the  torture  of  the  operation. 

Spaying.  This  operation  consists  in  removing  the 
ovaries,  and  sometnnes  a  portion  of  the  uterus,  more 
or  less  considerable,  of  the  female.    The  animal  is 


laid  upon  its  left  side,  and  firmly  held  by  one  or  two 
assistants,  an  incision  is  then  made  into  the  flank, the 
forefinger  of  the  right  hand  introduced  into  it,  and 
gently  moved  about  until  it  encounters  and  hooks 
hold  of  the  right  ovary,  which  it  draws  through  the 
opening;  a  ligature  is  then  passed  around  this  one, 
and  the  left  ovary  felt  for  in  like  manner.  The  opera- 
tor then  severs  these  two  ovaries,  either  by  cutting  or 
tearing,  and  returns  the  womb  and  its  appurtenances 
to  their  proper  position.  This  being  done,  he  closes 
the  wound  with  two  or  three  stitches,  sometimes  rubs 
a  little  oil  over  it,  and  releases  the  animal.  All  goes 
on  well,  for  the  healing  power  of  the  pig  is  very 
great. 

The  after-treatment  is  very  simple.  The  animals 
should  be  well  littered  with  clean  straw,  in  sties 
weather-tight  and  thoroughly  ventilated;  their  diet 
should  be  cared  for;  some  milk  or  whey,  with  barley 
meal,  is  an  excellent  article.  It  is  well  to  confine  them 
for  a  few  days,  as  they  should  be  prevented  from  get- 
ting into  cold  water  or  mud  until  the  wound  is  per- 
fectly healed,  and  also  from  creeping  through  fences. 
The  best  age  for  spaying  a  sow  is  about  six  weeks; 
indeed,  as  a  general  rule,  the  younger  the  animal  is 
when  either  operation  is  performed  the  quicker  it  re- 
covers. Some  persons,  however,  have  two  or  three 
litters  from  their  sows  before  they  operate  upon  them  ; 
where  this  is  the  case,  the  result  is  more  to  be  feared, 
as  the  parts  have  become  more  susceptible,  and  are, 
consequently,  more  liable  to  take  on  inflammation. 

Feeding.  The  elements  of  great  importance  in 
the  rearing  of  swine,  are  to  keep  them  comfortably 
warm,  to  afford  them  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air, 
and  to  keep  them  perfectly  free  from  every  kind  of 
nastiness  and  vermin.  The  necessity  of  comfortable 
warmth  at  all  seasons  and  the  positive  saving  it  effects 
in  both  food  and  strength  are  pointed  out  in  the  arti- 
cle Feeding  of  Animals.  Pigs  which  have  little  or  no 
protection  from  the  cold  winds,  cold  rains,  sleet  and 
snow,  and  which  try  to  keep  one  another  warm  by 
cowering  together  in  heaps,  and  which,  in  spite  of 
every  device  they  practice,  often  shiver  with  cold 
amid  the  severities  of  spring  and  winter,  cannot  pos- 
sibly thrive  upon  even  the  best  and  most  abundant 
food  which  man  can  supply;  and  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  enjoy  no  shade  from  the  scorching  and 
blistering  play  of  sunshine  in  summer,  they  both  will 
become  somewhat  unsightly  in  appearance,  and  may 
be  occasionally  made  sick,  and  generally  retarded  in 
growth.  A  close,  ill-ventilated  sty  has  an  absolutely 
pestilential  atmosphere,  and  makes  pigs  look  delicate 
and  sickly,  and  undermines  their  very  constitution, 
preventing  them  from  ever  attaining  proper  size 
and  weight;  while  a  sty  with  an  open-barred  door 
and  a  constant  current  of  fresh  air,  maintains  them 
in  vigor,  gives  them  the  full  advantage  of  their  food, 
and  affords  full  and  facile  scope  for  their  rapid  growth 
and  ample  maturation.  Cleanliness,  not  only  of  the 
litter  end  the  floor  of  the  sty,  but  of  the  feet  and  all 
the  skin  of  the  animals  themselves,  is  essential  in  the 
energetic  performance  of  the  organic  functions,  and 


I2l6 


SWINE. 


even  to  the  prevention  of  comparative  dwarfishness 
and  some  measure  of  disease.  The  propensity  of 
swine  to  roll  themselves  in  mud  in  summer  only 
jsroves  that  they  require  protection  from  the  scorching 
heat  of  the  sunshine,  and  from  the  attacks  of  flies, 
and  affords  not  the  remotest  indication  that  any  daub- 
ing of  the  pores  with  dirt  can  ix)ssibly  be  beneficial. 
A  washed  sow  in  the  hot  season  of  our  temperate  cli- 
mate, and  in  almost  every  season  in  such  a  climate  as 
that  of  Palestine,  "  returns  to  her  wallowing  in  the 
mire  "  simply  because  she  feels  scorched  and  blistered 
and  sickened  under  the  ardent  sunshine;  and  hence 
when  she  receives  from  man  the  aid  which  is  due  to 
her  as  a  domesticated  animal,  she  demands,  not  dirt 
all  the  year  through,  or  any  day  at  all,  but  shade  in 
summer,  shelter  in  winter,  and  a  clean,  dry  bed  In 
every  season. 

Swine  are  generally  fattened  for  pork  at  from  six  to 
nine  months  old ;  and  for  bacon,  at  from  a  year  to 
two  years.  Eighteen  months  is  generally  considered 
the  proper  age  for  a  good  bacon  hog.  The  feeding 
will  always,  in  a  great  measure,  depend  upon  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  owner— upon  the  kind  of  food 
which  he  has  at  his  disposal,  and  can  best  spare — and 
the  purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  intended.  It  will 
also,  in  some  degree,  be  regulated  by  the  season,  it 
being  possible  to  feed  pigs  very  differently  in  the 
summer  from  what  they  are  fed  in  winter. 

The  refuse  wash  and  grains,  and  other  residue  of 
breweries  and  distilleries,  may  be  given  to  swine  with 
advantage,  and  seem  to  induce  a  tendency  to  lay  on 
flesh.  They  should  not,  however,  be  given  in  too 
large  quantities,  nor  unmixed  with  other  and  more 
substantial  food ;  since,  although  they  give  flesh  rap- 
idly when  fed  on  it,  the  meat  is  not  firm,  and  never 
makes  good  bacon.  Hogs  eat  acorns  and  beech-mast 
greedily,  and  so  far  thrive  on  this  food  that  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  fatten  them  afterwards.  Apples  and 
pumpkins  are  likewise  valuable  for  this  purpose. 

There  is  nothing  so  nutritious,  so  eminently  and  in 
every  way  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  fattening,  as  are 
the  various  kinds  of  grain — nothing  that  tends  more 
to  create  firmness  as  well  as  delicacy  in  the  flesh. 
Indian  corn  is  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  kind  of 
grain  for  fattening  purposes,  and  can  be  given  in  its 
natural  state,  as  pigs  are  so  fond  of  it  that  they  will 
eat  up  every  kernel.  The  pork  and  bacon  of  animals 
that  have  been  thus  fed  are  peculiarly  firm  and  solid. 
Animal  food  tends  to  make  swine  savage  and  feverish, 
and  often  lays  the  foundation  of  serious  inflammation 
of  the  intestines. 

Spring  Feeding.  There  is  no  period  of  the  year 
when  it  pays  so  well  to  be  on  the  alert,  looking  out  for 
every  class  of  farm  stock,  watching  for  shivering,  gen- 
eral discomfort  and  shrinkage,  as  from  March  till 
May  grass.  The  hog,  if  fairly  well  fed  during  sum- 
mer and  fall,  and  tolerably  well  cared  for  during  the 
cold,  dry  weather  of  the  three  winter  months,,  will 
have  held  up  pretty  well  till  now.  But,  as  stated,  the 
two   months  during  which  it  will  pay  better  to  give 


extra  care  than  during  any  other  period  of  the  year 
begin  with  March. 

And  the  question,  how  to  compensate  for  the  ab- 
sence of  grass,  comes  up  very  prominently.  Swine- 
breeders  do  not,  as  a  rule,  give  due  consideration  to 
the  fact  that  the  hog  is,  in  his  natural  state,  a  con- 
sumer of  green  food,  and,  in  that  state,  is  mainly  de- 
pendent uix)n  grazing.  We  have,  by  confining  him 
in  dirt  yards  and  plank  pens,  debarring  him  from  ac- 
cess to  green  stuff,  changed  him  from  proverbial 
daintiness  as  to  his  food,  into  a  veritable  "hog,"  ready 
to  devour  all  manner  of  filth,  giving  us,  in  return,  flesh 
made  up  of  impurities,  because  the  corruption  the  hog 
eats  inevitably  taints  his  blood,  and  through  this  en- 
ters into  all  his  tissues.  It  is  no  more  surprising  that 
the  hog  learns  to  eat  filth,  taking  this  down  with  ap- 
parent relish,  than  it  is  that  the  boy  of  15  learns  to 
relish  tobacco,  perhaps  the  most  acrid,  prostrating 
and  sickening  of  all  plants. 

As  an  evidence  that  the  hog  was,  in  a  state  of  na- 
ture, quite  select  in  his  diet,  we  will  state,  upon  the 
authority  of  Linnaeus,  that,  as  compared  to  other  veg- 
etable eaters,  he  accepted  fewer  plants  for  his  daily 
food  than  any  other  animal.  Thus,  the  cow  ate  276 
plants,  rejecting  218;  the  goat,  449,  rejecting  126; 
sheep,  387,  rejecting  141;  the  horse,  262,  rejecting 
212,  The  hog,  more  nice  than  either,  accepted  72, 
rejecting  171.  But  under  domestication,  as  usually 
carried  out,  he  has  no  discretion  left  him.  Being  de- 
nied the  privilege  of  hunting  his  own  food,  he  takes 
corn  for  his  breakfast ;  for  his  dinner  he  takes  com ; 
and  he  likewise  takes  corn  for  his  evening  meal. 
Hence,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  hog  has  become 
diseased,  and  though,  through  careful  selections,  we 
have  made  a  model  of  his  form,  bringing  it  up  to  the 
highest  standard  for  profit,  and  at  the  same  time 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  yet  he  is  often  made  to  succumb 
to  epidemics. 

We  all  know  the  effect  upon  sailors  of  confinement 
upon  a  given  kind  of  food,  being  debarred,  at  the 
same  time,  from  vegetables.  Scurvy,  the  scourge  that 
arises  from  confinement  to  certain  kinds  of  food,  and 
from,  at  the  same  time,  being  debarred  from  other 
kinds,  is  not,  as  many  suppose,  a  mere  affection  of  the 
gums,  but  is  as  general  in  the  disturbance  it  gets  up 
as  is  the  so-called  hog  cholera  in  the  case  of  the  hog. 

The  hog,  confined,  as  he  usually  is,  and  fed  upon 
corn  alone,  if  he  could  get  his  eye  upon  green'  grass, 
would  doubtless  make  as  strong  demonstrations  to  get 
a  taste  of  the  coveted  food  as  did  the  scurvy-scourged 
seamen  of  the  ship  Centurion,  under  Lord  Anson, 
when  approaching  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez, 
crazed  at  the  sight  of  vegetation  upon  the  shore.  And 
when  a  squad  of  men  were  sent  ashore,  bringing  green 
grass  aboard  the  ship,  the  men  devoured  it  with 
avidity,  taking  on  an  improved  condition  at  once. 
The  villager  knows  how  eager  the  pigs,  shut  up  in  the 
pen  during  the  whole  year,arefor  the  grass  and  weeds 
from  the  garden  near  at  hand;  and  partly  because  he 
wants  to  get  rid  of  his  weeds,  and  partly  because  he 
thinks  the  pigs  will  like  a  little  green  stuff  "for  a  rel- 


SWINE. 


1217 


ish,"  he  throws  the  refuse  to  them.  He  does  not  re- 
flect that  green  food  is  the  natural  sustenance  of  the 
hog,  as  it  is  of  the  cow,  while,  by  feeding  on  corn 
alone,  he  is  keeping  his  pigs  in  an  extravagantly  ar- 
tificial state. 

The  question  from  March  till  May  is,  how  best  to 
supply  the  hog  with  food  that  will  most  nearly  answer 
in  the  place  of  the  pasture  grass  that  we  suppose  all 
hog-raisers  expect  to  supply  when  the  proper  season 
arrives.  To  turn  out  upon  the  field  then  is  not  ad- 
missible, except  on  something  besides  the  pasture  or 
nieadow,  as,  the  grass  being  dead,  his  instinct  would 
lead  him  to  the  next  best  substitute,  viz.,  the  roots  of 
the  grass.  But  the  corn  and  stubble  fields — along 
the  fences  of  these — will  afford  roots  which  the  hog 
can  grub  up  if  given  the  opiwrtunity;  and  by  even 
this  expedient,  the  weather  being  moderate,  a  state  of 
unthrift  may  be  converted  into  thrift,  paving  the  way 
for  abundant  health  and  rapid  gain  when  the  green 
things  of  spring  are  far  enough  along  to  give  a  good 
bite.  But  in  the  absence  of  even  the  meager  change 
to  be  found  along  the  fences,  and  especially  in  the 
case  of  such  animals  as  cannot  be  given  their  liberty, 
the  natural  instinct  for  green  and  soft  food  should  be 
gratified  through  whatever  material  may  be  at  hand. 

Health  and  growth  during  the  following  summer 
may  depend  largely  upon  the  success  in  averting  in- 
digestion, and  the  morbid  state  of  the  blood  which 
comes  of  this,  through  discreet  management  during 
April  and  May.  If  no  vegetables  can  be  spared  for 
this  purpose,  it  will  pay  to  buy  them,  not  on  account 
of  the  mere  nutriment  contained,  but  for  the  dietetic 
and  sanitary  reasons  mentioned  above.  Coal  ashes, 
charred  coal  and  charcoal  from  wood  should  be  with- 
in reach  at  all  times.  In  a  general  way,  and  by  the 
use  of  divers  suitable  agencies,  the  digestion  should 
be  secured  against  impairment,  the  bowels  kept  in  a 
condition  the  opposite  of  being  constipated,  that  the 
blood  may  be  neither  impoverished  nor  charged  with 
unhealthy  secretions.  By  acting  with  discretion  in 
the  manner  pointed  out,  and  protecting  them  from 
inclement  weather  at  the  same  time,  thrift  during  the 
entire  season  is  likely  to  be  the  result. 

Summer  Feeding.  The  warm  season  is  Nature's 
time  for  vegetable  growth,  and  no  less  so  for  animal 
growth.  But  farmers  seem  to  regard  it  as  a  fortunate- 
ly easy  time  to  carry  pigs  on  very  small  feed.  Many 
of  them  have  the  strange  notion  that  the  pig  should 
be  tided  over  the  summer  u^xm  a  little  pasture,  and 
prepared  to  be  fattened  after  the  cold  fall  weather 
sets  in.  Grass  promotes  the  health  of  pigs,  and  a 
proper  amount  of  it  is  highly  beneficial ;  but  profit- 
able feeding  requires  that  pigs  should  make  their 
most  rapid  gain  in  the  warm  weather.  A  hundred 
pounds  can  be  put  on  pigs  in  summer  as  (cheaply  as 
50  to  65  pounds  can  in  cold  weather.  We  believe 
this  statement  will  be  endorsed  by  all  feeders  who 
have  tested  the  warm  and  the  cold  seasons  for  feed- 
ing under  ordinary  circumstances.  We  admit  that 
swine  houses  may  be  built  so  as  to  maintain  a  mild 
temperature  in  winter,  and  then  there  would  not  be 
77 


so  great  a  difference  as  we  have  noted.  But  those 
who  provide  for  a  summer  temperature  in  winter  are 
thorough  believers  in  full  feeding  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  and  need  no  admonition  as  to  the  economy 
of  full  feeding  in  summer. 

What  is  the  appropriate  grain  food  for  pigs  in  sum-  , 
mer.'  The  answer  to  this  question  must  depend 
upon  the  age  and  condition  of  the  pigs.  Pigs  from 
two  to  six  months  old  must  have  such  food  as  will 
produce  growth  of  muscle  and  bone — not  fat.  Indian 
corn  for  such  pigs  is,  therefore,  to  be  avoided,  except 
in  very  small  quantity.  Corn  is  the  most  fattening 
food,  the  food  to  fill  up  the  large,  lank  muscular 
frame,  to  lay  on  clear,  solid  pork.  But  the  young  pig 
has  all  this  frame-work  to  grow,  and  should  have 
food  best  adapted  to  that  end.  A  clover  pasture  is 
a  good  beginning,  and  this  should  be  supplemented 
with  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  food,  such  as  oats, 
peas,  wheat  middlings,  linseed  meal,  or  cotton-seed 
meal ;  or  best  of  all,  several  of  these  mixed  together. 
Linseed  meal,  which  can  be  had  at  $20  to  $25  per 
ton  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  is  perhaps  the  best 
extra  food  for  young  pigs  in  summer,  because  of  its 
easy  digestibility,  soothing  effect  upon  the  digestive 
organs,  and  its  peculiar  adaptation  to  the  growth  of 
muscle  and  bone.  Cotton-seed  meal  has  much  more 
oil,  more  nitrogenous  matter,  and  is  rich  in  phos- 
phates, but  is  not  so  easily  digested  as  linseed  meal, 
and  is  constipating,  while  linseed  meal  is  slightly 
laxative.  Wheat  middlings,  which  is  purchasable  in 
the  West  usually  at  $5  to  $9  per  ton,  is  also  well 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  frame  and  muscle  in  pigs, 
and  will  produce  this  growth  at  a  low  rate  of  cost. 
Perhaps  the  best  combination  of  food  would  be  100 
pounds  of  linseed  meal,  200  pounds  of  wheat  mid- 
dlings and  100  pounds  of  corn  meal,  mixed  together. 
This  would  give  a  mixture  of  qualities  leaving 
nothing  to  be  desired.  This  combination  of  food  will 
keep  the  pigs  in  prime  health  in  the  hot  season,  hav- 
ing no  tendency  to  produce  a  feverish  state  of  the 
system.  Peas,  oats,  or  corn,  ground  together  in  equal 
proportions,  also  make  an  excellent  combination  for 
summer  pig  food.  We  doubt  if  hog  cholera  would 
ever  appear  in  pigs  thus  reared.  This  disease  is  of 
very  rare  occurrence  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  the 
cases  there  found  are  mostly  propagated  by  contact 
with  Western  hogs.  Western  feeders  would  do  well 
to  provide  a  greater  variety  of  food  for  their  pigs. 
Peas  and  oats  grow  as  naturally  and  as  profitably  in 
the  West  as  corn.  Use  them  all  in  the  growth  of 
pigs,  and  diseases  will  be  much  less  troublesome. 

How  TO  Soak  Corn  for  Hogs.  During  the  dry 
summer  months  corn  gets  hard  and  dry,  and  if  it 
happens  to  be  a  rough  variety,  hogs  will  eat  no  more 
of  it  than  will  keep  them  in  decent  living  condition. 
At  such  a  time  it  is  profitable  to  soak  the  corn,  as  by 
that  means  we  partially  restore  it  to  the  condition  of 
the  roasting  ear,  and  every  farmer  knows  that  it  is  the 
time  that  hogs  will  grow  or  fatten  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

By  soaking  corn  that  has  become  excessively  hard 


12l8 


SWINE. 


and  dry,  we  restore  it  in  a  measure  to  its  normal  state, 
and  put  it  in  a  condition  easily  to  be  masticated  and 
rapidly  digested,  and  there  hinges  the  whole  question : 
the  more  rapid  the  digestion  the  quicker  is  assimila- 
tion, and  the  more  rapid  the  assimilation  the  faster 
does  the  animal  arrive  at  maturity  to  fit  it  for  the 
market. 

Com  can  be  soaked  in  a  tank  constnicted  for  that 


Fig.  ^.—Hog-Watering  Devict. 

purpose,  where  a  large  number  are  fed;  but  on  a  smaller 
scale,  kerosene  casks  can  be  used.  They  may  be 
quickly  cleansed  by  taking  out  the  head  and  throw- 
ing in  a  few  old  newspapers  and  touching  a  match  to 
them.  When  it  gets  into  a  good  blaze  and  begins  to 
crackle  pretty  lively,  turn  the  cask  upside  down,  and 
the  blaze  will  be  extinguished  for  want  of  air. 

Two  such  casks  will  hold  corn  enough  to  feed  two 
days — four  feeds — for  twenty  shoats,  soaking  each 
cask  full  of  corn  twenty-four 
hours.  If  you  are  desirous 
of  pushing  forward  your  fat- 
tening hogs  while  they  bring 
a  good  price,  soak  your  com. 

Feeding  Green  Corn. 
Green  corn,  as  soon  as  it  is 
fairly  ripe  enough  for  ordinary 
table  use,  is  probably  the 
very  best  fattening  food  avail- 
able to  the  general  farmer  for 
feeding  swine.  The  pigs  eat 
it  with  a  peculiar  relish,  and 
will  grow  and  fatten  upon  it 
with  surprising  rapidity.  No 
food  is  equal  to  this  for  put- 
ting pigs  in  good  "  show  con- 
dition '   for  the  fairs. 

But  while  all  this  is  true,  it 
no  doubt  is  a  very  expensive 
food  when  used  at  this  period. 
In  a  discussion  upon  this 
point  to  which  we  once  listen- 
ed, an  old  farmer  remarked 
that  he  had  "often  noticed  that  when  his  wife  fed  his 
hired  men  on  green  com  at  the  table,  one  man  would 
often  eat  four  or  five  ears,  while  one  of  these  same 
ears  if  ripened,  ground  into  meal  and  made  into 
bread,  would  feed  four  or  five  men."  Probably  this  is 
overstating  the  difference,  but  it  is  no  doubt  an  ex- 
pensive, and  in  some  degree  a  wasteful,  use  of  food 
to  use  corn  before  it  is  fully  ripened. 

Water.     Plenty  of  pure,  fresh  water  is  essential  to 
the  successful  raising  of  swine.  They  are  more  choice 


in  the  food  they  eat  and  the  water  they  drink  than 
they  often  have  credit  for.  A  hog  can  appreciate  a 
good  drink  of  cool  clear  water  as  much  as  almost  any 
animal.  It  is  often  a  source  of  great  difficulty,  how- 
ever, to  furnish  abundance  of  such  water  at  all  times. 
Many  devices  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose  of 
affording  a  constant  supply  of  water  to  swine,  but  we 
know  of  none  seemingly  so  well  adapted  as  the  one 
illustrated  in  this  connection.  It  is 
known  as  the  patent  hog-waterer  and 
is  made  by  the  Sandwich  Enterprise 
Co.,  Sandwich,  Illinois. 

Fig.  5  represents  the  apparatus  as 
it  appears  when  in  position  for  use.  As 
can  be  seen,  all  that  is  exposed  is  the 
top  with  its  openings  for  the  hogs  to 
drink  from.  The  water  maintains  the 
same  height  in  the  drinkingtank,  no  matter  how  much 
is  used. 

The  top  presents  four  openings  where  hogs  can 
drink,  the  weak  animals  having  equal  chance  with  the 
stronger,  and  no  opportunity  is  given  them  to  get  their 
feet  in  and  soil  the  water.  Indeed,  no  matter  what 
the  circumstances,  the  animals  have  good,  clean  water 
to  drink  as  long  as  the  source  of  supply  is  kept  up. 

By  Fig.  6  is  presented  a  sectional  cut  showing  the 
arrangement  of  the  apparatus  in  ground,  from  which 
an  understanding  of  its  mode  of  operation  can  be 
had.  A  represents  the  reservoir  tank  or  trough,  such 
as  any  farmer  may  have  for  his  stock.  K,  strainer  on 
end  of  pipe  to  prevent  trash  or  dirt  passing  through 
and  interfering  with  action  of  the  float  valve.     B  is 

N 
A, 


Fig.  fs.— Sectional  View  of  Watering  Device. 

the  regulating  barrel.  C,  the  drinking  barrel.  G,  the 
pipe  connecting  same.  As  can  be  seen  the  water  in 
B  and  C  will  remain  on  same  level,  as  both  are  con- 
nected; consequently,  if  water  be  taken  from  C  it  will 
lower  the  level  in  B  correspondingly,  and  when  the 
water  in  B  is  lowered  the  float  I  descends  with  it, 
allowing  the  float  valve  H  to  open  and  water  to  jmss 
through  until  the  float  valve  shuts  off  the  flow  of 
water. 

Teeth.     The  teeth  of  the  hog  may  be  represented 


SWINF: 


I2I9 


by  the  following  formula :  Incisors,  six  upper,  six  lower, 
canines,  one  upper,  one  lower,  on  each  side ;  wolf  teeth, 
so-called,  now  determined  to  be  molars,  one  upper, 
one  lower,  on  each  side ;  molars,  six  upper,  six  lower, 
on  each  side  ;  in  all,  44  teeth. 

To  Tell  the  Age  of  Swine.  The  animal  is  born 
with  eight  teeth — four  corner  incisors  and  four  tusks. 

On  the  eighth  or  tenth  day  appears  the  second  or 
third  temporary  molar. 

At  four  weeks  old  the  four  nippers  appear — two  in 
the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw. 

At  the  fifth  or  sixth  week  the  foremost  temporary 
molars  appear  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw. 

At  the  age  of  three  months  the  intermediary  in- 
cisors have  appeared  above  the  gums. 

At  the  sixth  month  the  so-called  wolf's  teeth  will 
have  appeared ;  and  at  the  same  age  appear  the  third 
permanent  molars. 

At  the  ninth  month  the  following  teeth  will  have 
appeared,  namely,  the  permanent  corner  incisors,  the 
permanent  tusks,  and  also  the  second  permanent 
molars. 

At  the  twelfth  month  the  permanent  nippers  will  be 
in  view. 

With  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  months  the  three 
temporary  molars  will  have  been  shed,  and  their  per- 
manent substitutes,  which,  at  fifteen  months  of  age, 
will  have  fully  appeared,  are  now  just  cutting  through 
the  gums. 

With  the  eighteenth  month  the  permanent  inter- 
mediary incisors  and  the  hindmost  permanent  molar 
will  have  made  their  appearance  and  with  the 
twenty-first  month  they  will  be  fully  developed. 

Ringing.  This  is  an  operationiperformed  to  coun- 
teract the  propensity  which  swine  have  of  digging  in 
the  earth.  The  ring  is  passed  through  what  appears 
a  prolongation  of  the  septum,  between  the  snout  bone 

and  the  nasal. 
I  The  animal  is 
J  thus  unable  to 
f  obtain     suffi- 
cient  purchase 
I  to  use  his  snout 
I  with  any  effect, 
'without     caus- 
ing the  ring  to 
press   so  pain- 
fully ujxjn   the 
part  that  he  is 
forced  to  desist. 
By  the  acconi- 
p  a  n  y  i  n  g  en- 

Yio.  T-— Double  Ilag  Ringer.  gravingS     We 

represent  Brown's  single  and  double  hog  and  pig  ring- 
ers, made  by  Chambers,  Bering  &  Quinlan,  Decatur, 
Illinois.  These  rings  close  with  tlie  joints  outside, 
and  it  is  thus  claimed  leaves  no  sharp  points  in  the 
flesh  to  cause  irritation  and  soreness,  as  in  the  case  of 
rings  that  close  with  joints  in  the  flesh.    The  cuts 


also  show  the  "  champion  hog  holder,"  in   the  hand. 

By  Fig.  9  is  rep- 
resented an  ap- 
paratus  for 
catching  hogs, 
manufactured 
b  y  the  same 
parties  as  t  h  e 
ringers  are. 
The  instrument 
as  above  des- 
cribed for 
ringing  hogs  an- 
swers every  pur- 
pose for  mark- 
in  g  them,  as 
well    as    sheep 

Fig.  %,—Single  Ho^'  Ringer.  and    cattle,    the 

same  ring  being  used.     For  this  purpose  it  is  inserted 

in  the  ear  of  the  animal,  instead  of  the  nose.     Letters, 

or  numbers,  or  both,  are  stamped  upon  brass,  a  letter 

or  number  on 

each    piece, 

and     then 

slipped  upon 

the  ring  in  the 

ear,  which  is 

then  closed. 

Each   animal 

when  proper- ^^ 

ly  m  n  r  1^  °  H I  ^^^^•^^S^^-^--- — oe. 

should     have  .  ,,     „     , 

^,        •        ^y  Fig.  o. — A  nog  Catching  Apparatus* 

onthenngthe 

initials  of  its  owner's  name  and  a  number. 

Piggeries.  In  all  the  great  swine-growing  regions, 
where  from  twenty-five  to  five  hundred  hogs  are  annu- 
ally fattened  and  sold  from  single  farms,  the  life  of  the 
animals  must  necessarily  be  passed  out-of-doors.  So  far 
as  the  breeding  stock  and  the  first  fewmonths  of  the  life 
of  the  pigs  are  concerned,  this  isalways  the  best,  both 
from  an  economical  and  sanitary  point  of  view.  There 
are,  however,  many  small  farmers  who  annually  fat- 
ten, from  what  they  require  forfamily  use,  up  to  fifteen 
or  twenty  head  a  year,  who  find  it  most  convenient 
and  economical-  to  feed  and  fatten  both  in  summer 
and  winter  in  pens.  All  this  large  class  must  depend, 
first,  on  the  skim  milk,  buttermilk  and  whey,  and  upon 
the  slop  of  the  kitchen  for  feeding;  second,  upon 
clover,  cut  and  fed,  weeds  and  other  refuse  material 
about  the  farm,  and  lastly  and  principally  on  corn, 
either  ground  or  raw.  It  is  better  for  all  this  class  that 
the  pens  when  built  be  planned  so  as  to  combine  ease 
of  handling  with  security  and  comfort  of  the  animals. 

Because  swine  are  blessed  with  keen  appetites, 
strong  digestion,  and  hardy  constitutions  capable  of 
resisting  a  great  amount  of  neglect  and  ill-usage,  they 
have  been,  and  in  too  many  instances  are  yet,  the 
worst  used  animals  kept  for  the  profit  of  man.  And, 
as  if  to  add  to  the  abuse,  their  endeavors  to  make  the 
best  of  ill-treatment,  have  been  charged  to  the  account 


SWINE. 


of  their  natural  uncleanliness;  and  the  idea  that 
wholesome  meat  can  not  be  made  by  feeding  animals 
with  garbage,  has  caused  pork  to  become  the  horror  of 
dietetic  reformers,  who  pronounce  it  unfit  for  liuman 
food.  It  were  as  wise  to  condemn  the  use  of  milk, 
and  to  pronounce  cows  unfit  for  civilized  communities, 
because  some  individuals  persist  in  confining  them  in 
filthy  stables,  and  dosing  them  with  distillery  slops. 
In  his  native  state,  the  hog  is  as  dainty  in  his  taste  as 
other  animals,  and  his  lair  is  found  in  a  dry  situation, 
well  cushioned  with  clean  leaves,  unsoiled  by  any 
neglect  of  his  own.     It  would  be  within  the  mark  to 


Fig.  II. — Plan  of  Pig-pen. 

say  that  in  most  instances,  twenty  per  cent  of  saving 
can  be  effected  in  food,  and  in  additions  to  the  manure 
heap,  by  a  well  regulated  building  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  swine. 

The  plan.  Fig.  ii,  combines  the  requisites,  with 
many  of  the  conveniences,  of  a  desirable  pig-pen.  The 
engraving  shows  one  complete  pen,  with  its  divisions. 
A  row  of  these  pens  may  be  built  as  ?.  long  shed,  and 
the  description  of  one  will  answer  for  all.  The  pen  is 
twenty  feet  long  from  front  to  rear,  by  eight  feet  wide. 
The  posts  at  the  front  are  ten  feet  high,  and  at  the 
rear  seven  feet.  A  feed  passage  runs  along  the  front 
of  the  pens,  shown  at  a.  The  feeding  and  sleeping 
apartment  is  shown  sXb.  At  <:  is  a  passage  which  also 
runs  along  the  whole  building,  but  which,  when  closed 
by  the  doors,  d,  makes  the  passage  a  part  of  the  yard, 
d.  The  feed  passage,  a,  is  three  feet  wide.  The 
feeding  place,  b,  is  ten  feetdeep  by  eight  feet  in  width; 
the  passage,  f,  is  three  feet  wide,  and  the  yard,^',  four 
feet,  making  the  whole  space  of  the  yard  seven  by 
eight  feet  when  the  passage  is  closed.  When  the 
passage  is  opened  the  door,  d,  closes  the  openingfrom 
the  yard  into  the  feeding  place,  and  the  occupants  of 
the  pens  are  shut  up.  Any  pig  that  may  have  to  be 
moved  from  one  pen  to  another  can  then  be  driven 
without  any  difficulty  wherever  it  may  be  desired.  A 
swinging  door  in  the  rear  may  be  made  to  allow  the 
pigs  to  pass  in  or  out  of  the  barnyard  or  the  pasture, 
if  one  is  provided  for  them.  But  generally  it  will  be 
found  better  to  have  the  pens  built  upon  one  side  of 
the  barnyard,  so  that  the  pigs  may  be  used  to  work 


up  any  materials  for  manure  or  compost  that  may  be 
at  hand  for  the  purpose.  The  floor  of  the  pen  should 
be,  in  part  at  least,  of  plank;  that  of  the  yard  maybe 
of  pavement,  of  cobble-stone,  or  of  cement,  but  should 
be  so  laid  that  it  can  not  be  torn  up.  A  tight  roof 
should  cover  the  whole,  and  sliding  windows  at  the 
rear  and  front  will  provide  good  ventilation.  This  is 
very  important  for  the  comfort  of  the  animals  in  hot 
weather.  The  floor  of  the  pens  should  slope  back- 
wards at  least  two  inches  in  ten  feet,  and  the  yards 
ought  to  be  well  drained.  A  bar  is  fixed  around  the 
bottom  of  the  pen,  about  six  inches  above  the  floor, 
and  projects  about  six  inches  from  the  side  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  the  young  pigs  from  being 
overlaid  by  the  sow  and  smothered.  A  large  quan- 
tity of  waste  material  may  be  worked  up  in  these 
yards,  and  will  add  much  to  the  comfort  and 
cleanliness  of  the  pigs. 

The  framework  of  these  pens  should  be  of  six 
by  six  timber  for  the  sills,  four  by  four  for  the 
posts,  and  two  by  four  for  the  girts  and  tops  and 
bottoms  of  the  partitions.  The  whole  quantity  of 
lumber  needed  for  one  complete  pen  would  be 
1,200  feet,  consisting  of  80  linear  feet  of  six  by 
six  timber,  6r  linear  feet  of  four  by  four  posting, 
and  77  linear  feet  of  two  by  four  scantling,  104 
feet  surface  of  two-inch  plank,  and  500  feet  of 
boards  if  the  roof  is  of  shingles.  A  row  of  ten  of 
these  pens,  making  a  building  80  feet  long,  able 
to  accommodate  fifty  or  sixty  pigs,  would  cost  about 
three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars,  completed. 

Slaughtering.     For  slaughtering  hogs  see  page 

IIS3- 

Curing  and  Pickling  Pork.  See  Bacon,  Ham 
and  page  967. 

Cooking  Pork.     See  page  1060. 
diseases  of  swine. 

Their  Causes,  Symptoms,  Remedies.  The  diseases 
to  which  swine  are  liable  are  not  very  numerous,  but 
some  of  them  are  notably  fatal.  These  are  due,  of 
course,  to  the  abnormal  condition  in  wliich  they  are 
kept.  In  their  wild  state  they  are  not  afflicted  with 
any  of  these  maladies.  Several  of  the  following  dis- 
eases are  given  as  treated  by  A.  R.  Coleman,  in  his 
prize  essay  upon  the  diseases  of  swine.  This  essay 
was  selected  by  the  Swine  Breeders'  Association  as 
the  best  treatise  upon  the  diseases  of  hogs  yet  written. 

Administering  Medicine.  In  explanation  of  the 
prescriptions  given  in  the  article  we  wish  to  say  that 
they  are  given  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest  doses, 
being  adapted  to  small  or  large  animals,  say  from  fifty 
to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  It  must  be  left  to 
the  oi>erator's  discretion  and  judgment  lO  suit  indi- 
vidual cases.  If  the  desired  effect  of  any  medicine 
is  not  produced  after  one  or  two  doses,  it  should  be 
given  in  smaller  quantities  and  at  shorter  intervals 
until  the  effect  is  obtained.  In  reference  to  drench- 
ing hogs  we  wish  to  say  that  when  medicine  can  pos- 


O 

o 

< 

1— « 

X 

o 

a 

< 
►-1 
o 
a, 
I 

■^  • 
ft, 


^1^^ 


SWINE. 


1223 


sibly  be  given  in  other  ways,  it  is  not  advisable,  as  a 
drench  given  by  force  is  liable  to  pass  down  the  wind- 
pipe into  the  lungs  as  soon  as  the  animal  squeals  dur- 
ing the  operation,  and  frequently  causes  instant 
death.  Again,  when  the  hog  is  too  sick  to  eat,  our 
experience  has  taught  us  that  to  force  medicine  down 
the  hog  rarely  assists  nature  in  the  restorative  proc- 
ess, as  the  total  loss  of  appetite  usually  indicates  ap- 
proaching dissolution,  although  in  some  instances  the 
sick,  hog  refuses  to  eat  for  a  day  or  two  and  yet  recov- 
ers. Sometimes  the  sick  hog  will  not  eat  in  the  morn- 
ing, yet  eat  during  the  day;  therefore  it  is  advisable  to 
offer  the  animal  some  tempting  food  (in  which  the 
medicine  is  thoroughly  mixed)  occasionallyduring  the 
day. 

To  drench  a  large  hog,  take  a  cord,  tie  a  running 
noose  at  one  end,  slip  it  into  his  mouth  and  back  of 
the  tushes,  or  canine  teeth.  Secure  the  other  end  to 
a  post,  fence-rail,  staple,  or  any  firm  and  convenient 
place,  or  let  an  assistant  hold  the  end.  When  a  hog 
is  secured  in  this  way  he  will  always  pull  back, 
thus  keeping  the  cord  tight,  and  it  is  then  not 
difficult  to  drench  him.  Take  a  piece  of  hard  wood 
and  shape  it  into  a  stick,  flat  at  one  end,  and  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  wide,  stand  on  the  right  side  of  the 
pig,  reach  over  and  insert  the  flat  end  between  the 
teeth  on  the  left  side  of  the  mouth,  and  then,  by  turn- 
ing the  stick  edgewise,  the  mouth  will  be  opened  suf- 
ficiently wide  to  admit  of  the  introduction  of  a  portion 
of  the  neck  of  a  bottle,  and  also  to  prevent  the  latter 
being  broken  by  the  teeth.  Insert  the  bottle  on  the 
right  side  of  the  mouth,  but  be  careful  to  allow  only  a 
small  quantity  of  the  contents  to  enter  the  mouth  at 
one  time  until  swallowed ;  then  there  is  no  danger  to 
be  apprehended  from  choking.  On  no  account  allow 
the  whole  contents  of  the  bottle  to  empty  itself  into 
the  mouth  and  throat  in  one  continuous  stream ;  oth- 
erwise strangulation  will  be  the  inevitable  result. 

In  administering  medicine  it  is  by  far  the  best 
way,  if  it  can  be  accomplished,  to  mix  and  give  it  in 
their  food;  but  this  cannot  always  be  done.  The  ani- 
mal may  not  always  be  able,  either  from  weakness  or 
other  causes,  to  take  it,  for  the  medicine  may  be  of  a 
character  not  adapted  to  be  given  in  that  form,  for 
either  in  taste  or  smell  it  may  communicate  to  the 
food  such  an  unpleasantness  that  the  animal  will  pos- 
itively refuse  to  touch  it.  The  sense  of  smell  is  par- 
ticularly well  developed  in  the  hog.  Medicines  of 
small  bulk  and  emetics,when  a  speedy  or  certain  effect 
is  desired,  are  best  given  in  solution  as  a  drench,  or 
when  not  possible  to  give  medicine  in  the  food  drench- 
ing must  be  resorted  to.  In  administering  these,  per- 
sons not  accustomed  to  handling  hogs  will  have  great 
difficulty  in  doing  so.  To  drench  small  pigs  let  an 
assistant  seize  the  animal  by  the  ears  and  slightly 
raise  it,  keeping  the  body  secured  between  the  legs. 

As  a  rule  farmers  give  over-doses  of  medicine  to 
their  hogs  and  also  to  other  animals.  It  is  better  to 
administer  medium  doses  and  repeat  every  twelve 
hours  if  necessary.  Large  doses  not  only  debilitate 
the  animal,  but  unfavorably  affect  the  sense  of  taste 


and  the  hog  soon  becomes  disgusted  with  all  drugs 
and  will  refuse  to  take  additional  doses. 

Apoplexy.  This  is  a  cerebral  disorder,  caused  by 
an  excessive  determination  of  blood  to  the  brain,  or 
congestion,  and  may  be  produced  by  over-driving  in 
hot  weather,  a  too  plethoric  condition  of  the  system, 
over-feeding,  or  by  excitement. 

Symptoms.  These  are  usually  few  at  the  outset,  as 
the  affection  generally  occurs  with  great  rapidity.  A 
restlessness  may  be  observed,  with  bloodshot  eyes  and 
variable  appetite,  with  constipation,  and  scanty  ex- 
cretions of  fasces  and  urine,  or  a  comatose  condition. 
The  animal  may  be  feeding,  when  it  may  be  observed 
to  suddenly  stop,  reel,  stagger  and  fall  dead — a  quan- 
tity of  froth  or  foam  issuing  from  its  mouth. 

Treatment.  Apoplexy  in  the  pig  being  a  most  fatal 
complaint,  endeavor  if  possible  to  ascertain  correctly 
and  remove  the  exciting  cause.  If  from  a  too  plethoric 
condition  of  the  system — owing  to  the  nature  of  the 
food  —  the  animal  should  be  placed  on  low  diet,  and 
it  might  be  advisable  to  administer  an  emetic,  such  as 
tartar  emetic  3  to  8  grains,  and  white  hellebore  2  to 
4  grains.  Afterwards  the  following  might  be  given: 
Epsom  salts,  2  to  4  ounces;  calomel,  3  to  10  grains; 
ginger,  ^  to  4  drachms  in  i  pint  of  water.  If  very 
much  constipated,  use  frequent  clysters.  Keep  on 
low  diet,  and  pay  strict  attention  to  cleanliness.  The 
treatment  of  this  disease  is  in  the  majority  of  cases 
anything  but  satisfactory;  therefore  the  greatest  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  the  removal  of  the  exciting 
cause,  as  a  preventive  measure  for  the  welfare  of 
the  yet  unaffected  animals. 

Epilepsy.  This  disease  is  cerebro-spinal,  and  is 
generally  organic;  but  it  may  be  functional,  and 
symptomatic  of  irritation  in  other  parts,  as  in  the 
stomach,  intestines,  or  other  organs;  although  up  to 
the  present  time  little  light  has  really  been  thrown  on 
its  nature.  It  is  due  most  probably  to  some  lesion  or 
peculiar  morbid  condition  of  the  nervous  system, 
and  may  be  to  some  peculiar  condition  of  the  blood, 
probably  arising  from  defective  nutrition, or  it  may  be 
due  to  worms,  or  parasites.  It  is  characterized  by 
sudden  fits. 

Symptoms.  These  mainly  comprise  severe  convul- 
sions, with  coma,  and  foaming  at  the  mouth.  The 
animal  may  be  in  apparent  health,  and  without  any 
previous  manifestations  of  disorder,  or  at  all  events 
may  appear  quite  calm  and  conscious,  when,  without 
any  warning,  a  paroxysm  will  come  on.  If  standing 
it  may  be  observed  to  stagger,  stare,  and  commence 
violently  champing  the  jaws,  with  foaming  at  the 
mouth.  The  animal  may  then  drop  on  its  haunches 
and  the  fore-legs  become  rigid,  the  muscles  of  the 
neck  contract,  the  head  be  thrown  up,  and  violently 
thrown  from  side  to  side,  or  jerked  upwards;  the  mus- 
cles of  the  body  are  also  severely  convulsed.  Urine 
and  faeces  are  discharged  involuntarily,  and  the  crea- 
ture breathes  with  difficulty,  the  tongue  often  pro- 
trudes, and  is  badly  bitten ;  at  length  the  animal  falls, 
straining,  struggling  and  unconscious. 


1224 


^  WINE. 


The  mucous  membranes  are  red  and  congested  and 
the  heart  beats  violently,  the  convulsive  phenomena 
speedily  subsides  and  the  animal  regains  its  feet  or 
else  falls  into  a  deep  sleep.  In  severe  forms  the  con- 
vulsions and  death  soon  ensue;  in  others,  the  fits 
grow  weaker  and  less  frequent  until  they  disappear 
altogether.  As  a  rule  they  are  never  of  very  long 
duration. 

Treatment.  This  is  not  in  the  majority  of  cases  at 
all  satisfactory.  Epilepsy  is  rarely  recoverable.  As- 
suming the  affection  to  have  no  other  origin  than  that 
of  a  purely  nervous  disorder,  extract  of  belladonna,  5 
to  20  grains,  would  appear  to  be  indicated;  but  if  the 
abnormal  action  can  be  traced  to  worms,  then  their 
eradication  should  be  provided  for.  Whatever  may 
be  the  exciting  cause,  endeavor  to  remove  it.  Good 
food,  proper  housing,  attention  to  the  general  com- 
fort and  opportunity  for  exercise  are  indispensable. 
At  the  period  of  attack  little  can  be  done;  the  dash- 
ing of  cold  water  over  the  head  is  the  most  proper 
course  to  pursue.  After  the  seizure  has  passed,  ex- 
isting irregularities  may  then  receive  attention,  and 
their  removal  attempted.  A  very  useful  vermifuge  is 
areca  nut  pulverized  in  i-drachm  doses,  given  fasting, 
and  afterwaras  followed  by  a  purgative,  such  as  Ep- 
som salts,  2  to  6  ounces,  or  Castor  oil,  2  to.  4  ounces. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Epsom  salts,  which  might 
be  given  in  the  food,  the  other  three  medicines  had 
better  be  administered  in  the  form  of  a  drench. 

Cholera;  Anthrax;  Typhus;  Cyanosis;  Ery- 
sipelas; Carbunculosus;  Gastro-Enteritis.  This 
disease  is  known  by  the  vernacular  or  common  names 
of  distemper,  red  soldier,  red  disease,  blue  sick- 
ness, blue  disease,  hog  cholera  and  measles.  It  is  a 
subject  respecting  which  there  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion,  some  regarding  it  as  typhus,  others  as 
anthrax  hence  the  various  appellations.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly a  blood  disease.  It  is  a  malady  that  ap- 
pears first  to  affect  the  digestive  organs,  and  then  the 
blood  undergoes  changes  favorable  to  translations, 
which  occur  in  different  parts  of  the  body.  By  most 
authorities  it  is  considered  contagious. 

This  disease  has  been  so  terrible  in  its  devastating 
effects,  and  so  great  a  pecuniary  loss  to  the  farmers 
of  this  country,  that  we  will  speak  of  it  more  in  detail 
than  other  diseases  require. 

History  of  the  Disease.  During  the  year  r856 
there  appeared  in  the  New  England  States  occasional 
cases  of  sickness  of  a  peculiar  nature  among  the 
hogs.  In  the  two  following  years  this  disease  extend- 
ed into  the  States  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland.  Many  farmers  in  the  counties  of  Adams 
and  York,  Pennsylvania,  in  1858,  lost  almost  their 
entire  stock  of  swine. 

During  the  year  1859  it  traveled  westward  through 
Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  and  reached  the  miasmatic 
districts  of  the  Wabash  river  in  the  Southern  portion 
of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  where  it  multiplied  and  de- 
veloped rapidly,  and  of  a  malignant  type;  especially 
in  such  parts  of  the  country  where  torpidity  of  the 


liver,  intermittent,  bilious  and  typhoid  fevers,  prevailed 
in  the  human  family.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  so- 
called  hog  cholera  was  endemic  in  the  Western  States 
several  years  prior  to  1859,  but  we  have  not  found 
any  authenticated  account  of  its  previous  existence. 

Since  the  year  1859,  the  hog  disease  has  spread 
West,  North  and  South,  throughout  the  United  States 
and  Territories.  It  appears  in  some  seasons  epi- 
demic, other  seasons  endemic. 

Probable  Origin  of  Hog  Cholera.  For  ages  hogs 
have  been  kept  in  filth  and  dirt,  and  in  many  in- 
stances in  closely  confined  pens,  and  fed  in  their  own 
offal,  and  were  obliged  to  drink  in  dirty,  filthy  troughs, 
or  in  stagnant  pools  of  water,  filled  with  myriads  of 
poisonous  germs.  The  hogs  were  not  only  compelled 
to  eat  their  food  mixed  and  highly  flavored  with  their 
own  manure,  but  to  remain  for  months  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  same.  Many  of  the  pig-sties  were  walled 
in  by  a  tight  board  fence,  which  excluded  pure  air; 
consequently  they  were  obliged  to  breathe  the  foul 
and  noxious  gases  loaded  with  disease  germs  con- 
stantly arising  therefrom.  The  smell  of  an  ancient 
hog  pen  is  sufficient  proof,  and  should  satisfy  all 
doubters  on  this  point. 

Year  after  year  hogs  have  been  kept  in  the  same 
pen,  or  yard,  amid  a  constant  accumulation  of  swine 
discharges,  filth  and  decomposing  organic  substances. 
The  ground  became  saturated  with  putrescent  matter; 
the  moisture  and  requisite  temperature  in  hot  weather 
induced  decomposition  and  putrefactive  fermentation, 
which  yielded  septic  germs.  The  disease  germs  be- 
ing inhaled  into  the  lungs  of  the  swine,  they  were 
thus  planted  in  the  blood  during  its  circulation 
through  the  lungs. 

If  the  swine  were  not  made  apparently  sick  from 
the  effect  of  the  poisonous  germs,  their  systems  were 
weakened,  and  the  liver  generally  deranged,  the 
poison  acted  directly  on  that  organ ;  and  the  disease 
was  transmitted  to  their  offspring,  which  in  turn 
were  likewise  subjected  to  the  same  routine  of  filthy 
treatment  administered  to  their  progenitors,  and  thus 
further  charged  their  systems  with  disease  germs. 

This  hereditary  diseased  condition,  together  with 
the  direct  and  constant  reception  of  the  septic  germs, 
cumulative  poison,  during  several  swine  generations, 
most  effectually  loaded  the  swine  system  with  dis- 
ease, until  at  last  the  time  had  arrived,  the  swine 
constitution  succumbed;  the  heroic  and  repeated 
rallying  efforts  of  Nature  failed ;  the  burden  of  disease 
could  no  longer  be  borne;  the  last  straw  broke  the 
hog's  back;  the  septic  germs  developed  in  the  swine 
system,  a  new  disease  was  born,  and  was  named 
hog  cholera. 

Remedies  and  Swindling  Hog-Cholera  Receipts. 
About  all  the  poisons  usually  kept  in  the  drug  stores 
have  been  given  to  hogs  within  the  past  few  years. 
Hogs  have  been  dosed  with  arsenic,  antimony,  calomel, 
copperas,  blue  vitriol,  and  other  poisons,  in  hopes 
that  some  might  prove  a  cure  or  preventive.  Persons 
have  been  traveling  through  the  country  peddling 
"  sure-cure  and  preventive  receipts  for  hog  cholera," 


SWINE. 


1225 


for  which  they  get  from  the  farmers,  who  are  anxious 
to  find  something  to  stop  the  terrible  ravages  upon 
their  stock,  from  $5  to  $50  for  each  receipt.  These 
are  nothing  but  swindles,  and  no  farmer  should  pay  a 
cent  for  such  knowledge.  These  men  know  nothing 
or  but  little  of  the  disease  and  of  course  their  remedies 
are  worthless  and  even  hurtful.  Here  is  one  for  which 
a  farmer  paid  $10,  for  it  was  warranted  a  '"  sure  cure  :" 

"Take  calomel,  poke  root,  wild  cherry  bark,  mu- 
riatic acid,  sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  oxalic  acid, 
pyroligneous  acid,  phosphorus,  plantain,  arsenic, 
ipecac,  Indian  or  wild  turnip,  arnica,'  Peruvian 
bark,  sulphurous  acid  and  potash,  equal  parts. 
Dose,  I  pound  for  10  hogs  every  6  hours  until  the  hog 
needs  no  more." 

In  commenting  upon  the  foregoing  we  will  state 
that  wild  cherry  bark,  plantain  and  Peruvian  bark 
are  harmless.  Ipecac  and  wild  turnip  may  be  taken 
in  moderate  quantities.  The  acids  may  be  given  ii\ 
some  diseases  in  small  doses,  well  diluted  with  water. 
Calomel,  arsenic  and  potash  are  well  known  ix)isons. 
Poke  root  and  arnica,  in  large  doses,  are  violent 
poisons.  Hogs  that  take  a  dose  of  this  wonderful  and 
infernal  mixture  will  never  have  a  chance  to  die  from 
the  effects  of  "  hog  cholera,"  as  a  dose  of  this  poison- 
ous combination  will  take  care  of  the  hogs  long  before 
"  hog  cholera,"  or  any  other  disease,  can  affect  the 
animal.  Therefore,  in  this  respect,  this  is  a  "  sure  pre- 
ventive." 

Symptoms.  The  premonitory  signs  occur  late,  are 
very  transient,  and  are  seldom  observed;  usually  the 
death  of  one  or  more  pigs,  under  mysterious  circum- 
stances, first  arrests  attention.  Some  may  then  be 
noticed  to  be  dull,  not  to  seek  for  food  or  water,  but 
to  creep  beneath  the  straw  or  any  dark  place,  seeking 
quiet  and  isolation  from  the  rest,  carrying  the  head 
low  and  ears  drooping. 

Signs  of  abdominal  pains  are  often  well  marked, 
and  there  is  a  disposition  to  he  on  the  belly  with  fore- 
feet outstretched. 

In  some  cases  there  is  a  great  cerebral  disturbance 
and  in  others  stupor,  so  that  they  may  be  either  wild 
and  frantic  and  utter  cries,  or  else  quite  unconscious. 
Vomiting  frequently  occurs,  the  retching  being  often 
quite  violent,  and  food  may  be  vomited,  or  mucus 
and  bile  only. 

In  the  early  stages  the  faeces  are  of  normal  consist- 
ence, and  the  urine  pale.  After  a  time  diarrhoea  sets 
in,  and  the  excrement  is  then  dark  or  black  colored, 
and  extremely  offensive.  There  is  a  singular  jerking 
or  spasmodic  breathing,  complicated  by  congestion  of 
the  lungs,  and  usually  a  painful,  irritating  cough, 
which  increases  the  general  weakness.  Great  weak- 
ness of  the  hind  parts  is  often  noticed  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  attack,  whith  increases  as  the  dis- 
ease advances.  The  animal  staggers  when  moving 
about,  its  limbs  cross  each  other,  and  often  at  last  are 
perfectly  paralyzed.  It  is  then  often  found  that  the 
creature  cannot  scream,  and  there  is  present  a  sub- 
dued hacking  cough.  The  blood  does  not  flow  freely 
if  a  veinbe  opened,  and  ecchymosis  occurs  over   the 


whole  body.  The  discoloration  of  the  skin  and  mu- 
cous membranes — suggesting  so  many  names  for  the 
disease — commences  some  time  before  death,  and  oc- 
curs especially  on  the  belly,  inside  of  the  thighs  and 
fore-legs  and  behind  the  ears.  Where  the  skin  is 
thinnest  it  is  especially  nqticeable.  The  red  or  pur- 
plish color  disappears  wherever  the  skin  is  pressed, 
except  in  parts  where  any  extravasation  of  blood  has 
occurred.  In  rapid  cases,  the  mucous  membrane  is 
of  a  bluish  red  color,  and  in  chronic  dases  it  is  of  a 
dirty  yellow  color.  The  temperature  of  the  body  is 
at  first  increased,  but  afterwards  it  is  lowered.  Slight 
forms  now  and  then  appear,  which  consist  of  discol- 
oration of  the  skin  and  loss  of  appetite,  extending 
over  a  few  days,  when  recovery  follows ;  but  in  severe 
cases,  the  animals  generally  succumb  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time  from  the  commencement  of  the  attack. 

Post-mortem  Appearances.  The  skin  is  black 
and  blue,  as  if  the  animal  had  been  bruised  during 
life.  The  capillaries  and  moderate-sized  veins  of 
the  skin  and  subcutaneous  tissue  are  dark  colored, 
and  gorged  with  blood.  A  yellow  serum  is  apt  to 
accumulate  wherever  there  is  ramified  redness.  The 
serous  and  mucous  membranes  are  studded  with  ec- 
chymosis, which  are  almost  developed  as  a  rule  in  the 
thoracic  organs.  Impaction  of  solid  material  in  the 
intestines  is  frequently  observed.  The  liver  and 
spleen  are  usually  congested  and  of  a  dark  color,  and 
the  parenchyma  of  the  liver  more  particularly  is  soft. 
The  lungs  are  often  much  congested.  The  blood  is 
dark,  seems  fluid,  and  coagulates  very  slowly. 

Treatment.  When  the  disease  breaks  out,  keep 
the  animals  on  low  diet,  and  promote  action  of  the 
bowels  by  clysters ;  and  give  them  an  emetic — white 
hellebore  5  to  10  grains,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  5  to  15 
grains,  followed  by  purgatives.  The  following  drench 
would  be  suitable  :  Epsom  salts,  2  to  4  ounces ;  sul- 
phur, r  to  2  ounces ;  and  gentian  and  ginger,  in  pow- 
der, I  to  2  drams,  in  about  2  pints  of  water.  The  dose 
must  be  regulated  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal. 
The  medicine  should  be  given  before  diarrhoeasets  in. 
Moderate  exercise,  fresh  air  and  syringing,  or  sluicing 
the  animal  over  with  cold  water,  are  measures  to  be 
recommended. 

Preventive  measures  should  consist  of  cautious 
feeding  in  young  growing  animals,  wholesome  vegeta- 
ble diet,  and  a  sparing  allowance  of  only  well  cooked 
animal  food,  strict  attention  to  cleanliness,  and  sepa- 
ration of  the  afflicted  from  the  healthy  animals.  The 
sulphite  or  hypo-sulphite  of  soda,  in  about  i  to  2 
dram  doses,  five  or  six  times  a  day,  would  act  very 
well.  It  could  be  given  in  a  little  feed  if  the  animal 
would  take  any. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Detmars,  an  eminent  and  well  known 
microscopist  and  biologist,  who  has  been  employed 
for  years  by  our  Government  to  investigate  the 
so  called  hog  cholera,  classifies  the  diseases  un- 
der the  single  general  head  of  epizootic  and  enzo- 
otic diseases  of  swine,  or  epizootic  influenza  of 
swine,  but  assuming  different  characteristics,  as  the 
catarrhal-rheumatic  form,  the  gastric-rheumatic  form. 


T2Z6 


SWINE. 


the  cerebro-rheumatic  form,  and  the  lymphatic-rheu- 
matic form.  The  treatment  which  he  recommends  is 
as  follows:  The  treatment  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts,  a  hygienic  and  a  medical.  The  former,  which 
includes  a  removing  of  the  causes,  is,  in  this,  as  in 
most  other  cases,  of  very  ^eat  importance.  If  the 
causes  are  promptly  removed,  a  great  many  sick  ani- 
mals not  already  too  far  gone  may  be  saved.  If  the 
same  are  not,  the  very  best  medical  treatment  will  be 
of  little  avail,  "the  sick  animals  must  be  separated 
from  the  herd,  must  be  provided  with  a  clean  and  dry 
resting-place,  must  have  pure  air  to  breathe,  clean 
water  to  drink  and  healthy,  clean  and  easily  digested 
food  to  eat.  He  recommends  giving  to  each  hog  at 
the  beginning  of  the  disease  a  good  emetic,  com jx)sed 
either  of  jxjwdered  white  hellebore  (  Veratrum  alhtni) 
or  of  tartar-emetic,  in  a  dose  of  about  one  grain  for 
each  month  the  sick  animal  is  old,  provided  the  latter 
is  of  good  average  size.  The  largest  dose  to  be  given 
a  full-grown  animal  should  not  exceed  fifteen  or  six- 
teen grains.  The  emetic  is  best  administered  by  mix- 
ing the  same  with  a  piece  of  boiled  potato,  or,  if 
the  hellebore  (which  he  prefers)  is  chosen,  strewing 
the  powder  on  the  surface  of  a  small  quantity  of 
milk,  as  neither  boiled  potato  nor  milk  will  be  refused 
by  any  hog  unless  the  animal  is  very  sick,  and  in  that 
case  it  will  be  too  late  to  make  use  of  an  emetic. 

After  the  desired  action  has  been  produced  the 
animal  will  appear  to  be  very  sick,  and  will  try  to  hide 
itself  in  a  dark  corner,  but  two  or  three  hours  later  it 
will  make  its  appearance  again,  and  will  be  willing  to 
take  a  little  choice  food,  such  as  a  few  boiled  potatoes, 
a  little  milk,  etc.  At  this  time  it  will  be  advisable  to 
again  give  a  small  dose  of  medicine,  either  a  few 
grains  (two  or  three  to  a  full-grown  animal  and  to  a 
pig  in  proportion)  of  tartar-emetic  or  of  calomel.  Mix 
with  a  piece  of  boiled  potato,  or,  if  the  symptoms 
should  not  have  returned,  mix  with  a  small  pinch  of 
flour  and  a  few  drops  of  water  (sufficient  to  make  a 
stiff  dough)  and  form  into  small  round  pills. 

The  tartar-emetic  has  to  be  chosen  if  the  disease 
has  its  principal  seat  in  the  respiratory  organs  or  pre- 
sents itself  in  its  catarrhal-rheumatic  form,  and  the 
calomel  deserves  preference  if  the  gastric  or  bilious- 
rheumatic  form  is  prevailing,  but  especially  if  the  liver 
is  seriously  affected.  Either  medicine  may  be  given 
in  such  small  doses  as  mentioned  three  times  a  day 
for  several  days  in  succession,  or  until  a  change  for 
the  better  becomes  apparent.  It  is  also  advisable, 
particularly  if  the  disease  exhibits  a  very  typhoid 
character,  now  and  then  to  mix  for  each  animal  a  few 
drops  cartx)lic  acid  with  the  drinking  water  or  with  the 
slops.  Convalescent  animals,  which  have  become 
very  weak  and  emaciated,  will  be  benefited  by  giving 
them  once  a  day  from  a  few  grains  to  half  a  drachm 
of  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  mixed  with  their  food, 
but  the  use  of  iron  must  be  discontinued  if  the  patients 
become  constipated  or  if  the  excrements  turn  black. 
Those  convalescents  in  which  the  lungs  have  become 
hepatized  to  a  considerable  extent  may  receive  re- 
peatedly small  doses  of  carbonate  of  potash  for  the 


purpose  of  promoting  the  absorption  of  the  exuda- 
tions deposited  in  the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  The  size 
of  the  dose  of  carbonate  of  potash  as  well  as  of  iron 
depends  upon  the  size  and  the  age  of  the  animal.  A 
local  or  external  treatment  is  also  of  considerable  im- 
ix)rtance.  A  good  counter-irritant  or  blister,  composed 
of  cantharides,  or  Spanish  flies,  and  oil,  made  by  boil- 
ing one  ounce  of  the  former  and  four  ounces  of  the 
latter  for  half  an  hour  over  a  moderate  fire,  or  for  one 
hour  in  a  water-bath,  should  be  applied  on  both  sides 
the  chest  in  all  such  cases  in  which  the  organs  situated 
in  that  cavity  are  seriously  affected.  Such  a  counter- 
irritant  has  usually  a  very  beneficial  result.  In  most 
cases  one  application  will  prove  sufficient  to  relieve 
the  animal  to  a  considerable  extent,  provided  the  oil 
is  thoroughly  rubbed  in  before  the  disease  has  made 
too  much  headway,  or  before  the  vitality  of  the  or- 
ganism has  been  destroyed.  If  the  effect  of  the  fly- 
blister  proves  insufficient,  it  may  be  applied  again  the 
next  day ;  but  if  the  same  produces  no  effect  at  all,  it 
may  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  animal  is  going 
to  die,  and  that  any  further  treatment  will  be  useless. 
In  relation  to  prevention  and  treatment.  Dr.  Det- 
mars,  in  a  late  report,  says :  The  worst  thing  that 
possibly  can  be  done,  if  swine-plague  is  prevailing  in 
the  neighborhood,  is  to  shelter  the  hogs  and  pigs  un- 
der or  in  an  old  straw  or  hay  stack,  because  nothing 
is  more  apt  to  absorb  the  contagious  or  infectious 
principle,  and  to  preserve  it  longer  or  more  effectively 
than  old  straw, hay,  or  manure-heaps  composed  mostly 
of  hay  or  straw.  It  is  even  probable  that  the  conta- 
gion of  swine-plague,  like  that  of  some  other  conta- 
gious diseases,  if  absorbed  by,orclinging  to,  old  straw 
or  hay,  etc.,  will  remain  effective  and  a  source  of 
spreading  the  disease  for  months,  and  may  be  for  a 
year.  Therapeutically,  but  little  can  be  done  to  pre- 
vent an  outbreak  of  swine-plague.  Where  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  destroy  the  infectious  principle  outside  of 
the  animal  organism,  carbolic  acid  is  effective  and, 
therefore,  a  good  disinfectant ;  but  where  the  conta- 
gious or  infectious  principle  has  already  entered  the 
animal  organism  its  value  is  doubtful.  Still,  wherever 
there  is  cause  to  suspect  that  the  food  or  the  water 
for  drinking  may  have  become  contaminated  with  the 
contagion  of  swine-plague,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give 
every  morning  and  evening  some  carbolic  acid,  say 
about  ten  drops  for  each  animal  weighing  from  120  to 
150  pounds,  in  the  water  for  drinking;  and  wherever 
there  is  reason  to  suspect  that  the  infectious  principle 
may  be  floating  in  the  air,  it  will  be  advisable  to  treat 
every  wound  or  scratch  a  hog  or  pig  may  happen  to 
have  immediately  with  diluted  carbolic  acid.  During 
a  time,  or  in  a  neighborhood  in  which  swine-plague  is 
prevaihng,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  ring  or  castrate 
any  pig  or  hog,  because  -every  wound,  no  matter  how 
small,  is  apt  to  become  a  port  of  entry  for  the  infectious 
principle,  and  the  very  smallest  amount  of  the  latter 
is  sufficient  to  produce  the  disease.  Still,  all  these 
minor  measures  and  precautions  will  avail  but  little 
unless  a  dissemination  of  the  infectious  principle,  or 
disease  germs,  is  made  imjKJSsible. 


SWINE. 


1227 


To  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  disease  the  fol- 
lowing precautionary  measures  should  be  taken : 
Any  transportation  of  dead,  sick,  or  infected  swine, 
and  even  of  hogs  or  pigs  that  have  been  the  least  ex- 
posed to  the  contagion,  or  may  possibly  constitute  the 
bearers  of  the  same,  must  be  effectively  prohibited. 
Every  one  who  loses  a  hog  or  pig  by  swine-plague 
should  be  compelled  by  law  to  bury  the  same  imme- 
diately, or  as  soon  as  it  is  dead,  at  least  four  feet  deep, 
or  else  to  cremate  the  carcass  at  once,  so  that  the 
contagious  or  infectious  principle  may  be  thoroughly 
destroyed,  and  not  be  carried  by  dogs,  wolves,  rats, 
crows,  etc.,  to  other  places.  Another  thing  may  yet 
be  mentioned,  which,  if  properly  executed,  will  at 
least  aid  very  materially  in  preventing  the  disease : 
thatis,  togive  all  food  either  incleantroughs,or,  if  corn 
in  the  ear  is  fed,  to  throwiton  a  wooden  platform  which 
can  be  swept  clean  before  each  feeding.  If  the  cause 
and  the  nature  of  the  morbid  process  and  the  character 
and  importance  of  the  morbid  changes  are  taken  into 
proper  consideration,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  a  ther- 
apeutic treatment  will  be  of  much  avail  in  a  fully 
developed  case  of  swine-plague. 

Fatty  Degeneration  in  Pigs.  Of  the  first  symp- 
toms of  this  fatal  ailment  Dr.  N.  H.  Paaren,  Illinois 
State  Veterinarian,  says  that  sometimes  within  a  day 
or  two  after  birth,  the  pigs  will  be  singularly  quiet, 
making  little  resistance  to  being  taken  hold  of,  and 
showing  a  slowness  to  seek  the  mother  when  placed 
a  distance  from  her.  Apparently  the  young  animals 
are  in  good  condition,  but  their  actions  contradict  the 
appearance.  A  state  of  general  helplessness,  or  par- 
tial paralysis  soon  results,  beginning  at  the  hinder 
extremities  and  increases  until  the  fore  parts  become 
involved.  Sometimes  the  pigs  will  quit  sucking  the 
next  day,  or  a  few  days  after  birth,  and  will  stand 
around,  or  lie  down  quietly  and  suddenly  die,  without 
having  shown  any  marked  symptoms  of  disease  at  all, 
and  so  far  as  can  be  seen,  without  much  suffering. 
Others,  while  having  a  good  appetite,  and  having 
plenty  of  milk  from  the  mother,  will  in  the  course  of 
a  week  or  longer,  gradually  grow  thinner  and  weaker 
until  death  ensues.  Others  will  become  corpulent, 
and  even  lay  on  considerable  fat,  but  still  die  of  ex- 
haustion. Often  a  few  of  a  litter  will  begin  scouring 
badly,  or  become  bloated,  without  any  known  cause 
and  soon  die  off.  Again,  apparently  healthy  pigs  will 
suddenly  become  affected  with  partial  or  general 
paralysis,  or  with  cramps,  and  speedily  die.  Dr. 
Paaren  says  that  he  has  been  informed  of  whole  lit- 
ters being  carried  off  in  the  various  manners  described. 

In  the  main,  the  Doctor  states,  a  post-mortem  ex- 
amination always  reveals  the  same  conditions.  There 
is  a  general  want  of  blood,  and  a  Consequent  paleness 
of  all  the  organs,  especially  of  all  the  muscles,  which 
appear  attenuated,  flabby  and  frail.  Frequently  the 
muscles  have  such  a  bacon-like  glossiness  that  only 
by  the  closest  inspection  can  sections  thereof  be 
recognized  as  muscle.  Examination  under  the  mi- 
croscope reveals  fatty  degeneration  of  the  muscular 
structure.     Sometimes  the  entire  muscular  fiber  seems 


to  be  made  up  of  granular  matter,  and  often  there  is 
not  the  slightest  appearance  of  transverse  striae  on  the 
muscular  fiber,  which  appears  to  be  composed  of 
minute  and  highly  refracting  globules  of  oil.  Pigs 
that  die  soon  after  birth,  generally  show  an  imperfect 
development  of  fatty  tissue,  and  many  of  them  are 
even  very  lean.  Thus,  the  Doctor  shows  that  a  state 
of  fatty  degeneration  does  not  consist  of  an  excessive 
development  of  fat  between  the  muscles,  with  an 
atrophied  state  of  the  latter;  but  on  the  contrary,  is  a 
morbid  alteration  of  the  muscular  fibers  themselves, 
whose  contractile  substance  is  transformed  into  fat. 

In  consequence  of  the  fatty  degeneration,  Dr.  Paaren 
proceeds  to  say,  the  efficacy  of  the  affected  organs  is 
materially  lessened,  and  naturally  the  young  pigs  dis- 
like exercise  and  soon  become  helpless.  The  degen- 
eration of  the  respiratory  muscles  and  the  muscles  of 
the  heart  causes  imperfect  breathing  and  circulation 
of  the  blood.  If  the  digestive  organs,  the  liver,  the 
pancreas  and  the  pepsin  glands  are  in  a  state  of  fatty 
degeneration,  they  cannot  perform  their  offices,  assim- 
ilation is  imperfect  and  the  production  of  blood  can- 
not take  place.  The  blood  being  poor,  the  general 
state  of  weakness  is  increased,  and  the  further  per- 
fection of  fatty  degeneration  promoted.  The  general 
weakness  thus  produced  is  a  sufficient  cause  of  fa- 
tality. 

The  causes  of  fatty  degeneration  in  pigs  are  not 
always  the  same.  Sometimes  it  is  congenital.  It  has 
been  clearly  established  that  it  often  develops  in  the 
foetus.  That  they  are  born  in  apparently  perfect  con- 
dition, is  owing  to  the  fact  that  until  their  birth  they 
are  protected  from  external  influences,  and  are  sus- 
tained by  nourishment  fully  prepared  in  the  shape  of 
the  blood  of  the  mother.  As  soon  as  it  is  born,  how- 
ever, and  becomes  dependent  for  its  sustenance  upon 
resources  from  without,  which  must  be  digested  and 
assimilated  through  its  own  vital  powers,  the  young 
animal  is  in  danger  of  a  collapse  from  its  inherent 
weakness ;  and  if  it  does  not  succumb  soon  after  its 
birth,  it  is  apt  to  succumb  sooner  or  later  to  diseases 
which  are  due  to  fatty  degeneration. 

Dr.  Paaren  claims  this  disease  is  one  of  the  banes 
of  high  breeding  and  in-and-in  breeding.  Want  of 
proper  exercise  and  too  high  keeping  of  the  sows  are 
very  liable  to  increase  this  morbid  tendency.  In-and- 
in  breeding,  he  claims,  judiciously  practiced,  is  not 
objectionable,  but  when  close  breeding  is  persisted  in 
while  animals  are  continually  kept  in  an  abnormal 
condition  of  body  (which  is  the  case  under  the  pres- 
ent system  of  feeding),  evil  consequences  will  sooner 
or  later  become  manifest.  Medical  treatment  in  such 
cases  as  this  of  course  is  futile. 

FoOT-AND-MoUTH    DISEASE;    EPIZOOTIC    APHTH.€. 

This  is  a  contagious  eruptive  fever,  affecting  all 
warm-blooded  animals,  and  attacking  men,  under  cer- 
tain circumstances,  as  readily  as  any  of  our  domestic 
quadrupeds.  The  contagious  matter  is  discharged 
in  great  abundance  with  the  saliva,  and  from  the 
vesicles  which  form  in  and  about  the  mouth,  also  on 
the  teats  and  feet.    The  virus  adheres  to  the  wood- 


1228 


SWINE. 


work,  litter,  floors,  roads  and  whatever  the  affected 
animals  come  in  contact  with,  and  is  thence  com- 
municated to  healthy  animals  coming  after  them. 

Sytnptoms.  The  disease  is  invariably  characterized 
by  a  brief  period  of  incubation,  varying  from  twenty- 
four  hours  to  three  or  four  days.  The  earlier  symp- 
toms are  usually  ushered  in  by  a  shivering  fit, 
succeeded  by  a  slight  dullness.  A  vesicular  eruption 
soon  occurs  in  the  mouth  and  on  the  digits,  and  in 
female  animals  usually  also  on  the  teats.  There  is  a 
tendency  in  young  animals,  when  sucking  the  dam  or 
drinking  the  milk  from  affected  animals,  to  a  similar 
eruption  on  the  fauces  and  pharynx,  with  irritation  of 
the  larynx  and  of  the  whole  digestive  tract.  Diar- 
rhoea in  these  cases  tends  to  exhaust  the  young 
animals,  whose  sore  mouths  prevent  the  taking  of 
food.  The  eruption  in  the  mouth  is  first  indicated 
by  smacking  of  the  lips,  and  champing  of  the  jaws, 
and  great  salivation.  The  pain  is  evidently  intense. 
If  the  mouth  be  examined,  vesicles  will  be  found  on 
the  tongue,  and  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  lips  and 
cheeks.  In  a  short  time  the  vesicles  burst,  and  the 
red,  painful  spots  thus  exposed  are  soon  covered  by 
epithelium  in  favorable  cases,  whereas  in  others  un- 
healthy ulcers  develop.  When  the  eruption  occurs 
on  the  feet,  it  is  observed  around  the  coronet,  and  in 
the  inter-digital  space.  The  intense  pain,  inability 
to  stand,  lameness  and  swelling  above  the  hoofs,  are 
usually  the  first  signs  noticed.  The  animal  is  in- 
clined to  lie  down  the  greater  portion  of  the  time, 
and  to  utter  screams,  accompanied  with  much  champ- 
ing of  the  jaws,  and  salivation  if  compelled  to  move. 
There  is  a  great  tendency  to  sloughing  of  the  hoofs, 
and  pregnant  sows  frequently  abort ;  emaciation 
occurs,  the  poor  sufferer  being  unable  to  take  food, 
owing  to  the  intense  pain  in  the  mouth.  There  is 
also  more  or  less  constitutional  fever,  often  attended 
by  a  cough.  In  favorable  cases  all  symptoms  of 
fever  usually  subside  by  the  sixth  day,  the  appetite  is 
restored,  and  convalescence  well  established  by  the 
ninth  or  tenth  day.  In  cases  of  a  fatal  termination, 
the  fever  runs  high,  ulceration  spreads,  the  animal 
becomes  exhausted,  the  hoofs  slough  off,  the  blood 
becomes  impure,  and  death  generally  occurs  about 
the  ninth  or  tenth  day.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
disease  is  mild. 

Treatment.  Although  epizootic  aphthae  is  not  often 
a  fatal  disease,  still  attention  must  be  paid  to  proper 
treatment.  The  use  of  laxatives  and  salines  must  be 
resorted  to,  and  the  affected  parts  should  be  dressed 
with  chlorine  water  or  carbolic  acid,  one  part  to 
twenty  or  forty  parts  of  water, — or  other  antiseptic 
and  healing  dressings.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  at- 
tempt to  feed  when  the  animals  are  suffering  from 
this  disease,  except  allowing  them  their  slops  or  gruel. 
The  preventive  measures  should  be  strict  isolation  of 
the  affected  animals  from  the  healthy  ones,  the  plac- 
ing of  suspected  ones  in  quarantine,  and  the  free  use 
of  disinfectants  about  the  premises. 

Keep  all  the  suppurating  surfaces  clean,  especially 
about  the  hoofs.  One  might  use  some  of  the  following 


applications;  Chloride  of  zinc,  2  drams;  tincture 
of  myrrh,  i  ounce,  and  water,  i  pint.  Or,  carbolic 
acid,  I  ounce;  glycerine,  12  ounces;  tincture  of 
myrrh,  i  ounce ;  water,  i  pint.  Or,  Condy's  Fluid,  i 
tea-cupful;  water,  i  pint.  Attend  well  to  ventila- 
tion and  cleanliness  and  to  the  general  comfort.  The 
sulphite  or  hyposulphite  of  soda  given  in  J^  to  i 
dram  doses  three  or  four  times  a  day  is  good.  It  is 
also  a  good  antiseptic  and  healing  gargle  for  the 
mouth. 

Fractures  in  Swine.  These  occasionally  occur  in 
hogs,  but  in  the  way  of  treatment  little  can  be  done. 
If  slight,  they  had  better  be  left  entirely  for  nature 
to  effect  a  cure ;  but  if  serious  and  the  animal  is  in 
proper  condition,  it  should  be  killed  at  once  for  food. 
From  its  obstinate,  intractable  nature  but  little  can 
be  accomplished  in  the  w^y  of  treatment. 

Ma-nge  or  Itch.  This  is  a  skin  disease  of  purely 
a  local  nature,  and  is  caused  by  an  insect  (sarcoptes), 
a  species  of  acarus,  which  induces  irritation,  ulcera- 
tion, suppuration  and  incrustation  on  the  surface  of 
the  body  generally. 

It  is  a  contagious  disease,  never  originating  spon- 
taneously, and  requiring  for  development  the  passage 
of  either  the  parasites  or  their  eggs  from  diseased  to 
healthy  animals.  The  pig  is,  perhaps,  less  affected  by 
this  troublesome  disorder  than  other  animals;  any 
way  it  is  the  least  observed. 

Symptoms.  Much  irritation  and  itching  occurs, 
the  animal  manifesting  great  uneasiness,  continually 
rubbing  itself,  and  does  not  thrive.  The  insect  is 
situated  under  the  scales  of  the  cuticle,  and  very  dif- 
ficult generally  to  detect,  but  may  sometimes  be  found 
by  a  powerful  magnifying  lens. 

Treatment.  Apply  topically  any  of  the  following 
dressings :  Carbolic  acid,  i  ounce,  to  water,  16  ounces ; 
or  mercurial  ointment ;  but  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  apply  these  to  too  great  a  surface  of  the  body  at 
one  time.  Another  dressing  is  oil  of  tar,  sulphur,  and 
linseed  oil,  equal  parts,  or  creosote,  i  ounce,  spirits 
of  wine,  15  ounces,  and  water,  16  ounces.  All  the 
premises  and  articles  coming  in  contact  with  the 
affected  animals  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  or 
destroyed.  Of  course  all  unaffected  animals  must  be 
kept  from  coming  in  contact  with  affected  ones.  Se- 
questration must  be  strictly  observed  and  enforced. 

Measles;  Rubeola.  Measles  may  be  defined  as 
"a  contagious  febrile  disease,  characterized  by  catar- 
rhal symptoms,  and  the  presence  of  a  rash  under  the 
skin  with  the  disappearance  of  fever.  It  has  often 
been  confounded  with  small-pox.  The  term  measles 
has  been  most  erroneously  applied  to  two  diseases  of 
the  pig,  the  one  being  a  parasite  malady,  due  to  the 
existence  of  Cysticercus  cellulosus  in  the  muscular 
system ;  and  the  other  a  disease  of  the  blood  of  a 
grangrenous  character,  usually  associated  with  severe 
gastro-intestinal  derangement,  and  well  known  as 
"hog  cholera,"  "blue  sickness," etc.  Very  little  is 
really  known  with  regard  to  this  malady.  It  is  not 
known  whether  it  is  one  and  the  same  disease  in  man 


SWINE. 


1229 


and  these  animals,  or  whether  it  is  transmissible  from 
animals  of  one  species  to  those  of  another. 

Sympto?ns.  From  what  has  been  observed  of  this 
disease,  it  appears  to  consist  of  irritative  fever,  with 
catarrhal  symptoms,  swelling  of  the  head  and  throat, 
constipation  usually,  and  loss  of  api>etite.  Irregular 
eruptions  commonly  begin  to  appear  about  the  second 
or  third  day,  which  are  generally  confined  to  the  in- 
sides  of  the  thighs  and  fore  legs,  sides  and  under- 
parts  of  the  body  and  face,  and  consists  of  a  per- 
ceptible elevation,  the  redness  of  which  disappears  on 
pressure.  In  the  center  of  these  elevations  a  percepti- 
ble hardness  is  felt;  usually  after  the  expiration  of 
another  day  a  red  papulous  eruption  takes  place  from 
the  central  points  of  hardness,  and  gradually  in  two 
or  three  days  more  the  acute  signs  are  allayed,  the 
spots  become  brown  colored,  the  cuticle  peels  off,  and 
perfect  subsidence  usually  takes  place  by  the  ninth 
or  eleventh  day.  Sometimes  complications  occur,  as 
diarrhoea  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  these  often 
proving  fatal.  With  the  first  symptoms  of  the  fever 
there  is  generally  cough,  vomiting,  redness  of  the 
eyes  and  flow  of  tears. 

Treatment.  As  soon  as  the  disease  is  ascertained 
to  be  present,  the  sick  animals  should  be  separated 
from  the  healthy  ones ;  and  those  that  have  been  in 
contact  with  them,  it  would  be  well  to  place  in  quar- 
antine. Strict  attention  should  be  paid  to  cleanliness 
and  general  comfort,  and  free  ventilation,  yet  allow- 
ing a  warm  tem[>erature.  The  bowels  require  to  be 
kept  open  with  gentle  laxatives,  and  mild  doses  of 
salines  are  useful.  Feed  with  warm,  sloppy,  easily 
digested  food,  and  have  plenty  of  cold,  clean  water 
always  accessible.  It  is  not  by  any  means  a  dan- 
gerous disease  if  proper  care  is  taken  of  the  patient 
and  complications  do  not  occur. 

If  much  fever  is  present  it  would  be  well  to  give 
three  or  four  times  a  day  as  a  drench,  potassium-car- 
bonate, }4  a  drachm  to  i  drachm ;  sodium-carbonate, 
20  to  40  grains;  Epsom  salts,  i  to  2  ounces.  Dis- 
solve in  from  a  half  to  a  pint  of  water.  These  doses 
must  be  regulated  according  to  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mal, the  smallest  dose  being  suitable  for  pigs  of 
about  50  lbs.  weight,  and  the  largest  for  animals  of 
200  lbs.  and  upwards. 

Parturient  Paralysis.  The  sow  is  sometimes 
attacked  by  this  affection.  The  most  frequent  cause 
is  exposure  when  the  sow  is  in  a  too  plethoric  condi- 
tion at  the  time  of  parturition. 

Treatment.  Care  should  be  used  in  permitting  her 
pigs  not  to  worry  her.  They  should  be  kept  from  her, 
or  only  allowed  to  nurse  at  certain  times,  though 
usually  the  milk  dries  up.  Give  a  sufficient  purgative 
to  move  the  bowels;  then  administer  salines,  and  if 
there  be  much  fever  give  sedatives ;  or  if  she  be  very 
weak  give  stimulants,  as  nux  vomica,  5  to  20  grains 
twice  daily,  until  the  desired  effects  are  produced. 

Pleuropneumonia.  This  disease  may  be  divided 
into  two  forms.  One,  sporadic  or  enzootic  pleuro- 
pneumonia, which  occurs  sjwntaneously,  and  is  in- 


fluenced by  climate,  season,  and  location.  It  is  not 
usually  fatal,  and  is  generally  considered  not  to  be 
propagated  by  contagion,  but  common  to  all  animals. 
The  other,  epizootic  pleuro-pneumonia,  is  a  malig- 
nant form  of  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  of  an  emi- 
nently contagious  character,  and  heretofore  supposed 
to  be  peculiar  to  the  ox  species  alone. 

That  this  latter  form  has  its  origin  spontaneously, 
and  afterwards  spreads  by  contagion  and  infection, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  whatever.  By  every  means  in 
our  power,  we  should  avoid,  by  preventive  measures, 
the  introduction  of  affected  animals  among  healthy 
ones,  because  treatment  in  contagious  pleuro-pneu- 
monia is  a  miserable  failure.  Happily  our  country 
has  not  suffered  from  its  devastating  ravages  as  have 
most  of  the  older  European  countries. 

S[X)radic  pleuro-pneumonia  is  in  the  majority  of 
cases  amenable  to  treatment;  but  whether  after  a  cer- 
tain time,  and  under  certain  circumstances,  it  does, 
or  does  not,  become  a  contagious  affection,  has  not 
been  definitely  determined. 

Symptoms.  Rigors,  dullness,  loss  of  appetite,  or 
depraved  appetite,  often  eating  each  other's  excrement; 
general  debility ;  respiration  much  affected,  a  quick, 
spasmodic,  labored  breathing,  with  hard,  dry,  hacking 
cough,  and  in  some  cases  swelling  about  the  lower 
Jaw,  often  coughing  up  through  one  or  both  nostrils 
mucus  or  coagulated  blood,  and  sometimes  lung  sub- 
stance; also,  either  constipation  or  diarrhoea.  When 
the  latter  occurs  the  faeces  are  usually  black  and 
extremely  fetid.  Toward  the  last  stages  the  animals 
become  emaciated,  and  in  walking  show  staggering 
gait,  often  crossing  the  hind  legs,  and  sometimes  fall- 
ing. They  are  inclined  to  lie  in  moist,  damp  places. 
It  is  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease  that  loss  of  ap- 
petite, rigors,  dullness,  cough,  and  the  swelling  of  the 
lower  jaw  and  throat  are  usually  observed. 

In  the  early  stages  when  breathing  is  very  bad, 
Fleming's  tincture  of  aconite  should  be  given,  eight 
or  ten  drops,  till  as  many  as  twenty,  and  to  some  even 
forty-five  drops  might  be  given  with  good  results;  also 
nitrate  of  potash,  in  about  i-drachm  doses.  To  a  fair- 
sized  hog  should  be  given  genrian  i  drachm,  ginger  i 
drachm,  and  about  every  alternate  day,  either  sulphur 
or  magnesium  sulphate,  from  one  to  two  ounces.  In 
constipation,  purgatives  should  be  given  in  greater  or 
less  quantity  until  the  desired  effect  is  produced.  Af- 
ter the  first  stages  are  passed,  sulphate  of  iron  may 
be  given,  %  drachm  daily.  After  a  time,  every 
day  or  so,  great  benefits  may  result  from  strong 
counter-irritants,  composed  of  mustard,  turpentine  and 
liquid  ammonia,  applied  behind  the  shoulders.  If 
there  is  much  coarse  hair,  it  should  be  cut  off,  and  a 
blister  applied  with  a  stick  once  or  twice  a  day. 

Quinsy;  Cynanche  tonsillaris.  This  disease  is 
somewhat  similar  to  a  mahgnant  sore  throat,  but 
chiefly  manifesting  itself  on  one  side  of  the  neck,  and 
implicating  the  tonsil  of  that  side. 

Symptoms.  The  bristles  on  the  affected  side  are 
erected.     There  may  be  12  or  15  of  them  sticking  out 


123° 


SWINE. 


and  firm,  and  if  they  be  pulled,  or  even  touched,  the 
animal  screams  with  pain.  The  surface  over  which 
they  are  implanted,  is  depressed  or  cup-shaped,  and 
of  a  dark  bluish  color.  The  animal  becomes  exceed- 
ingly dull,  listless,  deaf,  and  is  continually  lying; 
there  is  no  desire  to  take  any  food,  and  if  made  to 
rise  and  move,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  body  is  sup- 
ported with  difficulty  by  the  extremities ;  the  breath- 
ing becomes  laborious,  the  expired  air  hot  and  fetid ; 
the  mouth  hot  and  foaming,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  con- 
stantly moved  from  right  to  left,  or  left  to  right ;  the 
eyes  are  bloodshot ;  there  is  either  extreme  of  consti- 
pation or  diarrhoea,  and  the  evacuation  of  faeces  seems 
to  afford  some  momentary  relief.  The  animal  usually 
becomes  comatose,  and  may  be  asphyxiated  in  from 

24  to  48  hours,  or  linger  on  and  die  in  convulsive  fits, 
about  the  seventh,  eighth  or  ninth  day. 

Treatment.  The  affected  animals  should  be  in- 
stantly separated  from  the  healthy  ones,  and,  in  the 
first  stages,  the  affected  tissues  should  if  possible  be 
either  extirpated  freely  with  the  knife,  or  very  deeply 
cauterized.  Cold  water,  with  vinegar  and  niter  in  it, 
should  be  allowed  the  animal.  Gargling  the  throat 
frequently  with  chlorine  water  is  beneficial.  Admin- 
ister an  emetic,  such  as  white  hellebore,  10  grains,  or 
tartar  emetic,  5  to  10  grains,  or  sulphate  of  zinc,  10  to 

25  grains.  Afterwards  a  brisk  purgative — say  Epsom 
salts,  3  to  6  ounces — if  constipation  is  present,  per- 
sisting in  the  free  use  of  injections.  Also  give  stim- 
ulants to  support  the  animal  through  the  attack. 
These  constitute  about  the  chief  and  only  means  that 
can  be  employed.  Emetics  in  moderate  doses — such 
as  tartar  emetic,  3  grains,  ipecacuanha,  4  grains — 
given  frequently,  are  very  beneficial.  All  these  med- 
icines must  be  given  in  the  form  of  a  drench.  In  garg- 
ling the  throat  the  fluid  must  be  thrown  in  from  a 
small  syringe.  This  can  easily  be  done  when  the 
mouth  is  opened,  either  by  an  assistant's  hands,  or  by 
the  insertion  of  a  stick  or  other  hard,  suitable  instru- 
ment. 

Rupture;  Hernia.  By  hernia  is  meant  the  pro- 
trusion of  any  organ  or  viscus,  or  part  thereof,  through 
an  opening,  either  natural  or  artificial.  The  term 
hernia  is  most  commonly  applied  to  rupture  or  dis- 
placement of  portions  of  the  intestines,  omentum  or 
other  abdominal  organ. 

Hernia  in  the  pig  is  of  little  consequence  as  com- 
pared with  hernia  in  the  horse;  therefore,  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  notice  two  or  three  of  the  most  fre- 
quent forms  in  which  it  occurs  in  swine. 

Ventral  or  abdominal  hernia  is  a  protrusion  through 
an  artificial  opening  in  the  abdominal  walls.  This 
may  be  caused  by  a  direct  injury,  and  is  easily  seen, 
and  most  frequently  occurs  in  young  animals.  If  it 
does  not  become  strangulated,  that  is,  constricted  at 
the  opening  through  which  it  has  passed,  there  is  little 
danger  to  be  apprehended.  Usually,  little  can  or 
need  be  done  in  the  way  of  surgical  treatment.  Ani- 
mals thus  affected  usually  do  very  well,  and  fatten  as 
readily  as  others  not  so  injured,  the  pig  not  having 
to  undergo  any  violent  exertion,  as  in  the  case  of  the 


horse.  It  is  advisable  that  the  animal  be  kept  quiet 
and  comfortable,  and  fattened  as  speedily  as  possible, 
paying  attention  to  the  rupture,  so  that  should  any  ob- 
struction or  strangulation  of  the  part  occur,  it  may  be 
slaughtered  at  once,  in  preference  to  trying  any 
remedial  measures. 

Umbilical  hernia  is  a  protrusion  through  the  naval 
opening.  This  occurs  only  to  young  animals  at  birth 
or  very  soon  afterwards.  It  is  often  congenital.  In 
early  life,  as  the  animal  grows,  it  often  retracts  and 
disappears  naturally.  If  it  be  very  desirous  to  keep 
the  animal  for  stock  or  show  purpxases,  early  bandag- 
ing should  be  adopted. 

Scrotal  hernia  is  a  descent  of  the  intestine  into  the 
scrotum.  This  usually  occurs  in  young  animals,  and 
is  often  not  detected  until  the  animal  is  castrated, 
when  the  portion  of  intestine  will  portrude  through 
the  incision  made  by  the  operation.  When  this  is  the 
case,  it  should  be  returned  as  soon  as  possible,  and  a 
few  stitches  put  through  the  scrotum,  allowing  a  small 
dependent  orifice  for  the  escape  of  any  matter  that 
may  form,  but  not  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the 
passage  of  the  intestine.  When  so  treated  most  cases 
usually  do  well.  The  animal  should  be  kept  quiet, 
and  on  rather  a  low,  sloppy  diet  for  a  few  days,  and 
allowed  plenty  of  clean  water  to  drink. 

Sore  Throat,  Malignant;  CEdema  glottidis. 
This  disease  consists  of  a  rapid  effusion  and  exuda- 
tion amongst  the  tissues  comprising  and  surrounding 
the  laryngeal  opening  and  glottis,  attended  by  great 
difficulty  of  breathing,  in  which  life  is  jeopardized  by 
interfering  with  respiration.  From  what  is  known 
concerning  it,  most  authorities  agree  in  classing  it 
among  the  contagious  diseases ;  and  from^  the  sud- 
denness of  its  attack,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it 
runs  its  course,  it  generally  terminates  fatally. 

Symptoms.  This  disease  with  the  pig  is  character- 
ized by  febrile  symptoms,  dullness,  stiff  gait  and  loss 
of  appetite,  quickly  followed  by  difficult  breathing, 
swelling  and  soreness  of  the  throat  and  tongue,  gasp- 
ing for  breath,  cough,  heat  of  expired  air,  and  great 
heat  of  back,  bluish  color  of  the  buccal  membranes, 
difficult  deglutition,  and  symptoms  of  suffocation.  If 
the  animal  is  not  too  fat,  externally  and  along  the 
course  of  the  trachea,  a  hard  inflammatory  swelling 
may  be  traced,  often  extending  down  to  the  fore  ex- 
tremities ;  the  breath  is  often  extremely  offensive,  des- 
quamation of  the  epithelium  occurs  within  the  mouth 
and  there  is  a  great  tendency  to  gangrene.  The  dis- 
ease may  terminate  fatally  in  from  one  to  three  days. 

Treatment.  This  is,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  most 
unsatisfactory;  for  generally  the  poor  sufferer  suc- 
cumbs to  a  disease  which  we  appear  to  have  •  no 
power  to  arrest,  much  less  to  cure.  Happily  it  is  of 
rare  occurrence.  In  the  early  stage  an  active  emetic 
might  be  given,  such  as  tartar  emetic,  4  grains ;  ipe- 
cacuanha, 6  grains ;  white  hellebore  6  grains.  Give 
either  in  food,  or  drench  very  carefully.  If  the  ani- 
mal will  drink  anything,  or  will  eat  a  little,  a  purga- 
tive should  be  given,  as,  castor  oil,  2  to  4  ounces;  or 
'   raw  linseed  oil,  i  pint ;  or  aloes,  i  to   2    drachms  in 


SWINE. 


1231 


solution.  If  the  animal  will  drink  water,  dissolve  in 
it  a  little  hydro-chlorate  of  ammonia  and  niter,  or 
sulphite  or  hyix)-sulphite  of  soda,  i  drachm,  and 
give  several  times  daily.  The  application  to  the 
sides  of  the  neck  of  rags  wrung  out  of  boiling  water, 
or  other  active  vesicant,  would  be  beneficial.  Also, 
as  constipation  is  generally  present,  frequent  injec- 
tions may  be  beneficial. 

In  other  animals,  when  the  difficulty  of  breathing 
is  great,  tracheotomy  might  be'performed;  but  in  the 
pig  the  operation  is  not  practicable,  it  being  far 
easier  performed  in  theory  than  in  practice. 

Preventive  measures  should  be  adopted  in  prefer- 
ence to  curative.  Great  care  should  be  exercised  in 
handling  or  cutting  the  diseased  flesh,  as  bad  results 
might  occur  from  having  abrasions  or  cuts  upon  the 
hands.  Other  animals  should  not  be  allowed  to  eat 
any  of  the  blood  or  flesh  of  diseased  animals,  and  the 
carcasses  of  all  that  die  from  this  disease  should  be 
buried  deep  and  as  soon  after  death  as  possible. 

Trichiniasis.  The  disease  known  in  the  human 
family  by  this  name  is  due  to  a  small  species  of  entozoon 
or  parasite,  and  appears  to  be  generally  found  in  the 
muscles  of  voluntary  motion.  Trichinae  dwell  in 
very  minute  cysts  of  an  oblong  figure.  (See  page  893.) 
When  taken  with  food,  they  multiply  in  the  intestines, 
and  then  migrate  to  the  muscles.  There  are  also 
other  varieties  of  Tcenia  and  hydatid  parasites,  pecu- 
liar to  other  animals,  as  sheep  and  cattle,  from  eating 
the  flesh  of  which  this  or  similar  diseases  may  be  in- 
duced in  the  human  body.  Pigs,  and  often  cattle 
and  sheep,  suffer  to  a  great  extent  from  hydadds  of 
the  liver.  These  Cysticerci  are  apt  to  take  up  their 
abode  also  in  the  liver,  mesentery  and  other  internal 
organs  of  man,  when  consumed  as  food,  especially 
when  taken  in  a  raw  or  underdone  condition. 

Prevention  in  these  cases  is  about  all  that  can  be 
done,  as  treatment  is  of  little  or  no  avail ;  for  it  is 
usually  not  until  after  death  and  in  the  cutting  up  of 
the  meat  that  the  disease  is  observed.  If  pigs  were 
kept  more  enclosed,  where  they  co;ild  have  no  possi- 
ble access  to  the  excrement  of  human  beings  and 
dogs,  the  disease  would  be  much  less  prevalent  than 
it  is  now. 

It  would  appear  that  the  embryos  of  the  ova  of 
Tania  can  affect  only  young  pigs  under  a  year  old, 
because  in  older  animals  they  cannot  pierce  through 
the  tissues,  as  experiments  performed  with  animals 
over  a  year  old  have  generally  failed. 

In  some  of  the  sparsely  populated  districts  hogs 
might  run  at  large  without  much  risk  of  contracring 
disease,  but  in  thickly  populated  districts  swine  should 
be  kept  and  bred  in  enclosures.  This  is  believed  to 
be  the  only  sure  and  proper  way  to  prevent  and  keep 
this  disease  in  subjection. 

Worms;  Cysticercus  cellulosus.  The  very  inap- 
propriate term  "  measles  "  is  applied  to  that  morbid 
state  induced  by  the  presence  of  Cysticercus  cellulo- 
sus in  the  muscular  structure  of  swine.  It  is  a  purely 
parasitic  disease,  and  depends  for  its  origin  on  the 


introduction,  into  the  system  of  the  pig,  of  the  mature 
and  fecundated  ova  of  one  or  more  species  of  tape- 
worm (7fe«/'a).  From  experiments  and  observations 
that  have  been  made,  it  is  now  a  conceded  fact,  that 
the  tapeworm  of  man  ( Taenia  solium)  and  the  tape- 
worm of  the  dog  (  Toetiia  serrala),  and  probably  of  the 
wolf,  will  produce  in  the  muscular  system  of  the  pig, 
the  cystic  form  of  parasite,  the  Cysticercus  cellulosus 
and  in  the  brain  of  sheep  the  Coenurus  cerebralis,  or 
hydatid  disease ;  and  also,  that  both  the  Ca:nurus  cer- 
ebralis, or  hydatid  of  the  sheep,  and  the  Cysticercus 
cellulostts,  or  measles  cyst  of  the  pig,  will  produce 
tapeworm  in  both  man  and  dog.  The  ova  of  the 
tapeworm  are  taken  into  the  system  of  the  pig  by  feed- 
ing or  swallowing  them  in  human  and  canine  excre- 
ment— afterwards  developing — and  the  embryos  are 
supposed  to  pierce  and  pass  through  the  tissues,  and 
are  then  carried  through  the  large  arterial  vessels  by 
the  circulation  until  they  reach  their  destination  in 
the  muscular  system  or  structures.  But  it  would  ap- 
pear that  this  can  happen  only  to  young  animals, 
the  parasites  not  being  able  to  make  their  way  through 
the  tissues  of  adults. 

Pigs  are  said  to  be  born  measly,  and  it  is  supjxjsed 
that  one  of  the  most  constant  means  whereby  the  dis- 
ease is  propagated  is  by  breeding  from  affected 
parents.  Pigs  affected  with  Cysticerci  may  become 
fat  and  never  betray  any  sign  of  sickness,  or  the  para- 
sites may  be  so  numerous  as  to  cause  great  constitu- 
tional disturbance.  The  flesh  after  death  requires 
very  careful  examination  to  detect  the  cysts  or  blad- 
ders containing  the  parasites.  They  are  often  found 
beneath  the  internal  membrane  of  the  mouth,  under 
the  tongue,  inner  lining  of  the  eye-lids  and  the  mus- 
cles below  the  spine  within  the  abdomen.  The  dis- 
ease is  supposed  not  to  be  so  prevalent  now  as  for- 
merly, owing  probably  to  the  animals,  not  being 
allowed  to  run  at  large  so  much  and  get  access  to 
human  excrement.  Keep  dogs  clear  of  tapeworms 
by  an  occasional  vermifuge ;  bury  all  excrement  of 
dogs  found  in  pastures,  and  kill  all  stray  and  worth- 
less curs. 

Wounds.  These  may  be  divided  into  incised, 
lacerated,  punctured  and  contused.  From  wounds 
the  pig  appears  to  be  parricularly  exempt,  as  com- 
pared with  other  and  especially  the  larger  animals. 
This  may  be  owing  to  the  short  life  usually  allotted 
him,  his  small  size,  low  form,  peculiar  habits,  and  his 
being  also  generally  pretty  well  covered  with  fat, 
thus  protecting  to  a  great  extent  all  vital  and  im- 
portant organs.  Where  pigs  are  kept  with  cattle, 
they  are  sometimes  punctured  or  gored  by  the  horns 
of  the  latter,  in  which  case  the  abdomen  sometimes 
becomes  lacerated,  allowing  part  of  the  intestine  to 
protrude.  This,  of  course,  is  often  attended  with 
dangerous  consequences. 

Treatment.  This  should  be  attended  to  as  soon  as 
possible,  not  allowing  the  protruding  intestine  to  get 
cold.  If  the  intestine  is  not  broken,  treatment  is 
usually  successful.  First  cleanse  the  part  if  dirty, 
using  water  about  blood  warm ;  then  carefully  return, 


1232 


SWING-PLOW— SYR PHUS  FLY. 


and  bring  the  abdominal  walls  together,  and  secure 
by  a  few  stitches,  leaving  long  ends,  and  allowing 
these  to  hang  out  of  the  wound ;  next  close  the  skin 
by  stitches,  but  leave  sufficient  opening  at  the  most 
pendent  part,  to  allow  the  free  exit  of  any  matter  that 
may  accumulate.  Of  course  the  animal  must  be 
held  down  by  assistants  during  the  operation.  After 
wards  keep  the  bowels  open  by  tlie  use  of  injections 
of  tepid  water.  Endeavor  to  prevent  constipation  by 
a  laxative  and  cool  diet,  such  as  cooked  vegetables, 
gruel,  or  the  like.  It  is  not  advisable  to  give  any 
drastic  purgatives ;  but  if  necessary  to  resort  to 
medicines  to  relax  the  bowels,  use  castor  or  raw  lin- 
seed oil,  repeated  every  few  hours  until  the  desired 
effect  is  produced.  If  in  warm  weather,  and  there  is 
much  fever  or  heat  about  the  injured  parts,  it  would 
be  well  to  shower  or  apply  cold  water,  to  which  might 
be  added  a  little  laudanum,  and  if  the  discharge  is 
very  offensive,  and  there  appears  any  tendency  to 
take  on  a  gangrenous  character,  a  little  carbolic  acid, 
or  chloride  of  lime,  or  permanganate  of  potash  should 
be  added  to  the  water.  A  small  quantity  might  be 
injected  into  the  wound  as  well  as  bathing  it  ;  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  inject  much  fluid  into  the 
abdominal  cavity,  on  account  of  the  danger  to  be  ap- 
prehended from  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum  or 
caul. 

Swingle-tree,  a  whifBe-tree,  which  see.  The  words 
swing-tree,  single-tree  and  whipple-tree  are  also  used 
in  different  sections  of  the  country  to  designate  the 
same  object. 


Swing   Plow, 

beam. 


a  plow  with  no  wheels  under  the 


Swiss  Chard,  a  variety  of  white  beet  cultivated 
solely  for  its  leaves,  which  are  either  juicy  and  used 
as  greens,  or  are  ornamental.  The  leaves  are  thick, 
having  heavy  midribs,  which  are  served  like  asparagus, 
while  the  rest  of  the  leaf  is  cooked  as  spinach.  If 
often  cut,  new  and  more  tender  leaves  will  be  repro- 
duced.    It  is  also  called  "  Silver  " or  "  Sea-Kale"  beet. 

Sycamore,  a  coarse,  large  tree,  common  in  bottom 
lands  throughout  the  United  States,  and  more  prop- 
erly called  "  button-wood."  It  belongs  to  the  plane- 
tree  family,  and  by  some  scientists  has  been  called 
"American  plane-tree."  The  true  "  sycamore  "  of 
European  literature  is  a  different  species,  and  is  not 
found  growing  wild  in  this  country.  The  American, 
or  button-wood,  is  not  valuable,  its  chief  excellence 
being  that  it  furnishes  the  best  chop-blocks.  The 
grain  runs  zigzag  and  the  wood  is  therefore  very  hard 
to  split ;  hence,  poor  for  firewood.  Being  liable  to 
warp  greatly,  it  is  of  no  account  for  lumber. 

Syringe  (sir  inj),  a  small  tube,  with  a  force  valve. 
for  injecting  fluid  into  caviries.  There  are  many 
styles,  and  special  forms  for  particular  parts.  Some 
have  flexible  tubes,  some  inflexible.  As  scarcely  any 
general  disease  can  be  property  treated  without  such 
an  instrument,  one  or  two  of  the  most  common  forms 
should  be  in  every  household. 

Syrphus  Fly,  one  of  the  insects  beneficial  to  man. 
See  pages  865,  867. 


T 


ABLE.  On  this  subject  scarcely  any  sug- 
gestions are  called  for  in  a  practical  encyclo- 
pedia, as  in  the  selection  of  any  kitchen, 
dining-room,  parlor  or  bed-room  table  the  al- 
'  most  universal  practice  must  be  to  visit  a  furni- 
ture store  and  select  what  seems  to  suit  best. 
Every  one,  of  course,  must  have  his  fancy  as  to 
what  is  most  convenient  for  his  purposes.  There 
are  tables  with  and  without  drawers,  leaves,  castors, 
etc.,  and  there  are  extension  tables,  square,  oblong, 
round  and  oval,  and  for  the  parlor  and  bed-room  are 
tables  and  stands  with  walnut  top,  marble  top,  or 
other  style  of  finish,  and  of  various  degrees  of  ex- 
pense. 

Tackle,  a  pulley  or  machine  with  ropes  and  blocks 
for  raising  heavy  weights. 

Tadpole,  the  young  produced  from  the  egg  of  the 
frog,  which  is  extremely  unlike  the  animal  in  its  per- 
fect state,  seeming  to  consist  only  of  a  head  and  tail. 
The  head  is  large,  black,  and  roundish;  the  tail  slen- 
der and  magnified  with'  a  broad,  transparent  fin.  Its 
motions  are  very  lively.  Its  food  consists  of  small 
water  plants  and  different  animalculae.  The  mouth 
has  very  minute  teeth.  About  five  or  six  weeks  after 
it  is  hatched,  the  first  change  takes  place.  The  hind 
legs  first  appear,  and  gradually  increasing  in  length 
and  size,  are  succeeded,  in  about  two  weeks,  by  the 
fore-legs,  which  are  formed  at  an  earlier  period  be- 
neath the  skin.  The  tail  now  decreases,  so  that,  in  a 
day  or  two  it  is  quite  obliterated.  After  this  change 
the  animal  leaves  the  water  and  covers  the  shores  in 
myriads.  It  has  now  become  a  perfect  frog.  Tad- 
poles, immediately  after  they  are  hatched,  are  per- 
fectly transparent;  and,  when  placed  before  the 
double  microscope,  the  pulsation  of  the  heart  may  be 
easily  seen,  and  the  blood  propelled  thence  may  be 
observed  in  its  passage  through  the  whole  body. 

Ta-feu  (ta'  fu),  a  fertilizer  composed  of  night-soil 
and  guano. 

Taflfety  or  TaflFeta  (taf '  i-ty),  a  fine,  smooth  stuff 
of  silk,  having  usually  a  remarkably  wavy  luster,  im- 
parted by  pressure  and  heat  with  the  application  of  an 
acidulous  fluid  to  produce  the  effect  called  "  water- 
ing.* It  is  of  all  colors,  and  is  often  striped  with 
gold,  silver,  etc. 

Tafiy,  a  kind  of  candy  made  of  molasses  boiled 
down  and  poured  out  in  shallow  pans.     See  Candy. 

Tail-race,  the  channel  which  carries  off  the  water 
below  a  water-wheel. 

7S 


Tallow,  the  harder  portion  of  animal  fat,  abound- 
ing especially  in  suet,  from  the  ruminants,  cattle, 
sheep,  goats  and  deer,  although  there  are  scarcely 
any  animals  but  a  sort  of  tallow  may  be  obtained 
from  them.  It  consists  principally  of  stearine,  marga- 
rine and  oleine,  and  yields  by  distillation  a  large  portion 
of  oleic  and  margaric  acids.  Its  ultimate  constitu- 
ents are,  78.996  per  cent,  of  carbon,  n.700  of  hydro- 
gen, and  9.304  of  oxygen.  See  the  articles  Suet,  Fat 
and  Oil. 

Tallow  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  emollient  and 
demulcent;  in  pharmacy,  to  give  consistency  to  plas- 
ters and  ointments ;  and  in  the  arts,  for  dressing 
leather,  for  making  candles  and  soap,  and  for  other 
purjx)ses.  Pure  tallow  is  white  and  tasteless,  and 
differs  little  from  pure  lard  except  in  greater  density. 

To  purify  rancid  tallow,  melt  it  upon  lime-water 
and  stir  it  rapidly  and  thoroughly.  Let  it  stand  until 
the  water  settles,  and  the  work  is  done.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  same  process  has  to  be  repeated.  By 
this  means  the  impurities  are  worked  out  into  the 
water  below. 

Tallow  Candles.  The  process  of  making  tallow 
candles  is  explained  in  article  Candles. 

Tamarind,  the  pod  of  a  tropical  tree,  which  is  of 
the  shape  and  size  of  a  large  bean  jx)d.  In  the  coun- 
tries where  it  grows  it  occasionally  forms  an  article  of 
food,  in  the  form  of  confectionery,  and  is  esteemed  on 
account  of  its  pleasant  acid  and  cooling  qualides,  so 
useful  in  a  warm  climate.  The  tamarind  is  slightly 
cathartic.  Sugar  is  used  in  preserving  it.  There  is 
but  little  demand  for  it  in  the  United  States. 

Tame,  reconciled  to  the  presence  of  man.  Cannot 
be  properly  said  of  plants;  these  are  distinguished 
into  "  wild  "  and  "cultivated." 

Tannic  Acid,  the  peculiar  vegetable  principle 
which  combines  with  the  gelatine  of  skins  and  con- 
verts them  into  leather.  It  can  be  separated  from  the 
vegetable  substances  which  most  abundantly  contain 
it,  and  especially  from  gall-nuts,  by  any  one  of  sev- 
eral chemical  processes;  and  when  separated  and 
purified  and  dried,  it  is  a  white,  odorless,  fiercely 
astringent  and  uncrystallizable  powder,  very  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol. 

It  destroys  the  acidity  of  acids,  or  completely 
swallows  it  up  in  its  own  astringency,  and  is  de- 
comiX)sed  by  nitric  acid  and  by  chlorine  in  a  very 
obscure  or  complicated  manner;  and  is  precipitated 
by  the  carbonates  of  ammonia,  by  alumina,  by  the 
alkaline  earths,  and  by  many  of  the  oxides  of  the 


1234 


TANNING— TAPESTR  V. 


common  metals.  It  forms  with  the  peroxide  and  the 
protoxide  of  iron,  a  black-colored  compound  which, 
together  with  gallate  of  iron,  constitutes  the  basis  of 
writing  ink,  and  of  the  black  dyes. 

Tanning.  General  recipe :  Soak  the  hide  eight  or 
nine  days  in  water,  then  put  it  in  lime;  take  it  out 
and  remove  the  hair  by  rubbing  it,  and  soak  it  in  clear 
water  until  the  lime  is  entirely  out;  then,  for  three  or 
four  days,  soak  the  hide  in  water  in  which  alum  and 
salt  have  been  dissolved,  at  the  rate  of  i  pound  of 
alum  and  3  of  salt  for  an  ox-hide.  Take  it  out,  let  it 
get  half  dry,  and  then  beat  or  rub  it  until  it  becomes 
pliable.  This  method,  however,  does  not  produce 
good  leather  for  shoes. 

To  Tan  Soft  Leather,  for  Gloves,  etc.  Take 
}4  bushel  of  bran  and  4  pailfuls  of  hot  soft  water ;  let 
it  stand  24  hours ;  strain  off  and  add  3  pounds  of 
salt,  }£  pound  saleratus,  2  pounds  of  dissolved  japon- 
ica,  and  ^  pound  oil  of  vitriol ;  stir  till  all  is  well 
blended  together.  Let  the  hides  remain  in  the  dye 
from  one  to  three  days.  Smaller  quantities  of  the  dye 
can  be  prepared  by  observing  the  proportions  of  ingre- 
dients. This  makes  as  nice  leather  from  squirrel, 
dog,  cat,  calf  and  sheep  skins  as  can  be  desired  for 
mittens,  gloves,  etc. 

To  Tan  Mink  and  Muskrat  Skins.  First  wash 
the  hide  in  warm  water,  and  remove  all  fleshy  and 
fatty  matter.  Then  soak  it  in  the  following  solution : 
10  gallons  of  cold  soft  water,  to  which  is  added  8 
quarts  of  wheat  bran,  l4  pint  of  old  soap  and  i  ounce 
of  borax.  If  the  hides  have  not  been  salted,  add  i 
pint  of  salt.  Green  hides  should  be  soaked  8  or  10 
hours,  and  dry  ones  till  they  are  soft.  To  make  tan 
liquor,  to  10  gallons  of  warm  soft  water  add  ^  bushel 
of  bran.  Stir  it  well  and  let  it  stand  in  a  warm  room 
until  it  ferments;  then  add  slowly  2%  pounds  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  stirring  all  the  time.  Let  the  hide  remain 
in  about  4  hours,  then  take  out  and  work  over  a  beam 
until  dry. 

To  Tan  Buckskins.  Take  a  skin  either  green  or 
well  soaked,  and  flesh  it  with  a  dull  knife;  spread  the 
skin  on  a  smooth  log  and  grain  it  by  scraping  it  with 
a  sharp  instrument;  rub  nearly  dry  over  the  oval  end 
of  a  board  held  upright.  Take  the  brains  of  a  deer 
or  calf,  dry  by  the  fire  gently,  put  them  into  a  cloth 
and  boil  until  soft,  cool  off  the  liquid  until  blood-warm, 
with  water  sufficient  to  soak  the  skin  in,  and  soak  un- 
til quite  soft  and  pliable,  and  then  wring  out  as  dry 
as  possible;  wash  in  strong  soap-suds  and  rub  dry, 
and  smoke  well  with  wood  smoke.  Instead  of  brains, 
oil  or  lard  may  be  used,  and  the  skin  soaked  therein 
six  hours. 

To  Cure  Sheep-Skins,  with  the  Wool  on.  Take 
a  spoonful  of  alum  and  two  of  saltpeter;  pulverize 
and  mix  well  together,  then  sprinkle  the  powder  on 
the  flesh  side  of  the  skin,  and  lay  the  two  flesh  sides 
together,  leaving  the  wool  outside.  Then  fold  up  the 
skin  as  tight  as  you  can,  and  hang  it  in  a  dry  place. 
In  two  or  three  days,  or  as  soon  as  it  is  dry,  take  it 
down  and  scrape  it  with  a  blunt  knife,  till  clean  and 


supple.  This  completes  the  process,  and  makes  you 
a  most  excellent  saddle  cover.  If,  when  you  kill  your 
mutton,  you  treat  the  skin  this  way,  you  can  get  more 
for  them  from  the  saddler  than  you  can  get  for  the 
wool  and  skin  separately  disposed  otherwise. 

To  Cure  Rabbit-Skins.  First  lay  the  skin  on  a 
smooth  board,  placing  the  fur  side  under,  and  fasten 
the  skin  to  the  board  with  tinned  tacks.  Wash  it 
over  with  a  solution  of  salt;  then  dissolve  i  J^  ounces 
alum  in  one-half  pint  of  warm  water,  and  with  a 
sponge  dipped  in  this  solution,  moisten  the  surface 
all  over;  repeat  this  every  now  and  then  for  three 
days;  when  the  skin  is  quite  dry,  take  out  the  tacks, 
and  rolling  it  loosely  the  wrong  way,  the  hair  inside, 
draw  it  quickly  backwards  and  forwards  through  a 
large  smooth  ring,  until  it  is  quite  soft;  then  roll  it  in 
the  contrary  way  of  the  skin,  and  repeat  the  operation. 
Skins  prepared  thus  are  useful  for  many  domestic 
purjxjses  ;  and  to  save  and  dress  all  the  good  skins  of 
freshly  killed  animals  is  real  economy. 

Tansy,  a  well  known  bitter  herb.  Its  roots  are  per- 
ennial, its  stems  are  annual,  solid,  smooth,  unbranch- 
ed  and  about  two  feet  high ;  its  leaves  are  doubly 
pinnatifid,  deeply  serrated,  and  of  a  dark  green  color; 
and  its  flowers  grow  in  dense  terminal  corymbs, 
and  are  numerous,  and  have  a  golden  yellow  color, 
and  bloom  in  July  and  August.  The  whole  plant 
emits  a  strong  but  not  unpleasant  odor,  and  has  a  bit- 
ter taste,  and  is  alleged  to  possess  tonic,  cordial  and 
vermifuge  properties,  and  has  long  figured  in  hor- 
ticultural catalogues  as  an  aromatic  herb  for  making 
tansy  pudding  and  for  other  kitchen  uses ;  but  it  does 
not  agree  with  every  stomach,  and  has  quite  lost  a 
large  portion  of  its  culinary  reputation.  Two  varieties 
of  it  occur  in  gardens,  the  Double  or  Curled  and  the 
Variegated  or  Striped-leaved.  The  former  is  culti- 
vated for  ordinary  purposes  on  account  of  being  milder 
and  more  grateful  than  the  wild  sort,  while  the  latter 
possesses  some  little  claim  to  a  place  in  the  flower- 
garaen.  Tansy  is  propagated  from  slips  or  offsets  of 
the  root,  planted  in  spring  or  autumn  at  distances  of 
12  to  18  inches  apart. 

Medicinally  it  has  been  used  in  intermittent  fevers,, 
hysterics,  amenorrhoea,  and  as  a  preventive  of  rheu- 
matism ;  but  at  the  present  day  it  is  principally  used 
as  a  vermifuge. 

Tapestry  (tap'es-try),  a  kind  of  woven  hangings  of 
wool  and  silk,  often  enriched  with  gold  and  silver, 
representing  various  figures.  Figured  carpet  may  be 
called  tapestry  carpet.  To  adorn  a  parlor  properly  the 
same  principles  of  taste,  with  reference  to  harmony, 
etc.,  of  color  and  figure,  should  be  observed  as  with 
reference  to  dress.  For  example,  when  the  fashion 
is  to  have  light  colors  prevail,  curtains  and  the  wall 
paper  should  be  of  light  colors,  as  well  as  the  carpet. 

IBut  there  is  one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
taste  which  has  reference  to  any  sensation  of  pleasure 
and  pain  that  may  be  produced  by  a  like  grouping  of 
objects.  For  example,  if  a  parloris  draped  heavy  and 
close,  so  that  the  air  becomes  heavy  and  oppressive 


TAPE-  WORM— TEA. 


1235 


from  the  exhalations  of  the  tapestry,  this  fundamental 
principle  is  violated ;  for  nothing  can  really  be  in  good 
taste  which  uniformly  produces  a  sense  of  pain.  A 
great  amount  of  heavy  and  dark  tapestry  covering  all 
of  the  windows  except  a  small  portion  near  the  base, 
is  extremely  oppressive. 

Tape-Worm :  see  Worms. 

Tapioca  (tap-i-o'ca),  a  coarse  granular  substance 
obtained  by  heating  the  moistened  starch  from  the 
roots  of  a  Brazilian  plant.  Cassava  or  mandioc  is  a 
more  finely  granular  form.  The  root  is  poisonous, 
but  by  pulverizing,  washing  and  heating  the  poison  is 
driven  out  or  destroyed.  Tapioca  constitutes  a  very 
bland,  light  and  nutritious  article  of  food  for  invalids. 
It  is  generally  served  in  the  form  of  pudding,  but  some- 
times as  gruel  or  porridge.  For  tapioca  pudding  see 
page  107 1. 

Tap-root,  the  main  root  of  certain  trees  and  plants, 
which  grows  straight  down  into  the  earth.  It  char- 
acterizes those  trees  which  often  grow  in  places  ex- 
posed to  much  wind,  as  the  oaks,  which  are  thus  better 
enabled  to  withstand  high  wind.  Such  trees  as  pre- 
vail in  bottom  lands  have  no  such  stout  central  sup- 
port as  a  tap-root,  and  when  exposed  to  high  wind 
are  sometimes  blown  over.  Hence  we  find  in  bottom 
lands  many  pits  in  the  ground,  made  by  the  blowing 
down  of  such  trees,  which  by  falling  turn  up  the  earth  by 
their  roots.  The  horticulturist  may  draw  a  lesson 
from  this  fact,  and  be  careful  not  to  cut  off  the  tap- 
roots of  his  trees  in  the  work  of  transplanting. 

Tar,  an  acrid,  bituminous  fluid  obtained  from  the 
wood  of  certain  pines,  the  larch,  fir,  etc.,  by  heating. 
Its  dark  color  is  mainly  due  to  the  smoke  made  in 
heating  the  wood.  The  uses  of  tar  are  numerous  in 
the  arts,  and  medicinally  its  effects  are  similar  to  those 
of  turpentine, — stimulant,  diuretic,  anthelmintic  and 
laxative.  It  is  much  used  externally,  by  the  veterina- 
rian, on  wounds  and  other  sores,  either  alone  or  with 
other  drugs. 

Tare.  The  "  tare"  of  ancient  history  is  supposed 
to  be  what  is  now  known  as  "  darnel,"  a  somewhat 
poisonous  grass  sometimes  found  in  grain-fields  in 
the  eastern  ixsrtion  of  the  United  States  and  in  the 
Old  World ;  but  at  the  present  day  the  term  denotes 
several  species  of  quite  a  different  European  plant 
and  a  kind  of  vetch,  which  latter  is  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land for  fodder. 

Tarlatan  (tar'la-tan),  a  kind  of  thin,  transparent 
muslin,  used  for  ladies'  dresses  and  the  like. 

Tarragon  (tar'a-gon),  a  species  of  wormwood,  fra- 
grant and  aromatic,  used  in  France  to  correct  the 
coldness  of  salad  herbs.  Infused  in  vinegar  it  makes 
a  good  fish  sauce,  and  it  is  also  an  ingredient  in  pickles, 
soups  and  other  dishes. 

Tart,  sour;  sharp;  also  a  species  of  small  open  pie 
or  flat  piece  of  pastry,  containing  jelly  or  conserve. 
See  Pies,    page  1035. 


Tartar,  an  acid  concrete  salt,  deposited  from 
wines  completely  fermented,  and  adhering  to  the 
sides  of  the  casks  in  the  form  of  a  hard  crust.  It  is 
white  or  red,  the  white  being  more  highly  esteemed. 
When  pure  it  is  called  "  cream  of  tartar,"  and  when 
crude  "  argal  "  or  "  argol."  The  word  "  tartar  "  also 
denotes  a  concretion  which  often  incrusts  the  teeth 
(see  Teeth),  consisting  of  salivary  mucus,  animalmat- 
ter  and  phosphatti  of  lime. 

Tartar  Emetic  is  a  double  salt  consisting  of  tar- 
taric acid  in  combination  with  potassa  and  protoxide 
of  iron.  Medicinally,  according  to  size  of  dose,  etc., 
it  has  a  great  variety  of  effects.  When  a  person  tokes 
too  much  by  mistake,  vomiting  generally  takes  place 
and  nearly  all  the  nauseous  substance  is  thrown. up. 
If  vomiting  has  not  taken  place,  tickle  the  throat, 
giving  large  draughts  of  wann  water,  until  emesis  does 
follow;  then  give  astringents,  as  oak  bark,  Peruvian 
bark,  etc. 

Tartaric  Acid  is  obtained  from  tartar,  and  is  solu- 
ble, white  and  cr)'stalline.  It  is  much  used  in  calico 
prinUng  and  dyeing,  and  also  for  making  effervescing 
draughts  with  soda,  as  in  SeidHtz  powder.  As  a  neu- 
tral salt,  in  combination  with  lime  or  potash,  tartaric 
acid  exists  in  several  of  the  edible  fruits,  particularly 
the  grape  and  the  tamarind. 

Taxidermy  (tax'i-der-my),  theartof  preparing  and 
preserving  the  skins  of  animals  in  the  natural  form 
and  appearance.  Stuffed  birds  and  quadrupeds  are 
desirable  in  every  household,  both  for  ornamentation 
and  as  a  source  of  instruction ;  but  the  art  of  preparing 
them  is  too  complicated  and  difficult  for  general  prac- 
tice, as  the  animals,  even  the  birds,  have  to  be 
skinned,  turning  the  skin  inside  out  even  to  the  nose 
or  beak,feet  and  rip  of  the  tail,  poisoned  with  arsenic, 
and  adjusted  back  to  its  natural  shape  and  smooth- 
ness; and  none  but  enthusiasric  "geniuses"  would 
undertake  such  tasks.  Artificial  eyes,  to  be  obtained 
of  dealers  in  that  special  line,  have  also  to  be  inserted, 
and  great  skill  and  patience  exercised  in  mounting. 

Tea.  All  the  varieties  of  the  tea  of  commerce  are 
prepared  for  the  market  by  more  or  less  application  of 
artificial  heat:  and  some  are  highly  or  repeatedly  torre- 
fied. Theleaves  which  aregatheredintheearliestspring 
afford  the  strongest  and  most  valuable  varieties :  those 
which  are  gathered  late  in  the  year  afford  the  inferior 
varieties ;  and  those  of  any  season  can  be  made  into 
the  green  or  hyson  varieties  by  peculiar  and  abundant 
torrefication. 

Many  adulterations  of  tea,  by  the  admixture  of  the 
leaves  of  old  stock,  of  exhausted  specimens,  or  of 
totally  diff'erent  plants  are  practiced  both  in  China  and 
America.  The  Chinese  mix  the  waste,  unmarketable 
teas  of  former  years  with  the  new  crop,  in  order  to  in- 
crease its  bulk,  and  mix  other  substances  with  many 
or  most  or  all  of  the  varieties,  in  order  to  increase 
their  weight,  to  modify  their  color,  or  to  give  them  a 
peculiar  flavor;  and  if  they  were  not  checked  and 
controlled  by  searching  inspection  at  Canton,  they 
"Vould  practice  such  great  deception  as  would  speedily 


1236 


TEAL— TEDDER. 


throw  the  whole  tea  trade  into  a  state  of  chaos.  The 
teas  freest  from  admixture  with  foreign  leaves  are  the 
better  grades  of  black  teas,  while  those  which  are  most 
adulterated  are  the  very  low-priced  and  much  broken 
teas,  and  the  lower  qualities  of  black  and  green  gun- 
powder teas.  The  pigmentary  matters  usually  em- 
ployed in  coloring  or  facing  teas  are  Prussian  blue, 
turmeric,  China  clay,  indigo,  sulphate  of  lime,  and 
silicate  of  magnesia.  These  are  mixed  in  various  pro- 
portions so  as  to  produce  different  shades  of  blue  and 
green. 

The  tea-plant  is  indigenous  in  eastern  parts  of  China 
and  in  Japan,  and  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem  by 
the  natives,  both  as  an  article  of  diet,  and  as  a  means 
of  national  wealth.  It  has  been  used  by  the  Chinese 
from  time  immemorial,  some  say  froqi  the  time  of 
Confucius,  as  both  an  invigorating  beverage  and  a 
medicinal  condiment,  peculiarly  salutary  to  the  con- 
stitution.' It  has  for  ages  been  the  theme  of  their 
poets,  the  idol  of  their  husbandmen,  and  the  highest 
favor  of  their  emperor  and  his  government ;  and  it  is 
discussed  at  great  length,  and  with  reference  to  all  its 
history  and  treatment,  in  a  seriesof  24  native  treatises, 
which  began  to  be  comix)sed  about  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. The  consumption  of  it  throughout  the  vast  Chi- 
nese empire  is  so  great  that,  in  the  opinion  of  an 
eminent  traveler,  it  would  not  be  materially  lowered 
in  price  to  the  native  consumer  if  the  whole  tea-trade 
in  America  was  abandoned. 

Tea  is  cultivated,  not  in  every  part  of  China,  but 
chiefly  in  a  tract  on  the  east  side,  called  the  tea  coun- 
try, situated  between  the  28th  and  35th  degrees  north 
latitude,  and  more  particularly  between  the  30th  and 
33d,  and  possessing  a  mean  temperature  in  Novem- 
ber of  56°  Fahrenheit  at  sunrise  and  62°  at  noon. 
But  in  Japan  it  is  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, around  the  border  of  grain  and  rice  fields.  The 
mode  of  cultivation  in  the  two  countries  is  very  much 
the  same.  The  plant  thrives  best  on  light,  stony 
soil,  and  is  commonly  sown  in  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, in  rows  4  or  5  feet  apart.  From  6  to  i  s  seeds 
are  deposited  in  each  hole ;  for,  on  account  of 
their  oiliness,  they  are  apt  to  become  rancid,  so  that 
a  considerable  proportion  do  not  germinate.  The 
plants  require  to  be  carefully  weeded  while  very 
young,  but  are  otherwise  easily  reared. 

Their  leaves  are  not  available  for  gathering  till  the 
third  year  after  sowing;  but  they  are  then  good  and 
abundant.  At 'seven  years  from  sowing,  the  plants 
attain  their  full  height,  but  they  then  have  thinner 
and  less  valuable  leaves  than  in  the  third  and  three 
following  years ;  and  at  that  time  they  are  generally 
cut  over  near  the  ground,  so  that  they  send  forth  an 
exuberance  of  new  shoots,  and  may  yield  as  strong, 
well-flavored  and  plentiful  leaves  as  before,  and,  by 
this  practice  of  cutting  over,  repeated  at  suitable  in- 
tervals, they  can  be  rendered  fairly  or  fully  ]5roductive 
during  an  indefinite  number  of  years.  The  leaves 
are  gathered  either  singly  or  iii  sprigs;  and  can  be 
collected  by  a  diligent  worker,  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  ten  or  fifteen  pounds  in  a  day,  and  on  the 


average,  from  four  to  six.  The  leaves  are  gathered 
at  different  seasons  or  upon  different  methods,  accord- 
ing to  the  several  varieties  of  the  tea;  and  are  torre- 
fied in  buildings  adapted  for  the  purjxise,  having  a 
number  of  small  furnaces,  each  about  three  feet  high, 
with  a  large,  flat  iron  pan  at  the  top. 

Next  to  the  peculiar  flavor  that  gives  tea  its  popu- 
larity as  a  beverage,  it  is  an  astringent,  always  tend- 
ing to  close  the  superficial  cells  of  the  alimentary 
canal,  and  indeed  those  of  all  the  blood  and  lym- 
phatic vessels  of  the  system.  It  therefore  tans,  as  it 
were,  the  membranes,  making  a  sort  of  leather  of  them, 
thus  retarding  the  normal  processes  of  daily  renewal. 
Hence,  it  is  often  remarked  that  tea-drinking  prevents 
one  from  eating  so  much  as  he  otherwise  would,  and 
therefore  from  doing  as  much  work  as  he  would  with- 
out it.  Its  tanning  effects  is  often  seen  in  its  turning 
the  fair  skin  of  the  young  people  to  a  dark  color 
before  they  are  40  or  5  o  years  of  age. 

To  Make  Tea.  Scald  the  pot  and  put  in  a  tea- 
spoonful  for  each  person.  Upon  green  tea  ix)ur  a 
little  water,  and  allow  it  to  stand  two  or  three  minutes 
where  it  will  keep  hot ;  then  fill  the  pot  from  the  tea- 
kettle. Green  tea  should  never  be  boiled,  and  it  is 
rendered  dead  by  being  steeped  long.  Of  black  tea 
the  same  measure  is  used;  the  pot  being  filled  up  at 
first,  and  set  immediately  upon  coals  or  a  stove,  just 
long  enough  to  boil  it.  ^Water  should  be  added  to 
the  tea-pot  from  the  tea-kettle,  boiling  hot.  Black 
and  green  tea  are  good  mixed.  Never  let  tea  stand 
in  tin. 

Teal,  a  bird  of  the  duck  genus. 

Team,  two  or  more  horses,  cattle  or  other  draft  ani- 
mals attached  to  a  vehicle  or  load  for  drawing  it. 

Teasel.  This  is  a  rasping  herb  used  for  raismg  the 
nap  on  cloth.  Or  combing  out  the  fibers  ujxju  the 
dressed  surface  of  woolen  cloth.  The  bastard  variety 
found  in  some  sections  of  the  East  is  of  no  use.  The 
teasel  is  a  biennial.  The  seed  is  sown  on  a  deep, 
loamy  clay,  previously  well  plowed  and  harrowed,  in 
drills  20  inches  apart,  leaving  a  plant  every  ten 
inches,  or  in  hills  16  inches  apart.  Cultivate.  As  the 
plants  do  better  when  allowed  to  remain  and  mature 
where  they  are  sown,  the  ground  can  be  kept  cov- 
ered by  sowing  between  the  rows.  In  collecting  the 
crop,  cut  about  eight  inches  below  the  head,  just  as  it 
is  going  out  of  flower,  when  the  awns  are  the  toughest. 
Spread  and  dry  under  cover,  and  assort  into  three 
lots,  according  to  size  and  quality.  An  acre  in  good 
condition  ought  to  yield  150,000  to  200,000  heads, 
worth  $1.50  to  $2.50  per  1,000. 

Technology  (tek-nol'o-jy),  the  science  of  the  in- 
dustrial arts.  Some  industrial  colleges  are  called 
"technological "  schools.  The  industrial  arts  embrace 
agriculture,  horticulture,  gardening,  carpentry,  black- 
smithing,  masonry, and  all  other  "useful  arts."  A  list 
of  all  the  industrial  institurions  in  the  United  States 
is  given  on  page  865. 

Tedder,  a  machine  for  turning  and  spreading  hay; 


TEETH. 


^237 


called  also  "hay-tedder."     A  cut  of  one  is  given  on 
page  643. 

Teeth.     The  teeth  of  most  of  the  higher  orders  of 
mammals,  notwithstanding  great  and  signal  differ- 
ences in  the  chief  groups  of  genera,  possess  certain 
imix)rtant  common  characters  of  both  classification 
and  composition,  or,  in  every  case,  comprise  incisors, 
cuspidates  and  molars,  and  consist  of  enamel,  ivory 
and  bony  cement.     They  have  different  forms  and 
arrangements  and  relative  numbers  in  different  genera, 
to  suit  to  a  nicety  the  especial  wants  and  feeding  hab- 
its of  each  animal ;  yet,  in  all  instances,  though  more 
or  less  vigorously,  according  to  the  saliency  of  their 
points  and  hardness  of  the  substances  on  which  they 
operate,  the  incisors  nip,  the  cuspidates  tear  or  lacer- 
ate, and  the  molars  grind  or  bruise  or  pulverize.   The 
three  classes  as  they  exist  in  the  horse,  may  be  taken 
as  a  familiar  specimen,  and  bear  the  [wpular  names 
of  nippers,  tushes  and  grinders,  and  have  been  de- 
scribed in   our  article  on   Horse.     The  enamel,  the 
ivory,  and   the  bony  cement   aggregately  adapt  the 
teeth  to  withstand  the  attrition  of  eating,  the  chemical 
action  of  substances  incidentally  lodged  in  the  inter- 
stices, the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  diversity 
of  organic  forces  within  the  exposed  and  unexposed 
parts  of  the  teeth;  and  they  are  differently  propor- 
tioned to  one  another,  not  only  in  the  teeth  of  differ- 
ent species  of  animals,  but  in  the  different  classes  of 
the  teeth  of  the  same  species,  and  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  tooth.    The  aggregate  substance  of 
the  teeth  has  more  ix)wer  of  resisting  both  mechanical 
and  chemical  agency  than  common  bone;  the  crown, 
or  exposed  and  working  part  of  each  tooth  has  vastly 
more  hardness  and  exterior  strength  than  its  root  or 
unexposed   part;    and   the  working   surface   of  the 
crown,  whether  it  consists  of  edge  or  points  or  laminc-e, 
enjoys  exactly  the  amount  of  superior  hardness  or  in- 
trinsic diversity  which  fits  it  for  performing  its  me- 
chanical functions  in  the  best  possible  manner  with 
the  least  possible  wear. 

The  enamel  is  by  far  the  densest  and  hardest  of 
the  three  constituents  of  the  teeth,  and  will  yield  fire 
with  steel  like  flint,  and  is  not  easily  acted  on  by 
even  the  best-tempered  files.  It  never  occurs  alone, 
but  always  as  a  coating  to  the  other  constituents;  and 
it  serves  so  to  temper  the  teeth,  as  steel  tempers  iron, 
that  they  may  resist  attrition,  and  continue  unworn 
as  long  as  the  wants  of  the  animal  may  require. 

The  ivory  is  considerably  softer  than  the  enamel, 
yet  harder  than  common  bone;  and  it  differs  from 
the  latter  principally  in  containing  a  greater  proportion 
of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  in  some  instances,  in  con- 
taining fluorate  of  lime.  The  osseous  or  bony  cement 
is  softer  than  the  ivory  and  contains  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  animal  matter,  and  somewhat  nearly  resembles 
common  bone. 

Two  sets  of  teeth  are  given  to  man  and  the  greater 
number  of  quadrupeds;  the  one  temporary,  and  com- 
monly called  shedding  or  milk  teeth,  and  the  other 
permanent,  and  commonly  called  adult  or  permanent 
teeth.     The  jaws  grow  much  faster,  and  mature  much 


earlier,  in  proportion,  than  the  general  system  of  the 
body;  and  therefore  a  temporary  and  comparatively 
small  set  of  teeth  is  given  them  to  suit  their  infant 
state,  and  another  and  comparatively  larger  set  to 
suit  their  natural  state. 

The  milk  teeth  are  20  in  number,  and  the  permanent 
teeth  are  32,  20  of  which  take  the  place  of  the  milk 
teeth.  At  the  front  of  each  jaw  are  two  pairs  of  cut- 
ting teeth,  called  "incisors;"  next  is  a  pair  of  long 
teeth  (having  long  fangs  especially),  called  "  eye- 
teeth  "  or  "canine  teeth,"  or  "canines;"  next,  two 
pairs  in  each  jaw  of  "bicuspids,'"  or  "  pre-molars;" 
and  lastly,  three  pairs  of  "grinders,"  or  "  molars,"  the 
last  pair  of  these  being  called  also  "  wisdom  teeth," 
which  do  not  appear  until  the  individual  is  about 
full-grown. 

Of  the  milk  teeth,  the  "central  incisors  "  (first  pair) 
come  through  the  gum  at  about  the  seventh  month  of 
infancy,  those  in  the  lower  jaw  usually  first,  and  give 
place  to  the  permanent  teeth  in  the  seventh  year. 
The  "  lateral  incisors "  (second  pair)  next  appear, 
that  is,  from  the  eighth  to  the  tenth  month,  and  give 
place  to  the  permanent  teeth  in  the  eighth  year.  The 
canines  appear  from  the  14th  to  the  20th  month,  to 
be  followed  by  permanent  in  the  nth  or  12th  year. 
The  pre-molars  appear  from  the  12th  to  the  14th 
month,  to  be  followed,  the  first  pair  in  the  loth  year 
and  the  second  pair  in  the  nth.  The  molars  (ex- 
cept the  last  pair,  or  "  wisdom  teeth,"  as  noted  above), 
break  through  the  gums  from  one  and  a  half  to  three 
years  of  age,  and  yield  to  permanent  teeth  at  12  and 
13  years.     See  Teething. 

Care  of  the  Teeth.  Do  not  crack  nuts  with 
them,  or  use  them  for  any  other  purpose  requiring 
equal  violence.  Do  not  let  them  come  in  contact 
with  very  hot  drinks,  especially  on  the  first  draught, 
at  any  one  time.  Even  cold  fluid,  coming  in  con- 
tact with  the  teeth  directly  after  they  are  heated  up 
with  hot  drinks,  is  likewise  deleterious.  Do  not 
undergo  a  mercurial  salivation  or  chew  the  substance 
of  matches,  which  contain  phosphorus.  Use  the 
tooth-brush,  with  clear  water,  after  every  meal,  and 
in  the  morning  on  rising.  Undoubtedly  the  best 
dentifrice  or  tooth  ix)wder  is  pulverized  charcoal.  It 
whitens  them,  purifies  them  from  unpleasant  odors, 
and  will  also  purify  the  breath.  If  you  choose,  a  little 
common  salt  may  be  added  to  the  charcoal.  If  the 
teeth  are  thoroughly  cleansed  two  or  three  times  a 
week  with  pulverized  charcoal,  and  washed  with 
water  as  above  indicated,  they  will  be  white,  pure 
and  will  not  decay  with  ordinary  usage  until  far  ad- 
vanced in  life.  Have  a  dentist  examine  them  every 
few  months,  to  remove  any  tartar  that  may  be  col- 
lecting on  them  and  to  fill  cavities,  if  any  can  be  dis- 
covered.    Never  use  metallic  tooth-picks. 

One  of  the  greatest  enemies  to  human  teeth  is  the 
concretion  denominated  tartar,  which  forms  u]ion 
them  like  a  crust,  and  would  encase  them  wholly 
were  there  no  impediment.  Of  the  nature  of  this 
tartar  and  how  it  is  formed  a  great  deal  has  been 
written ;  but  the  whole  that  has  been  advanced  ar.d 


1238 


TEETHING. 


urged,  sometimes  very  authoritatively  and  with  great 
dogmatism,  only  goes  to  prove  that  the  writers  knew 
nothing  of  the. matter.  All,  however,  that  we  really 
know  on  this  is,  that  the  substance  termed  tartar  does 
actually  exist  on  the  teeth,  to  which,  if  not  removed,  it  is 
very  injurious,  and  that  the  rapidity  of  its  formation 
frequently  depends  upon  the  state  of  the  stomach. 
In  some  idiosyncrasies  it  is  not  formed  at  all ;  in 
others,  only  a  little;  in  others,  a  great  deal.  When- 
ever it  does  appear,  it  should  be  removed;  yet,  even 
when  there  is  idiosyncratic  tendency  to  its  accumula- 
tion, it  will  not  have  time  to  form  if  the  teeth  are 
properly  attended  to — a  thing  requiring  more  of  the 
minuteness  of  attention  than  of  actual  trouble.  If 
tartar  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  which  it  almost  al- 
ways does  in  the  permanent  absence  of  tooth-brushes 
and  tooth  powder,  it  not  only  gradually  loosens  and 
destroys  the  teeth,  but  corrodes  the  gums,  and  re- 
duces them  to  a  state  of  disease  frequently  mistaken 
for  scurvy,  even  by  medical  men ;  and  at  length  it 
occasions  the  total  destruction  of  the  teeth,  and  a  sad 
unsightliness  of  the  gums,  with  no  other  remedy  left 
but  to  encase  the  latter  in  an  artificial  socket  bearing 
a  set  of  artificial  teeth. 

Loose  but  Sound  Teeth.  Turkish  myrrh  diluted 
in  water — at  first  a  teaspoonful  to  a  tumblerful  of 
water,  and  gradually  strengthened — and  used  as  a 
wash  four  or  five  times  a  day,  will  generally  give  re- 
lief. There  are  only  two  causes  for  the  above  trouble, 
viz:  calomel  and  soda,  and  the  use  of  both  must  be 
Stopped  entirely. 

For  the  Gums.  Alum  water  will  harden  the  gums 
and  prevent  loosening  of  the  teeth. 

A  Dentifrice.  An  ounce  of  myrrh  in  fine  powder, 
and  a  little  powdered  sage,  mixed  in  two  spoonfuls  of 
honey,  make  an  agreeable  and  delicate  dentifrice. 

SozoDONT — A  Dentifrice.  Castile  soap,  five 
parts;  glycerine,  five  parts;  alcohol,  thirty  parts; 
water,  twenty  parts ;  oil  of  pepperment,  oil  oif  cloves, 
oil  of  cinnamon,  and  anise,  a  few  drops. 

Deschamp's  Dentifrice  for  Removing  the  Yel- 
low Color  from  Teeth.  Take  of  dry  hypochlorite 
of  lime,  y^  dram;  red  coral,  2  drams;  triturate  well 
and  mix  thoroughly.  This  powder  is  employed  in 
the  following  manner:  a  new  brush  is  slightly  moist- 
ened, then  dipped  in  the  powder  and  applied  to  ihe 
teeth.  According  to  Deschamp,  a  few  days'  use  of 
this  powder  will  produce  a  marked  alteration  in  the 
appearance  of  the  teeth,  which  will  acquire  a  white 
color. 

Cure  for  Toothache.  Spirits  of  camphor,  10 
drops;  oil  of  cloves,  10  drops;  chloroform,  15  drops; 
spirits  of  ether,  15  drops.  Apply  to  the  cavity,  or  rub 
the  gum  a  little.     The  cure  is  immediate. 

Magnetic  Pain-Killer  for  Acute  Pain  and 
Toothache.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  receipts 
for  relieving  acute  pain  and  toothache:  Laudanum, 
I  dram;  gum  camphor,  4  drams;  oil  of  cloves,  % 
dram;  oil  of  lavender,  i  dram:  add  these  to  i  ounce 


alcohol,  6  drams  sulphuric  ether,  and  5  fluid  drams 
chloroform.  Apply  with  lint ;  or,  for  toothache,  rub- 
on  the  gums,  and  upon  the  face  against  the  tooth. 

Chloral  for  Tooth.\che.  Dr.  Page  recommends 
chloral  hydrate  as  a  local  application  in  cases  of 
toothache.  A  few  grains  of  the  solid  hydrate  intro- 
duced into  the  cavity  of  the  tooth  upon  the  point  of  a 
quill  speedily  dissolves  there ;  and  in  the  course  of  a 
few  minutes,  during  which  a  not  unpleasant  warm 
sensation  is  experienced,  the  pain  is  either  deadened, 
or,  more  often,  effectually  allayed.  A  second  or 
third  application  may  be  resorted  to  if  necessary. 

Infallible  Cure  for  the  Toothache.  Pulver- 
ize and  mix  in  equal  quantities,  alum  and  common 
salt ;  wet  a  small  piece  of  cotton,  and  causing  the 
mixture  to  adhere,  place  it  in  the  hollow  tooth.  A 
sensation  of  coldness  will  be  produced  at  first,  which 
will  gradually  subside,  and  with  it,  the  torment  of  the 
toothache. 

Another:  To  i  teaspoonful  of  creosote  put  half  a 
teasjxjonful  of  alcohol.  Soak  a  bit  of  cotton  well 
with  this,  and  put  it  into  the  tooth.  No  harm  will 
arise  from  the  use  of  creosote,  if  care  is  taken  not  to 
swallow  the  spittle. 

Another:  Cotton  wool,  wet  with  paregoric  or  spirits 
of  turpentine,  and  placed  upon  the  tooth,  will  often 
give  relief.  Bathe  the  face  with  hot  drops,  and  hold 
some  in  the  mouth;  if  this  does  not  succeed,  soak  the 
feet  in  warm  water,  and  put  a  mustard  poultice  ujxjn 
the  back  of  the  neck.  Wrap  up  in  clothes,  and  drink 
comjxjsition,  until  a  copious  sweat  is  produced. 

Teeth  of  Horses:  see  pages  678  and  725  ;  of  cat- 
tle, page  207;  of  swine,  pages  I2r8-i9. 

Teething,  the  first  teeth  of  many  children  come 
through  without  any  evil  effects,  but  with  others  this 
process  produces  fever,  diarrhoea,  restlessness,  erup- 
tions of  the  skin  and  even  sometimes  convulsions  or 
fits.  Feeble  and  excitable  constitutions  are  most  lia- 
ble to  these  disorders.  While  teething  there  is  more 
or  less  disorder  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  with  most 
children.  Most  children  are  loose :  with  some,  how- 
ever, the  reverse  is  the  case.  A  slight  degree  of  loose- 
ness is  perhaps  not  objectionable ;  but  should  they 
become  too  much  so,  which  is  liable  in  hot  weather, 
they  must  be  checked  gradually.  The  time  of  teeth- 
ing, as  a  rule,  runs  from  the  fifth  or  the  sixth  month  to 
the  sixteenth  month.  Some  children  begin  to  cut 
their  teeth  as  early  as  at  the  age  of  three  months, 
while  others  do  not  l^egin  till  at  the  age  of  eight  or 
ten  months. 

The  treatment  of  the  child  during  teething  is  sim- 
ple. The  bowels  should  be  kept  open,  and  if  restless 
and  gums  painful  give  a  little  paregoric.  The  breast 
should  be  given  to  the  child  often,  but  not  long  at  a 
time,  so  as  to  avoid  over-loading  the  stomach.  The 
child  should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air,  exercise  and  a 
cool  bath  each  day.  It  is  very  important  the  bowels 
of  the  child  be  kept  free,  which  is  easy  to  do  without 
medicines,  and  infinitely  better,  namely,  by  not  per- 
mitting it  to  eat  anything  made   from   fine  or  bolted 


TEMPERA  TURE—  THA  TCH. 


1239 


flour.  If  one,  however,  thinks  this  impracticable,  and 
prefers  medicine,  castor  oil,  in  doses  from  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  a  tables poonful,  may  be  given  every  few 
days.  Disguise  the  nauseous  taste  of  the  oil  by  a 
little  brandy  and  cinnamon  essence.  The  gums  may 
also  be  rubbed  with  honey  three  or  four  times  a  day. 
It  is  a  great  help  and  a  remarkable  relief  to  the 
child  to  cut  or  lance  the  gums.  The  relief  children 
experience  in  the  course  of  two  or  three  hours  from 
the  operation  is  often  very  remarkable,  as  they  almost 
immediately  become  lively  and  cheerful.  If  the 
gums  be  carefully  looked  at,  the  part  where  the  tooth 
is  pressing  up  is  swollen  and  redder  than  usual ;  and 
if  the  finger  be  pressed  on  it  the  child  shrinks  and 
cries,  showing  that  the  gum  is  tender.  When  these 
symptoms  occur,  the  gum  should  be  lanced,  and 
sometimes  the  tooth  comes  through  the  next  day,  if 
near  the  surface  ;  but  if  not  so  far  advanced  the  cut 
heals  and  a  scar  forms,  which  is  thought  by  some  ob- 
jectionable, as  rendering  the  passage  of  the  tooth 
more  difficult.  This,  however,  is  untrue,  for  the  scar 
will  give  way  much  more  easily  than  the  uncut  gum. 
If  the  tooth  do  not  come  through  after  two  or  three 
days,  the  lancing  may  be  repeated ;  and  this  is  more 
especially  needed  if  the  child  be  very  fractious,  and 
seems  in  much  pain.  Lancing  the  gums  is  further 
advantageous,  because  it  empties  the  inflamed  part  of 
its  blood,  and  so  relieves  the  pain  and  inflammation. 

Temperature,  of  the  body :  see   Heat,  page  828, 
in  article  Hygiene. 

Tenant,  a  person  who  holds  tenements  or  lands  or 
both,  during  a  limited  period,  on  consideration  of  ren- 
dering stipulated  services  or  paying  a  stipulated 
rent  to  the  proprietor.     See  page  430. 

Tendon,  the  contracted  end  of  a  muscle,  which  is 
a  hard,  tough  cord,  or  bundle  of  fibers,  communi- 
cating motion  from  the  muscle  to  the  bone. 

Tendril,  a  coiling,  wire-form  shoot  of  a  vine  that 
winds  around  another  body  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
port. It  commonly  grows  straight  and  outstretched 
until  its  apex  hooks  around  it  to  secure  a  hold ;  then 
the  whole  tendril  shortens  itself  by  coiling  up  spi- 
rally and  so  draws  the  shoot  of  the  growing  plant 
nearer  to  the  supporting  object.  Tendrils  usually 
coil  around  twigs ;  but  those  of  the  Virginia  creeper, 
for  example,  have  their  tips  expanded  into  a  flat  disk 
or  foot,  which  adhere  to  objects  by  a  deposit  of  glue, 
as  the  rootlets  of  the  ivy  do  by  their  tips.  Tendrils 
are,  also,  generally  forms  of  branches,  but  sometimes 
they  are  forms  of  leaves,  as  in  the  pea.  Their  nature 
in  each  case  is  to  be  learned  from  their  position. 

Tenement,  house,  or  other  buildings  which  are 
permanent.  Blackstone  says  of  this  word  that  "al- 
though in  its  vulgar  acceptation  it  is  only  applied  to 
houses  and  other  buildings,  yet  in  its  original,  proper 
and  legal  sense,  it  signifies  everything  that  may  be 
holden,  provided  it  be  of  a  permanent  nature, 
whether  it  be  of  a  substantial  and  sensible,  or  of  an 
unsubstantial,  ideal  kind." 


Tenesmus  (te-nez'mus),  frequent,  vain  and  pain- 
ful desires  to  evacuate  the  bowels,  as  in  dysentery. 
Being  a  symptom  of  inflammation  of  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  digestive  tube,  the  treatment  consists 
in  curing  the  primary  trouble ;  and  this  in  great  part 
consists  of  copious  warm-water  injections. 

Tenon  (tenon),  the  end  of  a  piece,  generally  of 
timber,  which  enters  a  mortise. 

Terminal  (ter-min-al),  in  plants,  the  central 
branch  of  the  main  stem,  or  central  branchlet  of  a 
branch,  etc.,  as  distinguished  from  all  the  other 
branches,  called  "laterals"  (side-branches). 

Terrier,  a  variety  of  dog:  see  page  338. 

Tetanus,  a  disease  which  consists  in  the  perma- 
nent contraction  of  some  or  all  of  the  muscles,  with- 
out alternations  of  relaxation.  It  includes  the  form 
called  lockjaw;  and  in  every  case  the  patient  cannot 
swallow,  and  the  trunk  is  immovably  rigid  and  curved. 
It  is  generally  brought  on  by  painful  wounds,  as  run- 
ning a  rusty  nail  into  the  foot.  The  treatment  con- 
sists of  a  full  hot  bath,  opium,  a  teaspoonful  of 
whisky  every  two  or  three  hours,  chloroform,  etc.  Not 
all  of  these  will  be  needed  in  most  cases.  See  Lock- 
jaw, page  946. 

Tetanus,  of  the  horse  :  see  page  789. 

Tethering,  the  confining  of  a  grazing  animal  to 
small  and  precise  limits  of  pasturage  by  means  of  a 
rope  or  light  chain  fastened  to  a  pin  driven  in  the 
ground.    See  page  302. 

Tetter,  a  skin  disease.  See  Salt  Rheum,  page 
1 112. 

Texas  Fever.  The  so-called  Texas  fever  is  an  en- 
zootic disorder  peculiar  to  the  ox  tribe,  incapable  of 
being  communicated  by  simple  contact  of  sick  with 
healthy  animals,  but  is  engendered  wherever  North- 
ern cattle  have  grazed  on  pastures  previously,  or  sim- 
ultaneously occupied  by  herds  from  Texas,  Florida, 
Arkansas,  and  the  Indian  Territory.  The  disease  is 
not  transmissible  between  Northern  cattle,  and  a  few 
nipping  frosts  check  its  ravages  everywhere.  It  is  a 
disease  in  which  all  the  internal  organs  are  more  or 
less  affected,  but  especially  is  this  the  case  with  the 
spleen,  which  often  attains  an  enormous  size.  The 
disease  occurs  in  two  forms,  in  which  four  stages  are 
readily  recognizable,  viz :  the  incubation,  the  stage  of 
invasion,  the  congestive  stage,  and  the  terminative 
stage.  The  infection  is  of  a  permanent  nMure. 
Splenic  apoplexy  is  an  anthrax  disease  of  a  conta- 
gious nature,  which  Texas  or  splenic  fever  is  not.  For 
the  treatment  of  this  disease  see  page  238. 

Textile  Fabrics,  cloths,  woven  material,  gener- 
ally for  garments.  The  general  classes  of  material 
are  vegetable  fiber,  as  cotton,  linen,  ramie,  jute,  hemp 
etc. ;  wool  and  hair,  as  sheep's  wool,  camel's  hair,  and 
the  hair  of  many  other  animals ;  and  silk. 

Thatch,  to  make  a  roof  or  wall  by  binding  together 
straw,  dried  grass,  or  other  like  material  in   a   regular 


1 240 


THEOR  Y—  THORO  UGHPIN. 


manner.  Rye  straw,  threshed  with  a  flail  and  kept 
straight,  with  the  short  and  broken  straws  raked  out, 
is  the  best  material ;  but  good  wheat  or  oat  straw  will 
make  a  safe  roof.  The  roof  is  made  ready  for  thatch- 
ing by  nailing  strips  of  board,  say  1x2  inches,  across 
the  rafters,  putting  them  a  foot  apart.  The  pitch 
should  be  steep  to  insure  a  water-proof  and  durable 
roof.  The  straw  should  be  cut  to  a  uniform  length. 
For  greater  convenience  in  handling,  tie  the  straw 
in  bundles  that  will  average  about  six  inches  in  thick 
ness.  There  are  different  ways  of  fastening;  some 
use  twine,  but  it  is  preferable  to  use  wire  or  the  straw 
itself  to  fasten  the  bundles  on.  Take  a  few  straws 
from  the  side  of  each  bundle  after  it  is  laid  on  the  cross 
strips,  and  passing  them  over  the  next  one  laid  and 
under  the  strip,  and  over  again,  then  adding  more 
straw  from  the  bundle  just  tied.  In  this  way  a  con- 
tinuous rope  is  made  until  the  end  of  the  course  is 
reached.  The  courses  should  overlap  so  as  to  make 
the  roof  the  thickness  of  three  bundles,  or  about  eight- 
een inches ;  and  if  the  pitch  is  one-third,  the  mate- 
rial good  and  well  laid,  it  should  be  a  warm  and 
serviceable  roof  for  20  years. 

Theory,  literally,  a  vinu  of  some  scheme,  plan  or 
doctrine ;  and  this  idea,  indeed,  is  the  essential  fea- 
ture in  all  the  applications  of  the  word.  While  this 
term  is  properly  used  in  most  instances,  we  introduce 
the  topic  here  mainly  to  observe  that  it  is  too  often 
used  for  the  purpose  of  sneering.  Concerning  one 
who  has  made  a  wise  suggestion,  but  is  not  under- 
stood, it  is  often  said  that  he  is  "too  theoretical,"  that 
he  is  "more  theoretical  than  practical,"  etc.  Every- 
thing that  becomes  practical  was  at  first  a  "theory," 
and  all  the  thoughts  and  plans  one  has  are  "theories" 
until  they  are  executed,  and  even  then  they  are  al- 
ways "theory  and  execution"  together. 

Thick  Wind,  of  horse:  see  page  725. 

Thill,  one  of  the  shafts  of  a  carriage  between 
which  the  horse  is  put :  sometimes  corrupted  to  "fill." 

Thistle,  a  large  group  of  herbaceous  plants,  com- 
prising many  of  the  most  troublesome  weeds  of  agri- 
culture. They  are  also  an  exceedingly  destructive 
class  of  weeds,  and  demand  constant  attention,  not 
only  of  individual  farmers  but  of  whole  communities, 
for  keeping  them  down  and  exterminating  them.  The 
greatest  pest,  however,  of  this  class  of  weeds  is  the 
Canada  thistle.  To  distinguish  this  from  the  com- 
mon thistle,  observe  that  its  heads  are  hard  and  small, 
being  about  the  size  of  a  marble,  and  that  the  leaves 
have  narrower  and  more  scattering  lobes  and  appear 
much  more  ragged  and  straggling.  The  best  meth- 
ods of  extirpation  are  the  following:  when  a  patch  of 
them  have  about  come  into  flower,  plow  them  under; 
go  over  the  ground  with  a  hoe  or  spade  and  dispatch 
those  which  have  escaped  the  plow,  and  keep  up  this 
process  until  the  middle  of  autumn ;  the  next  year  the 
piece  may  be  sown  to  wheat  and  again  watched  for 
new  plants.  If,  however,  the  patch  be  small,  the 
plants  at  any  time  before  seeding  may  be  cut  off  at 


Canada   Thistle. 


the  surface  of  the  ground  with  a  hoe  or  spade,  and  a 
teaspoonful  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  dropped  upon 
each  root.  Sometimes  merely  mowing  off  with  a 
scythe  when  in  early  flower  is  sufficient  for  the  extir- 
pation of  this  troublesome  pest.  The  mowing  should 
be  repeated  two  or  three  times.  The  method  and 
amount  of  work  required  are  dependent  upon  the 
condition  of  the  ground.  On  newly  cleared  grounds 
they  can  be  often  kept  down  by  seeding  thickly  to 
grass,  and  mowing  the  crop 
when  both  the  thistles  and  the 
grass  are  in  bloom.  Digging 
holes  into  the  mass  of  roots 
and  leaving  a  pint  or  more  of 
salt  to  each  one,  is  also  a  sure 
method  of  killing  this  weed. 
Cropping  to  clover  or  grass  is 
another  good  plan.  But  State 
legislation  is  necessary  in  this 
work,  as  it  is  almost  useless 
for  scattering  farmers  to  fight 
this  enemy,  unless  all  unite, 
as  the  downy  seed  of  this 
thistle  is  blown  about  so  easily  by  the  winds.  Mowed 
thistles  wilted  are  greedily  eaten  by  live  stock. 

The  above  cut  shows  only  a  branch  of  the  Canada 
thistle:  otherwise  the  flower  heads  would  appear  dis- 
proportionately large. 

Thoracic  (tho-ras'ik),  pertaining  to  the  thorax:  see 
next  paragraph.  The  "thoracic  duct"  is  a  tube 
ascending  near  the  spinal  column  through  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  and  chest,  to  convey  the  "  chyle,"  or  nu- 
triment drawn  from  the  food  by.  the  lacteals  along  the 
alimentary  canal,  up  near  the  neck  on  the  left  side, 
where  it  empties  into  the  subclavian  vein. 

Thorax  (tho'rax),  the  chest.  This  is  the  cavity  of 
the  breast,  containing  the  heart  and  lungs  with  their 
attachments,  and  is  separated  from  the  abdomen  be- 
low by  the  diaphragm.  The  thorax  of  an  insect  is  the 
second  or  middle  division  of  the  body,  to  which  the 
wings  and  legs  are  attached. 

Thorn,  as  the  name  of  a  tree,  is  a  term  comprising 
several  species  of  Craicegus,  as  the  English  hawthorn, 
the  Evergreen  thorn,  the  so-called  ''red  haws,"  be- 
sides several  ornamental  varieties  in  cultivation.  Some 
of  these  trees,  however,  are  apparently  thornless,  as 
their  "  thorns  "  are  only  rudimentary. 

Thornapple,  one  name  of  the  familiar  jimson- 
weed. 

Thoroughbred,  bred  to  a  high  point  for  a  specific 
purpose,  as  horses  for  speed,  and  cattle  for  various 
purposes.  For  one  of  the  latter  to  be  technically 
."thoroughbred,"  it  must  be  full-blooded,  or  bred  from 
the  best  blood,  and  recorded  in  the  Herd  Book.  The 
breeding  of  horses  for  speed  has  been  carried  on 
longer  and  more  strictly  than  in  any  other  line,  so  that 
the  result  is  now  a  distinct  breed  known  as  "Thorough- 
bred," which  is  fully  treated  on  pages  682  and  694. 

Thoroughpin,  an  affection  of  the  hock-joint  of 
the  horse:  see  page  811. 


THRESHING. 


1241 


Threshing,  the  separation  of  grain  from  the  husks 
or  straw  by  a  beating  process.  We  need  not  enter  into 
an  extended  history  of  this  process.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  most  ancient  custom  of  threshing  was  the 


be  disturbed;  but  in  the  haste  of  both  threshers  and 
farmers  the  grain  is  often  threshed  when  the  straw  is 
very  damp,  and  unless  great  care  is  taken  to  hold  the 
bundles  on  the  cylinder,  much  waste  is  apparent;  and 


Fig.  I. —  Vtbrator  Tkresfiing-Machine, 


trampingout  of  the  grain  by  cattle.  This  was  supersed- 
ed by  the  flail,  wliich  is  the  only  arrangement  used  at 
present  in  many  countries.  All  of  these  old-time 
customs  of  performing  this  operation  has  been  prac- 
tically superseded  in  our  own  country  by  the  thresh- 
er, and  even  by  the  steam  thresher.  The  flail  is 
used  only  where  it  is  desirous  to  save  the  straw  of 
full  length  and  unbroken. 

The  steam  threshing-machine  of  to-day  is  probably 
the  perfection  of  rapid,  clean  and  cheap  threshing. 
Many  of  the  separators  propelled  by  steam  will  thresh 
out  1,000  bushels  of  wheat  per 
day  and  even  more  in  good  grain, 
while  the  practical  limits  of  those 
run  by  horse-power  are  less  than 
half  that  amount.  Many  devices 
have  been  patented  for  threshing 
by  means  of  ix)wer  machines, 
among  them  beaters  and  rotating. 
The  spiked  cylinder  is,  however, 
in  most  general  use,  being  faster 
than  any  other  known  device. 

The  time  of  threshing  often 
depends  on  the  time  when  you 
can  secure  the  services  of  the  ma- 
chine, unless  you  have  one  of 
your  own.  Within  a  few  days  after 
the  wheat  is  stacked,  it  may  be 
threshed,  much  depending  upon  its  condition  when 
stacked.  The  early  threshing  of  wheat  after  it  is 
harvested  is  not  always  a  wise  economy.  The 
sweating  of  wheat,  however,  is  best  done  in  the 
mow  or  stack,  and  when  in  this  stage  should  never 


it  is  to  be  doubted  if  as  good  flour  can  be  obtained 
from  this  wheat  as  could  have  been  obtained  by  later 
threshing.  P"armers  should  insist  ujwn  experienced 
men  attending  to  machines,  rather  than  novices,  who 
only  know  that  the  wlieat  is  to  be  run  through  the 
machine.  A  tyro  at  the  business  will  often  allow 
many  bushels  of  grain  to  be  carried  over  into  the 
stack  unthreshed. 

Many  farmers  cannot  buy  a  '"  thresher "  them- 
selves, but  should  be  enabled  to  determine  the  kind 
of  a  machine  that  is  most  profitable  to  them   in  the 


Fig.  i.—Shorl-AproH  Threshing-Machint. 

threshing  of  their  grain.  The  main  requisite  of  a  good 
thresher  consists  in  its  ability  to  thoroughly  separate 
the  grain  from  the  straw,  chafl",  etc.  With  the  farmer 
who  hires  his  grain  threshed,  speed  is  another  good 
point  which,  in  the  selection,  must  not  be  lost  sight  of. 


1242 


THRIPS—  THYME. 


Some  of  the  varied  improvements  made  within  the 
last  dozen  years  in  this  very  important  and  expensive 
machine  are  quite  remarkable.  There  are  several 
companies  in  the  United  States  that  manufacture 
good  threshers, — machines  that  do  their  work  thor- 
oughly and  well.  We  wish  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
leading  features  of  the  thresher. 

Fig  I  represents  a  thresher  adapted  to  the  thresh- 
ing, not  only  of  wheat,  but  also  oats,  barley,  flax, 
timothy,  millet,  Hungarian,  orchard  grass,  clover,  etc. 


Fig.  3. — Improved  Bag-Holder, 

It  is  very  simple  in  its  construction  and  noted  for  its 
light  running.  The  manufacturers  are  Nichols,  Shep- 
ard  &  Co.,  Battle  Creek,  Michigan.  It  can  be  run  by 
either  steam  or  horse  f)ower: 

Fig.  2  is  a  representation  of  the  "  Apron  "  thresher, 
manufactured  by  J.  I.  Case  &  Co.,  Racine,  Wis.  It 
can  be  used  for  all  kinds  of  grain,  is  simple  in  con- 
struction and  easy-running.  It  is  an  improvement 
over  the  old  "Short-Apron,"  in  the  shortening  of 
the  apron,  lengthening  and  widening  of  the  straw 
rake,  doing  away  with  the  cross  apron  belt  on 
the  right-hand  side,  and  substituting  gearing,  driving 
the  beater  and  fan  with  one  belt,  and  lowering  the 
machinq,.  four  inches.  It  is  run  either  by  steam 
or  horse  power. 

Accompanying  Nichols,  Shepard  &  Co's  machine  is 
an  improved  bag-holder,  illustrated  by  Fig.  3.  It  is 
useless  to  attempt  to  enumerate  the  various  merits 
claimed  for  one  make  of  these  machines  over  others. 
Among  the  leading  manufacturers  of  threshers  and 
separators  throughout  the  United  States,  are  Nichols, 
Shepard  &  Co.,  Battle  Creek,  Mich.;  the  Pitts  Agri- 
cultural Works,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  Minard  Harder, 
Cobleskill,  N.  Y.;  Russell  &  Co ,  Massillon,  Ohio; 
A.  W.  Gray  &  Sons,  Middletown  Springs,  Vermont ; 
the  Silver  &  Deming  Company,  Salem,  Ohio;  the 
Wheeler  &  Melick  Company,  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  C.  Ault- 


man  &  Co.,  Canton,  Ohio;  E.  M.  Birdsell  &  Co., 
South  Bend,  Ind.;  J.  O.  Spencer,  Union  Springs,  N.  Y.; 
M.  Williams  &  Co  ,  St.  Johnsville,  N.  Y. ;  B.  Gill  & 
Sons, Trenton,  N.  Y.;  A.  B.  Farquhar,  York,  Pa.; 
G.  Westinghouse  &  Co.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. ;  and 
Joseph  Hall  Works,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Thrips,  a  species  of  small,  spotted  fly  infesting 
certain  plants,  especially  the  grape-vine.  See  page 
590- 

Throat,  Sore.     See  Sore  Throat,  page  1161. 

Throwing,  or  Casting,  a  horse,  is  the  operation  of 
throwing  him  down  uix)n  the  ground,  generally  in  a 
confined  place,  and  so  fastening  him  that  he  cannot 
stir.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  performing  surgical 
operations. 

Thrush,  the  name  of  several  species  of  song-bird, 
'  he  most  familiar  examples  of  which  are  the  following : 

1.  Robin.     See  page  1102. 

2.  Wood  Thrush.  This  is  confessedly  the  sweet- 
est feathered  songster  that  America  affords,  being 
fiilly  equal  to  the  nightingale  of  Europe,  and  in  the 

,'  estimation  of  many  even  superior.  It  is  found  through- 
out the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri  river,  and 
as  far  south  as  Guatemala,  in  Central  America.  It 
builds  its  nest  in  low  bushes,  of  leaves,  grass  and 
mud,  lined  with  fibrous  roots,  where  it  lays  four  or  five 
light  blue  eggs. 

3.  Hermit  Thrush.  This  bird,  whose  song  rivals 
that  of  the  Wood  thrush,  is  somewhat  smaller,  and 
ranges  throughout  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi 
river.  Prevailing  color,  a  light  olive-brown.  It  has 
a  whitish  ring  around  the  eyes,  and  sharply  defined 
subtriangular  spots  of  dark  olive-brown  on  the  breast. 

4.  Wilson's  Thrush  is  found  throughout  the  States 
east  of  the  Missouri  river.  Prevailing  color,  brown: 
differs  but  little  in  its  appearance  from  the  preceding. 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  found  in  the  same 
region,  but  of  less  note,  the  Olive-backed,  the  Gray- 
cheeked,  the  Varied,  etc.,  of  the  true  thrush  genus; 
and  several  so-called  thrushes  of  kindred  genera. 

Thrush  is  also  the  name  of  a  disease,  consisting  of 
white  pimples  in  the  mouth  and  throughout  the 
alimentary  canal ;  common  among  infants. 

Thrush  is  also  the  name  of  a  diseased  condition  of 
the  sensible  frog  of  the  horse's  foot:  see  page  812  ; 
and  a  disease  of  the  mouth  of  cattle:    see  page  238. 

Thumb-Screw,  an  adjusting  screw,  either  with  a 
milled  head  or  with  a  head  flattened  vertically,  to  be 
turned  with  the  thumb  and  fingers. 

Thyme  (time),  a  sweet-aromatic  herb  of  the  mint 
family,  of  which  there  are  two  species,  sometimes,  but 
rarely,  cultivated  for  flavoring  culinary  preparations, 
use  in  liniments,  etc.  Though  strictly  a  perennial,  it 
becomes  stunted  after  three  or  four  years,  and  requires, 
at  comparatively  short  intervals,  to  be  reproduced.  A 
light,  dry,  and  rather  poor  soil  is  most  conducive  to 
its  best  condition ;  and  a  rich  or  moist  soil  renders  it 
luxuriant,  but  occasions  it  to  be  deficient  in  fragrance 


TICK— TILE. 


1243 


and  greatly  tends  to  make  it  perish  in  winter.  The 
situation  can  not  be  too  open.  The  plant  may  be 
propagated  either  from  top-slips  or  parted  roots  in 
spring,  planted  6  or  12  inches  apart,  or  from  seed 
sown  in  April,  broadcast  or  in  drills;  and  the  plant- 
lets,  from  seed,  may  be  either  transplanted  in  summer 
or  allowed  to  remain  in  the  drills,  and  those  trans- 
planted must  be  occasionally  watered  till  they  become 
established.  In  autumn,  decayed  stems  and  branches 
should  be  cleared  away  and  a  little  fresh  soil  scattered 
among  the  old  plants.  Young  plantlets  of  thyme 
may  be  planted  close  along  the  margin  of  a  border  to 
serve  as  an  edging. 

Medicinally,  the  oil  of  thyme  is  considered  the  most 
important.  It  is  "  reputed  "  to  be  "  resolvent,  tonic 
and  stomachic." 

Tick,  a  little  insect,  of  a  livid  color  and  globose 
form,  that  infests  sheep,  dogs,  goats,  cows  and  other 
animals.     It  is  many  times  larger  than  a  louse,  and 


Fig,  i.—Eurtka  Drain-Tilt  Machine 

of  a  different  color,  but  not  of  so  frequent  occurrence. 
It  varies  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  a  small  bean,  but 
is  commonly  about  as  big  as  a  pea ;  and  when  not 
gorged  with  blood  it  is  flat,  but  when  bloated,  is  round 
and  of  a  brown  or  black  color.  It  has  six  legs, 
and  runs  with  much  speed.  It  attaches  itself  to  the 
skin  by  means  of  sharp  claws  at  the  extremity  of  the 
legs,  and  pierces  the  skin  by  means  of  sharp  instru- 
ments in  the  head.  When  once  it  fastens  on  a 
spot,  it  seems  to  remain  quite  fixed  for  several  weeks 
or  even  months ;  and  it  becomes  surrounded  with 


numerous  young  ones,  who  appear  at  first  like  red 
points,  but  afterward  acquire  a  brown  color  as  they 
grow.  It  propagates  rapidly,  and  is  often  found  in 
great  numbers  on  a  single  sheep,  and  commonly  pre- 
fers the  animal's  neck  and  shoulders  to  other  parts. 
To  destroy  ticks,  see  respective  articles  on  the  ani- 
mals. 

Tied.  A  horse's  elbows  are  said  to  be  "  tied  "  when 
they  set  too  close  to  the  ribs. 

Tile.  While  this  term  originally  denoted  only  baked 
plates  of  clay  for  roofing,  flooring,  etc.,  it  now  includes 
very  prominently  drainage  pipe,  made  of  burnt  clay; 
and  in  addition  to  what  is  said  in  the  article  on  Drain- 
age, some  remarks  are  called  for  here  on  the  subject 
of  tiling  in  particular,  and  of  tile  machines,  etc. 

In  the  first  place,  with  respect  to  the  mechanical 
composition  of  a  good  tile  clay,  it  should  be  free  from 
stones,  and  when  cut  with  a  knife  should  present  a 
uniform,  greasy-looking  surface,  free  from  the  appear- 
ance of  coarse  sand.  Secondly,  when  a  jX)rtion  of  it 
is  bruised  in  a  mortar  and  mixed  with  water,  and  the 
water,  after  remaining  in  the  mortar  five  minutes,  is 
jx)ured  off,  with  the  finely  divided  matters  suspended 
in  it,  and  the  washing  is  repeated  so  long  as  the  water, 
after  five  minutes  of  rest,  carries  away  any  suspended 
matter,  there  should  remain  in  the  mortar  not  more 
than  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  sand.  A  strong  tile-clay 
will  ix)ssess  the  properties  just  mentioned,  and  when 
carefully  managed,  and  molded  in  the  tile  machine 
by  an  experienced  workman,  will  be  found  well 
adapted  to  the  manufact- 
ure of  thin,  light  tiles  and 
pipes.  Such  clays,  however, 
require  careful  "  handling," 
and,  from  drying  imperfectly 
in  the  sheds,  frequently 
crack  in  the  kilns ;  they  are 
also  exceedingly  difficult  to 
burn,  requiring  a  strong 
heaf.  Pure  pipe  clay  and 
porcelain  clay  are  the  most 
infusible  of  all  forms  of  clay 
and  consist  merely  of  two 
substances,  silica,  or  the 
,ii,j  earth  of  flints,  and  alumina. 
The  ordnary  clays,  however, 
used  in  making  bricks  and 
tiles,  contain,  as  already 
stated,  in  addition  to  the  two  substances  mentioned, 
other  matters,  which  greatly  modify  these  characters, 
and  especially  their  fusibility.  These  substances,  which 
act  as  fluxes,  are  oxide  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia,  and 
the  alkalies  potash  and  soda. 

When  the  silica  present  is  not  in  a  state  of  very 
minute  division,  when  it  forms  coarse  gravel,  it  inter- 
feres with  the  plastic  qualities  of  the  clay.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  a  very  large  proportion  of  alumina 
is  present,  the  clay  is  indeed  exceedingly  tenacious, 
but  at  the  same  time,  when  molded  into  tiles,  dries 


1244 


TILE. 


with  great  difficulty,  and  frequently  retains  so  much 
water  when  placed  in  the  kiln  that  the  result  is,  when 
it  is  fired,  great  numbers  of  the  tiles  are  cracked.  The 
most  rapidly  drying  clays  are  those  which  upon  wash- 


FiG.  1..— Cut-off  to  Tilt  Machine. 

ing  with  water  are  found  to  yield  some  finely-divided 
sand ;  and  theobviousmethod  of  improving  the  quality 
of  those  clays  which  crack  in  the  kiln,  is  to  add  to 
them  a  proper  amount  of  fine  sand. 
In  the  manufacture   of  bricks   and 
heavy  pipes  of  clay,    this  is  espe- 
cially necessary. 

Clays  which  contain  a  considera- 
ble amount  of  any  of  the  substances 
which  act  as  fluxes  (lime,  etc.),  when 
too  strongly  heated,  melt  and  ran, 
and  therefore  require  that  a  compar- 
atively low  temperature  should  be 
applied.  The  infusibility  of  such 
clays  may  be  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  more  infusible  clays,  or  fine 
silicious  sand.  Frequently  the  lime 
is  found  forming  nodules  in  the  beds 
of  clay,  and  may  then  be  separated 
by  mechanical  means,  as  by  screen- 
ing the  clay.  In  such  cases,  the  clay 
should  not  be  puddled  previous  to 
screening,  as  by  such  means  the 
crushed  lime  would  be  diffused 
through  the  mass.  Very  pure  clays 
■  are  to  be  preferred  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  thin  pipes  and  delicate 
earthenware  articles,  but  at  the  same 
time  they  require  a  greater  temper- 
ature to  be  applied  in  the  kiln,  and 
thus  increase  the  cost.  In  such  cases,  it  has  been 
found  useful  to  add  some  fine  ground  lime  or  chalk  to 
the  clay  in  the  pug  mill,  which  increases  its  fusibility 
and  also  gives  the  article  a  finer  surface. 

Tiling,  or  stone  pipe,  is  the  best  material   in  the 


world  for  walling  wells,  and  is  much  used  in  bored 
wells.  Such  tubing  keeps  out  perfectly  all  surface  water 
and  all  worms  and  insects.  With  the  ordinary  brick  or 
stone  wall  these  thingsconstantlydropin;  and  rotting 
insects,  worms, toads,etc.,  are  no 
more  welcome  in  our  wells  than 
in  our  water-pails  or  in  our-» 
drinking  glasses  at  the  table.  By 
all  means,  therefore,  tube  your 
wells  with  brick  or  stone  tiling, 
with  the  joints  so  cemented  that 
not  a  particle  of  foreign  matter 
or  decaying  substance  can  fall 
into  the  water,  which  you  expect 
to  drink,  or  use  in  cooking. 
Such  wells  never  need  cleaning ; 
but  if  by  some  rare  accident 
something  should  getintoa  tiled 
well  that  ought  not  to  be  there, 
it  can  be  easily  cleaned  out 
without  removing  the  tubing. 

The     illustrations    in  ,  this 

article     represent   the    Eureka 

drain  tile  machine,  cut  off  and 

die  for  making  brick,  made  by 

Chandler  &  Taylor,   Indianapolis,    Indiana.       There 

are  many  machines  of  similar  construction  now  in  the 

market  for  making  tile,  but  this  is  regarded  as  one  of 


Fig.  2  — Die  /or  Makip^  Brick. 

the  best/    Fig.  3.  represents  a  hand  machine  made 
by  R.  R.  Foote  &Co.,  Chicago. 

Necessary  Size  of  Tile.  From  Allen's  "Ameri- 
can Agriculture"  we  obtain  the  following:  "  An  acre 
of  land  in  a  wet  time  contains  about  1,000 spare  hogs- 


TILL  A  GE—  TIME. 


1245 


heads  of  water.  An  underdrain  will  carry  off  the 
water  from  a  strip  of  land  about  two  rods  wide,  and 
one  80  rods  long  will  drain  an  acre.  The  following 
table  will  show  the  size  of  the  tile  required  to  drain 


Fig.  4. —  Tile  Machine, 

an  acre  in  two  days'  time  (the  longest  admissible)  at 
different  rates  of  descent,  or  the  size  for  any  larger 


area : 

Diameter  of  Bore 


Rate  of  De- 
scent. 


Velocity  of  Cur- 
rent per  Second 
in  Inches. 


2. 
2  . 
2. 
2  . 

3- 
3- 
3- 
3- 

4- 
4- 
4- 
4- 


ft.  in  100 22  . 


5°- 

20. 

'    10. 

100. 

50- 
20. 

10. 
100 . 

5°- 
20. 
10. 


32- 

51- 
73- 
27. 

38. 


Hogslieads 
Discharged 
in  24  hours. 
..     400 
••     560 
..     900 
..1,290 
.1,170 
.  1,640 


67 3.10° 


,   84. 
■    32- 

.   45- 

72. 

.  100. 


.3,600 
.2,500 

■3.5°° 
.5,600 
.7,800 


The  above  table  is  calculated  for  smooth  tile,  well 
laid. 

Tillage,  breaking  up,  turning  over,  stirring,  pulver- 
izing, and  otherwise  working  the  soil,  preparatory  to 
the  raising  of  crops  from  seeds, offsets,  or  other  germs. 
The  principal  operations  of  it  are  plowing,  grubbing, 
harrowing,  rolling  and  hoeing;  and  a  very  complete, 
close  series  of  them  occurs  in  summer-fallowing. 
See  the  articles  Plowing,  Plow,  Harrow,  etc. 

Timber,  in  the  sense  of  a  forest,  see  article  Forest- 
ry; for  measuring,  see  Lumber;  for  value  in  fuel,  see 
Fuel.  In  the  sense  of  the  material,  or  wood,  we  will 
give  ihe  most  important  imformation  here. 

Strength  of  Wood,  Pulled  Lengthwise, 
Each  rod  being  one-fourth  of  an  inch  square. 

Pounds. 

Ash,  toughest,  broke  with 1,000 

Locust, 1,280 

Elm, 837 

Pitch  Pine, 750 


Beech  and  White  Oak, 718 

Cedar, 712 

Maple  and  Chestnut, 65  6 

White  Pine, 550 

Walnut, 487 

Poplar, 437 

Broken  sidewise,  one  inch  square,  one  foot  long. 

Pounds. 

Hickory, .' 270 

White  Oak,  seasoned, 240 

Ash 175 

Chestnut, 170 

Yellow  Pine, 150 

White  Pine, 135 

A  sup[X)rt  (in  pillar  form)  an  inch  square  will  bear 
the  following  weights  before  being  crushed:  Oak, 
about  4  tons;  pine,  nearly  2  tons;  elm,  over  i  ton; 
best  cast  iron,  57  to  58  tons;  cast  copper,  58  tons;  fine 
brass,  81  tons;  hard  brick,  i  ton. 

Green  and  Dry  Wood.  Fresh  green  wood  loses 
about  a  third  of  its  weight  in  seasoning,  equal  to  156 
gallons  in  every  cord.  The  burning  of  one  cord  of 
green  wood  absorbs  as  much  heat  in  evajxirating  this 
water  as  would  be  sufficient  to  heat  780  gallons  from 
freezing  to  boiling.  Seven  cords  of  dry,  hard  wood 
have  as  much  heating  power  as  eight  of  green.  The 
farmer  who  draws  50  cords  of  green  wood  on  his 
wagon,  draws  over  20  tons  more  of  water  than  in  dry 
wood. 

Preserving  Timber.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  prefer- 
able to  soak  with  petroleum  wooden  structures  above 
ground,  and  apply  hot  gas  tar  to  wood  which  goes  be- 
low the  surface.  The  petroleum  soaks  well  into 
the  iwrqs,  and  gives  the  wood  the  character  of  ced^r; 
but  long  continued  contact  with  the  moisture  of  the 
soil  tends  to  abstract  or  dissipate  a  part.  Gas  tar 
cautiously  heated  and  applied  to  wood  (the  best  way 
is  to  immerse  the  wood  in  a  kettle  of  tar)  remains 
mostly  at  the  surface  and  forms  an  impervious  coat- 
ing. The  most  perfect  preparation,  doubtless,  would 
be  to  get  all  the  petroleum  into  the  jxires  of  the  wood 
first,  and  then  coat  with  the  tar. 

Charring  is  a  common  and  cheap  plan  of  rendering 
the  surface  of  wood  imperishable. 

Wood  may  be  preserved  many  years  by  the  various 
processes  of  iX)isoning, — with  arsenic,  corrosive  subli- 
mate, nitric  or  sulphuric  acid,  etc., — processes  called 
"kyanizing,"  "foremanizing,"etc.,  after  their  inventors, 
Kyan,  Foreman,  etc.  These  methods  are  effectual, 
but  are  somewhat  expensive  and  dangerous.  Such 
poisons  are  inserted  in  deep  auger-holes,  one  to  each 
post,  for  example,  when  green,  and  from  a  teaspocn- 
ful  to  a  tablespoonful,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
poison.  The  substance  oozes  throughout  the  wood, 
as  it  were  saturating  it  so  that  no  germs  of  decay  can 
live  in  it.     See  page  451. 

Time.  The  method  by  which  our  years  and  days 
are  computed  is  called  "Gregorian,"  after  Pope  Greg- 
or)'  XIII,  who  in   1582   made  a  change  of  10  days, 


1246 


TIMO  THY—  TOAD. 


decreeing  that  Oct.  5,  that  year,  should  be  considered 
the  15  th,  in  order  to  inaugurate  a  more  correct  sys- 
tem than  had  been  in  vogue  since  the  days  of  Julius 
Caesar  (B.  C.  45),  called  "  Julian  "  time.  The  Grego- 
rian method  is  the  "  New  Style,"  while  the  "  Old 
Style,"  or  Julian,  is  still  followed  in  Russia.  Down 
to  the  present  century,  dates  were  often  given  even  in 
our  own  language,  thus:  "Jan.  15,  O.  S.,"  equal  to 
"Jan.  27,  N.  S.,"  if  during  the  i8th  century,  12  days 
having  then  to  be  added.  By  the  old  style  nearly 
three  days  were  lost  every  400  years,  whereas  the 
present  or  Gregorian  calendar  will  be  practically  cor- 
rect for  2,500  years  to  come.  It  allows  of  no  inter- 
calary day  (leap  year)  for  the  years  ending  in  even 
hundreds,  excepting  the  4th  (or  400th).  All  the 
other  years  divisible  by  four  without  a  remainder  are 
leap  years,  when  February  is  given  29  days.  Leap 
year  is  also  called  "  bissextile  "  (twice  sixth),  from  the 
old  Latin  custom  of  patting  in  the  intercalary  (or 
"extra")  day  twice  as  the  si.xth  before  the  calends 
(first)  of  March, — that  is,  while  Feb.  24  of  common 
years  was  the  sixth  before  the  first  of  March,  in  leap 
years  the  25th  was  also  called  the  sixth  before  the 
first  of  March. 

Questions  often  arise  concerning  the  recurrence  of 
certain  days, — for  example,  when  will  the  4th  of  July 
come  on  Sunday  again.''  When  will  five  Sundays 
come  again  in  February  ?  What  day  of  the  week  was 
Sept.  27,  1864.'  etc.  Most  such  queries  can  be  an- 
swered by  calculating  from  the  fact  that  28  years  com- 
pletes a  cycle  of  all  these  things, — the  number  28 
being  the  product  of  4  (years  to  each  leap  year)  by  7 
(days  in  the  week).  Some  of  these  phenomena  re- 
cur seven  times  within  the  28  years,  some  four  times 
and  some  once.  Abbreviated  revolving  calendar  cards 
ha,ve  been  invented,  of  easy  operation,  by  which  any 
of  these  questions  can  be  answered  in  a  moment, 
without  any  calculation. 

Time  of  Day.  A  good  almanac  will  give  the  varia- 
tion of  the  sun  from  true  clock  time  for  each  day  in 
the  year.  The  sun  is  on  the  meridian  (shadow  at 
noon-mark)  at  12  o'clock  on  only  four  days  in  the 
year:  all  other  days  it  varies  from  it,  to  all  points 
with  1 6 5^  minutes.  See  Sun-Dial.  Sun  time  is 
sometimes  called  "apparent  "  time,  and  clock  time  is 
often  called  "  mean  "  time.  To  find  the  true  time, 
first  ascertain  the  true  meridian  by  fixing  up  two  |X)ints 
of  sight  with  the  north  star,  notice  the  variation  of 
the  sun  from  true  clock  time  by  the  almanac,  and  set 
your  time-piece  by  the  noon-mark.  In  these  days  of 
railroads,  however,  when  most  people  are  governed 
by  them,  "  railroad  time  "  is  found  the  most  service- 
able. 

Time  Bargain,  an  agreement  to  buy  or  sell  goods 
at  some  definite  time  in  the  future  at  a  fixed  price. 

Time,  Legal,  to  which  certain  actions  at  law  are 
limited.     See  Limitations,  page  944. 

Timothy,  or  Herd's  Grass.     See  page  598. 

Tin,  a  silver- white  metal,  extensively  used  in  coat- 
ing thin  sheet-iron,  which  also  is  then  called  "tin." 


The  metal  tin,  when  pute,  is  very  malleable,  is  harder 
than  lead,  is  about  714  times  heavier  than  water, 
and  melts  at  442°  Fahr.  The  poisonous  matter  and 
bad  taste  which  get  into  water  and  other  liquids  stand- 
ing in  tin  vessels  come  from  the  solder  of  the  seams 
and  joints,  or  from  impurities  in  the  tin,  and  not  from 
the  pure  tin  itself.  This  fact  gives  a  hint  to  every 
housekeeper,  who,  if  inclined  to  be  decent  and  have 
a  due  regard  to  the  health  of  all  concerned,  will 
know  what  to  do.  Fruit  and  all  other  edible  articles 
sold  in  tin  cans  at  the  groceries  are  apt  to  be  more  or 
less  poisonous. 

To  Mend  Tinware.  Take  a  sharp  knife  and 
scrape  the  tin  around  the  leak  until  it  is  bright,  so 
that  the  solder  will  stick.  Then  sprinkle  on  a  little 
powdered  resin  (they  have  liquid  solder  to  sell,  but 
resin  will  do  as  well) ;  lay  your  soldei  on  the  hole  and 
with  your  soldering-iron  melt  it  on.  Do  not  have  the 
iron  too  hot  or  the  solder  will  not  adhere  to  that. 
After  two  or  three  trials  you  will  succeed  very  satis- 
factorily.    See  Solder. 

To  Tin  Over  Rusty  Spots  on  tinware,  take  a 
quantity  of  muriatic  acid  and  dissolve  all  the  zinc 
in  it  that  it  will  cut;  then  dilute  it  with  one-fourth 
soft  water  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Tin  Cans.  A  good  use  to  be  made  of  old  tin  cans 
IS  to  make  flower-pots  of  them  in  the  house  and  bird's- 
nests  of  them  out  of  doors. 

Tincture,  a  spirituous  solution  of  a  vegetable,  ani- 
mal or  sahne  substance.  Sometimes,  however,  but 
rarely,  we  have  aqueous  and  ethereal  tinctures. 
Nearly  all  tinctures  are  alcoholic  extracts  from  some 
vegetable  substance,  made  for  medicinal  purposes. 
In  the  progress  of  medicinal  practice,  more  tinctures 
and  less  of  the  crude  material  are  given  in  treatment 
at  the  present  day  than  formerly.  In  making  a  tinc- 
ture, tlie  ingredient,  which  shoul^  be  kept  separate 
from  all  other  substances,  should  be  reduced  to  a 
coarse  powder  and  placed  with  proof  spirits  in  a 
closed  vessel,  and  kept  at  a  temperature  of  about  80°, 
and  frequently  shaken.  From  seven  days  to  several 
weeks  will  be  required.  Home-made  tinctures,  if  the 
work  is  carefully  conducted,  are  more  reliable  than 
those  of  the  drug-stores. 

Tine,  the  tooth  or  prong  of  a  fork. 

Tire,  the  iron  band  which  binds  together  the  fellies 
of  a  wheel.    See  page  190  and  article  Wagon. 

Tissue  (tish'u),  the  texture  or  grouping  of  anatom- 
ical elements  of  which  any  part  of  the  body  is  com- 
ix)sed.  Thus  we  have  muscular,  nervous,  bone,  etc., 
tissues;  and  in  botany  we  have  woody,  cellular,  etc., 
tissues.  The  study  of  tissue  structure  has  been  car- 
ried to  a  great  extent  for  some  years  past,  so  that  it 
has  a  distinct  scientific  name, —  "histology;"  and 
many  changes  in  medical  science  have  correspond- 
ingly been  made. 

Toad.  It  inhabits  darkly  or  deeply  shaded  places 
in  summer,  and  lies  dormant  in  an  excavated  hole 


TOAD-FLAX—  TOBA  CCO. 


1247 


during  winter.  It  couples  in  the  water  in  March  and 
April.  The  female  produces  innumerable  small  eggs, 
united  by  a  transparent  gelatinous  substance  in  two 
strings,  which  are  often  20  or  30  feet  long;  and  the 
male  assists  with  his  hind  feet  in  extracting  these 
eggs.  The  common  toad  feeds  on  flies,  ants  and 
other  insects,  and  therefore  does  good  and  no  harm  in 
gardens.  The  several  species  have  different  notes  or 
sounds  in  spring.  It  is  preyed  upon  by  buzzards, 
owls,  .snakes,  and  some  other  animals.  It  begins 
to  breed  at  four  years  of  age,  and  commonly  lives 
upwards  of  15  years,  but  has  been  known,  in  some 
curious  instances,  to  attain  a  remarkable  longevity. 

Toad-Flax,  called  also  "  Butter  and-Eggs  "  and 
"  Ramsted,"  is  a  slowly  spreading  but  persistent  weed. 
When  rare,  and  cultivated  only  in  gardens,  its  flower 
was  considered  interesting;  but,  like  the  dandelion, 
it  has  become  too  common  to  be  longer  interesting. 
The  flowers  are  in  part  of  the  color  of  butter  and  in 
part  of  the  yolk  of  eggs  ;  hence  one  of  its  names.  It 
spreads  by  its  creeping  roots,  which  are  eradicated 
with  difficulty. 

Toadstool,  vegetable  growths  upon  other  decaying 
vegetable  matter.  They  are  of  the  nature  of  fungus, 
the  latter  term  being  the  scientific  name  for  all  plants 
in  this  branch  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  from  the 
largest  size  down  to  the  microscopic.  The  species  of 
microscopic  fungi  are  very  numerous.  The  larger 
forms,  with  which  we  are  more  familiar,  are  of  no 
practical  consequence.  The  edible  forms  are  called 
Mushrooms,  which  see,  page  983. 

Toast,  bread  cut  into  slices  and  browned,  and  gen- 
erally buttered  and  served  with  other  delicacies. 

Mock  Cream-Toast.  Melt  in  i  quart  of  morn- 
ing's milk,  about  2  ounces  of  butter,  a  large  teaspoon- 
ful  of  flour,  freed  from  lumps,  and  the  yolks  of  3  eggs 
beaten  light;  beat  these  ingredients  together  several 
minutes;  strain  the  cream  through  a  fine  hair  sieve, 
and  when  wanted  heat  it  slowly,  beaten  constantly 
with  a  brisk  movement ;  it  must  not  boil  or  it  will 
curdle  and  lose  the  appearance  of  cream;  when  hot, 
dip  the  toast;  if  not  sufficiently  seasoned  with  butter, 
add  salt;  send  to  the  table  hot,  in  a  gravy  bowl,  the 
cream  which  is  not  taken  up  by  the  toast. 

German  Toast.  Cut  thick  slices  of  bread, — bakers' 
is  the  best;  dip  them  each  side  in  milk  enough  to 
soften,  then  dip  in  beaten  egg;  put  in  a  pan  greased 
with  just  sufficient  butter  to  fry;  fry  till  brown  as  an 
omelet,  then  serve,  well  sprinkled  with  white  sugar. 
Two  eggs  would  be  sufficient  to  dip  nearly  a  dozen 
slices  of  bread.  Like  pancakes,  the  hotter  the  toast 
the  better. 

Milk  Toast.  One  quart  of  milk;  when  it  comes 
to  a  boil  thicken  with  i  teaspoonful  corn  starch ;  add 
salt.  Toast  the  bread  a  light  brown ;  butter  each 
slice,  put  layers  of  toast  in  a  covered  dish,  and  [Xjur 
on  the  thickened  milk,  then  more  toast  and  milk,  and 
so  on  till  the  dish  is  full ;  cover,  let  stand  five  min- 
utes, and  serve. 


Tobacco.  As  this  plant  can  be  raised  with  profit, 
in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  Union,  we  give  here  its 
method  of  culture. 

Cultivation.  The  seed  is  first  sowed  in  beds,  in 
late  winter  or  early  spring,  at  the  rate  of  a  tablesjxion- 
ful  to  every  two  square  rods.  The  seeds  are  so 
minute  that  sowing  evenly  is  scarcely  attainable  with- 
out first  mixing  it  with  three  or  four  times  its  bulk  of 
sand,  ashes  or  fine  mold.  The  bed  should  be  either 
of  newly  cleared  land  or  of  soil  on  which  has  been 
burned  a  heavy  coating  of  brush.  It  should  then  be 
kept  entirely  clear  of  weeds  for  six  or  eight  weeks, 
when  they  will  be  ready  to  transplant  to  the  field. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  ground  in  the  field,  quite 
as  much  judgment  and  care  must  be  exercised  as  in 
the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed.  Thorough  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  will  tell  on  the  future  crop  just  as  cer- 
tainly as  carelessness  will  result  in  failure.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  to  start  right  and  keep  right  to 
the  end  of  the  season.  The  tobacco  plant  is  very 
exacting  in  the  matter  of  soils,  and  will  be  content 
with  none  but  the  best.  He  who  cannot  supply  this 
want  might  as  well  not  undertake  the  cultivation  of 
the  crop.  Under  proper  treatment  and  favorable 
conditions  tobacco  will  do  well  on  many  soils;  but 
the  best  tobacco  is,  with  very  few  exceptions,  grown 
on  limestone  land.  There  seems  to  be  something 
especially  conducive  in  this  geological  formation  to 
the  production  of  choice  cigar  tobacco.  A  warm, 
friable  soil,  such  as  is  commonly  known  among 
farmers  as  a  sandy  loam,  resting  upon  a  limestone 
foundation,  is  much  the  best  tobacco  land. 

The  plants  should  be  set  below  the  general  level 
of  the  row,  as  by  future  hoeing  the  higher  portions 
should  be  cut  down  to  a  level.  All  other  cultivation 
should  be  the  same  as  that  for  com  or  other  hoed 
crops,  thorough  and  frequent.  No  weeds  dare  be 
allowed  at  any  time.  In  an  average  season  the  plant 
will  mature  sufficiently  by  the  early  part  of  August  to 
dispense  with  further  cultivation  of  the  ground,  as 
the  plants  shading  it  will  check  the  growth  of  weeds. 

Whenever  the  plant  develops  from  14  to  16  leaves, 
break  off  the  top :  don't  cut  it  off.  This  arrests  the 
further  production  of  leaves,  but  will  promote  the 
growth  of  suckers,  which  will  have  to  be  removed 
after  attaining  a  length  of  three  or  four  inches,  as 
often  as  they  appear. 

It  may  be  well  to  refer  here  to  two  formidable 
enemies  of  the  plant,  viz:  the  black  cut-worm  and 
the  green  tobacco  worm.  The  former  will  attack  the 
roots  of  the  plant  as  soon  as  it  is  put  into  the  ground. 
The  depredations  of  this  worm  sometimes  necessitate 
frequent  re-planting.  They  must  be  hunted  and  de- 
stroyed until  they  disappear,  which  they  will  do  as 
the  season  advances.  The  last  named  generally  ap- 
pears about  July  i,  and  feeds  on  the  leaf  until  the 
crop  is  secured  in  the  sheds.  In  fact,  they  frequent- 
ly, if  not  picked  off  clean,  cling  to  the  leaves  after  the 
stalk  is  hung  up.  About  these  there  is  but  one 
advice  to  give:  pick  them  off  and  destroy  them,  going 
OTer  the  field  for  this  purpose  daily,  as  the  ravages  of 


1248 


TOBACCO. 


the  green  worm  do  more  to  injure  the  quality,  per- 
haps, than  any  other  thing.     See  pages  885-6. 

Usually,  from  two  to  three  weeks  from  the  time  of 
topping,  the  plant  will  mature  and  be  ready  to  cut. 
Uniform  size  of  leaves  and  a  stiffness  of  the  leaf, 
making  it  liable  to  break  by  bending  and  handling, 
are  the  surest  signs  of  maturity. 

Cut  after  the  dew  is  off,  but  not  during  the  middle 
of  the  day,  when  the  sun  is  bright,  as  you  must  guard 
against  burning  while  it  is  undergoing  the  wilting 
process,  preparatory  to  spearing  and  handling  in  the 
removal  to  the  shed. 

When  sufficiently  wilted,  the  plan  most  in  practice 
is  spearing  or  stringing  upon  laths  four  feet  long,  five 
or  six  plants  to  the  lath,  and  then,  removing  the  same 
into  sheds,  hang  up  for  curing.  The  distance  be- 
tween the  lath,  general  arrangement  of  shed  and 
management  thereof,  as  to  ventilation,  admission  of 
light,  etc.,  must  be  attended  to.  Air  and  light,  hav- 
ing a  great  influence  on  the  curing  and  fixing  of  color, 
must  be  used  to  the  best  advantage  in  catering  to  the 
tastes  of  the  trade. 

In  removing  plants  to  the  shed  after  cutting,  various 
devices  are  used.  Sleds,  wagons  of  various  styles,  or 
any  way  in  which  you  succeed  without  breaking  or 
bruising  the  leaf,  is  a  good  plan ;  and  the  quickest  way, 
with  these  ends  accomplished,  is  the  best. 

By  the  middle  of  December  and  after,  whenever 
the  plant  is  sufficiently  pliable  by  moisture  to  strip  or 
handle  it  without  injury,  you  can  strip  it;  assorting 
leaves  is  one  of  the  prominent  features  in  the  strip- 
ping process.  All  solid  leaves  should  be  kept  sepa- 
rate as  wrappers,  and  these  sorted  into  hands  of  ten 
or  twelve  leaves,  each  hand  tied  at  the  butt  by  a 
single  leaf.  All  leaves  in  the  same  hand  should  be 
of  uniform  length.  The  hands  should  then  be  assort- 
ed with  reference  to  length  into  two  or  three  sizes. 
All  defective  leaves  should  be  treated  alike  and  put 
up  separately,  the  respective  qualities  being  bulked 
separately  ready  for  market. 

The  yield  per  acre  is  generally  from  1,500  to  2,500 
pounds. 

Varieties.  The  varieties  of  tobacco  are  numer- 
ous, not  less  than  a  dozen  being  cultivated  in  America. 
The  most  fragrant  are  produced  in  Cuba,  and  are  al- 
most exclusively  used  for  cigars.  They  command 
several  times  the  price  of  ordinary  kinds.  The  leaves 
of  New  England  tobacco,  being  thin  and  tough,  are 
largely  used  as  cigar  wrappers.  The  tobacco  of  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland,  Kentucky  and  some  adjoining  States 
is  peculiarly  rich  and  high-flavored,  and  is  most 
esteemed  for  chewing.  Much  of  the  peculiar  flavqr 
and  value  of  tobacco  depends  on  the  soil  and  the 
preparation  or  sweating  of  the  plant  after  drying. 
Highly  manured  land  does  not  produce  the  best  flavor- 
ed tobacco. 

Evils  of  the  use  of  Tobacco.  We  wish  to  make 
some  observations  ujxdu  many  of  the  evils,  both  direct 
and  indirect,  which  arise  from  the  use  of  this  weed. 
We  do  this  more  as  a  preventive,  to  keep  the  young 
men  from  becoming  addicted  to  its  use,  rather  than  to 


induce  those  who  have  the  habit  fastened  uix)n  them, 
to  quit  its  use. 

Tobacco  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies.  Romanus 
Paine,  who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduce 
tobacco  into  Europe  as  an  article  of  luxury.  Paine 
is  said  to  have  lived  a  vagabond  life,  and  died  a  miser- 
able death. 

The  natives  called  it  Feterna.  The  name  tobacco 
is  derived  from  the  town  of  Tabaco,  New  Spain.  The 
Latin  name,  Nicotiana  Tabacum,  is  from  Jean  Nicot, 
who  was  a  French  ambassador  from  the  court  of  Fran- 
cis I.  (born  the  year  tobacco  was  introduced  by  Paine) 
to  Portugal.  On  the  return  of  Nicot,  he  brought  and 
introduced  to  the  French  court  the  narcotic  plant, 
and  ixjpularized  it  in  France.  Thence  it  was  intro- 
duced all  over  Europe,  but  encountered  great  oppo- 
sition. Sir  Walter  Raleigh  introduced  tobacco  into 
England  about  1582. 

History  informs  us  that  a  Persian  king  so  strongly 
prohibited  its  use,  and  visited  such  severe  penalties 
uix)n  its  votaries,  that  many  of  his  subjects  fled  away 
to  the  caves,  forests,  and  mountains,  where  they  might 
worship  this  matchless  deity  free  from  persecution. 
The  czar  prohibited  its  use  in  Russia  under  penalty 
of  death  to  smokers,  mitigating  snuff-takers'  penalty 
to  merely  slitting  open  their  noses! 

In  Constantinople  a  Turk  found  smoking  was  placed 
upon  a  donkey,  facing  the  beast's  rump,  and,  with  a 
pipe-stem  run  through  his  nose,  was  rode  about  the 
public  streets,  a  sad  warning  to  all  tobacco-smokers. 
King  James  thundered  against  it.  The  government 
of  Switzerland  sounded  its  voice  against  it  till  the 
Alps  echoed  again. 

But  in  spite  of  opposition  and  the  vileness  of  the 
articlcj  it  has  worked  itself  into  general  use,  next  to 
that  of  table  salt, — and  to-day  a  majority  of  the  adult 
male  population  of  our  Christianized  and  enlightened 
United  States  are  its  acknowledged  votaries! 

In  reference  to  the  use  of  tabacco  the  late  Horace 
Greely  made  the  following  remark:  "  I  do  not  say  that 
every  chewer  or  smoker  is  a  blackguard;  but  show  me 
a  blackguard  who  is  not  a  lover  of  tobacco,  and  I  will 
show  you  two  white  blackbirds." 

It  Begets  Laziness  and  National  Ruin.  Upon 
this  feature  of  the  use  of  tobacco.  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie, 
a  distinguished  physician  of  London,  says  :  "  A  large 
proportion  of  habitual  smokers  are  rendered  lazy  and 
listless,  indisposed  to  bodily  and  incapable  of  much 
mental  exertion.  Others  suffer  from  depression  of  the 
spirits,  amoundng  to  hyiX)chondriasis,  which  smoking 
relieves  for  the  time,  though  it  aggravates  the  evil  after- 
wards. 

"What  will  be  the  result  if  this  habit-be  contmued 
by  future  generations.'" 

Tobacco  is  ruining  our  nation.  Its  tendency  is  to 
make  the  individual  user  idle,  listless  and  imbecile. 
Individuals  make  up  the  nation.  Those  nations  using 
the  most  tobacco  are  the  most  rapidly  deteriorating. 

Once  the  ships  of  Holland  plowed  the  waters  with 
a  broom  at  the  mast-head,  emblematic  of  her  ix)wer 


TOILET. 


1249 


to  sweep  the  ocean.  Behold  her  now !  "Her people 
self-satisfied,  content  with  their  pipes  and  the  glories 
once  achieved  by  their  grandfathers."  Ixiok  at  the 
Mexicans,  and  the  lazzaroni  of  Italy.  "  Spain  took 
the  lead  of  civilized  nations  in  the  use  of  tobacco,  but 
since  its  introduction  in  that  country  the  noble  Cas- 
tilian  has  become  degenerated,  his  moral,  intellectual, 
and  physical  energies  weakened,  paralyzed,  and  de- 
based. The  Turks,  descendants  of  the  warlike 
Saracens,  are  notoriously  known  as  inveterate  smokers, 
and  to-day  they  are  characterized  as  an  enervated, 
lazy,  worthless,  degenerate  people." 

Go  about  the  shojjs,  and  bar-rooms,  and  billiard- 
halls  of  our  own  community,  and  see  our  lazzaroni. 
What  class  do  they  principally  represent — the  active 
and  virtuous,  or  the  idle  and  vicious .'' 

Hereditary  Evils  of  its  Use.  Man  stuffs  him- 
self with  tobacco  poison.  It  becomes  a  part  of  him, — 
muscle,  blood,  bone!  Like  begets  like,  and  behold 
the  tobacco-user'schildren, — puny,yellow,  pale,  scrofu- 
lous, rickety,  consumptive.  Many  years  ago  it  was 
estimated  that  twenty  thousand  persons  died  annually 
in  the  United  States  from  the  use  of  tobacco.  Nine- 
tenths  begin  with  tobacco  catarrh,  go  on  to  consump- 
tion, and  death.  Upon  this  same  subject  Dean 
Swift  said : 

"  The  diseased,  enfeebled,  impaired,  and  rotten  con- 
stitution of  the  parent  is  transmitted  to  the  child, 
which  comes  into  the  world  aninvalid,  and  then,  being 
exposed  more  directly  to  the  poisonous  effects  of  this 
pernicious  habit  of  the  parent,  its  struggle  for  life  is 
exceedingly  short,  and  in  less  than  twelve  months 
from  its  birth  it  sickens,  droops,  and  dies,  and  the 
milkman's  adulterated  milk,  especially  in  cities,  is 
often  made  the  scape-goat  for  this  uncleanly,  if  not 
sinful,  habit  of  the  parent." 

Medical  Properties.  Tobacco  is  a  violent  acro- 
narcotic,  sedative,  diuretic,  emetic,  cathartic,  and 
errhine.  The  peculiar  principle  is  a  violent  poison, 
one  drop  of  which,  placed  upon  the  tongue  of  most 
animals,  being  sufficient  to  produce  death.  On  this 
account  a  person  can  become  a  slave  to  its  use,  so 
that  the  greatest  pleasure  seems  to  consist  in  continu- 
ing the  use  of  it  rather  than  in  abandoning  it;  and 
the  system,  becoming  thus  gradually  and  insinuatingly 
filled  with  its  elements,  is  liable  to  succumb  to 
premature  old  age,  debility,  nervousness  and  suscepti- 
bility to  fatal  diseases  which  seem  very  remote  from 
what  could  be  caused  by  tobacco. 

Like  other  jxiisons,  tobacco  is  a  surer  thing  to  kill 
with  than  tocure;  henceits  valueas  a  vermin  destroyer, 
in  the  orchard,  the  garden  and  the  house.  In  many 
receipts  for  these  purposes  tobacco  is  referred  to 
throughout  this  work.  In  some  skin  diseases  also, 
where  vermin  are  to  be  destroyed,  tobacco  is  often 
employed. 

Toilet.     The  ordinary  business  of  the  toilet  is  too 

well  known  to  require  that  we  should  go  into  all  the 

details  respecting  it;  nor  shall  we  attempt  to  unveil 

all  the  profound  mysteries  of  the  cosmetic  art,  by 

79 


which  almost  miraculous  effects  are  daily  promised, 
but  seldom  performed.  Our  object  is  chiefly  to  jxiint 
out  some  circumstances  that  concern  the  preserva- 
tion of  health  or  convenience. 

The  term  toilet  is  originally  French  {toilette),  and  is 
derived  from  toik^  any  thin  stuff.  It  appears  lo  have 
been  first  applied  to  a  fine  covering  of  linen,  silk,  or 
tapestry  spread  over  a  table  in  a  bed-chamber,  or 
dressing-room,  to  place  the  dressing  things  upon,  such 
as  dressing-boxes,  mirrors,  perfumes,  combs,  pin- 
cushions, brushes,  razors,  etc. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  attraction  in  the  affairs 
of  the  toilet  is  the  care  of  the  skin,  the  keeping  of 
which  in  a  condition  to  perform  its  important  func- 
tions has  been  shown  to  be  essential  to  health  by 
numerous  medical  writers.  The  principal  means  by 
which  it  is  effected  are  the  use  of  the  bath,  and  fre- 
quent ablution. 

Cosmetics.  The  desire  of  being  agreeable  has, 
no  doubt,  led  to  the  invention  of  cosmetics.  Under 
this  term  are  usually  comprehended  all  the  expe- 
dients invented  to  soften  the  skin,  to  maintain  its 
transparency,  luster  and  freshness,  to  give  color  to 
the  complexion,  to  prevent  or  efface  wrinkles,  to 
whiten  and  clean  the  teeth,  to  stain  the  hair  and  eye- 
brows, and,  in  short,  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
face  and  hands. 

The  term  is  derived  from  a  Greek  verb,  to 
adorn.  The  Greek  ladies,  we  are  told,  studied  much 
the  use  of  cosmetics,  as  the  women  of  the  East  do  at 
the  present  day ;  hence,  we  see  frequently  advertised 
various  nostrums  under  the  title  of  some  Eastern 
name.  When  we  consider  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  skin,  and  how  easily  it  absorbs  substances  ap- 
plied to  it,  it  IS  evident  how  careful  we  should  be  not 
to  use  any  deleterious  materials  for  the  face  and  hands, 
and  that  we  should  know  accurately  the  nature  and 
composition  of  all  substances  recommended  by  per- 
fumers. The  intimate  connection  between  the  func- 
tions of  the  skin  and  those  of  the  stomach  were  not 
so  well  understood  formerly  as  they  are  in  the  pres- 
ent day ;  and  hence  many  practices  were  resorted  to 
in  the  use  of  cosmetics  that  are  now  known  to  be  very 
improper.  Nevertheless,  all  cosmetics  are  not  to  be 
condemned  equally ;  some  are,  perhaps,  harmless,  and 
others  are  occasionally  useful.  We  shall  illustrate 
this  by  a  few  general  remarks.  Of  paints  for  the  face, 
which  are  occasionally  employed,  some,  as  we  shall 
show,  are  highly  dangerous  ;  and  those  which  are  not 
so  have  an  injurious  effect,  if  used  constantly,  in 
stopping  up  or  clogging  the  pores  of  the  skin.  Those 
cosmetics  which  owe  their  efficacy  to  vinegar  and 
alum,  or  any  other  acids  and  astringents,  are  often  for 
a  time  efficacious,  giving  a  firmness  and  luster  to  the 
skin;  but  this  effect  is  merely  temporary,  for  they  in 
time  alter  its  texture,  dry  it,  and  produce  premature 
wrinkles;  they  are,  therefore,  better  avoided.  Mucil- 
aginous cosmetics,  such  as  barley  water,  oat-meal, 
etc.,  have  not  this  inconvenience;  they  render  the 
skin  more  supple,  softer,  and  more  polished.  Pastes 
and  ointments  sometimes  produce  good  effects  in  cer- 


125© 


TOMATO. 


tain  states  of  the  skin.  They  are  generally  laid  on 
the  face  and  hands,  and  remain  on  all  night,  contrib- 
uting to  restore  the  suppleness  and  elasticity  of  the 
skin ;  but  the  fatty  substances  that  form  their  basis 
ought  to  be  well  purified.  Some  consider  the  wax 
that  sometimes  enters  into  the  composition  as  too  dry- 
ing and  irritating,  and  recommend  fresh  cream  or 
glycerine  as  better.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  prudent 
to  avoid  the  use  of  all  cosmetics  the  composition  of 
which  IS  a  secret  or  unknown,  which  will,  of  course, 
exclude  all  those  which  are  advertised  with  high- 
sounding  names.  Some  of  these  produce  astonishing 
effects  at  first  but  ultimately  ruin  the  skin,  destroying 
its  natural  functions,  and,  consequently,  seriously 
injuring  health. 

All  medical  men  teach  that  the  best  way  of  improv- 
ing the  skin  is  to  improve  the  health  generally  by 
temperate  living  and  moderate  exercise. 

Complexion.  A  standard  volume  lies  before  us 
giving  49  recipes  for  improving  the  complexion,  and 
eminent  authorities  on  etiquette  and  the  laws  of 
health  are  also  on  the  table  before  us,  earnestly  ex- 
horting every  one  to  discard  all  such  things.  It  may 
be  true  that  both  health  and  etiquette  require  us  to 
forego  the  use  of  all  cosmetics;  but  for  the  conven- 
ience of  those  who  are  determined  to  use  such  things, 
we  give  two  or  three  of  the  best.  Pimples  on  the  face 
are  best  avoided  by  a  strict  observance  of  the  laws  of 
health.  Burnt  grease  (made  in  frying),  sugar  in  any 
form,  spices,  most  medicines,  and  acrid  substances 
befoul  the  "blood,"  and  the  latter  undertakes  to 
throw  them  off  through  the  skin  in  the  form  of  pim- 
ples, boils,  insensible  perspiration,  etc. 

Wash  for  the  Face.  The  following  will  be  found 
an  excellent  wash  for  the  face.  It  contains  nothing 
injurious  and  imparts  a  clear  alabaster  appearance  to 
the  skin.  This  recipe  has  been  sold  by  agents  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  for  five  and  ten  dollars, 
and  we  are  acquainted  with  ladies  who  thought  it  an 
excellent  investment:  Bay  rum,  3  ounces;  glycerine, 
2  drachms;  flake  white,  3  drachms;  prepared  chalk, 
2  drachms;  cologne  spirits,  }^  grain;  and  soft  water, 
ij^  pints. 

Another  that  has  met  with  a  large  demand  is  made 
as  follows :  Four  ounces  of  bay  rum,  i  ounce  of  flake 
white,  I  ounce  of  glycerine,  and  8  ounces  of  rain- 
water.    Mix  and  color  with  the  least  bit  of  carmine. 

Paints  for  the  Face.  There  have  been  many 
mixtures  of  paints  put  upon  the  market  for  painting 
the  face.  They  are  not  now,  we  are  glad  to  say,  so 
generally  used  as  formerly.  Pearl  while  is  one  of 
these.  It  is  a  preparation  of  bismuth  and  is  extremely 
injurious  to  the  skin.  Pearl  powder  was  another.  In- 
stead of  its  being  pearls  ground  to  powder,  it  was,  we 
believe,  made  of  French  chalk  powdered,  and  perhaps 
mixed  with  pearl  white  or  bismuth. 

With  respect  to  red  paints,  vegetable  reds  alone  are 
safe  to  use;  they  are  dyeing  substances,  and  are  harm- 
less,— such  as  those  made  from  cochineal,  safflower, 
carthamus,  sandal  wood  and  Brazil  wood;  but   the 


mineral  reds,  such  as  minium  or  red  lead,  and  ver- 
milion or  cinnabar  (a  sulphuret  of  mercury),  are 
]X)isonous,  and  ought  to  be  entirely  excluded  from  the 
toilet,  together  with  every  composition  into  which  they 
enter  as  an  ingredient.  All  these  metallic  prepara- 
tions, and  also  ceruse,  or  white  lead,  destroy  the  tex- 
ture of  the  skin,  cause  wrinkles,  and  compel  those  who 
begin  their  use  to  continue  the  practice,  although 
dangerous.  The  consequences  of  this  are  nervous 
affections,  and  perhaps  palsy. 

There  is  no  standard  color  of  the  face  which  one 
should  seek  to  attain  or  to  admire,  other  than  that 
which  one  would  have  by  living  strictly.  Thus,  in 
the  present  stage  of  human  development,  some  would 
have  rosy  or  ruddy  cheeks,  some  swarthy  and  some 
of  a  mixed  or  undefined  color. 

Fleshy  Face.  European  painters  and  sculptors, 
from  time  immemorial,  have  invariably  represented 
the  beautiful  human  form  as  having  plump,  round 
cheeks,  and  thus  have  formed  the  tastes  of  the 
masses,  both  in  the  old  country  and  in  America,  for 
the  beautiful  human  face  to  be  in  no  other  shape 
than  "  plump,"  fleshy.  This  habit  of  thought  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  when  a  person  becomes  an 
invahd  he  loses  flesh,  rosiness  of  cheek  and  becoi-ges 
lean  and  cadaverous.  At  the  same  time  it  is  well 
known  that  nearly  all  the  hard  work  of  the  world  is 
done  by  lean  men,  who  have  no  rosy  cheeks,  although 
many  of  them  have  a  ruddy  complexion.  We  leave 
the  reader  to  put  the  above  three  facts  together,  with 
as  many  others  as  he  can,  and  reason  out  his  own 
conclusions. 

We  are  aware  that  "  falling  in  love  "  overrides  all 
other  considerations,  and  that  nature,  by  a  law  of 
compensation,  continually  endeavors  to  recover  a 
normal  development;  and  that,  according  to  this  law, 
a  person  having  one  extreme  of  physical  form  or 
feature,  is  apt  to  seek  as  a  companion  for  life  one 
who  has  the  opposite  extreme, — that  the  thin-faced 
is  most  apt  to  prefer  the  full-faced,  and  vice  versa. 
One's  constitution  will  color  all  his  views  concerning 
matters  of  taste,  despite  all  the  advice  we  can  give 
here ;  and  we  have  therefore  devoted  our  space  to 
things  without  the  domain  of  taste. 

We  have  very  fully  treated  of  the  care  of  the  hair, 
teeth  and  of  perfumes,  pomades,  etc.,  under  their  re- 
spective heads. 

Tomato  (to-ma'to  or  to-mat' o),  a  vegetable  bear- 
ing a  well-known  fruit,  formerly  known  as  love-apple. 
It  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  until  within  a 
comparatively  short  period  of  time  it  was  considered 
as  unfit  for  food  and  even  by  some  as  poisonous.  It 
is  now  cultivated  throughout  the  land  and  is  regard- 
ed as  a  most  healthful  food,  although  few  persons 
are  pleased  with  its  taste  at  first.  This  must  be 
cultivated,  which,  however,  is  not  very  difficult  with 
most  persons.  The  vine  is  very  susceptible  to  frost, 
but  is  easily  cultivated. 

Cultivation.    Sow  in  March  or  April  in  the  hot- 


TOMATO. 


125.1 


bed  or  in  pots  in  a  sunny  exposure  in  the  house; 

when  desired  to 
make  healthy, 
stocky  pi  a  n  t  s, 
they  may  be  trans- 
planted or  re- 
potted when 
about  two  or  three 
inches  high;  when 
five  or  six  inches 
high, if  the  ground 
becomes  warm, 
transplant  to  the 

Fig.  I.— Gen.  Grant    Tomato.  open  grOUnd,  On  a 

cloudy  or  rainy  day  if  possible ;  if  not,  the  young  plants 
should  be  liberally  watered  and  shaded  from  the  hot 
sun.  For  a  heavy  crop,  a  warm,  dry,  sandy  loam, 
only  moderately  rich,  is  best.  To  have  the  fruit 
ripen  as  early  as  possible  in  preference  to  a  heavy 
crop,  select  rather  light,  poor  soil  and  a  sunny  loca- 
tion. Trimming  off  the  branches  and  "top  and  train- 
ing to  a  stake  are  believed  by  many  to  promote 
earliness;  propagation  by  slips  is  said  also  to  aid  in 
this.  Root-pruning  has  been  systematically  demon- 
strated to  be  very  injurious.  Set  the  plants  four  feet 
apart  each  way,  upon  mounds  of  earth,  to  allow  the 
foliage  to  open  and  let  the  sun  in  amongst  the  fruit. 
A  cheap  trellis  made  by  driving  three  stakes  around 
the  plants  and  encircling  them  with  three  or  four 
barrel  hoops,  makes  a  very  nice  support  for  training. 
The  burying  of  the  removed  leaves  immediately 
around  the  plant  is  a  good  practice,  both  by  insuring 
full  disturbance  of  the  soil,  and  by  the  presenting  of 
a  fertilizer  progressed  precisely  to  the  point  of  fruit- 
making.  The  portions  buried  decay  rapidly,  and  are 
rapidly  assimilated. 

For  field  culture  it  is  best  to  plant  on  rather  poor 
land  and  manure  in  the  hill  with  a  shovelful  of  rich 
compost.  This  gives  the  plant  a  thrifty  start,  and 
when  the  roots  get 
beyond  the  manure 
the  growth  of  the 
plant  is  checked  and 
fruitfulness  induced. 
If  you  are  growing 
for  the  factories  you 
miist  grow  such 
varietiesas  they  wish. 
The  crop  will  prove 
a  profitable  one  at  25 
cents  a  bushel,  which 
is  about  the  factory 

J       \ „„  Fig.  2. — Paragon  Tomato. 

pnce,  and  when,  as  * 

is  sometimes  the  case,  a  scarcity  in  the  market  brings 
the  price  up  to  75  cents  or  a  dollar,  they  are  largely 
profitable.  When  tomatoes  are  grown  by  the  acre 
the  large  green  worm  (pages  863-4)  often  causes 
serious  trouble.  Hand-picking  appears  to  be  the  only 
remedy.  We  have  a  valuable  aid  in  this  work,  in  a 
small  Ichneumon  fly;  its  little  white  cocoons  are 
often  seen  sticking  to  the  back  of  some  unfortunate 


worm.     Such  cocoons   should    never   be  disturbed. 

To   ripen  late  tomatoes,  pull   the   plants   having 

green  tomatoes  on  them,  before  the  commencement 

of  frosts,  and  hang  them  in  a  well  ventilated  cellar. 

Varieties.  Of  the  many  varieties  mentioned  by 
seedsmen  we  will  give  but  about  two  dozen  of  the 
best. 

Livingston's  Acme.  A  purple  variety  like  the 
Paragon. 

Paragon.  Ripens  perfectly  around  the  stem,  and 
is  the  largest  round  tomato  in  cultivation. 

Conqueror.  Handsome,  somewhat  resembling  the 
Canada  Victor,  but  not  as  large,  solid  or  always  early; 
vines  small. 

Canada  Victor.  Excels  in  ripening  nearly  all  its 
crop  early. 

Cook's  Favorite.     Round  and  solid. 

Gen.  Grant.     Smooth,  symmetrical  and  solid. 

Trophy.     Magnificent. 

Golden  Trophy.    A  yellow,  rapid,  free  grower. 

Hathaway 's  Excelsior.  Spherical,  early,  solid,  of 
excellent  quality  and  very  productive;  skin  rather  thin. 

Hubbard's  Curled  Leaf.  Probably  a  strain  of 
Early  York. 

Early  York.  Very  early,  dwarf  and  productive; 
irregular  in  shape. 

Foote's  Hundred-Day.  Extremely  early;  fruit 
small  and  irregular. 

Keyes'  Early  Prolific.  Medium  size  in  large  clus- 
ters. 

Large  Red  Smooth.  The  standard  kind;  good 
for  market. 

Little  Gem.     Small,  but  extra  early. 

Red  Cherry.     Flavor  unsurpassed ;  fruit  small. 

Yellow  Cherry.     For  preserving  and  pickles. 

Tilden.  Large,  smooth,  thick-meated,  high-flavor- 
ed and  first  class  on  low,  rich  soil. 

Alpha.     One  of  the  best  to  ripen. 

Triumph ;  Orange  Field.  A  new  variety  of  rich, 
fruity  flavor. 

Yellow  Fig.     Pear-shaped  and  is  preserved  as  figs. 

Strawberry,  Ground  Cherry  or  Alkekengi.  Grows 
enclosed  in  a  husk  within  which  it  will  keep  all  winter, 
excellent  for  preserves. 

Currant.  Resembles  long  bunches  of  currants ; 
for  ornament  only. 

Several  other  ornamental  and  curious  varieties  are 
advertised  by  seedsmen. 

To  make  tomato  catsup,  see  page  195  ;  to  can 
tomatoes,  see  page  185;  to  preserve  them,  see  page 
1067;  to  pickle  green  tomatoes,  see  pages  1034-5. 

To  Cook  Tomatoes.  Peel  and  put  them  into 
a  stew-pan ;  put  in  a  litde  salt  and  stew  them  for 
half  an  hour;  then  turn  them  into  a  deep  dish  with 
buttered  toast.  Another  way  of  cooking  them  is  to 
put  them  in  a  deep  dish,  with  fine  bread  crumbs, 
crackers  pounded  fine,  a  layer  of  each,  alternately ; 
put  small  bits  of  butter,  a  little  salt  and  pepper  on 
each  layer.  Have  a  layer  of  bread  crumbs  on  the 
top.     Bake  it  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 


1252 


TON— TO  WNSHIP. 


Ton,  2,000  ix)unds.  This  is  sometimes  called  the 
"short  ton."  in  contradistinction  to  the  old  "long 
ton"  of  2,240  pounds,  still  in  use  in  England. 
Spelled  tun,  the  word  denotes  a  cask,  like  a  pipe  or 
puncheon. 

Tongue  (tung).  It  is  important  for  all  to  know 
that  a  white-coated  tongue,  with  red  edges,  denotes 
fever  of  some  simple  type,  which  ought  to  be  cured 
in  a  day  or  two ;  and  that  a  brownish  coat  on  the 
tongue  indicates  typhoid  or  other  serious  conditions, 
which  require  more  skilled  and  prolonged  treatment. 

According  to  Dr.  John  M.  Scudder  the  coated 
tongue  indicates  an  impairment  or  arrest  of  digestion; 
and  the  tongue  uniformly  of  a  deep  red,  either  smooth 
and  glossy  or  covered  with  a  brownish  or  dark  filthy 
matter,  indicates  an  excess  of  the  salts  of  the  blood. 
In  such  cases  he  gives  acids  to  counteract  this  excess. 
The  broad  pale  tongue,  with  a  pasty-white  or  yellow- 
ish coat,  indicates  a  defect  of  the  salts,  and  in  medi- 
cal treatment  calls  for  alkalies. 

Defective  digestion,  from  late  suppers,  gluttony  or 
want  of  exercise,  often  occasions  a  deposit  on  the 
tongue  during  the  night.  This  should  be  scraped  off 
with  a  knife  or  scoured  off  with  a  brush  and  water. 

To  Cook  Beef  Tongue,  see  page  78. 

Tonsils,  almond-shaped  bodies,  situated  on  each 
side  of  the  rear  portion  of  the  mouth,  or  about  opjx)- 
site  the  uvula,  or  "soft  palate."  They  are,  in  the 
adult,  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  consist  of  follicles, 
and  yield  a  viscid  mucus  to  facilitate  swallowing. 
Their  inflammation  is  the  disease  called  tonsillitis,  or 
quinsy.  The  symptoms  are  soreness,  pain  in  swal- 
lowing, swelling  of  one  or  both  tonsils  and  fever. 
Sometimes  the  disease  grows  to  be  very  severe,  even 
occasioning  death  by  suffocation.  A  dose  of  citrate 
or  sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  some  other  cooling  ape- 
rient, should  be  given  the  first  day ;  then  wine  of 
ipecacuanha,  20  drops  every  three  hours,  with  fre- 
quent draughts  of  flaxseed  tea  or  flaxseed  lemonade. 
Poultice  with  flaxseed  meal  to  which  lard  and  lauda- 
num have  been  added.  When  the  poultice  is 
changed,  bathe  with  Uniment  of  ammonia,  or  soap 
liniment  to  which  aqua  ammonise  has  been  added. 
If  still  severe  and  not  certainly  suppurating,  a  very 
small  blister  may  be  applied,  or  the  part  may  be 
painted  with  tincture  of  iodine.  When  an  abcess  is 
evidently  forming  jwultices  will  be  better,  until  it  is 
ready  to  open  from  within.  Do  not  undertake  to 
lance  a  suppurated  tonsil  unless  you  know  how  to 
avoid  cutting  the  internal  carotid  artery. 

Tools:  see  Implements. 

Tooth:  see  Teeth. 

Top-dressing,  a  manure  of  any  kind  spread  upon 
plowed  land  without  being  turned  in;  or  a  fine,  or 
comminuted  or  thoroughly  reduced  or  special  manure 
sown  or  equally  distributed  upon  grass  land.  Com- 
mon kinds  of  top-dressings  are  ashes,  road-dust, 
gypsum,  common  salt  and  the  nitrates  of  soda  and 


potash.      Liquid  manure  is  always  used  as  a  top- 
dressing.     See  article  Manure. 

Tornado,  a  wind  which  is  so  violent  as  to  destroy 
property  or  life.  The  word  "  hurricane  "  has  a  similar 
meaning,  but  is  sometimes  limited  to  winds  of  slight- 
ly less  violence  than  a  tornado.  In  these  days  of 
newspaper  sesquipedalianism,  "cyclones  "threaten  to 
whirl  the  other  two  words  out  of  use. 

The  only  practical  remarks  we  can  make  concern- 
ing tornadoes  is  to  tell  how  we  may  best  avoid  them. 
They  generally  come  during  the  thunder-storm  season 
of  the  year,  namely,  May  and  June, — the  former 
month  mostly  in  the  South  and  later  further  north. 
When  the  sky  is  threatening,  watch  the  clouds  south- 
west of«you,  as  tornadoes  generally  travel  northeast. 
When  you  see  a  dark,  funnel-shaped  cloud  in  the 
southwest,  moving  slightly  toward  the  north,  run  to 
the  southeast;  if  it  seems  to  be  southing,  run  to  the 
northwest.  By  these  means  you  will  get  out  of  its 
track, — nearly  always.  But  if  it  seems  to  be  making 
straight  for  you,  go  into  a  cellar,  to  the  west  side  of 
it,  and  if  convenient  place  heavy  boards  or  pieces  of 
timber  over  you,  leaning  them  up  against  the  wall. 
A  death-like  stillness  of  the  air  prevails  just  before  a 
tornado. 

Tourniquet  (tur'ni-ket),  a  surgical  instrument  for 
stopping  the  course  of  blood  in  a  limb,  by  exerting  a 
strong  compression  ujxin  the  principal  artery.  The 
purixjse  is,  of  course,  to  prevent  bleeding  in  case  of 
dangerous  wounds  and  in  surgical  operations. 

Township,  the  district  or  territory  of  a  town :  in  the 
older  States  it  is  often  called  simply  "town."  Inmost  of 
the  States  the  township  is  six  miles  square,  but  in  some 
it  is  five,  seven  or  ten  miles  square.  Some  "  town- 
ships "  are,  of  course,  necessarily  fractional,  as  those 
along  rivers,  lakes  and  the  boundary  line  of  counties 
or  of  the  State. 

Townships  are  numbered  from  a  base  line  and  a 
"  principal "  meridian,  fixed  by  the  Government.  Thus, 
"T.  5  N.,  of  range  2  W."  denotes  the  5th  township 
north  of  the  base  line  in  the  2d  range  west  of  the 
(numbered)  principal  meridian. 

Townships  are  divided  into  square  miles  called 
"  sections,"  and  these  are  numbered  commencing  at 
the  northeast  corner,  thus: 


6 

5 

4 
9 

3 

2 

I 

7 

8 

10 

1 1 

12 

18 

17 

16 

IS 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

ZZ 

34 

35 

36 

Tminisliip. 
The  sections  are  further  subdivded  into  "quarters,' 


TRACES— TRA  VELING. 


1253 


which  are  a  half  mile  in  extent  on    each  side,   thus : 


N.  W.  qr. 

N.  E.  qr. 

S.  W.  qr. 

S.    E.   qr. 

and  these  are  still  further-  subdivided  by  private 
parties,  into  "halves  of  quartets,"  "quartets  of 
quarters,"  etc. 

The  inhabitants  of  townships  are  invested  with  cer- 
tain powers  for  regulating  their  own  affairs,  such  as 
repairing  roads,  constructing  ditches,  providing  for 
the  poor,  etc.  The  township  is  subordinate  to  the 
county. 

Traces,  the  chains  or  heavy  leather  straps  (tugs) 
by  which  the  team  draws  the  load.  They  extend 
from  the  hames  to  the  whifBe-trees,  and  are  some- 
times divided  into  two  sections,  one  of  leather  and 
the  other  a  chain. 

Trachea  (tra-ke'a),  the  scientific  name  of  the  wind- 
pipe. Itis  cominginto  more  common  use,  with  the  ad- 
vance of  popular  education.  Inflammation  of  the 
trachea  is  called  tracheitis,  and  surgical  incision  of 
that  organ  is  called  tracheotomy. 

Tracheotomy,  the  formation  of  an  artificial  open- 
ing in  the  windpipe.  This  is  an  operation  seldom 
required  and  should  never  be  attempted  by  a  non- 
professional person  not  acquainted  with  the  art  and 
science  of  surgery.  We  therefore  give  no  description 
of  it. 

Track-Cleaner,  attachment  to  a  mowing  machine 
to  throw  the  cut  grass  away  from  that  which  is  uncut. 

Training  is  a  general  term  applicable  to  many 
things,  as  the  training  of  children,  of  horses  and  other 
animals,  and  of  plants.  Grape-vines,  tomato-vines, 
fruit-trees,  etc.,  are  trained  to  stakes,  trellises,  walls, 
etc.  The  training  of  vines  and  trees  to  espaliers 
(lattice-work)  is  much  practiced  in  the  old  country. 
For  the  training  of  domestic  animals,  see  name  of  the 
animal  in  its  alphabetical  place.  For  the  training  of 
children,  see  Children  and  Education. 

Transplanting,  removing  trees  or  other  plants 
from  one  place  to  another,  to  continue, their  growth  in 
a  new  place.  The  princijjles  to  be  observed  with 
each  plant  are  indicated  in  their  proper  places,  but 
there  are  a  few  general  principles  to  be  observed 
which  we  note  here. 

Nursery  preparation  for  the  successful  removal  of 


trees  is  made  by  several  transplantings,  shortening 
their  roots  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  hmit  the  growth 
of  single  strong  roots  and  increase  and  concentrate 
fibrous  ones  around  the  collar  and  the  short  main 
roots  proceeding  from  it.  In  removing  trees  from  the 
forest,  either  take  them  in  winter  with  a  large  amount 
of  frozen  earth,  or  two  or  three  years  before  removing 
cut  around  and  confine  the  roots  somewhat,  partially 
or  wholly  cutting  off  the  large  downward  roots.  Re- 
peat and  perfect  the  operation  each  year  for  the  two 
or  three  years  following,  and  the  fourth  year  it  can  be 
safely  removed  without  difficulty.  Swamp  trees  have 
no  roots  extending  down  deep.  Make  the  diameter 
of  the  ball  of  earth  in  the  proiX)rtion  of  one  foot  for 
each  inch  of  diameter  in  the  stem  of  the  tree  at  a 
foot  above  the  collar. 

Prune  closely  at  the  time  of  transplanting,  cutting 
away  from  their  heads  from  one-fourth  to  one-half 
their  weight,  about  in  proportion  to  the  waste  of  root, 
carefully  shortening  and  opening  them.  All  climb- 
ing shrubs  will  be  benefited  by  being  cut  down  to  the 
ground,  so  that  the  growth  of  the  plant  will  be  entirely 
new.  The  same  is  true  of  most  varieties  of  bushy 
shrubs,  particularly  the  Azaleas,  wild  roses  and  the 
laurel  (Kalmia),  which,  though  an  evergreen,  is  in  this 
respect  an  exception  to  its  class.  This  process,  how- 
ever, is  not  to  be  rigidly  applied  to  those  plants  we 
select  for  the  sake  of  their  stems  already  formed ;  but 
it  will  be  found  good  for  most  kinds  from  the  woods, 
and  very  often  also  for  nursery  plants,  particularly  if 
they  have  been  over-forced,  or  are  transplanted  when 
in  leaf  and  wilt  upon  your  hands,  or  from  any  cause 
are  weakened  before  being  re-set.  It  also  relieves  us 
from  the  necessity  of  seeking  for  handsome  plants,  as 
they  will  grow  naturally,  and  therefore  prettily,  when, 
having  sufficient  room,  they  grow  anew. 

It  is  not  the  safest  to  remove  evergreens  in  early 
spring.  Transplant  them  either  in  winter,  with  the 
frozen  earth  about  them,  or  be  so  prepared  as  to  keep 
a  large  quantity  of  earth  about  their  roots  without  dis- 
placing any  of  them;  or,  defer  their  removal  until 
late  in  spring  or  early  summer. 

From  the  time  the  roots  are  out  of  the  ground  to 
the  time  the  young  trees  are  set,  keep  the  roots  moist 
and  out  of  the  sun  and  dry  wind.  This  is  especially 
important  with  evergreens.  Do  not  di"  the  holes  till 
the  trees  are  nearly  ready  to  set,  as  the  soil,  when 
freshly  dug,  is  in  better  condition. 

The  spreading  of  the  roots,  filling  in  the  soil,  mulch- 
ing, etc.,  and  transplanting  large  trees  by  aid  of  a 
two-wheeled  cart,  are  fully  illustrated  on  page  511. 

Traveling.  It  has  been  our  aim  to  make  these 
volumes  as  practical  and  useful  to  the  farmer  as  pos- 
sible. They  have  been  prepared  for  him  and  his 
family  and  are  intended  to  embrace  the  treatment  of 
every  subject  likely  to  be  of  interest  or  value  to  him 
in  the  pursuit  of  his  noble  calhng;  and  we  feel  that 
some  valuable  remarks  can  be  made  upon  the  topic 
of  traveling,  embracing  the  theme  of  visiting  cities, 
etc.  It  is  well  known  that  people  from  the  country 
often  experience  embarrassment  on  going  into  a  city, 


1254 


TRA  VELING. 


and  also  have  more  or  less  difficulty  in  finding  persons 
whom  they  wish  to  see,  or  places  they  desire  to  visit, 
and  also  are  often  beset  by  confidence  men  and 
sharpers.  It  is  therefore  the  intention  of  this  article 
to  furnish  such  information  and  suggestions  as  will 
enable  the  farmer  to  travel  safely,  and  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage, see  the  most  and  avoid  the  innumerable 
sharks  and  traps  always  found  in  cities  awaiting  the 
unwary.  It  is  not  expected  that  one  who  has  been 
reared  amid  rural  scenes,  where  the  herds  and  flocks 
roam  at  will  over  large  pastures,  where  the  growing 
fields,  the  picturesque  foliage  of  timber  regions,  or  the 
barren  expanse  of  wintry  scenes  only  greet  him,  will 
know  all  the  ways  of  city  life.  His  business  has  only 
called  him  over  the  sparsely  traveled  country  roads, 
and  occasionally  to  the  country  village.  Never  ham- 
pered or  crowded,  never  dazzled  with  the  gilt  and 
glitter  of  the  city  or  bewildered  by  the  colossal  and 
magnificent  buildings,  how  is  he  to  know  the  manner 
in  which  his  fellow-beings  live  who  are  crowded  to- 
gether by  the  hundreds  of  thousands .'  How  is  he  to 
guard  himself  from  the  innumerable  artifices,  tricks 
and  traps  talented  but  unprincipled  men  are  contin- 
ually setting  for  and  practicing  upon  the  unwary?  In 
every  big  city  there  are  hundreds  and  even  thousands 
of  men  and  women,  who  live  in  luxury  and  plenty 
entirely  off  the  men  who  visit  the  cities  and  are 
unaccustomed  to  the  devices  of  these  sharpers  and 
swindlers.  Knowing  that  most  farmers  visit  cities 
occasionally,  or  contemplate  such  a  trip,  it  is  our 
desire,  as  above  mentioned,  to  provide  them  with  such 
information  of  all  these  things  that  they  may  be 
thoroughly  fortified  against  the  arts  of  swindlers  of  all 
kinds,  as  well  as  to  know  the  best  means  of  traveling, 
seeing  sights,  etc.     ^ 

Packing  the  Sachel.  It  is  very  important  to 
have  in  your  sachel  everything  you  will  need  while 
away  from  home,  and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  do  this 
at  a  moment's  warning,  without  some  method,  and  we 
know  of  no  better  one  than  the  following:  Take  a 
card  and  write  on  it,  af  leisure,  in  a  clear,  distinct 
column,  the  name  of  every  article  which  you  will  want 
while  away  from  home.  This  may  be  done  by  taking 
a  list  of  everything  in  your  bag,  and  adding  to  it  as 
any  omission  is  discovered.  Then,  whenever  you  are 
about  starting  on  a  journey,  glance  along  down  this  list 
and  see  what  you  want  this  time.  You  may  thus  pack 
a  bag  and  get  ready  at  any  time  in  five  minutes,  and 
never  forget  an  article.  As  a  sample  of  such  a  list,  we 
give  the  following,  from  which  anything  wanted  is  at 
once  selected : 


Watch, 

R.  R.  Guide  or  Map, 

Shaving  Tools, 

Match  Box, 

Lunch, 

Money, 

Pocket  Compass, 

Collars, 

Tracts,  Cards,  etc., 

Spy  Glass, 

Cravats, 

Paper, 

Door  Fastener, 

Shirts, 

Ink, 

Thread  and  Needle 

Stockings, 

Pencils, 

Hair  Brush, 

Gloves, 

Envelopes, 

Drinking  Cup, 

Overshoes, 

Postage  Stamps,  etc. 

Then  in  starting  or  in  changing  cars,  remember  the 
three  words,  '■"Overcoat,  Sachel,  Umbrella." 

On  the  Train.  We  shall  now  take  up  the  topic  of 
traveling,  which  is  by  no  means  an  unimiwrtant  feature 


of  a  visit  to  the  city,  or  a  journey  anywhere.  To 
make  it  as  pleasant,  as  interesting,  as  free  from 
fatigue  and  as  rapid  and  safe  as  possible,  should  be 
the  aim  of  every  one.  After  determining  what  day 
you  intend  going  you  should  find  out  the  time  at 
which  your  train  leaves  your  station.  You  should 
then  be  there  a  sufficient  time  before  the  arrival  of 
the  train  to  get  your  ticket,  have  your  baggage  checked 
and  everything  ready  for  the  trip.  A  rush  for  the 
train  and  hasty  departure  is  sure  to  leave  something 
behind  or  undone  that  will  annoy  you  during  all  your 
trip.  Another  thing  to  guard  against  is  getting  on  a 
way  or  mail  train,  if  there  are  through  express  trains 
running  over  the  road.  Most  railroads  run  slow  trains, 
which  not  only  run  slow,  but  stop  at  every  station,  and 
also  have' their  fast  express  trains  which  stop  only  at 
long  intervals,  and  the  rate  of  speed  of  which  is  much 
faster. 

One  other  thing  to  determine  is,  whether  you  wish 
to  travel  during  the  night  or  day,  or  to  arrive  in  the 
city  at  night  or  morning.  W  here  the  journey  can  be 
made  within  12  hours,  business  men,  in  order  to  save 
time,  travel  at  night ;  but  if  one  wishes  to  see  the 
country  through  which  he  passes,  he  should  aim  to 
make  the  greater  part  of  his  journey,  if  it  takes  longer 
than  12  hours,  during  the  day  time.  Should  you 
arrive  in  the  city  in  the  evening  you  can  repair  to 
your  hotel  and  have  a  good  night's  rest,  and  be  pre- 
pared for  business  or  running  around  the  next  day. 

Should  you  desire  to  travel  at  night,  or  your  journey 
is  longer  than  can  be  made  in  one  day,  you  will  find 
a  sleeping  car  attached  to  almost  all  night  passenger 
trains.  These  afford  the  greatest  ease  and  comfort  to 
those  who  take  berths  in  them.  These  cars  are 
especially  constructed  to  travel  smoothly,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  everything  that  the  traveler  could  wish  to 
lighten  the  fatigue  of  a  journey.  U[X)n  either  side  of 
these  coaches  is  constructed  a  double  row  of  berths, 
one  over  the  other.  The  berths  or  bunks  in  these  are 
known  as  upper  and  lower  berths.  These  are  large 
enough  to  accommodate  two  persons,  and  are  provided 
with  spring  mattresses  and  all  the  bedding  necessary 
for  warmth  and  comfort.  There  is  no  difference  as  to 
the  furnishing  or  comfort  of  the  upper  or  lower  berth, 
but  for  convenience  in  getting  in  and  out  the  lower 
one  is  preferred.  Those  near  the  center  of  the  car  are 
preferable  to  those  at  the  ends,  over  the  wheels. 

During  the  night  the  porter  will  jxjlish  your  boots, 
and  on  arriving  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  and  all  the 
passengers  are  up  and  have  made  their  toilet,  he  will 
visit  you  with  a  brush  to  dust  your  clothing.  After 
this  is  completed  he  will  expect  pay  for  putting  your 
boots  in  order.  From  ten  to  twenty-five  cents  will 
satisfy  him.  The  inevitable  colored  jwrter  is  one  of 
the  fixtures  of  sleeping  cars,  and  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  free  yourself  from  giving  him  the  expected  change. 

Arrival  in  the  City.  The  train  having  arrived 
at  the  city  depot,  you  will  have  ample  time  to  get  off" 
it.  Do  not  attempt  to  alight  as  soon  as  the  train  enters 
the  city,  simply  because  it  stops.  It  will  likely  do  this 
seveml  times  before   reaching  the  main  dejwt.     The 


TRA  VELING. 


1255 


train-men  will  give  you  due  notice  when  the  train  has 
reached  the  depot,  and  not  until  then ;  so  retain  your 
seat  until  you  hear  thena  announce  the  name  of  the 
city. 

If,  while  on  the  train,  you  have  purchased  an  omni- 
bus or  transferticket,  or  one  is  attached  to  your  railroad 
ticket,  go  to  where  the  line  of  omnibuses  are  standing, 
show  your  ticket  and  you  will  be  directed  to  the  prop- 
er one.  Upon  nearingthe  city  a  geiltleman  usually 
passes  through  the  train  to  supply  omnibus  (or  "  bus  ' ) 
tickets  that  will  carry  you  to  any  hotel,  and  also  take 
your  baggage.  This  gentleman  will  take  up  your 
railroad  baggage  check  and  give  you  one  of  their  own. 
These  bus  and  baggage  lines  will  transfer  yourself  and 
baggage  to  other  railroad  depots  if  you  are  passing 
through  the  city.  Should  this  be  the  case,  or  should 
you  have  a  trunk,  it  will  be  the  better  plan  to  have 
the  transfer  thus  made,  or  be  taken  to  the  hotel. 

On  arriving  at  the  dejMt  do  not  let  the  noisy  hack- 
men,  hotel  and  railroad  men  get  you  excited  or  impose 
upon  you.  If  you  know  definitely  where  you  want  to 
go  and  do  not  wish  to  take  a  bus  or  hack,  inquire  of 
the  depot  or  city  policeman,  and  he  will  direct  you. 
Should  the  distance  be  great  he  will  likely  direct  you 
to  the  street-car  line  that  passes  nearest  you  and  the 
place  to  which  you  desire  to  go.  Do  not  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  strangers  at  the  depot,  or,  indeed,  as 
a  rule,  any  place.  Generally  make  your  inquiries  of 
policemen  or  in  stores.  Not  that  there  are  no  honest, 
true-hearted  people  in  cities,  for  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  most  noble  of  men,  as  well  as  the  most  depraved, 
dwell  there;  but  remember  that  sharpers  are  ever 
watching  the  entrance  of  strangers  into  the  city,  and 
they  are  the  most  likely  to  put  themselves  in  your  way 
to  direct  you. 

At  the  Hotel.  Having  arrived  at  the  hotel  it  is 
your  first  duty  to  place  your  name  and  residence  upon 
the  hotel  register.  The  clerk  will  then  assign  you  a 
room.  If  you  have  been  traveling  long  and  have  had 
no  opportunity  of  "  washing  up,"  ask  to  be  shown  to 
your  room,  where  you  may  make  your  toilet.  If  you 
have  a  lady  with  you,  enter  the  hotel  at  the  ladies' 
entrance,  go  to  the  parlor  or  ladies'  waiting  room, 
where  you  may  leave  her  and  go  to  the  office,  register 
your  name  and  that  of  the  lady,  and  have  rooms  as- 
signed. 

How  TO  Find  a  Place  in  a  City.  In  all  cities 
are  issued  annually  city  directories,  containing  the 
names  of  all  men,  and  also  of  ladies  who  are  engaged 
in  business,  or  are  widows,  with  the  street  and  num- 
ber of  their  residence  and  place  of  business,  and  also 
statingtheir  business  or  occupation.  These  directories 
are  to  be  found  in  hotels,  drug  stores,  banks,  large 
stores  and  in  many  offices.  So,if  you  wish  to  find  the 
residence  of  any  one,  step  into  any  of  the  above  places 
and  consult  a  directory.  Should  the  party  have  moved 
since  the  issue  of  the  directory,  by  calling  where  he 
lived  at  that  time  his  whereabouts  can  generally  be 
obtained. 

Do  not  hesitate  to  inquire  of  policemen  in  reference 


to  the  location  of  buildings  or  streets,  etc.,  you  desire 
to  find.  It  is  their  duty  to  answer  all  such  questions, 
and  when  approached  respectfully  will  seldom  fail  to 
give  full  and  explicit  information.  You  may  make 
simple  inquiries  of  any  one  and  you  will  seldom  be 
misled.  Repeated  inquiries  will  generally  enable 
one  to  reach  his  destination  safely,  however  secluded 
or  out  of  the  way  it  may  be.  Generally  you  will  find 
the  names  of  all  streets  upon  the  lamp  posts,  situated 
at  the  corner  of  each  street.  These  are  unerring  guides 
and  should  be  consulted. 

Confidence  Men.  There  are  in  all  cities  a  miser- 
able class  of  men  who  live  upon  the  credulity  of  the 
people  from  the  rural  districts — not  alone  farmers,  but 
even  business  men  of  villages.  These  individuals  are 
known  as  "confidence  men,"  because  their  plan  is  to 
work  upon  the  confidence  of  their  victims.  They  are 
sharp,  oily-tongued,  well-dressed  rascals,  and  while 
plying  their  vocation  avoid  the  police  and  the  law. 
They  are  such  experts  in  reading  human  nature  that 
they  seldom  miss  their  man.  Should  they  by  mis- 
chance approach  the  wrong  man  they  perceive  the 
fact  so  quickly, and  are  so  slick  and  cunning,  that  they 
do  not  commit  themselves. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  these  men  should  be 
avoided,  like  so  many  hyenas,  as  in  fact  all  inquisi- 
tive strangers  should  be.  As  the  plan  adopted  by 
these  men  are  similar  in  all  cities,  and  in  general  do 
not  change,  especially  in  the  initiative  steps,  we  will 
briefly  give  the  mode  they  pursue,  so  that  they  may 
be  the  more  certainly  pointed  out  and  avoided. 

First,  they  place  themselves  on  some  prominent 
street  and  watch  for  their  victim.  They  easily  "  six)t " 
him,  as  a  stranger  in  a  city  is  easily  pointed  out  by 
an  expert.  They  approach  him  smilingly,  extending 
their  hand,  say  "Why,  how  do  you  do,  Mr.  Jones? 
When  did  you  get  in.'"  Jones  does  not  happen  to 
be  the  name  of  the  man  approached,  who  is  somewhat 
surprised  tobethusfamiliarly  addressed,  and  immedi- 
ately says, "  My  name  isn't  Jones ;  "  or,"  You  are  mis- 
taken; my  name  is  Brown."  The  confidence  man 
will  then  look  very  much  surprised  and  exclaim,  "  In- 
deed, isn't  this  Alexander  Jones,  of  ,  Iowa?" 

This  remark  generally,  though  unwittingly,  draws  from 
the  rural  resident  the  place  of  his  residence,  when, 
after  slyly  obtaining  from  him  two  or  three  other  facts 
he  desires  for  a  cue,  the  confidence  man,assuringhim 
that  he  very  much  resembles  his  friend,  Mr.  Jones, 
will  apologize  for  thus  accosting  him,  and  then  walk 
away.  This  man  has  played  his  part,  and  done  it  suc- 
cessfully. It  remains  for  another  to  do  the  victimiz- 
ing. The  unsuspecting  victim  is  satisfied  with  the 
explanation  and  passes  on,  and  is  soon  buried  in  the 
throng  and  absorbed  with  the  strange  sights. 

He  has  been  carefully  watched,  however,  and  ere 
long  he  is  again  escorted,  by  one  who  makes  no  mis- 
takes as  to  name,  or  place  of  residence,  etc.  This 
time  the  "  pal,"  or  companion  of  the  former  confidence 
man,  who  has  been  given  the  "  cues  "  obtained,  ap- 
proaches the  farmer  or  gentleman  from  the  country 
village,   smilingly  extends   his   hand,  familiarly  ad- 


I2s6 


TRA  VELING. 


dresses  him  by  his  proper  name,  inquires  as  to  his 
health,  when  he  came  in,  etc.  The  victim  is  perfectly 
confounded  that  he  should  meet  one  among  strangers 
who  knows  him  so  well.  He  may  reply  that  he  does 
not  remember  him,  and  certainly  does  not  know  him, 
but  the  confidence  man  is  equal  to  the  emergency, 
and  laughingly  and  familiarly  asks  him  if  he  don't 

remember ,  son  of ; ,  the 

village  banker,  or  prominent  merchant,  as  it  may  be. 
Now  the  farmer  knows  the  man  referred  to  quite  well. 
He  is  an  honored  and  wealthy  citizen  of  his  neighbor- 
hood, and  he  is  glad  to  meet  with  his  son,  who  has 
been  away  from  home  for  some  time,  etc.,  as  his  story 
goes.  Then,  to  still  further  gain  the  confidence  of  his 
victim,  he  inquires  about  several  of  the  leading  men 
of  his  village  or  neighborhood,  men  whom  the  farmer 
well  knows.  Why,  he  knows  them  perfectly  well,  and 
will  speak  as  familiarly  of  them  as  a  relative  could. 
The  names  of  these  men  are  obtained  from  com- 
mercial reports,  and  were  looked  up  after  his  residence 
was  known.  By  this  time  the  crooked  man  of  the 
city  has  almost  complete  control  over  the  rural  resi- 
dent. It  is  a  strange  fact,  but  nevertheless  true,  that 
a  person  from  home  will  be  friendly  and  confidential 
with  a  man  whom  he  never  associated  with  or  cared 
for  when  at  home,  should  he  chance  to  meet  him  in 
the  city.  Another  strange  fact  is,  that  he  will  take  up 
with  and  have  confidence  in  an  entire  stranger 
of  the  city,  if  he  was  ever  through  his  neighborhood 
or  knows  only  the  names  of  some  of  its  prominent 
citizens. 

The  "  confidence  man  "  having  ingratiated  hims^f 
with  his  victim,  will  then  proceed  with  his  game.  He 
will  offer  his  services  to  show  his  friend  around  the 
city.  This  is  considered  as  a  great  kindness  by  the 
farmer,  as  he  has  a  desire  to  "  do  the  city,"  and  to 
have  some  one  to  point  out  and  give  tlie  history  of  all 
places  of  interest,  guide  and  protect  him  in  the 
crowded  streets. 

Thus  far  the  proceedings  with  confidence  men  gen- 
erally are  similar.  After  they  have  thus  won  the 
confidence  of  their  victims  they  have  various  methods 
of  entrapping  them.  These  we  cannot  describe,  as 
they  are  too  numerous  and  diversified.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  however,  when  once  a  man  is  thus  in  their 
clutches,  they  are  sure  to  get  his  money.  If  not  one 
way  they  will  another :  so,  as  a  last  resort,  when  they 
have  failed  to  borrow  money,  have  checks  cashed, 
play  faro  and  other  games,  entice  them  into  lot- 
tery schemes,  "  snide  "  auction  houses,  etc.,_  they  will 
make  their  victim  yield  his  purse  by  intimidation  or 
by  actual  force. 

The  only  safe  way  is  to  avoid  making  up  with 
strangers  in  cities.  Never  believe  a  man  of  business, 
or  of  leisure,  either,  for  that  matter,  who  is  not  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  long  standing,  cares  enough  for  you  to 
waste  his  time  showing  you  around  for  nothing.  Be 
careful  not  to  tell  your  name,  place  of  residence  and 
full  history  to  any  stranger.  Give  no  one  any  cue  to 
work  on  you.  Turn  a  deaf  ear  to  the  oily-tongued 
stranger  who  professes  to  know  you.    In  fact,  let  your 


motto  be,  "  have  nothing  to  do  with  strangers  in  the 
city." 

Hiring  a  Carriage.  Should  one  desire  to  be 
driven  over  the  city  in  a  carriage,  you  may  always  find 
public  hacks  standing  on  certain  streets  or  in  certain 
locations.  While  the  price  for  the  use  of  them  is  regu- 
lated by  the  city,  yet  you  should  make  a  special  bar- 
gain beforehand  to  be  driven  to  certain  places  or  for 
a  stated  length  of  time,  else,  knowing  you  do  not  belong 
in  the  city  and  would  rather  pay  considerable  more 
than  have  trouble  with  them,  they  will  often  charge 
you  an  exhorbitant  price. 

Money,  etc.  Perhaps  a  word  should  be  said  in 
reference  to  the  manner  of  carrying  money  when 
traveling.  In  the  first  place,  no  one  is  ever  justified 
in  carrying  a  large  amount  of  money  about  his  person. 
There  is  no  need  for  any  one  to  run  such  risk,  both  of 
loss  of  money  and  bodily  injury.  The  larger  portion 
of  the  money  should  be  carried  in  the  inside  vest 
pocket,  and  should  never  be  taken  out  on  the  street 
or  in  crowds.  Sufficient  change  may  be  carried  in 
the  outside  vest  pocket  or  in  the  pantaloons  jxjcket  for 
small  and  frequent  expenses.  Never  make  a  show 
of  your  money  as  some  foolishly  do,  for  then  you 
are  only  inviting  some  one  to  rob  you. 

On  taking  a  trip  to  the  city,  if  you  have  occasion  to 
use  a  large  amount  of  money,  buy  a  draft  from  your 
nearest  banker  upon  the  city  to  which  you  are  going 
if  possible,  payable  to  your  order.  No  other  person 
than  yourself  then  will  be  able  to  draw  the  money  on 
it;  consequently  if  lost,  or  stolen,  it  cannot  be  cashed, 
and  you  do  not  lose  what  it  represents  at  the  bank. 
This,  however,  necessitates  some  difficulty  upon  your 
part,  for  you  must  then  be.identified  at  thebank  upon 
which  you  hold  the  draft.  If  you  are  not  known  by 
any  one  in  the  city  you  could  not  depend  upon  cash- 
ing it,  for  it  is  very  difficult  for  one  to  idendfy  him- 
self at  the  counter  of  a  city  bank.  Should  this  be 
the  case,  however,  take  a  letter  of  introduction  from 
your  village  merchant  to  the  wholesale  house  in  that 
city  with  which  he  does  business.  This  will  introduce 
you  to  them,  when  they  will  in  turn  identify  you  at 
the  bank,  or  draw  the  money  for  you.  Generally  you 
will  find  such  city  business  men  quite  accommodat- 
ing, and  will  often  put  themselves  to  much  trouble  to 
please  a  country  customer.  While  this  mode  of 
carrying  money  may  entail  more  trouble,  one  thing  is 
certain,  it  is  much  the  safest  way. 

Some  have  money  in  small  amounts,  or  postal 
money  orders,  or  bank  checks  or  drafts,  sent  to  thern 
from  time  to  time  and  to  the  different  jxjints  in  their 
tour,  as  they  may  need  funds.  This  is  a  safe  method, 
but,  depending  on  friends  athome  and  the  vicissitudes 
of  mails,  etc.,  the  money  or  postal  order  is  sometimes 
too  slow  to  arrive. 

Miscellaneous  Hints.  In  pacing  along  some 
of  the  prominent  streets  of  a  city  you  will  often  hear 
through  an  open  door  an  auctioneer  hard  at  work 
crying  off  a  watch,  or  a  piece  of  jewelry,  or  it  may  be 
an  oil  painting.     He  claims  he  is  offered  only  a  few 


TRA  Y— TRELLIS. 


"57 


dollars  for  what  is  worth  ten  times  the  amount. 
However  this  may  be,  or  why  city  authorities  permit 
such  places  to  run,  let  your  motto  be,  to  have  noth- 
ing to  do  with  them.  Do  not  enter  the  door,  for  once 
you  get  into  their  web  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  ex- 
tricate yourself.  Of  course,  should  you  be  in  company 
with  a  friend  long  a  resident  of  the  city,  you  could 
safely  go  with  him  to  these,  as  well  as  some  other 
places  to  see  the  inside  of  city  life,  but  do  not  at- 
tempt it  alone.  You  may  be  never  so  smart,  and  in 
your  own  neighborhood  a  leader,  etc.,  but  remember 
these  fellows,  many  of  whom  have  brilliant  intellects, 
do  nothmg  else  but  study  up  schemes  to  entrap  the 
uninitiated. 

Never  buy  jewelry  or  any  kind  of  goods  of  men 
standing  on  the  streets.  These  are  of  an  inferior 
quality,  and  no  cheaper  than  you  could  buy  the  same 
goods  at  responsible  stores. 

Never  be  drawn  into  any  kind  of  game,  with  cards 
or  anything  else,  with  strangers  or  new  acquaintances. 
These  are  only  devices  to  rob  you  of  your  money. 

In  visiting  a  theater,  it  is  well  to  purchase  your 
ticket  early  in  the  day,  or  even  the  day  before,  if  you 
know  where  you  want  to*^o,  that  you  may  have  a  bet- 
ter choice  of  seats. 

The  deportment  while  in  theater,  if  with  a  lady,  is 
given  on  page  412.  If  you  go  to  any  theater  let  it  be 
a  first-class  one,  and  secure  a  good  sitting.  The  au- 
ditonum  of  a  theater  is  generally  divided  into  par- 
cpiet,  parquet  circle,  balcony  and  gallery.  Tne  first 
two  are  regarded  as  the  best,  except,  perhaps,  the 
first  row  or  two  in  the  balcony. 

In  getting  on  a  street  car,  if  at  the  crossing  of  a 
street,  always  go  to  the  further  crossing  in  the  direc- 
tion the  car  is  going,  as  the  car  is  not  permitted  to 
stop  in  the  middle  of  the  street  crossing.  Never  go 
to  the  conductor  with  your  fare  ;  let  him  come  to  you  ; 
rest  assured  he  will  do  that.  If  you  wish  to  get  off 
at  any  place  you  are  not  familiar  with,  tell  him  so 
when  he  calls  for  the  fare.  Should  he  then  perchance 
carry  you  by,  he  will  send  you  back  on  next  car 
free.  It  is  the  better  way  never  to  step  from  the  car 
until  it  stops;  but  should  you  do  so,  always  jump 
with  the  car  or  facing  the  way  the  car  is  gcnng. 

The  places  of  interest  in  most  cites  to  visit  are 
parks,  public  buildings,  theaters,  museums,  board  of 
trade,  large  churches,  monuments,  some  of  the  lead- 
ing stores,  public  libraries,  principal  manufactories, 
etc.  Besides  these  each  city  will  have  some  particular 
features  or  sights  of  interest  peculiar  to  itself.  A 
view  of  some  of  the  magnificent  private  residences 
will  often  prove  very  interesting.  It  is  well  to  pur- 
chase a  "guide"  to  the  city,  which  is  a  pamphlet,  with 
map,  being  a  directory  of  the  streets,  parks,  etc.,  and 
describing  the  principal  i)oints  of  interest,  and  telling 
how  to  reach  them.  They  generally  cost  25  cents. 
Cheaper  ones  are  to  be  had,  but  do  not  give  so  much 
information. 

Tray,  a  small  trough  or  wooden  vessel,  sometimes 
scooped  out  of  a  piece  of  timber  and  made  hollow, 
for  various  domestic  uses,  as  for  making  bread  in, 


chopping  meat,  and  the  like.  Also,  a  flat,  broad  ves- 
sel on  which  dishes,  etc.,  are  carried ;  a  waiter  or 
salver. 

Treacle  (tre'kl),  a  viscid,  uncrystallizable  syrup, 
which  drains  from  the  sugar-refiner's  molds ;  some- 
times called  sugar-house  molasses.  The  word  "trea- 
cle," however,  is  often  used  for  molasses.  Formerly 
the  word  denoted  also  a  medical  compound  for  the 
prevention  and  cure  of  bites  of  poisonous  animals. 

Tread-Power,  a  machine  on  which  an  animal 
walks,  to  produce  power  for  working  purposes.  It 
may  be  either  an  inclined  disc  wheel  or  a  wooden 
slat  belt ;  the  latter  is  by  far  the  most  common  at 
the  present  day.     See  page  822. 

Trees :     See  Forestry  and  the  respective  trees. 
To  Measure  the  Height  of  a  Tree.     To  do 
this  there  are  several  simple  but  interesting  methods. 

1.  Set  up  a  straight,  nieasured  pole  some  distance 
from  the  tree,  in  ground  which  is  on  a  level  with  the 
base  (collar)  of  the  tree ;  then  place  your  eyes  near 
the  ground  opiX)sile  the  tree,  and  pass  along  until, 
in  sighting,  the  top  of  the  pole  coincides  with  the  top 
of  the  tree ;  measure  the  distance  from  your  sighting 
point  to  the  pole  and  to  the  tree,  and  then  by  simple 
proportion  you  can  calculate  the  height  of  the  tree, 
thus  :  As  the  distance  from  your  eyes  to  the  pole  is 
to  the  height  of  the  pole,  so  is  the  distance  from  your 
eyes  to  the  base  of  the  tree  to  the  height  of  the  tree. 
Example:  Say  the  pole  is  5  feet  high,  the  distance 
from  your  sighting  point  on  the  ground  to  the  stake 
when  the  top  of  the  latter  coincided  with  the  top  of 
the  tree,  6  feet,  and  from  the  same  sighting  point  to 
the  base  of  the  tree  96  feet;  then  6:5:  :96:8o.  Eighty 
feet  is  the  height  of  that  tree. 

2.  Measure  the  shadow  (when  the  sun  or  moon 
shines)  of  a  measured  stake,  and  also  the  length  of 
the  shadow  of  the  tree  at  the  same  time ;  then,  by 
simple  proportion  as  above,  the  answer  is  obtained. 
Thus,  if  an  8-foot  pole  casts  a  5-foot  shadow  when 
the  tree  casts  a  shadow  60  feet  in  extent,  then  5:8: : 
60:96.     That  tree  is  96  feet  high. 

3.  Set  a  stake  in  the  ground  when  the  sun  or  moon 
is  shining,  and  wait  till  its  shadow  is  of  the  same 
length  as  itself;  then  the  shadow  of  the  tree  will  be 
of  the  same  length  as  zVself. 

4.  Make  a  quarter  circle  out  of  a  thin  board  ;  sus- 
pend a  plummet  from  the  corner  (what  would  be  the 
center  of  the  circle)  of  this  piece,  holding  this  corner 
up;  walk  back  or  forth  with  this  in  hand,  taking  sight 
along  one  of  its  straight  edges  to  the  top  of  the  tree 
until  the  plumb  line  hangs  down  mid-way  of  the  arc 
(curved  side);  then  your  distance  from  the  tree  will 
be  its  height. 

Trefoil,  literally,  three-leaf;  one  of  the  names  of 
clover,  given  on  account  of  its  having  three  leaflets 
to  each  leaf. 

Trellis,  a  frame  of  cross-barred  work,  or  lattice- 
work, used  for  various  purposes,  as  for  screens  or  for 
supporting  plants. 


I2s8 


TREMBLES—  TUBEROSE. 


Trembles,  milk-sickness.  This  is  not  milk-fever, 
but  a  poison  from  a  certain  weed,  which  affects 
cattle  and  man.     See  page  238. 

Trench  Plow,  a  plow  cutting  deep  furrows  and 
bringing  the  sub-soil  to  the  surface,  as  distinguished 
from  a  sub-soil  plow,  which  only  loosens  the  sub-soil 
and  leaves  it  below  the  surface. 

Trevis  or  Break,  a  contrivance  for  confining 
horses  or  cattle  for  surgical  operations  or  medical 
treatment.  It  consists  mainly  of  four  strong  posts 
set  in  the  ground  and  braced  by  stays.  Rings,  pad- 
ded bars,  etc.,  are  attached  according  to  the  needs  of 
the  case. 

Trichina  (trick-i'na),  a  small  worm  that  sometimes 
infests  swine,  and  persons  who  eat  the  flesh  of  swme 
so  infested.  Its  attack  is  generally  fatal ;  seepage  871. 

Trichiniasis  (trik-i-ni'a-sis)  or  Trichinosis  (trik- 
i-no'sis),  the  disease  produced  by  the  trichina.  No 
special  remedy  is  known  for  this  generally  fatal  dis- 
ease. The  general  fever  which  always  accompanies 
trichiniasis  is,  of  course,  to  be  mitigated  by  the  same 
general  processes  which  are  adopted  for  other  fevers. 

Trimming,  of  horses:  see  page  732. 

Tripe,  the  entrails;  also,  the  large  stomach 
(paunch)  of  ruminant  animals,  when  prepared  for  food. 
To  prepare  it,  sew  it  up,  after  it  is  turned  inside  out; 
be  careful  to  sew  it  uptight,  that  no  lime  get  into  it; 
now  have  a  tubof  lime-water,  the  consistency  of  good, 
thick  whitewash;  let  it  remain  in  from  10  to  20 
minutes,  or  until  when  you  take  hold  of  it  the  dark 
outside  skin  will  come  off;  then  put  it  into  clean 
water,  changing  three  or  four  times  to  weaken  the 
lime,  that  the  hands  be  not  injured  by  it;  then  with 
a  dull  knife  scrape  off  all  the  dark  surface,  and  con- 
tinue to  soak  and  scrape  several  times,  which  removes 
all  offensive  substances  and  smell.  After  this  let  it 
soak  20  or  30  minutes  in  two  or  three  hot  waters, 
scraping  over  each  time ;  then  pickle  in  salt  and 
water  12  hours,  and  it  is  ready  for  cooking;  boil  from 
three  to  four  hours,  cut  in  strips  to  suit,  and  putit  into 
nice  vinegar,  with  the  various  spices,  as  desired;  re- 
newing the  vinegar  at  the  expiration  of  one  week,  is  all 
that  will  be  required  further. 

Tripoli  (trip'o-ly),  an  earthy  substance  originally 
brought  from  Tripoli,  Africa,  used  in  polishing  stones 
and  metals.  It  is  principally  silica,  and  consists  al- 
most wholly  of  the  cast  shells  of  microscopic  organ- 
isms. In  using  it,  it  is  first  reduced  to  a  very  fine, 
impalpable  powder,  like  wheat  flour  to  the  touch. 

Trocar  or  Trochar,  a  surgical  instrument  for 
evacuating  fluids  or  gas  from  cavities,  as  dropsy.  See 
page  230. 

Troll  (trole),  to  draw  a  hook  along  on  the  surface 
of  the  water  for  the  purjxjse  of  catching  fish.  See 
page  477.     The  word  has  also  other  meanings. 

Trot,  to  move  faster  than  in  walking,  as  a  horse 
or  other  quadruped,  by  lifting  one  fore-foot  and   the 


For 

683 


with 


hind-foot  of  the  opposite  side  at  the  same  time, 
trotting  horses  and  speed  in  trotting,  see  pages 
and  1164. 

Trout,  several  species  offish.     See  page  475. 

Truck,  a  small   wooden   wheel,   not   bound 
iron ;  a  cylinder ;  a  low  carriage  for  removing  heavy 
freight;  barter,  or  small  commodities;  luggage. 

Truss,  a  bandage  or  apparatus  used  in  cases  of 
hernia,  to  keep  up  the  reduced  parts  and  prevent 
further  protrusion,  and  for  other  purposes  ;  also  a 
frame  of  timbers  for  fastening  or  sustaining  a  beam  or 
a  roof,  etc. 

Tuber,  a  fleshy,  rounded  stem  or  root,  usually  con- 
taining starchy  matter,  as  the  potato  or  arrow-root ;  a 
thickened  root-stock  or  subterraneous  portion  of  a 
stem.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  tuber,  in 
botanical  terms,  is  a  root,  a  stem  or  sui  generis.  Irish 
potatoes  grow  on  subterranean  stems,  which  are  very 
different  from  the  roots ;  but  the  sweet  potato  and 
Jerusalem  artichoke  seem  to  be  more  nearly  roots.  All 
tubers  have  eyes  for  the  production  of  new  plants. 
In  anatomy,  the  word  denotes  a  knob  or  tubercle;  a 
swelling  or  knot. 


Tuberose. 

Tubercle  (tu'ber-kl),  in  anatomy,  a  natural  small 
projection ;  in  pathology,  a  small  mass  of  diseased 
mattfer,  as  a  wart  or  other  form  of  excrescence.  Most 
notably  this  accompanies,  in  the  lungs,  a  form  of  con- 
sumption, called  hence  "tubercular  consumption."  A 
lung  tubercle  is  at  first  hard,  grayish  or  yellowish 
translucent  or  opaque,  and  afterward  gradually 
softens,  excites  suppuration  in  its  vicinity  and  seeks 
an  outlet  from  the  body. 

Tuberose    (tube'roze   or  tu'ber-ose),   a   liliaceous 


88.11 


i 


mi 


WILD   TURKEY. 


M^^^' 


~^^^^^SS^ 


i 


h 


•sr 


TUG— TURKEY. 


1261 


plant  with  a  tuberous  root.  The  flower  is  beautiful 
and  exquisitely  fragrant  It  is  not  a  rose,  and  the 
second  pronunciation  given  above  is  therefore  more 
probably  the  correct  one.  In  florists'  catalogues  often 
the  scientific  name  is  given, — Polianthes  tuberosa. 
This  should  not  be  confounded  with  Polyanthus. 

Tug,  a  trace,  or  drawing  strap,  of  a  harness.  For 
a  spring  tug  link,  see  page  638. 

Tug-wheel,  a  horizontal  water  wheel  driven  by 
the  percussion  of  the  stream  against  its  floats,  and  not 
submerged  in  water. 

Tulip,  a  very  popular  early  flower,  of  many  vari- 
eties. 

Tulip-tree,  a  valuable,  well-known  timber  tree, 
often  wrongly  called  "poplar,',  "white-wood,"  etc. 
It  is  common  in  the  older  States,  but  scarce  in  the 
Northwest. 

Tumbling-rod,  the  rod  which  connects  the  motion 
of  a  horse-power  with  that  of  a  thrashing  or  other 
machine. 

Tumor,  a  local  and  irregular  enlargement  in  the 
root,  stem,  branch,  bud  or  leaf  of  a  plant.  It  arises 
in  some  instances  from  obstruction  in  the  ascent  of 
the  sap,  but  in  most  in  puncturing  by  insects  in  the 
deposition  of  their  eggs.  Some  of  the  most  common 
instances  of  it  are  clubs  on  the  roots  of  cabbages, 
knots  and  bunches  on  the  stem  and  branches  of  oaks 
and  elms,  and  excrescences  and  galls  on  the  buds  and 
leaves  of  various  common  trees  and  shrubs. 

A  tumor  is  also  a  chronic  swelling  or  hard  abscess 
on  any  part  of  an  animal's  body.  Some  tumors  are 
caused  by  bruises  and  others  by  accidents,  and  some 
by  interior  disturbance  of  the  system,  by  a  corrupted 
state  of  the  fluids,  by  general  debility  of  constitution, 
or  by  various  kinds  of  atmospheric  influence  and 
agency ;  and  many,  which  originate  in  widely  different 
ways,  have  a  widely  different  character,  and  require  a 
widely  different  treatment.  Tumors  which  are  much 
inflamed,  but  do  not  tend  to  suppuration,  should  be 
treated  with  cooling  applications,  such  as  a  solution  of 
sugarof  Iead,or  a  lotion  of  Goulard's  extract  in  wa- 
ter; inflamed  tumors  which  tend  to  suppuration  should 
be  accelerated  toward  a  crisis  by  means  of  fomenta- 
tions and  poultices ;  hard,  indolent  tumors,  which  are 
neither  inflamed  nor  painful,  but  either  simply  incon- 
venient or  precursory  to  some  worse  development, 
should  be  roused  to  activity  by  rubbings  of  stimulating 
liniments,  iodine  ointment,  or  even  blistering  oint- 
ment, and  very  hard  or  quite  inert  tumors  of  the 
nature  of  wens  can  be  properly  removed  only  by  ex- 
cision. 

Tun,  a  large  cask.     See  Ton. 

Turf,  that  upper  stratum  of  earth  and  vegetable 
mold  which  is  filled  with  the  roots  of  grass  and  other 
small  plants,  so  as  to  adhere  and  form  a  kind  of  mat; 
called  also  sward  and  sod.  Figuratively,  the  race- 
ground.  The  word  also  denotes  peat,  a  vegetable 
mold  used  as  fuel. 


Turkey.  This  fowl,  which,  on  account  of  the  ex- 
cellent flavor  of  its  flesh,  is  the  entree  par  excellence 
on  all  festal  occasions,  especially  Thanksgiving  day 
and  Christmas,  seems  to  be  of  Mexican  origin.  The 
wild  turkey  of  the  United  States  is  of  a  different 
species  from  our  domestic  turkey. 

The  male  wild  turkey  of  the  United  States  is  three 
and  a  half  to  nearly  four  feet  in  length,  measures  al- 
most six  feet  in  expansion  of  wings,  and  weighs  15  to 
40  pounds.     The  female  is  somewhat  smaller. 

The  habits  of  these  birds  in  their  native  wilds  are 
exceedingly  curious.     The  males,  called  "gobblers," 
associate  in  parties  from  10  to  100,   and   seek   their 
food  apart  from  the  females,  which  either   go   about 
singly  with  their  young,  at  that  time  about  two-thirds 
grown,  or  form  troops  with  other  females  and  their 
families,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  70  or  80.  These 
all  avoid  the  old  males,  who  attack  and  destroy  the 
young  whenever  they  can,  by  reiterated   blows  ujx)n 
the  skull.  But  all  parties  travel  in  the  same  direction, 
and  on  foot,  unless  the  dog  or  the  hunter  or  a  river 
on  their  line  of  march  compels  them   to   take  wing. 
When  about  to  cross  a  river,  they  select  the   highest 
eminences,  that  their  flight  may  be  more  sure,  and  in 
such  positions  they  sometimes  stay  for  a  day  or  more, 
as  if  in  consultation.   The  males  upon  such  occasions 
gobble    obstreperously,   strutting  with  extraordinary 
importance,  as  if  to  animate  their  companions;    and 
the  females  and  the  young  assume  much  of  the  same 
pompous  manner,  and  spread  their  tails  as  they  move 
silently  around.     Having  mounted,  at  length,  to  the 
tops  of  the  highest  trees,  the  assembled  multitude,  at 
the  signal  note  of  their  leader,  wing  their  way  to  the 
opposite  shore.     The  old  and   fat  birds,   contrary  to 
what  might  be  expected,  cross  without  difficulty,  even 
when  the  river  is  a  mile  in  width;  but  the  wings  of  the 
young  and  meager,  and,  of  course,  those  of  the  weak, 
frequently  fail  them  before  they  have  completed  their 
passage,  when  they  drop  in  and  are  forced   to   swim 
for  their  lives,  which  they  do  cleverly  enough,  spread- 
ing their  tails  for  support,  closing  their  wings,  stretch- 
ing out  their   neck,   and   striking  out   quickly   and 
strongly  with  their  feet.      All,  however,  do   not  suc- 
ceed in  such  attempts,  and  the  weaker  often  perish. 

The  beginning  of  March  is  the  pairing  season,  for 
a  short  time  previous  to  which  the  females  separate 
from  their  mates,  and  shun  them,  though  the  latter 
pertinaciously  follow  them,  gobbling  loudly.  The 
sexes  roost  apart,  but  at  no  great  distance,  so  that 
when  the  female  utters  a  call,  every  male  within 
hearing  responds,  rolling  note  after  note  in  the  most 
rapid  succession, — not  as  when  spreading  the  tail  and 
strutting  near  the  hen,  but  in  a  voice  resembling  that 
of  the  tame  turkey  when  he  hears  any  unusual  or 
frequently  repeated  noise. 

Where  the  turkeys  are  numerous,  the  woods  from 
one  end  to  the  other,  sometimes  forjiundredsof  miles, 
resound  with  this  remarkable  voice  of  their  wooing, 
uttered  responsively  from  their  roosting  places.  This 
is  continued  for  about  an  hour;  and,  on  the  rising  of 
the  sun,  they  silently  descend  from  their  perches,  and 


1262 


TURKEY. 


the  males  begin  to  strut  for  the   purpose  of  winning 
the  admiration  of  their  mates. 

If  the  call  of  a  female  be  given  from  the  ground, 
the  males  in  the  vicinity  fly  toward  the  individual, 
and  whether  they  perceive  her  or  not,  erect  and 
spread  their  tails,  throw  the  head  backward,  and 
distend  the  comb  and  wattles,  shout  pompously,  and 
rustle  their  wings  and  body-feathers,  at  the  same 
moment  ejecting  a  puff  of  air  from  the  lungs.  While 
thus  occupied  they  occasionally  halt  to  look  out  for 
the  female,  and  then  resume  their  strutting  and  puff- 
ing, moving  with  as  much  rapidity  as  the  nature  of 
their  gait  will  admit.  During  this  ceremonious  ap- 
proach, the  males  often  encounter  each  other,  and  a 
desperate  battle  ensues,  when  the  conflict  is  only 
terminated  by  the  flight  or  death  of  the  vanquished. 
The  usual  fruits  of  such  victories  are  reaped  by  the 
conqueror,  who  is  followed  by  one  or  more  females, 
that  roost  near  him,  if  not  upon  the  same  tree,  until 
they  begin  to  lay,  when  their  habits  are  altered,  with 
a  view  of  saving  their  eggs,  which  the  male  breaks,  if 
he  can  get  at  them.  These  are  usually  from  9  to 
15  in  number,  sometimes  20,  whitish  and  spotted 
with  brown,  like  those  of  the  domestic  bird.  The 
nest  consists  of  a  few  dried  leaves  placed  on  the 
ground,  sometimes  on  a  dry  ridge,  sometimes  on  the 
fallen  top  of  a  dead  leafy  tree,  under  a  thicket  of 
sumach  or  briers,  or  by  the  side  of  a  log.  Whenever 
the  female  leaves  the  nest,  she  covers  it  with  leaves, 
so  as  to  screen  it  from  observation.  She  is  a  very 
close  sitter,  and  when  she  has  chosen  a  spot  will 
seldom  leave  it,  to  prevent  its  being  discovered  by 
a  human  intruder.  Should  she  find  one  of  her  eggs, 
however,  sucked  by  a  snake  or  other  enemy,  she 
abandons  the  nest  forever.  When  the  eggs  are 
near  hatching,  she  will  not  forsake  her  nest  while  life 
remains. 

The  females  are  particularly  attentive  to  their 
young,  which  are  very  sensitive  to  the  effect  of  damp; 
and  consequently  wild  turkeys  are  always  scarce  after 
a  rainy  season.  The  flesh  of  the  wild  turkey  is  much 
superior  to  that  of  the  domestic  bird;  yet  the  flesh 
of  such  of  the  latter  as  have  been  suffered  to  roam  at 
large  in  the  woods  and  in  the  plains  is  in  no  respect 
improved  by  this  partially  wild  mode  of  life. 

To  capture  wild  turkey,  see  page  631. 

Breeds.  The  principal  breed  of  turkeys  are  the 
White,  the  Norfolk,  black  all  over,  the  Cambridge,  of 
all  colors,  the  Bronzed  (opposite  page  ),  the  Buff  and 
the  Narragansett,  a  metallic  black.  The  comparative 
quality  of  these  breeds  are  given  in  tabular  form  on 
page  528. 

The  varieties  of  the  domesticated  turkey  are  not 
very  distinct ;  and  as  to  their  relative  value  it  is, 
perhaps,  difficult  to  give  any  decisive  opinion.  Some 
suppose  the  White  turkey  is  the  most  robust,  and 
most  easily  fattened.  Experience  has,  however, 
shown  to  the  contrary.  The  pUre  white  are  very 
elegant  creatures ;  and  though  very  tender  to  rear, 
are  not  so  much  so  as  the  white  pea-fowl.  Most 
birds,  wild  as  well  as  tame,  occasionally  produce  per- 


fectly white  individuals,  of  more  delicate  constitution 
than  their  parents.  ^  The  selection  and  pairing  of  such 
have  probably  been  the  meansof  establishing  and  keep- 
ing up  this  breed.  With  all  care  they  will  now  and 
then  produce  speckled  birds  and  so  show  a  tendency 
to  return  to  the  normal  plumage.  It  is  remarkable 
that,  in  specimens  which  are  in  other  respects  snow- 
white,  the  tuft  of  the  breast  remains  coal-black,  ap- 
pearing, in  the  hens,  like  a  tail  of  ermine,  and  so 
showing  as  a  great  ornament.  The  head  and  carun- 
cles on  the  neck  of  the  male  are,  when  excited,  of  the 
same  blue  and  scarlet  hues.  The  bird  is  truly  beau- 
tiful, with  its  snowy  and  trembling  flakes  of  plumage 
thus  relieved  with  small  portions  of  black,  blue  and 
scarlet.  They  have  one  merit — they  dress  most 
temptingly  white  for  market ;  but  they  are  unsuited 
for  miry,  smoky  or  clayey  situations,  and  show  and 
thrive  best  where  they  have  a  range  of  clean,  short 
pasture,  on  a  light  or  chalky  sub-soil. 

The  bronze  and  copper-colored  varieties  are  gen- 
erally under-sized,  and  are  among  the  most  difficult 
of  all  to  rear;  but  their  flesh  is,  certainly,  very  deli- 
cate, and  perhaps  more  so  than  that  of  other  kinds, 
— a  circumstance,  however,  that  may  partly  result  from 
their  far  greater  delicacy  of  constitution,  and  the  con- 
sequent extra  trouble  devoted  to  their  management. 

The  brown  and  ash-gray  are  not  particularly  re- 
markable ;  but  the  black  are  decidedly  superior,  in 
every  respect,  not  only  as  regards  greater  hardiness, 
and  a  consequent  greater  facility  of  rearing,  but  as  ac- 
quiring flesh  more  readily,  and  that,  too,  of  the  very 
best  and  primest  quality.  Those  of  this  color  appear 
also  to  be  far  less  removed  than  the  others  from  the 
original  wild  stock.  Fortunately,  the  black  seems  tc 
be  the  favorite  color  of  nature  ;  and  black  turkeys  are 
produced  far  more  abundahtly  than  those  of  any  other 
hue. 

The  "American  Standard  of  Excellence"  requires 
Bronze  turkeys  to  weigh  25  pounds  and  16  pounds, 
for  the  cock  and  hen,  respectively ;  Narragansett 
turkeys  must  weigh  25  pounds  and  r5  jwunds;  White 
turkeys,  20  pounds  and  1 2  pounds ;  Buff  turkeys,  20 
and  12  pounds;  Black  and  Slate  turkeys,  20  pounds 
and  12  pounds. 

Rearing  Turkeys.  Turkeys  are  too  large  birds  for 
confinement ;  it  is  never  necessary  or  beneficial  to 
place  them  under  glass;  they  are  strong,  hardy  and 
robust,  and  require  only  an  open  shed  to  roost  under, 
and  a  warm,  sunny  run  about  the  barn  or  other  farm 
buildings  ;  they  will  not  endure  confinement,  not  even 
when  young,  if  long  continued. 

The  choice  of  a  cock  is  very  important,  inasmuch 
as  the  sire  gives  the  stamina  of  constitution,  establish- 
ing size  and  weight,  and  stamping  the  plumage  wit+i 
accuracy.  It  is  important,  also,  to  be  particular  as  to 
the  choice  of  hens;  in  fact  both  male  and  female 
should  ix)ssess  individual  qualities  of  the  highest  order 
as  is  jxjssible  to  obtain  them.  The  sire  should  belarge, 
in  full  vigor,  free  from  any  defect,  with  a  haughty,  erect 
carriage,  standing  nearly  upright  when  wings  are 
folded,  the  body  balanced  on  stout  legs  and   carried 


mww^ 


TURKEY. 


265 


well  forward,  with  around,  full,  plump  bearded  breast. 
The  hen  should  also  jx)ssess  constitutional  vigor,  a 
neat  trim  form,  a  well  balanced  body,  round  full  crop 
and  plump  breast.  She  should  also  have  stout  legs, 
be  proud  in  movements,  wings  folded  smoothly  against 
the  sides,  and  carriage  upright,  quick  and  active.  The 
turkey  cock  is  good  for  breeding  at  two  years  old,  and 
the  hen  at  one  year,  but  better  at  two.  The  cock 
will  last  for  two  years  or  more,  when  to  prevent  too 
close  breeding  he  should  be  changed.  The  mating  of 
such  birds,  when  other  conditions  are  favorable,  is 
usually  attended  with  good  results.  It  would  be  well 
to  encourage  their  familiarity  so  as  to  induce  the  hens 
to  resort  to  and  lay  in  the  sheds  or  prepared  nests  about 
the  premises,  particularly  in  spring,  else  the  danger  is 
when  they  steal  their  nests  far  from  home,  their  eggs 
become  the  prey  of  skunks  and  other  enemies.  Only 
one  visit  by  the  cock  is  necessary  to  fertilize  all  the 
eggs  of  the  season ;  but  the  first  12  or  15  will  have 
the  best  constitution. 

While  turkey  hens  continue  to  lay,  the  first  lot,  say 
about  seven,  may  be  set  under  common  hens  and  the 
turkey  hen  can  cover  and  hatch  the  rest  herself. 
When  they  are  hatched  it  is  not  necessary  they  should 
be  fed  that  day.  Allow  the  yolk  food  taken  into  the 
stomach  time  to  perform  its  natural  office.  Its  chem- 
ical action  purifies  and  enriches  the  blood,  and 
cleanses  the  digestive  channels.  All  eggs  set  should 
be  marked,  as  the  hen  often  lays  several  after  com- 
mencing incubation.  Turkey  cocks  that  are  inclined 
to  destroy  the  eggs  and  chicks  must  be  kept  away. 
During  incubation,  the  hen  should  be  removed  daily 
from  her  nest,  to  be  fed,  or  to  feed,  or  she  will  starve. 
See  that  she  returns  within  20  minutes.  No  one 
should  visit  the  hatching-house  or  the  nest  of  the 
sitting-hen  except  the  regular  attendant,  else  she  will 
be  frightened  and  Ije  made  to  break  some  of  the 
eggs.  Chicks  break  from  the  eggs  from  the  26th  to 
the  2gth  day  of  incubation.  If  the  eggs  are  in  a  very 
dry  place,  they  should  be  sprinkled  with  water  once 
or  twice  a  day.  The  second  day  before  the  hatching 
is  expected,  feed  the  hen  pli^ntifully,  clean  the  nest, 
etc.,  leave  a  supply  of  food  and  water  where  she  can 
reach  it,  and  then  do  not  disturb  her  until  the  chicks 
are  out.  Clear  away  the  shells,  but  never  take  the 
chicks  away,  nor  force  them  to  eat.  To  teach  the 
chicks  to  peck,  have  two  chicks  of  the  common  fowl 
hatched  at  the  same  time  with  the  brood,  which  may 
be  placed  with  the  young  turkeys,  and  they  will  teach 
them.  Give  them  water  and  milk  by  touching  their 
beaks  with  it. 

Turkeys  hatched  and  reared  by  the  common  hen 
are  more  quiet  and  home-like  in  their  habits,  but  are 
never  so  large  and  valuable  as  the  birds  that  hunt 
their  living  and  gather  the  sweet,  succulent  grasses 
and  insects  that  dwell  in  the  meadow  lands.  This 
staying  at  home  gives  them  a  stunt  from  which  they 
seldom  recover.  Daily  exercise  strengthens  and 
spreads  the  limbs,  and  gives  a  broader  expanse  to 
the  body  which  is  not  gained  by  mere  food  alone. 
For  all  their  roving  propensities,  the  turkey  is  a  bird 
80 


that  seeks  considerable  ease  and  rest.  The  first 
move  is  to  get  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  home ;  then 
at  midday, or  rather  as  soon  as  the  sun  comes  out  hot 
and  scorching  on  a  summer  day,  they  draw  up  under 
the  deep  shade  and  rest  until  toward  nightfall,  while 
the  home  broods  with  the  domestic  hen  have  been  on 
the  move  from  the  first  rise  of  day,  and  continue  ever 
on  the  alert  until  sunset. 

Turkeys  require  warm,  dry  weather,  and  young 
turkeys  should  always  be  kept  out  of  cold  rains. 
Their  house  should  have  a  clean  board  floor.  Broods 
to  be  wholly  successful  should  never  be  out  of  the 
shell  before  the  first  of  June,  when  they  will  be  ready 
to  meet  the  great  harvest  of  insects  that  are  afloat  at 
this  season.  It  will  not  answer  to  put  a  boy  at  the 
business  of  attending  the  flocks  unless  he  be  an  apt 
one  and  has  a  fondness  for  the  occupation  or  a  strong 
interest  therein.  As  a  general  thing  people  raise  tur- 
keys at  a  loss  because  they  are  determined  to  raise 
them  in  their  own  way.  Their  wills  are  the  strongest, 
and  the  birds  suffer  in  flesh  while  the  owners  depre- 
ciate in  pocket.  The  turkey's  way  is  the  best,  only 
we  must  teach,  govern  and  control  the  natural  habit 
in  a  ([uiet  manner,  and  still  not  cross  the  desires  of 
the  mother  to  so  great  an  extent  as  to  cause  a  re- 
straint which  she  will  not  endure. 

The  first  food  should  be  of  the  same  nature  as  the 
yolk,  as  a  sudden  change  might  prove  fatal.  Next 
should  be  sour  milk  boiled  to  a  curd  and  fed  a  little 
at  a  time  and  often.  As  they  grow  older  the  curd 
may  be  mixed  with  oatmeal  or  middlings  for  a  variety. 
Beets,  onions,  dandelion  tops,  etc.,  cut  fine  and 
fed  a  little  at  a  time  will  keep  them  in  thrift.  Give  a 
little  lime  occasionally,  to  prevent  diarrhoea.  After 
they  are  four  or  five  weeks  old,  buckwheat,  crushed 
corn,  or  other  grains  may  be  given.  They  should 
from  the  time  of  hatching  be  kept  in  a  warm,  dry  and 
clean  place  and  not  be  allowed  to  occupy  the  bare 
ground.  For  this  purpose  chaff,  cut  straw  or  dry 
sawdust  will  do.  Let  them  out  in  the  morning  after 
the  dew  is  off  the  grass,  and  put  them  in  nights  where 
it  is  dry  and  warm. 

See  that  your  turkeys  come  home  every  night.  At 
first,  if  you  raise  them  with  a  turkey  mother,  you  will 
have  to  hunt  them  up  and  drive  them  home,  but  if 
you  feed  regularly  every  morning  and  always  at  night 
they  will  soon  learn  to  come  home  regularly  as  cows. 
After  they  have  fully  feathered,  and  have  thrown  out 
the  red  on  their  heads,  which  usually  occurs  at  about 
three  months,  young  turkeys  are  hardy,  and  may  be 
allowed  unlimited  range  at  all  times;  and  from  this 
time  on  as  long  as  the  supply  of  insects  lasts,  they 
will  thrive  on  two  meals  a  day.  Keep  your  turkeys 
growing  right  straight  from  the  shell,  and  you  will 
find  that  it  will  pay  when  pay-day  comes.  Some 
farmers,  as  soon  as  their  young  turkeys  are  feathered 
up,  turn  them  out  to  get  their  own  living  the  best 
way  they  can  until  a  few  weeks  before  Thanksgiving, 
and  then  stuff  them  for  a  few  weeks,  and  wonder  why 
they  Ho  not  equal  in  weight  those  of  their  neighbor 
.vho  lias  kept  his  turkeys  growing  all  the  time  from 


1266 


TURMERIC—  TURNIP. 


the  day  they  were  hatched.  If,  however,  the  market 
is  to  be  later,  say  about  Christmas,  they  must  not  be 
allowed  any  more  liberty  after  they  are  to  be  fed  for 
market,  but  rather  kept  confined  as  much  as  jMssible 
in  darkness,  letting  in  light  whenever  they  are  fed. 

A  farmer  frequently  wants  to  know  the  fair  price 
for  turkeys  alive,  when  the  price  is  fixed  by  the 
butcher,  or  by  the  middleman,  who  buys  for  the  large 
city  market.  New  York  and  Chicago  take  turkeys 
simply  bled  and  picked.  The  New  England  markets, 
with  better  taste,  want  the  crop  and  entrails  out. 
The  average  loss  in  dressing  will  be  about  one- 
fifteenth  for  the  former  markets,  and  about  one-tenth 
for  the  Eastern  markets,  a  little  more  for  small,  im- 
mature birds,  and  a  little  less  for  large,  well-fattened 
turkeys.  An  old  gobbler  weighing  315^  pounds  alive, 
after  loss  of  blood  and  feathers  weighs  293^  pounds, 
losing  one-fifteenth;  when  ready  for  roastmg,  28 J^ 
pounds,  a  loss  of  .about  one-tenth.  This  bird,  at  20 
cents  a  pound,  would  come  to  $5.70.  Sold  by  live 
weight  at  18  cents  it  would  come  to  $5.63.  This 
would  leave  only  seven  cents  for  butchering  and 
dressing,  which  is  below  the  cost.  The  difference, 
then,  between  live  and  dead  weight  in  turkeys  raised 
for  the  Eastern  market  is  not  over  two  cents  a  pound. 
Lively  middlemen  ask  a  deduction  of  three  or  four 
cents.  The  farmer  may  as  well  know  that  the  differ- 
ence in  value  is  only  two  cents,  and  claim  it. 

To  Boil  a  Turkey.  Stuff  a  young  turkey,  weigh- 
ing 6  or  7  pounds,  with  bread,  butter,  salt,  pepper, and 
minced  parsley ;  skewer  up  the  legs  and  wings  as  if 
to  roast ;  flour  a  cloth,  and  pin  around  it.  Boil  it  forty 
minutes,  then  set  off  the  kettle  and  let  it  stand,  close 
covered,  half  an  hour  more.  The  steam  will  cook  it 
sufficiently.  To  be  eaten  with  drawn  butter  and  stewed 
oysters. 

To  Roast  a  Turkey.  Pluck  the  bird  carefully 
and  singe  off  the  down  with  lighted  paper,  break  the 
leg  bone  close  to  the  foot  and  hang  up  the  bird  and 
draw  out  the  strings  from  the  thigh.  Never  cut  the 
breast;  make  a  slit  down  the  back  of  the  neck  and 
take  out  the  crop  that  way,  then  cut  the  neck  bone 
close,  and  after  the  bird  is  stuffed  the  skin  can  be 
turned  over  the  back  and  the  crop  will  look  full  and 
TOimd.  Cut  around  the  vent,  making  the  opening  as 
small  as  possible,  and  draw  carefully,  taking  care  that 
the  gall  bag  and  the  intestine  joining  the  gizzard 
are  not  broken.  Open  the  gizzard  and  remove  the 
contents  and  detach  the  liver  from  the  gall  blad- 
der. The  liver,  the  gizzard  and  the  heart,  if  used 
in  the  gravy,  will  need  to  be  boiled  an  hour  and 
a  half,  and  chopped  as  fine  as  possible.  Wasli 
the  turkey  and  wipe  thorougly  dry,  inside  and  out ; 
then  fill  the  inside  with  stuffing,  and  either  sew  the 
skin  of  the  neckoverthe  backorfasten  it  with  a  small 
skewer.  Sew  up  the  fowl,  fasten  it  upon  a  spit,  and 
roast  it  before  a  moderate  fire  three  hours.  If  more 
convenient,  it  is  equally  good  when  baked.  Serve  up 
with  cranberry  or  api)le  or  turnip  sauce;  squash, 
and  a  smallIndiaapudding,ordumplings,  boiled  hard. 


will  make  a  tolerably  good  substitute  for  bread. 
Dressing  for  Turkey.  Mix  thoroughly  a  quart 
of  stale  bread,  very  finely  grated;  the  grated  rind  of 
a  lemon;  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  minced  parsley  and 
thyme, one  part  thyme,  two  parts  parsley;  and  pepper 
and  salt  to  season.  Add  to  these  one  unbeaten  egg 
and  half  a  cup  of  butter ;  mix  all  well  together  and 
and  moisten  with  hot  water  or  milk.  Other  herbs 
than  parsley  or  thyme  may  be  used  if  preferred,  and 
a  little  onion,  finely  minced,  added  if  desired. 

To  Select  Turkeys.     See  page  966. 

Turtaeric  (tur'mer-ic),  an  East  Indian  plant,  the 
root  of  which  is  used  to  dye  a  lively  yellow  color,  and 
for  medicine.  It  has  a  slight  aromatic  smell  and  a 
bitterish,  slightly  acrid  taste.  The  name  "  turmeric  " 
has  also  been  applied  to  blood-root  and  yellow  puc- 
coon. 

Turnip.  This  vegetable  belongs  to  the  mustard 
family  of  plants,  and  is  therefore  characterized  by  a 
large  proportion  of  sulphurous  and  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments of  nutrition.  The  turnip  is  always  both  healthy 
and  healthful,  affording  water  which,  in  its  physio- 
logical relations,  is  purer  than  any  that  comes  from 
earth  or  sky.  Over  nine-tenths  of  the  turnip  is  puri- 
fied, "organic"  water,  and  all  the  nutriment  which  it  con- 

tains  (less  thanone-tenth)is 

\Sl/f  appropriated  and  assimila- 

iVK/  ted  by  the  animal  organism, 

^^^^^H^^^^^^^      there   being  nothing  dele- 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^    lerious  in  it  to  stand  in  the 

way.  It  is  therefore  good 
food  for  both  man  and 
beast,  although  it  is  counted 
among  the  "heavy"  arti- 
cles of  diet  for  man,  re- 
quiring strong  digestive 
powers,  and  as  food  for 
Fig.  \.— Early  Fiat  Rfd  milch  COWS  it  gives  a  dis- 
'^"^"'f-  agreeable  flavor  to  the  milk. 

Cultivation.  For  an  early  crop  sow  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring  in  shallow 
drills  14  inches  apart;  the  ruta-baga  30  inches 
apart;  if  dry,  give  water;  as  the  seed  is  very  fine  it 
should  be  covered  but  slightly  except  in  very  dry 
weather.  Select  a  rich  old  pasture,  or  other  light  and 
if  possible  new  soil,  and  manure  with  plaster  and 
ashes,  or  phosphates;  a  sprinkling  of  these  substances 
as  the  plants  are  just  appearing  above  ground  will 
also  aid  in  keeping  off  insects;  if,  however,  insects 
should  eat  off  the  young  crop,  sow  again  immediately, 
or  give  the  matter  entirely  up  for  the  season.  The 
insects  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  are  plant  lice. 
Douche  them  with  a  strong  suds  of  whale-oil  soap,  by 
the  use  of  a  syringe  or  swab. 

The  crop  may  be  sown  at  any  time  after  the  weather 
becomes  settled  in  the  spring,  but  for  stock  feeding 
the  last  half  of  July  will  be  best  suited,  both  for  the 
convenience  of  gathering  and  because  the  turnip  fa- 
vors cool,  moist  weather,  which  the  late  fall  months 


TURPENTINE—  T  YPHUS. 


1267 


Fig. 


-Early  White  Egg 
Turnip. 


furnish.  The  ways  that  turnips  can  be  sown  and  yet 
not  require  a  special  prepara- 
tion of  the  land  are  many. 
We  know  a  farmer  who,  after 
the  last  hoeing  of  his  ixitatoes, 
scatters  the  seed  thinly  along 
the  rows,  and  when  the  pota- 
toes are  dug  the  dirt  is  pulled 
back  into  the  last  hill,  and 
the  turnips  are  not  disturbed. 
The  fine  soil  that  works  down 
about  them  rather  helps  than 
injures  them,  and  a  big  crop  of 
turnips  usually  results.  Sow- 
ing among  the  corn  is  another 
not  objectionable  method,  for 
the  turnips  will  not  draw  very 
much  upon  the  soil  until  after 
the  corn  is  cut  up,  and  the  after  crop  will  prove  a  far 
more  profitable  one  than  planting  pumpkins  among 
the  corn  and  far  less  injurious  to  the  development  of 
the  ears.  Among  root  crops,  ruta-bagas  hold  a  favor- 
able position,  but  cannot  be  sown  broadcast  with  any 
certainty ;  and  if  labor  is 
to  be  taken  into  account, 
the  turnip  is  the  crop  re- 
quiring the  least  labor.  If 
the  turnip  is  to  be  fed  to 
stock,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
cut  off  the  tops,  especially 
if  you  have  a  root  cellar 
where  a  low,  even  temper- 
ature can  be  kept,  and  the 
green  relish  of  the  leaves 
together  with  the  bulb  will 
Fig.  ^.-Eariy  Strap-leaved,  cause  them  to  be  eagerly 
devoured.  With  turnips,  fed  tops  and  all  to  sheep, 
and  a  small  additional  quantity  of  fodder,  either  oats 
or  corn,  the  amount  of  hay  required  for  a  flock  of 
sheep  will  be  very  small.  If  farmers  would  make 
up  their  minds  to  give  this  root  a  trial,  their  superior 
feeding  qualities  would  meet  with  prompt  recognition. 
Of  the  early  varieties,  thin  the  plants  to  six  inches 
apart  and  the  ruta-bagas  to  one  foot.  For  fall  and 
winter  use,  the  early  kinds  should  be  sowed  the  lat- 
ter part  of  July,  just  before  a  rain  if  possible,  and  the 
ruta-bagas  the  latter  part  of  June,  using  from  one  to 
one  and  a  half  pounds  to  the  acre.  Late  turnips  can 
be  permitted  to  grow  until  the  ground  freezes  in  late 
autumn.  As  Swedish  or  Russian  turnips  and  ruta- 
bagas are  synonymous  terms,  we  include  their  varie- 
ties in  the  following  list : 

Varieties.     Early  Strap-Leaf     The    best    white 
turnip  for  table  use. 

Early   Red-Top.        Sweet,   mild,    fine    and   rapid 
grower ;  very  early  and  popular. 

Early  Wite-Top.     Differs  from  last  only  in  color. 
Pomeranian  White  Globe.     Fine,  round,  thick. 
Golden  Stone.     Yellow  flesh,  fine,  handsome. 
Carter's   Stone   or   Stubble.     Almost   as   early   as 
White- Top,  but  much  thicker ;  handsome. 


White  Egg.  A  new  variety,  large,  handsome  and  a 
good  keeper. 

Improved  Yellow  Globe.  Fine  for  family  use  or 
field  culture. 

Yellow  Aberdeen,  One  of  the  best  for  winter  and 
spring  use. 

Long  White  Cow-horn.  Carrot-shaped,  fine-grain- 
ed and  sweet;  matures  quickly. 

Long  Red  Tankard.  Productive;  excellent  for 
cattle. 

Jersey  Navet.  Long,  growing  entirely  under  ground, 
is  very  early,  sweet  and  excellent  for  table  use. 

Ruta-Bagas.  Hardley's  Swede.  One  of  the  larg- 
est ;  short-necked  ;  very  fine. 

American  Ruta-Baga.     Popular  every  way. 

Large  White  French.     A  white  ruta-baga. 

Sweet  German.     White,  good ;  a  first-rate  keeper. 

Skirving's  Purple-top  Ruta-Baga.  The  standard 
field  variety. 

Sutton's  Champion.    A  favorite  with  stock  breeders. 

To  Cook  Turnips.  Peel  off  the  outside ;  if  you 
slice  them  they  will  boil  sooner ;  when  tender  take 
them  up  and  mash  them  with  butter,  or  boil  and 
serve  them  whole. 

Turpentine,  an  oily-resinous  substance  exuding 
naturally,  or  on  incision,  from    pine,  larch,    fir,  etc. 

Common  Turpentine.  The  produce  of  the  Finns 
palustris,  pine  trees  of  North  Carolina  and  other 
States,  also  from  Norway  and  the  north  of  Europe. 

Oil  of  Turpentine.  This  is  commonly  called 
the  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  is  used  very  largely  in 
horse  and  cattle  disuses,  both  for  internal  adminis- 
tration and  external  application. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  a  powerful  stimulant,  diuretic 
and  antispasmodic,  and  is  therefore  used  in  colic  in 
the  horse,  in  puerperal  apoplexy  in  cows  and  in  gen- 
eral debility  in  all  animals.  As  an  external  embroca- 
tion, it  is  very  efficient  when  combined  with  an  equal 
portion  of  sweet  oil,  but  very  dangerous  when  applied 
alone  to  the  skin  of  the  horse.  The  horse  will  become 
restless  and  in  some  cases  utterly  unmanageable. 

Dose.  The  doses  of  oil  of  turpenUne  for  horses 
and  cows  are  from  one  to  two  ounces,  always  mixed 
with  its  own  bulk  of  oil,  especially  for  horses.  For 
dogs  affected  with  tape-worm,  half  to  one  drachm  is 
the  dose,  mixed  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg. 

Tweed,  a  light  twilled  cotton  or  woolen  fabric 
used  for  summer  clothing. 

Twill,  a  fabric  woven  with  diagonal  lines  or  ribs. 

Twitch,  in  the  treatment  of  horses,  is  a  srick  with 
a  loojied  cord  at  one  end,  made  for  the  purpose  of 
twisting  up  a  horse's  nose  or  ear,  to  keep  him  quiet 
during  the  administration  of  medicine  or  a  surgical 
operation. 

Typhoid  (ti'foid),  resembling  typhus.     See  Fever. 

Typhus  (ti'fus),  a  continuous  fever,  lasting  usually 
from  two  to  three  weeks,  and  attended  with  great 
prostration  and  affection  of  the  brain. 


u 


CDEB,  the  milk-bag  of  a  cow  or  other 
'mammal.  Its  care,  treatment,  etc.,  are  given 
;in  various  connections  in  the  articles  Cow, 
Butter  and  Milking. 

Ulcer,  a  sore  discharging  a  corrosive  pus. 
It  is  found  principally  on  the  natural  surfaces  of 
the  body,  while  an  abscess  is  a  similar  sore  in  an 
accidental  cavity.  There  is  nothing  better  for  ulcers 
than  to  soak  them  well  with  warm  water.  A  strong 
tea  made  of  the  narrow  dock  and  taken  internally, 
and  used  as  a  wash,  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  old 
ulcers.  Some  are  cured  by  the  application  of  astrin- 
gents. Either  one  of  the  following,  made  into 
ointment  with  hog's  lard  or  into  washes,  is  also  rec- 
ommended :  Adder's  tongue,  agrimony,  archangel, 
smartweed,  cuckoo  pint,  blue  bottle,  burdock,  bryony, 
soapwort,  celandine,  centaury,  chickweed,  cinquefoil, 
comfrey  root,  mugwort,  cudweed,  dog  grass,  water 
dock,  figwort,  flax-weed,  foxglove,  glasswort,  ground 
ivy,  ground  pine,  tormentil,  tansy,  bugle,  scurvy  grass 
and  nightshade. 

Treatment  of  Running  Sores  on  the  Legs. 
Wash  them  in  brandy,  and  apply  elder  leaves,  chang- 
ing twice  a  day.  This  will  dry  Tip  all  the  sores,  though 
the  legs  were  like  a  honey-comb.  Or,  poultice  them 
with  rotten  apples.  But  take  also  a  purge  once  or 
twice  every  week. 

Ulcers  in  the  Mouth.  If  the  ulcers  are  not  of  a 
syphilitic  origin,  a  local  wash  of  carbolic  acid  or  per- 
manganate of  jxstassa  will  speedily  cure  them, — say  i 
part  of  acid  or  permanganate  to  loo  of  water.  If 
they  are,  however,  syphilitic,  the  wash  of  carbolic 
acid,  perhaps  2  or  3  times  as  strong,  in  combination 
with  internal  treatment,  will  be  found  beneficial ;  the 
wash  may  be  used  3  tmes  a  day. 

Umbilicus  (um-bil'i-cus),  a  round  cicatrix  at  the 
center  of  the  abdominal  region  ;  the  navel.  Umbili- 
cal cord,  the  navel-string. 

Umbles  (um'blez),  the  entrails  of  a  deer ;  hence, 
sometimes,  entrails  in  general.  Called  also  humbles 
and  nombles  (pronounced  nuniblz). 

Underdraining.  This  is  a  term  applied  to  any 
covered  drains,  in  which  the  flow  of  water  may  be 
more  or  less  continuous.  These  may  be  made  of 
stone,  brush,  slabs,  boards  or  any  other  material,  but 
tile  is  by  far  the  best.     See  Draining. 

Undershot,  moved  by  water  passing  underneath : 
said  of  a  water-wheel,  and  is  the  opposite  of ''  over- 
shot." 


Underwriter,  one  who  takes  the  risks  of  marine 
insurance. 

Universal  Joint,  a  sort  of  double  hinge  connect- 
ing two  rods  at  an  angle,  admitting  morion  in  any 
direction. 

Uraemia,  a  corruption  of  the  blood  by  the  presence 
of  urea,  which  is  an  element  of  urine;  or,  as  we 
might  say  in  brief,  urine  in  the  blood. 

Urea,  as  extracted  from  urine,  is  a  pearly  white 
substance,  in  transparent  plates,  inodorous  and  of  a 
cool  taste ;  it  is  very  soluble  in  water  or  alcohol.  It 
has  been  >ised  as  a  diuretic.  Uraemia  results  from 
some  other  disease,  particularly  of  the  kidneys.  These 
fail  to  secrete  the  urine  properly,  and  the  latter  is  un- 
duly retained  in  the  blood.  Of  course,  then,  the 
treatment  consists  in  removing  the  primary  malady. 
Sweating  is  the  njost  important  process  in  reducing 
uraemia,  if  not  even  of  treating  the  disease  which 
causes  it.  Lemonade  is  a  good  drink  in  these  affec- 
tions, and  the  best  medicines  are  probably  cream  of 
tartar  and  Epsom  salts. 

Urethra  (u-re'thra),  the  canal  through  which  the 
urine  passes  out.  Inflammation  of  the  urethra  is  a 
very  common  disease,  and  is  caused  by  acrid  sub- 
stances in  the  food  or  drink,  by  much  riding,  by 
sexual  abuse,  etc.  The  most  im|)ortant  thing  to  do, 
therefore,  is  to  abstain  totally  from  all  possible 
causes, — from  everything  that  might  do  violence  to 
the  parts.  On  chemical  theories  many  persons,  even 
physicians,  will  advise  taking  something  to  sweeten 
the  urine,  as  a  diuretic  potassic  salt ;  some  advise 
other  things  which  affect  the  urine,  while,  indeed,  al- 
most everything  on  the  face  of  the  earth  will  affect  it. 
When  you  get  over  the  trouble  the  credit  of  the  cure 
will  be  claimed  for  the  last  drug  you  took.  Don't  ex- 
periment with  drugs. 

Urine.  The  diseases  of  the  urinary  system  are 
many,  and  those  which  can  be  treated  at  home  are  given 
in  these  volumes,  as  Diabetes,  inflammation  of  the 
Bladder,  Kidneys,  Urethra,  etc. 

Diurerics  are  drugs  which  promote  the  secretion  of 
urine.  The  best  are  these  :  Sweet  spirits  of  niter,  i 
fluid-dram,  in  water;  saltpeter,  10  to  30  grains,  in 
powder  or  solution  ;  acetate  of  potash,  i  to  2  drams, 
in  water;  bi-carbonate  of  potash,  10 grains  to  a  dram  ; 
cream  of  tartar,  i  to  3  drams;  parsley  root,  ig  grains, 
in  gelatin  capsules;  Indian  hemp,  i  to  2  fluid-ounces 
of  the  decoction,  twice  daily;  wild  carrot,  fleabane, 
buchu,  dandelion,  juniper  berries,  Spanish  flies,  copai- 
ba, etc. 

Usury,  excess  of  interest  over  the  amount  allowed 
by  law. 


V 


j;ACCINATION  (vax-in-a'shun),  the  inocu- 
lation of  a  person  or  animal  with  vaccine  vi- 
rus (the  jx)isonous  element  of  cow-pox)  as  a 
■  safeguard  against  small-pox,  or  its  fatality  in 

^case  of  attack.  We  cannot  go  into  a  discussion 
here  as  to  whether  vaccination  does  ward  off  the 
dreaded  disease  of  small-pox,  or  whether  the  evils 

'  or  danger  of  introducing  some  other  disease,  as 
scrofula,  is  not  greater  than  the  benefit  derived ;  for 
these  are  jx)ints  uixin  which  some  differ.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  however,  vaccination  is  practiced  by  most  peo- 
ple. Formerly  it  was  only  performed  on  individuals 
at  long  intervals,  even  if  at  all  after  the  first  time, 
which  is  usually  when  a  child  ;  but  at  present,  especi- 
ally in  cities,  many  persons  are  vaccinated  every  year 
or  two,  and  school  children  are  rigidly  inspected  two 
or  three  times  during  the  season.  It  is  claimed  that 
when  the  vaccination  "  will  take,"  the  subject  was  not 
exempt  from  small-pox,  and  therefore  many  persons  are 
repeatedly  vaccinated  as  a  test.  Often  persons  are 
vaccinated  five  or  six  times  before  the  desired  effect 
is  reached.  The  exact  reason  for  this  is  not  easily  ex- 
plained. 

The  operation  is  usually  performed  upon  the  fleshy 
part  of  the  left  arm,  between  the  shoulder  and  elbow. 
It  may  be  done  by  pricking  the  skin  with  a  lancet 
and  inserting  the  virus,  or  cutting  several  little  gashes 
just  through  the  s^in,  so  that  blood  will  be  easily 
squeezed  out,  but  not  run  from  the  wound.  The  vi- 
rus is  then  bound  to  this  or  put  on,  and  a  piece  of 
court  plaster  placed  Over  the  wound.  When  the  virus 
from  the  cow  is  used,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  best, 
the  little  jx)int  uix)n  which  it  is  put  should  be  moist- 
ened and  then  rubbed  over  the  wound  until  the  virus 
is  transferred  from  it  to  the  flesh.  After  this  the  court 
plaster  is  placed  over  the  wound,  and  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  be  not  rubbed  off.  The  third  day  after 
the  operation  the  wound  appears  red  and  a  little  swell- 
ed. Upon  the  fifth  day  a  little  round  or  oval  vesicle 
is  seen, filled  with  a  transparent  fluid.  Uixsn  the  eighth 
day  the  vesicle  will  have  considerably  enlarged.  Its  col- 
or is  yellow  or  pearly,  with  a  depression  in  the  center. 
The  skin  around  its  base  is  reddened.  This  also  ex- 
tends for  some  distance  over  the  arm,  and  a  little  pain 
is  felt.  The  shoulder  joint  is  stiff  and  sore  and  a 
lump  forms  under  the  arm,  which,  for  a  time,  will  be 
slightly  sore.  At  this  time  the  scab  begins  to  dry 
up  and  in  from  seven  to  ten  days  falls  off,  leaving  a 
round  scar  marked  with  indentations. 

The  vaccine  matter  to  be  employed  must  be  good. 


and  when  one  is  suspicious  of  its  purity,  it  should  not 
be  used.  By  far  the  best,  and  which  is  becoming  in 
general  use,  is  the  points  containing  the  virus  from  the 
cow.  These  must  be  fresh  to  be  effective.  In  using 
virus  from  the  arm  of  another,  it  should  be  only  from 
a  very  healthy  person,  and  quite  young.  This  may 
be  taken  from  the  pustules  between  the  sixth  and 
eighth  day  after  vaccination.  The  scab  may  be  pre- 
served for  a  long  time  within  a  piece  of  beeswax, 
being  thus  hermetically  sealed. 

Animal  Vaccination.  This  theme  is  receiving 
some  attention,  and  indeed  is  creating  a  deep  interest 
in  agriculture  as  well  as  medical  circles,  because  of 
the  prospect  it  affords  of  reducing  cattle  diseases  to  a 
minimum.  Upon  this  subject  Prof.  Pasteur,  of 
France,  delivered  a  lecture  before  the  medical  con- 
gress in  London  in  August,  1881.  Sir  James  Paget, 
in  thanking  him  in  the  name  of  the  medical  congress 
for  his  address,  said  that  he  had  done  for  the  lower 
animals  what  Jennerdid  forthe  human  race.  France, 
says  Prof  Pasteur,  loses  every  year  by  splenic  fever 
animals  to  the  value  of  20,000,000  francs.  In  the 
course  of  his  remarks  the  eminent  Frenchman  said  : 

"  I  was  asked  to  give  a  public  demonstration  of  the 
results  already  mentioned.  This  experiment  I  may 
relate  in  a  few  words.  Fifty  sheep  were  placed  at  my 
disposal,  of  which  25  were  vaccinated.  A  fortnight 
afterward  the  50  sheep  were  inoculated  with  the  most 
virulent  anthracoid  microbe.  The  25  vaccinated 
sheep  resisted  the  infection,  while  the  25  unvaccin- 
ated  died  of  splenic  fever  within  50  hours.  Since 
that  time  my  energies  were  turned  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  farmers  for  supplies  of  this  vaccine.  In 
the  space  of  25  days  we  have  vaccinated  in  the  de- 
partments surrounding  Paris  more  than  20,000 
sheep  and  a  large  number  of  catdeand  horses.  If  I 
were  not  pressed  for  time  I  should  bring  to  your 
notice  two  other  kinds  of  virus,  obtained  by  similar 
means.  These  experiments  will  be  communicated 
by  and  by  to  the  public.  I  cannot  conclude  without 
expressing  the  great  pleasure  I  feel  at  the  thought 
that  it  is  as  a  member  of  an  international  medical 
congress  assembled  in  England  that  I  make  known 
the  most  recent  results  of  vaccination  upon  a  disease 
more  terriljle,  perhaps,  for  domestic  animals  than 
small  ix)x  is  for  man.  I  have  given  to  vaccination 
an  extension  which  science,  I  hope,  will  accept  as  a 
homage  paid  to  the  merit  and  the  immense  services 
rendered  by  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  England.  I 
refer  to  Jenner." 


1270 


VALERIA  /V—  VARIETY. 


Valerian,  a  European  medicinal  plant,  the  rcx)ts 
of  which  are  used  as  a  nerve  stimulant  and  anti- 
spasmodic. Of  the  infusion  the  dose  is  ^  to  2 
ounces;  of  the  tincture,  i  dram ;  of  the  fluid  extract, 
}^  to  I  dram.  The  ammoniated  tincture  is  stimula- 
ting and  antacid,  and  especially  useful  in  hysterical 
cases.  The  valerianate  of  zinc,  i  grain  twice  a  day, 
is  most  valuable  in  nervous  headache.  American  va- 
lerian is  the  yeltow  lady's-slipper,  which  has  similar 
effects,  but  is  inferior  to  the  above. 

Valise  (va-lees') :  see  Sachel  and  page  1254. 

Valve,  a  lid  for  closing  an  aperture  or  passage,  so 
as  to  open  only  in  one  direction. 

Vanilla,  a  plant  of  tropical  America,  the  capsule 
of  which  affords  the  delicious  extract  so  well  known 
in  cookery  and  confectionery.  As  a  medicine,  vanilla 
is  supjwsed  to  possess  powers  analogous  to  valerian, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  is  far  more  grateful. 

Vapor,  the  extenuated,  gaseous  form  of  a  liquid 
or  solid  substance.  Among  the  people  the  word 
generally  denotes  vajxir  of  water,  while  among  scien- 
tists a  definitive  phrase  mustaccornpany  the  word  ;  as, 
"the  vaix)r  of  alcohol,"  "  the  vajwr  of  mercury,"  "the 
vapor  of  iron,"  "the  vapor  of  water,"  etc.  In  a  loose 
/  and  jwpular  sense  the  word  "  vapor  "  may  denote  any 
visible,  diffused  substance  floating  in  the  atmosphere, 
as  smoke,  fog,  or  the  like.  In  the  plural  form,  "  va- 
pors "  has  been  used  in  the  sense  of  a  nervous  dis- 
ease which  causes  strange  images  to  float  before  the 
mind,  as  hypochondria,  depression  of  spints,  or  the 
"  blues,'  dejection,  spleen,  hysteria,  etc. 

Variety,  in  natural  history,  any  form  or  condition 
of  structure  under  a  species  which  differs  in  its  charac- 
teristics from  those  typical  of  the  species,  as  in  color, 
shape,  size  and  the  like,  and  which  is  capable  of  per- 
petuating itself  for  a  period,  or  of  being  perpetuated 
by  artificial  means.  A  peculiarity,  generally  abnor- 
mal and  not  capable  of  perpetuation,  is  a  "sport"  and 
not  a  variety.  Varieties  differ  from  species  in  that  any 
two,  however  unlike,  will  mutually  propagate  indefi- 
nitely, imless  they  are  in  their  nature  unfertile,  as 
some  varieties  of  rose  and  other  cultivated  plants ; 
also,  in  being  a  result  of  climate,  food  or  other  ex- 
trinsic conditions  or  influences,  but  generally  by  a 
sudden  development  rather  than  a  gradual  one,  and 
in  tending  in  most  cases  to  lose  their  distinctive  pecu- 
liarities when  the  individuals  are  left  to  a  state  of 
nature,  and  especially  if  restored  to  the  conditions 
which  are  natural  to  the  typical  individuals  of  the 
species. 

The  old  way  of  producing  new  varieties  was  by  the 
selection  of  the  best  seedlings  from  year  to  year. 
For  example,  several  thousand  seeds  of  the  best  fruit 
of  the  best  trees  are  sown,  the  next  generation  several 
thousand  of  the  best  of  these,  and  the  next  the  best 
of  these  again,  and  so  on,  accompanied  by  good  cul- 
tivation. This  method  with  trees  is  still  practiced  to 
some  extent,  especially  in  Europe.  With  garden 
vegetables  and  all  those  plants  that  have  to  be  propa- 


gated by  seeds  only,  this  is  still  the  only  practicable 
method.  New  varieties  of  ixjtatoes  are  originated  in 
this  way,  and  are  brought  to  perfection  by  a  few  years' 
propagation  from  the  eyes  of  the  tubers.  Van  Mons, 
of  Holland,  the  originator  of  this  method,  found  that 
pears,  for  instance,  could  be  brought  to  perfection  by 
this  method  in  the  fifth  generation;  other  fruits  in 
less  time.  Out  of  several  thousand  seeds  planted, 
but  one  or  two,  on  an  average,  will  prove  of  superior 
quality.  In  some  situations,  imder  the  care  of  some 
experimenters,  there  are  occasionally  several  in  a 
thousand ;  with  others,  not  one  in  many  thou- 
sands. Van  Mons' theory  was,  we  must  subdue  ojr 
enfeeble  the  original  coarse  luxuriance  of  the  tree ; 
and  to  aid  this  process,  in  transplanting  young  seed- 
lings, we  should- cut  off"  the  tap-root  and  thereafter 
annually  shorten  the  leading  and  side  branches,  plac- 
ing the  plants  also  in  a  crowded  situation.  In  select- 
ing the  seeds,  we  should  avoid  those  of  old  or  grafted 
trees,  and  choose  those  of  a  tree  which  is  perfecting 
its  fruit  rather  than  one  which  has  finished  its  career 
of  perfection. 

Seedling  varieties,  as  well  as  seedlings  from  hybrids 
(see  next  paragraph),  have  a  strong  tendency  to  re- 
vert to  their  original  wild  state;  and  were  it  not  for 
our  constant  practice  of  selecting  the  best  seed  from 
year  to  year,  all  our  improved  trees  and  herbaceous 
plants  would  in  a  few  years  "  degenerate  "  into  their 
primeval  wild  condition.  We  use  the  term  "degenerate" 
in  an  accommodated  sense;  for  so  far  as  concerns  the 
plant  only,  its  wild  condition  is  its  perfect  condition, 
pnd  what  we  call  "improved"  is  improved  only  for 
the  abnormal  (relatively  to  the  plant)  purjxjse  of  pro- 
ducing fruit  for  us  to  eat. 

Cross-Breeding,  or  Hybridizing.  This  is  the 
more  rapid  method  of  originating  and  perfecting  new 
varieties,  and  is  practicable  with  all  those  species  of 
plants  which  we  propagate  otherwise  than  by  seed,  as 
grafting,  layering,  cuttings,  etc.  It  consists  of  the 
following  process :  When  the  tree  blooms  which  you 
intend  to  be  the  mother  of  the  improved  race,  select 
a  blossom  or  blossoms  growing  upon  it  not  yet  fully 
expanded  ;  with  a  pair  of  scissors  cut  out  and  remove 
all  the  anthers ;  the  next  day  or  as  soon  as  the  blossom 
is  quite  expanded,  collect  with  a  camel's-hair  brush 
pollen  from  a  full-blown  flower  of  the  variety  you  in- 
tend for  the  male  parent,  and  apply  it  to  the  stigma, 
or  point  of  the  pistil,  on  the  other  tree.  If  the  trees 
are  exposed  to  bees  or  other  honey  insects,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  cover  the  blossoms  with  a  loose  bag  of 
thin  gauze,  or  the  insects  may  get  ahead  of  you  in  the 
work  of  cross-fertilization.  Watch  the  blossoms 
closely  as  they  open,  and  bear  in  mind  that  the  two 
essential  points  are,  first,  to  extract  the  anthers  care- 
fully before  they  have  matured  sufficiently  to  fertilize 
the  pistil;  and,  secondly,  to  apply  the  pollen 
when  it  is  in  perfection  (dry  and  powdery)  and  while 
the  stigma  is  moist.  A  very  little  practice  will  enable 
the  amateur  to  judge  of  this  point.  For  example,  if 
you  have  an  early  but  insipid  and  worthless  pear,  and 
desire  to  raise  from  it  a  variety  both  early  and  of  fine 


VARIOLOID—  VASE. 


1271 


flavor,  you  should  fertilize  some  of  its  pistils  with  the 
best  flavored  variety,  of  a  little  later  maturity.  Among 
the  seedlings  produced  you  may  look  for  early  pears 
of  good  quality,  and  at  least  for  one  or  two  varieties 
nearly  or  quite  as  early  as  the  female  parent  and  as 
delicious  as  the  fruit  of  the  other  tree. 

It  ia  necessary  to  cross  several  flowers  at  once  on 
the  same  trees  or  plants,  and  then  select  the  best 
resultant. 

It  is  not  always  by  the  first  fruits  of  a  seedling  that 
it  should  be  judged.  Some  of  the  finest  varieties  re- 
quire a  considerable  age  before  their  best  qualities 
develop  themselves,  as  it  is  only  when  the  tree  has 
arrived  at  some  degree  of  maturity  that  its  secretions, 
either  for  flower  or  fruit,  are  perfectly  elaborated. 

Ornamental  plants  are  multiplied  in  their  varieties 
by  the  same  process  as  above  described. 

There  are  certain  limits  to  the  improvement  of 
plants  by  the  first  or  seedling  method,  and  to  the  crea- 
tion of  new  varieties  by  the  second  or  hybridizing 
method.  Some  plants  yield  readily  to  "  domestica- 
tion," some  yield  not  at  all.  What  is  strictly  called  a 
cross-bred  plant  or  fruit  is  a  sub-variety  raised  between 
two  varieties  of  the  same  species.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  species  which  are  so  nearly  allied  as  to  be 
capable  of  fertilizing  each  other.  The  offspring  in 
this  case  is  called  a  hybrid  or  a  "mule,"  and  does  not 
always  produce  perfect  seeds.  This  power  of  hybrid- 
izing appears  to  be  much  more  common  in  plants  than 
in  animals.  The  crossing  must  be  between  closely 
allied  species. 

The  common  practice  of  selecting  the  seeds  of  the 
cucumber  or  melon  nearest  the  root  for  propagation, 
encourages  earliness  only,  while  it  tends  to  diminish 
the  size.  The  best  plan,  with  reference  to  garden 
vegetables,  is  to  let  all  the  seeds  or  fruit'  on  a  good 
plant  go  on  to  maturity,  and  then  select  from  the 
best. 

New  varieties  are  sometimes  originated  by  simple 
transference  to  a  new  climate,  and  sometimes  by  dis- 
ease. The  latter  are  of  no  importance,  and  the  for- 
mer are  adapted  only  to  the  new  climate. 

Varioloid,  (va'ri-o-loid),  modified  small-pox.  The 
"  modification  "  is  said  to  be  caused  generally  by  pre- 
vious vaccination  or  inoculation.  The  symptoms  are 
the  same  as  those  of  small-pox,  but  not  so  violent, 
the  issue  not  so  fatal,  and  the  treatment  should  be 
about  the  same,  except  that  special  measures  to  prevent 
pitting  are  not  required. 

Varnish,  any  vegetablegumoroil  which  will  harden 
on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  and  become  impervious 
to  water,  as  copal,  linseed  oil,  etc.  Varnishes  maybe 
conveniently  divided  into  two  kinds, — spirit  and  oil 
varnishes.  Concentrated  alcohol  is  used  as  the  sol- 
vent of  the  former,  and  fixed  or  volatile  oils,  or  mix- 
tures of  the  two,  for  thclatter.  It  is  often  dissolved 
in  the  alcohol  to  increase  its  solvent  power.  The 
essential  oil  chiefly  employed  as  a  solvent  is  turpen- 
tine, which  should  be  pure  and  colorless.  Pale  dry- 
ing linseed  oil  is  the  fixed  oil  generally  used  for  var- 


nishes, but  poppy  and  nut  oil  are  also  occasionally 
employed.  Among  the  substances  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes  are  turpentine,  copal,  mas- 
tich,  lac  (or  "  shellac  "  ),  elemi,  dammar,  sandarach, 
anime  and  amber,  to  impart  body  and  luster ;  benzoin, 
to  impart  scent;  gamboge,  turmeric,  saffron,  an notto 
and  Socotrine  aloes,  to  give  a  yellow  color;  dragon's 
blood,  to  give  a  red  tinge  ;  asphaltun)  to  give  a  black 
color  and  body;  India  rubber,  to  impart  body,  tough- 
ness and  elasticity. 

It  is  not  expected  that  farmers  should  make  their 
own  varnishes.  It  is  much  cheaper  for  them  to  pur- 
chase of  the  druggist,  or  other  dealer  in  paints,  oils 
and  varnishes,  or  of  a  cabinet  or  carriage  maker,  or  of 
a  painter.  Tell  him  the  exact  purpose  for  which  you 
want  it,  and  insist  on  having  the  materials  fresh  from 
their  air-tight  reservoirs,  so  that  the  varnish  will  dry 
readily  and  thoroughly  and  be  durable.  In  laying  on 
the  varnish,  do  not  work  it  with  the  brush  as  you 
would  paint,  but  lay  it  on  with  as  few  strokes  as  jws- 
sible,  even  with  one  stroke,  if  you  can  thus  make  it 
even.  Considerable  care  will  be  required  in  the  mix- 
ing and  laying  on,  to  secure  evenness  and  smoothness. 
It  should  not  be  left  in  heaps,  as  it  were,  in  places,  so 
that  it  will  run,  nor  should  the  brush  be  passed  over 
it  after  it  begins  to  "  set,"  as  that  roughens  it.  It  sets 
perceptibly  within  a  second  or  two,  according  to  the 
kind  of  mixture. 

Cruder  compositions,  of  tar,  asphaltum,  lampblack, 
with  linseed  oil,  for  covering  farm  implements,  are 
often  called  varnish.  For  varnishes  for  harness,  see 
page  639. 

Brushes  for  applying  varnish  should  be  cared  for 
with  the  utmost  pains.  A  good  way  to  keep  them  is 
to  suspend  them  by  the  handles  in  a  covered  can, 
keeping  the  points  at  least  half  an  inch  from  the  bot- 
tom and  apart  from  each  other.  The  can  should  be 
filled  with  a  slow-drying  varnish  up  to  a  line  about  a 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  above  the  bristles  or  hair.  The 
can  should  then  be  kept  in  a  close  cupboard,  or  in  a 
box  fitted  for  the  purpose.  For  keeping  the  brush 
over  one  night  or  two,  however,  water  will  be  good 
enough,  in  place  of  the  varnish.  As  wiping  a  brush 
on  a  sharp  edge  of  tin  will  gradually  split  the  bristles, 
cause  them  to  turn  backward,  and  eventually  .ruin 
the  brush,  the  top  of  the  can  should  have  a  wire 
soldered  on  and  the  edge  of  the  tin  turned  over,  or 
wire  substituted  in  some  way  for  the  sharp  tin  edge. 
In  taking  brushes  from  the  can,  prepare  them  for  use 
by  working  them  out  in  varnish,  and  before  replacing 
them  cleanse  the  handles  and  binding  with  turpentine. 
Finishing  brushes,  however,  should  not  be  cleansed 
with  turpentine,  except  in  extreme  cases. 

Vase,  a  vessel,  of  various  forms  and  materials,  for 
domestic  purposes,  and  anciently  for  sacrificial  uses; 
especially,  a  vessel  of  antique  or  elegant  pattern  for 
ornaments;  also,  a  solid  piece  of  ornamental  marble 
representing  in  form  an  ancient  vase.  At  crockery 
and  notion  stores  may  be  found  an  almost  infinite 
variety  of  vases  for  ornamentation  of  homes. 


1273 


VEAL—  VENEER. 


Veal,  the  flesh  of  calves  prepared  for  food.  How 
to  dress  veal  is  described  on  page  963,  and  how  to 
judge  it,  on  page  965.  To  prepare  calf's  head  and 
liver,  see  page  78-  To  cook  veal,  we  select  the  fol- 
lowing recipes : 

Roast  Veal.  Make  a  dressing  of  bread  crumbs, 
chopped  thyme  and  parsley;  a  little  pepper  and  salt, 
one  egg  and  a  little  butter.  If  too  dry  moisten  with  a 
little  hot  water.  Take  a  loin  of  veal,  make  an  incis- 
ion in  the  flap  and  fill  it  with  the  stuffing;  secure  it 
with  small  skewers  and  dredge  the  veal  with  a  little 
flour,  slightly  salted.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  and 
baste  often,  at  first  with  a  little  salt  and  water,  and 
afterward  with  the  drippings  in  the  pan.  When  done, 
skim  tlie  gravy  and  thicken  with  a  little  brown  flour. 
The  breast  and  shoulder  are  nice  cooked  in  the  same 
manner  ;  ask  your  butcher  to  make  incisions  for  the 
stuffing.     Serve  with  tomato  sauce. 

Browned  Veal.  Put  a  piece  of  butter  in  a  cover- 
ed pan  and  place  into  it  about  three  pounds  of  veal. 
Chotjse  thick  end  of  shoulder  or  loin ;  brown  well  for 
at  least  20  minutes,  sprinkle  over  a  little  flour  and 
add  some  warm  water,  just  to  make  a  little  gravy. 
Add  also  four  slices  of  lemon,  some  mace,  a  little  nut- 
meg, salt  and  whole  pepper-corns.  Place  two  pieces 
of  bacon  on  the  top  of  the  meat,  close  up  tight,  and 
let  gently  simmer  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour  more. 
This  dish  must  not  boil  fast.  Take  out  the  meat  and 
strain  the  gravy  over  it.     Trim  with  lemon. 

Veal  Cutlets.  Let  the  cutlet  be  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  Chop  some  sweet  herbs  very  fine ;  mix 
them  well  with  the  bread  crumbs.  Brush  tlie  cutlets 
over  with  the  yolk  of  an  egg,  then  cover  them  with 
the  bread  crumbs  arid  chopped  herbs  ;  fry  them  light- 
ly in  butter,  turning  them  when  required.  Take  them 
out  when  done. 

Another:  Take  slices  from  the  broad  end  of  the 
leg.  Fry  three  or  four  pieces  of  salt  pork  and  take 
them  out;  wipe  the  slices  of  veal  dry;  put  them  into 
the  hot  fat  and  fry  them  a  nice  brown.  Serve  with 
horse-radish. 

Knuckle  of  Veal.  Cut  in  small,  thick  slices,  sea- 
son with  a  little  salt  and  pepper,  flour  lightly  and  fry 
it  to  a  pale  brown;  then  lay  it  in  a  saucepan  and  cover 
with  water.  Skim  well.  Simmer  gently  for  two  hours 
and  a  half,  then  thicken  the  gravy  with  a  little  flour 
and  add  a  piece  of  butter,  and  salt  to  taste.  Add  a 
little  catsup  if  desired. 

Veal  Pot-pie.  Take  the  neck,  the  shank  or  the 
breast  neck  of  veal;  boil  them  long  enough  to  skim 
off  all  the  froth.  Butter  the  pot  or  try  out  some  slices 
of  salt  pork;  lay  in  the  meat,  with  salt,  pepper  and 
flour;  pour  in  enough  of  the  water  in  which  the  veal 
was  boiled  to  cover  it;  let  it  simmer  about  an  hour 
and  a  half  M.ake  a  crust  about  20  minutes  before 
you  are  ready  for  dinner,  with  baking  powder,  as  for 
biscuit;  cut  three  slits  in  it,  and  put  it  over  the  top 
of  the  pot;  let  it  boil  every  minute  for  ten  minutes. 
Dish  it  immediately  before  the  crust  falls. 


Vegetable,  in  science,  is  any  plant,  from  the  tree 
down  to  the  microscopic  organism,  which  grows  by 
the  assimilation  of  inorganic  matter;  in  the  culinary  art 
and  in  dietetics,  the  word  generally  denotes  those 
plants  of  which  we  eat  the  leaves,  stems  or  roots,  as 
cabbage,  asparagus  and  sweet  potato.  In  this  sense 
it  is  understood  that  all  vegetable  articles  of  food  are 
distinguished  into  "fruits,  grains  and  vegetables." 
Melons,  pumpkins,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  the  fruit  of 
the  egg-plant,  etc.,  might  be  denominated  vegetable 
fruits,  and  peas  and  beans,  vegetable  grains. 

In  the  proper  places  throughout  this  Encyclopedia 
are  described  at  full  length  the  raising,  preserving, 
cooking,  etc.,  of  each  vegetable. 

Vegetable  Oyster,  salsify.     See  page    mo. 

Vehicle  (ve'hi-cl),  any  kind  of  carriage,  cart, 
wagon  or  sleigh,  considered  as  a  thing  in  which  goods 
or  persons  are  carried. 

Vein  (vain),  a  blood  canal  in  animal  bodies,  lead- 
ing toward  the  heart.  The  blood  in  them  is  of  a 
darker  color  than  the  arterial  blood,  and  is  not  thrust 
along  by  pulsations,  like  the  latter. 

Velvet.  This  is  certainly  one  of  the  richest  of  the 
silken  fabrics.  Its  origin  is  not  known,  but  it  has  been 
made  in  Europe  for  centuries.  At  first,  its  manufac- 
ture was  confined  to  Italy,  where,  and  also  in  Genoa, 
it  was  carried  to  great  perfection.  The  nianufactuie 
then  reached  France,  and  afterward  England.  The 
name  comes  from  the  French  vellour,  vthicYi  is  derived 
from  velu,  covered  with  hair.  Velvet  is  distinguished 
from  every  other  kind  of  cloth  by  the  soft  pile  on  the 
surface,  from  which  its  great  beauty  results.  It  has 
this  pile  in  addition  to  the  usual  warp  and  weft  which 
it  has  in  common  with  plain  fabrics.  The  pile  is  oc- 
casioned by  the  insertion  of  short  pieces  of  silk 
thread  doubled  under  the  weft,  and  which  stand  up- 
right on  its  upper  surface  in  such  a  multitude,  and  so 
crowded  together,  as  entirely  to  conceal  the  interlac- 
ings  of  the  warp  and  weft. 

How  to  Clean  White  Velvet.  If  cut  or  un- 
sewed  velvet,  take  light  bread  crumbs  that  are  per- 
fectly free  from  grease ;  spread  your  velvet  smoothly 
on  a  stand  or  table,  and  rub  the  crumbs  over  it  all 
one  way.  Uncut  velvet  cannot  be  cleaned  in  this 
way. 

To  Raise  the  Pile  on  Velvet.  Hold  the  velvet 
over  a  basin  of  hot  water  with  the  lining  of  the  dress 
next  to  the  water.  The  pile  will  soon  rise.  Or,  heat 
an  iron  and  cover  it  with  a  damp  cloth,  and  hold  it 
under  the  velvet  on  the  wrong  side.  The  steam  will 
penetrate  the  velvet,  and  the  pile  can  be  raised  with 
a  brush. 

Velveteen,  an  imitation  of  velvet  in  cotton.  It  is 
of  various  colors  and  much  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  velvet,  being  much  cheaper. 

Velvet-Leaf,  Indian  Mallow,  which  see. 

Veneer  (ve-neer)  to  overlay  or  plate  with  a  thin 
layer  of  wood  or  other  material  for  outer  finish    or 


VENISON—  VINEGAR. 


"73 


decoration;  as,  to  veneer  a  piece  of  furniture   with 
mahogany  or  white  walnut. 

Venison  (ven'i-zn  or  ven'zn),  the  flesh  of  game 
animals,  especially  the  deer :  used  only  in  the  latter 
sense  in  this  country.  It  is  prepared  for  the  table  as 
bjef  is  prepared,  but  the  following  recipes  are  espe- 
cially excellent  : 

Ro.^STED  Venison.  A  leg  of  venison  should  be 
roasted  for  an  hour  and  a  half  if  eaten  on  blazers ; 
if  on  hot  plates,  three  hours.  The  dry  skin  should  be 
taken  off  before  roasting  with  the  fingers,  not  with  a 
knife.  The  spit  should  be  turned  very  often  ;  when 
half  done  it  should  be  basted  with  flour,  butter  and 
red  wine,  very  frequently  until  done. 

A  Saddle  of  Venison.  A  saddle  of  venison  is 
TOUcli  the  best  piece  of  the  deer.  It  requires  but  half 
the  time  to  roast  this  that  it  does  the  leg,  for  it  is  a 
much  thinner  piece.  Dressed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  leg. 

A  Venison  Steak.  Cut  steaks  from  the  leg  an 
inch  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  broil  them 
about  five  minutes;  season  with  pepper,  salt  and 
buiter.  A  cupful  of  the  roast  venison  gravy,  very 
hot,  is  nice  pouted  over  it ;  or  half  a  cup  of  red  wine, 
and  half  a  cup  of  current  jelly,  thickened  with  a 
little  flour  and  butter,  boiled  up  and  turned  over  the 
steak.     It  should  be  served  very  hot. 

Ventilation,  renewing  the  air  of  an  apartment, 
hall,  building  or  other  enclosed  place.  See  Hygiene, 
Residence,  Barn,  etc. 

Veranda,  a  kind  of  open  portico,  formed  by  e.\- 
tending  a  sloping  roof  beyond  the  main  building. 

Verbena,  one  of  the  most  popular  flowers,  both  in 
the  house  and  in  the  garden.  There  are  several  spe- 
cies and  a  great  multitude  of  varieties.  Several  wild 
species  prevail  in  this  country,  and  are  known  as 
"  vervain,"  a  corruption  of  the  word  "  verbena."  The 
vervains  are  uninteresting  weeds.  In  some  localities 
they  hybridize  thoroughly.  A  "rust,"  caused  by  a 
microscopic  insect,  sometimes  attacks  verbenas,  petu- 
nias, heliotropes,  etc.,  and  may  be  remedied  either  by 
water  heated  to  120°  Fahr.,  or  by  syringing  with  a 
solution  of  half  a  pint  of  coal  oil  in  two  or  three 
gallons  of  water. 

Verdigris,  (ver'di-grees),  the  bi-basic  acetate  of 
copper,  a  green,  greasy  substance  formed  on  copper 
or  brass  vessels  by  contact  with  vegetable  acids.  It 
is  poisonous,  and  has  been  employed  as  a  medicine, 
as  indeed  has  almost  every  other  poisonous  and  filthy 
substance  in  existence,  or  that  could  be  made  by  the 
art  of  man.  Impure  verdigris  is  sometimes  used  for  a 
green  p.iint.  For  treatment  of  one  who  is  [wisonedby 
it,  see  Vitriol. 

Verjuice,  the  sour  juice  of  crab-apples,  of  unripe 
grapes,  apples,  etc.;  also,  a  kind  of  vinegar  made  from 
such  juice. 

Vermicelli  (ver-mi-sel'ly)  the  flour  of  a  hard, 
^mall-grained   wheat    made  into  dough,  and    forced 


through    cylinders   or  pipes    till  it  takes  a  slender, 
worm-like  form.     It  is  used  chiefly  in  soups. 

Vermifuge,  expelling  worms,  that  is,  from  the  in- 
testinal canal ;  said  of  medicines,  as  worinseed,  tansy, 
pink-root  and  senna,  male  fern,  pumpkin  seed,  cow- 
hage,  santonica,  etc.     See  Worms. 

Vermin,  a  mischievous  animal ;  especially,  noxious 
little  annimals,  including  insects,  as  rats,  mice,  squir- 
rels, minks,  weasels,  worms,  flies,  larves,  lice,  etc.  See 
respective  insects  and  animals,  and  the  animal  or  ob- 
ject infested,  and  remedies,  pages  865  and  870. 

Vertebra  (ver'te-bra;  plural,  vertebrae),  a  joint  of 
the  back-bone.  "Vertebral  column,"  the  back-bone. 
"Cervical  vertebrae,"  the  bones  of  the  neck, — 7  in 
number,  in  man  ;  the  next  12  vertebrae  are  the  "  dor- 
sal ;"  the  next  5  are  the  "  lumbar,"  in  the  region  of 
the  loins  ;  and  the  last  two,  in  the  adult,  are  the  sa- 
crum  and  os  coccygis. 

Vertigo  (ver'ti-go),  swimming  of  the  head;  giddi- 
ness ;  dizziness.  See  Giddiness,  page  5 70,  and  Head- 
ache. 

Vesicle  (ves'i-cl),  a  bladder-like  vessel ;  a  mem- 
branous cavity  or  watery  pimple;  a  cyst;  a  cell. 
Vesicular  eruptions  characterize  several  contagious 
fevers  and  skin  diseases. 

Vetch,  the  name  of  several  species  of  wild  bean- 
like plants,  good  for  fodder.  Some  species  are  culti- 
vated in  Europe. 

Veterinarian  (vet-er-in-a'ri-an),  one  skilled  in  the 
diseases  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  etc. 

Vial,  a  small  bottle.  "  Phial  "  (pronounced  fi'al) 
is  an  old  form  of  this  word. 

Vices,  of  horses.     See  page  711. 

Vine,  a  climbing  or  trailing  plant.  When  unqual- 
ified the  word  denotes  the  grape-vine  alone. 

Vine-chafer,  an  insect  infesting  the  grape  See 
article  Grape,  and  page  864. 

Vinegar,  literally,  sour  wine  ;  in  present  usage,  a 
fermented  solution  of  sugar  This  fermentation  is 
called  "  acetous,"  to  distingui^  it  from  the  first  stage 
of  decomixjsition,  called  "alcoholic  fermentation." 
A  mixture  of  the  natural  acids  contained  in  sour  fruits 
and  acetic  acid,  which  is  the  base  of  vinegar,  is  su- 
perior to  any  pure  vinegar  as  a  condiment,  though  it 
may  not  make  as  good  a  preservative.  It  is  likely 
that  natural  vegetable  acids,  citric  and  malic,  for  in- 
stance, will  in  the  near  future  largely  take  the  place  of 
vinegar  for  table  use. 

Many  otherwise  intelhgent  persons  are  apparently 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  principles  involved  in 
the  manufacture  of  vinegar  from  the  substances 
farmers  generally  convert  into  it.  They  have  cider, 
wine,  or  other  fruit  juices,  and  they  desire  to  make 
vinegar  out  of  them.  They  have  noticed  that  these 
substances  are  sometimes  converted  into  vinegar 
without   apparent  trouble,    and   they    do    not   take 


1274 


VINE  YARD—  Vise  US. 


the  trouble  to  examine  into  the  conditions  most 
favorable  for  effecting  the  desired  change.  They 
sometimes  leave  cider  in  close  barrels  in  a  cool  cellar 
during  several  years  and  wonder  that  it  does  not 
change  into  sharp  vinegar,  as  they  have  known  the 
same  substance  to  do  in  the  possession  of  other  peo- 
ple. .  They  are  presumedly  ignorant  of  the  fact  that 
quite  a  high  temperature  and  the  presence  of  a  large 
amount  of  air  are  necessary  to  change  cider  into 
vinegar.  The  sweetish  alcohol  which  the  cider  or 
wine  contains  needs  to  receive  an  additional  amount 
of  oxygen  from  the  air  in  order  to  become  changed 
into  vinegar.  A  man  once  kept  two  barrels  of  cider 
in  the  cellar  two  years,  and  it  would  not  make  vine- 
gar. A  friend  told  him  to  let  it  run  through  the  open 
air.  He  did  so,  and  in  three  days  he  had  the  strong- 
est kind  of  vinegar. 

The  sourness  of  vinegar  is  ordinarily  due  to  acetic 
acid,  the  latter  constituting  four  to  five  per  cent,  of 
good  vinegar  Vinegar  made  from  wine  contains  also 
a  little  tartaric  acid,  and  a  minute  quantity  of  acetic 
ether,  which  gives  it  a  pleasant  aroma.  That  made 
from'  cider  contains  also  a  small  proportion  of  malic 
acid. 

To  Make  Vinegar  from  Cider.  The  better  the 
cider  or  other  liquid  that  i^  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere, and  the  higher  the  temperature,  provided  it  is 
not  so  high  as  to  cause  rapid  evaporation,  the  quicker 
will  the  desired  change  take  place.  Cider  kept  in  full, 
tight  barrels  and  stored  in  a  cool  cellar  may  become 
converted  into  a  tolerably  strong  vinegar,  but  a  very 
long  time  will  be  required  to  bring  about  the  change. 
If  a  vent  is  left  in  the  barrel,  or  the  bung  is  out,  and 
some  of  the  contents  of  the  barrel  is  occasionally 
drawn  out,  the  change  will  be  much  more  rapid.  If 
the  barrel  is  removed  from  the  cellar  and  occasionally 
moved  from  side  to  side,  the  conversion  of  the  con- 
tents into  vinegar  will  be  much  more  speedy. 

In  all  large  establishments  for  making  vinegar  there 
are  arrangements  whereby  the  material  is  exposed 
over  a  large  surface  or  a  large  amount  of  air  is  made 
to  pass  through  the  material.  The  temperature  of  the 
room  where  the  operations  are  carried  on  is  kept  at 
the  point  most  favorable  for  the  union  of  oxygen  with 
the  alcohol  of  the  liqifid.  It  is  not  economical,  how- 
ever, to  procure  apparatus  of  this  kind  in  cases  where 
only  a  few  barrels,  or  a  single  barrel,  of  cider  or  other 
material  are  to  be  converted  into  vinegar.  It  is 
cheaper  in  such  a  case  to  allow  the  operation  to  go 
on  slower,  and  to  dispense  with  the  use  of  apparatus 
that  costs  considerable  money  and  occupies  a  consid- 
erable space.  In  the  opinion  of  many,  vinegar  made 
by  the  slow  process  gives  a  somewhat  better  flavor 
and  is  less  likely  to  become  cloudy  than  that  made 
by  any  of  the  quick  processes.  A  shed  open  on  the 
south  side  furnishes  a  favorable  place  for  generating 
vinegar.  The  generating  barrels  in  a  building  or  on 
the  open  ground  should  rest  on  supports  raised  at 
least  a  foot  from  the  surface  of  the  earth.  They 
should  not  be  more  than  two-thirds  filled,  as  by  leav- 
ing considerable   space   above   the  liquid  there  is  a 


larger  surface  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air.  The 
bungs  should  be  taken  out  of  the  vessels,  and  to  pre- 
vent insects  from  entering  them  the  holes  should  be 
covered  with  wire  gauze  or  netting.  If  holes  are 
bored  in  the  ends  of  the  barrels  near  the  chine,  that 
is,  on  a  line  with  the  bung,  more  air  will  enter,  and 
the  process  of  conversion  into  vinegar  will  go  on 
faster. 

If  a  few  quarts  of  hot,  strong  vinegar  be  poured 
into  a  barrel  and  well  shaken  about  before  it  is  filled 
with  cider,  it  will  aid  the  generating  process.  The  oc- 
casional addition  of  a  small  amount  ofstrong  vinegar 
to  the  contents  of  the  barrel  will  favor  the  change 
into  vinegar.  The  French,  who  are  celebrated  for 
making  fine  vinegar  by  the  slow  process,  practice 
drawing  off  a  portion  of  the  contents  of  one  vessel 
that  has  become  quite  sour  and  adding  it  to  a  barrel 
whose  contents  is  still  tolerably  sweet. 

From  Brown  Sugar.  To  ten  gallons  of  rain-water 
add  %i  worth  of  sugar;  add  one  quart  of  good  vin- 
egar to  this,  and  set  it  in  a  warm  place.  In  three  or 
four  weeks  you  will  have  first-class  vinegar. 

From  Molasses.  To  eight  gallons  of  clear  rain- 
water, add  three  quarts  of  molasses ;  turn  the  mix- 
ture into  a  clean,  tight  cask,  shake  it  well  two  or  three 
times,  and  add  three  spoonfuls  of  good  yeast,  or  two 
yeast  cakes ;  place  the  cask  in  a  warm  place,  and 
in  ten  or  fifteen  days  add  a  sheet  of  common  wrap- 
ping paper,  smeared  with  molasses  and  torn  into 
narrow  strips,  and  you  will  have  good  vinegar.  The 
paper  is  necessary  to  form  the  "  mother,"  or  life,  of 
the  vinegar. 

From  Acetic  Acid  and  Molasses.  Acetic  acid 
4  lbs.;  molasses,  r  gal. ;  put  them  into  a  40-gallon 
cask,  and  fill  it  up  with  rain-water ;  shake  it  up  and 
let  it  stand  from  one  to  three  weeks,  and  the  result  is 
good  vinegar.  If  this  does  not  make  it  as  sharp  as 
you  like,  add  a  little  more  molasses. 

From  Honey.  Put  into  warm  water  honey  enough 
to  make  it  a  little  sweeter  than  coffee  is  sweetened  at 
table ;  tie  a  cloth  over  the  top  of  the  vessel  and  place 
on  a  bench  out  of  doors  in  the  sun;  in  four  to  six 
weeks  it  will  be  sharp  vinegar. 

From  Potatoes.  Boil  potatoes,  drain  off  water, 
add  one  pound  sugar,  two  and  one-half  gallons 
of  water,  and  a  little  hop  yeast  or  whisky.  It  is  sout 
in  a  short  time. 

Some  claim  that  all  that  is  necessary  to  make  good 
vinegar  is  sweetened  water,  hot  weather,  frequent  stir- 
ring, and  air. 

Vineyard  (vin'yard),  a  yard  for  raising  grapes. 

Vinous  (vi'nus),  containing  wine,  or  the  aroma  of 
wine. 

Virus  (vi'rus),  in  modern  medical  science,  a  mor- 
bid poison,  as  the  specific  contagion  of  small-pox, 
syphilis,  etc. 

Viscus  (plural,  vis'ce-ra),  one  of  the  organs  con- 
tained in  the  great  cavities  of  the  body ;  any  one  of 
the  contents  of  the  cranium,  thorax  or  abdomen ;  in 


VISE—  VOMITING. 


1275 


the   plural  especially   applied   to  the  intestines  and 
other  organs  in  the  abdomen. 

Vise,  an  aparatus  for  griping  and  holding  things, 
closed  by  a  screw.  A  cut  of  a  convenient  anvil  and 
vise  together  is  given  on  page  23. 

Vitriol,  a  soluble  sulphate  of  either  of  the  metals; 
also,  sulphuric  acid,  jwpularly  so-called.  "Blue 
vitriol,"  or  "  bluestone,"  is  the  sulphate  of  copper; 
"white  vitriol,"  the  sulphate  of  zinc;  "green  vitriol," 
copperas,  or  the  green  photo-sulphate  of  iron ;  "  red 
vitriol."  or  "vitriol  of  Mars," the  flesh-colored  sulphate 
of  iron  ;  cobalt  vitriol  is'  also  called  "  red  vitriol."  The 
"oil  of  vitriol  "  is  sulphuric  acid,  so-called  because  it 
makes  no  noise  when  poured  from  one  vessel  into 
another. 

Poisoning  from  Blue  Vitriol.  The  effects  are, 
an  acid,  rough,  disagreeable  taste  in  the  mouth;  a  dry, 
parched  tongue,  with  sense  of  strangling  in  the 
throat;  coppery  eructations ;  frequent  spitting;  nau- 
sea; frequent  desire  and  effort  to  vomit,  or  copious 
vomiting;  severe  darting  pains  in  the  stomach; 
gri[)ing;  frequent  purging;  belly  swolen  and  pain- 
ful ;  skin  hot,  and  violent  burning  thirst ;  breathing 
'  difficult;  intense  headache  and  giddiness,  followed 
by  cold  sweats,  cramps  in  the  legs,  convulsions,  and 
death.  Give  white  of  eggs  mixed  with  water  (12  to 
one  pint),  to  be  given  in  wine-glassfuls  every  two 
minutes;  or  give  sugar  and  water,  or  iron  filings  mixed 
with  water,  or  very  strong  coffee,  accompanied  by 
small  and  repeated  doses  of  castor  oil.    Other  anu- 


dotes  are  bark,  alkalies,  gall  nuts.  Treatment:  If 
there  is  much  pain  in  the  belly  or  stomach,  apply 
leeches.  Give  large  draughts  of  milk  and  water  to 
encourage  vomiting. 

Poisoning  from  White  Vitriol.  The  effects  are, 
an  astringent  taste,  sensation  of  choking,  nausea, 
vomiting,  purging,  pain  and  burning  in  the  throat  and 
stomach,  difficult  breathing,  pallor  and  coldness  of  the 
surface,  pinched  face,  cramps  of  the  extremities,  but, 
with  the  exception  of  the  chloride  of  zinc,  seldom 
death.  For  the  two  first  give  copious  draughts  of  milk, 
and  white  of  eggs  and  water,  mucilage,  and  olive  oil ; 
for  the  third,  carbonateof  soda,  and  warm  water  in  fre- 
quent draughts,  with  the  same  as  for  the  other  com- 
pounds. Treatment:  Relieve  urgent  symptoms  by 
leeching  and  fomentations,  and  for  the  vomiting  give 
castor  oil.    For  the  chloride,  use  frictions  and  warmth. 

Vomiting,  To  Allay.  Take  sips  of  hot  water, 
coffee,  tea,  or  of  any  other  hot  drink  which  the  patent 
likes  best. 

To  Produce.  Take  salt  and  tepid  water,  as  much 
as  the  patient  can  drink ;  or  lukewarm  water,  a  pint 
or  more,  accompanied,  if  necessary,  by  tickling  the 
fauces  (inside  of  the  throat)  with  the  finger  or  a 
feather ;  or  tincture  of  lobelia,  a  dram  of  a  solution 
of  two  ounces  to  the  pint;  wine  of  ipecacuanha 
(i  ounce  to  the  pint),  }{  to  %  ounce;  tartar  emetic, 
r  grain;  alum,  i  to  2  teaspoonfuls  of  the  powder 
(especially  good  in  croup);  white  vitriol,  30  grains; 
blue  vitriol,  3  to  5  grains. 


w 


of  flour  and 
eating ;  also, 
paste,  dried, 


'f^m  AFEB,  a  thin  cake  or  leaf 
|)K  other  ingredients,  baked  for 
^I'^lga  small,  round  bit  of  colored 
dr-formerly  used  in  sealing   letters. 

Waffle   (wofl),  from  same  root   as   "wafer," 
and  signifying  a  thin  cake  rolled  out  and  baked 
hard,  or  a  soft  indented  cake  baked  in   a  waffle- 
iron  on  coals. 

To  Make  Waffles.   Take  one  quart  of  sour  milk, 


three  eggs,  a  little  salt,  flour  enough  to  make  a  thick 
batter ;  rub  a  piece  of  butter  in  the  flour  the  size  of 
an  egg  before  stirring  it  in,  or  the  waffles  will  be  tough  ; 
beat  the  eggs  separately,  stirring  the  whites  in  the 
last  thing;  one  teaspoon  of  soda,  and  they  are  ready 
for  the  waffle-irons — to  be  eaten  with  butter  or  sugar, 
or  anything  else  that  will  suit  the  taste.  The  irons 
must  be  buttered  or  greased  with  lard. 

Wages.       Below    we   give   tables   for  computing 
wages  by  the  week  and  month. 


TABLE  OF  WAGES  BY  THE  WEEK,   COMPUTED  ON  A  BASIS  OF  TEN  HOURS  LABOR  PER  DAY. 


H-rs. 

$I.OO 

tl.50 

$2.00 

$2.50 

$3,00 

%i-V 

4.tx) 

$4  so 

03K 

$5.00 

*5-50 
°4>4 

$6.00 
OS 

$6.50 
05M 

$7.00 

$8.00 

$6.00 

$10. 

$■1. 

$13. 

'A 

Ol 

<"H 

01^ 

02 

<»% 

03 

03  >i 

04H 

06 

065^ 

07  >^ 

08M 

09 

10 

I 

03  M 

<»% 

03  M 

04  >4 

05 

06 

065^ 

07)4 

08  Ji 

ogH 

10 

II 

"?^ 

n'A 

15 

16% 

18  ^ 

20 

3 

°5,, 

06M 

08^ 

10 

^^% 

135^ 

'5,^ 

16J', 

.8^1 

20 

31?^ 

23>i 

36K 

30 

3354 

36% 

4" 

3 

OS 

oiV, 

10 

I2>« 

15 

'1% 

20 

33^ 

25 

3754 

30 

3='y2 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

4 

06H 

10 

■  3J^ 

.6% 

20 

33M 

26K 

30 

33'A 

36K 

40 

43^3 

46Ji 

53« 

60 

66% 

73M 

80 

5 

08H 

.3}^ 

16M 

21 

25 

29H 

33M 

37M 

41K 

46 

50 

54H 

S8'4 

66% 

75 

i3'A 

91% 

I     00 

6 

10 

■5 

20 

^5  , 

30 

35 

40 

45 

5° 

55 

fo 

65 

70 

80 

90 

1  00 

I   10 

I     20 

7 

i>K 

17K 

33K 

29H 

35 

41 

46K 

52H 

58X 

64H 

70 

76 

8iJi 

93;^ 

I  05 

I   16% 

I  38}i 

I     40    • 

8 

'3'A 

20 

265i 

33% 

40 

46K 

53>4 

60 

6f>y, 

73  M 

So 

86K 

93  Ji 

I  06% 

I  20 

I  33)i 

I  46% 

I     60 

9 
Days. 

15 

22^ 

30 

3lM 

45 

5354 

6o 

67J4 

75 

82>4 

90 

97)4 

I  05 

I      20 

'  35 

■  5° 

I  65 

I     80 

'6K 

25 

33>^ 

4.K 

50 

58  }< 

66K 

75 

835< 

orJi 

I  00 

I   08^ 

I   i6Ji 

I  33K 

•  50 

I  66% 

I  83% 

2    00 

3 

33'A 

50 

66% 

83  5< 

1  00 

I    16K 

»  33M 

I  50 

.  66X 

I  83K 

3  Co 

3  i6Ji 

3  33)i 

2  66% 

3  00 

3  33)i 

3  66% 

4   00 

3 

50 

75 

I  00 

I  35 

I  50 

'  75„ 

2  00 

3  35 

2  50 

3    75 

3  61% 

3  00 

3  35 

3  50 

4  00 

4  50 

5  00 

5  50 

6  00 

4 

mi 

1  00 

I  3T.V, 

■  66^, 

2  00 

333J5 

2  seji 

3  00 

3  33  V, 

4  00 

4  3V4 

4  66% 

5  33K 

6  00 

6  66% 

7  33j!i 

8  00 

5 

Si'/t 

I   25 

I  66K 

2  08M 

2  50 

2  91K 

3  335< 

3  75 

4   16^4 

4  SS.H 

5  00 

5  4lJi 

S   83^4 

6  66% 

7  50 

8  33M 

9  >6% 

10  00 

6 

I  00 

I  50 

2  00     1  2  50 

3  00 

3  5° 

4  00 

4  50 

5  00 

5  50        6  00 

6  50 

7  00 

8  00 

9  00 

10    00           II     00 

12  00 

Explanation  —The  figures  at  the  top  of  the  columns  show  the  rate  per  week,  while  the  figures  in  the  columns  indicate  the  amount  per  hour  or 
per  day.  Thus  if  it  is  desired  to  find  the  amount  per  hour  when  working  for  $6  per  week,  we  commence  with  the  figure  i,  in  the  left  hand  column 
under  the  head  of  "hours,"  and  trace  towards  the  right  till  we  reach  the  column  headed  by  $6,  where  we  find  10  cents,  the  equivalent  of  one  hour's 
labor  at  $6  per  week       In  like  manner  we  find  the  price  of  several  hours,  one  day,  or   several  days 

TABLE  OF  WAGES  BY  THE  MONTH,  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  WAGES  FOR  ANY  NUMBER  OF  DAYS  FROM 

I  TO  26,  AT  ANY  PRICE  PER  MONTH  FROM  $3  TO  $28. 


vt 

n 
0 

$3. 

$4. 

$5- 

$6. 
23 

$7- 

$8. 

$9- 

$10. 

*ii. 

$12. 

$13. 

$14. 

$.5. 

$16. 

$17. 

66 

$18. 

$19- 

$20. 

$22. 

$24. 

$26. 

$38. 

I .. 

13 

•5 

19 

37 

31 

35 

38 

42 

46 

.SO 

54 

58 

62 

69 

73 

77 

84 

93 

I    00 

1 08 

2- . 

33 

3- 

39 

46 

54 

62 

69. 

77 

85 

^l 

I  00 

I  08 

•   IS 

'  P 

'  31 

I  38 

I  46 

I  54 

I  70 

I    84 

2    00 

2 15 

3- 

35 

46 

57 

69 

81 

92 

I  04 

I    15 

I  27 

'  .38 

I  50 

I  62 

I  73 

I  85 

I  96 

2  08 

2  19 

3    31 

2  54 

2  74 

3  00 

3  23 

4-. 

46 

62 

77 

95 

I  07 

I  23 

I  38 

'  54 

.  69 

I  8, 

2  00 

3    15 

2  31 

2    46 

2  62 

3  77 

2  92 

3  08 

3   38 

3  70 

4  00 

4  31 

5. . 

ss 

77 

96 

"  '5 

I   34 

■  54 

'  ^i 

I  92 

2     12 

2  31 

2  so 

2    69 

2  83 

3  08 

3  27 

3  46 

3   ts 

3  8, 

4   24 

4  63 

5  00 

5  38 

6. . 

S' 

83 

I  '5 

I  38 

I  62 

I  85 

2  08 

2  3' 

2  54 

2  77 

3  00 

3  33 

346 

3  69 

3  92 

4  15 

4  38 

4  62 

,08 

5  54 

6  00 

6  46 

7-- 

81 

I  07 

"  34 

I    62 

I  88 

2  IS 

2  43 

2  69 

2  96 

3  23 

3  50 

3  77 

4  04 

4  3' 

4  S8 

48s 

5  "2 

s  38 

5  92 

6  46 

7  00 

7  54 

8.. 

92 

I  23 

I  54 

I  84 

3   IS 

2  46 

3  77 

308 

3  38 

3  69 

4  00 

4   31 

4  62 

4  92 

5  23 

S  54 

5  8s 

6  16 

6  76 

7  38 

8  00 

8  63 

9.. 

I  04 

I  38 

■  73 

3  07 

3  42 

2  77 

3  12 

3  46 

3  81 

4  15 

4   50 

4  86 

5  19 

5  54 

585 

6  23 

6  58 

6  92 

7  62 

8  30 

9  00 

9  69 

10. . 

'   '5 

'  54 

I  93 

2  31 

3  69 

30« 

3  46 

3  85 

4  23 

4  62 

5  00 

5  38 

5  77 

6  15 

6  S4 

6  92 

7  31 

7  69 

8  46 

9  24 

lo  00 

10  77 

II. . 

I  27 

I  6q 

3    13 

2  54 

2  96 

1  38 

38. 

4  33 

4    6s 

S08 

5  50 

5  92 

6  3S 

f>  77 

7   19 

7  63 

804 

8  46 

9  30 

lo  16 

11  00 

1.  8s 

12. . 

>  .3« 

1  84 

3    3' 

3  77 

3  33 

3  69 

4  15 

4  62 

50S 

S  54 

6  00 

6  46 

6  92 

7  38 

785 

8  31 

877 

9  23 

10  16 

11  08 

12  00 

13    93 

■3-. 

I  50 

3  00 

3    50 

3  00 

3  50 

4  00 

4  50 

5  00 

5  50 

6  00 

6  50 

7  00 

7  50 

8  00 

8  50 

9  00 

9  50 

10  00 

II  00 

13  00 

13  00 

14   00 

14   . 

I  62 

2    15 

3    69 

3  23 

3  77 

4  31 

4  85 

5  38 

5  92 

6  46 

7  00 

7  54 

8  08 

8  62 

9  >5 

9  69 

10  23 

10  77 

II  84 

13    93 

14  00 

IS  08 

15   • 

■  73 

3    31 

3  88 

3  46 

4  04 

4  62 

5  19 

5  77 

6  3S 

6  92 

7  50 

8  08 

9  05 

9  23 

9  81 

10  38 

10  96 

"  54 

12  70 

13  84 

15  00 

16  15 

l6.. 

■85 

2    46 

308 

3  69 

4  3" 

4  93 

5  54 

6  16 

677 

7  38 

8  00 

8  63 

9  23 

985 

10  46 

II  08 

II  69 

12  31 

13  54 

14  74 

16  00 

17  33 

17.. 

.  96 

2    61 

3  27 

3  93 

4  58 

5  33 

,  88 

654 

7  19 

78, 

8  50 

9  tS 

9  3i 

10  46 

II     12 

II  77 

12  42 

13  08 

14  38 

15  70 

17  00 

18  31 

18.. 

2  08 

3  77 

346 

4  '5 

4  84 

5  54 

6  23 

6  93 

7  62 

8  31 

9  00 

9  69 

10  38 

II  08 

II    77 

13    46 

■3  15 

'3  85 

IS  24 

16  62 

t8  00 

19  38 

19.. 

2  19 

2    93 

3  62 

4  38 

5   'I 

58, 

6  s8 

7  31 

8  04 

8  77 

9  SO 

10  33 

10  96 

II  69 

12    42 

■3  >5 

1,88 

14  62 

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17  54 

19  00 

30   46 

flo.. 

»  3' 

3  07 

384 

4  6i 

5  38 

6  15 

6  92 

7  69 

8  46 

9  23 

10  00 

10  77 

"I  54 

12  31 

13   08 

■38, 

14  62 

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16  92 

18  46 

20  00 

21  54 

ai.. 

3  42 

3  33 

4  04 

4  84 

5  6>; 

646 

7  27 

8  oS 

3  88 

9  69 

10  50 

II  31 

12  13 

12  92 

13  73 

14  54 

'5  35 

16  16 

17  76 

19  38 

21  00 

33    61 

a2.. 

2  54 

3  38 

4  33 

5  07 

5  92 

677 

7  6. 

8  46 

9  31 

10  IS 

II  00 

II  85 

12  69 

'3  54 

14  38 

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1608 

16  92 

18  62 

20     30 

22  00 

33    69 

»3- 

a  65 

3  54 

4  43 

5  31 

6  19 

7  08 

7  96 

8  85 

9  73 

10  63 

II  50 

13    38 

13   27 

'4  15 

15  04 

15  92 

16  81 

17  69 

19  46 

21    24 

23  00 

34  77 

34.. 

»  77 

369 

4  61 

5  54 

6  46 

7  38 

8  3. 

9  23 

10  IS 
10  58 

II  o3 

12  00 

13    93 

,3  8, 

14  77 

15  69 

16  62 

17  54 

i3  46 

20   30 

22    16 

24  00 

35  8s 

35.. 

3   8, 

384 

4  81 

5  77 

673 

769 

8  65 

9  62 

II  54 

12  50 

13    46 

14    42 

IS  38 

■6  35 

17  31 

18  27 

>9  23 

21     16 

23   08 

25  00 

26  93 

36  . 

300 

4  00 

5  00 

6  00 

7  00 

8  00 

9  00 

10  00 

II  00 

12  00 

13  00 

14    00 

isoo 

i6  00 

17  00 

18  00 

19  00 

20  00 

22   00 

24    00 

26  00 

28  00 

Explanation. — The  figures  at  the  right  of  the  columns  indicate  the  days  of  the  month,  there  being  26  working  days  in  the  month,  while  the  figures 
at  the  top  gives  the  wages  by  the  month.  To  find  the  amount  for  any  given  number  of  days,  trace  to  the  right  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  first 
column  till  you  come  to  the  column  indicating  the  amount  of  wages,  and  that  will  be  the  amount  of  wages  for  the  given  number  of  days.  For  example, 
to  find  the  amount  of  wages  due  for  13  days  work  at  $16  per  month:  Kind  13  in  the  column  of  days  and  trace  to  the  right  until  you  come  to  the  column 
headedby$i6,  where  we  find  $8,  being  the  proper  amount  of  wages  for  13  days  at  $16  per  month.  Parts  of  days  are  computed  by  dividing  the  wages 
for  one  day,  as  shown  at  the  top  of  the  column  which  indicates  the  monthly  wages  paid.  Wages  other  than  those  indicated  are  found  by  combining 
the  amounts  in  the  table.     For  instance,  if  for  $30  a  month  just  combine  the  $20  and  $10  columns,  or  take  three  times  the  $10  column,  etc- 


WAGON. 


1277 


Wagon.  In  the  article  Carriage  we  have  treated 
of  the  various  parts  of  such  vehicles  and  the  quality 
of  material  and  workmanship  that  should  be  used  and 
employed  in  their  construction.  These  remarks  in 
many  respects  equally  apply  to  the  wagon.   It  is  there- 


FlG.  I. — Farm   Waggon. 

fore  unnecessary  to  repeat  such  observations  here. 
Every  farmer  should  have  a  good,  easy-running  wagon 
and  keep  it  at  all  times  in  fine  order.    The  time  thus 


Fig.  2.—Circlt  Holder  or  Post. 

saved  in  doing  his  teaming,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
easy  draft  and  comfort  of  an  easy-going  vehicle,  will 
more  than  compensate  him  for  the  little  extra  care 
and  attention  required  to  keep  it  in  proper  condition. 
Besides   some  very  extensive   wagon   manufactories 

here,  and  there  over 
the  country,  these  ve- 
hicles are  constructed 
to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent in  almost  every 
village  in  the  land. 
There  have  been  some 
improvements  of  dif- 
ferent parts  during  the 
past  few  years,  but  the 
general  design  is  to 
combine  lightness,  and 
consequently  easy  run- 
I  ning,  with  strength. 
Among  other  improve- 
ments that  have  i)een 
made  is  the  Morten- 
sen's  circle-holder,  or 
post,  as  shown  by  Fig. 
1  2,  which  explains  itself 
Among  the  numerous 
locks,  or  breaks,  that 
have  been  invented,  perhaps  the  one  shown  by  Fig. 
3,  Hurlbut's  patent,  is  the  best. 


¥iG.-i.— Lock  with  Whip  Socket. 


Gauge.  The  width  of  wagons  in  this  country  vary 
all  the  way  from  four  feet,  eight  inches,  to  five  feet, 
two  inches,  each  section  having  some  one  gauge  which 
prevails  there.  In  clayey  countries,  where  the  roads 
are  constantly  inclined  to  work  into  hard  ruts,  it  is 
very  necessary  that  a  teamster,  in  purchasing  a  wagon, 
should  select  one  having  the  gauge  which  prevails  in 
his  community  ;  and  when  intending  to  take  a  long 
journey  with  a  wagon,  it  is  of  real  imixirtance  to  as- 
certain, if  possible,  what  gauge  prevails  along  his 
route,  and  obtain  a  wagon  adapted  to  it.  It  would  be 
a  good  thing  to  have  but  one  gauge  for  the  whole 
continent  of  America. 

Capacity  of  Wagon  Beds.  Where  the  capacity 
of  the  wagon-beds  is  not  indicated  on  the  bed  it  may 
be  found  by  the  following  rules  : 

If  the  opposite  sides  are  parallel,  multiply  the  length 
inside  in  inches,  by  the  breadth  inside  in  inches,  and 
that  again  by  the  depth  inside  in  inches,  and  divide 
the  product  by  2150.42  (the  number  of  cubic  inches 
in  a  bushel),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  capacity  in 
bushels. 

Should  the  head  and  tail  boards,  or  either  of  them, 
be  set  in  beveling,  add  the  top  and  bottom  lengths 
together  and  divide  by  2  for  the  mean  length,  and  pro- 
ceed by  the  foregoing  rule.  Should  the  sides  be  slop- 
ing, add  the  top  and  bottom  widths,  and  divide  by  2 
for  the  mean  width,  and  proceed  by  the  foregoing 
rule. 

Should  the  contents  be  required  in  cubic  feet,  divide 
the  product  by  r728  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in 
a  cubic  foot),  instead  of  2150.42,  and  the  quotient 
will  be  the  contents  in  cubic  feet. 

Tike.  Teamsters  and  farmers  generally  prefer  to 
have  a  blacksmith  tighten  their  wagon  tires;  but 
when  this  task  is  undertaken  by  themselves,  they 
must  take  care  not  to  enlarge  the  fellies  too  much, 
else  they  will  loo  much  dish,  and  therefore  weaken, 
the  wheel.  All  tires  should  be  bolted  on,  with  eight 
bolts  to  the  wheel.  As  soon  as  a  tire  is  seen  to  be- 
come loose  when  on  the  road,  it  should  be  temjxsrarily 
wedged  with  numerous  thin  pieces  of  wood,  until  an 
opixirtunityis  obtained  for  more  permanent  repairs. 

Tires  three  or  four  inches  broad  are  advocated  by 
many  intelligent  persons  for  use  on  clay  roads. 

Seat.  Spring  seats  generally  go  with  new  wagons 
from  the  manufactories,  but  by  ill  usage  or  otherwise 
they  often  become  almost  or  quite  worthless.  The 
cheapest  and  best  home-made  spring  seat  we  have 
seen  is  made  by  placing  two  or  three  thin  but  strong 
boards  over  one  another,  with  cross-pieces  between 
screwed  on  as  far  from  being  opposite  one  another  as 
possible. 

To  Grease  Wagons.  But  few  people  are  aware 
that  they  do  wagons  and  carriages  more  injury  by 
greasing  too  plentifully  than  in  almost  any  other  way. 
A  well  made  wheel  will  endure  common  wear  from 
ten  to  twenty- five  years,  if  care  is  taken  to  use  the 
right  kind  and  proper  amount  of  grease ;  but  if  this 
matter  is  not  attended  to,  they  will  be  used  up  in  five 


1278 


WA  GON-SHEDS—  WALKS. 


or  six  years.  Lard  should  never  be  used  on  a  wagon, 
for  it  will  penetrate  the  hub  and  work  its  way  out 
around  the  tenons  of  the  spokes,  and  spoil  the  wheel. 
Tallow  is  the  best  lubricator  for  wood  axletrees,  and 
castor  oil  for  iron.  Just  enough  grease  should  be 
applied  to  the  spindle  of  a  wagon  to  give  it  a  light 
coating;  this  is  better  than  more,  for  the  surplus  put 
on  will  work  out  at  the  ends,  and  be  forced  by  the 
shoulder  bands  and  nut  washers  into  the  hub  around 
the  outside  of  the  boxes.  To  oil  an  iron  axletree, 
first  wipe  the  spindle  clean  with  a  cloth  wet  with 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  then  apply  a  few  drops  of 
castor  oil  near  the  shoulder  and  end.  One  teasixwn- 
ful  is  sufficient  for  the  whole. 

Wagons  are  in  market  made  with  an  oil  tube  in  the 
axletree,  near  the  base  of  each  spindle  and  communi- 
cating with  it,  into  which  oil  or  soft  grease  can  be  de- 
posited, as  a  source  of  supply  during  the  use  of  the 
wagon.  The  tube  has  a  little  cap,  to  keep  out  the 
dirt,  and  this  can  be  readily  taken  off  and  put  on,  as 
it  is  spiral,  like  those  of  kerosene  cans.  This  con- 
trivance is  the  same  in  principle  as  rules  amongst  all 
machinery,  and  is  a  great  convenience,  as  it  saves  the 
trouble  of  taking  off  the  wheels. 

Wagon  Jack.  Many  teamsters  are  so  negligent 
as  to  have  no  convenience  for  raising  the  axles  when 
the  wheel  is  to  be  taken  off,  but  resort  to  a  rail  and 
stick.  Two  boards,  one  fixed  by  a  notch  or  hinge  as  a 
lever  uixjn  the  other,  need  not  weigh  but  three  or 
four  pounds,  and  should  always  be  at  hand.  It  is  as 
simple  to  make  as  a  figure-4  trigger  for  a  quail  trap. 
There  should,  of  course,  be  adjustments,  one  for  each 
axle ;  and  the  outer  end  of  the  lever  board,  or  stick, 
can  be  held  down  by  a  cord  extending  from  it  down 
to  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  board.  By  a  little 
skill  the  two  boards  or  pieces  may  be  so  adjusted 
together  that  the  axle  can  be  thrown  a  little  over  the 
end  of  the  perpendicular  board,  toward  you,  so  that  it 
will  hold  itself  without  any  cord.  In  this  case,  one 
piece  should  have  a  curve  at  the  end  to  hold  the  axle- 
tree. 

"Wagon- Sheds.  In  the  article  on  Barn,  the  de- 
signs of  many  of  the  buildings  include  wagon  and 
carriage  sheds,  to  which  we  refer  the  reader,  but  we 
desire  to  make  a  few  observations  of  especial  charac- 
ter in  this  connection.  Every  farm  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  wagon-shed.  This  may  be  a  plain 
building,  but  should  be  closely  boarded  and  lined, 
and  always  kept  well  shingled.  The  size  will  depend 
uixjn  the  number  of  wagons  and  carts  which  are  used 
on  the  farm.  The  ground-floor  should  be  reasonably 
tight,  and  the  floor  over  the  wagons  should  be  lined 
so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dust  into  the  lower 
room.  Many  sheds  are  left  open  in  front,  but  we 
think  it  better  to  have  doors.  Certainly  the  sheds  in 
which  the  nice  wagons,  carriages  and  robes  are  kept 
(which  should  always  be  separated  by  a  close  parti- 
tion from  the  rest  of  the  building)  should  have  doors 
which  can  be  locked,  and  in  which  things  can  be 
safely  kept.     This  building  should  be  raised  but  little 


above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  it  would  be  hard 
work  to  draw  in  the  wagons  if  it  were  much  higher 
than  the  land  around  it. 

For  a  small  farm  a  building  36  feet  long,  and  28 
feet  wide,  with  a  partition  running  through  it  length- 
wise two  feet  one  side  of  the  center,  will  answer  very 
well.  This  will  give  one  room  36x16  feet,  which  will 
be  enough  for  5  wagons  or  carriages,  with  room  to  pass 
between  them  in  getting  in  and  out,  and  another  room 
36x12  feet,  which  can  be  used  for  the  storage  of  the 
mowing-machine,  hay-tedder,  horse-rake,  plows,  har- 
rows, shovels,  and  other  tools.  It  is  best  to  have  a 
partition  dividing  each  of  these  rooms.  In  one  corner 
a  room  14  feet  wide,  inside  of  the  posts,  may  be  done 
off  for  the  best  wagon  and  top-carriage.  This  should 
be  at  least  eight  and  a  half  feet  high,  so  that  it  will 
take  in  a  high  carriage  without  letting  down  the  top. 
If  it  is  desired  to  save  all  possible  expense,  the  other 
rooms,  in  which  tools  and  wagons  are  kept,  may  be 
left  open  in  front,  but  it  is  much  better  that  the  whole 
building  should  be  enclosed.  The  height  of  these 
rooms  need  not  exceed  seven  feet,  and  should  not  fall 
much  below  that  figure.  If  such  a  building  contains 
more  room  than  is  desired  for  the  purjxjses  named, 
the  remainder  may  be  utilized  for  a  horse-stall. 

The  posts  for  this  building  should  be  13  feet  long. 
This  is  because  the  ground  size  projxjsed  needs  tliis 
height,  in  order  to  make  a  well-proportioned  building, 
and  also  because  the  cost  will  be  but  a  trifle  more 
than  it  would  if  short  posts  were  used,  while  the  loft 
which  will  be  found  very  useful,  cannot  be  secured  of 
suitable  size  without  posts  of  about  this  length. 

Wainscot,  a  wooden  lining  or  boarding  of  the  walls 
of  apartments,  made  in  panels.  Imitation  of  such 
work  by  painting  or  calcimining^s  also  called  "wain- 
scot," or  "wainscoting,"  at  the  present  day, — some- 
times improperly  called  "dado." 

Waistcoat,  old  name  for  vest:  still  in  use  in  Eng- 
land. In  this  country  the  word  "waistcoat"  is  some- 
times used  for  an  under-garment ;  as,  a  "  flannel 
waistcoat." 

Waiter,  one  who  waits  upon,  as  at  table ;  a  server 
or  salver;  a  vessel  on  which  something  is  carried,  as 
dishes  of  victuals.  A  "dumbwaiter"  is  a  box  drawn 
from  one  room  to  another  by  cords  and  pulleys,  for  the 
conveyance  of  small  articles. 

Waive,  a  law  term  signifying  to  relinquish  volun- 
tarily a  right  in  court  which  one  may  enforce.  Much 
of  the  cost  of  a  lawsuit  is  often  saved  by  "  waiving 
process," — that  is,  not  demanding  that  notices  and 
preliminary  processes  be  served,  but  going  at  once  in- 
to an  investigation  of  the  merits  of  the  case. 

Wakefulness,  To  Cure  :  see  under  the  sub-head 
of  Sleep,  page  833. 

Walks.  In  gardens,  both  flower  and  vegetable,  and 
in  lawns,  walks  should  be  as  few  in  number  as  con- 
venience will  permit,  and  these  should  all  be  curving. 
Wavy  outlines  are  more  graceful  than  angularones  or 
mere  checker   work.     See   Landscape    Gardening. 


WALL-E  YE—  WAR  T. 


1279 


Lawn  and  garden  walks  may  be  made  by  digging  a 
trench  18  inches  deep,  filUng  it  within  six  or  eight 
inches  of  the  top  with  stones,  and  the  remainder 
with  clean  gravel.  But  the  following  receipts  for 
walks  in  yards  and  lawns  are  more  elaborate : 

To  Make  Gravel  Walks.  The  bottom  should 
'be  laid  with  lime  rubbish,  large  flint  stones,  or  any 
other  hard  matter,  for  eight  or  ten  inches,  to  keep 
weeds  from  growing  through,  and  over  this  the  gravel 
is  to  be  laid  six  or  eight  inches  thick.  This  should  be 
laid  rounding  up  in  the  middle,  by  which  means  the 
larger  stones  will  run  off  to  the  sides,  and  may  be 
raked  away ;  for  the  gravel  should  never  be  screened 
before  it  is  laid  on.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  lay 
these  walks  too  round,  which  not  only  makes  them 
uneasy  to  walk  upon,  but  takes  off  from  their  appar- 
ent breadth.  One  inch  in  five  feet  is  a  sufficient 
proportion  for  the  rise  in  the  middle  ;  so  that  a  walk 
20  feet  wide  should  be  four  inches  higher  at  the 
middle  than  at  the  edges,  and  so  in  proportion.  As 
soon  as  the  gravel  is  laid,  it  should  be  raked,  and  the 
large  stones  thrown  back  again ;  then  the  whole 
should  be  rolled  both  lengthwise  and  crosswise;  and 
the  person  who  draws  the  roller  should  wear  shoes 
without  heels,  that  he  may  make  no  holes,  because 
holes  made  in  a  new  walk  are  not  easily  remedied. 
The  walk  should  always  be  rolled  three  or  four  times 
after  very  hard  showers,  which  will  bind  them  more 
firmly  than  could  be  accomplished  by  any  other 
method. 

Concrete  Gravel  Walk.  Dig  away  the  earth  to 
the  depth  of  about  five  inches,  then  lay  a  bottom  of 
pebbles,  ramming  them  well  down  with  a  paving 
rammer.  Sweep  them  off  as  clean  as  ix)ssible  with  a 
broom,  and  cover  the  surface  thinly  with  hot  coal  tar. 
Now  put  on  a  coat  of  smaller  gravel  (the  first  bed  of 
pebbles  should  be  as  large  as  goose  eggs),  previously 
dipped  in  hot  coal  tar,  drained,  and  rolled  in  coal 
ashes,  with  an  intermixture  of  fine  gravel,  and  roll  it 
down  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  Let  the  roller  run 
slowly,  and  let  a  boy  follow  it  with  a  hoe  to  scrape  off 
all  adhering  gravel.  Next  put  on  a  coat  of  fine  gravel 
or  sand,  and  coal  tar,  with  some  coal  ashes,  to  com- 
plete the  surface,  and  roll  again  as  thoroughly  as 
possible;  the  more  rolling  the  better.  It  will  take 
some  weeks  to  harden,  but  makes  a  splendid  hard 
surface,  which  sheds  water  like  a  roof.  Do  not  use 
too  much  tar.  It  is  only  necessary  to  use  enough  to 
make  the  ingredients  cohere  under  pressure,  and  a 
little  is  better  than  too  much.  Such  a  surface  will 
last  in  a  farm-yard  a  great  while. 

To  Keep  Walks  Clean.  The  growth  of  weeds, 
grass,  moss  and  worms,  may  be  prevented  tiy  apply- 
ing with  a  watering  pot  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic 
acid ;  it  may  not  be  stronger  than  a  gill  of  the  pure 
acid  to  a  barrel  of  water.  Coarse  salt  is  also  good. 
Moss  and  other  small  vegetation  are  best  swept  off  by 
a  wire  broom;  but  such  brooms,  immediately  after 
use,  must  be  cleaned,  dried  and  oiled,  to  keep  them 
from  rusting. 


Wall-Eye,  an  eye  in  which  the  iris  is  of  a  very 
light  gray  or  whitish  color. 

Wall-Paper.  The  green  coloring  in  wall-paper  is 
poisonous,  and  paper  containing  it  should  never  be 
used.  Sanitarians,  in  fact,  declaim  against  the  use 
of  any  and  all  wall-paper ;  but  as  such  material  is 
the  cheapest  method  of  ornamental  finish  of  walls,  it 
will  continue  in  popular  favor  for  some  time. 

When  good  papering  is  wanted,  a  skilled  paper- 
hanger  must  be  employed;  otherwise  "  home  talent" 
may  be  sufficient.  To  make  paper  stick  to  white- 
washed walls,  make  a  sizing  of  common  glue  and 
water,  of  the  consistency  of  linseed  oil,  and  put  that 
first  over  the  surface  with  a  brush. 

Walnut.  There  are  only  two  species  of  walnut  in 
in  America, — the  Black  and  the  White ;  the  latter 
is  called  also  Butternut.  In  England  the  term  "wal- 
nut "  comprises  the  hickory-nuts.  The  uses  and 
value  of  the  walnuts  are  well  known.     See  Forestry. 

Warblers,  a  large  class  of  small  singing  birds, 
abundant  in  America. 

Warbles,  a  disease  of  cattle,  the  product  of  the 
ox  fly.     See  Gadfly. 

Ward  Robe,  a  small  room  where  clothes  are  kept, 
or  a  portable  closet  for  hanging  up  clothes;  also,  wear- 
ing apparel  in  general,  or  all  the  wearing  apparel  be- 
longing to  one  person. 

Warp,  in  wearing,  the  threads  which  are  extended 
lengthwise  in  the  loom,  and  crossed  by  the  woof. 

Wart,  a  small,  hard  tumor  on  the  skin  formed  by 
an  enlargement  of  its  vascular  papillae  and  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  epidermis  which  covers  them. 

To  give  all  the  different  receipts  that  have  been 
recommended  for  removing  warts,  and  to  describe  the 
7nodus  operandi  adopted  by  many  in  the  process, 
would  take  a  goodly  sized  volume.  Almost  every 
neighborhood  has  had  its  good  old  grandmother,  who 
in  some  mysterious  way,  in  a  certain  time  of  the 
moon,  would  remove  the  warts  from  the  hands  of  the 
children  of  the  vicinity.  How  this  was  done,  or 
what  the  moon  had  to  do  with  it,  or  why  they  always 
insisted  ujxjn  going  through  a  certain  mysterious  cere- 
mony, we  never  knew;  but  generally  in  a  short  time 
afterwards  the  wart  was  missing.  We  give  below  a 
few  simple  but  far  more  tangible  recipes  for  remov- 
ing these  pests,  as  people  of  the  present  day  seem  to 
be  wanting  sufficient  faith  to  practice  any  of  the  mys- 
terious arts  of  stealing  meat  or  a  dishcloth  and  bur)dng 
it  or  going  to  the  old  grandmother. 

1.  Anoint  freely  with  castor  oil  before  retiring  each 
evening,  for  two  or  three  weeks. 

2.  Dissolve  as  much  common  washing  soda  as  the 
water  will  take  up,  and  wash  the  warts  with  this  for  a 
minute  or  two,  and  let  them  dry  without  wiping.  This 
repeated  is  said  to  destroy  the  largest  wart. 

3.  Tie  a  thread  around  their  base  and  let  remain 
till  they  come  off.   Tighten  it  a  little  from  day  to  day. 

4.  Procure  a  wild  turnip  out  of  the  woods,  cut  a 


I28o 


WASHER—  WA  TERMELON. 


piece  of  it  off  and  rub  the  inside  of  it  on  the  wart  a  few 
times,  and  in  a  short  time  the  wart  will  be  gone  and 
will  not  leave  any  scar  at  all.  If  the  wart  is  large 
and  raw  it  will  be  a  little  sore. 

5.  Have  a  piece  of  thick  paper  with  a  hole  cut 
in  it  the  size  of  the  wart.  Put  this  over  the  wart  and 
every  morning  let  fall  a  drop  or  two  of  the  strongest 
acetic  acid  through  the  hole  upon  the  wart  If  this 
does  not  succeed,  oil  of  vitriol  (sulphuric  acid)  drop- 
ped in  the  same  way  may. 

6.  Pare  them  down  until  the  blood  comes  slightly 
and  then  rub  with  lunar  caustic.  This  will  cause 
some  pain,  but  it  is  said  to  be  a  sure  cure. 

7.  Wash  the  warts  with  the  juice  of  milkweed,  or 
celandine  ;  or  bruise  these  weeds  on  the  wart. 

8.  Make  a  little  roll  of  spider's  web,  lay  it  on  the 
wart,  set  it  on  fire,  and  let  it  burn  down  on  the  wart. 
This  is  said  to  be  a  certain  cure. 

Washer,  in  mechanics,  a  circular  piece  of  metal 
or  leather  placed  below  a  screw  head  or  nut,  or  within 
a  linch-pin,  for  protection. 

Washing  Clothes.     See  Laundry. 

Watch  Dog.  There  is  no  particular  breed  of  dogs 
by  this  name,  but  the  best  watch  dogs  are  the  New- 
foundland, Mastiff  and  Bull-dog.     See  page  337. 

Water  consists  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  eight 
parts  by  weight  of  the  former  to  6ne  of  the  latter. 
Absolutely  pure  water  has  an  insipid,  metallic  taste. 
From  75  to  95  per  cent.* of  all  organic  bodies  (animals 
and  plants)  is  water ;  but  water,  with  the  organic  mat- 
ter diffused  through  it  as  plants  do  the  work,  is  more 
welcome  to  the  physical  economy  of  all  vegetarian 
animals,  including  man,  than  is  chemically  pure  wa- 
ter. See  section  on  Water  and  Bathing,  commencing 
on  page  829,  in  article  on  Hygiene;  and  with  refer- 
ence to  the  laundry,  see  page  905  ;  for  watering  stock, 
see  resiiective  animals.  To  purify  water,  see  Filter 
and  Cistern.  There  are  many  other  methods,  how- 
ever, of  purifying  water,  as  the  use  of  fresh  charcoal 
alone,  of  alum,  simple  boiling,  etc. ;  and  water  in 
cisterns  may  be  punfied  by  a  little  permanganate  of 
potash,  or  by  placing  minnows  therein  to  devour  all 
the  insects,  etc. 

Water-CIoset,  a  privy.     See  Privy. 

Water-Course,  any  rivulet,  brook,  slough  or  river, 
as  a  stream  of  water  through  the  land  and  formed  by 
nature.  Land  contiguous  to  streams  is  often  washed 
away  until  serious  loss  occurs.  This  can  be  easily 
averted  by  the  use  of  crib  or  pile  breakwaters.  The 
logs,  which  may  be  of  any  convenient  length,  are 
laid  up  and  held  in  their  places  by  notches,  the 
whole  being  bound  by  the  use  of  strong  limbs  with 
projecting  knots  and  branches,  placed  in  ]X)sition  to 
hold  the  upper  logs  before  the  stone  is  thrown  in. 
Cribs  should  rest  on  brush  placed  top  up-stream,  and 
projecting  somewhat  into  the  stream  beyond  the  crib's 
comer.  The  object  in  placing  the  tops  up  stream  is 
that  they  may  catch  the  sediment  and  other  floating 


substances  on  and  near  the  bottom,  and  prevent 
washing  under  the  crib,  and  eventually,  perhaps, 
spoiling  it,  or  making  repairs  necessary.  The  cribs 
should  be  placed  at  an  angle  of  about  45°  to  the 
bank,  the  outer  end  being  further  down  stream  and 
on  the  longer  side  of  the  bend  and  mamly  above  it. 
Several  may  be  needed.  A  breakwater  of  piles  does 
equally  well,  but  since  a  pile-driver  costs  money, 
stone  cribs  are  usually  preferred.  They  are  cheapest 
if  stone  is  plenty  in  the  vicinity.  If  piles  are  used, 
they  must  be  strongly  planked  on  the  up-stream  side. 
The  cribs  will  last  longest.  By  this  method  land 
may  be  reclaimed  by  filling  in  below  the  breakwater. 

Water-Cress,  a  mustard-like  plant  growing  wild 
in  wet  places  throughout  the  country;  sometimes  cul- 
tivated for  an  early  salad. 

Water-Cure,  or  Hydropathy,  literally,  treatment 
of  the  sick  by  the  use  of  water.  The  system  of 
practice  formerly  characterized  as  "water  cure,"  or 
hydropathy,  was  largely  hygienic,  and  at  the  present 
day  is  exclusively  so,  and  has  therefore  assumed  the 
latter  name.     See  page  836. 

Watermelon.     This  luscious  vegetable-fruit  when 
healthy,  rii)e  and  eaten  properly,  is  a  first-class  article 
of  diet,  or  drink  we  might  say.     Its  culture  is  precise-' 
ly  the  same  as  that  of  the  muskmelon.     Its  dietetic 
qualities  are  treated  on  page  548. 

Varieties.  Mountain  Sweet.  .\n  old  standard 
variety;  one  of  the  best  still. 

Mountain  Sprout.  Long,  striped,  with  scarlet  flesh; 
standard. 

Phinney's.  Hardy,  vigorous  and  productive  as 
any;  early;  flesh  red. 

Ice  Croam,  True  White-Seeded.  Very  early  and 
popular;  superior. 


Ice-Cream   Watermelon, 

Jackson  or  Strawberry.  Delicious;  seeds  white, 
tipped  with  red. 

Gipsy.     Large  and  productive. 

Black  Spanish.  Dark  green;  flesh  red,  sweet  and 
rich. 

Long  Island.     An  old  standard  variety. 

New  Orange.  Rind  peels  off  like  an  orange;  fine 
quality.  ^ 

Landreth's  Boss.     An  excellent  variety. 

Apple-Pie.  Good  only  for  making  pies;  grows  ex- 
cessively large. 

Citron.     For  preserves  only. 


WA  TER-PROOF—  WE  A  THER. 


i28r 


Water-Proof,  impervious  to  water:  said  of  roofs, 
garments  and  other  coverings. 

To  Make  Cloth  Water-Proof,  dissolve  half 
pxjund  of  common  soap  in  a  gallon  of  boiling  soft  wa- 
ter and  soak  the  cloth  in  it  over  night.  Wring  out, 
and  soak  ten  hours  in  a  solution  of  ten  ounces  of 
alum  in  a  gallon  of  water.  Wring  out  again,  rinse  in 
clear  water,  and  thoroughly  dry  it. 

To  Water-Proof  Linen,  Canvas,  etc.  Three 
baths  are  prepared  as  follows :  The  first,  by  dissolv- 
ing I  part  neutral  sulphate  of  alumina  (concentrated 
alum  cake)  in  lo  parts  cold  water.  For  the  second, 
boil  I  part  light  resin,  i  part  soda  crystals  and  lo 
parts  water,  till  the  soda  is  dissolved;  add  yi  part 
common  salt,  to  separate  the  water  and  collect  the 
soap;  dissolve  this  soap  with  an  equal  amount  of 
good  palm-oil  soap  in  30  parts  water.  This  soap  bath 
must  be  used  hot.  The  third  bath  consists  of  water 
only.  Soak  the  fabric  thoroughly  in  the  first,  or  alum 
bath ;  next  pass  it  through  the  soap  bath ;  and  lastly, 
rinse  in  the  water. 

Water- Sprout,  a  rank,  rapidly  growing,  succulen: 
but  fruitless  sprout  issuing  from  diseased  fruit 
trees :  called  also  "  glutton." 

Wattle,  the  fleshy  excrescence  that  grows  under 
the  throat  of  a  cock  or  turkey,  or  a  like  substance  on 
a  fish. 

Wax,  a  fatly,  solid  substance  produced  by  bees. 
In  the  article  Beeswax  the  process  for  making  and 
refining  is  described,  and  also  that  of  waxing  floors. 
In  the  article  Canning  the  recipe  for  making  sealing- 
wax  is  given,  and  grafting  wax  is  given  under  its  own 
head. 

Weasel,  a  slender-bodied  quadruped,  well  known 
for  its  love  of  the  [xjultry  yard.  To  the  weasel  family 
belong  the  mink,  skunk,  marten,  sable,  ermine,  ferret, 
glutton,  otter,  wolverine  and  polecat. 

Weather.  Men,  in  all  conditions  of  society,  are 
led  by  motives  of  necessity  or  comfort  to  study  the 
indications  of  the  weather  in  the  different  appear- 
ances of  the  skies.  The  mariner,  the  shepherd,  the 
farmer,  the  hunter,  have  the  strongest  motives  to  ex- 
amine closely  every  varying  appearance  which  may 
precede  moreimportant  changes.  Theresult  of  these 
observations  forms  a  body  of  maxims  in  which  facts 
are  often  stated  correctly,  but  mixed  with  erroneous 
deductions  and  superstitions  notions,  such  as  the  cre- 
dulity of  ignorant  people  always  renders  them  ready 
to  adopt.  Hence  the  disposition  to  refer  the  ordinary 
changes  of  the  weather  to  the  influence  of  the  moon, 
and  even  the  stars,  and  to  look  for  signs  of  approach- 
ing convulsions,  even  in  the  moral  world,  in  horrid 
comets  and  strange  meteors.  The  progress  of  science, 
which  tends'  to  separate  the  casual  precursors  from 
the  real  causes  of  phenomena,  refutes  these  false  rea- 
sonings, dissipates  the  empty  terrors  to  which  they 
give  rise,  and  aims,  by  more  patient,  long  continued 
and  wide  extended  observations,  to  deduce  the  general 

81 


rules  by  which  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere  ap- 
pear to  be  regulated. 

The  value  of  a  meteorological  register  depends  on 
the  accuracy  with  which  it  is  kept.  These  observa- 
tions are  taken  by  experienced  Government  officials 
stationed  at  certain  places,  and  their  reports  are  posted 
daily  in  almost  every  postoffice  within  the  United 
States.  Indeed,  these  meteorological  reports  are  relied 
ujx)n  throughout  the  country,  and  especially  valuable 
are  they  to  the  commerce  of  the  Great  Lakes. 

Signs  of  Rain  or  Storm.  Nearly  all  the  "  super- 
stitious "  "signs  of  rain  "  which  have  descended  to  us 
from  the  dark  ages  probably  had  their  origin  in  the 
simple  fact  that  just  before  a  storm  the  atmosphere  is 
such  that  nearly  all  animals  act  differently  from  their 
usual  manner;  and  these  actions  were  set  down  sep- 
arately and  disconnectedly,  regarded  with  a  sort  of 
superstition,  covered  over  with  the  creed  of  the  obser- 
vers, and  thus  woven  together  into  a  sort  of  system. 

While  there  can  be  no  credence  given  to  the 
thousands  of  signs  as  above  referred  to,  yet  there  are 
indications  of  changes  of  the  weather  that  are  based 
upon  natural  laws,  which,  if  we  understand,  may 
often  be  great  a  help  by  forecasting  the  change.  We 
quote  the  following  observations  on  such  changes 
from  Prof.  Henry  G.  Vennor: 

"  When  the  whole  sky  is  covered  with  clouds,  their 
further  formation  and  increase  in  bulk  and  density  is 
indicated  by  their  descent  to  a  lower  level,  and  their 
decrease  by  their  ascent.  Accordingly,  when  clouds 
begin  to  sit  down  upon  the  tops  of  hills,  it  prognosti- 
cates rain ;  and  when  they  begin  to  rise  above  the 
hills,  it  prognosticates  dry  weather. 

"  Mist  extending  upward  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  on  a  summer  morning  foretells  a  dry,  warm  day. 
The  country  people  call  such  a  mist  '  heat,'  meaning 
thereby  that  it  bespeaks  a  hot  day.  Such  mists  result 
from  coldness,  induced  upon  the  earth's  surface  by 
the  radiation  of  caloric  during  night,  being  propagat- 
ed upward  to  the  atmosphere  in  sufficient  intensity  to 
produce  atmospheric  over-saturation,  and  the  precip- 
itation of  moisture  in  the  forms  of  dew  and  mist.  This 
only  happens  during  calm,  starry,  cloudless  nights, 
which  are  usually  the  concomitants,  and  among  the 
most  certain  prognosticators,  of  dry,  settled   weather. 

"When  clouds  are  observed  to  break  up  into  frag- 
ments and  gradually  to  dissolve  by  evaporation,  it  in- 
dicates that  the  region  of  the  atmosphere  in  which 
they  float  is  under-saturated  with  moisture,  and  prog- 
nosticates dry  weather.  These  clouds  are  called 
'  cotton-ball '  clouds  by  sailors,  for  they  resemble  large 
masses  of  cotton.  On  the  contrary,  after  a  continu- 
ance of  dry  weather,  when  clouds  are  observed  to 
form,  or,  when  previously  formed,  are  observed  to  in- 
crease in  bulk  and  density,  and  also  when  small, 
detached  clouds  unite  together  and  form  larger  clouds, 
it  indicates  that  the  causes  immediately  instrumental 
in  the  formation  of  clouds  are  in  operation,  and  prog- 
nosticate that  wet  weather  will  soon  follow." 

Manv  i)ersons  are  so  wanting  in  their  habits  of  ob- 
servation, that  if  even  a  small  cloud  cuts  off  the  sun- 


1282 


IV£A  THER-BOARD. 


shine  for  a  few  moments,  they  think  it  a  sign  of  rain. 
They  never  look  up  to  the  sky  to  see  what  the  nature 
of  the  clouds  may  be  or  to  observe  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  wind.  Objects  on  the  ground,  as  houses, 
groves,  etc.,  will  cause  the  wind  to  dodge  about  in  all 
directions ;  and  such  persons  often  come  into  the 
house  and  report  that  the  "  wind  "  blows  first  one  way 
and  then  another;  that  they  "  never  saw  such 
weather,"  and  "  there's  no  teUing  what  is  coming." 

During  the  season  of  thunder-storms,  if  you  see 
slowly  coming  up  from  the  southwest  wliite  mare's-tail 
clouds,  and  soon  reaching  high  over-head,  and  the  air 
is  particularly  sultry,  know  that  those  high-fliers  are 
connected  with  a  thunder-cloud  approaching  you. 

Weekly  Cycle.  One  of  the  first  principles  to  ob- 
serve in  weather  phenomena  is  the  fact  that  a  cycle 
of  change  is  completed  each  week,  say  from  six  to 
eight  days;  that  is,  it  requires  three  or  four  days  to 
work  up  a  storm,  and  about  as  much  more  time  to 
deliver  it  and  become  settled.  Therefore,  if  it  is  fair 
weather  to-day,  it  will  probably  be  fair  a  week  from 
to-day,  with  a  storm  or  atmospheric  disturbance  be- 
tween now  and  then.  Of  this  we  can  be  confident  . 
if  to-day  is  about  the  middle  one  of  the  fair  term  (of 
three  days).  By  this  simple  fact  alone  such  weather 
prophets  as  Prof.  Tice,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Mr. 
Vennor,  of  Montreal,  Canada,  foretell  the  weather 
for  years  ahead  and  make  up  their  almanacs  accord- 
ingly. Therefore,  if  for  example  we  have  a  rainy 
Sunday  to-day,  in  a  given  section  of  the  country, 
accidentally  according  to  their  almanacs,  we  have  the 
next  Sunday  a  rainy  one,  too,  and  so  on  for  several 
in  succession.  Most  persons  have  often  noticed  a 
succession  of  fair  Sundays  throughout  a  stormy  season, 
or  of  rainy  Sundays  when  most  of  the  intervening 
time  was  fair. 

Just  as  often,  however,  the  weather  is  the  re- 
verse of  those  "  professors  '  "  almanacs  ;  and  when  it 
commences  the  opiwsite,  it  will,  according  to  the 
weekly  cycle  just  referred  to, continue  so  for  a  number 
of  weeks.  Their  weather  almanacs  are  calculated 
for  a  limited,  but  indefinite,  territory,  which  fact  they 
fail  sufficiently  to  announce.  Who  does  not  know 
that  at  any  one  time,  for  more  than  half  the  year,  it 
is  raining  or  snowing  in  ten  to  a  hundred  places  at 
once  in  the  United  States,  and  that  an  almanac 
prophesying  rain  at  that  time  will  be  correct  for  those 
ten  to  a  hundred  places,  and  incorrect  for  all  the  rest 
of  the  country? 

Trade  Wind.  For  all  that  portion  of  the  United 
States  lying  east  of  the  Missouri  river,  Kansas,  etc., 
and  north  of  the  Gulf  States,  the  prevailing  current 
is  from  the  southwest.  By  looking  up  to  the  highest 
clouds,  one  will  notice  them  going  northeast.  This 
current  is  scarcely  ever  interrupted.  Therefore  all 
our  rain  or  snow  is  really  brought  from  the  southwest, 
however  it  may  strike  the  earth  in  falling.  The  ground 
current,  during  the  thunderless  rains  and  snows  of 
fall,  winter  and  spring,  is  generally  opposite  the  trade 
wind,  or  upper  current,  and  the  rain  or  snow  accord- 
ingly  strikes  buildings,  etc.,  on  the  east  side.     When 


an  easterly  wind  (apparently)  "  brings  up  a  storm," 
one  will  at  first  notice  the  clouds  to  be  heaviest  in  the 
southwest. 

The  upper  current  brings  the  moisture  mainly  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  circling  around  over  the  plains 
east  of  the  Cordilleras ;  and  on  reaching  an  under- 
current from  the  East,  which  is  colder,  the  moisture 
of  the  lower  side  of  this  upper  current  is  condensed 
into  rain  or  snow. 

While  the  trade-wind  brings  us  our  summer  showers 
as  well  as  our  rains  and  snows  of  fall,  winter  and 
spring,  the  former,  being  very  limited  in  area,  are  not 
preceded  by  an  easterly  wind  but  for  a  short  time ;  it 
is  proportional,  however,  to  the  extent  of  the  rain 
area.  In  this  case  the  condensation  is  not  caused  by 
easterly  counter-currents,  but  by  descent  of  westerly 
or  northwesterly  currents. 

Tornadoes.     See  page  1252. 

Equinoctial  Storms.  Although  the  equinoxes 
are  March  21  and  Sept.  22,  equinoctial  storms  are 
those  which  are  occasioned  by  a  change  of  season, — 
those  of  spring  by  the  breaking  up  of  winter  and  those 
of  autumn  by  the  ending  of  summer.  In  the  spring 
the  warm  zone  reaches  this  latitude,  fights  old  Boreas 
with  storms  for  a  few  weeks  and  obtains  complete 
possession  of  the  country  in  May;  in  autumn  it  is 
Boreas'  turn  to  take  posession.  The  collision  of 
these  two  zones  of  cold  and  heat  produces  the  tedious 
rains  of  March  and  November;  but  these  rains  do 
not  by  any  means  come  all  in  these  months ;  their 
range  is  over  a  whole  season  of  about   three   months. 

CLEARrNG  Off.  This  takes  place  by  a  west  or 
northwest  wind,  which,  being  both  cold  and 
high,  walks  off  with  the  storm-cloud  southeastward. 
A  thunder-storm,  being  small  in  area,  clears  off  in  a 
few  minutes  or  an  hour  or  two ;  but  the  equinoctials, 
which  cover  nearly  all  the  country,  require  24  hours  or 
more  to  get  away.  We  will,  therefore,  after  a  heavy 
eastern  rain,  have  a  west  wind  carrying  heavy  clouds 
over  us  a  whole  day,  in  the  work  of  clearing  the  sky. 
Some  of  these  clouds  from  the  west,  or  ridges  of 
cloud,  will  often  be  heavy  enough  to  yield  some  rain. 
Often,  in  May  and  the  summer  months,  some  hours 
after  a  thunder-storm,  an  extraordinarily  dark  but 
rainless  cloud  will  suddenly  come  up  from  the  north- 
west. They  appear  frightful,  and  come  up  with  a 
swift  current,  but  they  always  pass  over  with  very  lit- 
tle wind  uix)n  the  ground. 

By  thoroughly  understanding  the  foregoing  facts, 
and  observing  closely  for  several  years,  with  written 
statistical  memoranda,  one  will  be  able  to  foretell  the 
weather  with  90  to  95  per  cent  success  for  all  practical 
purposes,  the  time  covered  by  his  prophecy  varying 
from  a  few  minutes  to  months,  according  to  the  area 
taken  into  view  and  the  aspects  considered. 

Weather-Board,  a  board  extending  from  the 
ridge  to  the  eaves,  and  forming  a  close  junction 
between  the  shinglin^  of  a  roof  and  the  side  of  the 
building  beneath,  usually  at  the  ends  where  there  is 
no  cornice.    "  Weather-boarding"  is   the   nailing  of 


JFEA  THER-COCK—  WELLS. 


1283 


boards  uix)ii  a  building,  each  one  above  lapping  over 
one  below,  so  as  to  exclude  dust,  rain  and  snow. 

Weather- Cock,  and  Weather-Vane,  anything  so 
adjusted  as  to  turn  with  the  wind,  to  show  its 
direction. 

Weather-strips,  strips  of  wood  or  metal,  generally 
bordered  with  rubber  or  cloth,  and  attached  to  tlie 
base  of  doors,  to  keep  out  the  rain,  snow  and  cold 
wind. 

Weave.  Ahorse  is  said  to  "  w.eave  "  when  he  per- 
petually moves  his  head  from  one  side  of  the  manger 
to  the  other,  like  a  wild  beast  in  his  den.  It  is  caused 
by  an  irritable  nervous  system. 

Wedding:  see    page  416. 

Weeds,  herbs  which  are  in  the  way  of  more  useful 
plants.  The  motto  of  practice  with  regard  to  all  weeds 
is  this:  Kill  all  annuals  as  soon  after  the  seeds  have 
sprouted  as  ix)ssible,  when  they  can  be  destroyed 
hundreds  at  a  stroke ;  and  as  to  perennials  which 
have  obtained  a  foot-hold,  keep  their  leaves  plowed 
or  hoed  under  until  their  roots  die.  Don't  allow  a 
single  leaf  a  half-day's  breathing  spell  in  the  air.  This 
motto  condenses  all  that  can  be  said  on  the  subject, 
and  all  farmers  well  know  the  processes  for  carrying  it 
into  execution.  For  special  remedies  for  Canada  this- 
tle and  some  other  large  weeds,  see  Thistle  and 
Witch  (Irass. 

Weeping  Trees,  those  whose  boughs  hang  grace- 
fully downward,  as  the  weeping  willow,  weeping 
birch,  etc. 

Weevil,  a  snouted  beetle;  a  curculio.  See  Insects 
and  the  respective  plants  infested. 

Weft,  the  threads  which  cross  the  cloth  from  edge 
to  edge  as  it  is  woven  ;  the  woof. 

Weights.  Nearly  every  household  has  an  arith- 
metic, containing  tables  of  weights,  with  instructions 
how  to  use  them.  We,  however,  add  the  standard 
weights  of  a  number  of  articles  not  contained  in  all 
text  liooks. 

The  gross  ton  of  2,240  pounds  was  formerly  in  com- 
mon use,  but  at  present  seldom  used  except  by  the 
United  States  custom  houses  and  at  the  Pennsylvania 
coal  mines. 

A  sack  of  wool  is  308  pounds,  or  22  stones.  A  pack 
of  wool  is  17  stones  and  2  pounds,  or  240  pounds,  a 
pack  load  for  a  horse. 

A  truss  of  hay  is,  new,  60  pounds ;  old,  50  pounds  ; 
straw  40  pounds.  A  load  of  hay  is  36  trusses.  A 
bale  of  hay  is  300  pounds. 

A  firkin  of  butter  was  formerly  56  pounds,  but  it  is 
now  packed  in  firkins  of  from  40  to  roo  pounds. 

A  bale  of  cotton  is  400  jwunds,  but  in  different 
States  it  is  put  up  in  different  sized  bales,  varying 
from  280  to  720  pounds.  Sea  Island  cotton  is  put  up 
in  sacks  of  300  pounds. 

A  barrel  of  f.our  is  196  pounds;  of  pork,  200  pounds. 


Weight  of  various  substances  per  cubic  foot  : 

POUNDS.  POUNDS. 

Cast  iron 450     Common  soil,  coni- 

Water 62     pact,  about 124 

White  pine,  season-  Clay        "     135 

ed,  about 30     Brick       "     125 

Whiteoak,   about.     52     Stone       "      170 

Loose  earth  "      .  .      95 

A  ton  of  sand  is  25  cubic  feet;  of  earth,  18;  and 
ot  clay,  17. 

Eighteen  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or  earth,  before  dig- 
ging, make  27  cubic  feet  when  dug.  The  bulk  is  in- 
creased one  and  a  half  times. 

For  a  simpler  system  of  weights  than  the  one  in 
vogue,  see  Metric  System.  For  weight  of  the  different 
commodities  per  bushel,  see  Bushel. 

Weir  (weer),  a  fence  of  stakes  or  twigs  set  in  a 
stream  for  taking  fish  ;  also  a  dam,  either  for  taking 
fish  or  for  running  a  mill. 

Weld,  or  Dyer's  Weed,  a  plant  grown  in  the  old 
country  for  dyer's  use,  but  not  yet  introduced  into  the 
United  States  as  an  industry.  It  is  employed  in 
dyeing  cotton,  woolen,  mohair,  silk  and  linen  with  yel- 
low. Blue  cloths  are  rendered  green  by  being  dipped 
in  a  decoction  of  it;  and  the  yellow  color  of  the  paint 
called  Dutch  pink,  is  obtained  from  this  plant.  It  is 
an  imperfect  biennial,  and  the  crop  is  gatiiered  by 
pulling  up  the  entire  plant. 

Weld,  to  join  metals  by  beating  them  together  when 
heated  and  partially  fused.     To  weld  iron,  see  p.  876. 

Wells.  To  the  farmer  the  theme  of  procuring  a 
supply  of  water  is  one  of  great  importance,  for  plenty 
of  pure  water  is  absolutely  necessary  to  comfort  and 
health  Where  never-failing  springs  abound  and  the 
water  not  too  strongly  impregnated  with  mineral,  of 
course  they  answer  every  purjx)se  of  the  well,  and 
often  furnish  the  best  of  water;  butthese  are  found 
only  at  long  intervals. 

Location.  In  sinking  wells  uix)n  the  farm,  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  locate  them  where  they  will 
not  receive  the  drainage  of  filth  from  the  barnyard 
or  other  deposit  of  refuse.  Special  care  should  be 
taken  in  the  location  of  the  well  from  which  the  sup- 
ply of  water  for  the  house  is  procured.  In  villages 
depending  upon  wells  for  water,  it  is  not  always  pos- 
sible to  select  the  location  for  a  well  that  meets  en- 
tirely with  approval,  as  the  space  is  restricted,  and  the 
ground  may  not  lie  advantageously.  In  such  a  case 
the  top  loam  should  be  removed  down  to  the  firm 
clay,  and  the  space  be  filled  with  clay  high  enough 
above  the  surrounding  surface  to  insure  that  all  sur- 
face filth  will  be  drained  away  from,  and  not  into,  the 
well. 

But  on  the  farm  there  is  not  usually  any  excuse  for 
locating  the  well,  for  either  house  or  stable  use,  where 
surface  contaminations  can  enter.  Nitrogenous  com- 
pounds are  evolved  from  decaying  animal  and  veg- 
etable s\ibstances  near  the  surface,  and  these  find 
their   wav  into  the  water  of  wells.     These  salts  are 


1284 


JV£ THhR—  WHEA  T. 


detrimental,  and,  being  very  soluble,  easily  pass,  held 
by  water  in  solution,  through  the  surface  loam  along 
the  top  of  the  clay;  or, if  the  soil  be  sandy,  the  ix)llu- 
ted  water  penetrates  deep  down,  entering  the  well 
through  the  lower  strata.  Strange  as  it  may  appear, 
the  instances  of  contaminated  wells  are  frequent  in 
the  country,  as  is  shown  by  authenticated  reports. 
The  adulteration  of  food  is  condemned,  while  this 
may  be  done  with  substances  that  are  nearly  inert, 
and  measurably  harmless,  but  at  the  same  time  the 
water  supply  is  allowed  to  receive  gross  impurities — 
poisons  that  are  dangerous  to  health  in  the  house  as 
well  as  in  the  stable. 

Care  should  be  taken  also  that  wells  be  never  lo- 
cated near  a  cellar  or  closet.  Nor  should  any  sink- 
drain  or  any  other  drain  be  allowed  to  pass  near 
them.  Typhoid  and  malarial  fevers  are  often  due  to 
sewerage  in  wells. 

Depth.  In  reference  to  the  depth  to  which  the 
well  should  be  dug,  we  wish  to  say  that  they  should 
ceruiinly  be  put  down  to  a  sufficient  depth  when  first 
digging,  to  furnish  a  constant  supply  of  water;  for  if 
they  strike  springs  that  are  intermittent  they  will  often 
fail,  and  that  too,  at  just  those  times  when  they  are 
most  needed.  When  there  is  water  enough  every- 
where else  these  wells  yield  an  abundant  supply; 
But  let  a  dry  time  come,  so  that  the  wells  are  really 
needed,  and  they  will  very  soon  fail.  It  is  a  very  com- 
mon fault  with  wells  that  they  are  not  sunk  deep 
enough.  It  is  considerable  work  to  dig  a  well,  and 
the  farmer  does  not  want  to  do  any  more  of  it  than 
is  necessary.  For  this  he  cannot  be  blamed,  but  he 
should  remember  that  while  digging  a  well  is  the  time 
all  the  work  on  it  should  be  done.  It  is  not  nearly 
as  expensive  going  to  a  great  depth  then  as  it  is  after 
the  well  has  been  tried  and  found  too  shallow.  We 
have  known  some  cases  in  which  wells  have  been 
lowered  after  having  been  in  use  for  years.  Of  course, 
it  is  better  to  do  this  if  they  fail  in  dry  seasons  than 
to  try  to  get  along  with  them  as  they  are,  but  it  is  far 
the  best  way  to  make  tliem  right  at  first.  A  very  dry 
time  should  be  selected  in  which  to  dig  a  well.  When 
the  ground  is  full  of  water  the  labor  of  digging  is 
greatly  increased,  and  there  is  but  little  hope  of  se- 
curing a  good  well.  If  weak  springs  are  struck  they 
should  be  disregarded  and  the  well  sunk  to  where  a 
strong  and  constant  flow  of  water  can  be  obtained. 

Another  very  common  fault  with  wells  is  that  they 
are  made  too  small.  It  is  less  work  to  dig  a  small  well 
than  a  large  one,  but  it  is  not  nearly  as  good  after  it  is 
dug.  A  small  well  is  difficult  to  clean  when  it  needs 
such  an  operation,  and  it  will  not  hold  nearly  as  much 
water  as  a  large  one.  Very  few  farmers  are  aware  of 
the  difference  in  the  capacity  of  large  and  small  wells. 
A  well  three  and  ahalf  feet  in  diameter  will  hold  59.- 
981  gallons  of  water  for  every  ten  inches  in  depth, 
while  a  well  six  feet  in  diameter  will  hold  176.253 
gallons  for  the  same  depth.  As  a  general  rule,  there 
should  be  one  well  for  the  house  and  another  for  tlie 
barn. 


Drive  Wells.  They  are  made  by  simply  driving 
down  a  stout  iron  tube.  These  are  cheap  and  sub- 
stantial, and  never  become  foul.  The  principal  ob- 
jection is  the  impregnation  of  the  water  with  a  little 
iron.  In  regions  where  boulders  or  rock  abound  be- 
neath the  soil,  it  is  not  advisable  to  undertake  to 
"  drive  a  well."  One  Green  a  few  years  ago  secured 
a  patent  on  this  system  of  procuring  water,  and  since 
has  been  going  over  the  country  demanding  large 
royalty  from  those  who  had  previously  made  them.  In 
the  summer  of  1882,  however,  Judge  Wallace,  sitting 
in  Chamber,  at  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  denied  one  of  Green's 
applications  for  an  injunction  to  restrain  the  use  of  this 
well,  on  the  ground  of  prior  use. 

Artesian  Wells.  Boring  the  earth  to  obtain  water 
has,  ot  late,  been  practiced  with  great  success,  not 
only  in  this  country  but  in  Europe,  and  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  world ;  and  it  is  found  to  be  a  very 
great  saving  of  expense.  In  consequence,  many 
places  are  now  supplied  with  this  useful  fluid  where 
formerly  it  was  entirely  wanting.  The  operation  is 
extremely  simple.  It  consists  in  fixing  a  bit  and 
cup  alternately  to  long  iron  rods  screwed  upon 
each  other,  which  are  run  by  steam  power  or 
horse  [xjwer.  The  operation  is  usually  begun  by 
digging  a  well  six  or  eight  feet  deep,  in  the  center  of 
which  the  boring  instrument  is  placed.  The  nature 
of  this  instrument  depends  upon  that  of  the  stratum 
to  be  penetrated,  and  it  is  changed  accordingly  when 
a  stratum  of  a  different  degree  of  hardness  is  reached. 

Borings  are  now  made  to  the  depth  of  several 
hundred  feet,  which  supply  a  plentiful  stream  of  water. 
If  the  original  source  from  which  the  water  comes  be 
higher  than  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  the  bor- 
ing is  made,  the  water  will  overflow  ;  but  if  the  source 
be  at  a  lower  level  than  the  boring,  then  the  water 
will  not  rise  to  the  surface  «of  the  ground,  and  it  will 
be  necessary  to  dig  a  well  to  the  deptn  to  which  the 
spring  will  rise;  and  this  well  serves  as  a  reservoir  to 
contain  the  water,  which  must  be  raised  to  the  surface 
by  a  pump. 

These  wells  sometimes  furnish  the  purest  water, 
and  sometimes  water  that  is  rank  with  mineral  ingre- 
dients. They  are  very  costly  in  the  first  outlay,  but 
they  often  prove  also  the  most  remunerative.  Local 
circumstances  determine  this  matter. 

Tubing.  The  day  of  walled  wells  should  pass 
quickly  by ;  and  every  well  not  otherwise  tubed  should 
be  tubed  with  tiling,  manufactured  for  the  purix)se. 
See  page  1 244. 

Wether,  a  castrated  ram. 

What-not,  akind  of  stand  having  shelvesfor  books, 
ornaments  and  the  like:  a  piece  of  furniture  both  of 
great  utility  and  of  ornament. 

Wheat.  The  wheat  plant  is  essentially  a  native  of 
the  temperate  zones,  lying  between  the  parallels  of  25 
and  60  degrees  of  latitude.  In  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere the  native  habitat  of  wheat  occupies  a  vast  ex- 
tent of  territor)'  in  all  the  four  great  divisions  of  the 
earth.     In  Asia,  the  chief  wheat-growingcountries are 


WHEAT. 


1285 


those  lying  between  the  Black  Sea  on  the  north  and 
the  heads  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea  on  the 
south,  embracing  Armenia  and  Palestine,  the  cradle 
of  the  human  race,  Egypt  and  the  countries  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean:  also  England.  In 
America,  the  wheat  districts  are  of  boundless  extent,  a 
large  jX)rtion  of  which  still  await  the  hand  of  man 
to  bring  them  into  cultivation.  The  valleys  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, Missouri  and  Ohio  alone,  if  brought  into 
cultivation,  are  probably  capable  of  supporting  a 
population  equal  to  a  half  of  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world. 

Soil.  Either  clay,  marly  or  sandy  loam,  if  limy 
anc}  well  prepared,  is  good  for  wheat.  Lime  is  an  im- 
portant aid  to  the  full  and  certain  growth  of  wheat, 
checking  its  exuberance  of  straw  and  its  liability  to 
rust,  and  so  steadily  aiding  to  fill  out  the  grain.  A 
rich,  mellow  turf  or  clover  lay  is  a  good  bed  for  it,  or 
land  which  has  been  well  manured  and  cleanly  cul- 
tivated with  roots  or  corn  the  preceding  season.  Fresh 
barnyard  manure,  if  applied  directly  to  the  wheat 
crop,  is  objectionable,  not  only  from  its  containing 
many  foreign  seeds,  but  also  from  its  tendency  to  ex- 
cite a  rapid  growth  of  weak  straw,  thus  causing  the 
grain  both  to  lodge  and  rust.  The  same  objection  lies 
against  sowing  it  on  rich  alluvial  or  vegetable  soils ; 
but  in  each  the  addition  of  lime  or  ashes  or  both  will 
•correct  these  evils.  Gypsum  and  ashes  together  make 
a  first-rate  fertilizing  mixture.  A  dressing  of  charcoal 
has  in  many  instances  been  found  an  adequate  pre- 
ventive. Depth  of  soil  is  also  indispensable  to  large 
crops.  The  wheat  plant  has  two  sets  of  roots,  the 
first  springing  from  the  seed  and  penetrating  down- 
wards, while  the  second  push  themselves  laterally 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground  from  the  first  joint. 
They  are  thus  enabled  to  extract  their  food  from  every 
part  of  the  soil.  Underdraining  contributes  greatly 
to  the  increase  of  crops,  and  surface  drainage  is  ab- 
solutely essential.  On  heavy  clay  lands  wheat  is  pe- 
culiarly liable  to  winter-kill  unless  they  are  well 
drained.  This  is  owing  to  successive  freezing  and 
thawing,  by  which  the  roots,  by  "  heaving,"  are  either 
Ijtoken  or  thrown  out.  When  winter-killing  is  exten- 
sive the  worst  spots  may  be  sown  with  spring  wheat. 
Although  this  will  diminish  the  marketable  value  of 
the  crop,  it  will  be  about  as  good  for  domestic  use  as 
when  all  is  of  one  kind  of  grain. 

Preparation  of  the  Ground.  The  approved 
practice  of  good  farmers  is  to  plow  only  once  for  wheat. 
It  used  to  be  a  common  remark  among  shrewd,  prac- 
tical farmers  that  good  wheat  was  rarely  grown  where 
land  had  been  plowed  to  kill  the  thistles.  To  use 
their  phrase,  "  it  killed  the  nature  of  the  land  " — not 
a  very  accurate  or  scientific  explanation  of  the  result, 
l)ut  certainly  a  most  expressive  one.  Stated  more  ac- 
curately, this  excessive  plowing  reduced  land  to  so 
fine  a  tilth  that  it  held  too  much  moisture.  Hence  in 
winter  and  spring  the  soil  became  compacted  by  the 
particles  running  together  in  a  more  or  less  thin  mud. 
The  frost  hove  out  the  roots  of  winter  grain  on  all 
such  land,  while  as  soon  as  dry  weather  came  the  sur- 


face formed  into  a  crust,  which  gradually  hardened 
downward  through  the  summer.  It  is  little  wonder 
that  good  crops  of  wheat  could  not  be  grown,  unless 
in  exceptional  seasons,  by  such  methods  as  these.  The 
bad  effect  of  excessive  plowing  in  breaking  up  the  nat- 
ural water  courses  through  the  soil  is  now  quite  gener- 
ally conceded.  One  deep  plowing  does  not  have  this 
result,  for  unless  the  soil  is  entirely  bare  of  vegetation 
the  decay  of  the  sod  beneath  the  furrow  tends  to  es- 
tablish other  water  courses  in  place  of  those  which 
the  plow  has  interrupted. 

Where  stubble  ground  is  plowed  for  wheat  the  same 
general  principles  hold  good  as  for  summer  fallows. 
Half  the  failures  of  wheat  on  oat  or  barley  stubble 
come  from  a  second  plowing,  or  such  deep  cultivation 
as  to  amount  to  the  same  thing.  It  is  the  common 
experience  of  farmers  that  stubble  ground  got  in  hast- 
ily and  roughly  gives  better  wheat  than  with  more 
careful  culture — often  better  than  the  pet  summer  fal- 
low. This  would  not  be  so  were  not  the  labor  so  gen- 
erally misdirected.  Plow  as  early  as  possible.  Work 
as  much  as  possible  with  drag  and  roller,  and,  if  you 
cultivate,  go  shallow,  to  disturb  the  decaying  stubble 
as  little  as  possible.  By  always  cultivating  shallow, 
and  using  the  drag  and  roller  as  much  as  possible,  a 
stubble  ground  can  be  made  very  nearly  equal  to  the 
best  summer  fallow,  and  better  far  than  the  average 
of  those  which  are  thought  to  be  most  thoroughly 
(and  deeply)  cultivated. 

Now,  we  will  suppose  a  man  plants  a  field  with  corn 
in  the  spring  and  raises  a  heavy  crop,  which  takes  a 
large  percentage  of  the  properties  of  the  soil  necessary 
for  the  production  of  wheat.  The  following  spring  he 
sows  the  same  field  with  oats,  and,  if  fortunate,  har- 
vests a  good  crop  of  oats,  which,  of  course,  makes 
another  heavy  draft  on  the  soil.  After  this  he  plows 
his  oat-stubble  ground  and  sows  it  with  wheat,  hav- 
ing the  very  erroneous  idea  that  it  is  in  better  condi- 
tion for  a  wheat  crop  than  a  summer  fallow.  Well, 
what  is  the  result?  The  next  harvest  will  tell.  If  it 
is  a  good  piece  of  land  and  all  things  are  favorable,  he 
may  get  from  10  to  15  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  in 
addition  to  this  he  will  get  his  land  pretty  badly  run. 

Next,  we  will  suppose  another  man  sets  out  with  a 
determination  to  raise  a  crop  of  wheat  and  not  make 
his  land  much  the  ixwrer  for  it.  He  believes  in  sum- 
mer-fallowing. He  selects  a  piece  of  clover  sod  the 
second  year  after  seeding.  In  the  month  of  June, 
when  the  clover  is  in  full  bloom,  he  goes  in  with  his 
plow  and  a  good  heavy  team  and  turns  under  a  good 
growth  of  clover,  about  nine  or  ten  inches  deep.  After 
this  he  keeps  the  top  thoroughly  pulverized  to  the 
depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  using  first  a  common 
drag  or  harrow  to  level  the  surface;  after  this  a 
wheel  cultivator,  with  the  aid  of  the  sun  and  rain,  is 
all  that  will  be  necessary  until  it  is  time  for  seeding, 
which  is  about  the  ninth  day  of  September,  when  he 
takes  his  drill  and  sows  about  one  and  one-half  bush- 
els to  the  acre.  In  the  spring  following,  in  the  month 
of  March,  he  sows  on  the  same  field  about  15  pounds 
of  clover  seed  and  100  pounds  of  plaster  to  the  acre; 


1286 


WHEAT. 


and  what  is  the  result  of  his  experience?  As  in  the 
former  case,  let  the  harvest  time  answer.  Well,  har- 
vest time  comes,  and  if  all  things  are  favorable  he 
finds  that  he  has  to  harvest  about  30,  from  that  to  40, 
bushels  to  the  acre.  He  also  finds  that  he  has  his 
land  thoroughly  subdued  with  a  good  thick  coat  of 
clover  on,  and  just  as  good,  if  not  better,  than  it  was 
when  he  commenced. 

Turn  as  good  a  sod  as  possible  under  the  furrow 
and  afterward  work  altogether  ujwn  the  surface. 
Work  the  ground  often,  for  the  more  frequently  it  is 
stirred  the  shallower  it  can  be  cultivated,  killing  all 
weeds  at  the  first  rather  than  letting  them  take  root, 
making  deeper  cultivation  necessary.  The  old-fash- 
ion harrow,  or  drag,  is  one  of  the  very  best  implements 
ever  put  into  a  summer  fallow,  and  it  would  be  a  good 
thing  if  all  fallows  could  be  cultivated  by  that  alone. 
The  drag  compacts  the  soil  and  rarely  if  ever  scratches 
more  than  two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  deep.  The 
deep  cultivation  sometimes  given  by  horse  cultivators 
going  down  and  turning  up  the  soil  four  or  five  or 
more  inches  is  little  less  injurious  than  the  old-fash- 
ioned method  of  cross-plowing.  We  know  too  well 
why  this  deep  cultivation  is  practiced.  Weeds  are 
allowed  to  grow  in  summer  fallows  until  nothing  but 
deep  plowing  will  uproot  them.  Even  then  it  is  bet- 
ter to  make  the  cultivator  teeth  sharp,  so  as  to  cut  off 
obstinate  roots,  and  then  keep  it  no  more  than  three 
inches  deep.  If  the  fallow  is  dragged  once  a  week 
with  a  well-sharpened  tooth-drag,  it  will  cut  off"  or 
break  off"  thistle  roots  more  perfectly  than  less  frequent 
but  deeper  cultivation  would  do. 

Next  to  a  drag  the  roller  is  the  best  implement  to 
use  in  preparing  a  seed  bed  for  wheat,  and  for  much 
the  same  reason.  It  compacts  the  soil  and  helps  to 
make  a  fine  tilth  but  shallow  seed  bed.  The  drag 
alone  rakes  the  clods  of  earth  on  tlie  surface,  leaving 
it  rough  and  uneven.  This  is  not  an  advantage,  as 
many  have  hastily  guessed  from  a  few  experiments. 
Land  left  looking  rough  and  full  of  hard  clods  of  earth 
generally  produce  better  wheat  than  where  the  sur- 
face is  mellow  and  smooth.  The  reason  is  that  these 
rough  clods  on  the  surface  show  frequent  use  of  the 
drag;  while  the  mellow,  smooth  surface  shows  more 
frequent  use  of  the  cultivator.  Break  these  surface 
clods  still  more  by  going  over  after  each  dragging 
with  a  cultivator  or  clod-crusher,  which  will  compact 
the  soil  but  leave  the  surface  in  better  tilth  for  a  seed 
bed,  and  the  wheat  will  be  still  better.  The  drill 
will  bring  up  enough  clods  to  the  surface  to  protect 
the  wheat  all  that  is  possible,  and  these  ridges  left  by 
the  drill  should  be  left  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible. 
A  mellow  seed  bed,  but  a  shallow  one,  is  the  result  to 
be  aimed  at.  With  this  mellow  seed  bed  secured, we 
do  not  care  how  hard  and  unpromising  the  soil  beneath 
may  be.  Winter  frosts  will  mellow  it  sufficiently  for 
the  roots  of  wheat  the  second  season,  and  if  we  could 
prevent  it  we  would  never  have  a  wheat  plant  strike 
its  roots  deeper  than  three  or  four  inches  in  the  fall. 
Lateral  extension  of  the  root  to  hold  the  surface  soil 
in   a  solid   body  to  rise  and  fall  together  is  what  is 


wanted.  With  such  a  mat  of  roots  as  this,  even  the 
severest  winter  within  our  remembrance  did  not  de- 
stroy nor  greatly  injure  some  fields  of  wheat,  while 
others,  apparently  nearly  as  thrifty  in  the  fall,  but 
whose  roots  struck  downward,  were  almost  entirely 
winter  killed.  This  lateral  growth  of  roots  is  en- 
couraged by  keeping  the  under  soil  hard,  and  also  by 
surface  manuring  and  the  use  of  commercial  manures 
drilled  in  with  the  seed.  In  no  other  way  can  we  ac- 
count for  the  remarkable  eff'ects  of  light  applications 
of  superphosphate  on  wheat. 

Sowing.  A  simple  way  of  selecting  good  seed 
wheat  is  to  throw  the  grain  to  some  distance  on  the 
floor,  and  taking  only  such  grains  as  reach  the  farthest. 
These  grains  are  the  plumpest  and  heaviest.  By  the 
use  of  sieves  the  largest  grains  will  be  selected;  but 
rather  than  sow  chess  or  very  poor  wheat,  it  will  pay 
to  pick  over  the  seed  by  hand  during  the  winter. 
Previous  to  sowing,  a  strong  brine  should  be  made  of 
salt  and  soft  water,  and  in  this  the  grain  should  be 
washed  for  five  minutes,  taking  care  to  skim  off"  all 
light  and  foreign  seeds.  If  the  grain  be  smutty,  this 
washing  should  be  repeated  in  another  strong  brine, 
when  it  may  be  taken  out  and  intimately  mixed  with 
one-twelfth  its  bulk  of  fresh,  pulverized  quicklime. 
This  kills  all  smut,  kills  the  weed-seeds  and  aids  in 
rapid  and  early  growth.  When  the  seed  is  not  smutty 
it  may  be  prepared  by  soaking  or  sprinkling  it  with 
stale  urine  and  afterwards  mixing  it  with  lime.  This 
alone  will  prevent  smut  to  some  extent. 

On  well  pulverized,  ordinary  soils,  about  five  pecks 
of  seed  are  sown  to  the  acre;  while  rough  land,  clay 
soils  and  such  as  are  very  fertile  require  six  to  eight. 
The  larger  the  grain,  the  greater  the  measure  required, 
as  the  ground  will  take  a  certain  number  of  grains 
wliether  they  be  large  or  small.  Some  kinds  of  wheat 
should  be  sowed  heavier  than  others.  As  a  rule,  a 
larger  quantity  of  seed  produces  an  earlier  growth  of 
lighter  straw  and  head,  but  does  not  increase  the 
aggregate  crop.  The  tendency  of  wheat  to  "tiller,'"  or 
send  out  new  shoots  for  future  stalks,  enables  one  to 
sow  less  to  the  acre  by  planting  early,  as  the  more 
time  the  crop  has  to  grow  in  cool,  moist  weather,  the 
more  shoots  it  will  send  out  to  cover  all  the  ground. 
Winter  wheat,  when  sown  very  early,  tillers  in  the 
autumn.  The  usual  time  for  sowing  in  our  Northern 
States  is  from  the  loth  to  the  20th  of  Sejjtember.  If 
sown  earlier,  it  is  liable  to  attack  from  the  Hessian 
fly,  and  if  later,  it  does  not  have  time  to  root  as  well, 
and  is  in  more  danger  of  being  thrown  out  by  frost  or 
of  winterkilling. 

Wheat  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills,  the  latter 
being  much  the  better  way.  Roll  the  ground,  and 
clean  out  the  water  furrows.  These  furrows  and 
drains  should  also  be  cleaned  out,  if  needed,  later  in 
fall  and  in  the  spring.  In  Northern  Europe  it  has 
been  found  a  preventive  against  winter-killing  on 
strong  clays,  to  sow  the  wheat  in  the  bottom  of  each 
furrow,  six  inches  deep,  and  cover  it  with  the  succeed- 
ing one.  The  grain  thus  planted  comes  up  as  soon 
as  in  the  fields  sown  broadcast  and  harrowed,  grows 


IV HE  A  T. 


1287 


more  vigorously,  withstands  the  winters  and  produces 
large  crops.  Indeed,  lightly  plowing  in  wheat  will 
produce  a  surer,  larger  and  better  crop  than  sowing 
broadcast  and  harrowing.  But  the  best  drills  now  in 
use  cover  the  seed  sufficiently  for  protection.  Har- 
rowing in  the  spring,  although  it  destroys  a  few 
"stools," causes  a  more  copious  and  rapid  tillering  and 
a  better  growth  of  grain,  so  that  the  labor  is  abun- 
dantly remunerative.  On  light  soils, rolling  the  wheat 
both  in  fall  and  spring  is  highly  advantageous.  When 
the  growth  is  luxuriant,  decided  benefit  has  attended 
feeding  off  the  wheat  when  the  ground  is  frozen. 
This,  however,  should  be  cautiously  done,  and  only  by 
light  animals. 

Wheat,  and  nearly  all  seeds,  are  found  to  be  more 
productive  when  they  are  taken  from  a  soil  inferior 
to  the  one  intended  for  sowing;  and  it  is  claimed 
that  what  is  produced  both  in  a  warmer  and 
colder  climate  will  mature  earlier.  It  is  not  essential 
that  the  fullest,  largest  grain  be  sown ;  and  it  is  said 
that  seed  somewhat  shrunken  is  more  certain  to  give  a 
good  yield  than  the  choicest  seed.  Grain  designed 
for  seed  should  be  well  ripened  before  harvesting. 

Soils  that  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  wheat-growing 
should  be  sown  with  the  finest  varieties,  which  are  of 
a  more  delicate  character.  In  any  given  section 
of  the  country,  experiment  alone  will  determine 
the  best  varieties  for  that  locality. 

For  drills,  see  article  on  that  subject,  page  366. 

An  experiment  has  been  made  in  this  country, 
with  the  following  results:  Of  fifty  grains 
deposited  at  the  depth  of  eight  inches  only 
two  came  up,  and  these  formed  no  heads;  at  seven 
inches  one-fourth  came  up,  but  formed  no  heads.  Ten 
of  the  fifty  came  up  when  covered  five  inches  deep, 
but  had  defective  heads.  At  four  inches  covering 
there  were  a  few  perfect  heads,  but  most  were  defect- 
ive. Of  those  covered  three  inches  all  came  up;  but 
the  best  yield  was  from  those  covered  only  two  inches 
deep.  The  condition  of  the  soil  as  to  moisture  is  not 
stated,  nor  the  state  of  the  season,  but  we  should  infer 
it  was  moist.or  those  planted  three  inches  would  have 
been  better  than  those  at  two.  The  same  experimen- 
ter says  he  prefers  to  cover  his  wheat  one  inch  and 
never  more  than  two. 

It  is  said  by  persons  who  have  taken  the  trouble  to 
compute  it,  that  the  average  number  of  ears  of  wheat 
on  an  acre  of  ground  is  about  i,2oo,ooo,and  this  with- 
out reference  to  the  quantity  of  seed.  With  thin 
seeding  the  stools  thicken  considerably,  and  with 
thick  seeding  they  are  thinned  very  much.  This 
number  would  give  about  thirty  heads  to  the  square 
foot. 

Chess  andOther  Weeds.  Chess  seed  often  abounds 
in  wheat  unnoticed,  as  its  appearance  resembles  that 
of  wheat,  especially  jx)or  wheat.  It  is  consequently 
often  sown  with  seed  wheat  that  is  considered  clean. 
When  the  wheat  is  winter-killed,  the  chess  has  an  op- 
portunity to  take  its  place.  Its  seed  may  germin- 
ate in  a  decomposed  wheat  grain,  and  its  roots  seem 
to  be  the  same  as  those  of  the  wheat  itself;  and  this 


fact  has  led  some  persons  to  believe  that  "  wheat  may 
turn  to  chess."  Also,  degenerate  wheat  grains,  re- 
senil)ling  chess  seeds,  are  sometimes  found  in  wheat 
heads  ;  and  this  is  another  fact  which  has  led  to  the 
same  belief.  In  procuring  seed  wheat,  if  it  is  not 
already  clean,  it  should  be  carefully  picked  over  by 
hand  during  the  leisure  hours  of  winter. 

Cockle  seed  is  often  present  in  wheat,  and  is  even 
more  difficult  to  be  separated  from  it  than  chess  seed. 
The  weed  is  known  by  a  showy  red  flower,  and  it  is 
slowly  making  its  way  westward. 

Probably  the  best  plan  is  to  raise  seed  wheat  in  a 
field  which  is  entirely  clear  of  chess,  cockle,  smart- 
weed,  etc.  Those  communities  which  arefree  of  these 
pests  can  follow  the  business  of  raising  seed  wheat,  to 
supply  the  market  in  that  line. 

Diseases.  The  principal  diseases  of  wheat  are 
smut  and  rust,  both  fungoid. 

S?)iutf,\\o\x\(i.  be  removed  by  washingthe  seed  wheat 
two  or  three  times  in  strong  brine  and  intimately  mix- 
ing and  coating  the  seed  with  quicklime.  Take  care 
to  prevent  a  too  long  soaking  in  water  or  brine,  as  the 
swelling  and  germination  of  the  grain  should  not  be 
started  before  it  is  planted.  Smut  shows  itself  in  the 
growing  wheat  by  taking  possession  of  the  grains,  fill- 
ing them  with  a  mushy,  black  substance  without  alter- 
ing their  size  or  -proportions.  On  pressing  the  grain 
it  bursts  easily.     It  is  sometimes  called  "  bunt." 

Rust  is  a  reddish  coating  on  the  straw  (that 
is,  the  growing  wheat-stems),  and  is    particularly  bad 

in  "  muggy  "  close, 
hot,  showery  weath- 
er.     There    is    no 
remedy      for     this 
trouble,  but  it   may 
be  somewhat  miti- 
gated by  harvesting 
at   once.     General 
preventives       may 
be  found  in  select- 
ing hardy  varieties, 
Y\^  i.—WKeat  Rust,  magnified.         elcvatcd   land    and 
saline    manures,  as  salt,  lime,  gypsum  and   charcoal. 
Fresh  animal  manures  on  wheat  ground  ratherincline 
to  create  and  aggravate  diseases  in  the  grain. 

Insects.  Several  insects  are  very  damaging  to 
wheat,  worse  at  some  times  and  places  than  others. 
Small  fields  have  somednies  been  freed  from  the  ma- 
rauders by  smudges  in  the  evening  along  the  windward 
side.  The  best  thing  to  do,  however,  is  to  prevent  the 
invasion  of  such  enemies  by  selecting  hardy  varieties 
and  inducing  an  early  and  vigorous  growth.  But  late 
sowing  best  avoids  the  army  worm.  The  Diehl  vari- 
ety is  the  best  for  early  August  sowing,  and  Clawson 
for  late.  Ashes  and  quicklime  kill  insects  so  far  as 
tliey  come  into  actual  contact  with  them  ;  but  an  ap- 
plication sufficiently  abundant  to  kill  off  all  the  injuri- 
ous insects  would  also  kill  the  wheat.  All  insect 
enemies  are  migratory  and  come  and  go  at  their  will; 
and  all  the  remedies   applied   at   the  time  of  their 


1288 


WHEA  T. 


natural   departure  obtain   more  than   their  share  of 
credit. 

Army    Worm.    The  young  caterpillars  come  forth 
from  the  tiny  eggs  during  the  last  days  of  June.    They 

are  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
length  when  fully  grown, 
black,  striped  with  yellow 
and  closely  resemble  a 
common  cut-worm.  They 
have  six  true  legs  and  ten 
false  ones.  In  general 
they  are  not  noticed  unless 
they  appear  in  great  num- 
bers and  are  about  half 
grown.  At  this  time  their 
v,o.  ,. -Army  Worm,  o^niafood  is  Swept  away  as  by 
unipunctata.)  Larva,  pupa  and  moth. fire,  and  they  migrate  like 
vast  armies ;  hence  their  name.  In  four  weeks  of 
gluttony  they  accomplish  their  growth  and  descend 
into  the  earth  about  two  inches  to  pupate. 

In  about  three  weeks  (in  August)  the  moths  come 
forth  to  mate  and  lay  their  loo  to  200  eggs.  The 
moth  is  not  very  showy.  It  is  an  indistinct  yellowish 
brown,  with  a  central  white  spot  and  oblique  rows  of 
black  dots  on  the  primary  wings.  The  back  wings 
are  dusky.  It  flies  only  at  night,  and  is  attracted  by 
lights  and  sweets.  They  lay  their  eggs  on  grasses  and 
the  growing  grains  near  the  ground,  in  late  summer. 

The  reason  the  army  worm  comes  in  vast  numbers 
and  only  at  intervals,  is  because  their  natural  enemies, 
other  predatory  insects,  become  scarce.  When  the 
army  worm  becomes  numerous,  these  other  insects, 
which  feed  upon  their  eggs,  also  become  numerous,  on 
account  of  this  increase  of  their  natural  food,  and  they 
in  turn  destroy  the  army  worm. 

The  only  remedy  man  can  employ  against  this  in- 
sect is  to  plow  a  deep  furrow  or  a  ditch  around  the 
field  betimes,  which  will  catch  the  caterpillars  in 
their  march  and  detain  them  for  a  time,  and 
where,  with  a  little  straw  or  dry  trash,  one  can  burn 
them  up.  It  is  best  to  have  the  sideof  the  ditch  next  to 
the  grain  smooth  and  perpendicular,  so  the  worms  can- 
not crawl  up.  If  the  army  threatens  to  be  a  largeone, 
the  ditch  should  be  deep,  so  that  it  will  not  fill  up 
■with  the  van  and  the  rear  pass  over  them  into  the  field. 
Chinch  Bug.     This  is   the  most  mischievous  insect 


I 


Fig.  3.— C/<i»kA  Bug.     (Blissus  leucopterus  )  a  and  h,  egM     d.  tar- 

w  •  '\u"if  '^'^"  ^^l  "V"''  ■•  ^'   '»■■"  »ft"  «':o"d    ■noil :  *•.  pupa  ;  *, 
leg  ;  /,  the  beak  or  tubular  mouth. 

of  all,  considering  its  numbers  and  its  constant  pres- 


ence. There  are  two  broods  in  a  season,  the  second 
brood  hibernating:  the  latter,  appearing  again  in  the 
spring,  makes  it  appear  as  if  there  were  three  broods 
each  year.  The  first  brood 
appears  in  mid-summer,  and 
the  second  in  the  fall.  Near- 
ly every  imaginable  remedy  has 
been  tried,  but  nothing  has  proved 
reliable.  Much  cold  rain  des- 
troys them  to  a  great  extent, 
and  several  species  of  lady-bird 
(pages  887-8)  are  their  ene- 
mies ;  and  it  is  said  that  piles 
of  fodder,  grass  and  straw  and 
sliocks  of  corn  etc.,  are  harbors 
for  them  and,  if  allowed  to  re- 
main, encourage  their  preserva- 
tion and  propagation. 


Fig  ^.-Chinch  Bu^.  mag- 
nified. Natural  length 
indicated  by  the  line   in 
the  cut. 


Hessian  Fly.     There  are  two  broods  of  this  insect. 
The  first  deposits  its  eggs  from 
early  in  April  till  the   end   of 
May,  and  the  second    appears 
in  August  and  September.  The 
eggs   are  laid  on  the  leaves  of 
the  wheat,  and  the  young  mag 
gots,  which  hatch  in  about  four 
days,  soon  find  their  way  to  the 
base  of  the  leaf,  remaining  be- 
tween it  and  the  stem  near  the 
roots.       It    appeared    in    this 
country  during  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  when  hireling  Hessian 
soldiers  were  employed  by  the"^"^- 5  — '^'"'<"<»  I'h-  (Ce- 
British    against   the    colonies;     -"-"^'^  destructor.) 
and  it  was  named  as  though  introduced  by  those  sol- 
diers.    The   preventive    measures   have  been  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

1.  It  is  advised  to  sow  a  part  of  the  wheat  early, 
and  if  affected  by  the  fly,  to  put  in  the  rest  of  the  seed 
after  September  20th,  which  will  in  most  cases  save 
the  crop.  By  destroying  the  first  brood  the  second 
will  not  appear. 

2.  Partially  affected  wheat  may  be  saved  by  the 
use  of  fertilizers  and  careful  cultivation,  and  if  winter 
wheat,  the  fields  may  be  recuperated  in  the  spring. 

3.  It  is  stated  that  many  of  the  eggs  and  larvae 
may  be  destroyed  by  pasturing  with  sheep  and  close 
cropping  of  winter  wheat  in  November  or  early  in 
December. 

4.  It  is  advised  to  sow  hardy  varieties  of  wheat, 
especially  those  which  tiller  vigorously, — Diehl  and 
Black  Mediterranean  for  early  August  sowing  and 
Clawson  for  late. 

5.  Lime,  soot  and  salt  are  named  as  special  rem- 
edies, and  it  is  also  recommended  to  rake  off  the 
stubble ;  but  too  close  cutting  and  burning  of  the  stub- 
ble may  result  in  harm  by  destroying  the  useful  para- 
sites, of  which  there  are  several  species.  Plaster  and 
other  fertilizers,  to  produce  a  strong  stock,  so  that 
there  will  be  enough  to  feed  the  fly  and  produce  good 


WHEAT. 


1289 


wheat  also.  Indeed,  it  is  claimed  that  nine-tenths 
of  all  the  flies  hatched  are  destroyed  by  these  minute 
parasites. 

6.  Rolling  and  harrowing  kills  many  of  the  larvae, 
and  some  farmers  rely  upon  this  means  alone. 

Wheat  Midge.  This  is  a  species  of  the  same 
genus  as  the  Hessian  fly.  It  is  not  so  numerous  as 
formerly,  having  been  diminished  by  its  insect  ene- 
mies. It  is  of  an  orange  color,  and  so  small  as  to  es- 
cape notice.  It  appears  in  June.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  the  cliaff  of  the  wheat  head,  next  the  grain,  where 
the  little  orange-colored  maggots  soon  appear,  and  by 
sucking  the  grain  destroy  it.  The  remedies  recom- 
mended are:  Get  the  variety  of  grain  which  is  least 
subject  to  its  attacks,  and  then  sow  fall  wheat  so  early 
and  spring  wheat  so  late  that  the  former  may  mature 
too  early  and  the  latter  too  late  to  be  injured  by  it. 

Harvesting.  To  make  the  whitest  flour,  wheat 
should  be  cut  immediately  after  the  lower  part  of  the 
stalk  becomes  yellow,  while  the  grain  is  yet  in  a  state 
of  dougn,  easily  compressible  between  the  thumb  and 
finger.  If  cut  early,  a  longer  time  will  be  required  for 
curing  before  threshing  or  storing.  But  for  good  (jual- 
ity  of  flour  and  economy,  the  cutting  should  be  de- 
layed as  long  as  is  possible,  not  to  waste  any  in 
handling.  Some  varieties  of  wheat  have  a  light  and 
open  chaff,  and  obviously  require  cutting  earlier  than 
others.  Instead  of  cutting  wheat  too  early,  and  let- 
ting it  remain  for  days,  or  even  weeks,  in  the  shock,  at 
the  risk  of  wind  and  rain,  it  would  be  better  to  allow 
it  to  stand  longer  before  cutting,  and  when  cut  secure 
it  as  promptly  and  as  perfectly  as  jxassible.  Wheat  is 
better  to  dry  thoroughly  in  the  straw,  either  in  the 
barn  or  in  the  stack,  before  threshing;  there  is  then 
little  danger  of  its  becoming  musty.  Farmers  need 
not  regret  that  this  climate  is  not  dry  enough  to  pro- 
duce the  very  highest  quality  of  wheat.  They  do  not 
want  to  sacrifice  too  much  of  quantity  for  extra  qual- 
ity, nor  do  they  wish  to  sacrifice  other  agricultural 
products  in  order  to  raise  exceptionally  good  wheat. 
As  every  person  who  will  have  a  practical  interest  in 
the  reading  of  this  article  has  probably  had  more  ex- 
perience and  knowledge  in  the  use  of  reapers  than  it 
is  possible  for  us  to  give  him  in  print,  we  need  say  no 
more  on  this  point;  and  indeed  the  same  may  be  said 
of  farming  machinery  in  general. 

When  stored  in  the  straw,  the  grain  should  be  so 
placed  as  to  prevent  heating  or  molding.  Unless 
very  dry  before  stacking  or  carrying  into  the  barn,  it 
should  be  laid  on  scaffolds  where  there  is  a  free  circu- 
lation of  air;  or,  when  in  large  stacks,  put  in  a  cen- 
tral ventilating  shaft.  The  latter  can  be  made  by 
placing  a  large  bundle  perpendicularly  in  the  center 
and  drawing  it  up  as  the  stack  advances.  Additional 
security  would  be  given  by  similar  openings  horizon- 
tally, at  suitable  intervals,  so  as  to  admit  air  all  through 
it.  If  stacked  in  ricks,  have  them  north  and  south, 
so  that  they  will  dry  equally  on  both  sides.  To  keep 
mice  and  rats  out  of  the  stack,  build  it  upon  posts 
which  are  capped  by  a  piece  of  waste  tin  or  sheet 


iron.  Weevil  can  be  limited  to  some  extent  by  thor- 
ough cleanliness  of  the  premises.  In  general,  barn 
storage  is' better  than  out-door  stacking,  as  it  is  easier 
there  to  ventilate  and  make  whatever  alterations  are 
necessary  to  preserve  the  grain  in  good  condition,  and 
it  can  be  kept  indefinitely  until  the  thresher  can  be 
had. 

Threshing.  While  threshing  "from  the  field," 
without  stacking,  saves  considerable  labor  in  one  sense 
of  the  word,  it  is  often  impossible  to  economize  the 
time  and  thresh  all  day  from  "  dewy  morn  'till  dewy 
eve,"  as  the  proprietors  of  the  machine  feel  obliged 
to  do,  without  putting  a  great  deal  through  too  wet. 
Besides,  all  wheat,  after  harvesting,  will  have  its  sweat; 
and  if  it  is  threshed  from  the  field  immediately  after 
harvesting,  it  will  sweat  in  the  bin  and  become  musty; 
and  it  is  said  that  even  if  it  is  immediately  milled,  its 
flour  will  become  musty  or  sour.  For  machines,  see 
article  Threshing. 

The  straw  and  chaff  of  wheat  should  never  be 
wasted.  When  the  straw  is  clean  and  of  good  qual- 
ity, it  is  good  fodder  for  live  stock  during  the  winter, 
especially  in  time  of  scarcity,  and  is  always  valuable 
for  this  object  when  cut  and  mixed  with  meal  or  roots. 
It  is  also  of  great  use  for  bedding  for  cattle  and  for 
innumerable  other  purposes.  Finally,  what  is  not 
otherwise  used  should  be  scattered  over  cultivated 
ground  and  plowed  in.     See  Straw. 

Storing  and  Marketing.  Some  farmers  store  in 
mills  and  depots.  This  we  consider  a  very  bad  prac- 
tice. Wheat  stored  in  a  mill  will  sometimes  bring  a 
higher  price  in  a  dejxjt  or  in  some  other  mill,  and 
wheat  stored  in  a  depot  very  often  will  pay  better  to 
sell  in  the  home  market  than  it  will  to  ship.  Wheat 
stored  is  at  the  mercy  of  one  man,  or  market,  while 
if  his  wheat  was  in  his  own  granary  he  could  take  ad- 
vantage of  all  the  markets,  and  sometimes  of  the 
markets  of  several  villages.  Every  farmer  ought  to 
endeavor  to  be  forehanded  enough  so  as  not  to  be 
compelled  to  sell  his  wheat  at  any  particular  time. 

Varieties.  The  varieties  of  wheat  are  much  more 
numerous  than  of  any  other  description  of  grain,  the 
result,  no  doubt,  of  the  greater  range  of  climates  in 
which  it  has  been  cultivated.  There  are  more  than 
30  varieties  of  wheat,  and  several  hundred  sub-var- 
ieties. But  the  latter  term  is  probably  often  made  to 
include  merely  such  varieties  as  would  be  made  in 
one  season  by  a  difference  of  locality  or  cultivation,  or 
both.  From  a  consideration  of  the  ordinary  modes  in 
which  nature  operates,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble kingdoms,  the  strong  probability  is  that  all  varie- 
ties of  wheat  are  sprung  from  one  parent  stock, 
and  that  the  differences  now  observable  are  the  effects 
produced  by  climates,  soil,  and  cultivation;  for  the 
differences  which  exist  among  varieties  of  the  human 
race  itself  are  even  greater  than  those  which  prevail 
amongst  well  defined  classes  of  wheat.  Thus,  all 
varieties  of  wheat  may  be  arranged  under  one  generic 
head,  Triticum. 

The  bearded  varieties  are  now  very  generally  given 


I 


1290 


WHEEL—  WHETSTONE. 


up,  partly,  we  presume,  because'  those  in  cultivation 
were  found  too  late  in  ripening,  and  partly  because 
they  are  much  more  disagreeable  to  handle  in  binding 
and  shocking.  The  attacks  of  the  fly  in  autumn  have 
precluded  the  earlier  sowiiig  formerly  practiced  (in 
this  latitude,  about  the  first  week  in  September),  until 
about  the  20th  of  September,  and  to  prevent  injury 
from  rust  the  grain  must  ripen  as  early  as  possible. 
The  varieties  are  thus  narrowed  to  a  few  beardless 
early  sorts,  of  which  the  white  are  preferred  by  millers, 
though  the  amber  and  red  varieiies  seem  to  be  hardier 
in  unfavorable  locations.  Varieties  known  as  the 
Red,  May  and  White,  may  have  been  very  popular 
and  very  generally  sown  until  the  last  few  years, since 
which  time  there  has  been  much  complaint  of  their 
lieterioration.  The  varieties  known  as  Alabama, 
Walker  or  Lima,  have  proved  very  satisfactory  the 
last  few  years.  The  Tappahannock  in  certain  local- 
ities, especially  in  timbered  lands,  has  succeeded  ex- 
cellently. The  Genesee,  Mediterranean  and  Blue 
Stem  are  varieties  frequently  commended  by  growers 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  But  in  all  these  names, 
there  is  really  a  vagueness  and  uncertainty  that 
makes  the  mention  of  them  carry  no  definite  idea. 
There  are  a  smooth  white  and  a  smooth  red  variety 
under  the  names  of  Blue  Stem,  and  two  Tappahan- 
nocks,  and  so  on.  It  is  even  claimed  by  some  that 
the  now  popular  sorts  are  old  ones  re-named. 

Spring  and  winter  varieties  can  be  interchanged  by 
change  of  climate  and  cultivation. 

Winter  Wheat.  In  Western  New  York  the  Im- 
proved Flint  is  one  of  the  best  varieties,  the  grain  be- 
ing plump  and  white,  and  yielding  a  large  proportion 
of  choice  flour.  It  is  not  easily  shattered  out  of  the 
head  in  harvesting.  The  White  May  of  Virginia  is 
still  a  good  bearer  and  very  heavy;  it  escapes  rust  by 
ripening  early.  The  Wheatland  Red  produces  well 
and  ripens  early.  The  Kentucky  White-bearded, 
Hutchinson  or  Canadian  Flint  is  very  popular  in 
Western  New  York,  being  hardy  and  productive,  with 
a  short,  plump  berry,  weighing  64  pounds  to  the 
bushel;  it  does  not  tiller  as  well  as  some  other  varie- 
ties, and  it  shells  easily.  The  White  Provence  is  a 
favorite  in  some  localities,  being  specially  adapted  to 
the  finest  calcareous  wheat  soils.  The  Blue  Stem,  in- 
cluding the  Smooth  White  and  the  Smooth  Red  sub- 
varieties,  has  been  known  to  resist  smut  and  rust  in 
sections  of  the  country  where  all  other  kinds  were 
affected.  The  Mediterranean  is  a  coarse  wheat  with 
a  thick  skin,  yielding  a  dark  flour.  It  resists  rust 
and  the  fly,  is  a  good  bearer,  and  may  be  profitably 
grown  where  other  choice  kinds  fail.  The  Egyptian, 
Smyrna,  Reed,  Many-Spiked,  or  Wild-Goose  wheat  is 
also  a  hardy  variety,  with  a  thick,  heavy  straw,  wliich 
prevents  its  lodging.  The  Clawson,  a  new  variety,  is 
the  most  productive  of  all  in  Michigan.  Throughout 
the  West  the  Diehl  and  Fultz  are  very  popular. 
Midge-proof,  Amber,  and  other  new  sorts  promise 
well.  The  Fife  is  the  celebrated  Minnesota  wheat. 
The  Prussian  or  Judkin  looks  Uke  Fife,  but  the  head 
is  longer.     It  is  a  soft  wheat  with  a  very  bright  straw. 


Spring  Wheat.  The  Black  Sea  wheat  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  kinds  at  present  cultivated.  There  are 
two  sub  varieties,  the  Red  and  the  White  or  Silver- 
Chaff,  both  of  which  are  bearded;  the  former  is  gen- 
erally preferred.  They  are  soft-strawed  and  liable  to 
fall  down.  The  Siberian,  another  valuable  variety, 
produces  a  full,  fine  grain,  is  hardy  and  a  good 
bearer.  The  Italian  has  been  very  popular,  but  is 
now  giving  place  to  new  varieties.  Other  varieties, 
good  for  certain  sections,  are  Sandomirka  (a  new 
Polish  kind).  Gold  Medal,  Red  Mammoth,  White 
Michigan,  Oran,  Odessa,  April,  Arnautka,  Bismarck, 
Chamberlin,  etc.;  but  some  of  these  names  may  be 
synonyms  for  others. 

New  varieties  of  wheat  are  created  by  hybridizing, 
that  is,  impregnating  the  female  flowers  on  one  plant 
by  the  pollen  from  the  male  organ  of  another.  By 
this  means  a  product  worthy  of  propagation  is  now 
and  then  brought  forth.  Observation  will  sometimes 
detect  a  new  variety  of  wheat  in  the  field,  the  result 
of  accidental  crossing.  Propagation  of  new  varieties 
may  be  done  with  incredible  rapidity  by  dividing  the 
plant.  In  one  year,  in  England,  one  grain  was  made 
to  produce  386,840. 

Wheel.  A  friction  wheel  is  one  which  comes 
between  the  principal  journal  and  the  box,  to  dimin- 
ish friction.  Grindstones  are  often  hung  on  friction 
wheels. 

Wheelbarrow.  The  common  wheelbarrow,  with 
movable  side-boards,  as  here  illustrated,  is  confessed- 
ly the  best  for  general  pur- 
poses about  the  garden  and 
yard.  Dirt  barrows  are  sim- 
ply of  boards  bent  down  into 
dish  form  and  fastened  on  the 
usual  barrow  frame.  For 
wheeling  filled  barrels  of  wa- 
ter, slops,  liquid  manure,  vegetables,  etc.,  it  is  best  to 
have  a  two-wheeled  cart  with  a  frame  coming  down 
near  the  ground  in  front,  to  hold  the  barrel.  Like  a 
truck,  the  foot  of  this  frame  or  platform  can  be  run 
under  a  heavy  barrel  or  box,  by  merely  tipping  the 
latter  a  little  to  let  the  platform  under. 

Wheezing.     See  Roaring,  page  802. 

Whetstone.  It  requires  considerable  study  and 
practice  to  become  able  to  select  at  a  hardware  store 
just  such  whetstones  as  one  needs.  There  are  stones 
composed  of  good,  rapidly  cutting  grit,  and  there  are 
others  so  fine  as  to  be  fit  only  for  polishing,  and  are  no 
better  for  the  purpose  than  a  soft  brick. 

To  face  oil-stones,  take  a  ])iece  of  iron  with  an  even 
face  (it  ought  to  be  planed);  on  this  plate  scatter  3 
little  emery  of  fine  sand,  about  as  fine  as  No.  ij^ 
sand-paper,  add  a  little  water  and  rub  the  face  of  the 
stone,  renewing  the  sand  or  emery  and  water  as  the 
progress  of  the  work  may  require,  finishing  with  an 
addition  of  water  without  emery  or  sand.  The  task 
need  occupy  hut  five  or  ten  minutes'  time. 

Kerosene  is  the  best  oil  for  whetstones ,  but  on  Ar' 


GardtH  Barriyw 


WUff  Y—  WHITE  WASH. 


1291 


kansas  stones  soap  is  best.  Rub  a  piece  of  toilet  soap 
wiih  a  little  water  over  the  surface  of  the  stone  until  a 
thick  lather  is  formed,  and  then  allow  this  to  dry. 
When  to  be  used  in  whetting,  a  few  drops  of  water 
will  moisten  the  soap  and  place  the  stone  in  proper 
condition  for  use  at  once.     See  also  Hone. 

Whey,  the  watery  part  of  milk,  separated  from  the 
richer  portion  in  the  process  of  making  cheese.  The 
tliicker  part,  thus  coagulated,  is  called  "curd."  For 
"whey  strainer,"  see  page  246. 

Whiffletree,  or  Whippletrec,  the  cross-bar  to 
which  the  traces  are  attaclicd,  in  the  hitching  of  a 
horse  to  a  vehicle  or  load;  called  also  "single-tree,' 
and  "  swing-tree."  The  larger  cross-bar  in  the  rear 
of  these,  to  even  them,  is  called  "double  tree"  and 
"evener."  The  iron  bands  on  a  single-tree  or 
double-tree,  with  attachments  for  hitching,  are  called 
"clips." 

Stay-chains  are  ordinarily  used  to  keep  the  team 
even  abreast;  but  a  better  plan  has  been  invented, 
consisting  of  a  single  rod  on  each  side,  extending 
from  the  tongue  back  of  the  evener  to  the  ends  of  the 
latter,  where  they  connect  with  a  bolt  sliding  in  a  slot 
longitudinal  with  the  evener,  and  to  which  llie  single- 
frees  are  attached.  When  one  horse  starts  too  far 
forward,  the  rod  on  his  side  draws  the  bolt,  to  which 
his  single-tree  is  attached,  toward  the  tongue,  tints 
giving  him  shorter  leverage  and  therefore  more  of  the 
load.  The  idea  is,  that,  if  a  horse  feels  the  weight  of 
the  load  coining  upon  him  promptly  and  with  increas- 
ing fores,  as  if  from  a  spiral  spring,  he  will  be  more 
apt  to  keji)  his  place  than  when  he  feels  no  increase 
of  draft  until  he  has  reached  a  certain  distance. 

Various  devices  in  single-tree  clips  have  been  in- 
vented for  greater  convenience  and  safety  in  hitching, 
and  some  even  for  safety  in  cases  of  horses  running 
away,  which  are  not  necessary  for  us  to  describe 
here.  Every  teamster,  on  seeing  the  apparatus  itself, 
must  judge  for  himself  what  he  shall  choose.  Many 
of  these  devices  are,  in  fact,  of  equal  value,  and  there 
is  no  choice  between  them. 

For  plowing  in  orchards,  it  is  important  to  have  the 
outer  clips  rounding  or  covered  with  something  elas- 
tic, as  cloth  or  leather,   to  prevent  barking  the  trees. 

For  three-horse  eveners,  see  page  371. 

Whip-saw,  a  large  saw,  worked  by  a  man  at  one 
end,  with  a  wooden  spring  at  the  other. 

Whisk,  a  small  brush;  a  culinary  instrument  for 
beating  eggs,  etc. 

Whisky,  a  strong  spirit  distilled  from  the  fermented 
mash  of  corn,  barley,  wheat,  or  other  grains. 

Whistling,  or  roaring,  in  horses:  see  page  802. 

White  Lead,  carbonate  of  lead,  used  in  painting  and 
for  many  other  purposes. 

White  Swelling,  a  formidat>le  scrofulous  swelling 
of  some  joint,  generally  of  the  knee  or  hip  joint. 
Treatment,  same  as  for  scrofula. 


White  Vitriol,  sulphate  of  zinc.     See  Vitriol. 

Whitewash.  Besides  the  directions  and  recipes 
given  in  the  articles  Calcimining  and  Painting,  we 
wish  to  add  the  following  recipes  for  making  white- 
wash for  both  inside  and  outside  use. 

To  Mix  Whitewash.  Pour  boiling  water  on  un- 
slacked  lime,  and  stir  it  occasionally  while  it  is  slack- 
ing, as  it  will  make  the  paste  smoother.  To  i  peck 
of  lime  add  a  quart  of  salt  and  %  ounce  of  indigo  dis- 
solved in  water,  or  the  same  quantity  of  Prussian  blue 
finely  powdered;  add  water  to  make  it  the  proper 
thickness  to  put  on  a  wall.  i  pound  soap  will  give 
gloss. 

An  Excellent  Whitewash.  Take  half  a  bushel 
of  unslacked  lime,  and  slack  it  with  boiling  water; 
cover  it  during  the  process.  Strain  it  and  add  a  peck 
of  salt  dissolved  in  warm  water,  three  pounds  of 
ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  put  in  boiling  hot, 
half  a  pound  of  Spanish  whiting  and  a  pound  of  clear 
glue  dissolved  in  warm  water;  mix  and  let  it  stand 
two  or  three  days.  Keep  in  a  kettle,  and  put  on  as 
hot  as  possible  with  a  brush. 

A  Durable  Whitewash.  For  one  barrel  of  color 
wash,  half  a  bushel  white  lime,  three  pecks  hydraulic 
cement,  ten  pounds  umber,  ten  pounds  ochre,  one 
jxjund  Venetian  red,  quarter  pound  lampblack. 
Slack  the  lime;  cut  the  lampblack  with  vinegar;  mix 
well  together;  add  the  cement  ar  d  fill  the  barrel  with 
water.  Let  it  stand  twelve  hours  before  using,  and 
stir  frequently  while  putting  it  on.  This  is  not  white, 
but  of  a  light  stone  color,  without  the  unpleasant  glare 
of  white.  The  color  may  be  changed  by  adding  more 
or  less  of  the  colors  named,  or  other  colors.  This 
wash. covers  well,  needing  only  one  coat,  and  is  super-  ^ 
ior  to  anything  known,  excepting  oil  paint.  A  rough 
board  barn  washed  with  this  has  been  known  to  look 
well  for  five  years,  and  even  longer,  without  renewing. 
The  cement  hardens,  but  on  a  rough  surface  will  not 
scale. 

Brilliant  Whitewash.  Take  half  a  bushel  of 
unslacked  lime,  slack  it  with  boiling  water,  ctver  it 
during  the  process  to  keep  in  the  steam.  Strain  the 
liquid  through  a  fine  sieve  or  strainer,  and  add  to  it  a 
peck  of  salt,  previously  well  dissolved  in  water;  3 
pounds  of  ground  rice,  boiled  to  a  thin  paste,  and 
stirred  in  boiling  hot;  half  a  pound  of  powdered 
Spanish  whiting,  and  a  pound  of  clean  glue,  which  has 
been  previously  dissolved  by  soaking  it  well ;  and 
then  hang  it  well  over  a  slow  fire,  in  a  small  kettle 
with  a  large  one  filled  with  water.  Add  5  gallons  of 
hot  water  to  the  mixture,  stir  it  well,  and  let  it  stand 
a  few  days  covered  from  the  dirt.  It  should  be  put 
on  right  hot;  for  this  purpose  it  can  be  kept  in  a  ket- 
tle on  a  ]XDrtable  furnace.  It  is  said  that  about  a 
pint  of  this  mixture  will  cover  a  square  yard  upon  the 
outside  of  a  house  if  properly  applied.  Brushes  more 
or  less  small  may  be  used  according  to  the  neatness 
of  the  job  required.  It  answers  as  well  as  oil  paint 
for  wood,  brick  or  stone,  and  is  cheaper.  It  retains 
its  brilliancy  for  many  years.     There  is  nothing  of  the 


1292 


WHITLO IV—  WINDMILLS. 


kind  that  will  compare  with  it,  either  for  inside  or  out- 
side walls.  Coloring  matter  may  be  put  in,  and  made 
of  any  shade  you  like.  Spanish  brown  stirred  in  will 
make  it  a  red  or  pink,  more  or  less  deep  according  to 
the  quantity.  A  delicate  tinge  of  this  is  very  pretty  for 
inside  walls. 

Durable  Whitewash.  Before  putting  in  the  lime, 
which  should  be  unslacked,  into  the  water,  satu- 
rate the  water  with  a  little  salt.  This  will  make  a 
.wash  that  cannot  be  rubbed  off,  nor  crack,  and  is  very 
lasting. 

Whitlow,  felon :  see  Felon. 

■Whooping-cough :  see  Hooping-cough. 

Whortleberry:  see  Huckleberry. 

Will,  is  the  legal  declaration  of  a  man's  inten- 
tions which  he  wills  to  be  performed  after  his  death. 
It  is  either  written  or  verbal.  There  is  no  form 
prescribed  by  law.  Any  language  which  clearly  ex- 
presses the  intention  of  the  testator  is  sufiicient.  Any 
person,  married  or  single,  male  or  female,  of  sound 
mind  and  of  sufficient  discretion,  liberty  and  free  will, 
may  devise  his  separate  property  or  any  interest 
he  may  have  in  any  other.  Wills  should  be  signed 
in  the  presence  of  two  witnesses. 

Willow.  About  a  score  of  species  of  willow  are 
found  native  in  the  Northern  States.  Their  principal 
use  is  to  bind  embankments  and  sand  dunes,  border 
streams,  cover  wet  places  in  the  form  of  copses,  and 
one  or  two  species  to  make  baskets.  The  white  wil- 
low was  recommended  many  years  ago  for  live  fences 
in  the  wet  grounds  of  the  West,  but  the  experiment 
proved  worthless.  To  kill  willows,  cut  them  close  to 
the  ground  in  February  or  March  to  encourage  the 
wood  growth,  and  then  cut  again  about  the  middle  of 
the  succeeding  August.  If  any  sprout  after  that  keep 
them  cut  back  and  the  roots  must  perish. 

Winch,  a  bent  handle  or  right-angled  lever,  for 
turning  a  wheel  or  grindstone,  or  producing  rotary 
motion  for  other  purposes. 

Wind.  The  velocities  of  the  various  winds,  as 
named,  are  as  fdllows: 

Miles  per  hour. 

1.  Very  light  breeze 2 

2.  Gentle  breeze 4 

3.  Fresh  breeze 12 

4.  Strong  wind gc 

5.  High  wind ^r 

6.  Gale 45 

7.  Strong  gale 60 

8.  Violent  gale 75 

9.  Hurricane go 

10.  Most  violent  hurricane 100 

See  also  Tornadoes,  and  Weather. 

Wind  Galls,  soft  but  elastic  swellings  on  the  bone. 
See  page  siy. 

Windlass,  a  revolving  beam,  worked  with  a  crank, 
for  raising  heavy  weights  by  a  rope  or  chain. 


Windmills.  Windmills  have  been  known  for  many 
centuries,  but  their  simple  and  rude  construction  has 
required  constant  care  in  regulating  to  perform  their 
required  work,  or  prevent  disasters  from  storms.   Small 

windmills  with 
fixed  sails,  if  not 
more  than  four 
feet  in  diameter, 
and  strongly 
made,  may  be 
used  for  pump- 
i  n  g  water  on 
farms,  without 
any  self-regulat- 
ing contrivance. 
If  much  larger, 
they  should  be 
supplied  with  a 
self-  governor, 
and  a  simple  ar- 
rangem  en  t  to 
make  them  so,  is 
1  o  counterfX)ise 
l^y  a  weight  the 
force  employed 
to  bring  the  sails 
againstthewind. 
When  the  wind 
F.G.  i.-Enterpru,  Windmia.  jg  moderate,  the 

weight  bears  down  and  forces  the  windmill  into  a 
position  to  receive  its  full  force;  when  it  becomes 
more  violent,  the  weight  is  lifted  by  it,  and  the  wind- 
mill swuigs  around  with  its  edge  against  the  wind, 
and  its  motion  is  thus  lessened,  or  entirely  arrested. 
Of  this  construction  is  the  Eclipse  windmill.  In  a 
third-class,  of  which  the  Halladay  mill  is  a  prominent 
representative,  the  circle  of  fans  remains  facing  the 
wind  at  all  times,  but  their  degree  of  angle  to  the  wind 
is  regulated  by  centrifugal  force,  and  the  greater  the 
velocity  of  wind,  the  more  nearly  the  fans  are  turned 
edgewise  to  the  current. 

The  wind  which  sweeps  overhead  in  every  part  of 
the  country,  possesses  in  the  aggregate  an  immense 
amount  of  power,  a  force  equal  to  many  thousand 
horses  being  exerted  everywhere,  without  being  brought 
into  practical  use.  Wind  power  has  some  special  ad- 
vantages. Water  power  exists  in  certain  localities 
only;  wind  blows  over  the  whole  face  of  the  earth. 
Wind  may  be  employed  in  places  where  other  kinds 
of  power  are  not  to  be  had,  and  more  especially  on 
broad  level  plains.  In  the  Western  States  it  has 
proved  of  great  value.  Its  only  drawback  is  the  ex- 
treme irregularity  of  its  currents.  Hence  the  ingenu- 
ity of  inventors  in  providing  means  to  meet  this 
difficulty  by  self-regulating  contrivances. 

The  most  useful  wind  is  one  that  moves  at  the  rate 
of  about  fifteen  miles  per  hour,  and  at  any  velocity 
between  eight  and  twenty  miles  it  does  good  work. 

Among  the  most  prominent  of  windmill  makers  in 
the  United  States  are  the  following,  with  a  statement 
of  some  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  their  mills : 


WINDMILLS. 


1293 


Mast,  Foos  &  Co.,  Springfield,  Ohio,  manufacture 
the  ''  Iron  Turbine  Wind  Engine,"  the  wheel  and  vanes 
of  which  are  made  of  sheet-iron.  It  has  what  is 
termed  a  "solid  wheel."  It  is  self-regulating,  turning 
edgewise  to  hard  gales,  and  is  made  from  8  to  14  feet 
in  diameter. 

E.  Stover  &  Brother,  Freeport,    111.,  make    another 


miles   an  hour. 


a  force  of  about  25-horse 


possesses 
power. 

Halladay's  windmill  has  been  in  use  more  than  20 
years.  It  is  a  steady-running,  self-regulating  wind- 
mill, admitting  of  a  diameter  of  60  feet,  which,  with  a 
wind  of  15  miles  an  hour,  has  40-horse  jx)wer.  The 
power  varies  from  one-half-horse  power  for  the  small- 


-Tiirbint  Windmill, 


solid-wheel  wind  engine,  operating  as  a  self-regulator 
in  a  similar  manner,  with  details  of  construction  to 
give  it  efficiency. 

The  Eclipse  Windmill  Company,  of  Beloit,  Wiscon- 
sin, manufacture  a  solid-wlieel  windmill,  which  is 
regulated  by  turning  the  whole  wheel  edgewise  to  the 
wind  in  strong  gales.  There  are  several  sizes,  from  8 
to  45  feet  in  diameter;  the  latter  size,  with   wind   15 


est  (eight  feet  in  diameter)  to  40-horse  power  for  the 
largest,  with  wind  15  miles  an  hour. 

The  Challenge  Mill  Company,  of  Batavia,  111.,  con- 
struct an  efficient  windmill,  which  is  made  self-regu- 
lating by  the  combined  action  of  centrifugal  force  and 
of  the  pressure  of  the  wind.  A  movable  weight  on  a 
regulating  lever  (within  reach  of  a  ))erson  on  the 
ground)  can  be  adjusted  to  hold  the  mill  against  a  re- 


1294 


WINDO  W—  WINE. 


sistance  effecting  from  lo  to  40  revolutions  in  a  min- 
ute, and  no  increased  velocity  of  the  wind  will  change 
the  speed  of  the  mill. 

The  Sandwich  Enterprise  Company,  Sandwich,  111., 
make  the  Enterprise  Windmill  (Fig.  i),  which  is 
claimed  to  have  a  perfect  automatic  regulator. 

Besides  these  there  are  Leffel's  Improved  Iron 
Windmill,  made  at  Springfield,  O.,  Nichol's  Centennial 
Windmill,  made  at  Batavia,  111.,  etc. 

"Window.  A  window  not  properly  made  or  taken 
care  of  is  the  source  of  considerable  trouble. 

Sash-Supporter.  The  cheap  five-cent  spiral 
springs  generally  used  as  sash-supporters  are  unreli- 
able. They  often  give  way,  and  occasion  one,  in 
raising  or  lowering  the  window,  to  meet  with  some  ac- 
dent,  as  the  mashing  or  cutting  of  a  finger,  or  a  hand, 
breaking  of  a  pane  of  glass,  etc.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  are  costly  ones  which  are  but  little  better,  as 
they  require  the  use  of  one  hand  to  hold  them  while 
the  other  is  engaged  in  raising  or  lowering,  and  the 
sash  sometimes  slips  from  one's  hold  and  goes  down 
with  a  "slam,"  frequently  causing  the  same  accidents 
as  with  the  cheap  catch.  There  are  sash-supporters 
in  market,  costing  10  to  25  cents,  which  will  hold  a 
sash  tight  at  any  point  you  may  happen  to  let  go, 
whether  purposely  or  accidentally.  They  also  hold 
the  sash  tight  when  it  is  fully  down,  so  that  the  wind 
cannot  rattle  it.  What  is  called  the  Simmons  sash- 
supporter  is  one  of  this  kind.  A  simple  strip  of  spring 
steel,  slightly  bent  and  secured  on  the  edge  of  sash 
frame  bearing  against  the  jamb  or  casing,  is  cheaper, 
operates  as  well,  but  is  probably  not  so  durable.  Sus- 
j)ending  windows  by  weights,  with  pulley  and  cord,  is 
popular,  but  is  costly,  and  in  case  of  breakage  of  the 
cord,  difficult  to  repair ;  neither  does  this  plan  hold 
the  sash  tight  to  prevent  the  wind  from  rattling  it. 

"Double-glass"  windows  are  those  which  have 
two  panes  of  glass  in  each  place,  with  a  half  or  quar- 
ter inch  of  air  confined  between  them.  This  method 
preserves  the  warmth  in  the  room  and  is  a  great  sav- 
ing of  expense  in  fuel.  Single-glass  windows  cool  off 
the  air  in  a  room  more  rapidly  than  any  person  would 
suspect,  unless  he  should  actually  test  the  matter. 

Imbedding.  Glass  should-always  be  "imbedded," 
in  windows.  This  means  that  the  rabbet  is  first  filled 
with  putty  and  then  the  pane  is  pressed  in  carefully. 
This  holds  the  glass  more  firmly,  and  the  panes  are 
not  so  easily  broken. 

Ventilation.  The  upper  sash  should  always  be 
made  to  let  down,  and  to  be  let  down  easily ;  for  ven- 
tilation through  the  top  of  the  window  is  more  im- 
portant than  through  the  lower  portion. 

Curtain.  The  common  custom  of  suspending 
curtains  from  the  top  of  the  window  interferes  with 
the  best  ventilation  and  lighting  as  well  as  renders 
the  general  appearance  of  the  room  gloomy.  It  is 
better  for  the  eyes  and  adds  more  to  cheerfulness  to 
have  the  light  come  in  from  as  high  a  jwint  as  possi- 
ble.   Therefore   the  window  curtain  should  be  sus- 


pended to  a  cross-piece  or  bar,  made  ornamental  if 
desired,  at  one  end  of  which  is  a  spring,  so  that  it  can 
be  set  in  between  the  jambs  at  any  point  below  the 
top  of  the  window.  The  very  idea  of  curtaining  a 
window,  in  the  first  place,  is  to  conceal  from  outward 
observation  ;  and  since  high  windows  have  come  into 
vogue  there  is  no  sense  in  cutting  off  your  sky-light. 
Only  the  lower  part  needs  curtaining,  except  from  the 
standpoint  of  custom. 

To  Clean  Window  Glass,  see  page  571. 

Window  Gardening,  see  Floriculture,  especially 
page  493- 

Windrow  (win'ro),  a  ridge  of  hay  raked  up  in  a 
meadow. 

Wind-Sucking:  see  Crib-Biting,  page  758. 

Wine.  In  making  domestic  wines  the  process  em- 
ployed is  essentially  the  same  as  that  used  in  the  pro- 
duction of  foreign  wines.  It  is  better  to  gather  the 
fruit  in  fine  weather,  and  not  till  it  is  mature,  a  state 
that  is  indicated  by  its  flavor  when  tasted.  If  it  is 
used  when  it  is  unripe,  the  wine  will  be  harsh,  dis- 
agreeable, and  unwholesome,  and  a  large  quantity  of 
sugar  and  spirit  will  be  required  to  render  it  palatable. 
The  frequent  practice  of  using  unripe  gooseberries 
for  making  wine  arises  from  a  total  ignorance  of  the 
science  of  wine-making.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
fruit  is  used  when  it  is  too  ripe,  the  wine  will  be  in- 
ferior and  deficient  in  flavor.  After  the  fruit  has  been 
gathered,  it  should  be  picked  over,  and  all  that  is  un- 
ripe or  damaged  carefully  separated  from  the  ripe  and 
perfect.  It  should  be  next  placed  in  a  tub  and  well 
bruised.  Raisins  are  usually  allowed  to  soak  24 
hours  before  they  are  bruised,  or  they  can  be  minced 
and  bruised  in  the  dry  state.  The  bruised  fruit  is 
then  put  into  a  vat  or  vessel,  with  a  guard  or  strainer 
placed  over  the  tap  hole,  to  keep  back  the  husks  and 
seeds  of  the  fruit  when  the  must  or  juice  is  drawn  off. 
Water  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  macerated 
(steeped)  for  30  or  40  hours,  more  orless,  during  which 
time  it  is  frequently  stirred  up  with  a  wooden  stirrer. 
The  liquid  jxjrtion  is  next  drawn  off,  and  the  residuary- 
pulp  is  placed  in  hair  bags,  and  undergoes  the  opera- 
tion of  pressing  to  expel  the  fluid  it  contains.  The 
sugar,  tartar,  etc.  (in  very  fine  powder,  or  in  solution), 
are  now  added  to  the  mixed  liquor,  and  the  whole  is 
well  stirred.  The  temperature  being  suitable  (gener- 
ally from  75  to  85  degrees),  the  vinous  fermentation 
soon  begins,  when  the  liquor  is  frequently  skimmed 
and  well  stirred.  After  three  or  four  days  of  this 
treatment,  it  is  run  into  casks,  which  should  be  well 
filled,  andleftopen  at  the  bung-hole.  In  about  a  week 
the  flavoring  ingredients,  in  the  state  of  a  coarse 
[X)wder,  are  commonly  added,  well  stirred,  and  in 
another  week  the  brandy  or  spirit  is  added  (if  used), 
the  cask  filled  up,  and  bunged  down  close.  In  four 
or  five  weeks  more  the  cask  is  again  filled  up;  and 
after  some  weeks,  the  longer  the  better,  it  is  "  pegged  " 
or  "  piled"  to  ascertain  if  it  be  fine  or  transparent.  If 
so,   it    undergoes  the  operation  of  racking,  but  if,  on 


WINE. 


"95 


the  contrary,  it  still  continues  muddy,  it  must  pre- 
viously pass  through  the  process  of  fining.  Its  after 
treatment  is  similar  to  that  of  foreign  wines.  The 
must  of  the  strong-flavored  fruits,  such  as  black  cur- 
rants, is  improved  by  being  boiled  before  it  is  made 
into  wine,  but  the  flavor  and  bou(|uet  of  the  more 
delicate  fruits  are  diminished  by  boiling. 

Wine  from  Sweet,  Ripe  Fruits.  The  following 
is  a  general  recipe  for  making  wine  of  ripe  saccharine 
fruits.  Ripe  fruit,  4  pounds;  clear,  soft  water,  i 
gallon;  sugar,  3  jwunds  ;  cream  of  tartar  dissolved  in 
boiling  water,  one  and  one-fourth  ounces;  brandy, 
two  to  three  per  cent.  Flavoring  as  recjuired.  This 
makes  a  good  family  wine.  A  superior  article  can  be 
made  by  using  one  more  pound  each  of  fruit  and  sugar. 
If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  still  stronger  wine,  add  two 
pounds  each  of  fruit  and  sugar.  This  last  is  good 
without  Ijrandy,  but  better  with  it.  »  One  and  a  half 
pounds  of  raisins  may  be  substituted  for  each  pound 
of  sugar,  as  above.  Wines  according  to  the  preceding 
directions  may  be  made  of  gooseberries,  currants, 
mixed  fruit  (currants  ana  gooseberries,  black,  red  and 
white  currants,  ripe,  black-heart  cherries,  and  rasp- 
berries, equal  parts),  cherries,  Calpress'  wine  (from 
apples  and  mulberries,  equal  parts),  elder-berries, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  mulberries  (when  flavored 
makes  port)  whortleberries,  blackberries,  apricots, 
apples  and  grapes. 

Wine  from  Dry  Fruit.  Dry  fniit,  four  and  a  half 
pounds;  soft  water,  one  gallon;  cream  of  tartar  (dis- 
solved), one  pound ;  brandy,  one  and  a  half  to  two  per 
cent.  For  asuperior  article  usefive  and  a  half  pounds 
dried  fruit.  A  strong  wine  is  made  by  using  seven  and 
a  half  pounds  of  dried  fruit. 

The  following  recipes  for  making  special  wines  are 
added  to  the  above  general  directions : 

Cider  Wine.  Let  the  new  cider  from  sour  apples 
ferment  from  one  to  three  weeks,  as  the  weather  is 
warm  or  cool.  When  it  has  attained  to  a  lively  fer- 
mentation, add  to  each  gallon,  according  to  its  acid- 
ity, from  one-half  totwo  pounds  white,  crushed  sugar, 
and  let  the  whole  ferment  until  it  possesses  precisely 
the  taste  which  is  desired  to  be  permanent.  In  this 
condition  pour  out  a  quart  of  the  cider,  and  add  for 
each  gallon  one-fourth ounceofsulphite(not  sulphate) 
of  lime.  Stir  the  powder  and  cider  until  intimately 
mixed,  and  return  the  emulsion  to  the  fermenting 
liquid.  Agitate  briskly  and  thoroughly  for  a  few  mo- 
ments, and  then  let  the  cider  settle.  Fermentation 
will  cease  at  once.  When,  after  a  few  days,  the  cider 
has  become  clear,  draw  off'  carefully  to  avoid  the  sedi- 
ment, and  bottle. 

Honey  or  Mead  Wine.  Honey,  20  pounds;  ci- 
der, 12  gallons;  ferment,  then  add  rum,  ^  gallon; 
brandy,  J^  gallon;  red  or  white  tartar  (dissolved),  6 
ounces;  bitter  almonds,  each  i^  ounce.  The  process 
of  clearing,  fermenting  and  bottling  is  similar  to  the 
last  recipe. 

Another:  Four  pounds  of  honey  and  t  ounce  of 
hops  to   each  gallon  of  water;  boil  three    hours  and 


skim  till  clear;  when  lukewarm  add  yeast  on  toast,  and 
when  worked,  barrel  off'.  Should  not  be  bottled  for 
twelve  months;  if  left  in  barrel  for  two  years  all  the 
better. 

Honey  Mead.  Take  a  quantity  of  spring  water, 
fully  below  blood-heat  temperature,  and  dissolve  with 
honey  until  the  comjxjund  will  bear  an  egg  up  to  a 
shilling  breadth.  Boil  for  an  hour ;  add  the  requisite 
quantity  of  mace,  cloves,  nutmegs,  cinnamon,  and  a 
root  of  ginger;  mix  the  whole  together  with  a  lemon, 
a  sprig  of  sweet  briar  and  one  of  rosemary  (the  latter 
two  being  tied  together);  after  a  short  boil,  let  the 
liquor  stand  on  the  spices  till  next  day,  then  strain 
carefully  through  a  fine  sieve  into  a  clean  earthenware 
vessel ;  let  it  remain  six  weeks  and  then  bottle,  when 
it  is  fit  to  drink. 

Wine  FROM  Unripe  Fruits  AND  Rhubarb.     Here 
is  a  specimen  process  forraaking  wine  of  unripe  grapes, 
currants,  gooseberries  and  rhubarb:     Gather  the  fruit 
when  it  is  nearly  full  grown,  but  before  it  shows   the 
least  sign  of  ripening.     Any  kind  wih  do,  but  it  is  de- 
sirable to  avoid  selecting  those  that  will   be  high-fla- 
vored when  ripe.    All  unsound  and  bruised  fruit  should 
be  discarded,  and  the  stalks  and  remains  of  blossoms 
removed  by  picking  or  rubbing.     Take  40  pounds  of 
fruit,  and   bruise,  in  small  quanrities,  in  a  tub  which 
will  hold  15  or  20  gallons,  sufficient  pressure  only  be- 
ing used   to  burst  the   berries  without    breaking   the 
seeds  or  much  compressing  the  skins.     Four  gallons 
of  water  should  then  be  poured  on  the  fruit,  which  is 
to  be  carefully  stirred  and  squeezed  with  the  hands 
until  the  whole  of  the  juice  and  pulp  are  separated 
from  the  solid  matter.     Let  it   rest   for  a  few   hours, 
then  press  and  strain  through  a  coarse   canvass  bag, 
with  considerable  force.     One  gallon  of  water  may  be 
passed  through   the  residue  to   remove   any  soluble 
matter  that  may  be  left,  and  the  washing  added  to  the 
juice.     Dissolve  30  pounds  of  loaf  sugar  in  the  juice, 
and  have  the  total  quantity  of  liquid  raised  to    10^ 
gallons  by  the  addition  of  water.     Put  the  liquor  in  a 
tub,  spread  on  a  blanket,  and  cover  with  aboard,  plac- 
ing in  a  temperature  of  55  to  60  degrees,  for  from  24 
to  48  hours,  according  to  the  signs  it  may  show  of  fer- 
mentation ;  then  put  in  a  cask  to  ferment.     The  cask 
must  be  of  such  size  that  the  liquor  will  nearly  reach 
the  bung-hole,  so  that  the  scum  may  runout  as  itrises. 
As  the  fermentation  goes  on  the  liquor  will  decrease, 
and  the  cask   may  be  kept  filled  nearly  to  the  bung- 
hole  with  a  portion  of  the  "must  "  which  has  been  re- 
served for  that  purpose.     When  the  fermentation  has 
become  a  little  weaker,  which  may   be  known  by  the 
hissing  noise  decreasing,  drive  in  the  bung,   put  in  a 
spile,  made  of  tough  wood,  in  a  hole  bored  in  the  top 
of  the  barrel.     After  a  few  days  loosen  this  peg  to  kt 
out  the  carbonic-acid  gas  that  may  have  been  gener- 
ated.    This  must  be  done  frequently,  till  there  is   no 
more  sign  of  the  gas.     During   the  winter  keep  the 
wine  in  a  cool  cellar,  and  bottle  on  a  clear  day  at   the 
end  of  February  or  on  the  first  of  March.     But  to  in- 
sure its  fineness  it  is  preferable  to  draw  it  offattheend 
of  December  into  a  fresh  cask,  so  as  to  clear  it  from 


I2gt} 


JVIRE-IVOHMS—IVOLF  TEETii. 


the  lees.  When  it  is  transferred  to  the  fresh  cask  it 
should  be  fined  with  isinglass.  (See  next  paragraph 
but  one.)  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  rack  it  off"  a 
second  time,  into  a  fresh  cask,  again  fining  it. 

Ginger  Wine.  Boil  20  pounds  of  sugar  in  7  gallons 
of  water  for  half  an  hour,  skimming  it  well ;  then  put 
9  ounces  bruised  ginger  in  a  portion  of  the  liquor,  and 
mix  all  together.  When  nearly  cold  put  9  pounds  of 
raisins, chopped  very  small,  into  a  9-gallon  cask;  four 
lemons  sliced,  after  taking  out  the  seeds,  and  pour 
the  liquor  over  all,  with  a  half  pint  of  yeast.  Leave 
the  cask  open  for  three  weeks,  keeping  it  filled  up 
with  some  of  the  reserved  liquor  and  bottle  it  from 
six  to  nine  months. 

To  Fine  Wine.  Take  one  pound  finely  shredded 
isinglass,  macerate 
it  in  wine,  sour 
beer,  cider  or  vin- 
egar ;  add  more  of 
the  liquor  as  the 
isinglass  swells, 
until  about  a  gal- 
lon has  been  used ; 
agitate  occasion- 
ally for  the  pur- 
fX)se  of  promoting 
the  solution.  As 
soon  as  the  whole 
of  the  isinglass  is 
dissolved,  the  mix- 
ture is  reduced  to 
the  consistence  of 
thin  syrup  with 
wine  or  the  liquids 
that  the  finings  are 
intended  for.  The 
whole  is  next 
strained  through 
a  cloth  or  hair 
sieve,  and  at  once 
reduced  to  a  prop- 
er state  of  dilution, 
by  tlie  addition  of 
more  liquor.  A 
pound  of  good 
isinglass  will  make  10  or  12  gallons  of  finings. 
The  same  process  can  be  employed  in  fining  cider,  ale 
or  porter,  using  i  to  1 J^  pints  to  a  barrel  of  ale  or  ]X)r- 
ter,  and  i  quart  for  a  hogshead  of  wine  or  cider. 

To  Remedy  Ropiness  in  Wine.  Use  one  pound  of 
bruised  berries  of  the  mountain  ash,  somewhat  unripe, 
stir  well  in  each  barrel  of  wine,  agitate,  leave  to  re- 
ix)se  a  day,  and  then  rack  off.  Wines  after  having 
been  cured  of  ropiness  should  be  immediately  fined 
and  bottled. 

To  Remedy  Sour  Wine.  The  only  safe  remedy 
for  the  souring  of  wine  is  the  cautious  addition  of  a  lit- 
tle neutral  tartrate  of  potash.  It  may  also  be  mixed 
with  a  larger  quantity  of  mixed  wine  of  its  kind,  at  the 


W  ooticoik. 


same  tiine  adding  a  little  good  brandy.  Wine  treated 
in  this  way  should  be  fined  after  having  stood  two  or 
three  weeks,  and  then  immediately  bottled,  and  con- 
sumed as  soon  as  possible ;  for  it  will  never  prove  a 
good  keeping  wine. 

To  Re.move  Mustiness.  The  disagreeable  taste 
in  wine,  generally  known  as  mustiness,  is  occasioned 
by  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil.  This  may  gener- 
ally be  removed  by  adding  a  little  sweet  or  almond 
oil,  and  afterwards  violently  agitating  the  wine.  The 
fixed  oil  attracts  and  seizes  the  essential  oil,  and  rises 
with  it  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  easily  skimmed  oft",  or 
the  liquid  under  it  drawn  off.  A  few  slices  of  toasted 
bread,  or  a  little  bruised  mustard  seed,  or  coarsely 
powdered  charcoal,  will  often  have  the  same  effect. 

Wire-Worms, 
the  larvae  of  spring 
beetles.  See  page 
850,  and  the  re- 
spective plants 
most  infested  with 
them. 

Witch  Grass, 
called  also"quick," 
"couch,"  and 
"  quack"  grass, 
etc.,  is  the  most 
troublesome  grass 
known.  Although 
it  is  excel  lent 
forage,  it  is  often 
desirable  to  kill  it, 
which  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  do.  Con- 
stant stirring  o  f 
the  soil  will  gener- 
ally be  successful, 
but  j)lowinglatein 
the  fall  and  har- 
rowing early  in  the 
spring  will  do  more 
than  any  other 
single  plowing  and 
harrowing.  Seed- 
ing to  clover  has 
been  known  to  run  it  out,  and  thorough  pasturing  by 
sheep  h.'is  also  accomplished  the  same  result.  Going 
over  the  ground  frequently,  during  a  summer  fallow, 
and  picking  up  every  root  and  spear  visible  will 
hasten  the  work  of  destruction. 

Withe,  a  tough,  slender  switch,  generally  hickory 
or  willow, used  as  a  cord  in  binding.  Hickory  withes 
are  better  for  being  heated. 

Withers,  the  ridge  between  the  shoulder-bones  of 
a  horse. 

Wolf  Teeth.  This  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
those  pennanent  teeth  of  the  horse  which  make  their 
ajipearance  by  the  side  of  the  milk  teeth,  instead  of 
forcing  them  out. 


WOOD-WOOL. 


1297 


Wood.  See  Forestry,  Fuel  and  Timber.  In  set- 
ting rails  in  a  fence,  in  "cording  up"  wood,  etc., 
where  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather,  if  you  desire  so  to 
leave  it  that  the  bark  will  remain  on  tight,  place  the 
pieces  with  the  bark  side  up ;  if  you  desire  it  to  work 
off  soon,  place  that  side  down.  On  all  fire-wood  the 
bark  should  be  preserved,  as  it  is  of  more  value  than 
the  sap-wood. 

Woodcock.  This  bird,  which  is  11  inches  long,  is 
mainly  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  seldom  taking  wing  in 
the  full  light  of  day  unless  disturbed.  It  walks  about 
by  day,  however,  and  feeds  by  day  as  well  as  by 
night.  Its  food  is  mainly  earth-worms,  of  which  it 
swallows  as  many  in  a  day  as  would  equal  its  own 
weight:  hence  its  favorite  resort  is  where  these  worms 
are  obtained  in  abundance.  The  moist  ground  which 
these  birds  frequent  are  perfectly  filled  with  bill-holes 
which  they  have  made  in  probing  for  worms.  These 
holes  become  a  guide  to  the  hunter,  who  looks  at  their 
frequency  and  freshness  when  he  would  find  good 
shooting.  When  flushed  by  the  hunter  or  the  dog,  the 
woodcock  ordinarily  flies  but  a  short  distance,  plung- 
ing into  a  clump  of  bushes  or  thicket  near  by,  or  a 
thicker  part  of  the  swamp.  It  spends  the  winter  in 
warm  climates,  but  feeds  from  the  Carolinas  to  Nova 
Scotia. 

Among  the  several  curious  habits  of  the  woodcock, 
its  practice  of  carrying  its  young  is  perhaps  the  most 
interesting.  The  nests  of  the  woodcock  are  laid  on 
dry  ground  and  often  at  a  distance  from  moisture ;  in 
the  latter  case,  as  soon  as  the  young  are  hatched,  the 
old  bird  will  sometimes  carry  them  in  her  claws  to 
the  nearest  spring  or  green  strip.  In  the  same  man- 
ner when  in  danger  she  will  rescue  those  which  she 
can  lift. 

Wool.  In  the  articles  Mutton  and  Sheep,  we  have 
spoken  of  the  best  breeds  of  sheep  for  wool-growing 
purposes  ;  and  in  the  article  Sheep-shearing,  referred 
to  the  time  the  wool  should  be  sheared,  etc.  In  this 
article  we  will  give  directions  for  the  mode  of  wash- 
ing and  shearing.  In  general  wool- growing  is  a  profit- 
able business.  Although  the  price  of  wool  in  the 
markets  is  quite  variable,  yet  there  is  always  a  cer- 
tainty that  it  can  be  sold  for  something  near  its  real 
value.  Wool  is  a  standard  article  of  commerce,  and 
has  a  certain  instrinsic  value. 

Washing  Sheep.  The  custom  of  washing  sheep  a 
few  days  previous  to  shearing,  which  was  formerly  the 
universal  practice,  is  of  late  years  growing  into  dis- 
use. It  is  considered  cruel  and  unhealthful  to  the 
sheep,  and  indeed  useless,  as  the  manufacturer  cleans 
the  wool  before  he  uses  it.  Yet,  as  at  the  return  of 
each  spring  season  comes  to  the  sheep-grower  the 
consideration  of  putting  wool  upon  the  market  "in  the 
grease"  or  in  fleece-washed  condition,  this  question 
is  not  always  to  be  answered  separately  from  that  other 
one,  the  best  time  for  shearing;  for,  if  the  wool  is  to 
be  washed,  or  the  sheep,  the  washing'must  necessarily 
be  done  a  week  or  more  in  advance  of  the  shearing. 
For  such  washing  there  must  be  found  not  only  suit- 
82 


able  water,  but  favorable  weather  for  drying  the  wool, 
and  for  insuring  the  workmen  and  stock  from  the 
damage  resulting  from  exposure,  as  "  sheep  washing" 
in  a  cold  stream,  in  the  early  spring  season,  cannot 
properly  be  deemed  conducive  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  laborers  or  animals. 

The  question  is,  then,  Can  enough  be  realized  for 
the  fleece-washed  wool,  over  and  above  what  it  would 
sell  for  in  an  unwashed  condition,  to  repay  the  ex- 
pense of  washing,  the  damage  to  the  animals,  and  the 
risk  of  health  involved  in  the  exposure  of  the  labor- 
ers.' It  is  difficult  to  determine  how  this  can  be  done 
without  presupposing  that  one  party  to  the  transaction 
is  getting  the  better  of  the  bargain.  An  intelligent 
buyer  bases  his  estimate  of  value  of  the  fleece  upon 
the  percentage  of  wool  such  fleece  will  yield  when 
cleansed  in  readiness  for  manufacture.  If  he  knows 
his  business,  and  is  as  honest  as  he  insists  that  the 
wool-grower  should  be,  he  will  pay  as  much  for  the 
cleansed  percentage  before  the  fleece  is  washed  as  he 
will  afterwards.  In  either  case  the  process  of  scour- 
ing by  the  manufacturer  is  the  same.  The  policy  of 
washing  before  shearing  is  thus  left  to  be  determined 
largely  by  the  convenience  to  the  point  of  manufac- 
ture, as  the  expense  of  transporting  the  dirt  and 
grease  is  properly  chargeable  to  the  wool,  whether 
sold  at  home  or  in  a  distant  market,  and  cannot  be 
accurately  determined  except  as  each  locality  is  con- 
sidered separately.  In  such  estimate,  then,  are  to  be 
taken  into  account  the  expenses  above  enumerated, 
while  against  them  is  to  be  set  the  cost  of  transporting 
to  market  the  difference  in  weight  between  the 
washed  and  unwashed  wool.  Under  this  rule  most 
of  the  wool  would  be  sold  without  washing.  But  the 
fact  is,  that  (juite  a  percentage  is  still  washed  before 
shearing — a  fact  for  the  solution  of  which  the  inquirer 
must  look  to  the  ignorance  of  buyers  who  pay  arbitrary 
prices,  trusting  that  the  average  will  save  them  from 
loss.  Hence  it  is  that  the  grower  is  left  as  his  own 
judge  of  the  profitableness  of  washing.  If  he  has  a 
rule,  let  it  be  not  to  wash  his  sheep,  varying  from 
this  rule  only  when  he  has  good  prospect  of  getting 
well  paid  for  so  doing. 

Some  large  sheep-raisers  have  tanks  and  other  con- 
veniences on  their  farms  for  washing  their  sheep.  The 
usual  custom  is,  however,  to  wash  the  sheep  in  ponds 
or  streams.  It  should  be  done  on  a  warm  day,  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  May.  The  sheep  should  be  led 
into  the  water  and  their  fleece  thoroughly  saturated, 
after  which  they  are  led  ashore.  As  soon  as  they 
commence  steaming  from  the  heat  of  the  body  and 
the  sun,  tliey  are  again  taken  into  the  water  and 
washed  clean.  When  they  are  brought  out  the  last 
time  the  fleeces  should  be  squeezed  as  nearly  dry  as 
possible  by  hand.  As  the  object  of  washing  is  sim- 
ply to  get  the  wool  as  clean  as  possible  before  shear- 
ing, the  farmer  can  devise  any  manner  of  doing  it  to 
suit  his  own  convenience. 

Shearing.  Shearing  is  a  process  which  can  be 
well  performed  only  by  an  experienced  hand.  The 
fleece  should  be  taken  off"  not  too  close  to  th-    skin, 


1298 


WOOL. 


care  being  taken  not  to  cut  the  skin,  nor  the  wool 
twice.  Machines  for  shearing,  which  perform  the 
operation  rapidly,  have  been  invented,  and  may 
eventually  supersede  hand-shearing  on  large  farms. 
After  shearing,  the  sheep  should  have  protection  from 
storms,  and  shelter  at  night  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 

The  time  which  should  elapse  between  washing 
and  shearing  depends  altogether  on  circumstances. 
From  four  to  six  days  of  bright,  warm  weather  is  suf- 
ficient; if  cold,  or  rainy,  or  cloudy,  more  time  must 
intervene.  Sometimes  the  wool  remains  in  a  condi- 
tion unfit  for  shearing  for  a  fortnight  after  washing. 
"The  rule  to  be  observed"  says  Jennings,  "is,  that  the 
water  should  be  thoroughly  dried  out,  and  the  natural 
oil  of  the  wool  should  so  far  exude  as  to  give  the  wool 
an  unc'uous  feeling,  and  a  lively,  glittering  look.  If 
it  is  sheared  when  dry,  like  cotton,  and  li^fore  the  oil 
has  exuded,  it  is  very  difficult  to  thrust  the  shears 
through,  the  umer  is  checked,  and  the  wool  will  not 
keep  so  well  for  long  periods.  If  it  is  left  until  it  gets 
too  oily,  either  the  manufacturer  is  cheated,  or,  what 
more  frequently  happens,  the  owner  loses  on  the 
price. 

"  The  manner  of  shearing  varies  with  almost  ever)' 
district;  and  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  give 
intelligible  practical  instructions,  which  would  guide 
an  entire  novice  in  skilfully  shearing  a  sheep.  Prac- 
tice is  requisite.  The  following  directions  are  as  plain, 
perhaps,  as  can  he  made: 

"  The  shearer  may  place  the  sheep  on  that  part  of 
the  floor  assigned  to  hmi,  resting  on  its  rump,  and 
himself  in  a  posture  with  his  right  knee  on  a  cushion, 
and  the  back  of  the  animal  resting  against  his  left 
thigh.  He  grasps  the  shears  about  half-way  from  the 
fxaint  to  the  bow,  resting  his  thumb  along  the  blades, 
which  gives  him  better  command  of  the  points.  He 
may  then  commence  cutting  the  wool  at  the  brisket, 
and,  proceeding  downward,  all  ujx)!!  the  sides  of  the 
belly  to  the  extremity  of  the  ribs,  the  external  sides  of 
both  sides  to  the  edges  of  the  flanks;  then  back  to 
the  brisket,  and  thence  upward,  shearing  the  wool 
from  the  breast,  front,  and  both  sides  of  the  neck,  but 
not  yet  the  back  of  it,  and  also  the  poll,  or  fore  part, 
and  top  of  the  head.  Then  '  the  jacket  is  opened  ' 
of  the  sheep,  and  its  position,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
shearer,  is  changed  by  the  animal's  being  turned  flat 
upon  its  side,  one  knee  of  the  shearer  resting  on  the 
cushion,  and  the  other  gently  pressingthe  fore-(iuarter 
of  the  animal,  to  prevent  any  struggling.  He  then 
resumes  cutting  ufxin  the  flank  and  rump,  and  thence 
onward  to  the  head.  Thus  one  side  is  complete.  The 
sheep  is  then  turned  on  the  other  side — in  doing 
which  great  care  is  requisite  to  prevent  the  fleeces  be- 
ing torn — and  the  shearer  proceeds  as  uixsn  the  other, 
which  finishes.  He  must  then  take  the  sheep  near 
to  the  door  through  which  it  is  to  passout,  and  neatly 
trim  the  legs,  leaving  not  a  solitary  lock  anywhere  as 
a  lodging-place  for  ticks.  It  is  absolutely  necessary 
/or  Hm  to  remove  from  his  stand  to  trim,  otherwise 
/h?  useless  stuff"  from  the  legs  becomes  intermingled 
with  the  fleece-wool.    In  the  use  of  shears,  the  blades 


should  be  held  as  flat  to  the  skin  as  possible,  the 
points  not  lowered  too  much,  nor  should  more  than 
from  one  to  two  inches  be  cut  at  a  clip,  and  frequent- 
ly not  so  much,  depending  on  the  part,  and  the  com- 
pactness of  the  wool. 

"  The  wool  should  be  cut  off  as  close  as  conven- 
iently practicable,  and  even.  It  may,  indeed,  be  cut 
too  close,  so  that  the  sheep  can  scarcely  avoid  sun- 
scald;  but  this  is  very  unusual.  If  the  wool  isleftin 
ridges,  and  uneven,  it  betrays  a  want  of  workmanship 
very  distasteful  to  the  really  good  farmer.  Great  care 
should  betaken  not  to  cut  the  wool  twice  in  two,  as  in- 
experienced shearers  are  apt  to  do,  since  it  is  a  great 
damage  to  the  wool.  This  results  from  cutting  too 
far  from  the  points  of  the  shears,  and  suffering  them 
to  get  too  elevated.  In  such  cases,  every  time  the 
shears  are  pushed  forward,  the  wool  before,  cut  off"  by 
the  points,  say  a  quarter  or  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
from  the  hide,  is  again  severed.  To  keep  the  fleece 
entire,  which  is  of  great  importance  to  its  good  ap- 
pearance when  done  up,  and  therefore  to  its  salable- 
ness,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  sheep  be  held  easily 
for  itself,  so  that  it  will  not  struggle  violently.  No 
man  can  hold  it  still  by  main  strength,  and  shear  it 
well.  The  posture  of  the  shearer  should  be  such  that 
the  sheep  is  actually  confined  to  its  position,  so  that 
it  is  unable  to  start  up  suddenly  and  tear  its  fleece; 
but  it  should  not  be  confined  there  by  severe  pressure 
or  force,  or  it  will  be  continually  kicking  and  strug- 
gling. Clumsy,  careless  men,  therefore,  always  com- 
plain of  getting  the  most  troublesome  sheep.  The 
neck,  for  example,  may  be  confined  to  the  floor  by 
placing  it  between  the  toe  and  knee  of  the  leg  on 
which  the  shearer  kneels;  but  the  lazy  or  brutal  shear- 
er who  suff"ers  his  leg  to  rest  directly  on  the  neck, 
soon  provokes  that  struggle  which  the  animal  is 
obliged  to  make  to  free  itself  from  severe  pain,  and 
even,  perhaps,  to  draw  its  breath. 

"  Good  shearers  will  shear,  on  the  average,  25  Me- 
rinos per  day;  but  a  new  beginner  should  not  attempt 
to  exceed  from  one-third  to  one-half  of  that  number. 
It  is  the  last  process  in  the  world  which  should  be 
hurried,  as  the  shearer  will,  in  that  case,  soon  leave 
more  than  enough  wool  on  his  sheep  to  pay  for  his 
day's  wages.  Wool  ought  not  to  be  sheared,  and  must 
not  be  done  up  with  any  water  in  it.  If  wounds  are 
made,  as  sometimes  happens  with  unskillful  operators, 
a  mixture  of  tar  and  grease  ought  to  be  applied." 

The  grower  is  justified  in  making  his  wool  clip  as 
presentable  as  possible,  without  deceiving  the  inielli- 
gent  buyer.  That  is,  he  may  roll  it  in  the  most  pre- 
sentable manner,  and  otherwise  display  it  to  the  best 
advantage,  so  long  as  he  avoids  deceiving  the  exam- 
iner, who  is  presumed  to  know  what  is  the  general 
rule  for  preparing  wool  for  market.  "Where  the  clip  is 
to  be  retained  for  sale  at  home,  it  should  be  nicely 
piled,  so  as  to  preserve,  as  far  as  possilile,  the  most 
presentable  form  of  the  fleece,  and  be  kejjt  covered 
from  the  action  oi  wind  and  dust,  with  a  fair  average 
of  the  whole  within  ready  access  of  those  who  may 
wish  to  inspect  it.     "When  it  is  to  be  sent  to  market 


WORMING—  WORMS. 


1299 


for  sale,  so  far  as  possible  the  packing  should  be  done 
so  as  to  admit  of  the  best  possible  presentation  of 
fleeces  when  the  sale  loft  is  reached — fleeces  of  differ- 
ent grades  and  conditions  being  kept  together  so  far 
as  can  be.  The  manner  of  doing  it  uj)  is  explained 
in  the  article  Fleece. 

For  his  own  satisfaction,  and  as  a  check  upon  his 
broker,  the  grower  should  carefully  weigh  each  bail  of 
wool  before  it  is  shipped,  and  mark  the  weight  upon 
such  bail,  keeping  a  memorandum  of  both  weights 
and  numbers.  A  comparison  of  these  with  the  re- 
turns of  the  broker  often  afford  material  for  profitable 
study  and  calculations  in  the  future. 

Different  Qualities  of  Wool  upon  the  Same 
Sheep.  The  classification  of  the  "  stapler"  or  sorter 
of  wool  is  founded  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the  dif- 
ference in  the  quality  of  wool  according  to  the  part  of 
the  sheep's  body  \\\xix\  which  it  has  grown.     In  divid- 


FlG.  I . —  Wool  Regions  on  a  Sheep. 

ing  the  fleece  it  is  spread  upon  the  table  with  the 
sheared  side  down,  and  the  various  parts  removed, 
and  thrown  into  their  appropriate  places.  The  finest 
wool  is  obtained  from  the  back — the  portion  marked 
a,  a,  in  Fig.  i.  The  next  best 
quality  extends  from  the  thighs 
to  the  shoulders  and  covers  the 
flanks,  marked  b,  b.  The  neck 
and  rump  give  the  third  grade, 
c,  c,  and  the  fourth  is  produced 
upon  the  lower  part  of  the  neck 
and  the  breast  and  extremities, 
li,  d.  The  principal  differences 
that  are  kept  in  mind  in  grading 
the  wool  are  :  strength  of  fiber, 
uneness,  and  the  curl.  The  last 
|X)int  is  a  more  imjwrtant  one 
than  might  seem  at  first  sight. 
A  long  straight  waive,  as  shown 
at  a,  in  Fig.  22,  is  not  desirable;  neither  is  the  curl 
shown  in  b,  where  the  fiber  folds  back  abruptly  upon 
itself.  The  greatest  elasticity  and  strength  is  found 
in  the  regular  and  fine  crimping  shown  at  c. 

When  examined  with  the  microscope  the  wool 
fibers  are  found  to  be  traversed  with  fine  oblique  lines, 
which  gives  them  a  rough  or  scaly  surface ;  it  is  this 


Fig.  2. — Curl  in  Wool. 


which  renders  woolen  fabrics  so  strong  and  durable. 
To  Restore  the  Color  to  Flannel  When 
flannels  become  yellow  from  neglect  in  washing,  they 
can  be  restored  by  this  process  :  Mix  i  pound  of  flour 
in  2  gallons  of  water,  and  stir  it  over  the  fire  till  it 
boils  ;  then  put  the  flannels  into  a  tub  and  pour  half 
the  mixture  over  them;  after  standing  half  an  hour, 
wash  them  without  using  soap;  rinse  twice  through 
clean  cold  water;  do  not  wring,  but  hang  them  up  20 
minutes  to  drain.  Then  pour  over  them  the  remain- 
der of  the  flour  and  water,  which  must  be  kept  boil- 
ing, and  repeat  the  process ;  after  which  hang  out  to 
dry  without  wringing. 

Woolen  Fabrics.  To  distinguish  wool  from  cot- 
ton in  a  piece  of  cloth,  boil  a  small  fragment  in  a 
strong  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  this  will  dissolve 
away  the  wool,  without  affecting  the  cotton  :  the  pro- 
portions can  then  be  calculated.  A  magnifying  lens, 
costing  only  a  dollar  or  two,  is  useful  not  only  for  ex- 
amining fabrics,  but  also  for  many  other  purjxjses. 

See  Cloth,  Dyeing,  Stains,  Bleaching,  Carpet,  Laun- 
dry and  Hygiene. 

Worming,  an  operation  performed  on  dogs,  con- 
sisting of  the  removal  of  a  vermiform  ligament  from 
under  the  tongue.     See  page  353. 

Worms.  All  animal  bodies  are  supposed  to  afford 
habitations  for  other  animals.  There  are  three  kinds 
that  infest  the  intestinal  canal  of  man.  These  are  the 
Lumbricus  or  the  round  worm,  the  Oxyuris  or  the  pin 
or  thread  worm  and  the  Tcenia  or  tape-worm.  The 
round  worm  is  from  12  to  15  inches  in  length,  the  pin 
worm  is  never  more  than  an  inch  long,  while  the  tape- 
worm is  from  3  to  20  feet  long,  and  often  30  to  40  feet 
in  length.  The  round  worm  exists  sometimes  in 
great  numbers,  and  is  commonly  found  In  the  small 
intestines,  and  occasionally  in  the  stomach.  Hence, 
sometimes  it  is  vomited  up,  or  even  discharged  through 
the  nose  by  its  entering  the  posterior  nares.  Its  pres- 
ence is  indicated  by  uneasiness  in  the  stomach  or 
bowels,  irritation,  and  itching  of  the  nostrils;  a  pale- 
ness and  puffed  state  of  the  lips;  foul  breath;  chok- 
ing sensation  in  the  throat;  bloated  abdomen  ;  periodic 
or  occasional  paroxysms  of  fever,  etc.  But  the  only 
sure  sign  is  their  appearance  in  some  of  the  evacua- 
tions. 

The  tape-worm  is  flat,  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  wide, 
and  is  full  of  joints.  This  worm  infests  the  upper 
part  of  the  bowels,  and  feeds  on  the  chyle.  It  pro- 
duces a  voracious  appetite  and  great  emaciation  of 
the  flesh  ;  and  this  enormous  desire  for  food,  which  is 
never  satisfied,  is,  no  doubt,  occasioned  by  the  imme- 
diate consumption  of  the  chyle,  or  tlie  worm  feeds 
upon  the  extracted  nourishment  of  the  food. 

The  pin-worms  infest  the  lower  end  of  the  bowels, 
are  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  and  frequently  creep  out 
at  the  fundament.  These  worms  produce  an  intoler- 
able itching,  and  ifi  children  are  often  the  cause  of 
convulsions  or  fits,  and  frequently  i)roduce  fever,  irri- 
tation, and  many  other  serious  disorders  of  chidlhood. 


I30O 


WORM  WOOD—  WO  UNDS. 


The  round  worm  and  pin  worm  mostly  infest  chil- 
dren between  the  time  of  weaning  and  that  of  puberty. 
The  tape-worm  is  more  common  to  grown  persons, 
but  it  has  been  known  to  affect  children  likewise. 

Treatment.  To  get  rid  of  worms,  two  important 
remedies  are  necessary — purgatives  and  tonics.  The 
first,  which  is  purgatives,  is  to  clear  away  the  animals 
which  infest  the  human  body ;  the  second,  which  is 
tonics,  is  to  correct  the  debility  which  usually  favors 
their  existence.  The  principal  indication  is  the  re- 
moval of  worms  and  to  excite  a  healthy  action  of  the 
digestive  organs.  It  is  owing  to  a  derangement  of 
these  that  they  exist.  All  bitter  substances  are  the 
best  medicines  to  expel  worms  in  children.  Worm- 
seed,  mixed  with  molasses,  may  be  given  in  the  dose 
of  a  tea-spoonful  twice  a  day.  The  dose  for  an  adult 
is  a  tea-spoonful  and  a  half  of  the  seed.  Wormwood 
tea  destroys  worms  ;  thoroughwort  tea,  or  tansy  tea, 
is  also  a  good  physic;  and  pink-root  and  senna  is  a 
sure  remedy.  An  ounce  of  each  should  be  steeped  in 
water,  and  a  quarter  of  the  liquor  given  at  a  time, 
once  a  day,  for  four  days  in  succession.  The  best 
plan  of  giving  the  pink-root,  medically  called  Spigelia, 
is  ftrst,  for  a  day  or  two  before  administering  it,  to 
give  a  dose  of  castor  oil  or  aloes,  rhubarb,  or  sweet 
oil,  increasing  or  diminishing  the  dose  according  to 
the  age  of  the  patient.  Wormwood  is  an  excellent 
domestic  bitter,  and  will  destroy  worms.  Children 
may  take  from  lo  grains  to  J^  dram  of  the  leaves,  or 
as  a  weak  tea. 

For  the  tape-worm,  and  also  the  round-worm,  the 
most  ix)werful  medicine  is  the  spirits  of  turpentine  ; 
half  a  table-spoonful,  mixed  with  milk,  may  be  given 
to  a  child  between  two  and  seven  years  of  age,  for  a 
number  of  days  in  succession.  Adults,  or  grown  per- 
sons, may  take  one  table-spoonful  at  a  time,  mixed 
with  an  equal  portion  of  castor  oil. 

The  pin  worm,  which  infests  the  rectum  or  lower 
bowels,  may  be  destroyed  by  a  dose  or  two  of  the 
Elixir  Proprietatis,  which  can  be  bought  at  a  drug 
store,  with  directions ;  or  by  giving  a  dose  or  two  of 
aloes.  An  injection  of  aloes,  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  will  dislodge  them.  Aloes  is  a  sure  and  cer- 
tain remedy  for  this  kind  of  worm  ;  or  an  injection 
of  common  salt  and  water  will  frequently  have  the 
effect  to  remove  them. 

A  specific  for  tape-worm  is  pumpkin  seed,  taken  as 
follows:  Pulverize  the  seed  (the  fresh  seed  of  the 
common  pumpkin)  and  after  fasting  for  a  day,  take 
large  doses  (2  ounces  each)  of  the  seed  every  four 
hours  for  three  or  four  days;  then  take  a  brisk  purga- 
tive.    This  is  claimed  to  expel  the  entire  worm. 

To  Drive  Earth-Worms  from  Lawns,  etc.,  give 
a  dressing  of  fresh  lime. 

Wormseed,  Jerusalem  oak,  goosefoot.  This  is  an 
indigenous  perennial  plant,  with  an  herbaceous, 
erect,  branching,  furrowed  stem,  which  grows  from 
two  to  three  feet  high.  It  is  found  in  every  part  of 
the  country,  growing  plentifully  around  door-yards,  in 
old  fields  and  by  the  roadsides.     It  flowers   in  June 


and  July.     The   whole   plant   has   a  strong  peculiar 
smell,  very  offensive  to  some. 

The  wormseed,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  an  ex- 
cellent vermifuge.  The  oil,  which  is  the  usual  form 
in  which  the  medicine  is  used,  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  from  three  to  eight  drops  to  a  child  two  or  three 
years  old.  The  dose  should  be  repeated  two  or  three 
times  day,  for  two  days,  when  it  should  be  followed 
by  an  active  cathartic.  For  this  purpose,  castor  oil 
is  commonly  used.  Wormseed  oil  is  often  combined, 
by  physicians,  with  castor  oil,  and  put  up  in  ounce 
phials,  and  sold  as  a  jwpular  vermifuge. 

Wormwood,  a  well  known  bitter  herb,  found  in 
some  gardens,  deriving  its  name  from  its  supposed 
virtue  in  expelling  worms  from  the  alimentary  canal. 
For  this  purix)se,  however,  it  is  comparatively  ineffi- 
cient. It  is  more  effective  as  a  tonic.  The  oil  of 
wormwood  possesses  narcotic  properties. 

Wounds.  A  wound  is  called  incised  when  made 
by  a  cutting  instrument ;  when  by  a  jxsinted  instru- 
ment, punctured ;  when  the  parts  are  torn  or  broken 
down  by  the  wounding  body,  the  injury  is  called  lacer- 
ation ;  when,  in  addition  to  the  wound,  there  is  some 
venomous  or  poisonous  substance  introduced,  as  by 
the  bite  of  a  serpent,  the  injury  is  called  a  poisoned 
wound;  when  the  injury  is  inflicted  by  an  obtuse  or 
blunt  body,  it  is  called  a  contusion  ;  and  when  caused 
by  a  bullet  or  other  body  projected  from  fire-arms,  it 
receives  the  name  of  gunshot  wound. 

In  the  treatment  of  a  wound  tlie  first  thing  to  do, 
especially  where  blood-vessels  are  severed,  is  to  stop 
the  bleeding.  If  the  bleeding  is  but  slight,  or  there 
is  no  artery  severed,  a  free  application  of  cold  water 
may  be  sufficient  to  check  it;  or  salt  and  water,  or  a 
solution  of  alum  in  water.  If  these  fail,  and  the  wound 
is  open  or  lacerated,  sprinkle  on  a  jxirtion  of  powdered 
burnt  copperas;  to  make  which, burn  uix)n  a  hot  shov- 
el a  portion  of  copperas,  until  it  decomposes  and  be- 
comes dry  and  of  a  red  color;  then  pulverize  it, and  it 
is  ready  foruse.  Itforms  an  excellent  styptic  forsuch 
purposes.  After  sprinkling  on  a  quantity  of  this, 
enough  to  thinly  cover  the  surface  of  the  wound, or  the 
parts  of  it  from  which  the  hemorrhage  proceeds,  place 
over  it  a  bunch  of  lint  or  cotton,  or  a  bit  of  old 
muslin  folded,  and  apply  a  bandage. 

If  an  artery  has  been  severed,  which  you  will  know 
by  the  blood  being  of  a  bright  red  color,  and  coming 
out  in  jets  or  spurts,  caused  by  the  pulsations  of  the 
heart,  the  only  certain  way  to  stop  it  is  to  tie  the  ar- 
tery. If  it  can  not  be  done  and  the  bleeding  is  very 
profuse,  you  must  send  for  a  physician.  If  the  wound 
is  upon  either  of  the  extremities,  you  can  stop  the  flow 
of  arterial  blood  for  the  time  being,  and  until  a  physi- 
cian can  l)e  brought,  by  tying  a  cord  tightly  around  the 
leg  or  the  arm,  as  the  case  may  be,  so  that  it  be  above 
the  knee  or  the  elbow,  as  well  as  above  the  wound. 
There  being  but  a  single  bone  in  the  thigh  and  in  the 
upper  arm,  you  can,  if  you  make  the  ligature  tight 
enough,  stop  the  flow  of  arterial  blood  entirely,  in  the 
parts  below  it.     But  if  the  wound  is   in  some  other 


WRENCH—  IVHO  UGHT. 


1301 


part  of  the  body,  as  on  the  trunk,  the  head  or  neck, 
and  the  patient  is  Hkely  to  bleed  to  death,  if  the  hem- 
orrhage is  not  soon  stopped,  you  must  look  for  the 
artery,  get  hold  of  it,  and  tie  it.  This  you  can 
do  if  you  will  but  try  sufficiently.  Wash  out  the 
wound  with  cold  water,  and  then  watch  for  the  place 
where  the  light  red  blood  spurts  out;  get  hold  of  the 
artery  either  with  a  pair  of  forceps,or  tweezers,  or  with 
your  fingers ;  if  you  do  not  succeed  the  first  time,  keep 
trying  till  you  do;  draw  it  out  a  litde,  and  have  some 
one  to  tie  it  with  a  silk  or  flax  thread.  This  you  will 
leave  long  enough  for  the  ends  to  hang  out  of  the  wound, 
by  which  the  thread  can  be  drawn  out  when  the  artery 
sloughs  off  and  the  wound  is  sufficiently  healed.  If 
a  large  vein  is  severed,  instead  of  an  artery,  the  blood 
will  be  of  a  dark  purple  color,  and  will  flow  out  in  a 
steady  stream.  If  you  can  not  stop  it  by  other  means, 
it  must  be  tied,  the  same  as  an  artery. 

After  having  stopped  the  hemorrhage,  and  removed 
any  foreign  substances  that  may  have  been  in  the 
wound,  if  the  wound  be  large  send  for  a  surgeon. 
Should  you  have  adhesive  plaster,  bring  the  edges  of 
the  wound  together,  and  hold  it  by  putting  the  plaster 
over  it  in  strips  of  about  ^  inch  in  width.  Cold  wa- 
ter is  about  all  that  is  needed  to  be  applied  to  a  flesh 
wound.  Tincture  of  arnica  might  be  added  to  the 
water  to  advantage.  A  deep  punctured  wound  should 
not  be  allowed  to  heal  at  the  surface  first,  and  there- 
fore must  not  be  closed  with  adhesive  plaster. 

Lacerative  wounds  seldom  bleed  very  much.  After 
having  stopped  bleeding  bring  the  part  and  edges 
together  as  well  as  you  can  and  retain  ihemby  means 
of  adhesive  plaster,  and  if  necessary  with  stitches  or 
with  needle  and  thread.  Then  to  prevent  inflammation 
wash  the  whole  with  a  solution  of  ten  grains  of  nitrate 
of  silver  to  one  ounce  of  water.  Continue  to  apply  a 
little  of  this  once  a  day  by  pouring  it  into  the  wound, 
and  once  a  day  the  tinctures  of  aloes  and  opium,  one 
in  the  morning,  the  other  at  night. 

Bruises  should  be  treated  with  the  tincture  of 
arnica,  or  cold  water,  or  both,  mixing  30  to  40  drops 


of  arnica  to  a  pint  of  water.      Keep  the  wound  wet 
by  wetting  the  compress  several  times  a  day. 

In  the  case  of  gunshot  wounds,  if  at  all  severe, 
a  surgeon  must  be  immediately  sent  for. 

Wrench,  a  violent  twist,  or  a  pull  with  twisting ;  a 
sprain,  or  injury  by  twisting,  as  in  a  joint;  an  instru- 
ment, often  a  simple  bar  or  lever  with  jaws  or  angular 
orifice  either  at  the  end  or  middle,  for  exerting  a 
twisting  strain,  as  in  turning  bolls,  nuts,  screw-taps, 
etc.  A  "monkey-wrench"  is  one  with  adjustable 
jaws. 

Writing.  To  restore  faded  writing,  to  make  it 
legible,  cover  the  letters  with  prussiate  of  potash, 
with  the  addition  of  a  diluted  mineral  acid  ,  uix)n  the 
application  of  which  the  letters  change  very  speedily 
to  a  deep  blue  color  of  great  beauty  and  intensity. 
To  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  color,  which  by  blot- 
ting the  parchment  detracts  greatly  from  the  legibil- 
ity, the  alkali  should  be  put  on  first,  and  the  diluted 
acid  added  ujwn  it.  The  method  found  to  answer 
best  has  been  to  spread  the  alkali  thin  with  a  feather 
or  a  bit  of  stick  cut  to  a  blunt  point.  If  then  the  cor- 
ner of  a  bit  of  blotting  paper  Ije  carefully  applied  near 
the  letters,  so  as  to  imbibe  the  superfluous  liquor,  the 
staining  of  the  parchment  may  be  in  a  great  degree 
avoided.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  the  blot- 
ting paper  in  contact  with  the  letters,  because  the  col- 
oring matter  is  soft  while  wet,  and  may  be  easily  rub- 
bed off.  The  acid  chiefly  employed  is  muriatic,  but 
both  the  sulphuric  and  nitric  succeed  very  well ;  they 
should  be  so  diluted  as  not  to  be  in  danger  of  corrod- 
ing the  parchment.     See  also  Letter-Writing. 

Wrought  (rawt),old  past  tense  of  "work:"  preserv- 
ed chiefly  in  the  phrase  "wrought  iron,"  denoting  iron 
that  has  been  wrought,  or  worked.  This  is  the  purest 
form  of  iron  known,  and  is  soft,  tenacious,  malleable, 
ductile  and  can  be  welded.  When  beaten  into  bars 
it  is  known  as  bar  iron  or  merchant  bars.  It  has  a 
bluish-gray  color,  and  always  contains  some  carbon. 


X 


~Tj5ANTHIC(zan  thic),  tending  toward  a  yellow 
^color,  or   to  one   of  those,  green  being  ex- 
^cepted,  in  which  yellow  is  a   constituent,  as 
,,,,.,,  scarlet,orange, and  the  like.     Xanthic  flow- 

Jiy^crs  are  those  wliich  have  yellow  for  their  type, 
"^hiit  can  pass  into  red  or  white,  though  not  into 
blue.     Xanthic  oxide  is  an  insoluble  white  \x>w- 
der  obtained  from  a  rare  variety  of  urinary  calcu- 
lus.    Xanthic  acid  is  a  heavy,  oily,  fluid  substance. 
Xanthium  (zan'thi-um),  the  scientific  name  of  the 


cockle-bur,  sometimes  called  also  clot-bur  and  small- 
er burdock. 

Xanthoxylum  (zan-thox'y-lum :  sometimes  spelled 
as  pronounced),  the  scientific  name  of  the  prickly 
ash,  a  shrub  growing  in  the  woods  of  the  United 
States,  and  bearing  aromatic  berries.  The  bark  is 
used  as  an  arterial  stimulant  and  diaphoretic;  is  good 
in  toothache  and  chronic  rheumatism.  Dose,  for  the 
latter,  lo  to  30  grains  of  the  pulverized  bark. 


Y 


AM,  the  tuber  of  a  climbing,  liliaceous  vine, 
which  resembles  a  sweet  potato  in  appearance 
and  taste,  and  for  which  it  is  a  substitute. 

Yarn,  spun  wool  or  woolen  thread ;  also, 
large,  loosely  spun  thread  of  cotton,  flax,  hemp, 
silk,  etc,  called  "  cotton  yarn,"  "  flax  yarn,"  etc. 

Yarrow,  a  tansy-like  plant,  common  along  road- 
sides and  in  old  pastures,  meadows  and  waste 
grounds.  The  leaves  are  finely  divided,  and  has 
hence  been  called  milfoil,  that  is,  thousand-leaf.. 


Yawn,  to  open  the  mouth  wide,  involuntarily,  and 
accompanied  with  a  stretching  of  the  muscles  gener- 
ally. Among  laborers  generally  denotes  a  need  of  a 
little  exercise;  sometimes  it  proceeds  from  the  incom- 
ing of  a  fever. 

Yeast:  see  Bread. 

Yellows,  a  disease  of  the  peach-tree ;  see  page 
1008;    also  a  disease  of  the  horse;  see  page  785. 

Yoke,  To  Make:  see  page  1000. 


*^F  EBO,  naught ;  also  a  point  in  thermometers 

^-from  which  the  scales  of  heat  and  cold  are 

I  graduated.     In  Fahrenheit's  (pronounced  in 

'^'\Ht\y  *"  T^"gl'sh,  fair'en-hite)  thermometer,  the  one  in 

7|W^  common  use  in  this  country,  the  zero  jwint  is 

^1(32°   below  freezing  point,  and   is  the  degree  of 

I  coldness  produced  by  mixing  snow  and  salt. 

Zinc,  a  silver-white  metal,  devoted  to  many  im- 
ix)rtant  uses.  An  alloy  of  zinc  and  copper  constitutes 
brass.      Sulphate   of  zinc   is    "white    vitriol;"    see 


Vitriol.     Oxide  of  zinc  is  "  zinc  white,"  a  beautiful 
white  paint,  not  so  poisonous  as  white  lead. 

The  best  way  to  polish  zincs  under  stoves  is  by  the 
use  of  dry  paper,  ratiier  than  by  washing  with  soap- 
suds.    Whiting  or  French  chalk  will  be  a  good  aid. 

Zymotic  (zi-mot'ic),  of,  pertaining  to  or  caused  by 
fermentation.  Zvmotic  diseases  are,  therefore,  such 
as  small  ixix,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  mumps,  hooping- 
cough,  diphtheria,  influenza,  all  the  general  fevers  and 
Asiatic  cholera. 


INDEX. 


1307 


Cattle    Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Brain,  Inflammation  of; 

see  Phrenitis 233 

Bronchitis 225 

Catarrh:  see    Bronchitis  225 

Coryza 226 

Hoose 230 

Malignant 231 

Cattle  Plague: see  Mur- 
rain    233 

Choking 225 

Colic:  see  Hoove 230 

Consumption 226 

Coryza 226 

Cow-Pox 226 

Croup '. 226 

Cud,  Loss  of 226 

Diarrhoea 226 

of  Calves 176 

Dysentery 226 

Ear.  Diseases  of 222 

Enteritis    ......    229 

Epizootic  Aphthie 229 

Eye,  Diseases  of. 222 

Felon  of  the  Joint 223 

Fever 238 

Foul  Claw 229 

Foul  in  the  Foot 229 

Frensy:  see  Phrenitis..  233 
Frontal  Sinuses,  Inflam- 
mation of. ........ .    .   221 

Garget 229 

Gastro-Enteritis 230 

Glossitis 223 

Haw,  Inflammation  of..   222 

Hoose,  in  Calves 230 

Hoove 230 

Horn,  Fracture  of. 222 

Hoven 230 

Hydatids  in  the  Brain  : 

sameasin  Sheep 1141 

Hydrophobia 236 

Inflammation:    see  part 
inflamed. 

Jaundice 231 

Joint  Felon 223 

Laryngitis:     see    Bron- 
chitis  225 

Croup 226 

Lice 231 

Liver,  Inflamed 230 

Lock-jaw 231 

Lung      Diseases:       see 
Pieuro-pneumonia. . .   234 

Malignant  Catarrh 231 

Mange.... 231 

Milk  Fever 231 

Sickness 238 

Mouth     Diseases:     see 
Epizootic  Aphthse. ...  229 

Murrain 233 

Navel  111 233 

Ophthalmia 222 

Parturient     Fever:     see 

Milk  Fever 231 

Phrenitis. 233 

Pleurisy   233 

Pleuro-pncumonia 234 

Pneumonia 236 

Quarter  Evil 223 

Rabies 236 

Red  Water 238 

Rinderpest 1100 

Simple  Fever. 238 

Splenic  Fever 238 

Staggers,    or    Stomach 

Staggers:  see  Hoven.  230 
Strangulation  of  the  In- 
testines    238 

Texas  Fever 238 

Thrush 223,  238 

Trembles 238 


Cattle,  Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Tumors  about  the  Ear.   222 

Eye 222 

Typhoid    Fever 239 

Udder,  Inflammation  of; 

see  Garget 229 

Warbles:  see    Ox   Gad- 
fly     553 

Windpipe,  Inflammation 

of;  see  Bronchitis 225 

Caul 241 

Fat 241 

Cauliflower 241 

To  Cook 241 

ToPickle 1038 

Seed 560 

Caustic 241 

See  also  Lunar  Caustic. ..  949 

Cauterize - 241 

See  also  Firing 462 

Cautery 241 

Cavity  of  an  Apple   241 

Cayenne  Pepper 1036 

Cayuga  Ducks 377 

Cellar:  see  Forestry 512 

Celery    241 

Varieties 242 

To  Prepare  for  Table ....  242 
Seed,  To  Raise  and  Keep  560 
Amount    of    Seed    to    the 

Acre 18 

Cellar:  see  Residence 1086 

Hygiene ,   827 

Cement 242 

for  Cisterns 242 

Glassware 242 

China  Ware 242 

Wooden  Ware 242 

Furniture     ... 242 

1  ron 242 

Stone 243 

Steam  Pipes 243 

Water  Pipes 243 

Stoves 243 

Flues,  etc 243 

Chimneys 243 

Rubber 243 

Canning  Fruits 243 

Center  of  Gravity 243 

Cereal 243 

Cerebro-Spinal     Meningitis: 

see  Spotted  Fever 459 

Cess-Pool 243 

Chaff 243 

Chafing 243 

Chafing-Diih 243 

Chairs 243 

Chalcedony 882 

Chalcis  Parasite 864 

Challenge 243 

Chamber    of    Commerce:   see 

Board  of  Trade 107 

Chambers,  Disinfectants  for..   324 

Chamomile 243 

Champagne  (home-made) 243 

Summer  243 

Cider 267 

Xhange:  see  Board  of  Trade  107 
Chapping  (Chapped    Hands, 

Face,  Lips,  etc.) 243 

Charbon 223,  244 

Charcoal 244,  549 

Animal 244 

as  an  Antiseptic 244 

as  a  Deodorizer 244 

Sufl'ocation  from 244 

Charge,  in  Furriery 244 

Chartreuse  Cat 194 

Chattel    Mort-zages 918 

Cheat:  see  Chess 253 

Check,  on  a  Bank 244 

Check  Ease  and  Rein    148 

Check  Rower 244,  293 


Cheese 245 

Rennet 245 

Adulteration 249 

'i'oastcd 249 

Head 249 

Ox  Cheek 249 

Cherry 249 

Black  Knot 252 

Slug 855 

Varieties 252 

Wild 513 

To  Can:  see  Canning....   183 

Dry;  see  Drying 3- 

Bottle 

Brandy 132 

Preserves   1066 

Most  Profitable  Varieties.  545 

as  Dessert 547 

Cheshire  Hogs 1201 

Chess,  or  Cheat 253,  1287 

Chest,    Dropsy    of,    in     the 

Horse 753 

Chester  White  Hogs 1202 

Chest  Founder 769 

Chestnut 253,  512 

Cheviot  (Breed  of  Sheep), .  ..1125 

Chewing  the  Cud   209,  226 

Chewing  Gum 253 

Chiccory 253 

Chick,  or  Chicken 253,  513 

To  Carve 154 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Chicken  Pox ,  .  253 

Chiffoniere 254 

Chilblains 254 

Children 254 

Playing  with  Razors.    ...     17 

See  also  Education 383 

Clothing 831 

Chill,  in  Casting  Iron 259 

Chills  and  Fever:  see  Ague..     19 

Chimney 259,  1087 

Cement  for 243 

China  Ware,  Cement  for 242 

Chinch  Bug:  see  Wheat 1288 

Chine 259 

Chinese  Cat 194 

Hogs 1202 

Chisley 255 

Chittagong  Fowl *. ...   519 

Chives:  see  Gives 269 

Chlorides:  see  Chlorine.. 259,  261 

Chlorine 259,  261 

Chloroform 260 

Chocolate 260 

Choke-Damp -    ....  260 

Choking 260 

of  Cattle   225 

of  Horse 753 

of  Sheep 1137 

Cholera,  Asiatic 260 

Infantum 260 

Morbus 261 

Hog 1224 

Chorea:  see  St.  Vitus'  Dance  1186 

Chowchow 261 

Chowder 261 

Chrysalid  or  Chryalis 261 

Chub 473 

Chufa 261 

Church  (building)... 261 

Etiquette 411 

Churn 263 

Churning I'o 

Cider 264 

Champagne  Cider 267 

Imitation  Champagne. .. .  267 

"     Cider.. 267 

Sweet  Cider 267 

Cinchona 368 

Cinnamon 268 

Ci'>ns 586 


Circular  Work,  To    Measure: 

see  Grindstone 607 

Cistern 268 

Filter 268 

Cement  for 243 

Citric  Acid 268 

Citron 268 

Preserves 10^6 

City:  see  Traveling 1253 

Influx  of  Voutli    to  :    see 

Children 258 

Gives 269 

Clabber 269 

Clay 269 

Cleaning:     see    article    to     be 
cleaned. 

Clevis 269 

Climate.  -  - 269 

See  also  Weather 12S1 

Climbing  Fish    477 

Clingstone 271 

Clipping  of  Horses 271,  731 

Clocks 27 1 

Closet   271 

See  also  Chiff'onieres 254 

Residence   1084 

Privy 1067 

Closing  Accounts 127 

Cloth 271 

Swindle 1194 

Clothes  Moth B60 

Clothes  Line,  Pins  Rack   and 

Wringer:  see  Laundry 908 

Clothing:  see  Hygiene 830 

Cloud:  see  Weather 1281 

Clover 272 

White,      Red,      Lucern, 
Southern,  Alsike,    Yel- 
low, Bokhara  or  Sweet- 
scented,  Sweet 273 

Alfalfa;  see  Lucern 273 

Value   of,    as    Food    for 

Stock 505 

Amount  of   Seed    to    the 

Acre iS 

Cloves 274 

Clubs,  Farmers' 44a 

Clyster,  Laxative,  Emollient, 
Stimulating,  Diuretic,    As- 
tringent, Nourishing  and 

for  Worms 274 

for  Farm  Animals 217 

Coach 18S,  274 

Dog 338 

Coagulation 274 

Coal 274,  549 

Fire,  To  Start 1181 

Tar 275 

No.     of    Pounds     to    the 

Bushel 156 

Cobbler 275 

Cobs,  Value  of,  as    Food    for 

Stock 505 

Cochin   China  (Fowl) 519 

Cochineal 275 

Cock:  see  Fowl,  Domestic....   513 

of  the  Plains 609 

See  also  Ball   Cock 56 

Cockerel 275 

Cocklebur 275 

Cockroach 275 

Cock's-foot  Grass 599 

Cocoa 275 

Cocoanut 275 

Cake i6g 

Pie 1038 

Cocoon 275 

C.  O.  D 275 

Codfish,  to  Boil 481 

Balls 481 

Codicil ,  Form  of,  etc 924 

Codling  Moth 26 

Cod-Liver  Oil 275 


i3o8 


INDEX. 


Coffee 276 

Dandelion 320 

Milk 276 

Chiccory  a  Substitute  for  253 
Coffec-Trcc,  Kentucky...       512 

Coffin,  in   Farriery 276 

Joint    Lameness;  see  Na- 
vicular Joint   Lameness  793 

Coins,  Old,  To  Clean 276 

Coke 276,  549 

Colander 277 

Colchicum 277 

Cold  (ailment) 277 

in  Horse 754 

See  also  Hoarseness. ...    .  665 

Cold  Chisel 277 

Cold  Frame 277 

Colewort 278 

See  also  Rape 1078 

Colic,    Spasmodic,    Flatulent, 

Bilious  and  Cramp 278 

in  the  Horse 754 

in  Cattle:  see  Hooven   ...  230 

in  Sheep ...   1137 

Collar , 278 

See  also  Harness 637 

Collateral 378 

Colley  (a  Kind  of  Dog).  ..   ...  335 

Collodion 278 

Cologne  Water 278 

Color,  of  Horses 721 

Coloring!  see  Dyeing 378 

Painting 1002 

Colors,   Harmony  of,  in  Dress  404 

Colter 278 

See  also  P  low 1043 

CoUs,  Treatment  of 21-2 

See  also  Horse 705,  etc. 

Commercial    Forms:    see    Le- 
gal lousiness  Forms..   ..912,  925 

Commode 278 

Sec  also  Privy 1067 

Common  Carrier 278 

Communism .   .     278 

Complexion 1250 

Composition,  in  Commerce   ..  279 
Water-proof,    for     Boots 

and  Shoes 130 

Compost 278 

Compounding,  in  Commerce    279 

in  Crime. 279 

Compound  Soap 944 

Compromise 279 

Concrete      379 

Concussion 279 

Condiments... 279 

Bay  Leaves 71 

Brandy 132 

Butter 158 

Cheese 245 

Cider 264 

Cinnamon , 268 

Cives    , 269 

Cloves 274 

Cream 307 

Garlic 561 

Gin;er 571 

Lemon  or  Orange  Peel . .    935 

Mace 950 

Mints,    see    the    various 
kinds. 

Mustard 984 

Nutmeg 993 

Onion .- 996 

Parsley 1004 

Pepper 1035 

Peppcrgrass:    see    Cress.   309 

Peppermint 1036 

Salt iiii 

Sassafras 1112 

Sugar 1187 

Summer  Savory  1114 

Thyme 1242 


Condiments  ^Cont'd) 

Vanilla ...  1270 

Vinegar 1273 

Condition  Powders 279 

Confec;iouery:  see  Candy....   178 

Confidence  Men '^55 

Con;;cstion 279 

Conservatory      279 

See  also  Ice-House 838 

Consignment 280 

Consignor 280 

Constipation 280 

of  Lambs. ..,1137 

Consumption,    Acute,  Latent, 
Febrile,  Chronic,  Causes  of.  280 

Treatment  of 281 

in  Cattle 226 

Contagion 281 

See  also  Disinfectants ....   324 

Contract 282 

See  also  Agreement. ..913,  944 

Building,  Form  of 913 

for  Real  Estate 283 

Damages  for  Breach  of    .  913 

Convalescence 283 

Conversation,  Etiquette  in   ..  406 
Convertible  Husbandry. . .    .      283 

Convulsions 283 

See  also  Apoplexy 23 

Epilepsy.. 399 

Catalepsy 195 

Hysteria .    .   836 

Hydrophobia 825 

Cookery 283 

See  the  respective  Meats, 
Fruits,  Vegetables  and 
Beverages,  and  the  fol- 
lowing miscellaneous 
dishes: 

Biscuit 100 

Bread 133 

Buns 154 

Cakes 168 

Cheese 245 

Chowder 261 

Cobbler 275 

Crackers 305-6 

Creams 307-8 

Custard 317 

Dessert 322 

Doughnut 357 

Dumpling 378 

Eggs 390 

Float 488 

Fritter 543 

Garnishing 5*^ 

Gravy 600 

Greens '.   606 

Gruel 612 

Hash 641 

Hominy      ,  666 

Hulled  Corn 824 

Iceland  Moss 841 

Jam:  see  Marmalade 959 

Jelly 879 

Jumbles 172,  882 

Marmalade 959 

Muffins    980 

M  ush 982 

Pancakes 1003 

Pickle 1037 

Pie 1038 

Porridge:  sec  Oatmeal..     993 

Preserves 1066 

Pudding, 1068 

Roll    1103 

Rusk 1 107 

Salad 1109 

Sausage iii,  iii3-4 

Soup 1161 

Succotash 1 186 

Tart 1235 

Toxst 1247 

Waffle.   174,  1276 


I     Cookies 169,  170 

Cooking  Food  for  Stock:    sec 

Feed,  etc 444 

Cook's  Electro-Magnetic  Lin- 
iment     945 

Cooler:  see  Alcarraza 19 

Co-operation 285 

among    Farmers 439 

Coping 285 

Copper,  Solder  for ...1160 

Sulphate  of*  see  Blue  Vit- 
riol     107 

Vessels 133,  285 

Copperas 876 

Coral 882 

Cordial,  Blackberry  and  Black 

Currant 285 

Coriander 286 

Cork 286 

Corking 286 

Cork-Screw 2S6 

Corn 286 

H  istory  of 286 

Cultivation 286 

Amount  of    Seed    to    the 

Acre 18 

Harvesting 287 

"■Hogging  Down" 288 

Seed  Corn 289 

Diseases 289 

Insects      290 

Varieties 291 

Sweet 291 

Varieties 291 

To  Select  Seed.    .   560 

Pop-Corn   ... 1059 

Husker    , 292 

Sheller 292 

Planter ^....  293 

To  Can ... 184 

Green,  To  Cook 293 

To  Stew 293 

Canned,  To  Prepare 293 

To  Dry 293 

To  Measure  in  the  Crib.  294 
Value  of,  for  Stock. .  .294,  505 
Price,     Compared      with 

Pork 294 

No.  Pounds  per  Bushel..  156 
Meal,  Number  of'Pounds 

per  Bushel 156 

Mush 982 

Bread 13c 

Po,"e 13- 

Fritt'*rs     544 

Hulled   824 

Salad 295 

Cornet,  of  a  Horse    295 

Corns 295 

on  Horses 756 

Corn-Stalk  Cutter 295 

Corn-Stalks',     Value     of,     as 

Food  for  Stock 505 

Corral 295 

Corridor   295 

Corrosive   Sublimate 295 

Corrugated 295 

Corundum 881 

Coryza   in  Cattle 226 

Cosmetics 295 

Costiveness:  see  Constipation  280 

Cotswold  Sheep 1125 

Cottage 29s,  1092-3 

Cheese:  see  Dutch  Cheese  378 

Cotton ....    295 

Seed,    Weight     of,      per 

Bushel 156 

Value   of,    as  Food    for 

Stock 505 

Cloth,  To  Wash 909 

Cotton-Seed  Meal ....      996 

Cottonwood 2g/S 


Coughs,  Dry,  Tickling    Con- 
sumptive. Asthmatic,  Hack- 
ing, Chronic,  etc 297 

in  Horses 758 

See  also  Hoarseness 665 

Coulter:  see  Colter ^3 

See  also  Plow    1043 

Counter,  in  Farriery 297 

Counterfeit  Money,  To  Detect: 

see     Gold 576 

Silver 1151 

Counterpanes,  To  Wash 909 

Coupling-pole 297 

Coupe 188 

Coupon ,   297 

Court  Plaster 297 

•See  also   Collodion 273 

Courtship,  Etiquette  of. 4c8 

Cover,  Or  Covert 297 

Cow 297 

Signs  of  a  Good  Cow 298 

Milk  Mirror 298 

Training  the  Calf 300 

Training  to  Milk- ...  ....   300 

Feeding 301 

Shelter  and   Kindness   ...  302 

Milking   302 

To  Prevent  Sucking  Her 

self    302 

To  Prevent  Kicking 302 

Tying  a  Cow 302 

Parturition 303 

Pregnancy 303 

Duration  of  Gestation;  see 

Breeding  Calendar 144 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Treatment  before  Calving  303 

Calving 303 

Retention  of  Afterbirth. ..  304 

Spaying 304 

Diseases:  see  Cattle. 
See  also  Ani  nals.    Treat- 
ment of  Young 20 

Cowhage 305 

Cow    Pea 305 

Cow  Po3c 226,  305 

Crab-apple,  Siberian 46 

Mar.nalade 959 

Preserves 1066 

Cracked   Heel 768,774 

Cracked  Hoof  Ointment 995 

Cracker,  Common,  Soda,  Oat- 
meal, Bread  and  Graham.  305-6 

To  Freshen 306 

Adulteration 306 

Cradle,  Giain 306 

Cramp  Colic 278 

Cramps   306 

in  Drowning 373 

in  Horses 758 

Cranl>erry 306 

as  Dessert 547 

No.    of    Pounds     to     the 

Bushel 156 

Crane,  in   Mechanics 307 

Crayon 307 

Crape 307 

Cream 307 

Coffee,    Lemon,    Orange, 

Tapioca  and  Velvet 308 

Ice 837 

of  Tartar 308 

Cheese 30S 

Creamery 30S 

See  also  Cream 307 

Butter 158 

Dairy 319 

Creasote 308 

Cress 309 

Creve-Cceur jao 

Crib-Biting 758 

Crickets 309 

Crimp 309 


INDEX. 


1309 


Crimping-I  ron 30Q 

Crockery,  To  Mend 309 

Crop 30Q 

How  to  Estimate 309 

Rotation  of 1105 

Croppie  (a  Fish) 471,  473 

Cross- Breeding,  of  Plants.-  ..1270 
Cross-Bred,  of  Animals   .  211 

See  also  Breeding 142 

Cross-Cut  Saw 309 

Cross    Tining   309 

Croton  Oil 309 

Croup 310 

in  Cattle 326 

Crow 311 

Crow  n  Sea  b 311 

Cruelly  to  Animals 311 

Crullers 357 

Crupper 31a 

See  also  Harness 638 

Cucumber 312 

Culture  and  Varieties 313 

Seed,  To  Raise 560 

Number  of  Seeds   to    the 

Acre 18 

To  Pickle 1037 

Beetle 313 

Tree 513 

Cud 209,  226,  313 

Loss  of 226 

Cultivation 313 

Cultivator 314 

See  also  Plow 1043 

Cupboard 316 

Cur..._ 339 

Curb,  in  Horse 728,  758 

Curculio:  see  Plum 1051 

See  also  Apple aS 

Oak-Trec 855 

Currant 316 

"Cultivation  and  Varieties  316-7 
Most  Profitable  Varieties.  54^ 

To  Can 183 

To  Dry 373 

with    Sugar 317 

Sherbet 317 

as  Dessert 547 

Borer 316,  854 

Current 317 

Curtain:  see  Window 1294 

Lace,  To  Wash go8 

Curry 317 

Custard,     Boiled,     Common, 
Cream,  Ice,    Lemon,     Rice, 

etc. 317-8 

Frozen 318.  833 

Cuticle 318 

Cutter:  see  Colter 278 

See  also  Plow 1043 

Cutter  Bar 318 

Cuttings 3t8 

See  also  Grafting 585 

and  the  various  fruits. 

Cut-Worm 855 

Cabbage 166 

Corn ' 290 

Cucumber 313 

Cyanosis,  in  Swine 1224 

Cypress 318 

Cystitis,  in  Horse:  see  Inflam- 
mation of  the  Bladder 746 

in  Sheep:  see  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Bladder: 1142 


Dace  (a  Fish) 474 

Dachshund  (Badger  Dog). ...  331 
Dado:  see  Wainscot 1278 


Dairy 

Dalmatian  Dog 

Dam 

Damask 

Damp  (Choke  Damp) 

Damper,  of  Stoves . . . 

Dancing:  see  Balls 

Dandelion 

Beer 

Coffee 

Dandruff 

To  Remove 

Dashboard 

See  also  Carriage 

Date  Plum 

Dates 

as  Dessert 

Day  Book 117,  122,  128, 

Specimen  Page  of 

Days  of  Grace 

Deaconing  Calves 

Dead  Center 

Dead  Heat 

Dead  Set 

Dead  Shot 

Dead  Wall 

Deafness 

in  Horses:  see  Ear,  etc. 

Death,  Apparent 

from    Hanging '..... 

Noxious  Vapors 

Lightning,  etc 

Intoxication 

Drowning 

Death  Watch  (Insect)  na*  321, 

Debit 

Decanter 

Deciduous 

Decimal  System:   see    Metric 

System 

Decoction 

Decoys  in  Hunting 

Dedication 

Deed 321, 

Waranty,  Form  of 

Law   and    Form    of,    and 

M  ort^age 

Deerhound 

Delaines,  To  Wash 

Delirium  Tremens 

Demijohn 

Demulcent 

Deodorizers:  see  Disinfectants 

Depilatories 

Deposit,  Line  of 

Dessert 

See  Pies,  Cakes,  Custard, 
Cream,  and  the  respect- 
ive fruits. 

Devons   

Dewberry 

Dewlap 

Diabetes 

in  the  Horse   

Dial    

Diamond 

Diarrhcca 

in  Cattle 

in  Calves 

in   Horses 

in  Sheep i 

Diaphoretic 

Dibble 

Diet:  see  Food 

Hygiene 

Dill 

Diphtheria 

Discipline     of     Children:  see 

Children 

Discount . 

Disease    

Fungi  as  a  Cause  of. 


319 

338 
3'9 
3>9 
360 
1180 
402 
320 
320 
320 
320 
634 
320 
190 
320 
320 
547 
320 
119 
320 

175 
320 

320 
320 
320 
320 
320 
760 
321 

321 

321 

321 
321 
371 
849 
321 
321 
321 

970 
321 
628 
321 
918 
918 

918 

330 
908 
322 

322 
322 
324 
322 
944 


I  99 
322 
322 
322 
759 
323 
881 
323 
226 
176 
759 
1137 
323 
323 
504 
828 

323 
323 

254 
323 
3=1 

550 


Diseases,  of  Cattle   221 

Cow 305 

Dog 342 

Fowl 536 

H  o  rse 740 

Sheep 1 1 34 

Swine 1229 

Dishes,  Broken,  Cement  for . .  242 
Disinfectants:  Chlorine,  Chlo- 
rides of  Lime,  Soda  and 
Zinc,  Charcoal.  Carbolic 
Acid,  Broni  1  -  Chloralum, 
Copperas,  Nitric.  Nitrous 
and  Sulphuric  Acids,  Onions, 
Chloride  of  Man-^anese,  Cre- 
asote.  Coffee.  Ammonia,  etc.  324 

See  also  Conta'^ion 281 

Dislocation 324 

in  Horse 759 

Distemper,  or  Strangles 759 

of  Dogs 343 

Distilling 325 

Diuretic 325 

See  also  Urine 1268 

Clyster 274 

Dock,  Docking 325 

Doctoring   325 

Documents,  Legal 912 

Dodded 330 

Dog 330 

Breeds 330 

Badger  (Dachs) 331 

Basset   331 

Beagle 331 

Blenheim  Spaniel 338 

Bloodhound 331 

Bull  dog 337 

Colley 335 

Cur.... 339 

Dalmation,  or  Coach 338 

Dropper 333 

English  Setter 332 

Esquimaux 335 

Foxhound 331 

German  Sheep  Dog 335 

Gordon  Setter 332 

Greyhound 330 

Harrier 331 

Irish   Setter   332 

Italian  Greyhound 339 

Irish  Wolfhound 330 

King  Charles  Spaniel....  338 
Landseer  Newfoundland.  337 

Lion 339 

Lurcher 330 

Maltese    339 

Marylander 339 

Mastiff 337 

Newfoundland 337 

Otterhound 331 

Persian  Greyhound 331 

Pointer 332 

Pomeranian    or  Spitz 338 

Poodle 339 

Pugs 338 

Retriever. 335 

Scotch  Deerhound    330 

Scotch  Greyhound 330 

Setter 331 

Shock 339 

Siberian  Wolfhound 331 

Spaniel,  Black,  Cocker, 
Clumber,  Sussex,  Nor- 
folk, Irish  Water,  Eng- 
lish Water 335 

Spanish  Pointer 333 

St .  Bernard 337 

Swiss  Hound 33t 

Terriers 338 

Skye 339 

Toy  Spaniels 338 

Whiffet,  or  Snap-dog 331 

Training 339 


Dog  (Cont'd) 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Diseases 342-8 

Hydrophobia 347 

How  to  Give  Medicine 348 

Care  and  Management 349 

Grooming 353 

Cropping 353 

Rounding 353 

Worming 353 

Tailing      353 

Castration 353 

Vaccination 354 

Spaying 354 

Chloroform 354 

Removal  of  Dew  Claws  354 

The  Kennel 355 

See  also  Animals,  etc 23 

Dog-Cart 188 

Dog-Days 355 

Domestic  Economy 355 

Exchange 925 

Dominique 521 

Door:  see  Residence 1184 

Screen 1119 

Doree  (a    Fish) 474 

Dorking ^ai 

I^oriiier ^57 

Dorsjt  (a  Sheep) 1125 

Doses,  Table  of 968 

for  Cattle   217 

Double  Entry   Book-keeping.  lai 
Double-tree:      see      Whiffle- 

tree 371,  lagi 

Doughnuts,  or  Crullers 357 

Dove-cote , 357 

Dover's  Powders 357 

Dovetail 357 

Dowel 357 

Dower. or  Dowry 357 

"  Dr.  "    and     *'  Cr.  "     illus- 
trated   IT  2-5,  129 

Draft 357 

Bank,  Sight  and  Time...,  925 

Notice  of 933 

of  Stoves 1 180 

Drainage 357 

Draught,  Angle  of 362 

Drawer  of  a  Note 116 

Dredge 362 

Drench 217,  362 

Dress  Required  by  Etiquette.  402 

Dressmaking 362 

Dried  Fruits  and  Vegetables.  365 

Drill 365-6 

Drinks:  see  Beverages  in  this 
Index. 

Driving 368 

Wheel    371 

Dropper,  a  Kind  of  Dog 333 

Drop  Serene,  of   Horse:    see 

Gutta  Serena 762 

Dropsy 371 

of  the  Horse: 

Abdomen 744 

Brain 749 

Chest 753 

Heart 7715 

Legs 787 

Lungs 790 

of  the  Abdomen  of  Sheep.  1137 

of  the  Dog 345 

Drop  to  Wing 37' 

Drowning 371 

To  Save  from 373 

Cramps  in 373 

Drum 373 

Drunkenness,  to  Cure 373 

Apparent  Death  from  ... .  321 
Dry  Earth  Closet:  see  Privy  1067 

Drying 373 

Alden  Process    374 

Clothes 906 


I3I0 


INDEX. 


Dry  Rot •   •-  375 

of  Horse's  Foot 768 

Duck 375,528 

How  to   Distinguish    the 

Drakes 376 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Varieties —  Mallard,  Can- 
vas -  Back,  Aylesbury, 
Black  East  Indian  or 
Buenos-  A  y  rean ,  M  usk, 
Black,  Pekin,  Rouen, 
Wood,  Bahama,  Cayuga, 
Penguin,  Call,  Hook-bill, 
Tufted  or  Crested     .   .-.375-8 

To  Cook 378.  583 

Due-Bill 378,  928 

Dulcies i6q 

Dumb  Waiter   ^78 

Dumpling 378 

Dun       378 

Dunghill  Fowl 522 

Duress 378 

Durham:  see  Short  horns.    .     205 

Duroc  (Swine) 1207 

Dutch  Cheese 378 

Fricsian  Cattle 200 

Dwelling:  see  Residence 1084 

Dyeing 378 

the  Hair 634 

See  also  Logwood 947 

Dynamometer 380 

Dysentery 380 

in  Cattle 226 

in  Sheep.., 1137 

Dyspepsia 381 


Ear - 382 

Earwax 383 

Earwigs        382 

Ear-ache 382 

Mark 383 

Diseases  of  the,  in  Cattle-  222 

in  the   Horse 760 

in  the  Dog 345 

Earnest  383 

Earth  Almond:  sec  Chufa..  261 

Earthenware.  Cement  for  .   .  242 

Earth  for  Brick ■ .  147 

Eating*  Etiquette  in 414 

Eave-Trough 383 

See  also  Residence 1084 

Eccentric 383 

Eclectic...   .- 383 

Economy 383 

in    the    Household;     see 

Domestic  Economy      .  355 

Education 383 

School  Habits 388 

Agricultural  Education..  388 

See  also  Children  254 

E.  E 390 

Eels  3901  477 

Pie 390 

Eggs 390 

as  Food 390 

To  Preserve 391 

To  Pack  and  Ship 391-a 

Bad,  To  Distinguish 393 

Age  of.  To  Distinguish.. .  .392 

Sex  of.  To  Distinguish. . .  392 

Egg-tester 392 

To  Cook     39a 

Frozen  Eggs  392 

Egg-Nogg 392 

Egg-Plant 393 

To  Cook 393 

Seed,  Raise  and  Preserve.  560 
Amount   of  Seed    to    the 

Acre 18 


Egyptian  Ointment 995 

Elbow,  Capped 761 

Tumor 761 

Elder 393 

Elecampane 393 

Electricity:  see  Lightning....  939 

and  Hygiene 834 

Electro- Magnetic  Liniment..  945 

Elevator 393 

Elm „ 393,  512 

Bark 394 

Tree  Gall  Louse 856 

Emaciation 394 

Embroidery 394 

To  Wash 908 

To  Transfer  Figures:  see 

Herbarium 661 

Embrocation 394 

Emden  Goose 581,  583 

Emerald 881 

Emergencies 17 

Emery 394 

Wheel,  to  Make 394 

Emetic 394 

Tartar 1235 

Emollient  Clyster 274 

Employers:  see  Children 258 

Endive:  see  Chiccory 253 

Engine. 395 

English  Setter 332,  335 

Engrail 396 

Enlargement:    see    part     En- 
larged. 

Ennui 396 

Ensilage 396 

Wooden  Silos 397 

Concrete  Silos 397 

Enteritis,  in  Cattle 229 

of  Horses 748 

in  Sheep:    see  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Bowels   ....1142 

Envelope:  see  Materials 930 

Epidemic    398 

Epilepsy 399 

in  Horses 761 

in  Sheep 1138 

in  Swine 1223 

Epizootic 399 

Aphtha 229 

of  Horses 782 

Epsom  Salt 399 

Equestrian 399 

See  also  Horseback   Rid- 
ing    818 

Equine 399 

Equinoctial   Storms , 1282 

Equity 399 

Erasures  in  Book-keeping...-   117 

Ergot 399 

Erysipelas 399 

in  Swine 1224 

Esculent 400 

Escutcheon 400 

See  also  Milk  Mirror 298 

Esquimaux  Dogs   335 

Essences 400 

Essential  Oils 400 

Essex  Hogs 1205 

Estate 400 

Estrays 400 

Etiquette 401 

Balls 402 

Dress 402 

M  orning 404 

Gentlemen's  and  Ladies*  403 
Size  m  reference  to  Dress, 

etc 404 

Calls 405 

Cards 406 

Conversation 406 

Courtship  and  Marriage..  408 

Introduction 410 

Hair 633 


Etiquette  (Cont'd)    ' 

Harmony    of    Colors     in 

Dress 4^4 

New  Year's  Calls 411 

Public  Places 411 

Riding 820 

Salutation 412 

Shopping 414 

Street 413 

Table 414 

Teeth 1237 

Toilet 401,  1249 

Traveling 416 

Wedding 416 

Ring 417 

Words,  Correct  Use  of. . .,  407 

Miscellaneous  Rules  418 

Evaporation  by  Heat 419 

Evaporators, . 1S1-2 

Evener:  see  Whiffle-tree.371,  1291 

Evergreens 419 

Varieties. .   419 

Propagation 421 

Pruning 422 

No.  of  Seeds  to  the  Pound  423 
See  also  Landscape  Gar- 
dening  .89a 

Forestry 507 

Ewes:  see  "Sheep 1127 

Reproductive  Age,  etc...     569 
Duration  of  Gestation:  see 
Breeding  Calendar. . . .     144 
Exanthema,    of    Horse,    Dry 

and  Humid:  see  Hair.  etc..  776 
Exchange,  Domestic  and  For- 
eign, Bills  of,  etc 97,  925 

Excuse,  Letters  of 935 

Executors  and  Administrators  422 
Exemptions  from   Execution.   422 

Exercise  ....      S31 

Exhaustion  of  Soils:  see  Fer- 
tilizers    456 

Manure 953 

Soil 1158 

Exhaust-pipe 423 

Exhibition,  Agricultural:    ;ee 

Fair 426 

Exotic 423 

Expansion  by  Heat 423 

Expectorant 423 

Expense  Account 123 

Expensesofa  Farm 128 

Experimentation  in   Farming.   423 

Express  Companies 424 

Extracts,  Flavoring  424 

See  also  Decoction 321 

Eye.-  425 

Diseases  of  the,  in  Cattle.  222 

in  Horses 762 

in  Dog 346 

of  Sheep,  Inflamed 1143 


Fainting 436 

Fair,  Agricultural 426 

State  Fairs 427 

County  Fairs 428 

Fall  Fish 474 

Fallow 429 

False  Quarter '...,.  800 

False  Ring-Bone 793 

Fan 429 

Fanning-Mill 429 

Farce,  in  Cookery 429 

Farcy,  or  Glanders 429,  773 

Farding-Bag 439 

Farina 429 

Farinaceous  Food 439 


Farm 429 

Size  of 43.9 

Renting 430 

on  Shares isg 

Selection  of 431 

Buildings:  see  Barns 59 

Residence,   etc \(A^'-<yf 

Accounts:  see  Book-keep- 
ing.     113, Z37 

Farmer's  Calling:  see    Farm- 
ing   43« 

on  Shares 139 

History  of 43a 

Practical  Observations...  436 
Doing  Farming  Early... .   437 

High  Farming 438 

Co-operation  in 439 

Farmers'  Clubs 440 

Farrier 440 

Farrow 440 

Farrowing 441 

of  Sow lazs 

Fat 441 

Fatness,  Excessive,    To    Pre- 
vent  44Z 

Fattening  Farm  Animals 441 

See    also    respective    ani- 
mals, and   Feeding 446 

Cattle 212,  216 

Fatty  Degeneration  of  Pigs.   .1227 

Faucet , .     441 

Favor,  Letters  of 935 

Feather  of  a  Plow 441 

Feathers 442 

To  Obtain 44« 

Beds,  To  Clean 442 

To  Clean  and  Curl 442 

To  Dye 442 

Feed 443 

Relative  Value  of  Articles 

of  Food 443 

Cutter 443 

Mills 443 

Rack 444 

Steaming  and  Cooking--.  444 
See    also    Food    in      this 
Index,  and  items  below. 
Feeding  Stock,  General  Prin- 
ciples of 213,  446 

Horse 714 

Cattle 313 

Cow 301 

Calves 175 

Swine 1315-8 

Sheep 1219,  1134 

Poultry:  see  Fowl 539 

Dogs 349 

Fish 467 

Feeling 448 

Feet 448 

See  also  Bunions 154 

Chilblains 354 

Corns 395 

of  Docs,  Sore 346 

Feline  Animals 448 

Felloe,  or  Felly 448 

See  also  Carriage 189 

Wagon \.,\%^^ 

Felling,  of  Trees 448 

Felon,  or  WhitJ6w 449 

in  Cattle .   .  aaj 

Felt 449 

Fence 449 

Rail 449 

Post  and  Rail 451 

Board 451 

Picket 45a 

Hedge 4sa 

Barbed-Wire 453 

Smooth  Wire 453 

Portable 454 

Flood 454 

Law 455 


INDEX. 


1311 


f'erret    455 

Ferrule  456 

Fertilization 456 

See  also  Cross-Breeding..  142 

Variety 1370 

Fertilizers; 

Ashes  and  Lime 456 

Marl,    Gypsum  or  Land 
Plaster,  Bones,  Guano.    .  457 
Soot,     Salt,     Phosphates, 

etc 458-g 

Fescue  Grasses 459,  spg 

Fetlock .  459,  726 

Fetticus:  see  Corn  Salad,  etc  295 

Fever 459 

Malarial:  see  Ague 19 

in  Cattle 238-g 

in    Horse 764,  782 

Parturient,  in  Sheep   ...   1144 

Field 459 

Field  Mouse:  see  Mole.     .    .     976 

^>g 459 

as  Dessert 547 

in  Farriery ,.,..       460 

Filbert.        ,     460 

File. . .  460 

To  File  a  Saw 636 

Fillet,  of  Veal 460 

Filling  for  Cakes.......  ...   .   168 

Filly  460 

Filter .     460 

Fin,  ofa  Colter 461 

Finger  Bar , 461 

Glass 461 

Nails 461 

Plate 461 

Rings ....     461 

Fining         ... 461 

Fir 461,  512 

Fire  (accident) 461 

Blight:  sec  Apple   ,   ..    ..     z8 

Board 461 

Brick 461 

Clay        461 

Damps*.       see       Choke 

Damp 360 

Dog 462 

Irons 463 

Firing ; 462 

of  Cattle 218 

of  Horses 462,  766 

Firkin 462 

Fiscal 462 

Fish ,.,  462 

Culture 465 

Varieties 470 

Archer 477 

Bass 470 

Black 470 

Rock      471 

Buffalo 471 

Bullhead,  or  Bull  Pout-  472 

Carp 471 

Cat...         472 

Chub 473 

Climbing 477 

Croppie.. ..     471,  473 

Dace 474 

Eel       477 

Goggle-Eye 471 

Coldfish  .     473 

Golden  Carp 473 

Grayling 472 

Herring,  Lake 473 

Hogfish 47.1 

Horn  Pout 472 

Kingo 477 

Mascalonge 473 

Minister  Cat 472 

Perch 473 

Pickerel 474 

Pike 474 

Red     Horse,    or    Lake 
Sucker 474 


Fish  (Cont'd) 

Red-Mouth,  Speckled..  473 

Sailor's  Choice 473 

Salmon 474 

Ohio,  White  or  West- 
ern   473 

Shecpshead 474 

Shiner f.  474 

Siscowet      474 

Smelts      474 

Suckers 474 

Sun-Fish 475 

Trout 475 

Whitefish    476 

To  Catch,  etc.. 477 

To  Preserve 480 

To  Cook 480 

To  Select ...  966 

as  Food 482 

Disinfectants  for 324 

Fishing 477 

Rods  and  Lines 478 

Hooks,      Bait,      Sinkers, 

Floats,  Reel 479 

Fistula     .  483 

in  the  Horse  .....    .766-7 

Fits,  in  Swine:  sec  Apoplexy 

and  Epilepsy 1223 

in  Dogs 347 

in     Sheep :    see       Apo- 
plexy       1134,1144 

Epilepsy ' 1138 

Epileptic,  in  Horse 761 

See  also  Convulsions. .    .     283 

Apoplexy 23 

Catalepsy...    195 

Epilepsy 399 

Hydrophobia 825 

Hysteria 836 

Fixtures  (to  Real  Estate)....     483 

Flagon 483 

Fl.nl.      483 

Flange 483 

Flank 483 

Flannel    ... 483 

See  also  Woolen  Fabrics  .1299 

Dyeing .    ..     379 

Stains     1172 

Hygiene 830 

Flap- Jack 483 

Flat-irons 483 

Flat-Jacks -....,.1003 

Flatulent  Colic,  in  Horses.         754 

Flavoring  Extracts 424 

Flax 483 

Seed,  Amount  to  the  Acre     18 
No.   of    Pounds   to    the 

Bushel 156 

Flea 486,  869 

Fleas  and  Vermin  on  Dogs. .     347 
Flecks  in  Cream  .. ,  ...   .  486 

Fleece 486 

See  also  Wool,-.. 1297 

Flesh,  Disinfectants  for 324 

Scraps,  Value  of,  as  Food 

for  Stock   .....     —  505 
See    aUo    Meat    in     this 
Index. 

Flies,  To  Kill,  etc 487 

To  Keep  from  Horses..   .   488 

Float  (a  Dish)...    .    488 

Beard 488 

Flock.... 488 

See  also  Sheep. 1122 

Floors,  To  Clean,  Polish,  etc.  488 

To  Polish  with  Wax 95 

Floriculture 489 

General  Remarks 489 

Flower  Beds 489 

Seedling  Plants 490 

Propagation  of  PIants.490,  495 

Tropical  Plants 491 

PottiK'S 49^495 


Floriculture  (Cont'd) 

Insects,  Mildew   and    Di- 
sease   492 

To    Restore     Sickly    and 

and  Frozen  Plants 492 

Winter-bl'ming  Pl'nts  492,496 

Window  Gardening 493 

Watering  Plants 493 

Manuring  Flowers 494 

Table    494 

Soil  and  Drainage..^ 495 

Hanging  Baskets  ana  Pots  498 

Pots  on  Stumps 498 

Greenhouses 498 

Flower  Gardens  for  Chil- 
dren        499 

See  also  Flower 500 

Flour 499 

Flowers .  500 

Beds,  Laying  out 898 

Value  of.. 500 

Color  of 500 

Arrangement  of 501 

Bouquets 501 

Cut • 502 

in  Sleeping  Rooms 502 

To  Preserve 503 

Faded,  to  Restore 503 

To  Hasten  Blooming 503 

See  also  Floriculture 489 

Plue     503 

Fluid,  Washing. ^^ 905 

Fluke fl^ 1138 

Fluke- Worm. 503 

Flush,  in  Hunting 503 

Fly-  see  Flies.... 487 

Fly^Wheel 503 

Foal. 503 

See  also  Horse  and  Mare. 

Fodder 503 

See  also  Ensilage. . . .' 396 

Value,  as  Food  for  Stock    505 

Fog 503 

Foliage 503 

Following  Cattle. 503 

Foment 503 

Fomentations  of  Cattle 220 

Food 504 

for  Stock .  505 

for  Man 828 

Farinaceous 439 

See  also  Feed 443 

Breeding 138 

Fool's  Parsley 506 

Foot,  Diseases  of,  in  Horse..768-g 

See  also  Feet 448 

Foot-and-Mouth    Disease,   in 

Swine,    . , 1327 

Foot-Rot,  of  Sheep 1138 

Foot-Rot  Ointment 995 

Forage:  see  Fodder 503 

Pasture 1004 

Force-  Meat 506 

Forceps 660,  8n,  506 

Force  Pump. .  ...^ 506 

See  also  Pump 1071 

Forcing  Plants 506 

See  also  Hot-Bed 823 

Foremanize:  see  Timber 1245 

Forehand,  of  a  Horse 507 

Foreign  Exchange 925 

Forestry 507 

Culture  of  Forest  Trees. .  509 

Species 512 

Fork  (Hay):  see  Hay ..  645 

Foul  in  the  Foot,  of  Cattle.    ..  229 

Claw,  of  Cattle 229 

Foul  Sheath 769 

Founder 513,  769 

Fountain 513 

Fowl,  Domestic 513 

Varieties 515 

Bantams - 515 


Fowl,  Varieties  (Cont'd) 

Brahmas 516 

Blue  Dun 518 

Chittagong 519 

Cochin  China 519 

Crcve-cceurs 520 

Dominiques 521 

Dorkings 521 

Dunghill 522 

Game 522 

Guelderland 523 

Hamburg 524 

Houdans 534 

La  Fleche 524 

Langshans 525 

Leghorns 525 

Plymouth  Rock 526 

Polands 527 

Sebright 515 

Shanghae 527 

Spanish 529 

Qualities,  Table  of 528 

Care  and  Management...   529 

Feeding 529 

Fattening 529 

Mating  and  Breeding. ..  531 

Dust  Baths 531 

Feeding  Chicks 533 

Incubation 532 

Incubators 533 

Artificial  Rearing 534 

Poultry  House 534 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Diseases ...  536 

Lice 539 

Ticks,    871 

Practical  Remarks 541 

To  Cook 542 

To  Carve 194 

To  Select   966 

To  Truss  and  Roast  Wild 

Fowl 555 

Fowler's    Solution:    see    Ar- 
senic       49 

Fowling 542 

See  also  Guns  and    Gun- 
ning    616 

Bird  -Catching 98 

Piece 542 

See  also  Guns,  etc.   ..,  ■  616 

Foxed. 542 

Fox  Evil 542 

Foxhound 331 

Foxtail  Grass 600 

Fracture  of  Bonefi 542 

Free  Martin 543 

Freezing  M  ixture 543 

Without  I  ce 543 

Points  of  Various  Substan- 
ces   543 

Temperatures:  see  table. .  653 
Frensy,  in  Cattle:    see  Phre- 

nitis 233 

in  Sheep 1142 

in  Horsee:    see  Brain,  In- 
flammation of 749 

Fresco 543 

Fricassee 54'3 

See   also  Fowl 542 

Friendship,  Letters  of 935 

Friesian,  Dutch  Cattle 300 

Fritter(ii  Kinds) 543 

Frog,  of  Horse's  Foot,  Inju- 
ries of  the 727 ,  770 

See  also  Shoeing 733 

Frontal  Sinuses^  Inflammation 

of,  in  Cattle 23t 

Frost 544 

Bite,  in  Horse 772 

Frosting  for  Cakes 168 

Frozen  Limbs,  etc 544 

Fruits   544 

Most  Profitable  Varieties.  545 


I3I2 


INDEX. 


Fruits  (Cont'd) 

To  Keep 546 

Dessert 546 

House 548 

Press 548 

Value    of,    as    Food    for 

Stock 505 

Frutt-Tree  Swindle iiq6 

Fuel 549 

Coal 549 

Charcoal 549 

Coke   549 

Peat 549 

Turf 549 

Wood      549 

See  also  Heating  Power..  653 

Fulcrum 550 

Full-  Blood:      see     Breeding 

Grades 211 

Fumigation 550 

of  Cattle 217 

Fungous  Collar 814 

Fungus 550 

Furniture,  to  Clean 550 

To  Restore,  etc 551 

Tol'o.sh... 551 

To  Varnish 551 

Cement  for 242 

Furrow.  551 

Furrow  Slice.   ..   551 

Furs,  To  Clean,  Preserve,  etc.  551 

Fusel  Oil 552 

Fustian 552 


Gable 553 

Gadfly   553 

Horse,    Ox     and     Sheep 

Botfly 553 

Gaff,  or  Gaffle 553 

Oage 553 

Gaggle 553 

Galipot 554 

Gall  554 

Gall-fly 554 

See  also  Gall  Lice 856 

Gallinaceous  Fowls 554 

Gallon 554 

Gallop 554 

Galloway 200,  555 

Gallstone 555 

Galoche 555 

Gamboge 555 

Gambrel 555 

Game 522,  555 

To  Ship,   Market,   Cook, 
etc 555 

Pie 556 

To    Capture:    see    Bird- 
Catching  gS 

Guns  and  Gunning 616 

Bantam 515 

Gammon  556 

Gander  55^^  577 

Gangrene 556 

Gape 556 

in  Fowls 538 

Garden 556 

Vegetable 556 

Seed,  To  Raise 560 

Gather  and  Preserve.  .M120 

Gardener 561 

Garget 329,  561 

Gsrgil 561 

Gargle 561 

Garlic 56* 


Garnet 881 

Garnish 56a 

Gas.. 562 

Gasoline 56a 

Stove 1181 

Gastric • 562 

Gastritis 562 

in  Horse 808 

Gastro  Enteritis,  in  Cattle...  230 

in  Swine 1224 

Gate 562 

Pofts 564 

Self-Opening 564 

Stock 564 

Wood  and  Wire 564-5 

Lawn 565 

Gathering 566 

Gauge:  see  Gage 553 

Gauze 566 

Gavel 566 

Gear  566 

Gearing 566 

(^eese 528,  577 

To  Select 966 

Gelatin 566 

Geld   567 

Gelding   567 

Gems 881 

Graham... 135 

Generation 567 

Gentian 568 

Gentleman's  Wear,  To  Wash.  909 
Genus 568 

See  Specie* 1164 

German  Liniment 945 

Germination 568 

Gestation 568 

Duration  of:  see  Breeding 

Calendar 144 

Gherkin 570 

Giddiness 570 

Gibbing:  see  Backing 54 

Gilding 570 

Gilt. 571 

Gin 571 

Ginger  571 

Bread 171 

Pop 57* 

Snaps 172 

Ginseng 571 

Girder 571 

Girdling 571 

Girl:  see  Children 254 

Girth 571 

Giver  of  a  Note 116 

Glanders 571,  724,  772 

Glands,  Enlarged,  in  Horses.  774 

Glass,  To  Clean 571 

To  Restore  Color  to 571 

To   Mend 572 

To  Take  Care  of 571-2 

To  Remove  Glass  Stop- 
pers   572 

To  Break,  Cut,  Drill,  etc.  572 

Cement  for ,•...243 

GIJss-Eye 572 

in  Horse:  see   Gutta   Ser- 
ena  763 

Glauber's  Salt 572 

See  also  Salt im 

Gleaning 572 

Gleet.  Nasal,  of  Horses 774 

Glossitis,  in  Cattle 223 

Gloves,  To  Clean,  etc 572 

Gl'icose 572 

Glue,  To  ^L-^ke,  Preserve,  etc.  573 

Glume 573 

Glut 573 

Gluten 573 

Glutton  (on  Trees) 573 

Gluttony 573 

Glycerine 574 

Glysier:  same  as  Clyster 374 


Gnats 574 

Goad 574 

Goat 574 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Goggle-Eye  (a  Fish) 471 

Goiter 576 

ofthe  Horse 774 

Gold 576 

How  Estimated 576 

Coin,  To  Test 576,  1151 

Golden  Carp 473 

Gold-fish 473i  576 

Goober  Pea:  see  Peanitt 1012 

Goose 528,  577 

Wild  Species 577 

Domestic  Varieties 580 

Care  and  Management... .  582 

Diseases 583 

Reproduc'ion,  etc 569 

To  Roast 583 

To  Carve 194 

Gooseberry 547,  584 

Saw-fly 855 

Gopher ,. ..   584 

Gordon  Setter 332 

Goulard 585 

Gourd 585 

Worm 585 

Gout 585 

Government  of  Children:  see 

Children 254 

Governorgof  an  Engine 585 

Gown 585 

Grackle 585 

Grade,  defined 211 

Grade  Cattle 211,  585 

Grading  of  Wheat:  see  Board 

of  Trade 108 

G-afting 585 

Wax 587 

Graham  Bread 134 

Gems 135 

Grain 587 

Growing 587 

Cart 193 

Dumper 588 

Measurer 588 

Value     of,    as     Food    for 

Stock 505 

Founder 769 

Granary 588 

Gr.idation  of 60 

Grange 589 

Granite  Ware. 589 

Granivorous  Animals 589 

Granulation 589 

Grape 589 

as  Dessert 547 

Varieties 593 

Most  Profitable 545 

Insects  and  Diseases 590 

Vine  Flea  Beetle 849 

Vine  Leaf  Hopper 856 

To  Gather  590 

To  Keep 592 

To  Preserve 1066 

To  Can 184 

To  Dry 373 

Grass 595 

Value  of,    as     Food     for 

Stock 505 

Cultivation 597 

Seed,    No.  of  Pounds    to 

the  Bushel 156 

Amount  of,  to  the  Acre     18 

Species 598 

Timothy,  Red-Top,  Blue, 
False    Red-Top,     Dwarf 

Meaiow 558 

Millet  or  Bengal,  Hun- 
garian, or  German  Millet, 
Egyptian.  East  Indian,  or 
Pear       Millet,     Orchard 


Gntss  (Cont'd) 

Cock's- foot,  the    Fescues, 

Vernal 599 

Barnyard,  Crab,  Guinea.  1003 

Oat,   Foxtail,  etc 600 

To  Crystallize 6co 

Grass-Cloth  Plant 1078 

Grass  Lands 600 

Grasshoppers 60a 

Gravel 600 

Walk 1279,  600 

Gravy 600 

Gray  Powder 969 

Grayling 47a 

Graze 601 

Grazier 601 

Grease,  Disease  of  Horse.  601,  774 

Fat 601 

To    Erase    Grease    Spots 

from  Articles. 601 

To  Grease  Boots 130 

Grease  Heel,  in  Horse,    Lini- 
ment for 945 

Green  Crops 605 

Groen  Fallow 602 

Green   Fly 606 

G  reen  Food 606 

Greenhouse. 602 

See  also  Floriculture 498 

Gardening 556 

Window  Gardening....   493 

Hotbed 823 

Cold  Frame 277 

Green   Manure 606,  956 

Green  Vitriol. 876 

Greens 606 

(ir^yhound 329,  330-1 

Griddle-Cake    (it   Kinds) 1003 

Grinders,  in  Cattle 207 

in  Horses 678 

in  Man 1237 

Grindstone 606 

Artificial 606 

How  to  Measure 607 

Gripes 607 

Grist-Mill,  Hand   and  Power  607 

Grit,  or  Grits 608 

G  roats    608 

Grogram:  see  Gros-grain 608 

Groin 608 

Groom 608' 

Grooming 608,  719 

Gros-i;rain 60S 

Ground-  Hait 608 

Ground  Cherry 608 

Ground    Hemlock 60S 

Ground  Ivy 608 

G  rouse  (.several  species) 609 

Grove 608 

Grub tx-x 

Gruel  (seven  kinds) ...  612 

Grtinter eir 

Guano 457,  613 

Guard,  in  Reapers,  etc 615 

Guelderland   Fowl 52J 

Guernsey  Cattle aoo' 

Guinea  Duck 376' 

Fowl 615 

Pig 615 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Gull 616 

Gully 616 

Gum 616 

Chewing,  To  Make. .   fii6,  253 

Gumbo:  see  Okra 995 

Gums,  To  Preserve 6ifr 

Gunny 616" 

Gunpowder,  To  Make 6ifr 

Burns,  To  Treat 6ifr 

Gunsand  Gunning 616 

The  Ri.le 619 

Shot-G  uns 63ar 

Charges  for 635 

How  t<^  Shoot 626- 


INDEX. 


1313 


Guns  and  Gunning  (Cont'd) 

Blinds,  Dccoyi,  etc 628 

Gutta  Serena,  in  Horses   762 

Gutter  632 

Gyp 632 

Gypsum 632 

See  also  Fertilizers   457 

Manure 953 


Hack 633 

Hackberry 633 

Hackle 633 

Hackmatack:  see  Larch 512 

Hackney 633 

Hail &33 

Hair 633 

Loss  of 634 

To  Clean,  Dye,  Curl,  etc.  634 

To  Make  Grow 635 

To    Keep    from    Turning 

Grey    ^35 

To  Trim,  Comb,  etc 635 

Pomades 634 

See  also  Toilet 1249 

Baldness 55 

Falling  of  the,  of  Horses.   776 
Plastering,  No.  of  Pounds 

to  the  Uushel T56 

Halibut,  to  Cook 481 

Halter 635 

Ham,     To     Cure,     Preserve, 

etc-     ■• 635,  193,  54 

To  Cook ,  etc 636,  965-7 

See  also  Bacon 54 

Hamburg  Fowls 524 

Hames. 636-7 

Hampshire  Down  Sheep 1125 

Hand  (a  Measure) 636 

Hand-Drill   367,  636 

Handicap 636 

Hands,  To  Prevent  Chapping  243 
To    Remove    Dye-Stains 

from   360 

Hand-Saw 636 

To  File 636 

Hanging,     Apparent     Death 

fro  m 321 

Hard  Water 636 

Hardening    of   the    Skin,    of 

Horses 805 

Harled 945 

Harness 637 

To  Select 637 

Coll.ir  and  Hames.. 637 

Back-band,     Cruppers, 
Breeching,  Tug,  Reins.  638 

Care  of 638 

To  Restore  Old  Harness.  639 

Color  for   Edge 639 

See  also  Leather 912 

Harpalus   865 

Harrier 331,  639 

Harrow 640 

Hartshorn:  see  Ammonia....     20 

Antidote  for 20 

Harvest 64 1 

Harvesters:  see  Reapers.      .   1082 

Hash 641 

Balls   642 

See  also  Ragout. 1077 

Hat 642 

Hatch 39I1  533.  642 

Hatchel 642 

Haunch 64' 

Havelock 642 

Haw  642 

Inflamed,  in  Horse 762 

in  Cattle 222 

83 


Hawk 642 

Moth:    see      Tomato 

Worm 642,  863-4 

Hawk- weed     642 

Hawthorn 643 

Hay 643 

Rack 644 

Hauling 644 

Forks  and  Carriers 644-5 

Stacking,  etc 645 

Rick 647 

Salting 647 

Pressing  and  Bailing 648 

Measuring 649 

Table  of  Prices 649 

Hay-Cock 649 

Fever,  Knife,  Mow,  Press, 

Rack,  Rake   643-9 

Tedder 643,  649 

Value    of,    as    Food    for 

Stock 505 

Amount     Consumed     by 

Animals 442 

Hazel ^ 650 

Head 650 

Big    (a    Disease     of     the 

HorseJ 745 

Headache 650 

Head-cheese 650 

Header 650 

He^d-gear 650 

Heading 650 

Head-land 650 

Head-lonse 870 

Head-stall 650 

Health:  see  Hygiene   827 

Heaps, To  Measure 650 

Hearing 651 

Heart,  Palpitation  of  the 651 

Disease  of,  in  Horse 776-7 

Dropsy  of,  in  Horse 776 

Heartburn 651 

Hearth ,  65 1 

Heart's-ease:  see  Pansy 1003 

Heart- wood 651 

Heat  and  Cold 651 

Evaporation  by 419 

Expansion  by    423 

Animal      221 

as  a  Health  Agency 828 

Fender 1181 

See   also    Melting  Points, 

etc .  543 

Heating   Power     of   Various 

Substances 653 

Heaves 653,  777 

Hectic ....  653 

Hedge 653 

Honey-Locust 656 

Evergreen    657 

Plants,    to      Keep     over 

Winter 653 

To  Cidtivate 653 

Cost  of 655 

Other  Hedge  Plants 657 

See  also   Fence. 452 

Heel,  Cr.ickcd.  of  Horses  768,  774 
Narrow  (Disease  of  Horse)  780 

Heel  In 657 

Heifer     657 

See  also  Cattle 213,  etc. 

Cow 297 

Height,   of  a    Tree,    etc.  To 

Measure 1257 

Helix,  an  Animal 657 

Hellebore 657 

White 866 

Hemlock 658 

Hemp - 658 

Hemorrhage 659 

in   Horses 777 

See  also  Bleedini; 106 

Hemorrhoids:  see  Piles 1041 


Hemp, 658 

Amount  of  Seed    to  Acre     18 

Seed,   Value  of,  as  Food 
for  Stock 505 

Number  of  Pounds  to  the 

Bushel 156 

Hen;   Reproduction,  etc 569 

See  also  Fowl,  Domestic.    513 

Henbane 660 

Hen -House 535 

Herbaceous 660 

Herbarium 660 

To    Transfer   Figures    of 

Leaves   660 

Herbivorous 660 

Herbs 660 

Herd 661 

Herding 661 

Herdsman 662 

Herd's  Grass 662 

See  also  Timothy 598 

Hereditary  Diseases 323 

Laws:  see    Children,  sec- 
tion 2 ....  254 

Hereford   (Cattle) 200 

Hermetically  Seal,  To 662 

Hermaphrodite 662 

See  also  Free  Martin 542 

Hernia 662 

of  Horses 803 

Herring,  Lake 4  73 

Hessian  Fly 662 

Hiccough 662 

Hickory 662 

Bark  Borer 854 

Hide 663 

Green,  To'Cure 663 

Hide-bound 663,  777 

High  Farming 438 

High  Grade,  defined 211 

Highlander   Cattle 202 

Highway 663 

See  also  Roads 1100 

Hinny 663 

See  also  M  ule 981 

Hired  Help 664 

See  also  *'To  the  Farmer 

Boy" .  25B 

Hit 664 

Hives 664 

Hoarhound 665 

Hoarseness   665 

See  also  Cold 277 

Cough 297 

Hobble 665 

Hock 728,  665 

Diseases  of  the 778-80 

Hoe-Cake 665 

Hog:  see  Swine .1199 

To  "Hog"  the  Mane  of  a 
Horse 665 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Gestation:     see    Breeding 

Calendar   144 

Hogfish 473 

"Hogging  Down"  Corn 665 

Hogshead 665 

Holder,  of  Negotiable  Paper  .  926 

Holiday 665 

Hollow  Eye,  Hern,  etc 666 

Holly 512,  666 

Hollyhock 666 

Holstein  Cattle ■ .   204 

Home  Adornment 666 

See  also  Landscape    Gar  • 

dening 892 

Lawn 910 

Residence 10S4 

Homestead  Laws:  see  Land...  891 
Hominy 666 

Mill    666 

To  Cook 667 

Fritters 544 

See  also  Hulled  Corn....  824 


Hone 667 

Honey 667 

Comb 668 

Extracted   66g 

Artificial,  To  Make 668 

From  Tomatoes 668 

Dew 66g 

See  also  Bee-keeping. . .  .79-94 
Strained,  Weight  per  Gal- 
lon     156 

Honey-Locust  512 

Honeysuckle    669 

Hong-Kong  Goose 581 

Hoof:  see  Cattle,    Horse,  etc. 

Diseases   of,  in  Horse 780 

Hoof-bound 669 

Hooks:    see    Inflammation    of 

the  Haw 762 

Hooping-Cough 669 

Hoose,  in  Calves 230 

Hoove,  or  Hoven 230,  669 

See  also  Sheep 1 122 

Hop 669 

Cultivation    670 

Harvesting  and  Preserva- 
tion  670 

Insects  and  Diseases 671 

Horn,  of  Cattle,  Fracture  of. .   222 
Hornbeam,    European,  as     a 
Hedge    Plant:     see    "Other 

Hedge  Plants" 657 

Horned  Pout 473 

Hornet    Stings:     see      Insect 

Bites  872 

Horse 671 

History 671 

Points  of  Quality 674 

Anatomy 674,  etc. 

Bone  Structure 676 

Spinal  Column  or  Back- 
bone   676 

Head,  Face,  etc.    676 

Teeth 678 

Thorax 63o 

Heart,    Digestive      Or- 
gans, etc 63o 

Nervous  System 681 

Eye,  Ear,  etc 681 

Foot 681 

Breeds..    68: 

American    Thorough- 
breds   682 

American  Trotter 683 

Arabian 684 

Barb 685 

Canadian 685 

Cleveland  Bays 686 

Clydesdale 688 

Conestoga 68g 

English  Draft 689 

Indian  Pony 693 

Mexican  Mustang 693 

Morgan 69a 

Norman 691 

Percheron 692 

Ponies 693 

Scot;  693 

Shetland 693 

Thoroughbred 694 

Vermont  Draft 697 

Breeding 697 

Gestation:  see  Breeding 

Calendar 144 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Most  Profitable  Breeds.   697 

Road  Horse 697 

Carriage  Horse........  697 

Horses  of  all  Work...    .  697 

Quality    of   Mare     and 

Stallion 698 

Brood  Mares,  Manage- 
ment of  699 

Treatment  after  Foaling  700 


13^4 


INDEX, 


Horpe  (Cont'd) 

Care  of  the  Colt 700 

Castration 700 

Breaking. 702 

Rarey  System 703 

Breaking  whh  a  Halter  705 

How  to  Drive 368,  etc. 

Paces 8ig,  1002 

To  Accustom  to  the  Bit  707 
Bitting  Attachment....  707 
How  to  Bit  the  Colt ....  709 
To  Harness  the  Colt...  709 
To  Hitch  up  the  Colt..  709 

Learning  to  Back. 710 

Training  to  the  Saddle  710 
To  Break  from  Pulling 

Back 713 

Bad  Habits,  or  Vices 711 

Balking 712 

Bucking  and  Plunging.  712 

Cast  in  the  Stall 712 

Crib- Biting 758 

Crowding  and  Cringing  712 

Halter  Pulling.. 712 

Interfering 875 

Kicking 712 

Kicking  at  Night 713 

Pawing 7t3 

Rearing 712 

Running  Away 713 

Shouldering    713 

Shying 711 

Stumbling    712 

Tongue  out  of  Mouth..  713 

Feeding  .    , 714 

Watering 716 

How  to  Use  a  Horse.. .  .  717 
Stabling  and  Grooming. . .  719 
How  to  Buy  a  Horse ....  720 
What  a  Horseshould  be.     720 

Color 721 

Examining  a  Horse 721 

**Point=d" 723 

Respiration 723 

Mange   723  . 

Kicking  and  Biting   ...  723 

Lameness 723 

General  Action 723 

General  Health 724 

Glanders , .     724 

Crest,     Skin ,      Teeth , 

Eyes,  etc 725 

Thick  Wind,   Roaring, 

etc -.     725 

Kxternal  Blemishes....  725 

The  Legs 726 

The    Feet   727 

Curb 728 

Thoroughpin 728 

Spavin,  Bog  or  Blood-.  7'!8 
Back,    Examination    of  728 

Eyes 728 

The  Horse  Bought 730 

Guaranty 730 

Soundness:  see  Guaranty  730 

Clipping    731 

Trimming 732 

t>ocking 325,  733 

Shoeing - 733 

Feet,  Management  of. ..  -  737 

General    Hints. 738 

Drivina: 368 

See  also  tables 144,  569 

Diseases 740 

External  Manifestation.  741 

Prevention  of 742 

Medicine  Case 744 

Graduation  of  Doses...  217 

Bleeding 747 

Abdomen,  Dropsy  of. ..   744 
Abscess:  see  Inflamma- 
tion of  the   Absorbents  782 
See    also     Fistula    and 


Horse,  Diseases  (Cont'd) 
kindred  diseases- 
Absorbents,   Inflamma- 
tion of     782 

Albuminous  Urine  ....  815 
Amaurosis:    see     Gutta 

Serena   - 762 

Ankles,  Swelled 744 

Aphthae,  or  Thrush..  745 
Arteries,     Enlargement 

of 745 

Big  Head,  and  Big  Jaw  745 

Bites  and  Stings 808 

Bladder,  Inflammation  of  746 

Rupture   of 746 

Stone  in 746 

Blind    Staggers 806 

Blind  Teeth 764 

Blistering 218 

Bots    553*747 

Bowels   Tnlammation  of  748 

Brain,  Abscess  of 749 

Dropsy   of 749 

Inflammation     of.    ...    749 
Frnken  Hones:  see  Vari- 
ous Fractures.    .. ....  817 

Hock      778 

Knees... 786 

Wind  ...    777 

Bronchitis 750 

Bronchocele:  see  Goitre  774 
Brushing,  or  Speedy  Cut  750 

Burns  and  Scalds 752 

Bursse      Mucosae,      In- 
flamed: see  Wind-galls  817 

Cancer 752 

Canker  ....    .     752 

Capped  Elbow 761 

Caries 752 

Cartilages,    Ossified . . .     793 

Cataract    762 

Catarrhal  Fever. 782 

Chest,  Hropsy  of  the.  . .   753 

Foi'nder 769 

Choking 753 

Coffin-joint    Lameness     793 

Colds 754 

Colic,  Flatulent 754 

Spasmodic 755 

Contagious       Catarrhal 

Fever 782 

Corns 756 

Cough 758 

Cracked  Heel .768,  774 

Cramps 758 

Crib-Biting. 758 

Curb 758 

Cyst'ti-i:     see    BUdder, 

Inflammation  of  the..   746 
Deafness;  see  Ear,  etc..   760 

Diabetes 759 

Diarrhoea 759 

Dislocations 759 

Distemper,  or  Strangles  759 
Drop  Serene  (Gutta  Sf- 

rena).    ...  762 

Dropsy  of  the  Abdomen  744 

of  the  Brain ...  749 

of  the  Chest 753 

of  the  Heart 776 

of  the  Legs 787 

of  the  Lungs 790 

Dry  Rot 768 

Ear,  Diseases  of 760 

Elbow,  Capped,  or  Tu- 
mor   761 

Enlargement:    see   part 
enlarged  . 

Enteritis 748 

Epilepsy 761 

Epizootic 782 

Exanthema,     Dry    and 
Humid:  see  Hair,  etc.  ^^t 


Ho^^e,  Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Eye,    Diseases  of.  ..762,  763 

False  Quarter 800 

False  Ring-bone 793 

Farcy,  or  Glanders..    .   77a 

Fever 764,  782 

Firing   .    462,  766 

Fistula,  of  the  Foot 766 

of  the  Withers 766 

of  the  Parotid  Duct...  767 

Fits,  Epileptic 761 

Flatulent  CoHc 754 

Foot,  Inflamed   .......     768 

Ulceration  of .768 

Nail  in 768 

Dry  Rot 768 

Cracked  Heels  ...774,  768 

Brittle  Hoofs 769 

Split  Hoof 769 

Foul    Sheath 769 

Founder 769 

Chest  or  Water 769 

Grain 769 

Foot. . .      . .  .^ 769 

Frog,  Injuries  of 770 

Frost  Bite     772 

Fungous  Collar  Tumor  814 

Gastritis... 808 

Glanders,  or  Farcy     ...  772 
Glands,  Enlarged.  ..    .     774 

Gleet,  Nasal 774 

Goitre 774 

Grain   Founder 769 

Grease 774 

Gutta  Serena  (Drop  Se- 
rene)      762 

Hair,   Falling  off  of     .     776 
Hardening  of  the  Skin.  805 

Haw,  Inilamed 762 

Head.   Bi? 745 

Heart,  Dropsy  of  . .    ..   776 

Enlargement  of 776 

Fatty  Degeneration  of  776 
Heaves,      or        Broken 

Wind .         777 

Heel,  Cracked 768,  774 

Narrow .    780 

Hemorrhage,     Internal  777 

Hernia 803 

Hide-bound.    777 

Hock,  Broken 778 

Capped 780 

Enlargement  of 780 

Hoof,  Contraction  of. .     780 

Cracked 780 

Rot 780 

Hooks:  see  Inflammation 

of  the  Haw 762 

Hydrophobia 781 

Inflammation:  see   part 
inflamed,  in  this  Index. 

Influenza 782 

Intestinal  Parasites 785 

Irritation    of   the  Skin: 
see  Hardening,  etc-  -     805 

Itch 790 

Jaundice 785 

Jaw,    Big 745 

Bony    Tumor  of.....  785 
Kidneys,  Inflamed.    ...   786 

Knees,    Broken   786 

Inflamed 786 

Lachrymal  Gland,  Im- 
pediment in 763 

Laminitis 769 

Lampas 787 

Laryngitis:  see  Throat, 

Swelled 812 

Legs.  Swelled 787 

Dropsy    of:    same  as 
above. 

Liver,  Diseases  of 788 

Lock-iaw 789 


Horse,  Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Lun^s,  inflammation  ot  796 

Dropsy  of 790 

Lympliangitis 782 

MadStaggc:s:see  Brain, 
Inflammation  of. . . .       749 

Mallenders 79a 

Mange  and  Itch-..  790 

Megrims 761,  791 

Mouih,  Inflamed     .      ..   791 

Lampas ,    787 

Scald  .      ,    . , . , .     . .       701 

Nail  Pricking  ..   793 

Nail  in  the  Foot 768 

Narrow    Heel      ..  ....       780 

Nasal  Gleet. .. 774 

Nasal  Polypus 800 

Navicular  Joint  Lame- 
ness   ^93 

Nephritis:  see  Kidneys, 

etc.,  .  .      786 

Nose- Bleeding    ..     .        747 

Nose,  Sore 793 

Ophthalmia 762 

Ossified  Cartilages....     793 

Over-reach  ....    794 

Palsy       794 

Paralysis,  or  Palsy...  794 
Parasites,  Intestinal  .  785 
Parotid  Duct,  Fistula  of 

the 7^.7 

Parotid       Gland,       In- 
flamed           794 

Peritoneum,  Inflamed  795 
Peritonitis:  same  as  last. 

Phlebitis         ..        816 

Pink-Eye 782 

Pleurisy 795 

Pneumonia 796 

Poisoning,  Internal.  797 
Poisoning  from  Stings..  798 

Poisoned    Skin 798 

Poll-Evil 708 

Polypus ..   3oo 

Profuse  Staling:  see  Di- 
abetes  759 

Puflfs:  see  Wind-galls.   .  817 

Pumice  Foot 780,  800 

Quarter  Crack:  see  Sand 

Crack 804 

Quarter,  False 8o» 

Quitter       800 

Rabies    ..    . 781 

Rat  Tails:  see  Surfeit  809 
Rectum,  Diseases  of. ...  801 

Rheumatism -  801 

Ring-Bone   802 

False 793 

Worm 802 

Roaring 802 

Rupture,  or  Hernia   ..     803 

of  the  Stomach     809 

of  the   Bladder   746 

Salivation 804 

Sallenders 790 

Sand  Crack 804 

Gcalds     75a 

Scarlet  Fever:  see  Scar- 
latina   804 

Scratches:  see  Grease      774 

Scrofula  804 

Scurvy  of  the  Teeth  . ...  811 

Shins,  Sore 895 

Shot  of  Grease 783 

Side  Bones 805 

Stt-Fasts 805 

Skin,  Hardening  of  the  805 

Poisoned     798 

See  also  Hide-Bound.  777 

Spasmodic  Colic 755 

Spavin,  Blood 805 

B  og 805 

Bone  .       B06 


INDEX. 


1315 


Horse,  Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Speedy  Cut 750 

Spleen,  Enlargement  of  806 

Splint 806 

Staggers,  Blind  or  Stom- 
ach     So'' 

Staggers,  Mad:  see  In- 
flammation    of     the 

Brain 749 

Stings  and  Bites 808 

Stomach,   Inflamed  772,  808 
Gorged:  see  Founder, 

Gr-in 769 

Rupture  of  the 809 

Staggers 806 

rtran^iles,  in  the  Horse: 

see  Dist"nipsr 755 

Stringhalt 8og 

Surfeit   809 

Sweeny 8ic 

of  the  Shoulder 810 

Synovitis:    see      Wind- 

gmlls 817 

Teeth,  Ache 810 

Decay  of  the 8io 

Scurvy  of  the 8n 

Sharp  and  Projecting  811 

Blind  and  Wolf 764 

Tetanus 789 

Tetter:  see  Surfeit 8tr 

Thick  Wind:  see  Roar- 
ing, etc 8c2 

Thoroughpin 8n 

Throat,  Swelled 812 

Thrush     745,812 

Thumps 814 

Ticks 822.  871 

Toe    Crack:     see    Sand 

Crack 804 

Tongue,  Inflamed   814 

Tumor,  Fungous  Collar  S14 

Elbow 761 

Ulceration  of  the  Foot-  768 

Urine,  Albuminous 815 

Bloody 815 

Suppression  of. 816 

Veins,  Inilammatlon  cf.  816 

Vermin 816 

Warbles 805 

Warts 817 

Water  Founder 769 

Weed 782 

Wheezing:  see  Roaring 

etc., 802 

Whistling   802 

Wind-galls 817 

Windpipe:  see  Tracheo- 
tomy   814 

Withers,   Fi?4tulous. . . . .   76^ 

Wolf  Teeta 764 

Worms ..763,  785 

Wounds,    Lacerated....  817 
Penetrating  Abdomen  818 

Punctured 818 

Yellows 785 

Horseback  Riding 818 

Horse  iiot-fly 747 

See  also  Gadfly 553 

Horse  Chestnut 820 

Horse-fly  Family 821 

Horse  J  ockey 8ai 

Horse  Liniment 945 

Horse-Power 821 

Horse-Racing:  see  Speed 1164 

See  also  Racing 1076 

Fair 427 

Horse-Radish 822 

Horse    Rake 822 

Horse  Shoe  and    Shoeing....  733 

Horse    Tick 822,  871 

Horticulture 822 

Hose 823 

To  Wash pov 


Hospitality:  see   Etiquette 401 

Hot- Bed 823 

See  also  Forcing  Plants. .   506 

Hot-House 824 

Houdan 524 

Hound 824 

House:  see  Residence 1084 

Household:      see       *'Domes- 

,  tic  Economy," 824 

Housekeeping 824 

Houseleek 824 

Hovel 824 

Hoven 230,  754,  824 

Hub,  of  Buggy  Wheels 189 

Huckleberry 824 

as  Dessert 547 

Hulled  Corn 824 

Human  Nature:  see  Children, 

sec.  1 254 

Humble  Cow 825 

Humbug 825 

See  also  Swindle 1 192 

Humor 825 

See  also  Blood,  To  Purify  106 

Humus 825 

Hungarian  Grass 599 

Hunting:  see  Guns,  etc 616 

Hurdle 825 

Husbandry 825 

Husk 825 

Hyacinth 825 

Hybernation 82<! 

Hybrid 825 

Hybridize    825,  1270 

Hydatids  in  Cattle  and  Sheep  1141 

Hydrangea   498,  825 

Hydraulic  Ram 825 

Hydro*carbon 825 

Hydrochloric  Acid:  see  Acids     18 

Hydromel 961 

Hydrophobia 347,  825 

in  Cattle   236 

in  the  Horse 781,  801 

in  Dog 347 

H  y giene 827 

Air 827 

Light,  Heat,  Food 828 

Water  and  Bathing 829 

Clothing 830 

Children's 831 

Exercise 831 

of  Children 832 

Rest 832 

Sleep 833 

Electricity 834 

Magnetism  and  Cheerful- 
ness  835 

Public 835 

Hygienic  System  of   Medica- 
tion   836 

Hypochondria 836 

Hypodermic  Syringe 836 

Hysteria,  or  Hysterics 836 


Ice 837 

Strength  of 837 

Lemon B37 

Raspberry  or  Strawbeiry  837 

Cream  (seven  kinds) 837 

Self-Freezing  Ice  Cream.  837 

Iced  Tea 838 

I  ce  House 838 

and  Refrigerator 1083 

Combined     with      Fruit- 
house  S40 


Iceland  Moss 841 

Implements  of  the  Farm 841 

In-and-in  Breeding an,  142 

Inarch 842 

Incisor 207,  678,  842 

See  also  Teeth 1237 

Incubation 53^1  ^4^ 

Incubators 533 

Indian  Corn:  see  Corn 286 

Mallow 843 

Hemp 842 

Pony 693 

Tobacco 843,  946 

Rubber 843 

Cement  for 243 

Indigestion 843 

Indigo 843 

I  ndorsement 926 

Indorser    843,  926 

Industrial  Education 843 

See  also  Education 383 

Infant  (in  the  Legal  Sense)...  844 

1  n  fection 844 

Inflammation 844 

See    also     part    inflamed, 
and  Fever. 
Influenza:  see  Catarrh  ..  .195,     44 

in  Horse 782 

Infusion 844 

See  also  Decoction 321 

Inhale 844 

Inject 845 

Injection 845 

See  also  Clyster 217,  274 

Ink,       Common,       Indelible, 

Sympathetic,  etc 845 

Stains,  To  Eradicate:  see 

Stains 1172 

See  also  Materials 930 

Inoculate  845 

Intjuisitiveness     of    Children 

section  5,     254 

Insanity 845 

Insects   846 

Injurious Sj? 

Transformations 847 

Apple-leaf  Grumpier  .  .27,  S48 
Army  Worm:  see  Wheat.1288 

Bark  Lice:  see  Lice 856 

Beetles: 
Bacon  and  Blister......  848 

Cucumber,  Death 

Watch,        Grape- Vine 

Flea  (Beetle) 849 

Lady-Bug,  May  Bug, 

May  (Beetle) 850 

Potato  and  .Spring  B53,  1061 
Striped    Flea    (Beetle), 

Tortoise  .^ 854 

Borers: 

Twig,  Peach,  Cur-ant, 

Hickory  liark ....    854 

Apple-tree 26 

Cabbage  Butterfly 166 

Cabbage- Leaf  Roller 854 

Canker  Worm 27 

Caterpillar,  Tent 855 

Cherry  and  Pear  Slug 855 

Chinch-bug:  see  Wheat.  .12S8 

Codling    Moth 26 

Curculio:  see   Plum 1051 

Apple ,     28 

Oak-Tree 855 

Currant  Borer 854 

Worm 316 

Cut- Worms 855 

Fall  Web- Worm 855 

Gooseberry  Saw-fly 855 

Grape- Vine  Leaf-Hopper  856 

Lady- Bird 850 

Lice: 
Apple-Trce  Bark 856 


Insects  (Cont'd) 

Corn  Aphis 856 

Elm-Tree  Gall, 856 

Larch,  Maple  .Aphis  ...  856 
Maple-Tree  Bark,  Pear- 
Tree  or  Jumping,  Pop- 
lar-Leaf Gall 857 

Sumac      Gall,    Spotted 
Willow    (Aphis),    .      ...  858 
Locusts,    or     ""Grasshop- 
pers"   860 

Moth  (Clothes) 860 

Pear-Tree  Slugs 855 

Pea  Weevil 861 

Phylloxera 862 

Radish   Fly S63 

Rose  Chafer 863 

Squash  Bug  and  Squash- 
Vine  Borer 1171 

Tomato  Worm 864 

Vine  Chafer,  Spotted 864 

Weevils 864 

Wheat  Midge 1289 

Friendly 864 

Locust  M  ite 865 

Syrphus  Flies 865 

Remedies 864 

Poisons 864 

Mechanical  Means. 86; 

Preventing  Egg-Laying  867 
How  to  Dust  or  Syringe 

Plants 867 

Trapping 368 

Destruction  of  Eggs 869 

Good  Culture 869 

Parasitic  on  Man  and  An- 
imals   S69 

Fleas 869 

Itch  Mite 869 

Bed  bug 870 

Lice 870 

Bird  Lice 870 

Spider  Ticks  and  Mites  870 

Spiders 871 

Ticks 871 

Trichinae 871 

Insect  Bites 872 

Instinct 872 

I  nsurance \ 872 

Fire,  Marine  and  Life....   872 

Interest 873 

How  to  Calculate 873 

Table 874 

Account 124 

Interfering 875 

Intermittent  Fever:  see  .Ague.     19 

I  ntestate 875 

Intestinal  Parasites,  of  Hoises  785 
Intoxication,  Apparent  Death 

from 321 

Introduction,  Etiquette  of 410 

Letters  of 032 

Inventory 127,  875 

Invoice 875 

Book    122 

Iodine  and  Iodides 875 

I  pecac 876 

Irish  Setter 332 

Iron 876 

Solaerfor 876, 1160 

To  Weld 876 

as  a  Medicine 876 

Carbonate  of 876 

Sesquioxide  of,  or  Rust.  -  -  876 

Sulphate  of 876' 

Perchloride  of 877 

Cement  for 242 

Irrigation 877 

Isinglass 878 

Itch 878 

of  Swine 1328 

Ointment 995 

Mite 569 


I3I6 


INDEX. 


Jack 879 

Jalap 879 

Jam:  see  Marmalade 959 

Jamaica  Pepper:  sec  Allspice     19 

Jamb 879 

Jaundice 879 

in  Horse , 785 

in  Cattle 231 

Jaw,  Big  {a    Horse  Disease)   745 
Bony  Tumor  of,  in  Horses  785 
Jelly,  Apple  and  Arrow-root.  879 
Currant,  Grape,  Barberry 
Crab-Apple,      Quince, 
Strawberry,  Gooseberry, 
Cranberry,    Jelly  with- 
out Fruit,  Jelly   for  the 
Sick  Room   .  . ,     880 

Jenny     .  , 880 

Jersey  Cattle        .  .  202 

Red  Swine  - .     .       1206 

Jerusalem  Artichoke.  49 

Jet S82 

Jewelry S80 

Diamond,  Gems,  Sap- 
phire, Ruby,  Emerald, 
Beryl,  Topaz,  Tur- 
quoise, Moonstone,  Gar- 
net, Rock  Crystal, 
Quartz,  Alaska  Dia- 
mond, Amethyst   881 

Opal,     Chalcedony,    Ag- 
ate, Jet,  Amber,  Pearls, 

Coral  .. 882 

Jog  Trot 882 

Joint  Felon,  in  Cattle.  .    223 

Joints  Dislocation  of. .. .      ..   324 

in  Horse     ,  .    ...  759 

Journal  .... ,    882 

in  Book-keeping.      .122,  126 

Judas  Tree 513,  8S2 

Judgment,  see  Limitations...  944 

See  also  Note 927,  990 

Julep   882 

Jumble   .*. 172,  882 

Jump-seat 883 

June-Berry         .   ...   , 513 

June-Bug ...   856 

Juniper 883 

Jute .  ..  883 


Kitchen 886 

See  al»o  Brass  and    Cop- 
per Utensils 133 

Knee    886 

of  Horse,  Broken 786 

or  Toggle  Joint 886 

Knickkn.^ck      886 

Knife  Sharpener 886 

Knots 886 

Knuckle 887 

Kohl  Rabi     887 

Koumiss,  or  Kumyfs 887 

Kyanize  . .  ^ 887 


Kale 884 

Kalsomining:  see  Calcimtning  174 

Kennel 355 

Kentucky  Sheep 1126 

Kerf 884 

Kerosene 884 

To  Keep  and  To  Test   ...  884 

Odor,  To  Remove 884 

Kettle 884 

Key S84 

Kicking,  Vice  of  Horses. 713-3,  723 
Kid  Gloves,  To  (Mean,  etc.  884 

Kidney  Bean 885 

Kidneys 885 

Inflammation  of 885 

Bright's  Disease 885 

Ulceration  of. 885 

of  Horse,  Inflamed 786 

Killing  Animals:  see   Slaugh- 
tering  1 152 

King  Bolt 885 

King's  Evil:  see  Scrofula iiig 


Label   888 

Lace,  To  Wash.  888,  909 

Curtains,  To  Wash go8 

Lachrymal  Gland,  of  Horses, 

1  mpedimcnt  in 763 

Lactic  Acid     ,    . .  888 

Lactometer 888 

Ladder 888 

Lading,  Bill  of     97 

Ladle 888 

for  Butter 161 

Lady  Bird     ,     ... 865 

La  Fleche  (Fowl) 524 

Lamb:  see  Sheep 1131 

See     also     Treatment     of 
Young  Animals         ,       20-2 

To  Dress,  Cook,  etc 986 

Lambrekin ..  888 

Lamb's     Lettuce:     see     Corn 

Salad,  etc 295 

Lamb's-qiiarter 88g 

Laminitis 769 

Lamp,  To  Care  for,  Clean,  etc  889 
See  also  Artificial  Light   .   94S 

Lampas      787,  889 

Lampblack       . 889 

Lancashire  Swine 1208 

Land 889 

To  Measure .    ..  890 

Public     .      .    890 

in    Farming     892 

Landau       188 

Landlord .    .  892 

and  Tenant....-  ..         920 

Land  Plaster'.' see  Gypsum  457,632 
Landscape  Gardening-  892 

Land -side. ... .      .    .  ...     892 

Laying  out  Flower  Beds. .   898 

Langshans(Fowl^    525 

Lantern . 902 

Larch 512,  902-3 

Lard 441,  903 

Larder 903 

Lark  903 

Larkspur 903 

Larva 904 

Laryngitis 004 

in     Horses:     see     Throat 

Swelled 812 

in  Cattle:  see  Bronchitis..   225 

Croup 226 

Larynx 904 

Lash 904 

Lattice 904 

Laudanum   904 

Laundry 904 

Theory  of  Washing 904 

.Mkalies,   etc 904"5 

Washing  Fluil 905 

Soap  and  Water 905 

Washing 905 

Mode  of  Procedure   906 

Boiling,  Drymg 906 


Laundry  (Cont'd) 

Starching 907 

Washing  Machines 907 

Marking  Clothes 907 

Clothes-Lines,  Pins,  etc. .   908 
How  to  Wash    Particular 
Fabrics  and  Articles...   908 
Blankets,        Calicoes, 
Muslins,      Delaines, 
Merinoes,  Embroider- 
ies, Lace    Curtains...   908 
Woolens,  Hose,  Gentle- 
men's   Wear,      Silks, 
White     Counterpanes 
Cotwn  Cloth,  Lace, etc  909 

Laurel 512,  909 

Lawn gio 

Lay   911 

Layering   911 

Leach 911 

Lead , 911 

Oxide,    Iodide,     Acetate, 
Sugar  of.  Poisoning  17,  911 

Leaf  Mold .     911 

Lean  Meat gii 

leanness . . , 911 

Lean-to 604,  912 

Lease 92 1 

Forms  of 921 

Leather , 912 

To  Distinguish  Good....  912 

To  Preserve 912 

To  Restore  Luster  to 912 

To  Restore  Softness  to. ...  912 

Polish  for  Patent 912 

Soft,  To  Tan 1234 

See  also  Harness 637 

Leaven 912 

Ledger 117,  120,126-8,  912 

Leech 912 

Leek 912 

Legal  Business  Forms 912 

Acceptance,  Form  of 926 

Agency,  or  Attorney 914 

Laws  of 914 

Agreement,  Articles  of. . .  913 

Lawsof 913 

General  Form  of 913 

Apprentices   915 

Laws  Concerning 915 

Form  of  Indenture  of. ..  915 
for  Consent  of  Minor  915 
for  Consent  of  Father 

or  Mother 915 

for  Consent  of  Guar- 
dian     915 

of  Discbarge  of. 915 

Arbitration 916 

Law  of 916 

Form  of  Submission  to.  916 
Form  of  Arbitrator's  Oath  916 

Award 916 

Assignment 917 

Form  of 917 

General    Form  of,  with 
Power  of  Attorney. . .  917 

Attorney 914 

Law  of 914 

Form  of  Power  of 914-S 

Form  of  Revocation    of 

Power  of 915 

Bills  of  Exchange 925 

Bills  ofSale 917 

Law  of 917 

Form     of,  for    Personal 

Property 917 

Short  Form  for  same. ..  917 

Bonds 917 

Law  of 917 

General  Form  of 918 

Condition  of,  to  Convey 
Land 918 


Legal  Business  Forms  (Cont'd) 

Chattel  Mortgages..- 918 

Law  of 918 

Form  of, 918 

of  Personal  Property...  918 

Form  for 918 

Assignment  of. .    gag 

Release  on  Satisfaction 

of 920 

Sale  by gao 

Notice   of    Mortgagee's 

Sale gao 

Affidavit    of  Default   of 

Sale 920 

Codicil,  Form  of,  etc....  924 

Commercial  Forms 925 

Bills  of  Exchange      945 

Set  of  Foreign  Exchange  925 

Drafts 935 

Acceptance 936 

Indorsements ga6 

Promissory  Notes 926 

Orders 927 

Receipts g28 

Due-Bill 928 

Contract,  Building,  Form 

of 913 

Damages  for  Breach  of.  913 

Deeds 918 

Law  of 918 

Warranty,  Form  of...  gi8 

Due-Bill 928 

Exchange,  Bills  of 925 

Foreign,  Set  of 925 

Indorsements,    Laws  and 
Forms 926 

Judgment  Note   927 

Landlord  and  Tenant 920 

Law  of gao 

Short  Form  of  Lease...  921 

Same  for  Farm 921 

Surrender      of      Lease, 

Form  of 922 

Agreement 922 

Notice  to  Quit 922 

Tenant's  Notice  of  Leav- 
ing  gaa 

Notice,    on     Non-Pay- 
ment of  Rent 923 

Lease 921 

Law  of:  see   Landlord 

and  Tenant gat 

Forms  of 921 

Form  of  Surrender  of-.  923 

Mortgage giS 

of  Real   Estate gig 

Law  of gig 

Form  of. 919 

Form  of  Note,  Secured 

by  Mortgage 920 

Discharge  of 920 

Assignment  of 920 

Form  of  Sale,  by  Mort- 
gage  920 

Form  of  Notice  of  Sale, 

etc gao 

Affidavit  of  Sale gao 

Chattel:    see  above. 

Law  of .   918 

Negotiable     Papers:    see 

CommercU  Forms  gas,  etc. 

Note     gao,  926*7 

Law  of 926 

Forms  of 926 

Not  Negotiable ga6 

Negotiable  by  Indorse- 
ment   g27 

without  Indorsement.  927 

on  Demand 927 

Payable  at  Bank ga/ 

in  Merchandise g27 

Judgment 927 

Form  for  Pennsylvania.  927 


INDEX. 


1317 


Legal  business  Forms  (ContM; 

Indiana 927 

M  issouri ■   927 

Married     Woman's     in 

New  York 927 

Joint 927 

Principal  and  Surety -. .  927 
To  be  Secured  by  M  ort  - 

gage 920,  926 

Orders,  Forms  of - .   927 

for  Money  on  Account  927 
in  Full  of  Account...  928 

for  Merchandise. 928 

Partnership 922 

Law  of g22 

Form  of  Agreement. . ..  923 
Advertising  Notices. . ..  923 
Promissory    Notes:    see 

Notes 926 

Receipts^  Form  of 928 

on   Accotint 928 

in  Full 928 

Tenant:  see  Landlord  and 

Tenant 920-2 

Wills 923 

Law  of 923 

Form  of 924 

General  Form  of  .. .    .     924 

Codicil ..,.,  924 

Form  of 924 

Legal  Documents,  When  Out- 
lawed   944 

Legal  Tender 928 

Leghorn  ( Fowls)  (a  Fabric)525,  928 

Legs,  ofthe  Horse 726,787 

Dropsy  of .  787 

Swelled,  of  Horses 787 

Legume 928 

Leicester  (Sheep) 928,  1126 

Lemon 928 

as  Dessert 928 

Lemonade ^28 

Lentil  ...    ^28 

Letter  Kook 122 

Letter- Writing 929 

Genera!  Instructions.....  929 

Parts  of  aLetter 929 

Complimentary  Address. .  929 
Complimentary  Closing..  929 

Materinls 930 

Superscription 930 

Miscellaneous    Facis   and 

Suggestions 931 

Letters  of  lousiness 931 

Introduction 932 

of  Commend-ition 933 

of  Friendship,  etc 934 

of  Credit 935 

of  Excuse,  etc 936 

of  Favor 935 

Accompanying  Gifts...  936 

ofSympathy 936 

Love  Letters 936 

Lettuce 936 

Varieties 937 

Seed,  To  Raise  and  Save  560 
Amount  of,  to  be  Sown 
on  a  given  lotof  Ground    iS 

Leveler  for  Drains 360 

Lever 937 

Library 937 

See  also  Book 112 

Lice 870,  937 

To   Destroy 87c,  937 

Head 937 

Bodyand  Crab..   938 

on  Cattle      231 

on  Canaries 100 

on    Fowls   539 

on  Plants 856 

Lichen 938 

Licorice 938 


Life-Everlasting:  see   House- 

Icck 824 

Light   938 

Sunlight 938 

See  also  Light 828 

Artificial 938 

Lightning 939 

Protection  against 939 

Apparent  Death  from  321,  940 

Rod 940 

Swindle 1192 

Lilac 943 

Lily 943 

Lima  Bean 943 

Lime 943 

Milk  of 943 

Quicklime 943 

Dust 943 

as  a  Fertilizer 943 

Unslacked:  No.  of  Pounds 

to  the   Bushel 156 

To    Prevent,    in    Boilers: 

see  Boiler 1 1 1 

I^iniment 945 

Limitation,  Statutes  of 944 

Lin  or  Linden     512 

Linch-pin    944 

Lincoln  (Sheep)   1126 

Linen 944 

Line  of  Deposit 944 

Liniment  (14  kinds)   944-5 

See  also  Ointment 995 

Salve 1112 

Link 945 

Linseed 945 

Oil 945 

Cake  Meal 945 

Linsey-Woolsey 945 

Lint 945 

Lintel 945 

Lipped  and  Harled 945 

Liquidate 94c 

List 945 

Literature 945 

Lithotomy 747,  945 

Live-for-Ever:  see  Houseleek  824 

Live  Paper 945 

Liver 945 

Congestion,  Inflammation, 
Jaundice,  Fatty  Degen- 
eration   946 

of  Cattle  Inflamed 230 

of  Horse,  Disease  of 788 

of  Sheep,  Inflamed 1142 

Rot,  in  Sheep 1138 

Livestock:  see  Stock 1179 

Loam 946 

Loan 946 

Lobelia, 946 

Lobscouse 946 

Lobster 94  6 

Lock-jaw 946 

of  Cattle 231 

of  H  orses 789 

Locust 946 

Tree 512 

Grasshopper 860 

Mite 865 

Logs,  To  Measure:  see  Lum- 
ber   948 

Logwood 947 

Lombrez 1 143 

See  also  Hydatids 1141 

London    Purple ,.  866 

Long-Horn  Cattle 202 

Loon 947 

Loops 886 

Lotion 947 

Love  Letters 936 

Lubricants:  see  Oil 994 

Luccrn,  or  Alfalfa 948 

Lumber,  To  Measure, 948 

Lunar  Caustic 949 


Lungs 949 

Diseased,  of  Cattle 226,  234 

Diseased,  of  Horses.  -.790,  796 

Dropsy  of,  in  Horses 790 

Inflammation    of,    in    the 

Horse 796 

Lurcher 330 

Lute 949 

Lye 949 

Lymph 949 

Lymphangitis:  see  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Absorbents 782 


M 


M  acaroni 950 

^Lice 950 

Machinery 950 

Mackerel,  To  Cook 482 

M  adder gco 

Mad-Dog,  Bite  of 101 

.See  also  Hydrophobia,  in 
tliis  Index. 
Madness:    see     Hydrophobia. 

Mad  Staggers,  of  Horse 790 

See  also    Inflammation    of 

the  Brain 749 

Magnesia 951 

Sulphate   of:    see  Epsom 

S'llt 399 

Magnetic  Liniment 945 

Ointment 995 

Magnetism 951 

Magnolia 512 

^'^gpie 951 

Mailing  :     see    Miscellaneous 

Facts,  etc 930 

Majolica 951 

Malarial  Fever:  see  Ague...     19 

Mallard 376-7 

Mallenders    790 

Mallow,  Indian 842 

Malt 951 

See  also  Brewing 144 

No.  Pounds  per  Bushel.. ,    156 
Sprouts,  Value  of,  as  Food 

for  Stock 505 

Maltese  Cat 194 

l^og 339 

Mandarin  Duck 377 

Mandrake 952,  960 

Manege 952 

Mange 952 

in  the  Horse 790 

in  Cattle 231 

in  Swine 1228 

in  the  Dog 347 

Mangel-Wurzel 952 

Manger 952 

Mangoes  (Pickles) 1037 

Manila 952 

Manioc,  Manihot,  etc 952 

Manipulate 952 

Mansard-roof:  see  Curb- Roof 

Barn 63 

Manufactories 952 

Manure 953 

Barnyard 954 

Liquid 955 

Hen,  etc 956 

Green 956 

Maple 512,  956 

Sirup 957 

Sugar 1187 

English,  as  a  Hedge  Plant: 
see  ^'Other  Hedge 
Plants" 657 


Maple  (ContM) 

Aphis 8.s6 

Bark  Louse 857 

Marasmus:  sec  Leanness 911 

Marble 957 

Mare 957 

Duration  of  Gestation:  see 

Breeding  Calendar 144 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

See    also     Horse    article, 
throughout. 

Margin ,  in  Trade 957 

Marigold 957 

Tincture  of 958 

Marjoram 958 

Marketing 958 

Marking  Clothes 907 

Marl 457,  959 

Marmalade 959 

Marriage:  see  Wedding 416 

Etiquette  of 408 

Marrow 959 

See  also  Fat 441 

Marsh 959 

To  Reclaim 959 

Martin 960 

Martingale 960 

Martynia 960 

Mash,  Bran   960 

Masonry,  To  Measure 146 

Mastiff 337 

M  ats 960 

Matting 960 

May-Apple 969 

May  Beetle 850,  961 

May  Bug 850 

Mead 961 

Meadow 961 

Grass 598 

Saffron:  see  Colchicum. ..  277 

Meal 961 

Valueof,as  Food  for  Stock  505 
Meals— *^What  for  Dinner"..   356 

Measles 962 

in  Swine 1228 

Measure 962 

Brick  Work 146 

Corn 294 

Grindstones 607 

Cattle  (Weight) 215 

Hay 649 

Boards  or  Lumber 948 

Timber 948 

Land 890 

Tree 1257 

Medicine 968 

Meat 962 

Beef. 96a 

Veal 963 

Pork,  M  utton 964 

Lamb 965 

How  to  Select  Meats. . .    .  965 

Poultry  and  Fish   966 

Cooking,  Preserving   and 

Handling 966 

To  Ctire   967 

To  Preserve  and  Pickle..   968 

Disinfectants  for 324 

Scraps,  Value  of,  as  Food 

for  Stock 505 

See  also  the  respective 
meats  in  their  alphabet- 
ical place. 

Medic 968 

Medicine 327,  968 

Table  of  Doses 968 

for  Animals 217 

How  to  Give  to  Animals. .    217 
See  also  Doctoring. .....  325 

Hygienic  System, etc. .  836 

Patent 1196 

Megrims 79X 

Melancholy 836 


I3i8 


INDEX. 


Melilot 273 

Melon 983,  taSo 

as   Dessert ....    548 

Seed,  To  Select,  etc. 560 

Amount  9f,  to  the  Acre     18 
Melting  Points    of   Metals...  543 

of  other  Substances   653 

Memorandum   Book 122 

Meningitis 969 

Mental  Disctplin*:   see   Chil- 
dren   254 

Mercury  and  Compounds....  969 

Poison:  Antidote  for 969 

Merinoes,  To  Wash 908 

Middleman 971 

Middlings,  Value  of,  as  Food 

for  stock 505 

Midge 971 

Milch 97 1 

Mildew,  To  Prevent  and  Re- 
move   971 

Mile 971 

Milk 971 

To  Keep  Sweet 973 

To  Deodorize 973 

for  Infants 973 

Condensed 973 

Flecks  in 486 

Fever 231,  974 

Pans,  or  Coolers 975 

Training  to 300 

Coffee 276 

Mirror 298 

of  Lime 943 

Sickness 238 

Value    of,    as    Food     fjpr 

Stock 505 

Teeth 975 

Milking 974 

See  also  Cow ...  397,  302 

Milkweed 975 

Millet 599,  975 

Mince  Meat 976 

Mind,  Discipline  of:  see  Chil- 
dren   254 

Mineral  Pitch:  see  Asphalt..     51 

Minim 976 

Mink  Skins,  To  Tan 1234 

M  innow (576 

Mint  Julep 976 

Sauce 986 

Mirrors,  To  Clean    976 

Recoating:  see  Amalgam    920 

Mite 976 

Molar .       .    ..       976 

Molasses 976 

See  also  Cane 181 

Maple 957 

Sugar 1187 

Mold:  same  as  Mildew 971 

Mole  (both    F.xcrescence  and 

Animal) 976 

Molting 977 

Money,  How  to  Carry 1256 

Moon    Blindness 977 

Morass 977 

Mordant 977 

Morel 977 

Moiello 977 

See  also  Cherry 249 

Morgan  Horse 690 

Morphine 977 

See  also  Opium 997 

Mortgage 918,  977 

Chattel 918 

Real    Estate 919 

Mortgagee's  Sale,  Forma  for    910 
Mortification:  see  Gangrene..  556 

Mosquitoes 978 

See  also  Insect  Bites 873 

Moth 860 

To  Destroy,  Keep  out  of 
Carpets,  etc 551,  978 


Moth  (Cont'd) 

To  Keep  out  of  Furs 551 

To  Secure  Goods  from. . .  978 

Mother  of  Vinegar,  etc 979 

Mouse-proof        House,       To 

Make 1086 

Mouth 979 

of  Horse,  Inflamed,  etc.  791 

See  also  Lampas 787 

Ulcers 1268 

Disease  of,  in   Cattle:  see 

Epizootic  Aphthae 229 

Wash  for   979 

Mow 979 

Mower 843,  979 

Mitciluge:  sec  Glue 573 

M  uck 979 

Mucus 980 

M  uffin  (six  kinds) 980 

Mulberry 51a,  980 

Mulch 980 

Mule 081 

Nature  of 981 

Breeding 981 

Care  of  the  Colt 981 

Breaking 981 

General  Observations.. ..  982 

Diseases ....  982 

See  also  Hinny 664 

Muley 98a 

Mull .19,  982 

M  ullet 475,  983 

M  umps 983 

Muriate:  see  Chlorine.. .... ..  259 

Murrain 333,  982 

Bloody 233 

Muscovy  Duck 376 

Mush,  Corn-Meal,  Oat-Meal, 

Graham,  Rye,  etc 982-3 

Mushroom... 983 

To        Stew,         Pudding, 

Canned  in  Sauce 983 

Musk  Duck ....    376-7 

M  uskmelon 983 

as  Dessert 548 

Preserves 1066 

M  uskrat  Skins,  To  Tan 1234 

Muslin 908,984 

Mustang  Ponies 693 

Mi!stard  (Plaster,  Table,  etc.)  984 

Veterinary    Uses 985 

Mutton,  To  Dress,  Cook,  etc.  985 

Lamb   986 

To  Carve 193 


N 


Nac 987 

Nail 987 

In-growing  Toe-Nails-. .  987 

To    Whiten    the     Finger 

Nails 987 

Nail  in  the  Foot,  of  Horses..   768 

Nail  Pricking,  of  Horses 793 

Naphtha 987 

Narcotic 987 

Poison  by 987 

Nasal  Gleet,  in  the  Horse 774 

Polypus,  of  Horses.  ..793,  800 

Nasturtium 987 

Naval  III,  in  Cattle 233 

Navicular  Bone 988 

Joint  Lameness 793 

Neapolitan  Hogs 1208 

Near  (Side  of  a  Team) 988 

Neat  Cattle 988 

Neat's-foot  Oil 988 

Nectarine 088 


Negotiable  Papers:  see  Com- 
mercial Forms  .       -    ..925  etc. 
Nephritis,  of  Horse:  see  Kid- 
neys, etc 786 

Nerves 988 

Liniment  for 945 

Nervines 988 

Nervousness;  see  Nerves 988 

Net 988 

Nettle  Rash:  see  Htves......  664 

Neuralgia 988 

Ointment  for 995 

Newfoundland  Dog 335 

New- Year's  Calls 411 

Nicking 989 

See  also  Dock 325 

Nightmare 989 

Nightshade 989 

Night  Soil 989 

Night  Sweat 989 

Nippers 678,  989 

Niter,  or  Saltpeter 989 

Poison  by 990 

Nitrate  of  Silver:     see    Lunar 

Caustic ....  949 

Nitrates 990 

Nitric  Acid:  see  Acids 18 

Nit:ogen,or  Azote 990 

Norman  Horses 691 

Nose 990 

Bleeding 990 

of  Horses 747 

Bag 754,  990 

Notary  Public 990 

Note 920,  926,  etc.  990 

Secured     by    Mortgage, 

Form  of 920 

Maker    or     Drawer     of, 

Payee,  etc 116 

When  Outlawed 944 

Fraudulent 1197 

Nourishing  Clyster 274 

Nursery,  Fruit-Tree 991 

Agents 991 

See  also  Swindling 1196 

Nutmeg 992 

Melon:  see  Muskmelon..  984 
Nux  Vomica 992 


Oak 993 

Insects -854-5,  993 

Apple 554,  993 

Bark 993 

Oatmeal 993 

Gems  ....    135 

Oat,Cultivation,  Varieties  etc.  994 
Amount  of,    to  be    Sown 

per  Acre 18 

Value  of,  as  Food  for  Stock  505 
as  Food  for  Horses 714 

Odor  of  Perspiration,  Disin- 
fectant for 324 

Oil 994 

Cakes 994 

Cloths 994 

Stones:  see  Whetstones. .  .1390 

Stoves 1181 

of  Bergamot 97 

of  Vitriol:  see  Acids 18 

Ointment  (10  kinds) 995 

See  also  Liniment 944 

Salve II 13 

Resin,  Compound 1098 

Okra   or  Gumbo 995 

Oleomargarine 164.  995 

To  Detect 995 


Olive  996 

Omelet  (four  kinds) 996 

Onion,  Cultivation,  Varieties, 

Cooking,  etc 996 

Number  of  Pounds  to  the 
Bushel..... 156 

Seed,  To  Raise  and  Keep  561 

Seed,    Amount   of,  to  the 
Acre 18 

To  Pickle 1038 

Ophthalmia,  of  Horses 763 

of  Cattle 331 

Opium 997 

Poison  by 997 

Orange 998 

Jelly,  Compote,  Pudding, 
Ambrosia 998 

as  Dessert 548 

M  armalade 959 

Orchard 998 

Ground,  Cultivation,  etc.  998 

Laying  out  ■. ..      ..- 999 

Nurserymen's   Classifica- 
tion of  Stock 999 

Pruning  and  General  Care  999 

Grass 599 

Orders,  Forms  of 927 

Ornamental  Currant 999 

Trees;      sec       Landscape 
Gardening 892 

Forestry 507 

Floriculture 489 

Ornithology 1000 

See  also  Birds 98 

Osage-Orange    Hedge 653 

Seed,  No.  of  Pounds  per 

Bushel 156 

Os.sitied      Cartilages     of     the 

Horse 793 

Ounce 1000 

Ovarium     1000 

Ovens,  Brick,  To  Make 147 

Over-reach  . 794 

Overshot  Wheel 1000 

Owl 1000 

Oxalic    Acid rooo 

Oxen  rooo 

Oxford  Downs  ^Sheep) 11 26 

(Oxygen looi 

Ox-Voke loco 

Oysters,  To  Cook 483 

Soup   ... 1163 

Oyster  Plant:  see  Salsify itio 

Fritters 544 

Ozone     loor 


Pace,  or  Amble looa 

Pack I003 

See  also  Flock 488 

Pack-Saddle looa 

Paddock    1002 

Pain  in  the  Back    54 

Painkiller,  Perry  Davis':     see 

Anodyne 22 

Paint  and  Painting 1003 

Fire    and      Water- Proof 

Paint 1002 

Palate 1003 

See  also  Lampas 787 

Palpitation  of  the  Heart 651 

Palsy:  see  Paralysis 794,  1229 

Pancakes  (12. kinds) 1003 

Buckwheat 152 

Pancreas 1003 

Pan-Doddles 357 


INDEX. 


1319 


Panic  Grass 1003 

Ja"^y   ; 1003 

yaper,  in  Letter-Writing:  see 
M  atcrials 030 

in  Penmanship loig 

Parafline ^  ..100^ 

Paralysis,  of  Horse 754 

of  Sows J229 

Parasite 1003 

intestinal  of  tKe  Horse.. .   785 

Parasitic  1  nsects 869 

Paregoric ,003 

Pans  Green 1004 

See  also  Use  of  Poisons...  865 
Arsenic ^q 

..:j  f\ 1  ^=' 


Parotid  Gland. 


.1004 


of  Horses,  Inflamed   794 

L>uci,      Fistula      of,      in 

Horses 767 

Parsley , 1004 

Amount   of  Seed    to    the 

Ground. 18 

Parsnip 1004 

No.   of    Pounds     to     the 

Bushel 156 

Seed /I'o  Raise,  etc 561 

Amount  of,  to  the  Acre     18 
Value    of,    as     Food     for 

Stock 505 

Fritters 544 

Partner's  Account 123 

Partnership,  Law,  Forms,  etc.  922 
Partridye:  see  Ruffed  Grouse  611 
Parturient    Fever,    in    Cattle: 

see  iMilk  Fever 231 

Parturition 1004 

Pa«e ,004 

Pastt-rn 727,  1004 

Pastry    1004 

Pasture    1004 

See  also  Meadow 961 

Patent  Medicines 1196 

Rights  (Swindles) 1196 

Patents 1005 

Pawinji,  of  Horse. 713,  1005 

Pawpaw 1C05 

Pea 1005 

To  Cook 1006 

To  Can 185 

Value     of,    as    Food     for 

Stock 505 

as  Food    for  Horses....   716 
Number    of    Pounds    per 

Bushel 1^56 

Seed,  To  Select 561 

Amountof,  tothe  Acre     18 

Weevil 861 

Peach 1006 

Borer 854 

Varieties 545,  icx)6 

as  Dessert 548 

Preserves 1066 

'i'o  Pickle,  etc loti 

Brandy...    J23 

Dried»   No.  of  Pounds  to 

the  Bushel 156 

To  Can;  see  Canning 184 

To  Dry:  see  Drying 373 

Pea- Fowl loii 

Pea-nut 1012 

Pear..... 1012 

Diseases  and  Insects. ...  .1013 
Tree  Louse,  Jumping. . ..  857 

Varieties 545,  1014 

as  Dessert 548 

No.  of  Pounds  per  Bushel  156 

To  Preserve,  etc 1018 

To  Can 184 

T>      Jo  l^ry:  see  Drying 373 

Pearl  Barley 58 

To  Prepare  for  the  Table     58 

Pearls 882 

Peat 549,  1018 

Pecan idi8 

Pelts 1018 

Pemmican 1018 

Pen:  see  Materials 930 

Penmanship 1018 

Paper,  Pen  and  Ink 1019 

Position  and  Movement.  .1019 
Formation  of  the  Letters.  loao 

How  to  Teach 1033 

Pennyroyal 1035 

Peony 1035 

Pepper 1035 

Green^  To  Pickle,   Red. .,1035 
No.  of  Plants  to  the  Acre     18 


Pepper-grass:  see  Cress 309 

Peppermint 1036 


Brand 


E"'^t •■ 473. 1036 

rercheron  Horse 692 

Peritoneum      of  Horse,      In- 
flamed       ygj 

Perry    Davis'    Painkiller:    see 

Anodyne 22 

Persian  Insect  Powder 866 

Persimmon 1036 

Perspiration 1036 

Disinfectants  for 324 

Peruvian  Bark:  see  Cinchona  26S 

Petroleum 1036 

Pewee,  or  Phabe  Bird 1036 

Phaeton „ ,88 

Pheasant:  see  Rurfed  Grouse.  611 

Phlox:  see  Sweet  William 1192 

Phonography: see  Short-handiuS 

Phosphate   458,  1037 

See  also  Salt mi 

Phosphorus 1037 

Phylloxera 590,  862 

Physician:  see  Doctoring    ...  325 

Piccalilli,  To  Make 1037 

Pickerel 474 

Pickling 1037-8 

Picture    Frames,    To    Clean: 

see   Furniture 5C0 

Pie    (37kinds) J038 

Game ^^e 

Pie-Plant:  see  Rhubarb 1099 

Pig:  see  Swine 1199 

Pork g64 

To  Cook:  see  Pork 1060 

Roast,  'i'o  Carve    194 

See  also  Animals,  Treat- 
ment of  Young 20-2 

Pigeon 1040 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

To  Roast 555 

Pignut 1041 

Pig-Pen,  or  Piggery 1219 

Pigweed 889,  1041 

^}^^ 473-4,  1041 

Pi'es.. 1041 

Ointment  for 995 

Pine ,041 

See  also   Evergreen    420 

Forestry 513 

Landscape  Gardening..  892 

p.         ^^^^"^ 657 

Pine-apple 548,  1041 

P'nll 1042 

See  also  Sweet  William.    .1192 
Pink-Eye  (Disease  of  Horse)  782 

V^::::. '"^^ 

Pithing  . 
Pitting.. 


of  S 


. .  ..1042 

1042 

■  1042 


1042 
1042 


mall-pox 1 154 

P'ague ,042 

See  also  Murrain •z'l-i 

Plank ^^ 

Plant,  etc 

gj^^^>"g 655^  1043 

Plaster ,043 

Court 297 

Land    457,  632 

Anodyne 22 

^|'="'".^ -1043 

Pleurisy ,043 

in  Cattle 233 

in  Horse   705 

Pleuro-pncumonia,  in  Cattle.   234 

in  Swine 1220 

P'^^^"- 1^43 

Plow 1043 

Plowing 1049 

See  also  Driving 370 

Plow-share 105 1 

Plum ,051 

Varieties 545,  1054 

To_  Preserve  and  Pickle..  1055 
Dried,  Number  of  Pounds 

to  the  Bushel 156 

as  Dessert 548 

Plunge,  as  a  Horse 712,  1055 

Pneumonia 1055 

in  Horses 796 

in  Cattle ...234-6 

Podophyllin 1055 

Sec  also'May-apple 960 

Pointer 332.  348-9 


Points,  of  a  Horse 674 

of  Cattle 207 

Poisoning    (antidotes    for    iii 

poisons) 1055 

See  also  -Occidents,  etc.  ..     17 

of  a  H  orse 797-8 

Poison  Ivy  and  Sumac 1057 

Poisons  for  I  nsects 865 

Polecat  1058 

Polish 1058 

for  Stoves 1181 

Polled 1058 

Angus  Cattle 204 

Poll-Evil 798 

Polypus,  in  Horses 800 

Pomace;  see  Apple  Pomace..     47 

Pomade 634,  1058 

Pomegranate 1058 

Pommel 1059 

Pomology 1059 

Pony 693 

Pop-Corn 1059 

To  Make  Pop-corn  Balls.  1059 

Poplar 1059 

See  also  Tulip  Tree 513 

-Leaf  Gall  Lice 857 

Poppy 1059 

Pork,  To  Cook   1060 

Porridge:  see  Oatmeal 993 

Post 45t,  460,  ic6o 

See  also  Board  Fence 451 

Gate   ^^2 

Post-hole  Digger 451 

I'otash 1060 

See  also  Laundry 904 

Potato.. ,06, 

To  Cook  (10  Methods)  1062.3 

To  Store   20 

Amount  to  be  Planted  per 

Acre 18 

No.  of  Pounds  per  Bushel  156 
Value  of,  as  Food  for  Stock  505 
Potting  Plants:    see    Floricul- 
ture  491^  452 

Poultices    <7  kinds) 1063 

Antiseptic 244 

Poultry 528,   1064 

Feeding 1064 

Killing  and  Marketing..  .1065 
See  also  Fowl,   Domestic.   513 

^"Ck 528,  375 

Goose 528,  577 

Turkey 528,   1261 

Powder,  Anodyne 22 

Power:  sec  Horse-Power 821 

Power  of  Attorney 914,   1065 

Sec  also  Attorney 52 

Pox:  see  Chicken  Pox 253 

^°*:Po« 22§.  305 

Small-Pox 1153 

Prairie 1065 

Chickens:  see  Grouse 611 

To  Fry   555 

Pre-emption  of  Land 890 

Pregnancy 1065 

Preserves  (12  kinds) 1066-7 

Prickly  Pear 1067 

%'''V »o67 

rrobang 225 

Proof  Spirit:  see  Alcohol ig 

Propagation 1067 

Proud   Flesh 1068 

Prunes   ,068 

as  Dessert ,    .     548 

Pruning 1068 

Prusfiic  Acid 10^8 

Pudding  (10  kinds) 1068 

PufTs:  see  Wind-galls 817 

P'lllet 1071 

Pulse  (Impulse  of  Artery) 107 1 

of  Domestic   Animals....  220 

Pumice  Foot 800 

Pumice  Stone 1071 

Pump   107T 

Pumpkin 1073 

Val  ue      of,    as    Food    for 
Stock 505 

Amount   of   Seed  to  Acre    iS 

Bread 135 

Pupa  and  Pupate 1073 

.See  also  Chrysalis 261 

Purging 1073 

See  also  Cathartics 195 

Puislane 1073 

Purulent  Matter:  see  Pus 1073 


Putrefaction 1073 


,S"^f* 327 

lO    KoaSt cec 

Quarter ^^74 

Crack:  see  Sand  Crack...  804 
Evil,  in  Cattle 22^ 

n    -W*^ 800 

(Quicklime   ^4, 

Quicksilver:  see  Mercury 960 

H"??,**'"S 758.  1074 

Quills ,074 

Quince 1074 

Miirmalade 959 

Q"inine ,074 

Quinsy,  in  Swine 1229 

See  alse  Tonsils 1252 

Quittor 800 


Rabbit 1075 

To  Prepare  and  Cook 1076 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Domestic 1075 

Skins,  To  Tan 1234 

Rabies:   see    Hydrophobia   in 
this  Index. 

Race 1076 

Racing ,076 

See  also  Speed 1 1 64 

Rack 215,  1077 

Radish 1077 

Seed,  To  Raise,  etc     .    ..   561 
Amount  of,  per  Acre. . .     18 

^      Ply 863 

g''^PO"t 1077 

_  rence 449 

Rain;  see  Climate 269 

and  Weather 1281 

<^auge ,o»« 

Signs  of i«8i 

Raisins ..1078 

as  Dessert 547 

Rake 643,  1078 

Ram,   Hydraulic 1078 

Male  Sheep,  or  Tup 1131 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Ramie 1078 

Range ,078 

Rape 1078 

Seed,  Value   of,   as    Food 

for  Slock 505 

Rash:  see  Hives 664 

Raspberry 107^ 

Most  Profitable  Varieties.   545 

To  Can 184 

To  Dry 373 

Rat,  Norway  or  Brown,  Black, 

Roof loSi 

Ratsbane:  see  Arsenic 49 

Rai-tail 1082 

See  also  Surfeit 809 

Rattlesnake io8a 

Bite,  To  Treat loi 

Razor,  To  Strop,    Hone,   etc: 

see  Shave 1x21 

Reaper 1082 

Rear  and  Rearing.  --712,   108a 

Rcceiptsand  Bills 928,  1083 

Red  Clover  1083 

Red  Lead   1083 

Red  Pepper 1055 

Red  Precipitate 969 

Red-top  (Grass) 590 

Red  Water,  in  Cattle 238 

in  Sheep 1146 

Reel 479,  loSj 

Refrigerator 840,  1083 

Rein 108 ) 

Sec  also  Driving 368 

Remittent   Fever 1084 

Rennet:  see  Cheese 246 

Renting 129,  430 

.^ee  also  Lease 91a 

Repro^uction;  see  Generation  567 


1320 


INDEX. 


Reproduction*  ContM 

Gestation 569 

Replevin,  Writ  of:  How  Long 

Actionable 944 

Reservoir 1084 

Residence 1084 

Location 1084 

Style  of  the  Plan     1085 

Materials,       Foundation, 

Cellar,  Ventilaton 10S6 

To  Render  Mousc-Proof.io86 
Chimney,  Color,  Interior 

Arraiigemcnti 1087 

Designs   1087-98 

Resin 1098 

Ointment,  Compound....  1098 
To  Remove  Resin    Spots 

from  Silk     1098 

Soap:  see    Soap 1155 

Retriever 333-5i  1098 

Rheumatism 1098 

of  Horse 801 

Liniment  for 944 

Rhubarb  ..     1095 

Rice -1099 

To  Cook - I  IOC 

Bread     135 

Pudding 107c 

Snowballs 1100 

Fritters 544 

V;iiue  of,     for  Stock   .      .   505 
Riding:  see  Horseback  Riding  818 

r-tiquetteof 820 

Kiile      ...    .    619 

Rinderpest  ••      ......  noo 

Ringbone         793,  802 

Ring,  Wedding  Finger     -417,  461 

Ring  Finger         461 

Wedding     417 

Ring-worm ucc 

in  Horses     802 

Rive.       ...  noo 

Roaches:  see  Cockroach  .   .     275 

Roads noo 

Roaring  of  Horse 725,  802 

Robin         ...    .    1102 

Rochelle  Salt 1103 

Roller    1 103 

Rolls, .Coffee,  Parker  House. 1103 

Breakfast 134 

Root 1103 

Crops,  Value  of.  Prepara- 
tion of  Land  for.  Culti- 
vation and  Harvesting. 1 104 

Rose 1 104 

Chafer 863 

Rot 1 105 

Rotation  of  Crops 1 105 

Rouen  Duck •■376-7 

Round-Up 1106 

go^P,    539 

Kowcl 1 106 

in  Cattle 218 

See  also  Seton,  etc-  767,  780 

Rowcn:  see  Aftermath    19 

Rubber- see  India  Rubber  ...  843 

Ruminants xio6 

Rumination 1107 

Runaways.  What  todo  in. ...     17 

Rupture;  see  Hernia 662 

in  Horses 746,  803,  809 

of  Swine 1230 

Rusk 1 107 

Rust 876,  1 107 

of  Culinary    Vessels:    sec 

Cookery ..  285 

of  Grain 588 

Rustic ti07 

Ruta-Baga - 1107 

Pounds  to  the  Bushel..    ..   T56 
Value    of,  for  Stock  ..    ..  505 

Rutting  Season  --sS?,  iiC7 

Rye 1108 

Amount  of  Seed  per  Acre     18 

Value    of,  for  Stock 505 

Pounds  to  the  Bushel 156 

Bread , 135 


Sachel H09 

Sec  also  Traveling 

Sack 1109 


Saddle 1109 

Gall:  see  Gall 554 

Sadiron;sce  Flat-irons 483 

Saffron 1109 

See  also  Colchicum 277 

Sage 1 109 

Sago 1109 

Salad  (8  kinds) 1109 

Sal  Ammoniac iiio 

Sale,  Bill  of 97,  917 

Form  of 917 

Saleratus tiio 

Saliva mo 

Salivation mo 

of  Horses 804 

Sallenders 790 

Salmon .....473-4 

Salsify mo 

Amount  of    Seed   to    the 

Ground 18 

Sal-Soda im 

Salt mi 

as  a  Fertilizer 458 

Pounds  in  a  Bushel 156 

Spirit  of:  see  Acids 18 

Peter:  see  Niter 989 

Rheum    1112 

Salve  (4  kinds) ma 

See  also  Ointment 995 

Sand 1 112 

Pounds  to  the  Bushel....   156 

See  also  Soil 1158 

Crack 804 

Sanitary  Science 835 

Sassafras 1112 

Satin 1112 

Sauces  \,\-i  kinds) 1112 

Sauer  Kraut 1113 

Sausage 1113 

Bologna m,  1114 

Savory,  Summer 1114 

Saw     1114 

To  File;  see  Hand-Saw..  636 

Scab 1115 

of  Horse:  see  Mange.   ..•  790 

of  Sheep 1146 

Scald  head       1115 

Scalds:  see  Burns  and  Scalds  155 

on  Horses 752 

on  Dogs 348 

Scales   ..    ms 

Scarlatina  or  Scarlet  Fever..  .1116 

in  the  Horse 804 

School-house  ...    1117 

Scratches 775,  1119 

See  also  Grease 774 

Scrofula 11 19 

in  Horse   S04 

Scurvy  in   Horses 811 

Scythe  1120 

Sea  Kale:  see  Swiss  Chard..   1232 
Section  of  Land:   see    Town- 
ship  1252 

Sedlitz  Powder 1120 

Seed,  Amount  of,  to  the  Acre     18 

Hemp.  To  Raise 658-9 

Seedling 1120 

Seeds 18,560-1,  1120 

How  to  Select  Good  Seed .  1 120 

To  Test  Vitality  of 1120 

Adulteration 1120 

Duration  of  Vitality 1121 

To  Preserve 560-1,  1121 

Seltzer  Water iiai 

Senses:  see  Feeling 448 

Seton -767,  780,  1131 

Needle 764 

Setter 33i-'»  1121 

Shade  Trees:  see    Landscape 

Gardening 89a 

Forestry 507 

Shares,  Farming  on 129 

Shave 1121 

To  Strop  a  Razor..     ....1121 

ToSharpena  Razor 1121 

To  Hone  a  Razor 1121 

Liniment  after  Shaving. ..  945 

See  also  Beard 74 

Shaving-Horse 1121 

Shearing  Sheep 1147 

See  also  Fleece 486 

and  Wool I2Q7 

Shed ■.    ..    .1122 

Sheep 1122 

General    Views    of  the    1853 

Genus 1 122 

History 1 123 


Sheep  (Cont'd) 

See  also  Rl  utton 985 

Breeds 1125 

Beacon  Down 1125 

Black-Faced  Scotched.  1125 

Caraman 1 125 

Cheviot 1:25 

Cotswold 1125 

Dorsets 1125 

Hampshire  Down 1125 

Kentucky 1126 

Leicester ** 

Lincoln ** 

Merino ** 

Mexican '* 

Oxford  Downs   ** 

Romney  Marsh '* 

Shropshire  Downs '* 

South   Downs " 

Welsh  Mountain ' 

Breeding,  Care  and  Man- 
agement   , 1 126 

Ewes X127 

Rep  reduction,  etc  .......  569 

Gestation 569 

See  also  Breeding  Calen- 
dar    144 

Teeth  as  Index  to  Age.. .1129 

Barns  and  Shelters 1129 

Sheds  and  Racks 1130 

Care  of  Lambs 1131 

Docking  and  Castration.  .1131 

Shearing 1147 

See  also  Fleece 486 

Wool 1297 

Crooks  and  Dipping 1133 

Fattening,  Teed    Racks, 

Fences  and  Guards 1134 

Diseases 1134 

Abortion "34 

Apoplexy 1134 

Black-leg "34 

Bladder,  Inflamed 1142 

Bleeding 11 36 

Bloat:  see  Hoove 1141 

Bowels,  Inflamed 1142 

Brain   Inflamed 1142 

Bronchitis 1136 

Canker  of  the  Foot *' 

Catarrh '* 

Choking 1137 

Colic. '* 

Constipation  (of  Lambs)  " 
Cystitis:  see  Inflamma- 

of  the  Bladder 1142 

Diarrhoea. 1137 

Dropsy " 

Dysentery " 

Enteritis;  see  Inflamma- 
tion of  the  Bowels.  ...1142 

Epilepsy 1138 

Eyes,  1  nrtamed:  see  Oph- 
thalmia     1 143 

Fever,  Parturient 1144 

Fluke 1138 

Foot-Rot J138 

Foot-and-Mouth-Dis- 

ease 1139 

Gad-fly  Grubs...  .553,  1139 

Garget 1141 

H oose :     see    Pale    Dis- 
ease  1143 

Hoove. "43 

Hydatids 1143 

See  also  Lombrez.  ...1143 

Influenza 1142 

Liver,  Inflamed 1142 

Liver  Rot 1 138 

Lockjaw 1 143 

Lombrez 1143 

See  also  Hydatids. .  .1141 

Louse 1143 

See  also  Ticks 1 147 

Lung  Worms 1143 

Maggot 1143 

Ophthalmia '* 

Pale  Disease " 

Palsy 1144 

Parturient  Fever " 

.apoplexy ** 

Plethora ** 

Pleurisy 1144 

Pneumonia '' 

Pox " 

Red  Water "46 

Rheumatism " 

Scab " 


Sheep.  Diseases  (Cont'd) 

Tapeworm 1147 

Ticks " 

Worms 1 142-3 

Womb,  Inversion  of.. .1142 

Shecpljcrry 1147 

Shcepshead  (a  Fish) 474 

Sheep-Skins,  To  Tan 1234 

Shepherd „. . .  .1147 

See  also  Sheep 1122 

Shetland  i'onics    693 

Shingles,  I'o  Measure 1148 

a  Disease ** 

Shins,  of  Horses,  Sore 805 

Shirt 1148 

Enamel  for  Bosoms *' 

Shock '* 

Shoes:  see  Boots  and  Shoes..   130 

Shoeing  Horse 733 

Shoot,  or  Shute.  ..      1148 

How  to 626 

Shopping  Etiquette 414 

Short,  Shorts 1148 

Short  Cake 173 

Short-Hand 1148 

Short-  H  orn 205 

Shot-Guns 622 

ShotcfGrease 782 

Shovel 1 149 

Shrew 1149 

Shropshire  Downs  (Sheep).  ..1126 

Shrub        1149 

Shying,  of  Horse 711 

Siberian  Apples 46 

Most  Profitable    Varieties  545 

Sickle 1 149 

Sickness:  see  Doctoring,  Med- 
•    icine.    Hygiene    and    the 
various   diseases,    in   this 
Index. 
Side- Bones  (Horse  Disease).  805 

Silk 1150 

To  Remove  Stains   from. 

Clean ,  etc 009,  1 150 

To   Remove  Resin    Spots 

from 1098 

To  Restore  Color  to 1150 

Silo 1151 

See  also  Ensilage 396 

Silver,  To  Test,  Clean,  Pol- 
ish,  Remove  Ink    Stains, 
Protect  and  Preserve   ..1151 

German 1151 

Nitrate:  see  Lunar  Caustic  949 

Sirloin 963 

Sirup,  or  Syrup 1151 

Maple:  see  Maple  Sugar- 1187 

Sorghum i8i 

Cane,  or  Molasses.  .181-3,  976 

Soothing 328,  1161 

Sit-Fasts,  on  Horses 805 

Situations,  To  Apply  for.. ..933-4 

Sitz-Bath ii.si 

Skin 1151 

Dis.  of,  in  Horse  777,  798,  805 

in  Cattle 221 

Skunk .        1153 

Cabbage _ *' 

Slaughtering  and  Dressing..  * 

Beeves " 

Hogs i»53 

Sheep 1153 

Poultry 1065 

Slaw:  see  Cabbage 167 

Sleep 833 

Sleigh "53 

Slough "53 

Slugs,  Cherry  and  Pear 855 

Small-Pox 1153 

Varioloid - "53 

Smart-weed   "54 

Smelts  (Fish) 474 

Smoke "54 

House "54 

Smoking  Bacon:  see  Ham. . ..  635 

Tobacco J247-9 

Smut 5S8,  "54 

Snake  (Bites) 101,  1154 

Snakeroot "54 

Sneeze "54 

Snipe "55 

Shooting 624 

To  Truss 555 

Snore "55 

Snuff ...."55 

Soap,  Science  and  Artof  Mak- 
'    ing "55 


INDEX. 


Soap  ^Cont'd) 

Resin,        Cocoaiiut  -  Oil, 

Castile 1 1 56 

Windsor,  Urown,  Honey, 
Musk,  Ambergris, 
Giycerniated,  Almond, 
Violet,  Houquet,  Rose, 
'J'ranspareni,  Hard, 
Erasive,  Palm-Oil,  Adul- 
teration  1 157 

To  Perfume 1157 

Compound C44 

in  the  Laundry 505 

^, i>57 

aoaa i,c8 

Soda  Water 1 1 58 

Soil,      Classification,      Tests, 

Renovation,  etc  1158 

Soiling „6o 

Soldering ii5c 

Soft  and  Hard,  for    Iron 

and  Copper 1160 

for  Tin,  Gold  and  Silver  1161 

Somnambulism ngi 

Soothing  Sirup 328,   1161 

Sores,  Remedies  for 995,  1112 

Ointment  for 995 

Sore  Throat,  To  Cure 1161 

„      of  Dog 343 

Sorghum:  see  Cane 180 

See  also  Sugar 1187 

Sirup iSi 

Value   of,    as    Food     for 

Stock 5C5 

Seed,  Weight  per  Bushel.   156 
Amount  of,  to  the  Acre     18 

Sorrel „6i 

Soundness,  of  Horse 730,  1161 

Soup  (13  kinds) ii6r 

Stock ir6i 

South  Downs 1126 

Sowing  Broadcast 149 

Sows,  Duration  of  Gestation: 

see  Breeding  Calendar...    144 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

See  also  Swine 1 199 

Spaniel    3,3 

Spanish  Fly,  Dose,  Poison  by, 

and    Antidote 1163 

Spanish  Fowl 528-9 

Spanish  Needle  Lice 858-9 

Sparrow — Luropean     House, 

Chipping,  Field, etc 1163 

Spasmodic  Colic,  in  Horses. ..  805 

Spavin 728,  805  6 

Spaying 1164 

Cows    : 304 

Sows 1215 

Spearmint 1164 

Species ...1 164 

Speed,  of  Horses .'...1164 

Mile  Heats 1,64 

Other  Heats 1168 

Pacingand   Running 1168 

Double-Team  Trotting. .  1169 

SpeedyCut. 750 

Spelling  Reform 1170 

^PJces 1170 

Spider loi,  870-1,  1 1 70 

Ticks  and  Mites 870-1 

Spinach 1 170 

Seed,  To  Save,  etc 561 

Amount  of,  to  the  Ground     18 

To  Cook 1171 

Spirit  of  Salt:  see  Acids 18 

Spleen ,171 

of  Horse,  Enlarged 806 

Splenic  Fever 238 

Splint 806 

Sprains  and  Bruises H71 

in  the  Back 54 

in  Horse,  Liniment  for...  945 

Spring 1171 

Balance:  see  Balance 55 

Reetle 290,853 

Springs  of  Carriages 190 

Spruce C13 

Spurs,  for  Horseback  Riding.   818 
Squash,  Cultivation  and  Va- 
rieties   1171 

To  Cook 1171 

Stable:  see  Barn 59 

Stack 64^^  1172 

Stag 1,72 

Staggers,  in  Horse 749,  806 

in  Cattle:  see  Hoven 230 

Stains 1 172 


Stains  (Cont'd) 

Methods  of  Removing.  .,  1172 
Effect  of  Acids  and  Alka- 
lies upon  Different  Col- 
ors     1 172 

To  Remove  Fruit  Stains.  1172 
To  Restore  Color  to  Gar- 
ments      1 172 

To     Remove      Stains      of 

Wine,  Fruit,  etc   1172 

To    take    out    all    Stains 

which  are  not  Metallic. 1172 
To  Remove  Common  Ink 

Stains 1172 

To  Remove  Marking  Ink 

from  Linen 1172 

To    Remove    Ink    Stains 

from  Carpets 1 1 72 

To    Remove    Stains  from 

J^^\ -^og.  1098,  1150 

lo    Kemove  Stains  from 

Marble     9^7 

Staling,  Profuse 7^9 

Stalks,  Value  of,  as  Food  for 

Stock cQc 

Stallion 117, 

Grooming,    Feeding    and 

Exercising 1173 

The  Stall,    How    to  Con- 
trol the    StaJHon,    How 
to    Prevent  Accidents. .1174 
When     Mares    Should    be 
Tried,    Number    to   be 

Served X175 

Duration  of  Capacity,  Ef- 
fect of  Age,  etc 1176 

Percentage    of    Foals    to 

Marcs  Served 1177 

Management  after  the  Sea- 
son Closes 1 178 

Reproduction,  etc 569 

Starch    i:7g 

Clothes 907 

'^^^V' '179 

Steel „7g 

Stem „7g 

Stifle   Joint 1179 

Stimulating  Clyster 274 

Liniment 945 

Stings  of  Bees. ... 

on  Horses.  .  ,  . . 

Stitch  in  the  Back. 

Stock,  Live ii7g 

See  also  Animals,  etc.. .   .     20 

farmer nSo 

Stomach j,8o 

of  Horse,    Inflamed 

Gorged 

Ruptured ^ 

Staggers,    in    Horse:   see 

Staggers 806 

Stone,  Cement  for 242 

Storm:  see  Weather 128 1 

Stove.... 1180 

The  Draft,  Damper,  Lin- 
ing, Heat  Fender,  To 
Mend  Cracked  Stoves, 
Oil.  Cloth  (underneath), 
Polish,  Starting  a  Coal 
Fire,  Oil  and    Gasoline 

Stoves 1 180- 1 

Cement  for 243 

Strangling:  see  Hanging 636 

Strangles „8i 

See  also  Distemper 759 

Strangulation,  in  Cattle 238 

Straw „8i 

Value  of,  for  Stock 505 

Strawberry 1182 

Propagation,  Cultivation. 1182 
Insects,  Disease,  Varietiesii83 
Most  Profitable  Varieties.  545 

as  Dessert 548 

Marmalade 959 

Street,  Etiquette  in  the 413 

Stringhalt 809 

Strychnine,  Dose  of 992 

See  also  Nux  Vomica 992 

StTihble 1185 


.798,  808 
54 


■7721 


808 

769 


Stud. 


.1185 


Stud-Horse:  see  Stallion 1173 

Stump jj8s 

St.  Vitus'  Dance 1186 

Sub-Soil 1x86 

SuccotJsh 1 186 

Suet. 1,86 

See  also  Fat 441 


Suet  (Cont'd) 

^      Oil 994 

Sugar 1187 

of    Milk,    Maple,    Cane, 

Sorghum.  , 1187 

Corn,  Beet,  Adulteration. 1188 

of  Lead 911,  1,88 

Tree:   See  Maple 9>;6 

Sulky „88 

Plow J046 

Sulphate  of  Copper:  see    Blue 

Vitriol 107 

of    Magnesia:  see    Epsom 

Salt.  ...I... 399 

Sulphur ii38 

Sulphuric  Acid:  see  Acids..  .     18 

Sumac 1188 

Medical  Properties  of ii38 

Poison:    see    Poison     I  \  y 

and  Sumac 1C57 

Summer  Fallow ,189 

Savory:  see  Savory    1114 

Sunburn,  To  Remove ii8g 

Sun-Dial 323,   1189 

Sunflower \\.%n 

Sunstroke 1189 

Superphosphate 458 

Suppuration tiSg 

See  also  Pus 1073 

Surcingle ,189 

Surfeit,  of  the  Horse 809 

Swamp 1189 

See  also  Marsh 959 

Swan 1 189 

To  Clean  Swan's  Down.. 1 189 

Sway- back j  189 

Sweat:  see  Perspiration 1036 

Disinfectant  for 324 

Swedish  Movements l.-iigo 

Sweeny 810 

Sweep i;^o 

Power. iigo 

Sweet  Basil hqo 

Bread,  To  Cook,  etc uqo 

Clover 273 

Fennel. H(x> 

Marjoram i\cxi 

Potato iigo 

William 1192 

Swindle ngz 

Lightning-Rod U92 

The  Cloth  Swindle 1T94 

Fruit- Tree  Swindle 1196 

Patent  Medicines,  Patent 

Rights 1196 

Fraudulent  Notes 1197 

Advertising  Dodges -1198 

Innocent  Purchasers 1199 

Swine ugg 

History 1200 

Breeds laoo 

Bedford 1200 

Berkshire 1200 

Byfleld    1201 

Cheshire 1201 

Chester  Whites 1202 

Chino.e ". .  .i2C2 

Cumberland 1210 

Essex 1205 

Jersey  Red 1206 

Huroc 1206 

Red  Berkshire 1207 

Lancashire 1208 

Neapolitan 1207 

Poland -China 1208 

Suffolks 1209 

Victorias 1210 

Woburn 1200 

Yorkshire 1210 

Coniparative  Value  of.  .1210 
Breeding  and  Rearing..  .1211 
Gestation.  Reproduction, 
etc.:  see  Breeding    Cal- 
endar    144 

and  table 569 

Indigestion 1212 

Farrowing 1212 

Selection   and   Care   of 

Boars   1213 

Grade  Hoars ,...1214 

Castration 1215 

Spaying 1215 

Feeding 1215 

Spring  Feeding 1216 

Summer  Feeding 1217 

How  to  Soak    Corn   for 
Hogs 1217 


1321 


Swine  (Cont'd) 

Feeding  CJreen  Corn...  12 r 8 

Water 1218 

Teeth 1218 

To  Tell  the  Age  of  Swine  1219 

Ringing 1219 

Piggeries 1219 

Slaughtering 1153 

Curing  and  Pickling  Pork: 

see   Bacon 54 

Ham 635 

Pickling 9^7 

Cooking  Pork io6o 

Administering  Medicine  .1220 

Graduation  of  Doses 217 

Diseases 1220 

Anthrax 1224 

Apoplexy   1223 

Epilepsy 1223 

Epizootic  Aphthse 1227 

Carbunculosis 1224 

Cholera 1224 

Erysipelas 1224 

Fatty  Degeneration 1227 

Foot-and-Mouth-Dis- 

ease 1227 

Fractures 1228 

Gastro-Enteritis 1224 

Itch  or  Mange 1228 

Measles 1228 

Parturient  Paralysis ..  ..1229 

Pleuro-pneumonia 1229 

Quinsy 1229 

Rupture 1230 

Sore  Throat 1230 

Trichiniasis 1231 

T  yph  us 1224 

Worms 1231 

Wounds 1231 

Swiss  Chard 1233 

Sycamore 1232 

Synovitis,  in  Horse:  see  Wind- 
galls 817 

Syringe.    1232 

How  to  Syringe  Plants.   .   867 


Table 1233 

Etiquette 414 

Tadpole 1233 

laffy 1233 

See  also  Candy    178 

Tallow .  12^3 

Candles 178 

Tamarack:  see  Larch 512 

Tamarind 1233 

Tannic  Acid 1233 

Tanning,  Soft  Leather,  Mink 
and  Muskrat  Skins,    Buck- 
skins,   To    Cure    Sheep- 
skins and  Rabbit    Skins..  1234 

Tansy 1234 

Tapestry 1234 

Tape-Worm 1299 

Tapioca 1235 

Pudding 107 1 

Tap- Root 1235 

i  ar 1235 

Ointment 995 

Tar-Water  for  Insects 867 

Tare 1235 

Tart 1235 

See  also  Pies 1038 

Tartar 1235 

Emetic 1235 

See  also  Antimony 23 

Tartaric  Acid 1235 

Taxidermy 1235 

Tea 123^ 

To  Make 1236 

Teasel 1236 

Tedder,    Hay 643,  :236 

Teeth 1237 

Care  of  the 1237 

Loose     but     Sound,     To 
Harden  the  Gums,  Dent- 
ifrices, Cures  for  Tooth- 
ache, etc 1238 

of  Horses 678,  725 

Diseases  of,  in  Horse. .   .810-1 
Blind  and  Wolf,  in  Horse  764 


1322 


INDEX, 


Teeth  (Cont'd) 

of  Cattle 207 

of  Swine 1218-9 

Teething J238 

Temperature,    of   the    Body: 

see  Heat 828 

Tenant AtV>y  1239 

See    also     Landlord     and 

Tenant 920-2 

Tendril 1239 

Terrier 338 

Tetanus:  see  Lockjaw 946 

of  the  Horse 789 

Tethering 302,1239 

Tetter:  see  Salt  Rheum ma 

in  Horses:  see  Surfeit....  809 

Texas  Cattle 206 

Texas  Fever 238,  1239 

Thatch 1239 

Thick  Wind,  of  Horse 725 

See  Roaring,  etc 802 

Thistle 1240 

Thorax  and  Thoracic 1240 

Thorn 124° 

Sec  also  H.1W t\2 

Thoroughbred 682,694,   i-40 

See  also  iJreeding  Grades  211 

Thoroughpin 728,811 

Threshing 1241 

Machines 1241 

Throat,  Sore 1161 

of  Horse,  Swelled 812 

of  Swine,  Sore 12^0 

Throwing  a  Horse 1242 

Thrush,  a  Bird 1242 

in  the  Horse 745 

of  Horse's  Foot 812 

of  Cattle 223»  238 

of  Swine:   see    Foot-and- 

Mouth    Disease 1227 

Thumps,  in  the   Horse 814 

Thyme 1242 

Ticks 871%  1243 

'iile,  To  Make 1243 

Necessary  Size  of 1244 

Machines,  etc 1244 

Drains     359 

'Jo  Lay 360 

Tillage 1245 

See  also   Cultivation  ....   313 
and  kindred  topics. 
Timber,   Sirentjth    of.    Green 

and  Dry.  '1  o  Preserve, etc.1245 

To  Measure 948 

Time 1245 

of  Day:   see   Dial 323 

Bargain 1246 

Legal:  see  Limitation 944 

Timothy. 598 

Tin,    To    Mend,  Uses  of  Old 

Tin  Cans 1246 

Solder  for.    1160 

Tincture 1246 

See  also  Decoction 321 

Toad 1246 

Toad- Flax 1247 

Toadstool  - . 1247 

See  also  M  ushrooms 983 

T»ast,  To  Make 1247 

Tobacco,  To  Cultivate 1247 

Varieties 1248 

Evils  of  its  Use  1248 

Medical  Properties 1249 

T»c  Crack  (Disease  of  Horses)  804 

Toilet J249 

Cosmetics 1349 

Complexion,   Wash      and 
Paints  forthe  Face,  etc  1250 

Fleshy    Face 1250 

See  also  Etiquette 401 

Tomato,  Cultivation 1250 

Varieties -'1251 

To  Cook   1251 

To  Pickle 1038 

To  Preserve 1067 

To  Can   185 

To  Make  Catsup ,   195 

Seed,  To  Raise, etc 561 

Amount  of,  to  the  Acre     18 

'l"on 1252 

See  also  Weights 1283 

TonEiie 1252 

To  Cook   Beef  Tongue ...     78 

of  Horse,  Inflamed 814 

Tonsils,  and   Tonsillitis 1252 

Toothache 1238 

Top-Dressing  .   1252 


Tornado 1252 

Township 1252 

Training 1253 

To  Saddle 710 

See  also  Breaking 702-19 

Calves 300 

Dogs 339 

Transplanting 559,  1253 

Traveling 1253 

Packing  the  Sachel 1254 

On  the  Train '. 1254 

Arrival  in  the  City 1254 

At  the  Hotel .'....1255 

To  find  Places  in  Cities. .1255 

Confidence  Men. 1255 

Hiring  a  Carriage 1256 

Money,  etc 1256 

Miscellaneous  Hints  ....1256 

Etiquette  in 419 

Tray 161,  1257 

Trees:  see  Forestry 507 

and  tlie  Respective   trees. 
To  Measure  Height  of. .  -1257 
Cutting  Down:  see  Fell- 
ing  448 

'1  rembles 238  1258 

Trichina 871 

Trichiniasis  in  Swine 1231 

Tripe 1258 

Trocar 230,  1258 

'J'roUing 477 

Trot 682,  1164,  1258 

See  Horseback  Riding. . .  819 

Trout 475 

Tuber  and  Tubercle 1258 

Tulip 1261 

Tree 513,  1261 

Tumor 1261 

of  Horses  814 

about  Ears  and    Eyes   of 

Cattle 222 

Tun,  or  Ton 1252,  1261 

Tup,  or  Ram.  Reproduction.   569 

Turf 1261 

as  Fuel 549 

Turkey,  Characteristics.  528,  1261 
Breeds,  Rearing,  etc....  1262 
To  Market,  Dress,  Cook. 1266 

To  Select 966 

To  Carve 194 

Calls......... 631 

Turnip,  Cultivation 1266 

Varieties,  To  Cook 1267 

Seed,  'l"o  Raise,  Gather  .   561 
Amount  of,  to  the  Acre..     18 

Weight  per  Bushel 156 

Value   of,  for  Stock 505 

Turpentine 1267 

Twig  liorer 854 

Typhoid 1267 

See  also  Fever 459 

Fever  in  Cattle 239 

Typhus 1267 

in  Swine 1224 


u 


Udder.., 1268 

See  also  Cow 299,  etc. 

Butter , 159 

Milking 974 

Garget 229 

Ulcer 126S 

Uraemia  and  Urethra 1268 

Urine 126S 


Vaccination 1269 

Vapor 1270 

for  Cattle 217 

Variety  and   Hybridizing 1270 

Varioloid 1271 

Varnish... 1271 

Veal 963*  1=73 

Roast,  Browned.  Cutlets, 
Knuckle,  Pot-Pie 1272 

To  Prepare   CalPs   Head 

and  Liver 78 

Vegetable 1272 

Garden 556 

Oyster:  see  Salsify mo 


Veins,  of  Horses,  Inflamed. . .  816 

Velvet,  To  Clean,  eu 1272 

Velvet-Leaf:  or  Ind'u  ^ia^ow  842 

Venison 9*15,  1273 

Ventilation 1273 

See  also  Hygiene     "Air"  827 

Residence 1086 

Barn 61 

Window 1294 

Verbena 1273 

Verdigris 1273 

Poison  by:  see  Vitriol. .  ..1175 

Vermicelli 1273 

Vermifuge •1373 

See  also  Worms .1299 

Vermin 865,  87^,  1273 

on  Horses 816 

Vertigo 570,  650,  1273 

Vetch 505,  1273 

Veterinarian ^273 

Vices,  of  the  Horse 711 

Vine-chafer 593,  864 

Vinegar 1273 

To  Make  from  Cider,  Su- 
gar,   Molasses,    Honey, 

and  Potatoes 1274 

Vision:  see  Eye 425 

Visiting  Cards 406 

Vitriol,  Poison  by 1275 

Oil  of:  see  Acids 18 

Blue 107 

Green 876 

White 1275 

Vomiting 1275 


w 


Waffle 174,  1276 

Wages,  Tables  of 1276 

Wagon   1277 

Wakefulness:     see    Sleep 833 

Walks,  Gravel,  etc 1278-9 

Wall  Paper 1279 

Walnut 513,  1279 

Warblers 1279 

Warbles:  see  Horse 805 

and  Gadfly 553 

Wart,  To   Remove 1279 

on  the  Horse 817 

Wasliing  Fluid 905 

Washing  Clothes 904 

Machines 907 

Water 829,  905,  1280 

To  Purify:  see  Filter 460 

and    Cistern 268 

Hard 636 

Disinfectants  for 324 

Founder 769 

To  Water  Farm  Stock,  see 
respective  animals,  es- 
pecially pages  213  and  .1218 

Water  Closet:  see  Privy 1067 

Watcr-Cours 1280 

Cure 836,  1280 

Watermelon 548,  1280 

Water-Proof 1281 

Composition  for  Boots. ...   130 

Water- Sprout 1281 

See  also  Glutton 573 

Wax:  see  Beeswax 95 

Sec  also  Canning  Wax...   184 

Gr.Tfiing  Wax 587 

Waxing  Floors.    95 

Weather 1281 

Sisns  of  Rain 1281 

WeeklyCycle 1282 

Equinoctial  Storms 1282 

Clearing  off.    1282 

Tornadoes 1252 

Wedding,  Etiquette  of 416 

Weeds 1283 

See  also  Thistle 1240 

and  Witch  Grass 1296 

Weevil 28.  650.  86i,  864 

Weights,  of  Substances 1283 

of  Cattle 215 

Weld 876,  1283 

Wells       1283 

Tubing i244i  1284 

Wheat 1284 

Soil :285 

Preparation  of  thcGroundi285 

Sowing   : 1286 

Amount  of  Seed  to  Acre..     18 
Chess  and  other  Weeds.  ..1287 


Wheat  (Cont'd) 

Diseases  and   Insects 1287 

Harvesting 1289 

Threshing 1289 

Storing  and  Marl^ting.  ..1289 

Varieties '. 1289 

Winter 1290 

Spring 1290 

Value  of,  for  Stock 505 

Grading  of:  see  Board  of 

Trade.    108 

*'Prepa'-ed    Wheat:"    see 

Cereal 243 

Wheezing:  see  Roaring,  etc..  802 

Whetstone 1290 

Whey 1291 

Strainer 246 

Val  ue  of,  for  Stock 505 

Whiflletree 371,  izgi 

White  Swelling 1291 

To  Treat:  see  Scrofula. .  .1119 

Whitewash 1291 

Whitlow:  see  Felon 449 

Whooping-cough:  see  Hoop- 
ing- cough 669 

Whortleberry,  or  Huckleberry  824 

Will 1292 

Law,  Forms,  etc.,  of.. ..923-4 

Willow 513,  1292 

Wind 1292 

See  also  Tornadoes 1252 

and  Weather 1281 

Windmills 1292 

Window , 1294 

Gardening 493 

To  Clean  \Vindow  Glass.   571 
Windpipe,      of    Horse:      see 

Tracheotomy 814 

Inflammation  of,  in  Cattle: 

see  Bronchitis 225 

Wine 1294 

Wire  Fence 452 

Wire-Worms 850,  1296 

Withers 1296 

Fistulous 766 

Wolf  Teeth,  of  Horses.. 764,  1296 

Wood 1297 

See  also  Forestry 507 

Fuel 549 

Timber 1245 

Woodcock 555,  1297 

Wool 1297 

Washing  Sheep 1297 

Shearing 1297 

Qualities,  on  Same  Sheep. 1299 

Woolen  Fabrics....... 1299 

To  Restore  Color  to 1299 

See  also  Cloth 271 

Dyeing 378 

Stains 1 172 

Bleaching J04 

Carpet 187 

Laundry 908 

Hygiene  of 830 

Worming     353,  1299 

Worms ^299 

in  Horses 763 

in  Sheep \\i,x-i 

in  Swine 1231 

in  Dog 348 

Clyster  for 274 

To    Drive    Earth-Worms 

from  I^wns 1300 

Wounds 1300 

of  Horses 817-8 

of  Swine   1231 

of  Dog 348 

Writing 1301 

See  also   Letter- Writing    .  928 

and  I'enmanship 1019 

Old,  1  o  Make  Legible:  see 
Deeds 3a* 

Y 

Yam I3<» 

Yeast;  sec  lircad 133 

Yellows,  in  the  Pcach-Trec.  .1008 

in  the  Horse 785 

Yoke,  To  Make 1000 

z 

Zero '3« 

Zinc i30» 


k 


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LD  21-100m-7,'40(69368) 

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ft , 03598 


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A^'^b" 


UN^'ERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


